LIBRARY 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 

PRESENTED  BY 
MR.   &  MRS.    R.    W.   VAUGHAN 


ry 


*"  ./f 


THE 

AMERICANA 


A  Universal 
Reference  Library 

Comprising  the 

Arts  and  Sciences, 

Literature,  History,  Biography, 

Geography,  Commerce, 

etc.,  of  the  world 

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF 

Frederick  Converse  Beach 

EDITOR    SCIENTIFIC    AMERICAN 


MANAGING   EDITOR 

George  Edwin  Rines. 

ASSISTED    BV    MORE    THAN    ONE    THOUSAND 
EMINENT     SCHOLARS      \M>    AUTHORITIES 


ed  Under  the  Editorial  Supervision 
of  The  Scientific  American 

SIXTEEN    VOLUMES 


Scientific  American 

Compiling  Department 

258  &  260  Jf  if tlj  atocnuc 

i^rtt)  *>orfc 


Copr&iont,    1903 


Fhederuk  Converse    Bi  u*n 


UNIV 


SANTA   BARBARA 


i    THE    ENCYCLOPEDIA    AMERICANA 




DEPARTMENT  AND  ADVISORY  EDITORS 

ASTRONOMY 


SIMON    NEWCOMB,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  D.Sc 

Astronomer 

Washington    D.  C. 

PHILOSOPHY 

JAMES   E.  CREIGHTON,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  Cornell  University 

Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

PHYSICS 

ROBERT   S.  WOODWARD,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

President  Carnegie  Institution 

Washington,  D.  C. 

PURE    MATHEMATICS 

CASSIUS  J.   KEYSER,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 
Adrain  Professor  of  Mathematics 
Columbia  University,  New  York 

ARCHITECTURE   AND    THE    FINE   ARTS 

RUSSELL  STURGIS,  F.A.I. A. 
New  York  City 

ZOOLOGY 

DAVID   STARR  JORDAN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

President  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University 
Palo  Alto,  Cal. 

LITERATURE 

EDWARD  EVERETT   HALE,  S.T.D., 

Boston,   Mass. 

CLASSICAL    LITERATURE 

JAMES  HAMPTON  KIRKLAND,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 

Chancellor  Vanderbilt  University 

Nashville,  Tenn. 

EDUCATION 

ANDREW    SLOAN   DRAPER,  LL.D. 

Commissioner  of  Education,  State  of  New  York 

Albany,  N.  Y. 


HISTORY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 

(Vol.  XV) 

Andrew  c  Mclaughlin,  a.m. 

Editor  "  American   Historical   Review" 
Carnegie  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

RELIGION    AND    THEOLOGY 

SYLVESTER   BURNHAM,  D.D. 

Dean  of  Hamilton  Theological   Seminary 

Colgate  University,  Hamilton,  N.  Y. 

CHEMISTRY 

ALLAN    DOUGLAS    RISTEEN,    Ph.D. 
Hartford,  Conn. 

MINERALOGY 

GEORGE   LETCHWORTH    ENGLISH 

Member  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 

Science 

New  York  City 

ELECTRICITY 

WILLIAM    MAVER,  Jr.,  C.E. 

Consulting  Electrical   Engineer 

New  York 

ENGINEERING    AND    MACHINERY 

WILLIAM    MOREY,  Jr.,  C.E. 

Consulting  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineer 

New   York 

RAILROADS 

EDWARD    S.    FARROW 

Consulting  Railroad  Engineer  New  York 

MEDICINE 

SMITH    ELY    JELLIFFE,    M.D.,   Ph.D. 

Editor  "  Medical  News  "  New  York 

LAW 

HENRY    M.    EARLE 
Attorney  at  Law,  New  York 

ROMAN     CATHOLIC     TOPICS 
P.    A.    HALPIN 

Emeritus  Professor  of   Metaphysics 
and  Ethics 


CANADIAN    EDITORS 


GEORGE    McKINNON    WRONG,   A.M. 

Professor  of  History,  University  of  Toronto 

Toronto 


CHARLES  WILLIAM  COLBY,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  History,  McGill   University 
Montreal 


A  Few  of  the  Loading  Articles  in  Volume  One 

WRITTEN  AND  SIGNED  BY  SPECIALISTS 

ABNORMAL  PSYCHOLOGY A -,a;Vprof«^Y  i-^ho.. ' "0, ''n  Sfty 

irvMicTtrc  Wallace  Clement  Sabine 

ALUCMIO ■     Ailifttn,  profesior of  Physics,  Harvard   University 

,,,,■,..  pnnrATiON  Henry  M.  Leipziger 

A"1   "     '  "  '  Al  "   N    I   Lectur.  1,  New  1 

Frank  Presbrev 

ADVERTISING '"  The' Frank  Presbrey  Company,  New  Yorl 

.,..,,  GEORC1     I  I  1'  HWORTH    El 

AUA  1  * Mineralogist,  New  York  City 

,    r-Tr-TTTTiTCAi    inn  vi  11 1\  Charles  W.   Dabnev 

AGRICULTURAL  EDUI    V1IUIN President  of  the  University  of  Cinci i 

....  R.    A      PARKI 

AIK    BKAM Expert  for  Westinghouse  Com] y 

.   .,..»,.  ..    ..     John  WlTHERSPOON    DuBose 

ALABAMA Author  of  'Life  and  Times  of  Yancey' 

VI  VSKA  RECENT  DEVELOPMENT  OF ;---^m*M,R;  sll,"":1 

"    ^lsv-  lvl-  Editorial  Staff  "New  S  .rk    Daily  News 

,,  ....    ,  ,  .umj.-i'ct  \i  Walter   I.  Ballard 

ALASKA,  COMMERCIAI Expert  Statistician,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

......     N    v  William  Boucher  Jones 

Al  '  '  Secretary  Albany   Chamber  of  Commerce 

.......  Cassius  J.   Keyser 

A       •'  |,KA 'Adrian  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Columbia   University 

iiruivn  Tiii'i'\iii\  Edward  S.   Farrow 

\|   1    M1N        nn.K.uic Consulting  Railroad  and  Mining  Eng er.  New  York 

..,...,..  Forrest  Morgan 

nHfiKltA Connecticut  Historical  Society 

VMERICA    DISCOVERY  AND  COLONIZATION Charles  Worthen  Spencer 

1  "■'  Professor  of  History,  Colgate    University 

AMERICA,  UNITED  STATES  OF Frederick  W.  Webber,   M.A. 

VMERICAN    DIPLOMACY     J""N  W>    FosT1  R 

Author  of  'A  Century  of  American    Diplomacy' 

AMERICAN   FARM   IMPLEMENTS &•   L.  Al  di  1 

lh icago,   ill. 

VMERICAN   FEDERATION  "1    1  ^BOR Samuel  Gompers 

President  American   Federation    of   1  abor 

AMERICANISMS ■••••    I'-.1'"   ' '  '''I'"  "". 

Author  of     Word   and   Phrase 

AMERICAN  LABOR  •••  ••••••■  Carroll  D.  Wwght 

formerly  U.  S.  Commissioner  ot   Laboi 

AMI  KI'    VN  LITERATURE •  ■  •   ...Edward  Everett  Hale 

Author  of       1  he    Man    Without    a   Country 

VMERICAN  MANUFACTURES Edward  D   Jones 

I    nil  '-rsily    ot    Mo 

AMERICAN  MINKS Edward  S.   Farrow 

Consulting  Railroad  ami  Mining  Engineer,   New  \  ork 

AMERICAN   NEWSPAPERS Charles  II.  Taylor 

r   of  the   '  Boston  Globe 

AMERICAN  POLITICAL  [SSUES Charles  Francis  Adams 

Historian   and  Diplomat 

AMERICAN  PRINTING  TRADE     A.  B.  Nichols 

1  he   Herald  Company   of   P-inEhamton 

AMERICAN   PUBLISHING H.   11.   McCluri 

Of  McClure,  Phillips  &  Co.  New  York 

AMERICAN  RAILROADS Edward  S.   Farrow 

Consulting  Railroad  and  Mining   Engineer,   New   \  ork 


AMERICAN  STREET  RAILWAYS Edward  S.   Farrow 

Consulting  Railroad  Engineer,   New  York 

AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY,   THE Edward  Dela van  Perry 

Columbia  University,    New   \  ork 

ANALYSIS  SITUS Paul  Wernicke 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  State  College  of  Kentucky 

ANATOMY Smith  Ely  Jelliffe,  M.D. 

Editor  'Journal   of   Nervous  Diseases' 

ANATOMY,   COMPARATIVE Edwin  Grant  Conklin 

Professor  of  Zoology,   University   of  Pennsylvania 

ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS Hermon  Theodor  Holm 

Expert  Botanist,  Washington,   D.  C. 

ANT..  A.   S.   Packard 

Late  Professor  of  Zoology,   Brown    University 

ANTHROPOLOGY',   AMERICAN W.   J.   McGf.e 

Smithsonian   Institution 

APOLOGETICS George  Wm.   Knox,  D.D. 

Professor  of  Philosophy  and  History  of  Religion,  Union  Theological   Seminary 

APPALACHIAN  AMERICA W.   G.   Frost 

President   Berea  College 

APPENDICITIS John  B.  Deaver,   M.D. 

Specialist,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

AQUINAS,  SAINT  THOMAS,  PHILOSOPHY  OF William  Turner,  S.T.D. 

Saint  Paul  Seminary,  Saint  Paul,  Minn. 

ARCHAEOLOGY,  AMERICAN Charles  Conrad  Abbott,   M.D. 

Archaeologist 

ARCHITECTURE  AND  AMERICAN   ARCHITECTURE .  .Rissell  STURGIS,   F.A.I. A. 

Author  of  '  Dictionary  of  Architectur'  ' 

ARCHITECTURE,  EDUCATION  IN Henry  R.   Marshall 

Fellow  American  Institute  of  Architects,   New  York 

ARISTOTLE James  E.  Creighton 

Professor  of  Philosophy,  Cornell  University 

ARISTOTELIANISM William  A.   Hammond 

Professor  of  Ancient  and  Mediaeval  Philosophy,  Cornell  University 

ARITHMETIC David  Eugene  Smith 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  Teachers'  College,  Columbia  University 

ARIZONA F.  W.  Hodge 

Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

ARKANSAS U.    M 

Ex-President  American   Bar  Association 

ARMAMENT  OF  THE  WORLD Capt.   Edward  S.   Farrow 

Late   Assistant  Instructor  of  Tactics  at  the  United  States  Military  Academy 

ARMY  AND  NAVY Alfred  T.   Mahan 

Author  of  'Influence  of  Sea  Power'  etc. 

ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  THE H.  C.  G 

Major-General  and  Adjutant-General,  U.  S.  A. 

ARMY  AND  NAVY  MANEUVERS Col.  W.  A.  Simpson 

Asst.  Adjt.-Gen.   U.   S.  Army 

ARMY  TRANSPORT    SERYICE William  H.  Carter 

Brigadier-General   General  Staff 

ART    ... Charles  H.    Miller.   N.A. 

Municipal    Art  Society,   New   York 

ARTHROPODA V  S.  Packard 

Late  Professor  of  Zoology,  Brown   University 

ASSEMBLAGES Cassius  J.   Keyser 

Adrian  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Columbia  University 

ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS .    tSAAi     M.    Bentley 

Assistant  Professor  of  Psychology,  Cornell   University 

ASSYRIOLOGY  Ira   M.  Price 

Pi    fessor  of  Semetic  Language  and  Literature,  University   of  Chicago 

ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY F.  S.   Either 

Of  Trinity  College 

ASTRONOMY;    ASTRONOMY.   HISTORY  OF  ;    ASTRONOMY,  PRACTICAL  ; 

ASTRONOMY,   THEORETICAL Simon   NewCOMB 

Astronomer  and   Scientist 

ASTROPHYSICS S.   A.   Mitchell 

Department  of  Astronomy,  Columbia   L'niversity 


KEY  TO    PRONUNCIATION. 


a 

far,  father 

a 

fate,    hate 

a  or 

a 

at,    fat 

a 

air,  care 

a 

ado,   sofa 

a 

all,   fall 

ch 

choose,  church 

e 

eel,  we 

e  or 

e 

bed,  end 

e 

her,  over :  also 

as  in  neuf;  and  oeu,  as  in  boeuf, 
coeur;  Ger.  o  (or  oe),  as  in 
Skonomie. 


e 

befall,  elope 

e 

agent,  trident 

S 

off,  trough 

g 

gas,  get 

gw 

anguish,  guava 

h  hat.  hot 

h  or  h  Ger.  ch,  as  in  nicht,  wacht 

hw  what 

i  file,  ice 

i  or  I  him.  it 


ng 
nk 


Span,  n,  as  in  caiion  (ciin'yon),  fiilon 
(pC-n 

mingle,  singing 

bank,  ink 


o  no,  open 

o  or  6  not,  on 

6  corn,  nor 

6  atom,    symbol 

p  book,  look 

oi  oil,  soil;  also  Ger.  eu,  as  in  bcutcl 

6  or  oo  fool,  rule 

on  ..row  allow,  bowsprit 


s 

satisfy,  sauce 

sh 

show,  sure 

th 

thick,  thin 

fll 

father,  thither 

u 

mute,  use 

u  or  u 

but,   us 

u 

pull,  put 

1 


between  e  and  i.  mostly  in  Oriental 
final  syllables,  as,  Ferid-ud-din 


ii  between  u  and  e,  as  in  Fr.  sur.  Ger. 

MiilL-r 


of,  very 

(consonantal)  yes,  young 


j  gem,  genius 

kw  quaint,  quite 

h  Fr.  nasal  m  or  n,  as  in  embonpoint, 

Jean,  temps 


z 
zh 


pleasant,  rose 
azure,   pleasure 


'  (prime).  "  (secondary)  accents,  to  indicate 
syllabic  stress 


INTRODUCTORY. 


THE  publication  of  a  great  reference  work  like  the  Encyclopedia  Americana  is 
an    undertaking    of    such    supreme    importance    and    responsibility    that    the 
reasons  and  purposes  which  have  inspired  the  publishers  and  editors  to  under- 
take its  production,  at  such  great  expense  and  involving  so  many  years  of 
preparation,  should  be  briefly  summarized. 

First. —  After  surveying  the  encyclopedic  field  very  carefully  the  publishers  of  the 
Americana  were  convinced  that  no  work  had  as  yet  appeared  which  gave  to  America 
—  her  history,  literature,  biography,  geography,  industries  and  commerce  —  that  thor- 
ough and  careful  treatment  which  the  rapidly  advancing  life  and  importance  of  the 
nation  made  imperative.  They  also  believed  that  the  time  was  auspicious  for  the  produc- 
tion by  Americans,  who  alone  could  appreciate  and  faithfully  represent  the  life,  thought, 
and  need  of  their  own  country,  of  a  National  Work  —  so  broad,  comprehensive  and  genu- 
inelv  great  that  it  would  everywhere  be  recognized  as  the  product  of  native  genius,  and 
be  acknowledged  worthy  of  the  great  people  for  whom  it  was  prepared.  This  was  the 
Ideal,  and  upon  this  foundation  the  whole  superstructure  has  been  built,  the  result  being 
the  natural  and  harmonious  development  of  the  entire  sixteen  volumes,  because  for  the 
first  time  a  sustained  and  systematic  attempt  has  been  made  to  make  a  distinctively 
American  encyclopedia.  It  naturally  follows,  therefore,  that  the  Americana  differs 
from  all  other  similar  productions,  and  it  is  this  difference  which  makes  it  superior  as  a 
reference  work  of  information  for  the  American  people. 

Second. — The  Americana  is  designed  to  give  complete  and  practical  information. 
Its  scope  is  universal  —  there  is  absolutely  no  subject  that  should  be  included  in  such 
a  work  that  does  not  find  its  place  somewhere  in  the  Americana,  but  the  practical  utility 
of  the  work  has  constantly  been  kept  in  view,  with  the  result  that  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  subjects,  both  foreign  and  American,  has  been  most  carefully  gauged  by  the 
editors,  rendering  the  Americana  of  the  greatest  practical  service.  All  modern  ency- 
clopedias have  followed,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  the  path  marked  out  by  earlier 
works,  omitting  much  of  present-day  interest,  and  continuing  second-rate  topics  of  little 
or  no  importance.  The  Americana  has  not  hesitated  to  make  a  new  departure  and 
eliminate  this  dead-wood,  and  in  its  place  the  reader  will  find  hundreds  of  important  top- 
ics treated  that  are  not  even  mentioned  in  other  works,  besides  a  great  amount  of  what 
might  be  called  miscellaneous  information,  including  biographical  and  geographical 
names,  actual  and  legendary  characters  in  fiction,  notable  buildings,  works  of  art,  books, 
plays,  operas,  etc.  It  will  be  seen  therefore,  that  the  Americana  contains  more  subjects 
of  living  practical  interest  to  Americans  than  any  other  encyclopedia  in  existence.  The 
maps  and  illustrations  have  been  prepared  especially  for  the  Americana  at  a  large  ex- 
penditure, and  they  will  be  found  so  numerous,  correct,  interesting  and  helpful  as  to 
lend  great  charm  and  value  to  the  work. 

Third. —  The  Americana  is  designed  to  be  the  standard  authority  in  this  country 
upon  all  subjects  covered  in  its  pages.    Xo  existing  source  of  information  has  been  relied 

v. 


1\  I  KoIHi    I'oKV. 


apon.  Important  articles  arc  written  by  America's  leading  scholars  and  authori- 
ties, ami  are  signed  by  their  respective  authors,  so  that  the  reader  knows  at  once  the 

source  of  his  information.  Every  department  has  had  the  active  editorial  supervision 
of  men  eminent  in  their  professions  in  this  country,  and  it  is  largely  to  the  untiring  devo- 
tion and  the  intelligent  work  and  advice  of  the  associate  editors  on  the  staff  that  the 
Americana  owes  its  majestic  originality  of  conception  and  treatment,  and  the  marvel- 
ous success  which  has  attended  every  stage  of  its  production.  In  this  connection  the 
acknowledgment  of  publishers  and  editors  is  due  to  the  more  than  one  thousand  contrib- 
utors to  the  AMERICANA  for  the  generous  and  patriotic  manner  in  which  they  have  re- 
sponded, giving  their  time  and  invaluable  service  in  order  that  America  might  have  a 
thoroughly  representative  encyclopedia.  The  Americana  represents,  to  a  far  greater 
extent  than  any  other  reference  work,  the  authority  of  American  scholarship  and  suc- 
cessful practical  experience,  and  must  prove  indispensable  for  the  daily  use  of  the 
scholar,  the  statesman,  the  student,  the  professional  or  business  man,  and  especially  to 
the  home  circle. 

Fourth. — The  articles  of  the  Americana  are  written  in  a  style  to  commend  it  to 
the  judgment  of  all.  Clear,  concise,  comprehensive  and  attractive,  the  seeker  for  infor- 
mation will  find  the  pages  of  the  AMERICANA  a  perfect  delight,  so  different  from  the 
heavy,  dull  encyclopedic  style,  while  the  ease  and  convenience  with  which  it  may  be 
consulted,  the  fulness  of  its  cross-references,  and  the  richness  and  recency  of  its  informa- 
tion render  it  the  most  useful,  valuable,  and  popular  work  yet  offered  to  the  American 
public. 

While  not  ignoring  the  lessons  to  be  learned  from  the  great  works  of  the  past  and 
present,  the  Encyclopedia  Americana  has  independently  made  its  own  way  along  new 
lines,  profiting  both  by  the  excellencies  and  defects  of  its  predecessors  and  contempo- 
raries, and  it  stands  to-day  the  Twentieth  Century's  monument  to  American  genius, 
scholarship,  and  energy. 

Believing  therefore  that  the  Encyclopedia  Americana  represents  in  its  plan  and 
purpose,  its  arrangement  and  treatment,  its  scholarship  and  authority,  an  advance  upon 
all  former  reference  works,  it  is  respectfully  dedicated  by  its  editors  to  the  American 
people,  whose  life  and  progress  it  so  fully  and  faithfully  portrays. 


THE 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

AMERICANA 


A  the  first  letter  of  every  alphabet  ex- 
cept the  old  German  or  Runic  and 
the  Ethiopian  :  the  "  futhark  »  of  the 
former  places  it  fourth,  the  latter 
makes  it  thirteenth.  As  all  alphabets 
ultimately  come  through  the  Phoeni- 
cian (witness  the  name  itself),  this 
arrangement  is  natural.  Our  own  is  inherited 
from  the  Latin,  which  was  derived  from  the 
Greek ;  and  the  latter  in  its  alpha  confirms  its 
traditional  derivation  from  the  Phoenician 
where  and  in  Hebrew  it  is  called  alcfli,  Ara- 
maic alph.  The  name  is  said  to  have  meant 
"  ox,"  and  so  strongly  resembles  the  root-ele- 
ment of  eleph-ant  that  there  is  little  doubt  the 
original  meaning  of  both  was  the  same.  Hence 
formerly  the  shape  of  the  lower-case  a  was  de- 
rived by  some  from  the  rough  outline  of  an  ox- 
head  with  its  horns ;  but  in  fact,  as  evidenced 
by  a  comparison  of  the  gradual  evolution  of 
forms,  the  small  letters  in  all  cases  are  derived 
from  the  capitals,  and  the  Greek  capital  A  (see 
table  under  Alphabet)  in  its  original  shape  was 
a  somewhat  more  cursive  form  of  the  Phoeni- 
cian aleph,  which  itself  was  a  conventionalized 
form  of  the  Egyptian  hieratic,  and  that  in  turn 
(the  final  step  backward)  was  conventionalized 
from  the  picture  of  an  ibis  in  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tian  hieroglyphics  or   ideographs. 

The  sound  of  the  letter  has  varied  little  more 
than  the  form  —  perhaps  less- — except  in  mod- 
ern English,  which  owing  to  its  composite  cha- 
racter has  made  it  a  symbol  of  so  many  different 
vowel-sounds  as  to  be  well-nigh  meaningless. 
Yet  even  here  most  of  them  have  never  quite 
lost  connection  with  the  earlier  vocal  efforts 
it  stood  for,  and  their  fluctuations  are  fixed  by 
the  character  of  the  vocal  opening.  The  Phoe- 
nician sound  represented  by  the  letter  aleph 
cannot  have  corresponded  to  the  Greek  alpha 
or  any  of  its  derivatives,  as  the  former  alpha- 
bet assumed  that  all  syllables  began  with  con- 
sonants, and  aleph  was  in  some  sort  con- 
sonantal ;  but  the  Greeks  made  it  a  pure  vowel, 
the  so-called  (<  Continental  *  or  broad  a  as  in 
<(  ah."  This  is  the  simplest  and  most  funda- 
mental of  all  vowel-sounds,  the  earliest  uttered 
by    infants, —  whence    many    grotesque    theories 

Vol.    1.— 1. 


of  its  divine  origin  and  the  reasons  for  its 
position, —  since  it  results  from  opening  the 
throat  and  mouth  wide  and  emitting  the  tone 
from  the  larynx,  with  the  least  friction  or 
interference  possible  from  the  other  organs ; 
and  it  is  still  the  most  general  on  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe.  But  even  there  it  has  been 
largely  flattened  by  the  French  into  the  short 
sound  as  in  a  at  * ;  at  the  end  of  words  in 
all  languages  the  dropping  of  the  voice  tends  to 
slur  it  toward  the  sound  of  u  in  *  but."  which 
in  English  it  quite  attains ;  and  with  us  it  has 
become  the  representative  of  nine  distinct 
sounds,  seven  of  them  each  recognizably  de- 
veloped from  one  of  the  others,  and  all  from 
the  parent  sound,  while  two  are  of  a  different 
order,  yet  still  explicable.  The  usual  arrange- 
ment ("  fate,  fat,  far,  fall,"  etc.)  is  entirely  mis- 
leading, as  it  obliterates  this  evolution,  which 
the  following  makes  clear : 
(i)   ah,  explained  above. 

(2)  all,  a  closer  sound  than  (1),  formed  by 
drawing  back  the  tongue,  compressing  the  sides 
of  the  throat,  and  speaking  more  toward  the 
diaphragm.  In  general  utterance  this  is  perhaps 
the  first  change  from  ah.  It  is  almost  uni- 
versal among  the  Hindu  and  Persian  masses 
("ghaut"  for  ghat,  etc.),  and  was  very  com- 
mon in  England  and  America  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury :  witness  pronunciations  like  "  spaw  *  for 
"  spa  *  :  the  curious  aberrant  <(  vawz  "  for 
vahz,  which  has  more  curiously  become  ac- 
cepted as  a  sort  of  social  touchstone  in  a  small 
group ;  family  names  like  Raleigh,  Decatur. 
Taney,  etc.,  in  American  pronunciation. 

(3)  was.  what.  The  same  pronounced  still 
deeper  in  the  diaphragm,  and  cut  short  instead 
of  prolonged. 

(4)  oval.  This  is  the  "neutral"  sound,  cor- 
responding to  "  short  u  "  :  used  in  Western  lan- 
guages only  in  unaccented  syllables,  and  made 
by  lazily  opening  the  organs  as  little  as  possible 
and  putting  no  stress  on  the  expiration  of  the 
breath.  It  is  the  closest  of  the  vowel-sounds, 
and  the  most  diaphragmal.  and  therefore  seem- 
ingly the  antithesis  of  "broad  a";  it  has  in 
truth  no  special  relation  to  that  more  than  to 
e  and  o  (  "  silent,"  "  apron  B  ),  but  is  the  common 


A  — AAHMES 


weakened  form  of  all.    In  Hindu  speech  it  is 

.   in  the   familiar  "Juggernaut" 
i  ck<  rgunge  •  I  Bakarganj  ).  etc 

(5)  bore.  An  opener  ?>oiiiid  than  (1).  formed 
in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  (2)  except  by 
expanding  insti  trading  the  throat. 

I  1.  1    (it.      Identical    with    (5)    except    being  cut 
short   instead   of   prolonged;    in    fact,    it 
sound. 

1  ,-  1  n-k.  Always  a  different  sound  from  the 
others,  but  not  always  the  same  in  itself.  With 
the  less  cultival  ers   it    is  nearly    iden 

tical  with  (5).  even  with  ('■).  With  others, 
anxious  in  av.nl  1  h i ^  flatness  and  exaggerating 

in    the    opposite    direction,    it    is    made    identical 
Willi    I  1  ).      Willi   the   majority  of   good    Sp 
it    is   akin    to    (1),    hut    shorter    and    more    dia- 
phragmal,    and    with    the    organs    rather    closer 
her. 

1  8  1   any,  many.     This  is  not  one  of  the  group 
of  a-sounds,  hut  is  «  short  e. »     The  change  was 
1  by  assimilation  of  the  a-sound  to  the  1- 
sound  of  the  closing  letter. 

to  1  die.  This,  in  usual  order  the  first  given. 
considered  the  typical  English  a-sound,  and 
actually  furnishing  the  pronunciation  of  that 
letter  in  its  alphabetic  position,  is  not  merely 
not  an  a-sound  at  all.  hut  not  even  a  simple 
1.    being    nearly    el,    sliding   quickly 

from   a   closer  and  more  .liapliragm.il   '•  -1 

to  a  vanishing  sound  of  0  short  1."    As  in   (8), 

use  appears  to  have  been  originally  as- 
similation with  a  final  vowel  (the  sonant  t 
now  SO  often  silent  hut  "  lengthening  0  the  11 
before  it),  and  afterwards  extended  to  words 
where  this  principle  could  not  act. 

A,  in  general,  the  first  term  of  any   -cries. 

In    music,    the    tir-t    note   of   the   scale   of     \. 

major   minor;    and    A    minor   is   the   relative  (or 

I)  minor  ol  ging  to)  C  majoi .  the 

Continental  hi.  The  open  second  string  ol  the 
violin  sounds  it.  and  the  instruments  of  an  or- 
chestra are  all  tuned  to  it. 

In  logic,  the  universal  affirmative  ("all  trade 
is  barter"),  distinguished  from  the  particular 
affirmative  trade     is     barter").     See 

Logic. 

In  algebra,  the  first  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
a,  b,  c.  etc..  are  used  to  denote  known  quanti- 
ties., while  the  last,  down  to  z,  denote  the  un- 
known.—  a  and  .v  being  u-.-.l  tir-t  in  all  cases, 
the  others  being  added  according  to  need. 

In  geometry  and  mechanical  diagrams,  the 
capitals  A.  B.  C.  etc.,  are  used  to  mark  off 
points,  lines,  angles,  and  figures;  in  compli- 
cated often  supplemented  by  the 
small  letters  and  accented,  to  indicate  closer 
relations  of  part-. 

n  abbreviation   see  Abbreviations. 

As  an  adjective  or  attributive,  shaped  like  the 
letter  A  ;  as,  an  A  tent. 

A,  word.  ( 1 )  The  form  of  «  an  »  used  before 
consonants.  (2)  Broken-down  form  of  "on," 
or  ellipsis  of  "for  a»  ("twice  a  day").  (3) 
Old  form  of  « ah,»  as  a  war-cry  ("A  Doug- 
las!"). 

Ai,  a-one'  ("colloquially,  «first-class"),  the 
mark  for  highest-grade  wooden  vessels  in 
Lloyd's  (q.v.)  (Register  of  Shipping.'  A  re- 
fers to  hull.  1  to  rigging  and  equipment.  This 
rank  is  assigned  by  Lloyd's  surveyors  to  new 
ships  for  a  term  of  years  (prefixed  to  the  sym- 


bol, as  10A1)  dependent  on  quality  of  mate- 
rials  and  mode  of  building;  but  to  retain  it 
they  must  be  periodically  resurveyed,  and  if  fit 
are.  granted  continuation  foi  one  to  eight  years, 
marked  10A1  (out.  5A1,  etc.  A  in  red  means 
over-age,  hut  -till  fit  for  any  voyages  which 
p.n   habl.  in  endure;  A  in  black,  fit  for 

short  trip-  with  similar  goods.  In  all  cases  the 
1  i-  omitted  11  rigging,  etc.,  are  inferior.  Iron 
tun!  1  t  lot  hie  A  preceded  by 

numeral-  from  100  down,  100A  to  00A  re- 
surveyed  once  in  four  years.  N.iA  and  below 
e  in  three;  rigging,  etc.,  marked  same  as  on 
wooden  ship-.  In  the  German  Lloyd's  Ai  and 
A  are  the  two  best  grades  ..1  wooden  ships; 
Bi,  B,  CL,  and  CK,  li  iwer  ones;  iron  and  steel 
ships  are  marked  a-  in  the  English  classification, 
but  with  the  resurvey  term  marked  under  the  A- 

Aa,  a  ("water":  a  general  Indo-European 
word  in  various  shapes. —  Ger.  ac/i  or  aach  in 
Aachen,  Biberach,  etc. ;  Lat,  aqua,  pi.  aqua, 
whence  O.F.  Aigues,  Mod  F.  Ai.x.  in  com- 
pound-; etc.),  the  name  of  some  forty  streams 
in  northern  and  central  Europe:  among  the 
f.  a  French  river  rising  in  dept.  Pas-de- 
Calai-.  [lowing  into  dept.  Nord,  and  reaching 
the  Strait  of  Dover  at  Gravelines;  about  50  m. 
long,  navigable  below  St.  Omer.  and  connected 
with  Calais  and  Dunkirk  by  canal-. 

Aachen,  a'nen.     See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

Aahmes  I.,  a'mess,  the  founder  of  the  18th 
dynasty  in  Egypt,  c.  1600  11.1..  and  its  final 
liberator  from  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings, 
Asiatic  nomads  who  had  conquered  the  land  a 
century  or  two  before.  Native  kings  had  already 
recovered  it  in  part;  but  Aahmes  captured  the 
last  Hyksos  fortress,  Hatwaret  (Awaris),  ex- 
pelled them  from  Egypt,  and  followed  them  into 
southern  Palestine,  besieged  their  army  five 
years  in  "Sharuhen"  and  captured  it.  He  then 
penetrated  farther  into  Palestine,  levying  tribute 
on  it  and  on  the  seaboard.  This  began  a  long 
series  of  Egyptian  retaliatory  expeditions  into 
West  Asia  and  a  long  dominance  over  it.  He 
had  an  admiral  of  the  same  name,  whose  self- 
laudatory  inscription  on  his  tomb  is  a  most 
valuable  mine  of  knowledge  on  the  military  and 
naval  operations  of  the  time.  Aahmes-Nefer- 
t.\ki  was  his  queen:  her  mummy-case,  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  ever  discovered,  is  in  the 
museum  at  Gizch. 

Aahmes  II.,  the  Amasis  of  Herodotus, 
fifth  Pharaoh  of  the  26th  dynasty,  c.  570-526 
b.c.  An  officer  of  Apries  headed  a  revolt 
against  him,  and  overthrew  and  killed  him. 
Though  he  seems  to  have  risen  from  the  ranks, 
and  to  have  loved  roystering  and  disliked  royal 
etiquette,  he  made  a  capable  and  judicious  sov- 
ereign; saved  Egypt  from  conqtn  1  by  Nebu- 
chadrezzar (who  ravaged  it.  but  retreated), 
and  managed  to  preserve  it  from  invasion  by 
Cyrus  the  Great.  He  was  on  very  friendly 
term-  with  the  Greeks:  lending  his  influence 
to  promote  their  commerce  and  colonization; 
assigning  them  the  excellent  port  of  Naucratis, 
which  soon  grew  into  a  flourishing  city;  con- 
tributing liberally  toward  the  rebuilding  of  the 
burned  temple  at  Delphi;  and  according  to  Greek 
story  having  cordial  relations  with  several  phi- 
losophers  and  princes  —  Pythagoras,  Polycrates, 
Under  the  reign  of  Aah  Egypt  enjoyed 
much  prosperity. 


AALBORG  —  AARGAU 


Aalborg,  al'bork  ("eel-town"),  Denmark, 
the  chief  city  of  X.  Jutland;  on  the  S.  side 
of  the  Limfjord  (a  sea-arm  which  joins  the 
Cattegat  to  the  North  Sea),  and  on  the  Danish 
State  Ry.,  which  crosses  the  fjord  by  an  iron 
bridge  1,250  feet  long,  one  of  the  finest  pieces 
of  engineering  in  the  kingdom.  An  important 
commercial  town  as  far  back  as  the  nth  cen- 
tury (  Wallenstein  sacked  it  in  1627,  the  Swedes 
in  1644  and  1657),  despite  a  shallow  harbor  it 
still  has  much  trade,  by  means  of  small  vessels, 
with  Scandinavia  and  England;  while  its  manu- 
factures —  distilleries,  leather,  lumber,  soap, 
cement,  cotton  goods,  etc. —  are  now  building  it 
up  with  great  rapidity.  A  bishop's  seat,  it  has 
a  cathedral;  also  two  old  churches  and  an  old 
castle,  a  museum,  and  a  library  of  30.000  vol- 
umes. Pop.  (1890)  19.503;  (1901)  3M6-2- 
Aalesund.  See  Alesund. 
Aali  Pasha,  Mehemed  Emin,  a-le'  pii-sha', 
me-hem-ed'  a-min',  a  Turkish  statesman :  b. 
Constantinople  1815;  d.  6  Sept.  1871.  Entering 
public  life  at  15,  he  was  charge  d'affaires 
at  London  1838.  ambassador  to  Great  Britain 
1841-4 ;  chancellor  of  the  divan  1845  ;  thrice  min- 
ister of  foreign  affairs  in  the  troublous  years 
1846-52 ;  grand  vizier  a  short  time  in  1852,  but 
soon  displaced  as  not  in  political  accord  with  his 
companions.  Recalled  as  foreign  minister  dur- 
ing the  Crimean  war  of  1854,  in  March  1855 
he  took  part  in  the  treaty  of  the  "four  guaran- 
tees" ;  in  July  again  became  grand  vizier,  and 
at  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  1856  showed  great 
decision  and  cleverness  in  looking  after  Turkish 
interests,  but  without  entire  success.  November 
1  his  political  tone  forced  him  to  resign,  but  he 
remained  minister  without  portfolio,  and  mem- 
ber of  the  Great  Council.  After  Reshid  Pasha's 
death  in  1858  he  was  again  grand  vizier,  and 
soon  again  withdrawn;  but  in  November  1861 
he  resumed  the  office  of  foreign  minister.  He 
was  president  of  the  convention  on  Rumanian 
affairs  1864,  and  member  of  the  Black  Sea 
Conference  in  London  1871.  During  the  Sul- 
tan's absence  at  the  Paris  Exposition  in  1867 
he  was  regent ;  and  while  the  very  soul  of  the 
reform  movement  energetically  suppressed  the 
Cretan  rebellion  and  the  movement  for  Egyptian 
independence.  In  the  full  tide  of  activity  he 
suddenly  died, —  an  excellent  man  and  states- 
man who  wasted  his  life  trying  to  vitalize  and 
purify  a  body  of  death. 

Aar,  ar,  Alex,  pseudonym  of  Anselm 
Rumpelt,  German  poet :  b.  Chemnitz,  Saxony, 
10  Feb.  1853.  His  best  work  was  in  historical 
lyrics,  collected  as  'Will-o'-the-VYisps'  (1878). 
Aar  or  Aare,  ar  ("river"),  the  name  of  sev- 
eral German  streams :  chiefly,  a  Swiss  river 
tributary  to  the  Rhine,  about  175  m.  long,  the 
largest  in  Switzerland  save  that  and  the  Rhone. 
Formed  by  torrents  from  the  vast  and  famous 
Oberaar  and  Unteraar  glaciers  of  the  Bernese 
Alps  in  E.  Bern,  it  flows  N.W.  through  the 
romantic  valley  of  Hasli,  over  the  celebrated 
Handeck  Falls,  200  feet  high,  expands  into 
Lake  Brienz,  and  then  past  Interlaken  into  Lake 
Thun,  becomes  navigable,  passes  Bern,  turns  X 
and  then  N.E.  along  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Jura  past  Solothurn  and  Aarau,  and.  joining 
the  Limmat,  shortly  after  breaks  through  the 
ridge  and  empties  into  the  Rhine  at  Waldshut. 
Chief  affluents,  the  Saane,  Zihl,  and  Emme,  the 


Reuss  feeding  it  from  the  lake  of  Lucerne  and 
Zuger  See,  the  Limmat  from  the  lake  of  Zurich, 
and  the  Liitschine  from  the  two  splendid  Griu- 
delwald  glaciers. 

Aarau,  ar'ow  ("Aar-meadow"),  Switzer- 
land, capital  of  Aargau ;  right  bank  of  the  Aar, 
41  m.  N.E.  of  Bern,  1,100  ft.  above  sea-level,  in  a 
fertile  plain  just  south  of  the  Jura,  whose 
peaks  close  by  are  the  Wasserfluh  (2,850  ft.) 
and  Giselahfluh  (2,540  ft.).  It  has  famous  man- 
ufactures of  cannon,  bells,  and  fine  scientific 
instruments,  besides  cutlery,  leather,  silk,  and 
cotton ;  and  holds  eight  fai-rs  yearly.  There 
are  also  historic,  scientific,  and  ethnographic 
museums,  a  cantonal  library  of  89,000  volumes 
rich  in  Swiss  history,  and  a  bronze  statue  of 
the  historian  and  novelist  Heinrich  Zschokke 
(q.v.),  who  lived  here.  Here,  December  1797, 
the  old  Swiss  confederacy  held  its  last  session ; 
April  to  September  1798  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  Helvetic  Republic.      Pop.  (1901)  7,824. 

Aardvark,  ard'vark  (Dutch,  "earth-pig"), 
the  Cape  ant-eater  {Oryctcropus  capensis). 
Also  called  ground-hog  and  ant-bear.  A 
South  African  mammal  measuring  about  five 
feet  from  end  of  tubular  snout  to  tip  of 
long  naked  tail.  It  lives  in  shallow  bur- 
rows and  is  of  timid,  nocturnal  habit ;  it  feeds 
on  ants  and  other  insects,  licking  them  up  with 
a  long  tongue  which  secretes  a  sticky  saliva. 
The  head  is  slightly  pig-like,  with  erect  ears ; 
the  stout  body  is  sparsely  covered  with  short 
stiff  hairs ;  the  limbs  are  short,  with  strong 
claws  for  digging:  the  flesh  is  edible  and  con- 
sidered delicate,  though  of  peculiar  flavor.  See 
Ant-eater. 

Aardwolf  (Dutch,  "earth-wolf"),  a  timid, 
nocturnal  South  African  carnivore  (Pro- 
teles  lalandii),  the  only  representative  of  the 
family  Protclidiv.  It  resembles  the  hyena,  to 
which  it  is  closely  related,  but  has  less  strength 
of  jaw  and  teeth.  Its  fur  is  coarse ;  color,  ashy- 
gray  irregularly  striped  with  black ;  muzzle, 
black  and  nearly  naked ;  ears,  brown  outside, 
gray  within.  It  inhabits  burrows,  and  being 
unable  to  kill  vertebrates  lives  upon  insects, 
larvse,  and  small  carrion. 

Aarestnip,  Emil,  a're-stroop,  Danish  poet 
(1800-56).  He  was  not  duly  appreciated  until 
after  his  death,  but  is  now  acknowledged  one 
of  the  foremost  lyric  poets  of  Denmark,  ranking 
next  to  Christian  Winther.  His  'Collected 
Poems,'  with  critical  sketch  by  G.  Brandes,  was 
published  at  Copenhagen  in  1877. 

Aargau,  ar'gow  ("Aar-shire" :  Fr.  Ar- 
govie,  ar-go-ve),  Switzerland,  an  extreme  X. 
canton  between  Basel  W.,  Zurich  E..  Luzern 
S.,  and  the  Rhine  and  Baden  X.  Area.  543  sq. 
m. ;  capital.  Aarau.  It  consists  mainly  of  spurs 
of  the  Alps  and  Jura,  nowhere  over  3,000  ft. 
above  sea-level,  with  numerous  fertile  valleys 
watered  by  the  Aar  and  its  S.E.  tributaries, 
the  Limmat    (or  Linth)    and  Reu:  Var) 

being  chief.  The  climate  is  moist  and  variable, 
and  stock-farming  and  agriculture  are  advanced : 
fruit,  vegetables,  and  vines  abound,  but  the 
wines  are  inferior.  Timber  is  plentiful.  Man- 
ufactures:  cottons,  silks,  ribbons,  linens,  hosiery, 
straw-plait,  etc.,  and  important  machine  works. 
The  boat  traffic  on  the  Aar  and  Rhine,  and  the 
active    land    and    water    transit    trade,    employ 


AARHUUS  — AB 


many.  It  has  several  picturesque  ruined  castles. 
Aargau,  part  of  old  Helvetia,  then  conquered 
by  the  Franks  (5th  century),  a  llapsburg  fief 
1173-1415,  then  captured  bj  the  cantonal 
and  divided  between  Bern  and  Luzern,  was  split 
up  and  a  pan  made  a  member  of  the  Helvetic 
Republic  1798.      Its  constitution  t  fixed 

by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815;  in  18,11  it 
gained  a  democratic  one,  and  lias  ever  since  been 
a  champion  of  liberalism.  In  1841  it  suppressed 
its  eight  monasteries,  and  this  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Sonderbund  (q.v.),  or  Secession 
League,  of  Catholic  cantons  in  1847.  Legisla- 
tive power  is  vested  in  the  Great  Council,  one 
for  every  I. too  people,  which  ha--  to  submit  laws 
and   dei  i    referendum;   executive   power 

in  the   Small   Council  of  -  isen  by  and 

from  the  Great  one.  Pop.  (1900)  206,460,  nearly 
all  German. 

Aarhuus,  ar'-hoos,  Denmark.  (1)  District, 
the  E.  central  part  of  Jutland,  divided  into 
Aarhuus  and  Randers  amfs  (or  bailiwicks)  ; 
area,  1,821  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  325.000,  mainly 
employed  111  fishing  industries.  (2)  City,  the 
second  largest  of  Denmark,  capital  of  Aarhuus 
amt,  on  a  hay  of  the  Catteg  tl  and  the  Danish 
State  Ry.  ;  lias  a  harl  in   1883-90.  with 

a  breakwater  and  six  feet  of  water,  regular 
steamer  lines  to  Copenhagen  and  England,  and 
a  large  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  etc.;  and  much 
shipbuilding,  iron-founding,  cotton-spinning,  and 
other  manufactures,  which  are  giving  it  rapid 
growth.  It  is  a  bishop's  scat,  and  has  been  such 
since  048,  making  it  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in 
Denmark;  and  its  cathedral,  begun  in  1201,  is 
one  of  the  largest  and  finest  church  buildings  in 
the  kingdom.  It  has  a  museum  also.  Pop. 
(1890)    33.306;    (loot)    51,909. 

Aaron,  a  prominent  hut  subordinate  figure 
of  the  Exodus  period  in  Jewish  history,  whose 
importance  increases  with  the  distance  of  the 
recorder  from  the  early  epochs,  and  with  the 
remodeling  of  the  early  histories  by  the  priest- 
hood to  support  their  later  pretensions  and  their 
theocratic  ideal  of  Judaism.  In  the  earlu  -t  or 
Elohistio  (q.v.)  portions  of  the  Ilexateuch,  he 
is  brother  of  Miriam  (Ex.  xv.  20);  but  it  is 
Joshua  who  is  Moses'  minister  for  religious  rites 
ami  who  keeps  guard  over  the  tent  of  meeting 
(Ex.  xxiii.  11),  the  young  men  of  Israel  offer 
sacrifice,  and  Moses  alone  is  the  high-priest. 
Aaron,  however,  seems  to  be  regarded  as  ances- 
tor of  one  set  of  pi  ■  ■_  at  the  Hill  of 
Phinehas,  and  perha:  at  Bethel.  In 
a  later  porti'  n  it  is  he  who  yields  10  the  demand 
for  an  idol,  and  fashions  the  golden  calf  —  an 
evident  genealogy  of  Baal-worship,  accredited 
to  the  ancestor  of  rival  priests.  In  the  Yah- 
yistic  portions  hi  5'  older  brother,  but 
is  brought  upon  the  stage  only  to  he  ignored: 
Pharaoh  sends  for  him  and  Moses  to  take  away 
the  plagues  (Ex.  vii.t.  but  he  has  no  independ- 
ent power  and  is  merely  Moses'  agent  in  per- 
forming miracles,  bringing  on  plagues,  etc.  The 
supererogatory  nature  of  his  functions  makes 
it  probable  that  bis  role  is  introduced  by  the 
priestly  redactor,  under  whose  hands  he  becomes 
a  mighty  leader  little  inferior  to  Moses:  he 
sometimes  receives  laws  directly  from  Yahwe 
(  \"um.  xviii.)  :  he  with  Moses  numbers  the  peo- 
ple; the  Israelites  rebel  against  him  as  well  as 
Moses,  though,  when  he  criticises  Moses,  curi- 


ously Ins  inciter  Miriam  is  punished,  not  him- 
self (Num.  xii. )  ;  he  and  Moses  jointly  disobey 
Yahwe's  command  at  Meribah;  and  he  is  pun- 
ished by  having  his  life  1  ire  entering 
Canaan.  This  magnifying  connects  itself  clearly 
with  the  post-exilic  books,  where  he  is  the 
ancestor  of  all  legitimate  priests,  consecrated 
high-priest  by  Moses,  and  alone  permitted  to 
enter  the  Holy  of  Holies  yearly:  he  represents 
the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  even  within  it  his  descend- 
ants alone  arc  rightful  priests,  and  interlopers 
(see  Kokah)  are  stricken  dead  by  Yahwe. 
The  pre-exilic  prophets  know  nothing  of  this 
claim:  Ezekiel  traces  the  origin  of  the  Jerusa- 
lem priesthood  only  to  Zadok  (q.v.).  He  be- 
longs to  the  tribe  of  Joseph  and  its  struggle 
to  secure  admission  to  the  Jerusalem  priest- 
hood. 

Aaron,  Hill  of,  a  lofty  mountain  range  of 
Arabia  l'etr.ea.  in  the  district  of  Sherah  or  Seir, 
15  miles  S.W.  of  Shobeck.  On  its  highest  pin- 
nacle —  called  by  the  Arabs  Nebi  Haroun  —  is 
a  small  building  supposed  by  the  natives  to  in- 
close  the  tomb  of  Aaron;  and  it  may  be  the 
Mount    Hor  of   Num.    xxxiii. 

Aaron  ben  Asher,  Jewish  scholar:  lived 
in  Tiberias  early  in  the  10th  century,  lie  com- 
pleted one  of  the  two  existing  recensions  of  the 
vowels  and  accents  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  His 
rival  Ben  Xaftali  also  completed  a  similar  work, 
but  the  readings  of  the  former  are  usually  pre- 
ferred. 

Aarsens,  Frans  Van,  ar'sens,  Dutch  diplo- 
mat: b.  The  Hague,  1572;  d.  1641.  From  26  on 
he  represented  the  States-General  at  the  court 
of  France  for  many  years,  first  as  agent  and 
then  as  ambassador;  and  Richelieu  ranked  him 
one  of  the  three  greatest  politicians  of  his  time. 
He  also  held  embassies  to  Venice,  Germany,  and 
England.  The  judicial  murder  of  John  of 
Barneveld  by  Maurice  of  Orange  in  1619  was 
greatly  helped  on  by  Aarsens.  who  has  gained  a 
tardy  popular  opprobrium  for  it  through  Mot- 
ley's life  of  John. 

Aasen,   Ivar   Andreas,  a'sen,    e'var    an'dra 

as,  Norwegian  philologist  and  poet:  b.  Orsten, 
5  Aug.  1813.  At  first  a  botanist,  he  turned 
philologist  and  student  of  native  dialects  from 
patriotic  enthusiasm :  his  great  aim  was  to  con- 
struct from  their  older  elements  a  new  national 
language  ("Landsmaal"),  as  a  substitute  for 
Danish,  in  pursuance  of  which  end  he  published 
several  valuable  philological  works  and  set  going 
the  nationalistic  movement  called  "maalstrccv." 
As  a  poet  he  produced  'Symra,'  a  collection  of 
lyrics,  and   'Ervingen,'  a  drama. 

Aasvar,  as'-var,  Norwegian  islands  near 
the  Arctic  Circle,  where  the  great  Nordland 
herring  are  caught  in  December  and  January  to 
the  extent  of  sometimes  200,000  tons,  and  10,000 
men  are  employed,  who  live  elsewhere  the  rest 
of  the  year. 

Aasvogel,  as'fo-gel  ("carrion-bird"),  the 
South  African  vulture,  of  several  different 
species. 

Ab,  the  nth  month  of  the  Hebrews'  civil 
year  and  the  5th  of  their  ecclesiastical  (which 
begins  with  Xisan),  has  30  days,  and  answers 
to  the  July  moon,  or  part  of  our  July  and  Au- 
gust.    The  9th  day  was  a  great  fast  in  memory 


ABA  — ABADIR 


of  the  destruction  of  the  first  temple  by  Nebu- 
chadrezzar, 586  B.C.,  and  the  second  by  Titus, 
70  A.D. 

Aba  or  Abu  Hanifah,  or  Hanfa,  a'ba  or 
a'boo  ha-ne'fa,  or  han'fa,  surnamed  Alnooma : 
b.  in  the  80th  and  d.  in  the  150th  year  of  the 
Hegira  (701-771).  He  is  the  most  celebrated 
doctor  of  the  orthodox  Mussulmans,  and  his 
sect  is  the  most  esteemed  of  the  four  which 
they  severally  follow. 

Aba,  a'ba,  a  mountain  in  Armenia,  part  of 
Mount  Taurus,  where  the  rivers  Araxes  and 
Euphrates  have  their  rise. 

Abab'deh,  Abab'de,  Abab'idek,  or  Hab'ab, 
a  Hamitic  people  of  E.  Africa,  descendants  of 
the  ancient  Nubians,  scattered  throughout  Nubia 
and  between  the  Nile  valley  and  the  Red  Sea, 
but  chiefly  from  23°  N.  lat.  to  the  W.  border  of 
Lower  Egypt.  They  are  small-limbed,  but  well 
formed ;  very  dark,  but  not  negroid  in  features. 

Abaco,  a'ba-ko  (or  Lucaya),  Great  and 
Little,  two  Bahama  islands  150  m.  \Y.  of 
Florida.  Great  Abaco,  the  largest  of  the  Baha- 
mas, is  about  80  m.  long  by  20  wide,  with  a 
lighthouse  at  its  S.E.  point,  at  a  natural  per- 
foration of  the  rock  known  to  seamen  as  KThe 
Hole-in-the-Wall."  Little  Abaco,  28  m.  long, 
lies  W.  of  its  N.  point.  Area  of  both,  879  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  2,400. 

Abacus.  In  architecture,  the  flat  stone  form- 
ing the  highest  member  of  a  column,  next  under 
the  architrave  and  bearing  its  first  weight.  In 
the  Tuscan,  Doric,  and  Ionic  orders,  its  four 
sides  are  arched  inward,  with  generally  a  rose 
in  the  centre.  In  Gothic  architecture  it  was 
variously  employed,  according  to  the  architect's 
fancy. 

Abacus  (Greek  &Pa%,  from  the  Semitic  T^r, 
abq,  dust).  In  mathematics,  a  term  applied  to 
several  forms  of  reckoning  apparatus,  and  hence 
for  some  centuries  to  arithmetic  itself.  The 
primitive  form  seems  to  have  been  a  board  cov- 
ered with  fine  dust,  whence  the  generic  name. 
Among  the  Hindus  this  was  a  wooden  tablet 
covered  with  pipe  clay,  upon  which  was  sprinkled 
purple  sand,  the  numerals  being  written  with  a 
stylus.  (Consult  Taylor,  in  the  preface  to  his 
translation  of  the  'Lilawati,'  Bombay  1816.  p.  6). 
That  this  form  was  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
is  evident  from  Iamblichus,  who  asserts  that 
Pythagoras  taught  geometry  as  well  as  arith- 
metic upon  an  abacus.  Its  use  among  the  Ro- 
mans of  the  classical  period  is  also  well  attested. 
Another  form  of  the  abacus,  having  many  modi- 
fications, is  a  board  with  beads  sliding  in  grooves 
or  on  wires.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  this  in- 
strument was  used  by  the  Egyptians  and  the 
Greeks,  and  we  have  evidence  that  the  Romans 
also  knew  it,  although  preferring  a  form  de- 
scribed below.  It  is  at  present  widely  used, 
appearing  in  the  form  of  the  szvanpan  in  China, 
the  saroban  in  Japan,  and  the  tschoty  in  Russia, 
the  latter  being  the  same  as  the  modern  Arabian 
abacus.  It  is  in  this  type  of  the  abacus  that 
prayer  beads  have  their  origin.  The  third 
form  is  a  ruled  table,  upon  which  counters  are 
placed,  somewhat  like  checkers  on  a  backgam- 
mon board,  a  game  derived  from  this  type  of 
abacus.  This  was  the  favorite  form  among  the 
Romans,  whose  numerals  were  not  at  all  adapted 
to   calculation,   and    it    maintained    its    position 


throughout  the  Middle  Ages  and  until  the  latter 
part  of  the  16th  century.  The  Hindu-Arabic 
numerals  (see  Numerals)  having  then  sup- 
planted the  Roman,  such  an  aid  to  calculation 
was  thought  superfluous  in  western  Europe. 
The  counters  used  were  called  ^ij0oi  by  the 
Greeks,  calculi  (pebbles,  whence  calcularc  and 
our  calculate)  by  the  Romans,  and  in  Cicero's 
time  aera  because  brass  discs  were  used.  In 
mediaeval  times  they  were  called  projectiles  be- 
cause they  were  thrown  upon  the  table,  whence 
our  expression  to  "cast  an  account,"  and  Shake- 
speare's   "counter    caster."     The    early    French 


translated  this  as  gettons,  gectoirs,  and  jetons, 
whence  our  obsolete  English  jettons  and  the 
modern  French  jeton,  meaning  a  medal,  and 
also  a  counter  for  games.  The  Germans  trans- 
lated the  late  Latin  denarii  supputarii  (calcu- 
lating pennies)  as  Rechenpfennige,  the  early 
printed  books  distinguishing  between  reckoning 
on  the  line  (that  is,  on  the  ruled  table)  and 
with  the  pen.  The  Court  of  the  Exchequer 
(q.v.)  derives  its  name  from  this  form  of  the 
abacus,  about  which  the  judges  of  the  fiscal 
court  sat.  (Hall,  'The  Antiquities  and  Curios- 
ities of  the  Exchequer,'  London  1891 :  Hender- 
son, 'Select  Historical  Documents  of  the  Middle 
Ages,1  London  1892,  p.  20.)  Another  form  of 
the  abacus,  possibly  introduced  by  Gerbert  be- 
fore he  became  Pope  Sylvester  II.  (q.v.),  was 
arranged  in  columns  and  employed  counters 
upon  which  the  western  Arab  forms  of  the 
Hindu  numerals  (see  Numerals)  were  written. 
The  use  of  the  term  to  designate  an  instrument 
of  calculation  led  to  its  use  for  arithmetic  itself, 
as  in  the  "Liber  abaci'  of  Leonardo  Fibonacci 
of  Pisa  (q.v.)  and  in  the  works  of  later  writers. 
Consult:  Knott,  'The  Abacus,'  in  the 
'Transactions  of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan,' 
Vol.  XIV. ;  Bayley,  in  the  'Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society'  (X.  S.),  Vol.  XV.;  Chasles,  in 
the  'Comptes  rendus,'  t.  16,  1843,  p.  1409; 
Woepcke,  in  the  'Journal  asiatique,'  6  ser.,  t.  1. 
See  Finxer  Notation. 

Davtd  Eugene  Smith. 
Professor    of    Mathematics,    Teachers    College, 
Columbia  University,  Xew  York. 

Abad'  ("abode"),  a  suffix  meaning  town 
or  city,  common  in  Hindu  and  Persian  names  : 
as  Allahabad,  city  of  God;  Hyderabad,  city  of 
Hyder ;   Secunderabad,  city  of   Alexander. 

Abad'don,  in  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
rabbinical  literature,  Sheol,  the  underworld,  or 
the  place  of  the  lost  in  it:  in  Revelation  (ix.  11) 
the  King  of  the  Abyss,  Greek  Apollyon. 

Ab'adir,  according  to  Augustine  the  chief 
god  of  the  Carthaginians ;  according  to  Priscian, 
a  stone  which  Saturn  swallowed  by  contrivance 
of  his  wife  Ops,  believing  it  to  be  his  new-born 


ABAKANSK  —  ABASOLO 


Son  Jupiter,  and  hence  worshipped  with  divine 
hon 

Abakansk ,    a    mountain    range    in    Siberia, 
extending   from  the  upper  Yenisei  to  the  Tom 
R.,   parallel   to   the   Altai    Mts.      Also   a   town 
founded  by   Peter  the  Great  in   1707.  near  the 
Abakan   River;   nou    renamed  Minusinsk   (q.V.). 
Ab'alo'ne  1  Sp.,  origin  unknown).     Any  one 
of  the  several  species  of  Haliotis  (ear-shells  or 
ears)     found    along    the    California    coast. 
I  he  shell   is   a   spiral   so  broadly   flattened  as  to 
make  an  oval   saucer,  around  the  edge  of  which 
is   a    row   of   holes   through   which   the   tentacles 
when  extended.      The  animal  lives  on  rocks 
near  the  shore,  feeding  on  seaweed  ;  when  fright- 
1  it  withdraws  entirely  beneath  its  shell  and 
clings  with  surprising  force  to  the  rock.      The 
shell  is  lined  with  a  bright  mother-of-pearl  much 
used   in   arts   and   crafts.      The   animal   itself  is 
used  as  f 1  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese;  quan- 
tities of  them  are  dried  and  exported  from  Cali- 
fornia  to  the   Orient.      The  name   "abalone"   is 
local,  but  marine  gastropods  of  the  same  family 
are   abundant   in   all    seas   not   too  cold,  outside 
the  western  Atlantic.      Sec  I  Iauotid.e  ;  Sea-e.vk. 
Abanah,  r    Amanah    (fir.    Chry- 

sorrhoas,  now  Barada,  'The  cob!  I  the 

two  famous  "rivers  of  Damascus"  mentioned 
in  the  Scripture:  rising  in  the  heart  of  the  Anti- 
Lebanon,  it  fli  igh  a  narrow  gorge  and 

spreads  fan-wise  through  the  Damascus  oasis, 
irrigating  the  land  and  supplying  the  city,  by  the 
canals  or  "rivers,"  with  its  clear  sparkling 
water,  so  greatly  superior  to  the  Jordan  in 
beauty  that  Xaaman's  question  is  quite  intel- 
ligible. 

Abancay,  a-ban-ki',  Peru,  capital  of  dept. 
Apurimas.  65  111.  W    of  :  n  the  Abancay, 

an  affluent  of  the  upper  Apurimac;  in  an  East- 
Andean  valley,  the  best  sugar  district  in  Peru, 
with  large  refineries  and  silver  mines.  Pop. 
(  1889)    ?.0OO. 

Abandonment,  the  act  of  abandoning,  giv- 
ing up.  or  relinquishing. 

In  commerce  it  is  the  relinquishment  of  an 
interest  or  claim.  Thus,  in  certain  circum- 
stances, a  person  who  ha-  insured  property  on 
board  a  ship  may  relinquish  to  the  insurers  a 
remnant  of  it  saved  from  a  wreck,  as  a  prelim- 
inary to  calling  upon  them  to  pay  the  full 
amount  of  the  insurance  effected. 

The  principle  is  also  applicable  in  fire  insur- 
ance, and  often  under  stipulations  in  life  poli 
cies  in  favor  of  creditors.  The  chief  object  of 
abandonment  being  to  recover  the  whole  value 
of  the  subject  of  the  insurance,  it  is  necessary 
only  where  the  subject  itself,  or  portions  of  it. 
or  claims  on  account  of  it.  survive  the  peril 
which  caused  the  loss  At  once  upon  receiving 
information  of  a  loss  the  assured  must  elect 
whether  to  abandon,  and  not  delay  for  the  pur- 
pose of  speculating  on  the  state  of  the  markets. 
The  English  law  is  more  restricted  than  the 
American,  by  not  making  thi  r  half  the 

value  conclusive  of  the  right  to  abandon,  and 
by  judging  the  right  to  abandon  by  the  circum- 
stances at  the  time  of  action  brought,  and  not 
by  the  facts  existing  at  the  time  of  the  abandon- 
ment By  commencing  full  repairs  the  right  of 
abandonment  is  waived.  An  abandonment  may 
be  oral  or  in  writing.  When  acted  upon  by 
another  party,  the  effect  of  abandonment  is  to 
devest  all  the  owner's   rights. 


Abano.  Pietro  di,  a'ba-no,  pea'trd  de, 
known  also  as  Petrus  de  AponO,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  physicians  of  the  l.uh  century: 
b.  111  the  Italian  village  from  which  he  takes 
Ins  name,  m  1  J4o  or  IJ50  ;  d.  I.116.  He  visited 
the  F.ast  m  order  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  (  Ireek.  and  then  completed  his  studies 
at  the  University  of  Pan-.  Returning  to  Italy 
he  settled  at  Padua,  where  his  reputation  as  a 
physician  became  so  great  that  his  rivals,  envious 
of  his  fame,  gave  out  that  he  was  aided  in  his 
cures  by  evil  spirits.  It  was  known,  too,  that  he 
practi  '  nnmoned 

before  the  Inquisition.  On  the  first  occasion  he 
was  acquitted,  and  he  died  before  his  second 
trial  came  to  an  end.  Besides  the  work,  'Con- 
ciliator Differentiarum  Philosophorum  et  Prre- 
cipue  Medicorum'  (Mantua,  1472),  he  wrote 
'  lie  Venenis  eorumque  Remediis'  1  1 47-  I,  *G 
mantia,'  ( Quaes tiones  de  Febribus,'  and  other 
works. 

Abano,  Italy  (Lat.  "Fontes  Aponi'M,  lies 
at  the  foot  of  tin-  Yiccntine  Hills,  in  Lombardy. 
Its  noted  springs,  much  visited  by  invalid-,  were 
well  known  to  the  ancients,  and  are  referred  to 
by  Martial  and  Claudian. 

Aban'tes,  an  ancient  Greek  people  originally 
from  Thrace,  who  settled  in  Phocis,  and  built 
a  town  called  Aba?.  Their  name  implies  an 
ancestor  or  leader  Abas. 

Abar'banel.     See  Abrabanel. 

Ab'arim  ("the  beyond-."  -c.  Jordan),  the 
edge  of  the  Moabite  plateau  overlooking  the 
entire  Jordan  valley:  a  range  of  highlands  form- 
ing its  whole  horizon,  broken  only  bj  the  valley 
months  of  the  Yarmuk.  the  Zcrka.  and  the 
Jabbok.  Its  highest  elevation  is  Mount  N'ebo, 
whence  Moses  had  his  "Pisgah  view"  of  Pales- 
tine 1  see  PlSGAH  >,  and  whence  Jericho  is  plainly 
visible.  Ancient  altars,  perhaps  Amorite,  were 
ered   here   in   1881. 

Ab'aris,  the  Hyperborean  ( fabled  as  from 
the   Caue  t),  a    legendary   sage 

first  mentioned  by  Pindar  and  Herodotus.  5th 
century  B.C.,  hut  quite  uncertain  of  date  or  ex- 
istence. He  had  the  prophetic  gift,  and  a  magic 
arrow  of  Apollo  on  which  he  rode  through  the 
air;  cured  by  incantations,  rid  the  world  1 
great  plague,  etc.  The  Xeo-Platonists  made  him 
Pythagoras'  companion. 

Abascal,  Jose  Fernando,  a-bas-cal',  ho-sa' 
fer-nan'do,  Si>.im-h  soldier  and  -talesman:  b. 
Oviedo,  174.?;  d.  Madrid,  1821.  KiilrruiL- 
vice  in  1762,  he  rose  to  brigadier-general  in  the 
French  Revolutionary  wars;  in  171/j  became 
viceroy  of  Cuba  and  defended  Havana  against 
the  English  fleet;  then  was  commander  in  Xew 
Galicia,  and  later  viceroy  of  T'eru.  where  he 
showed  great  ability  and  kindliness,  and  in 
recognition  of  his  efforts  to  reconcile  natives  and 
Spanish  was  created  Marques  de  la  Concordia. 
He  defended  Buenos  Ayres  from  the  English, 
and  suppressed  revolts  in  Lima  and  Cuzco ;  but 
having  a  turn  of  ill  success  was  recalled  in  1816. 

Abasolo,  Mariano,  a-ba-so'lo,  ma-re-a'-no. 
Mexican  patriot:  b.  in  Guanajuato  about  1780; 
d.  Cadiz.  1819.  Joining  Hidalgo's  (q.v.)  Mexi- 
can revolution  in  1810,  he  rose  to  major-general, 
d  for  humanity  to  prisoners.  After 
the  final  rout  at  the  Calderon  bridge,  17  Jan. 
1S11,  he  fled  with  his  chief;  with  him  was  cap- 
tured  by   the   counter-revolutionists,    tried,    and 


ABATEMENT  —  ABBADIE 


sentenced  to  life  imprisonment  in  Spain,  where 
he  died. 

Abatement.  Inlaw:  d)  A  removal  or 
putting  down,  as  of  a  nuisance.  (2)  A  quash- 
ing; a  judicial  defeat;  the  rendering  abortive  by 
law,  as  when  a  writ  is  overthrown  by  some  fatal 
exception  taken  to  it  in  court.  A  plea  designed 
to  effect  this  result  is  called  a  plea  in  abatement. 
All  dilatory  pleas  are  considered  pleas  in  abate- 
ment, in  contradistinction  to  pleas  in  bar,  which 
consider  the  merits  of  the  claim.  (3)  Forcible 
entry  of  a  stranger  into  an  inheritance  when  the 
person  seized  of  it  dies,  and  before  the  heir  or 
devisee  can  take  possession.  (4)  The  termina- 
tion of  an  action  in  a  court  of  law,  or  the  sus- 
pension of  proceedings  in  a  suit  in  equity,  in 
consequence  of  the  occurrence  of  some  event,  as 
for  example  the  death  of  one  of  the  litigants. 
In  contracts,  a  reduction  made  by  the  creditor  in 
consideration  of  the  prompt  payment  of  a  debt 
due  by  the  debtor.  In  mercantile  law,  a  deduc- 
tion from  duties  imposed  at  the  custom-house, 
on  account  of  damages  received  by  goods  during 
importation  or  while  in  the  custom-house. 

A  misnomer  of  plaintiff  or  defendant  can  be 
taken  advantage  of  only  by  plea  in  abatement. 

In  heraldry,  an  abatement  was  formerly  an 
addition  to  a  coat-of-arms,  indicative  of  disgrace 
or  inferiority ;  now  it  is  confined  to  the  bend 
sinister,  marking  illegitimate  descent. 

Ab'atis,  or  Abattis,  in  military  affairs,  a 
defense  made  of  felled  trees.  In  sudden  emer- 
gencies, the  trees  are  merely  laid  lengthwise  be- 
side each  other,  with  the  branches  pointed  out- 
ward to  prevent  the  approach  of  the  enemy. 
When  employed  for  the  defense  of  a  pass  or  en- 
trance, the  boughs  of  the  trees  are  stripped  of 
their  leaves  and  pointed,  the  trunks  are  planted 
in  the  ground,  and  the  branches  interwoven 
with  each  other;  and  the  abatis  is  laid  in  a  de- 
pression in  front  of  a  trench,  for  protection  from 
artillery  fire. 

Ab'atos,  Egypt,  an  island  in  Lake  Mceris, 
famous  as  the  sepulchre  of  Osiris,  and  for  pro- 
ducing the  papyrus  of  which  the  ancients  made 
their  paper. 

Abattoir  (Fr.),  ab-at- war,  a  slaughter-house ; 
sometimes  extended  to  include  a  great  market 
of  which  the  abattoir  proper  is  only  a  part.  The 
nuisance  of  blood,  offal,  etc.,  in  crowded  settle- 
ments, early  forced  ancient  civilized  governments 
to  put  the  slaughter  of  the  animals  under  restric- 
tions. Our  first  definite  information  on  this 
point  is  the  system  under  the  Roman  empire : 
the  slaughter-houses  instead  of  being  scattered 
about  the  streets  were  collected  in  one  quarter, 
forming  the  public  market,  which  in  Xero's  time 
was  one  of  the  most  imposing  structures  in 
Rome.  The  system  was  introduced  into  Gaul, 
but  the  meat  supply  of  Paris  was  in  the  hands 
of  a  clique  of  aristocratic  families  who  balked 
all  attempts  at  reform ;  and  though  as  far  back 
as  1567  Charles  IX.  had  issued  a  decree  on  the 
subject,  no  improvement  was  made  till  Napo- 
leon's time,  when  the  nuisance  was  shocking. — 
slaughter-houses  abutted  on  the  principal  tho- 
roughfares, herds  of  footsore  and  lamenting 
beasts  impeded  traffic,  the  gutters  ran  with 
blood,  offal  poisoned  the  air.  and  the  Seine  was 
a  sewer  for  it.  A  commission  was  appointed  to 
rectify  these  conditions  in  18m,  and  the  live 
great  abattoirs  which  still  exist  were  formally 
opened    15    Sept.    1S1S.      They    have    been    the 


models  of  the  world,  and  for  many  years  had 
no  rivals ;  indeed,  for  symmetry  of  arrangement 
they  have  never  been  surpassed.  But  of  late 
the  vast  American  establishments  near  Chi- 
cago, at  Brighton,  Mass.,  and  other  places,  have 
carried  speed,  economy,  and  cleanliness  to  an 
ideal  point,  and  American  inventiveness  has 
built  up  an  incredible  number  of  subsidiary  in- 
dustries and  products,  so  that  literally  not  a  hair 
of  an  animal's  body  nor  a  drop  of  its  blood  is 
wasted :  foods,  medicines,  chemicals,  manures, 
building-materials,  etc.,  produced  from  the 
refuse  of  the  slaughter-houses  are  past  num- 
bering. 

Abauzit,  Firmin,  ab-6-ze,  fer-mart,  French 
scholar  of  Arabian  blood  and  Protestant  par- 
ents: b.  Uzes,  1679;  d.  Geneva,  1767.  He  lost 
his  father  when  only  two ;  in  1685,  on  the  Revo- 
cation, the  authorities  tried  to  tutor  him  for  a 
Catholic,  but  his  mother  contrived  his  flight  with 
an  elder  brother  to  the  Cevennes,  where  after 
two  years  as  fugitives  they  gained  Geneva,  and 
the  mother  escaped  from  imprisonment  and 
joined  them.  He  early  acquired  great  proficiency 
in  languages,  physics,  and  theology ;  traveled  to 
Holland  and  made  acquaintance  with  Bayle  and 
others,  and  to  England,  where  Xewton  ad- 
mired him  greatly,  corrected  through  him 
an  error  in  his  "Principia,"  and  wrote  to 
him,  "You  are  well  worthy  to  judge  be- 
tween Leibnitz  and  me."  William  III. 
wished  him  to  settle  in  England,  but  he 
preferred  to  return  to  Geneva :  assisted  a  so- 
ciety there  in  translating  the  Xew  Testament 
into  French,  was  offered  but  refused  a  chair  in 
the  University,  but  accepted  a  sinecure  librarian- 
ship,  and  died  very  aged.  He  was  of  wonderful 
versatility  and  universality,  seeming  to  have 
made  everything  a  speciality;  Rousseau,  jealous 
of  every  one,  yet  eulogized  him  warmly;  and 
Voltaire  asked  a  flattering  stranger  who  said 
he  had  come  to  see  a  genius,  whether  he  had 
seen  Abauzit.  His  heirs,  through  theological 
differences,  destroyed  his  papers,  so  that  little  re- 
mains of  his  work;  he  wrote  articles,  however, 
for  Rousseau's  "Dictionary  of  Music'  and  other 
works,  and  edited  with  valuable  additions  Spoil's 
'  History  of  Geneva.'  (Collected  works,  Geneva, 
1770;  London,  1773.  Translations  by  Dr.  Har- 
wood,  1770.  1774.  For  personal  information, 
see  Senebier's  'Histoire  Litteraire  de  Geneve'  ; 
Harwood's  'Miscellanies'  ;  Orme's  'Bibliotheca 
Biblica,'   1834.) 

Abba,  Giuseppe  Cesare,  joo-sep'a  cha-za'- 
ra,  Italian  poet:  b.  1838  at  Cairo  Montenotte. 
He  took  part  in  the  expedition  of  Garibaldi  into 
Sicily  in  i860,  which  he  celebrated  in  his  poem 
'Arrigo.'  Among  his  other  works  are  a  tragedy, 
'Spartaco,'  a  historical  novel,  and  lyric  poems. 

Abba  (same  as  papa,  etc.'),  Aramaic  form 
of  Hebrew  for  "father."  In  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment, used  as  an  address  to  God ;  in  the  Tal- 
mud, a  scholar's  title  of  honor ;  also  used  as  part 
of  proper  names:  and  at  present  the  title  nf 
Syriac,  Coptic,  and  Ethiopic  bishops.  See  Papa  ; 
Pope. 

Abbadie,  Antoine  Thomson  and  Arnaud 
Michel  d',  dab-ad-e,  an-twan  toh-soh  (and 
ar-no  me-shel,  brothers  and  explorers:  b.  in 
Dublin.  Ireland,  3  Jan.  1S10  and  24  July  1815 
respectively  In  1837-48  they  explored  Abys- 
sinia and  Upper  Egypt,  traveled  up  the  White 
Xile,  visited  Darfur    (  regarded  by  the  English 


ABBADIE  —  ABBASSIDES 


in  these  places  as  French  emissaries),  and 
made  a  remarkably  large  collection  of  Ethiopic 
and  Vraharic  manuscripts.  Among  .'tlur  works 
e  published  'Geodesj  oi  Pari  of  Upper 
Ethiopia'  (1860-73)  :""l  'Dictionary  of  the 
Amann  Language'  (1881);  and  Arnaud, 
'Twelve  Years  in  Upper  Ethiopia*  (1868). 

Abbadie,  Jacques,  ab-ad-c,  zhak,  or  James, 
eminent  Fre-xh- English  divine:  b.  Nay,  Bern, 
C.  1654-7;  '.  Loud.  m.  17.7.  A  poor  boy,  edu- 
cated by  friends,  he  took  a  degree  of  doctor  in 
theology  at  Sedan  at  17.  was  minister  of  a 
French  Protestant  church  in  Berlin  some  years, 
then  in  1688  accompanied  Marshal  Schomberg 
to  London  for  the  second  English  Revolution, 
and  became  minister  of  the  French  church  in  the 
Savoy,  lie  was  strongly  attached  u<  William's 
cause,  wrote  an  elaborate  defense  of  it.  and  a 
history  of  the  conspiracy  of  1696  from  materials 
furnished  by  the  government  ;  and  William  made 
him  dean  of  Killaloe,  Ireland.     A  very  able  man 

loquent  preacher,  Abbadie  is  best  known 
by  his  religious  treatises  in  French,  several  of 
them   translated   into  other  languages  :   the  most 

■in   are  that    'On  the  Truth  of  the  Chris 
tian  Religion,'  with  its  sequel   'On  the  Divinity 
of  Jesus  Christ,'  and   'The  Art  of  Self-Knowl- 
edge. 

Abbas    (Tbn   Abd   ii    Muttaub,    'bn    iibd  il 

liiii.  uncle  of  Mohammed;  at  first  hos- 

him.  hut   ultimately  —  after  the  defeat  at 

Bed'r  (see  Mohammed)  —  the  chief  promoter  of 

his   religion.     He   was   the    founder  of  the   Ab- 

bassidc  (q.v.)  caliphate  at  Bagdad. 

Abbas  I.,  of  Persia,  "the  Great."  7th  shah 
of  the  Sufi  dynasty:  b.  1567,  acceded  15*5  :  d. 
i~  Jan.  1628,  Sent  to  Khorasan  as  nominal  gov- 
ernor in  childhood,  at  18  he  was  proclaimed 
shah  by  its  nobles,  smarting  under  the  oppres- 
sion of  his  father  Mohammed  Khodahendeh's 
officers ;  the  father  was  soon  driven  from  the 
throne.  At  this  time  the  Turks  had  invaded  the 
western  Persian  provinces,  and  the  Uzbek  Tar- 
tars occupied  and  ravaged  Khorasan,  Alihas  first 
transferred  his  residence  from  Kasbin  to 
Ispahan;  he  then  by  treaty  confirmed  to  the 
Turks  all  their  conquests,  to  gain  time  for  chas- 
tising the  Uzbeks,  whom  in  1597  he  surprised 
and  routed  near  Herat,  and  followed  this  by  the 
conquest  of  Ghilan,  Mazanderan,  much  of  Tar- 
tary,  and  nearly  all  Afghanistan.  lie  then  de- 
clared war  against  the  lurks;  and  in  1605.  with 
60,000  men,  annihilated  their  army  of  nearly 
double  the  number  at  Basra,  Bussorah),  recover- 
ing all  the  lost  provinces,  and  not  only  securing 
complete  immunity  from  Turkish  aggression  for 
the  rest  of  his  life,  but  extending  his  empire  be- 
yond the  Euphrates.  In  161 1  he  di<  lated  to  Ach- 
met  I.  a  treaty  which  gave  Persia  Shirwan  and 
Kurdistan.  In  1618  he  routed  the  united  Turkish 
and  Tartar  armies  near  Sultanieh,  securing  more 
territory  ;  and  on  the  Turks  renewing  the  war 
in  162.3  he  captured  Bagdad  after  a  year's  siege. 
ame  year  he  took  Ormuz  from  the  Portu- 
guese; and  when  he  died  his  dominions  reached 
from  the  Tigris  to  the  Indus.  His  internal  ad- 
ministration was  no  less  linn  and  beneficial.  He 
encouraged  commerce,  built  highways,  repressed 
violence,  and  left  the  country  flourishing  as  it 
never  has  since.  He  was  favorable  to  foreign- 
1  two  Englishmen.  Sir  Anthony  and  Sir 
Robert  Shirley,  had  much  influence  over  him. 
He  was  like  Herod  in  every  respect:  a  jealous 


and  cruel  tyrant  to  his  family. —  he  slew  his  eld- 
est  son  and  hlinded  his  other  children, —  his 
country  alone  felt  his  good  side. 

Abbas-Mirza,  a  Persian  prince  and  war- 
rior, favorite  son  of  the  shah  Feth-Ali:  b.  178,!; 
d.  18.13.  He  was  early  convinced  of  the  advan- 
tages of  Western  civilization,  and  with  the  help 
of  European  officers  he  first  id  all  applied  him- 
self to  the  reform  of  the  army.  He  led  the  Per- 
sian armies  with  great  bravery,  but  with  little 
success,  in  the  war  with  Russia  ended  by  the 
peace  of  Gulistan,  when  Persia  lost  her  remain- 
ing Caucasus  districts  and  ceded  to  Russia  the 
sovereignty  of  the  Caspian  ;  and  in  that  of  1826-8, 
ended  by  the  peace  of  Turkmanchai,  when  she 
lost  most  of  Persian  Armenia.  In  iSjo  lie  visited 
St.  Petersburg,  to  ward  off  punishment  for  the 
murder  of  the  Russian  ambassador  in  a  riot  at 
Teheran ;  and  was  sent  back  to  Persia  loaded 
with  presents.  His  eldest  son  acceded  to  the 
throne  in  1834. 

Abbas  Pasha  I.,  viceroy  of  Egypt,  grand- 
son of  the  famous  Mehemet  AH:  b.  1813;  d.  13 
July  1854.  Early  initiated  into  public  life,  in 
[841  he  took  an  active  part  in  his  grandfather's 
Syrian  war;  in  1848  the  death  of  his  uncle  Ibra- 
him Pasha  called  him  to  the  viceregal  throne  at 
Cairo.  During  his  brief  reign  he  did  much  to 
undo  the  progress  made  under  Mehemet  Ali : 
he  dismissed  all  Europeans  and  fought  Western 
ideas  energetically.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Cri- 
mean war  he  placed  15,000  men  and  his  fleet  at 
the  Sultan's  disposal  ;  but  was  shortly  after 
found  dead,  not  without  suspicion  of  foul  play. 

Abbas  Pasha  II.,  Hilmi,  hel'me,  khedive  of 
Egypt, eldest  son  of  the  khedive  Tewfik:  b.  1874: 
studied  at  Vienna:  on  his  father's  death  in  1892 
became  khedive.  He  won  popularity  by  reduc- 
ing the  taxes,  and  tried  to  throw  off  the  English 
influence.  In  1893  he  dismissed  four  of  his 
ministers,  but  Lord  Cromer  interfered  and  be 
agreed  to  follow  England's  recommendations  in 
all  important  matters.     See  also  Nubab  Pasha. 

Abbassides,  abas'sidz.  The,  750-1517,  caliphs 
at  Bagdad  anil  later  in  Egypt ;  nominal  sover- 
eigns of  all  Islam,  but  losing  Spain  at  the  outset, 
and  never  practically  obeyed  in  Africa  outside 
Egypt ;  the  most  famous  dynasty  of  Saracen 
reigns.  They  took  their  name  from  Abbas 
(q.v.),  the  uncle  of  Mohammed.  This  descent 
had  given  the  family  great  influence  by  a  cen- 
tury after  the  Prophet's  death;  and  Ibrahim, 
fourth  in  descent  from  Abbas,  bad  gained  sev- 
eral victories  over  the  Ommiads  (q.v.),  sup- 
ported by  the  province  of  Khorasan,  when  the 
Ommiad  caliph  Merwan  defeated  and  put  him 
to  death  in  747.  His  brother  Abu  '1-Abbas, 
whom  he  had  named  his  heir,  assumed  the  title 
of  caliph,  crushed  the  Ommiad  dynasty  in  a  de- 
cisive battle  near  the  Zab  (750)  and  acceded  to 
their  position.  Its  members  and  relatives  were 
nearly  all  tolled  into  one  spot  and  exterminated, 
earning  for  Abu  '1-Abbas  the  nickname  of  As- 
Saffah,  "the  butcher" ;  but  one  of  them,  Abd- 
er-Rahman  (q.v.),  escaped,  and  after  pictur- 
esque adventures  set  up  an  independent 
emirate  in  Spain,  which  toward  two  centuries 
later  took  the  title  of  caliphate.  On  Abu 
'1-Abbas'  death,  his  successor  Al-Mansur  r 
moved  the  seat  of  royalty  to  Bagdad,  and  \ 
successes  against  Turkomans  a"d  Greeks  in  A  .a 
Minor;  but  by  this  time  the  warlike  impulse  had 


ABBATE  — ABBESS 


begun  to  decay,  and  the  love  of  luxury  and  its 
literary  and  artistic  attendants  to  come  to  the 
front.  Means  were  found  of  evading  the  strict- 
ness of  Mohammedan  rules;  and  no  courts  of 
any  age  or  country  were  gayer  or  more  splendid 
than  those  of  the  great  Harun  al-Rashid,  Charle- 
magne's contemporary  (786-809),  and  Al- 
Mamun  (813-833).  The  splendor  of  their 
palaces,  their  decorations,  their  equipages,  and 
the  seemingly  exhaustless  treasures  they  pos- 
sessed, gave  them  a  world-wide  celebrity  —  es- 
pecially in  contrast  with  the  poverty-stricken 
barrenness  and  barbarism  of  most  Christian 
sovereigns  at  that  period  —  which  is  vivid  even 
yet  in  literature  and  popular  memory:  Harun  is 
the  chief  princely  figure  of  the  'Arabian  Nights,' 
and  Bagdad  the  center  of  all  picturesque  and 
varied  enjoyment.  Al-Mamun  is  still  more 
honorably  remembered  as  the  patron  of  arts  and 
literature.  What  lay  underneath  this  external 
gorgeousness  —  the  corruption,  the  furies  of 
jealousy  and  bloodshed,  and  the  barbarous  op- 
pression of  the  many  —  is  outside  a  notice  like 
this.  But  external  decay  soon  began  to  witness 
internal  rottenness.  The  Ashlabites,  Edrisites, 
etc.,  carved  out  independent  sovereignties  in 
Africa;  the  Taherites  in  820  set  up  a  separate 
power  in  Khorasan,  even  under  the  great  Al- 
Mamun.  The  Greeks,  under  the  new  life  of  the 
Byzantine  empire  brought  in  by  Leo  the  Isaurian 
(q.v.),  pushed  them  back  in  Asia  Minor;  and 
Al-Mamun's  last  years  were  contemporary  with 
the  philosopher,  soldier,  and  statesman,  the  all- 
accomplished  Emperor  Theophilus.  But  the 
final  stroke  came  from  barbarians.  The  caliph 
Motassem  (833-842),  who  had  fought  both 
Theophilus  and  the  hordes  of  Turkestan  suc- 
cessfully, distrusting  his  subjects,  formed  body- 
guards out  of  his  Turkish  prisoners.  They  soon 
became  what  the  Roman  prsetorians  were  — ■ 
masters  of  the  empire.  Motassem's  son  Mota- 
wakkel  was  assassinated  by  them  in  his  palace 
(861)  and  the  succeeding  caliphs  were  their 
puppets;  and  in  936  the  caliph  Radhi  (934-41) 
was  forced  to  give  up  the  command  of  the  army 
and  other  powers  to  his  general  and  mayor  of 
the  palace,  Mohammed  ben  Rayek.  The  prov- 
inces one  after  another  threw  off  allegiance ; 
the  caliph  held  only  Bagdad  and  its  neighbor- 
hood; and  at  last  Hulagu,  prince  of  the  Mon- 
gols, fired  Bagdad  and  slew  the  reigning  caliph 
Motassem  in  1258.  The  Abbassides  retained  a 
nominal  caliphate  in  Egypt  under  the  segis  of 
the  Mamelukes,  and  never  gave  up  the  claim  or 
the  hope  of  their  old  position  and  seat;  but  in 
1517  the  Turkish  Sultan  Selim  I.,  the  conqueror 
of  Egypt,  bore  the  last  of  them,  Motawakkel 
III.,  a  prisoner  to  Constantinople,  finally  allow- 
ing him  to  return  to  Egypt,  where  he  died  a 
Turkish  pensioner  in  1538.  (Muir's  'Caliphate' 
for  the  best  English  account;  the  monumental 
treasure-house  of  information  for  scholars  is 
Weil's  great  'Geschichte  der  Chalifen,'  1846-62.) 

Abbate,  ab-a'te,  or  Abati,  a-ba'te,  Nicolo, 
ne'ko-16,  Italian  painter,  follower  of  Raphael 
and  Corregio  :  b.  1512  at  Modena,  where  his 
earlier  works  are  exhibited:  d.  1571  at  Fontaine- 
bleau  —  his  frescoes  in  which  palace  are  his 
best-known  productions.  His  finest  piece,  how- 
ler, is  regarded  as  'The  Adoration  of  the  Shep- 
a  ds,'  at  Bologna,  where  his  later  work 
re  'Stly  exists.  He  has  another  in  the  Dresden 
gallery. 


Abbe,  Cleveland,  American  meteorologist : 
b.  New  York  city,  3  Dec.  1838.  Graduated  1857 
at  the  Free  Academy  (now  College  of  the  City 
of  New  York)  ;  studied  astronomy  at  Ann  Arbor 
with  Briinnow  and  at  Cambridge  with  Gould 
(1858-64);  resided  at  Pulkova  observatory, 
Russia,  1864-6;  director  Cincinnati  Observatory 
1868-73,  where  he  began  the  system  of  co-ordi- 
nated daily  weather  forecasts  which  led  to  the 
United  States  establishing  the  same  system  and 
in  1870  calling  Prof.  Abbe  to  Washington  to 
direct  it,  making  him  professor  of  meteorology 
in  the  Weather  Bureau.  May  1879  he  initiated 
the  movement  toward  standard  time  (q.v.)  and 
hour  meridians.  January  1873  he  started  the 
'Monthly  Weather  Review,'  of  which  he  has  re- 
mained editor.  He  is  professor  of  meteorology 
in  Columbia  University,  Washington,  lecturer 
on  the  same  at  Johns  Hopkins,  etc.  Among  his 
publications  are  a  work  on  'Meteorological  Ap- 
paratus and  Methods'  (1887) ;  'Studies  for 
Mvthods  in  Storm  and  Weather  Predictions 
(1889)  ;  'Mechanics  of  the  Earth's  Atmosphere1 
(1891),  'Solar  Spots  and  Terrestrial  Tempera- 
ture,' and  'Atmospheric  Radiation.' 

Ab'be,  Ernst,  German  physicist :  b.  Eise- 
nach, 1840;  d.  Jena,  1905.  Studied  at  Jena  and 
Gottingen;  became  assistant  at  the  latter's  ob- 
servatory, and  lecturer  before  the  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main  Physical  Society:  1863-70  lecturer  at 
Jena,  and  1870  professor  there;  1878  director  of 
its  observatories;  in  1891  he  resigned  professor- 
ship. He  became  distinguished  for  his  work  in 
perfecting  optical  instruments,  especially  photo- 
graph and  microscope  lenses,  having  for  a  long 
time  been  connected  with  the  highly  reputed  firm 
of  Carl  Zeiss  in  Jena.  He  invented  the  Abbe 
refractometer.  He  wrote  a  work  in  German  on 
the  (  Refracting  and  Dispersing  Power  of  Solid 
and  Fluid  Bodies. ' 

Abbe,  ab-a,  originally  the  French  name  for 
an  abbot,  but  later  used  in  the  general  sense  of 
a  priest  or  clergyman.  By  a  concordat  between 
Pope  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I.  in  15 16,  the  French 
king  had  the  right  to  nominate  upward  of  200 
abbes  commendataires,  who  drew  a  third  of  the 
revenues  of  the  monasteries  without  having  any 
duty  to  perform.  They  were  not  necessarily 
clergy,  but  were  expected  to  take  orders  unless 
exempted  by  a  dispensation.  The  hope  of  ob- 
taining one  of  those  sinecures  led  multitudes  of 
young  men,  many  of  them  of  noble  birth,  to 
enter  the  clerical  career,  which  however  seldom 
went  further  than  taking  the  inferior  orders : 
and  it  became  customary  to  call  such  aspirant 
abbes,  jocularly,  Abbes  of  St.  Hope.  They 
formed  a  considerable  and  influential  class  in 
society;  and  an  abbe,  distinguished  by  a  short 
violet-colored  robe,  was  often  found  as  chap- 
lain or  tutor  in  noble  households,  or  engaged  in 
literary  work.  This  class  of  nominal  clergy  dis- 
appeared at  the  Revolution.  In  Italy  they  are 
called  abbate. 

Abbess,  the  female  superior  of  some  con- 
vents of  nuns,  corresponding  to  the  abbot  over 
monks.  She  was  elected  from  the  monastery  by 
•  secret  votes,  inducted  by  a  bishop's  consecra- 
tion, and  held  office  three  years  or  even  for  life 
unless  deprived  for  misconduct.  The  Council 
of  Trent  fixed  the  required  age  at  40.  with  8 
years  of  professed  membership  in  the  monastery. 
She  could  discipline  and  even  expel  the  nuns, 
subject  to  the  bishop;  but,  being  a  female,  could 


ABBEVILLE  —  ABBOT 


exercise  only  certain  functions,  such  as  giving 
religious  counsel  and  administering  the  rule,  but 
no  spiritual  jurisdiction,  as  ordaining,  conferring 
the  veil,  or  excommunicating. 

Abbeville,  France,  ab-vel  (*abbey-town,* 
of  St.  Riquier'  I,  capital  of  Vbbeville  arrondisse- 
ment,  depl  Somme ;  on  both  banks  of  the  Somme 
and  an  island  in  it,  u  m,  from  Us  mouth  and 
head  i if  navigation  (at  high  tide  vessels  of  150  to 
200  tons  can  reach  it)  connected  by  canals  with 
Amiens  (25  m.  distant).  Lille.  Paris,  and  Bel- 
gium; on  the  Northern  Ry.  It  is  an  old,  nar- 
reeted,    picturesque    town,    with    strong 

ations  on  Vauban's  system;  has  a  won- 
derfully line  church  of  the  flamboyant  order,  St. 
Wolfran's,  begun  under  Louis  XII.  (1462-1515), 

a  very  interesting  city  hall  built  in  1209,  and  a 
library  of  1600  now  containing  45.000  volumes. 
It   manufactures  jewelry,  soaps,  glassware,  and 

various  fabrics,  as  velvets,  cottons,  linens,  etc. 
Rut  its  chut  inli-rest  1.,  the  foreign  world  is  for 
the  relics  and  implements  of  primitive  man  (the 
cave  dweller)  and  the  fossils  of  extinct  animals 
found   there.      Pop     (  1S96  I    I /./Si. 

Abbeville,  S.  C,  county  seat  of  Abbeville 
co  ;  "ii  the  Southern  and  Seaboard  A.  L.  R.R.'s; 
106  m.  W.  of  Columbia.  It  is  in  a  rich  cotton- 
grow  ue  1-  noted  for  its  line  climate, 
which  makes  it  a  popular  resort  for  Northern 
invalids,  and  has  a  national  hank,  excellent  pub- 
lic schools,  s,\cral  large  manufactories  con- 
nected with  the  cotton  industry,  llour  and  Feed 
mills,  brick-yards,  etc.  Property  valuation  over 
$500,000:  bonded  debt  less  than  $55,000.  There 
are  several  periodicals.  Pop.  (1890)  1.696; 
(1000)   3,766. 

Abbeville  Treaties.  ( 1  )  A  treaty  in  1259 
between  Louis  IX.  of  France  ("St.  Louis8) 
and  Henry  III.  of  England,  to  settle  definitely 
the  territorial  rights  of  the  two  crowns,  Louis 
fearing  that  his  title  to  some  possessions  was 
liable  to  dispute,  and  having  sought  a  settlement 
for  man]  years.  It  was  negotiated  .at  Paris 
with  Sun. m  de  Montfort,  Pari  ..f  Leicester,  and 
signed  by  the  two  kings  at  Abbeville  during 
Henry's  visit  to  Prance.  I25Cr€o.  hut  dated  hack 
to  jo  May  UsO.  Henry  resigned  all  title  to 
Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  North 
Saintonge;  Louis  turned  over  Perigord,  Limou- 
sin. South  Saintonge,  and  some  districts  south  of 

the  Poire,  to  he  held  by  Henry  in  lief. —  a  sur- 
render which  so  enraged  the  inhabitants  that 
they  refused  to  celebrate  Louis'  birthday. 
Henry  resigned  the  titles  ,,f  Duke  of  Normandy 
and  Count  of  Anjou,  and  agreed  to  do  homage 
at  Puis  for  those  of  Duke  of  Guienne  and 
'  France.  1  •)  Between  Henry  VIII.  and 
Francis  P  in  1527,  Wolsey  representing  England. 
Abbey.  Edwin  Austin,  American  artist :  b. 
Philadelphia,  .\  April  [852;  studied  at  the  Penn- 
sylvania Academy  of  Fine  Arts;  lived  in  New 
York  and  drew  illustrations  of  a  high  order  for 
periodicals,  also  painting  water-colors,  till  1883. 
when  he  removed  to  England.  His  two  molt 
individual  qualities  have  been  his  love  for  Eng- 
lish  country  life  and  scenery  and  for  the  old 
English  poets  and  dramatics,  both  of  which 
have  resulted  in  notable  illustrations  fas  of 
Shakespeare.  Goldsmith,  etc.)  and  paintings; 
and  his  ability  as  a  colorist.  though  much  of 
rk  has  been  done  without  color  He  has 
also  deep  intellectual  and  spiritual  qualities;  and 


all  these  faculties  and  tastes  together  combine 
in  the  Famous  panels  of  the  'Search  for  the 
Holy  Grail'  on  the  upper  walls  of  the  delivery 
room  at  the  Boston  Public  Library.  He  was 
elected  member  of  the  Royal  Academy  July 
[898;  was  one  of  the  American  jurors  on  paint- 
ings in  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900;  and  was 
commissioned  by  Edward  VII,  to  paint  the  coro- 
nation ' 'He  in  Westminster  Abbey.  (See  Pad 
clilTe's  'Schools  and  Masters  of  Painting.' 
[898;  Miither's  History  of  Modern  Paint- 
ing,'  1896.  1 

Abbey,  Henry,  poet  and  journalist;  b. 
Rondout,  X  V.  It  July  1842.  lie  has  pub- 
lished several  collections  of  pleasing  verse: 
(May  Dreams'  (1862)  ;  'Ralph,  and  Other 
Poems'  (1866);  'Ballads  of  Good  Deeds' 
(  [872)  ;  'Collected  Works'  (1885;  3d  ed.  1895)  ; 
'  Phaeton  '    (  1901  ). 

Abbey,  Henry  Eugene,  American  operatic 
manager:  b.  Akron,  ()..  27  June  1846;  d.  1896. 
He  was  engaged  for  several  years  in  theatrical, 
and  from  [883  in  operatic  management,  produc- 
ing Italian  and  German  operas  with  the  most 
distinguished   singers   of  the   day. 

Abbey,  a  monastery  or  religious  commu- 
nity of  the  highest  class,  governed  by  an  abbot, 
assisted  generally  by  a  prior,  sub-prior,  and 
other  subordinate  functionaries;  or,  in  the  case 
of  a  female  community,  superintended  by  an  ab- 
hess.  A  priory  differed  from  an  abbey  only  in 
being  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  governed  by  a 
superior  named  a  prior.  Abbeys  or  monasteries 
first  rose  in  the  Past.  Among  the  most  famous 
abbeys  on  the  European  continent  were  those  of 
Clugny.  Clairvaux,  and  Citeaux  in  France;  of 
St.  Galle  in  Switzerland,  and  of  Fulda  in  Ger- 
many; in  England,  those  of  Westminster,  St. 
Mary's  of  York,  Fountains,  Kirkstall,  Tintern, 
Rievaulx,  Netley,  Paisley,  and  Arbroath.  The 
English  abbeys  were  wholly  abolished  by  Henry 
YIII.  at  the  Reformation.  Abbeys  were  usually 
strongly  built,  with  walls  which  served  as  a 
di  Ii  11-e  against  enemies  and  within  which  were 
large  buildings  in  which  the  occupants  carried 
on  the  work  to  which  they  bad  been  assigned. 
See  AnnoT ;  Monastery. 

Abbitib'bi.  a  river,  a  lake,  and  a  former 
important  trading-post  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Com- 
pany in  the  Northwest  Territories  of  Canada. 
The  river  is  the  outlet  of  the  lake,  about  49° 
N.  hit.,  and  flows  into  James  Play;  the  post  is 
on  the  shore  of  the  lake. 

Abbo  of  Fleury,  fie -re,  French  theologian; 
h.  near  Orleans  about  945;  d.  1004.  He  studied 
at  Rheims  and  Paris;  acquiring  great  repute  as 
a  scholar  and  scientist  (of  the  time).  Oswald, 
Archbishop  of  York,  induced  him  to  teach  for 
two  years  in  the  abbey  of  Ramsey  and  aid  in 
re-toring  the  monastic  system;  on  his  return  to 
France  he  became  abbot  of  Fleury  and  built  up 
a  thriving  school  there;  was  sent  by  Robert  IP 
(son  of  Hugh  Capet)  on  two  missions  to  Rome. 
986  and  996,  and  each  time  succeeded  in  warding 
off  a  papal  interdict.  Later,  while  trying  to  re- 
form the  discipline  of  the  priory  of  La  Reole, 
Gascony,  he  was  killed.  Pie  wrote  lives  of  the 
early  popes  down  to  Gregory  I.  (Life  by  bis 
pupil  Aimoin,  in  Latin,  'Vita  Abbonis  abbatis 
Floriacensis  '  1 

Abbot,  Ezra,  American  Biblical  scholar:  b. 
Jackson.  Me.,  28  April   1819;  d.  21   March  1884. 


ABBOT 


He  studied  at  Phillips  Exeter  Academy,  gradu- 
ated at  Bowdoin  1840,  and  after  teaching  in 
.Maine  and  Cambridge.  Mass.,  became  in  1856 
assistant  librarian  of  Harvard.  In  1872  he  re- 
ceived a  D.D.  from  Harvard,  though  a  layman, 
and  thence  till  death  was  professor  of  New 
Testament  criticism  and  interpretation  in  the 
Cambridge  Divinity  School.  His  wide  reading 
and  wonderful  verbal  memory  made  him  one  of 
the  foremost  of  textual  critics  and  bibliog- 
raphers ;  his  mastery  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment text  placed  him  beside  the  leading  scholars 
of  the  world ;  and  on  the  American  New  Testa- 
ment Revision  Committee,  1871-81,  he  was  a 
chief  agent  in  putting  its  work  on  an  even  level 
of  authority  with  the  English,  in  minute  accu- 
racy of  scholarship  as  well  as  broad,  acute  judg- 
ment. Indifferent  to  fame,  he  gave  his  best 
work  to  collaborations  or  private  assistance 
mostly  unacknowledged  and  unrealized  except 
by  scholars.  His  most  important  individual 
book  was  on  the  'Authorship  of  the  Fourth 
Gospel'  (1880),  in  which  he  announced  the  im- 
portant discovery  of  Tatian's  'Diatessaron.' 
Of  his  other  critical  work,  besides  the  great 
Revision,  his  half  of  the  prolegomena  to  Tisch- 
endorf's  Greek  Xew  Testament  (1884-94),  his 
additions  to  Mitchell's  'Critical  Handbook  of 
the  New  Testament'  (1880),  and  his  revision 
of  Schaff's  'Companion  to  the  New  Testament' 
(1883),  should  be  mentioned.  As  a  bibliog- 
rapher, his  greatest  fame  was  for  the  curious 
and  exhaustive  catalogue  of  relevant  books  he 
furnished  for  Alger's  'Critical  History  of  a 
Future  Life'  (1864),  and  his  notes  to  Smith's 
'Bible  Dictionary'  (Am.  ed.  1867-70).  He  also 
wrote  many  papers  for  periodicals. 

Abbot,  Francis  Ellingwood,  American  re- 
ligious radical:  b.  Boston,  1836;  graduated  at 
Harvard  1859,  and  Meadville  (Pa.)  Theological 
School  1863.  A  Unitarian  minister  1863-8,  he 
started  in  1870  The  Index,  an  ultra-radical 
weekly  devoted  to  religious  and  philosophical 
topics;  and  wrote  'Scientific  Theism'  (1886), 
and  'The  Way  Out  of  Agnosticism'  (1890), 
besides  notable  magazine  articles. 

Abbot,  George,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury : 
b.  Guildford,  Surrey,  19  Oct.  1562;  d.  5  Aug. 
1633.  A  cloth-worker's  son,  he  studied  at  Bal- 
liol,  Oxford,  was  chosen  Master  of  University 
College  1597,  and  three  times  was  vice-chancellor 
of  Oxford.  Dr.  Abbot's  name  was  second  on 
the  list  of  eight  divines  ordered  in  1604  to  pre- 
pare the  present  (King  James)  version  of  the 
Bible.  In  1608  he  went  to  Scotland  with  the 
Earl  of  Dunbar  to  arrange  for  a  union  of  the 
English  and  Scotch  churches.  James  took  a 
great  fancy  to  him,  and.  though  Abbot  had  never 
held  a  parish,  made  him  bishop  of  Lichfield  and 
Coventry  in  1609,  transferred  him  to  the  see  of 
London  a  month  later,  and  less  than  a  year 
afterward  appointed  him  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. Flattery  of  the  king  is  accredited  as  the 
cause  of  this  astonishing  rapidity  of  prefer- 
ment ;  but  once  in  his  seat,  at  least,  Abbot  felt 
no  need  of  such  tactics.  He  opposed  the  scan- 
dalous divorce  suit  of  Lady  Frances  Howard 
against  the  Earl  of  Essex,  though  the  court 
favored  and  carried  it.  In  1618  he  forbade  the 
reading,  in  the  Croydon  church  where  he  was, 
of  the  king's  declaration  permitting  games  and 


sports  on  Sunday,  which  the  Puritans  (to  whom 
Abbot  belonged)  regarded  as  a  permit  to  break 
the  Sabbath,  and  the  order  to  read  it  as  a  com- 
mand to  commit  blasphemy.  He  promoted  the 
marriage  between  the  Princess  Elizabeth  and  the 
Protestant  Elector  Palatine,  and  opposed  the 
disastrous  Spanish-marriage  project  of  Prince 
Charles,  and  thereby  won  Charles',  Laud's,  and 
Buckingham's  hatred.  The  king,  however,  re- 
mained his  friend.  In  1622  he  accidentally  killed 
a  keeper  while  deer-hunting,  and  his  enemies 
tried  to  have  him  disqualified  for  the  involun- 
tary manslaughter.  The  king  made  light  of  the 
matter,  but  had  to  refer  it  to  a  commission, 
which  decided  in  his  favor,  and  he  was  formally 
absolved  and  reappointed.  He  attended  James 
in  his  last  sickness,  and  crowned  Charles.  The 
latter,  on  Abbot's  refusing  to  license  a  fanatical 
divine-right  sermon,  deprived  him  of  his  func- 
tions and  put  them  in  commission;  but,  having 
to  summon  a  parliament  shortly  after,  was 
afraid  of  the  effect  and  restored  him.  From 
that  time  he  lived  in  retirement,  leaving  Laud  in 
complete  ascendancy.  He  wrote  many  works 
now  forgotten,  though  one  on  the  prophet  Jonah 
was  reprinted  in  1845.  A  geography  passed 
through  numerous  editions. 

Abbot,  Henry  Larcom,  American  military 
engineer:  b.  Beverly,  Mass.,  13  Aug.  1831 ;  grad- 
uated at  West  Point  1854;  entered  the  engineer 
corps.  He  took  part  in  the  survey  for  a  Pacific 
railroad  and  of  the  Mississippi  River  delta.  He 
served  through  the  Civil  War  as  engineer  and 
artillerist,  was  wounded  at  Bull  Run,  and  com- 
manded the  siege  artillery  before  Richmond,  an 
account  of  which  he  published  in  1867.  He 
became  colonel  and  chief  of  engineers,  and  was 
brevetted  brigadier-general  U.  S.  Vols.,  and 
major-general  U.  S.  Army.  He  long  commanded 
the  engineers'  garrison  at  Willett's  Point,  N.  V., 
established  an  engineers'  school,  worked  out 
and  laid  down  the  submarine  defenses  of  New- 
York  harbor,  and  accomplished  much  in  the  im- 
provement of  mortar  batteries  and  engineering 
equipment,  etc. ;  was  a  member  of  the  Gun 
Foundry  Board  and  the  Board  of  Fortifications 
and  Defense,  of  that  for  the  protection  of  the 
Mississippi  basin,  of  that  on  the  proposed  canal 
from  Pittsburg  to  Lake  Erie,  and  of  the  techni- 
cay  Committee  of  the  new  Panama  Canal  Co. 
He  drew  the  plans  for  the  harbor  at  Manitowoc. 
Wis.  He  was  retired  in  1895.  He  is  a  member  of 
many  scientific  societies,  including  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences ;  and  has  written,  besides 
many  reports  of  boards  and  committees  and  the 
work  above  cited,  a  volume  on  submarine  mines 
for  harbor  defense  (1881),  and,  in  collaboration, 
'Physics  and  Hydraulics  of  the   Mississippi.' 

Abbot,  Joseph  Hale,  American  educator : 
b.  Wilton,  X.  H.,  26  Sept.  1802;  d.  7  April  1873. 
Graduated  at  Bowdoin  1822.  tutor  there  1825-7; 
professor  of  mathematics  Phillips  Exeter  Acad- 
emy 1827-33;  then  taught  a  ladies'  school  in 
Boston;  subsequently  was  principal  of  the  Bev- 
erly.   Mass..    high    school.       lie    was    for    some 

I  3  recording  secretary  of  the  American  Acad- 
emy of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  published  valu- 
able scientific  papers  in  its  'Transactions, ' 
besides  writing  on  pneumatic  and  hydraulic 
problems,  in  which  he  made  ingenious  investi- 
gations. He  was  associate  editor  of  Worces- 
ter's Dictionary. 


ABBOT  —  ABBOTSFORD 


Abbot,    Samuel,    American    philanthropist: 

Vndover,   Mass.,  25   Feb.   17.W.  d.   ij   April 

iSi_\     lit-  became  a   wealthy  Boston  merchant 

and      1       •  !o,ooo  in   1S07  toward  founding  An- 

.,  with  $100,000  more  by  will. 

Abbot  ("father"),  originally  the  head 
and  ruler  of  a  community  of  monks ;  in  the 
k  Church  hegumenos,  "leader,"  or  archi- 
mandrite, «  ruler  of  the  fold,»  though  the  latter 
is  oftener  an  abbot-general  with  hegumenoi  un- 
der him.  Among  the  Dominicans  the  head  of 
a  convent  was  called  propositus,  a  «  provost," 
or  prior;  among  the  Franciscans  custos,  «  guar- 
dian " :  among  the  Camaldules  major.  The 
term  I  abbot »  originated  in  the  East,  and  was 
first  applied  to  any  monk  noted  for  piety,  but 
at  length  I   to   the   superior.     The   first 

abbots  were  laymen  like  the  rest  of  the  monks 
in  general  ;  the  lowest  clergy  took  precedence  of 
them,  and  for  sacraments  they  had  to  attend 
the  nearest  church:  but  the  extreme  incon- 
venience or  even  impossibility  of  this  when  the 
monastery  was  in  a  desert  or  far  from  a  town 
forced  the  ordination  of  the  abbots.  Abbots 
could  attend  councils,  and  the  second  Coun- 
cil of  Nice,  787,  allowed  them  to  ordain 
monks  to  the  inferior  orders;  and  ultimately 
nearly  all  monks  were  ordained  to  some  grade 
of  the  ministry.  To  this  elevation  was  added 
that  of  allowing  pluralities  of  abbacies,  origi- 
nally forbidden,  and  even  in  the  6th  century 
allowed  only  in  special  cases;  but  it  increased 
till  early  in  the  10th  century  one  German  prel- 
ate had  twelve  abbeys  under  him,  correspond- 
ing to  the  archimandrites  of  the  East.  Thus, 
and  by  the  increase  of  numbers  and  corporate 
wealth  in  the  great  abbeys,  the  abbots  them- 
selves became  prelates  of  vast  power.  Still 
another  cause  developed  this. —  the  exemption  of 
abbeys  from  control  of  the  bishops.  They  were 
originally  all  subject  to  episcopal  jurisdiction, 
and  in  the  West  generally  continued  so  till  the 
nth  century;  this  is  expressly  ordered  in  Jus- 
tinian's code.  The  exactions  of  the  bishops, 
however,  rendered  the  exemption  increasingly 
frequent;  beginning  in  456  the  practice 
grew,  and  was  much  helped  forward  by 
Gregory  the  Great,  who  relieved  many 
abbots  from  episcopal  control  and  made  them 
responsible  directly  to  the  Pope.  By  the  12th 
century  this  had  become  an  evil  of  the  first 
order  in  ecclesiastical  government,  the  bishop 
usually  having  no  authority  whatever  over  the 
chief  centres  of  religious  and  often  secular 
power  in  Ins  diocese;  and  one  abbot,  of  Fulda 
in  Germany,  claimed  precedence  over  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne.  Next  came  an  encroachment 
..11  the  functions  of  the  bishops:  from  confer- 
ring the  tonsure  and  the  office  of  reader  they 
came  to  be  equally  associated  with  the  bishops 
in  consecrations;  and  while  originally  the  bishop 
chose  the  abbot  from  the  monks  of  the  house, 
and  then  the  right  of  election  was  transferred 
to  the  monks,  the  abbots  came  sometimes  to 
choose  their  own  successors.  This,  however,  was 
stopped  in  some  countries  by  a  counter-process ; 
the  popes  in  Italy  and  the  kings  in  France 
assuming  to  themselves  the  right  of  appointment. 
Otherwhere  the  choice  was  by  secret  election 
of  and  from  the  monks  of  the  house,  unless  it 
furnished  no  fit  candidate,  when  choice  might 
be  made  from  another  monastery  of  one  well 


instructed  himself  and  competent  to  instruct 
others,  of  legitimate  birth  and  at  least  25  years 
old.  His  election  was  for  life.  His  power  was 
absolute  except  as  restricted  by  the  canons  of 
the  Church.  His  exaction  of  deference  in  the 
routine  of  life  was  royal:  all  rose  and  bowed 
wlun  he  entered  the  church  or  chapter,  his  let- 
ters  and  orders  were  received  kneeling,  and  no 
monk  could  sit  in  his  presence  or  leave  it  with- 
out permission.  They  had  immense  political 
power,  and  were  on  equal  terms  of  intimacy 
with  the  greatest  in  the  realm.  Many  of  the 
abbots  were  an  honor  to  their  countries,  and  their 
schools  were  seminaries  of  learning  and  virtue. 

In  time  the  title  was  improperly  conferred  on 
others  wdio  had  no  connection  with  monastic 
life,  or  sometimes  even  with  the  Church, —  on  the 
principal  of  a  body  of  parochial  clergy  or  the 
king's  chaplain,  and  the  chief  magistrate  of 
Genoa  was  called  «  Abbot  of  the  People."  Lay 
abbots,  so  called,  originated  in  temporarily 
handing  over  the  revenues  of  an  abbey  to  some 
noble,  or  even  the  king,  for  a  great  public 
exigency,  the  noble  being  titular  abbot,  but 
enough  of  the  revenues  being  reserved  from  se- 
questration to  support  the  house.  Once  in  lay 
hands  they  usually  remained  there,  and  most  of 
the  prankish  and  Burgundian  sovereigns  and 
chief  nobles  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries  were 
titular  abbots  of  great  monasteries,  whose 
revenues  they  applied  to  their  own  uses.  This 
often  happened  from  the  monastery's  volun- 
tarily placing  itself  under  the  «  commendation  » 
of  some  noble  for  protection ;  and  there  were 
sometimes  two  lines  of  abbots, —  one  lay,  taking 
the  major  part  of  the  income  without  service, 
the  other  clerical,  doing  the  work.  This  was 
mostly  reformed  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
10th  century. 

In  convent  cathedrals,  where  the  bishop  filled 
the  place  of  the  abbot,  the  superior's  duties  were 
performed  by  a  prior.  In  other  convents  the 
prior  was  the  vice-abbot.  The  superiors  of 
cells,  or  small  monastic  establishments  depend- 
ent on  the  larger  ones,  were  also  called  priors ; 
they  were  appointed  by  the  abbot  and  held 
office  at  his  pleasure.  (H.  J.  Feazey's  'Monasti- 
cism'  ;  Montalcmbcrt's  'Monks  of  the  West,' 
ed.  1896,  Vol.  I.;  Bingham's  'Origines' ;  Mar- 
tene's  'Rites  of  the  Ancient  Monasteries.') 

Abbot,  The,  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  A  sequel 
to  'The  Monastery,'  but  dealing  with  more 
stirring  situations.  The  time  of  the  action  is 
1367-08.  While  the  action  goes  on  partly  at 
Avenel  Castle,  and  Halbert  Glendinning  of 
'The  Monastery,'  as  well  as  his  brother  Ed- 
ward (now  an  abbot)  figure  prominently  in  the 
story,  the  reader  finds  that  he  has  exchanged  the 
humble  events  of  the  little  border  vale  by  Mel- 
rose for  thrilling  and  romantic  adventures  at 
Lochleven  Castle  on  its  island  in  the  lake,  north 
of  Edinburgh,  where  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  is 
imprisoned.  The  chief  interest  centres  around 
the  unfortunate  queen.  The  framework  of  the 
tale  it  is  claimed  is  historically  true. 

Abbotsford,  a  fording-place  of  the  Tweed 
near  its  confluence  with  the  Yarrow ;  the  name 
given  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  to  his  property  there 
bought  in  181 1,  in  memory  of  its  use  by  the 
monks  of  Melrose  Abbey,  it  being  at  the  time 
known  as  the  Clarty  [Filthy]  Hole.    The  site  is 


ABBOTT 


a  low  hillside  on  the  southern  bank,  overlooked 
by  the  Selkirks.  At  first  only  a  villa,  now  the 
west  wing  of  the  pile,  he  was  seized  with  the  idea 
of  founding  a  great  feudal  family  of  the  old 
Scotch  pattern,  with  this  for  a  baronial  seat ;  and 
gradually  added  other  sections,  copying  old 
Scotch  mansions  or  ruins,  or  special  features  of 
them,  making  an  irregular,  rambling,  picturesque 
abode,  «  a  romance  in  stone  and  lime.»  It  now 
belongs  to  the  Hope-Scotts,  descendants  of 
Scott's  daughter  and  Lockhart. 

Abbott,  Alexander  Crever,  American  hy- 
gienist :  b.  Baltimore.  Md.,  26  Feb.  i860.  He 
was  educated  at  Johns  Hopkins  University  and 
at  the  universities  of  Maryland,  Munich,  and 
Berlin.  He  is  a  fellow  of  the  College  of 
Physicians  in  Philadelphia,  and  a  member 
of  numerous  scientific  societies;  in  1900  was  pro- 
fessor of  hygiene  and  director  of  the  laboratory 
of  hygiene  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
His  publications  include  <  The  Principles  of 
Bacteriology.)  and  numerous  papers  on  bacteriol- 
ogy and  hygiene. 

Abbott,  Austin,  LL.D.,  American  law-writ- 
er, son  of  Jacob :  b.  Boston,  18  Dec.  1831 ;  d. 
1896.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York  in  1851,  and  entered  the  prac- 
tice of  law ;  collaborated  with  his  brother  Benja- 
min in  valuable  legal  compilations,  digests,  text- 
books, etc. ;  was  an  able  law  lecturer,  and  dean 
of  his  alma  mater's  law  school  1891-6.  He  was 
counsel  for  Theodore  Tilton  in  the  Beecher  trial. 
With  his  brothers  Benjamin  and  Lyman  he 
wrote  two  novels,  'Cone  Cut  Corners'  (1855) 
and  "Matthew  Caraby  >  (1858). 

Abbott,  Benjamin,  revivalist:  b.  Long 
Island  1732;  d.  Salem,  N.  J.,  14  Aug.  1796.  A 
hatter's  and  then  a  farmer's  apprentice,  some- 
what dissipated  but  a  kind  husband  and  father 
and  a  church-goer  (whence  his  accounts  of  the 
pit  from  which  he  was  rescued  are  probably 
dialectic),  he  was  roused  to  intense  conviction  of 
sin  at  33  by  an  itinerant  Methodist  preacher, 
joined  that  Church  with  his  children  and  his 
Presbyterian  wife,  and  became  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  revivalists  of  the  time,  producing 
wonderful  conversions  of  the  most  hardened, 
and  often  sending  hearers  into  convulsions.  In 
the  Revolution  the  Methodists  were  suspected 
of  disloyalty,  and  more  than  once  he  was  near 
being  mobbed ;  but  he  always  preached  down  his 
assailants,  once  turning  from  their  purpose  a 
gang  of  a  hundred  soldiers.  Serving  for  16 
years  as  a  local  preacher,  from  1789  he  went  on 
various  circuits,  and  in  1793  was  made  an  elder 
and  sent  to  Maryland.  He  carried  on  his  duties 
till  death  despite  much  enfeeblement ;  and  his 
career  has  been  one  of  the  most  stirring  themes 
for  exhortation  in  the  Church. 

Abbott,  Benjamin  Vaughan,  American  law- 
yer, eldest  son  of  Jacob :  b.  4  June  1830 ;  d. 
1890.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York  in  1850,  and  practised  law 
with  his  brothers  Austin  and  Lyman.  He  com- 
piled nearly  100  volumes  of  legal  digests  and 
reports.  He  drew  up  in  1865,  as  secretary  of 
the  New  York  Code  Commission,  the  penal  code 
which  is  the  basis  of  the  present  one.  In  1870 
President  Grant  appointed  him  one  of  three 
commissioners  to  revise  the  United  States  stat- 
utes, which  occupied  three  years,  and  compressed 
16  volumes  into  one  large  octavo ;  thence  till  1879 


he  was  occupied  on  a  great  revision  of  the 
'United  States  Digest.)  Among  his  lesser 
works  are  'Judge  and  Jury  >  (1880),  collected 
contributions  to  periodicals;  a  Chautauqua  book, 

<  The  Traveling  Law  School  > ;  and  '  Famous 
Trials)  (1880). 

Abbott,  Charles  Conrad,  author  and  nat- 
uralist: b.  Trenton,  N.  J.,  4  June  1843.  He 
received  an  academical  education,  and  took  the 
degree  of  M.D.  at  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1865.  His  life  is  devoted  wholly  to 
scientific  and  literary  pursuits.  He  is  correspond- 
ing member  Boston  Society  of  Natural  His- 
tory ;  member  American  Philosophical  Society  of 
Philadelphia;  Fellow  Royal  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries of  North,  Copenhagen;  Assistant, 
Peabody  Museum  of  American  Archaeology  and 
Ethnology,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1876-89.     Author: 

<  Primitive  Industry  >  (1881);  <  Naturalist  Ram- 
bles about  Home)  (1884);  'Upland  and  Mea- 
dow) (1886);  'Waste-land  Wanderings) 
(1887);  '  Days  Out  of  Doors  >  (1889);  'Out- 
ings at  Odd  Times)  (1890)  ;  'Recent  Rambles> 
(1892);  <  Travels  in  a  Tree-top  >  (1894);  'The 
Birds  About  Us  >  (1894)  ;  <  Notes  of  the  Night  > 
(1895);  <A  Colonial  Wooing)  (novel,  1895); 
'Birdland  Echoes)  (1896)  ;  'When  the  Century 
was  New  >  (novel,  1897)  ;  <  The  Hermit  of  Not- 
tingham )  (novel,  1897)  ;  <  The  Freedom  of  the 
Fields)  (1898);  'Clear  Skies  and  Cloudy) 
(1899);  1  In  Nature's  Realm)  (1900,);  Report 
on  Indian  Stone  Implements,  in  <  American 
Naturalist)  (1872),  revised  and  enlarged  as 
'Stone  Age  in  New  Jersey,)  in  Smithsonian 
Annual  Report  of  1876.  In  1876  he  announced 
the  discovery,  since  confirmed  by  other  archaeol- 
ogists, of  traces  of  man  in  the  Delaware  River 
valley,  dating  from  at  least  the  close  of  the 
glacial  period. 

Abbott,  Edward,  D.D.,  American  clergy- 
man, son  of  Jacob:  b.  Farmington,  Me.,  15  July 
1841.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University  of  the 
City  of  New  York  i860,  and  at  Andover  Theo- 
logical Seminary  1862;  in  1863  was  with  the 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission  at  Wash- 
ington and  in  the  field.  The  same  year  he 
was  ordained  Congregational  clergyman,  and 
1865-9  was  pastor  of  the  Pilgrim  Church, 
Cambridge,  Mass. ;  in  1879  he  was  ordained 
Episcopal  priest  and  ever  since  has  been  rector 
of  St.  James',  Cambridge ;  in  1889  he  was  elected 
missionary  bishop  of  Japan,  but  declined.  He 
was  associate  editor  of  the  .<  CongregationaliM  ' 
1869-78,  and  editor  of  the  1  Literary  World ' 
1878-88,  and  again  from  1895.  Among  his 
works   are    'Conversations    of   Jesus  >    (1875); 

<  Paragraph  History  of  the  United  States  * 
(1875);  'Paragraph  History  of  the  American 
Revolution)  (1876);  'Long  Look  Series,)  juve- 
nile (1877-80)  ;  memorial  of  his  father  (1882)  ; 
and  'Phillips  Brooks)   (1900). 

Abbott,  Edwin  Abbott,  English  theologian 
and  Shakespearean  scholar :  b.  London,  20  Dec. 
1838;  graduated  at  St.  John's  College.  Cam- 
bridge; senior  classic  and  Chancellor's  medalist 
(1861).  He  was  master  at  King  Edward's 
School,  Birmingham,  1862-4,  and  at  Clifton  Col- 
lege ;  and  head-master  of  the  City  of  London 
School,  1865-89,  raising  it  to  a  foremost  rank  in 
England.  In  the  latter  year  he  retired.  He  has 
been  select  preacher  at  Cambridge  and  Oxford. 
His    works    include    the    well-known    <  Shake- 


ABBOTT 


spearean  Grammar  >  (1869,  enlarged  1870),  still 
a   classic;   'Bacon   and    Essex '(1877)  ;    «  Philo- 

christus  >  (1878),  and  <  Onesimus )  (.1882),  two 
anonymous  romances  of  the  first  age  of  the 
Church;  "Francis  Bacon  >  (1885);  'Anglican 
Career  of  Cardinal  Newman  >  (1892);  'St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury  >  (1808)  ;  volumes  of  scr- 
mons,   and  other   religious   works. 

Abbott,  Emma  (Wethekell),  one  of  the 
foremost  ol  American  dramatic  sopranos:  b. 
Chicago,  111.,  December,  [849;  d.  Salt  Lake  City, 
5  J.ui.  [891.  Beginning  in  Plymouth  Church 
choir,  Brooklyn,  N.  \  .,  she  studied  abroad  with 
Sangiovanni  at  Milan  and  with  lulled  Sedic, 
Wartel,  and  James  at  Paris;  then  joined  Maple- 
son's  troupe,  made  her  debut  at  Covent  Garden, 
London,  loured  three  years  in  Great  Britain,  and 
returning  to  the  United  States  spent  her  remain- 
ing years  there,  the  later  ones  with  the  Emma 
Abbott  English  Opera  Company.  In  1878  she 
married  E.  J.  Wcthcrell  of  New  York. 

Abbott,  Frank  Frost,  American  I.atinist:  b. 
Redding,  Conn.,  27  March  [860;  graduated  at 
Yale  1882;  Latin  tutor  at  Yale  1885-91  ;  associate 
professor  1892;  1894  professor  of  Latin  in  the 
University  of  Chicago.  He  has  written  <  Repeti- 
tion in  Latin  >  (1900), a  'History  of  Roman  Po 
litical  Institutions  >  (1901 ),  and  philological  work. 

Abbott,  Gorham  Dummer,  American  edu- 
cator, brother  of  Jacob  and  J.  S.  C. :  b.  Hal- 
low. II,  Me.,  3  Sept.  1807;  d.  31  July  1874.  lie 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  1820,  at  Andover  1831. 
Ordained  a  Congregational  clergyman,  he  be- 
came a  teacher  in  New  York;  in  1S45  with  bis 
brothers  he  established  the  Abbott  Institute  for 
females  in  New  York  city  and  in  1S47  the 
Spingler  Institute, —  pioneers  in  women's  higher 
education;  the  latter  held  a  foremost  rank  in  the 
United  States  for  thirty  years,  and  he  left  it  in 
1869  a  rich  man.  He  wrote  didactic  works,  as 
« The  Family  at  Home,1  <  Nathan  W.  Dicker- 
man,)  (  Pleasure  and  Profit';  also  'Mexico  and 
the  United  States.) 

Abbott,  Jacob,  a  famous  American  juvenile 
writer  and  educator:  b.  llallowell,  Me.,  14  Nov. 
1803;  d.  31  Oct.  1879.  He  graduated  at  Bow- 
doin 1820,  studied  at  Andover,  and  was  ordained 
a  Congregational  minister ;  professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  philosophy  at  Amherst 
1825  o;  then  established  the  Mt.  Vernon  girls' 
school  in  Boston,  and  in  1834  organized  and 
was  pastor  of  the  Eliot  Church  in  Koxbury. 
In  1839  he  removed  permanently  to  Farming- 
ton,  Me.,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  work 
there  and  in  New  York,  assisting  also  in  fe- 
male education  (see  the  preceding  title),  writ- 
ing extensively  for  the  early  '  Harper's  Month- 
ly,' of  which  he  was  one  of  the  chief  bulwarks, 
traveling  widely  abroad,  and  writing  the  classic 
juveniles  of  which  the  '  Rollo  Books'  arc 
the  best  known  type. —  neither  their  usefulness, 
their  popularity,  nor  their  charm,  has  yet 
vanished.  He  had  an  excellent  dramatic  sense, 
a  healthy  balance,  a  sound  business  practi- 
cality and  a  true  understanding  of  and  sin- 
cere sympathy  with  children,  which  makes  bis 
didactics  charming  to  rightly  constituted  chil- 
dren; no  boys  and  girls  were  ever  less  priggish 
than  those  in  <  Rollo.'  the  conventional  bur- 
lesques of  which  merely  prove  that  the  authors 
have  not  read  the  books,  and  even  so  are  a  testi- 
mony to  their  vitality.     The  chief  of  his  more 


than    200   volumes    are   the  <  Rollo    Books,1   (28 

vol-    )  .    ill.     '   1  .11.  \      I'.,  ml.      '    10    m  .1    ,  I.    the    '  Julia, 

Books'  (6  vols.),  the  <  Franconia   Stories)  (10 

vols.),  the  <  Marco  Paul  Suns'  (6  vols.),  the 
<  Gay    Family'    series    (12    vols.),    the    <Juno 

Books'  ((>  vols.),  the  "Rainbow  Series)  (5 
vols.),   and   several  other  series  of   science  and 

travel  for  the  young;  more  than  s I   tin    series 

of  illustrated  histories  to  which  bis  hi  other  J.  S. 
C.  contributed,  and  8  vols,  of  American  history. 
He  also  edited  historical  test  bcoks  and  com- 
piled school  readers. 

Abbott,  Sir  John  Joseph  Caldwell,  Cana- 
dian statesman:  b.  St.  Andrews,  Quebec,  12 
March  1821;  d.  1893.  Graduated  at  Met, ill  Col- 
lege, Montreal,  he  became  a  lawyer,  and  was  re- 
garded among  the  best  Canadian  authorities  on 
commercial  law,  being  dean  of  the  McGill  Col- 
lege Law  Faculty  for  ten  years.  In  1859  he  was 
elected  to  the  Lower  House  "f  Quebec,  repre 
seining  Argcnteuil  till  the  union  of  the  Provinces 
in  1867,  when  he  was  returned  to  the  Canadian 
House  of  Commons.  In  1862  he  was  solicitor- 
general  in  the  Sandfield  Macdonald-Sicotte  Cabi- 
net. In  1887  he  joined  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald's 
Cabinet  as  minister  without  portfolio,  and  on 
Macdonald's  death  in  June  1801  was  made  pre- 
mier of  the  Dominion;  but  resigned  from  ill 
health  November  1892,  accepting  a  seat  without 
portfolio  in  the  Cabinet  of  bis  successor,  Sir 
John  Thomson. 

Abbott,  John  Stephens  Cabot,  American 
author:  b.  Brunswick,  Me.,  18  Sept.  1805;  d. 
Fairhavcn.  Conn.,  [7  June  1877.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  1825,  and  Andover  ;  was  ordained  Con- 
gregational minister  [830,  and  held  pastorates  at 
Worcester,  Roxbury.  and  Nantucket,  Mass.  He 
resigned  the  ministry  in  1S44  and  devoted  him- 
self to  popular  literature.  A  fertile  writer  like 
his  brother  Jacob,  and  with  an  interest  in  his 
own  matter  that  gave  a  certain  charm  to  his 
style  and  excited  equal  interest  in  uncritical 
readers,  but  with  too  little  acumen  and  too  much 
rhetoric  for  the  solid  historical  subjects  he  had 
a  passion  for,  he  issued  very  many  works  use- 
ful in  stimulating  public  curiosity  in  history,  but 
of  too  little  weight  to  endure.  The  most  famous 
was  the  <  Life  of  Napoleon  >  contributed  as  a 
serial  to  <  Harper's  Magazine.'  and  a  great  popu- 
lar success ;  others  were  <  The  French  Revolu- 
tion,) <  Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,'  "The  Civil  War 
in  America  >  (1863-6),  "Napoleon  III.'  (1868). 
•  Romance  of  Spanish  History'  (1879),  'Fred- 
erick the  Great'  (1871),  and  many  volumes  of 
small  histories  and  biographies. 

Abbott,  Lyman,  American  clergyman  and 
editor,  third  son  of  Jacob:  b.  Roxbury,  Mass., 
[8  Dec.  1835.  He  graduated  at  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1853;  studied 
law,  and  went  into  partnership  with  his 
brothers  Austin  and  Benjamin  in  1856; 
but  feeling  more  bent  for  the  ministry  studied 
theology  with  his  uncle  John  S.  C.  and  was  or- 
dained 18(10.  Till  18(15  be  was  pastor  at  Terre 
Haute,  Ind. ;  1865-8  secretary  of  the  Freedmen's 
Commission,  residing  in  New  York,  also  becom- 
ing pastor  of  the  New  England  Church  there; 
in  i8(>9  resigned  his  pastorate  for  journalism  and 
literature.  He  was  in  succession  editor  of  the 
"Literary  Record"  department  of  "Harper's 
Magazine,)  and  at  the  same  time  chief  editor  of 
the  "  Illustrated  Christian  Weekly  ;  then  associ- 


ABBOTT  — ABBREVIATIONS 


ate  editor  with  Henry  Ward  Beecher  of  the 
<  Christian  Union,'  now  the  <  Outlook,)  of  which 
he  became  chief  editor  on  Mr.  Beecher's  death  in 
1887,  succeeding  him  also  in  the  Plymouth 
Church  pulpit,  which  he  resigned  in  1899  to  de- 
vote himself  wholly  to  literary  work.  His  ear- 
liest books  were  two  novels  in  collaboration 
with  his  brothers  (see  Abbott,  Austin-).  He 
has  written  a  (Life  of  Jesus  >  (1869),  'Old 
Testament  Shadows  of  New  Testament  Truths  > 
(1870),  <  A  Dictionary  of  Bible  Knowledge'  and 
<A  Layman's  Story'  (1872),  'Commentary  on 
the  New  Testament'  (4  vols.,  1875  sq.),  'Life 
of  Henry  Ward  Beecher'  (1883),  'Evolution  of 
Christianity'  (1892),  'Christianity  and  Social 
Problems  >  (1896),  <  The  Theology  of  an  Evolu- 
tionist >  (1897),  'Life  and  Letters  of  Paul' 
(1898),  <  Life  and  Literature  of  the  Ancient  He- 
brews' (1901),  'The  Rights  of  Man'  (1901), 
'Personality  of  God'  (1905),  etc.;  besides  edit- 
ing volumes  of  Beecher's  sermons  and  devo- 
tional  exercises  from   his  writings. 

Abbott,  Russell  Bigelow,  D.D.,  American 
educator :  b.  Brookville,  Ind.,  8  Aug.  1823  ;  grad- 
uated at  the  University  of  Indiana  1847.  After 
several  years  as  principal  of  public  schools  in 
Muncie  and  New  Castle,  Ind.,  and  of  White- 
water Presbyterian  Academy,  he  was  ordained 
in  the  Presbyterian  Church,  1857 ;  held  pas- 
torates in  Indiana  and  Minnesota  24  years,  15  in 
Albert  Lea,  Minn. ;  and  founding  Albert  Lea 
College  tbere  became  its  president  in  1884.  Dr. 
Abbott  has  been  a  leading  force  in  his  Church 
body. 

Abbreviations  or  « shortenings »  are  used 
in  writing  to  save  time  and  space,  or  it  may  be 
to  ensure  secrecy.  The  ancient  copiers  of  MSS. 
invented  many  contractions  to  facilitate  their 
labor.  Greek  MSS.  abound  in  such,  and  hence 
often  cannot  be  read  without  a  previous  regular 
study  of  Greek  palaeography.  From  MSS.  these 
contractions  were  transferred  to  the  printed  edi- 
tions of  Greek  authors,  and  have  only  been  whol- 
ly disused  within  the  past  century ;  hence  regular 
lists  of  them  were  given  in  the  earlier  Greek 
grammars,  because  the  knowledge  of  them  was 
absolutely  essential  to  the  student.  Some  of  the 
commoner  are  still  given  in  some  grammars,  as 
many  Greek  works  are  accessible  only  in  editions 
full  of  them.  Among  the  Romans  the  marks  of 
abbreviation,  called  notes  or  compendia  scribendi, 
were  so  numerous  that,  in  a  classification  by  L. 
Annaeus  Seneca,  they  amount  to  5,000.  With 
the  Latin  language  the  ancient  Roman  abbrevia- 
tions passed  to  the  Middle  Ages,  appearing  first 
on  inscriptions  and  coins,  then  in  manuscripts, 
and,  more  especially  after  the  nth  century,  in 
charters  and  other  legal  documents.  The  use 
of  them  in  legal  documents  was  forbidden  by 
an  act  of  Parliament  passed  in  the  reign  of 
George  II.  In  the  following  list  most  of  the 
abbreviations  that  are  likely  to  be  met  with  by 
modern  readers  are  alphabetically  arranged,  save 
chemical  elements,  for  which  see  table  of  Atomic 
Weichts.  The  standard  abbreviations  used  in 
library  catalogues  are  also  given.  (For  Latin 
abbreviations  see  Campelli's  <  Dizionario  di  Ab- 
breviature':  Milan,   1899). 

A. —  Acre;  Acting;  Accept. 
A:   (Lib.  cat.). —  Augustus. 
A  .  I  Lib.  cat. ) . —  Anna. 
A.  or  Ans. —  Answer. 


A.   A. —  Associate  of  Arts. 

A.  A.  A.  G. —  Acting  Assistant  Adjutant-Gen- 
eral. 

A.  A.  A.  S. —  American  Association  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Science. 

A.   A.  G. —  Assistant  Adjutant-General. 

A.  A.  P.  S. —  American  Association  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Science. 

A.  A.  S. —  Academics  Americana  Socius,  Fellow 
of  the  American  Academy  (of  Arts  and  Sci- 
ences). 

A.  A.  S.  S. —  Americans  AntiquariancF  Societatis 
Socius,  Member  of  the  American  Antiquarian 
Society. 

A.  B. —  Able-bodied  seaman;  Artium  Bacca- 
laurcus,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

A.  B.  C.  F.  M. —  American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Foreign  Missions. 

Abl. —  Ablative. 

Abp. — ■  Archbishop. 

Abr. — -Abridgment,  or  Abridged. 

A.    B.   S. —  American   Bible   Society. 

a/c  —  Account. 

A.  C. —  Ante  Christum,  before  the  birth  of 
Christ ;  Arch-chancellor. 

Acad. —  Academy. 

Acad.  Nat.  Sci. —  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences. 

Ace. —  Accusative. 

Acct. —  Account. 

A.  C.  S. —  American  Colonization  Society. 

Act. —  Active  ;  Acting. 

Ad. —  Advertisement. 

A.  D. —  Anno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  the  Lord. 

A.  D.  C. —  Aide-de-camp. 

Adj. —  Adjective. 

Adjt. —  Adjutant. 

Adj  t.-Gen. —  Adj  utant-General. 

Ad  lib. —  Ad  libitum,  at  pleasure. 

Adm. — Admiral ;  Admiralty. 

Adm.   Co. —  Admiralty  Court. 

Admr. —  Administrator. 

Admx. —  Administratrix. 

Ads. —  Ad  scctam,  at  the  suit  [of]. 

Ad  v. —  Ad  valorem,  at  (or  on)  the  value. 

Advt. — ■  Advertisement. 

A.  E.  I.  O.  U.  (The  Austrian  device) — -Austria 
est  impcrarc  orbi  universo,  or  Alles  Erdreich 
1st  Oesterrcich  Untertlian,  "It  is  given  to 
Austria  to  rule  the  whole  earth." 

/Et. —  A~  talis,  of  age;  aged. 

A.  F.  B.  S. —  American  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety. 

Afr. —  African. 

A.  G  — Adjutant-General. 

Agl.  Dept. —  Agricultural  Department  (Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture). 

Agr. — Agriculture. 

A.  G.  S.  S. —  American  Geographical  and  Statis- 
tical Society. 

Agt. —  Agent. 

A.  H. —  Anno  Hcgiric,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira 
(Mohammedan  era). 

A.  H.  M.  S. —  American  Home  Missionary  So- 
ciety. 

Ala. —  Alabama. 

Alas. —  Alaska. 

Alb. —  Albany. 

Alban. —  Albanian. 

Aid. —  Alderman. 

Alex. —  Alexander. 

Alf.— Alfred. 

Alg. —  Algebra. 

Alt.—  Altitude. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Am. —  American  ;  Amos. 

A.  M. —  Ante  meridiem,  before  noon;  morning; 

Anno  mundij  in  the  year  of  the  world;  Ar- 

tium  Magister,  Master  of  Arts. 
Am.  Ass    Adv.  Sci.— American  Association  for 

the  Advancement  of  Science. 
Amb. —  Ambassador. 
Ann  r. —  American. 
Amer.  Acad. —  American  Academy. 
A.  M.  E.  Z. —  African  Methodist  Episcopal  Zion. 
Aram. —  Amalgama,  amalgamation. 
Amt. —  Amount. 
An. —  Anno,  in  the  year. 

A    X.  A. —  Associate  of  the  National  Academy. 
An.   A.   C. —  Anno  ante  Christum,  in  the  year 

before  Christ 

Anal. —  Analysis. 

Anat. —  Anatomy. 

Anc. —  Ancient ;    anciently. 

And. —  Andrew. 

Ang.-Sax. —  Anglo-Saxon. 

-Annates,  annals. 
Anon. —  Anonymous. 
Ans. —  Answer. 
Ant.,  or  Antiq. —  Antiquities. 
Anth. —  Anthony. 
Aor. —  Aorist. 
A.   O.    S.    S. —  Americana-   Oricntalis   Soeietatis 

Socius,    Member    of    the    American    Oriental 

Society. 
Ap. —  Apostle;    Appius ;  Apud,   in    writings   of; 

as  quoted  by. 
Apo. —  Apogee. 
Apoc. —  Apocalypse. 
Apocr. —  Apocrypha. 
App. —  Appendix. 
Apr. —  April. 
Aq. —  Aqua,  water. 
A.  Q.  M. —  Assistant  Quartermaster. 
A.  Q.  M.  G. —  Assistant  Quartermaster-General. 
A.  R. —  Anna  Regina,  Queen  Anne;  Anno  regni, 

in  the  year  of  the  reign. 
Ara. —  Arabic. 

A.  R.  A. —  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy. 
Arch. —  Archibald;  Architect;  Architecture. 
Archd. —  Archdeacon. 
Arg. —  Arguendo,  in  arguing,  or   in  the  course 

of    argument ;    argumento,    by    an    argument 

drawn  from  such  a  law. 
Ari. —  Arizona. 
Anth. —  Arithmetic. 
Ark. —  Arkansas. 
Arm. —  Armenian. 
Armor. —  Armoric. 
Arr. — Arrive  ;  Arrival. 
A.  R.  R. —  Anno  regni  regis,  in  the  year  of  the 

reign  of  the  king. 
A.   R.   S.   A. —  Associate  of  the  Royal   Scottish 

Academy. 
A.    R.    S.    S. —  Antiquariorum    Regia   Soeietatis 

Socius,  Fellow  of  the   Royal   Society  of  An- 
tiquaries. 
.Art. —  Article. 
Artil.— Artillery. 
A.-S. —  Anglo-Saxon. 

A.  S..  or  Assist.  Sec. —  Assistant-Secretary. 
A.  S.  A. — American  Statistical  Association. 
Ass.,  Assn. —  Association. 

A.   S.   S.   L'. —  American   Sunday-School  Union. 
Astrol. — Astrology. 
Astron. — Astronomy. 

— At  suit  of. 
A.  T.  S. —  American  Tract  Society. 


Any. —  Attorney. 

Any. -Gen. —  Attorney-General. 

At.   W't. —  Atomic   weight. 

A.  U.  A. —  American  Unitarian  Association. 

A.  I'.  C. —  Anno  urbis  conditar,  or  ab  urbe  con- 

dita,  in  the  year  from  the  building  of  the  city 

(Rome). 
Aug. —  August. 
Aus. —  Austria;  Austrian. 
Auth.  Ver.,  or  A.  V. —  Authorized  Version   (of 

the  Bibl<  >. 
Av. —  Avenue;  Average;  Avoirdupois. 
Ave, —  Avenue. 
Avdp.  or  Avoir. —  Avoirdupois. 

A.  V.  M. —  Ancient  York  Masons. 

B.—  Born. 

B:   (Lib.  cat.). —  Benjamin. 

B..    (Lib.  cat). —  Beatrice. 

B.  A. —  Bachelor  of  Arts. 
Bal. —  Balance. 

Bait. —  Baltimore. 

B.  &  F. —  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 

Bapt. —  Baptist. 

Bar. —  Barometer;  Baruch. 

Bart. —  Baronet. 

Bbl  —  Barrel. 

B.  C. —  Before  Christ:   British   Columbia. 

B.  C.  L. —  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.    D. —  Bacealaureus    Vitinitatis,    Bachelor    of 

Divinity. 
Bdls.—  Bundles. 
Bds. —  Boards  ;  Bonds. 
Beau.  &  Fl. —  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 
Beds. —  Bedfordshire. 
Belg.— Belgic :  Belgian;  Belgium. 
Benj. —  Benjamin. 
Berks. —  Berkshire. 
B.  I. —  British  India. 
Bib— Bible ;   Biblical. 
Bibliog.—  Bibliographical ;   Bibliography. 
Biog. — Biography  ;   Biographical. 
Bisc. —  Biscayan. 
B.  Jon. —  Ben  Jonson. 
Bk.— Bark;  Book. 

B.  LL. —  Bacealaureus  Legum,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 
Bis.— Bales. 
B.    M.—  Bacealaureus    Medieinw,    Bachelor    of 

Medicine. 
Bohem. —  Bohemian 
Bost. —  Boston. 
Bot. —  Botany. 
Bp. —  Bishop. 

Br.— Brig;  British;  Brother. 
B.   R. — Banco  Regis,  or  Rcgincc,  the  King's   or 

Queen's  Bench. 
Braz. —  Brazil;  Brazilian. 
Brig. —  Brigade;  Brigadier. 
Brig.-Gcn. —  Brigadier-General. 
Brit.  Mus. —  British  Museum. 
Bro. —  Brother. 

B.   S. —  Bachelor  in  the  Sciences. 
Bt. —  Baronet. 
Hu. —  Bushel ;   Bushels. 
Bucks. —  Buckinghamshire. 
Burl. —  Burlesque. 
B.  Y.—  Beata  Virgo,  Blessed  Virgin  ;  Bene  vale, 

farewell. 
Bx.,  Bxs. — Box ;  Boxes. 

C. —  Caput  or  capitulum,  chapter;  Celsius;  Cent ; 
Centigrade;  Cents;  Centum,  a  hundred;  Cen 
tury;  Circa  or  circiter,  about;  Consul. 

C:  (Lib.  cat.).— Charles. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


C. .    (Lib.  cat.)— Charlotte. 

Ca.   (circa)  —  About. 

C.    A.—  Chief    Accountant ;    Commissioner    of 

Accounts. 
Caet.  par. —  Ceteris  paribus,  other   things  being 

equal. 
Cal. — California ;   Calends. 
Cam.,  Camb. —  Cambridge. 
Can. —  Canon. 
Cant. —  Canticles. 

Cantab. —  Cantabrigice,  Cantabrigicnsis,  of  Cam- 
bridge. 
Cantuar. —  Cantuarice,  Cantuariensis,  of   Canter- 
bury. 
Cap. —  Caput,  capitulum,  chapter. 
Caps. —  Capitals. 
Capt. —  Captain. 
Capt.-Gen. —  Captain-General. 
Car. —  Carat. 
Card. —  Cardinal. 
Ca.   resp. —  Capias  ad  respondendum,  that   you 

take  to  answer, —  a  legal  writ. 
Cas. —  Cases. 
Ca.  sa. —  Capias  ad  satisfaciendum,  that  you  take 

to  satisfaction, —  a  legal  writ. 
Cash. — Cashier. 
Cat. —  Catalogue. 

Cath. —  Catherine,  Catholic,  Cathedral. 
C.  B. —  Cape  Breton ;  Communis  Bancus,  Com- 
mon Bench ;  Companion  of  the  Bath. 
C.    C. —  Caius    College;    Compte    c  our  ante,    ac- 
count current ;   Circuit   Court :   County   Com- 
missioner;   County   Court:    Cubic   centimeter. 
C.  C.  C. —  Corpus  Christi  College. 
C.  C.  P. —  Court  of  Common  Pleas. 
C.  E. —  Civil  Engineer. 
Cel.,  or  Celt.— Celtic. 
Cels. —  Celsius. 

Cent. — ■  Centigrade,  a  scale  of  ioo°   from  freez- 
ing to  boiling;   Central;  Centum,  a  hundred; 
Century. 
Cert. —  Certify. 
Certif. — Certificate. 
Cf. —  Confer,  compare. 
C.  f.  &  i. —  Cost,  freight,  and  insurance. 
C.  G. —  Commissary-General;  Consul-General. 
C.  G.  H. —  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
Ch. —  Chapter;  Charles;  Chief;  China;  Chinese; 

Church. 
C.  H. —  Court  house. 
Chal.  or  Chald. —  Chaldaic ;  Chaldea  ;  Chaldean ; 

Chaldron. 
Chanc. —  Chancellor. 
Chap.—  Chapter. 
Chas.—  Charles. 
Chem. —  Chemistry. 
Ches. —  Chesapeake. 
Chic. —  Chicago. 
Ch.  J. —  Chief  Justice. 

Chr. —  Christ;    Christian;    Christopher;    Chron- 
icles. 
Chron. —  Chronicles. 
Cic. —  Cicero. 
Cin. —  Cincinnati. 

Circ. —  Circa,  or  circiter.  about;   Circuit. 
Cit. —  Citation;  Cited;  Citizen. 
Civ. —  Civil. 
C.  J. —  Chief  Justice. 
Cld. —  Cleared. 
Clk.—  Clerk. 

C.    M. — ■  Common   Meter. 

C.  M.  G. —  Companion  of  the  Order  of  St.  Mich- 
ael  and   St.   George. 


Co. —  Company  ;  county. 

Coch.,  or  Cochl. —  Cochlear,  a  spoonful.  C. 
amp.  (amplum),  a  tablespoonful.  C.  mag. 
(magnum),  a  large  spoonful.  C.  med.  (me- 
dium), a  dessert-spoonful.  C.  parv.  (par- 
vum),  a  small  spoonful  or  teaspoonful. 

C.  0\  D. —  Cash  (or  collect)   on  delivery. 

Col. —  Colorado  ;  Colonel ;  Colossians. 

Coll. —  Collector ;  Colloquial ;  College ;  Collec- 
tion. 

Colo. —  Colorado. 

Com. — ■  Commerce ;  Committee  ;  Commissioner  ; 
Commodore. 

Comdg.—  Commanding. 

Comm. —  Commentary. 

Comp. —  Compare ;  Comparative ;  Compound  ; 
Compounded. 

Com.  Ver. — Common  Version   (of  the  Bible). 

Con. — ■  Contra,  against ;  in  opposition. 

Conch. —  Conchology. 

Con.  Cr. —  Contra  credit. 

Confed. —  Confederate. 

Cong. —  Congress. 

Congl. —  Congregational ;  Conglomerate. 

Conj. —  Conjunction. 

Conn.,   or  Ct. —  Connecticut. 

Con.   Sec. —  Conic  sections. 

Const. —  Constable ;    Constitution. 

Cont. —  Continued  ;  contra. 

Cop.,  or  Copt. —  Coptic. 

Cor. — ■  Corinthians. 

Cor.  Mem.- — Corresponding  Member. 

Corn. —  Cornwall ;   Cornish. 

Corol. — ■  Corollary. 

Cor.  Sec. —  Corresponding  Secretary. 

Cos. —  Cosine. 

Coss. —  Consules,  Consuls. 

Cp. —  Compare. 

C.  P. —  Common  Pleas ;  Court  of  Probate. 

C.  P.  S. —  Custos  Privati  Sigilli,  Keeper  of  the 
Privy  Seal. 

Cr. —  Credit;   Creditor;   Criminal. 

C.  R. —  Carolus  Rex,  King  Charles ;  Custos  Ro- 
tulorum,  Keeper  of  the  Rolls. 

Crim.   Con. —  Criminal  conversation    (adultery). 

C.  S. —  Court  of  Sessions:  Custos  Sigilli,  Keeper 
of  the  Seal. 

C.  S.  A. — Confederate  States  of  America ;  Con- 
federate States  Army. 

Csk. —  Cask. 

C.  S.  N. —  Confederate  States  Navy. 

C.  •Theod. —  Codice  Theodosiano,  in  the  Theo- 
dosian   Code. 

Ct. —  Connecticut;    Court. 

Ct!.—  Cental. 

Cts.—  Cents. 

Cu.,  or  Cub. —  Cubic. 

Cur. —  Currency. 

Curt. —  Current. 

C.  W.— Canada  West. 
Cwt. —  Hundredweight. 
Cyc. —  Cyclopedia. 

D. — -Day;  Days;  Denarius,  pennv.  pence;  Died 
D:  (Lib.  cat.)'.— David. 
D..    (Lib.  cat.).— Delia. 

D.  A.   G. —  Deputy  Adjutant-General. 
Dak.— Dakota. 

Dan. —  Daniel;   Danish. 

Dat. —  Dative. 

D.  B.  or  Domesd.  B. — Domesday  Book. 

D.  C. —  Da  capo,  again;  District  of  Columbia. 

D.  C.  L. — Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


D.  C.  S. — Deputy  Clerk  of  Sessions. 

D.    I'      Divinilatis   Doctor.   Doctor   of  Divinity. 

D    D.  S      Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery. 

I  )ea.-  -Deai 

Di         Dei  ember  ;  Declination. 

Dec.  i >f  Ind. —  Declaration  of  Independence, 

Def. —  I  lefinition. 

I  »cf.,  I  (eft.— Defendant. 

1  )cg.—  1  legree  :  degrees. 

Del. —  Delaware;    Delegate;   Delineavit,   he    (or 

she)   drew  it. 
Dem. —  Democrat;  Democratic. 
Dep       I  h  puty. 
Dept. —  Department. 
Dent. —  1  (euteronomy. 
D.  F. —  Defender  of  the  Faith. 
D.  G. —  Dei  gratia,  by  the  grace  of  God;  Deo 

gratias,  thanks  to  God. 

D.  H.— Dead-head. 

Diam. —  Diameter. 

Diet. —  Dictionary  ;  Dictator. 

I  >im. —  Diminutive. 

Diosc. —  Dioscorides. 

1  >i  ~c. —  Discount. 

Diss.- —  1  >!"<  nation. 

District. 
Div. —  Division. 
D.  L  O.— Dead-Letter  Office. 
D.  M. — Doctor  of  Music. 
Do. —  Ditto,    the    same. 
Doc. —  Document. 
Dols.— Dollars. 
D.  O.  M. —  Deo  Optimo  maximo,  to  God,  the  best, 

the  greatest. 
Doz. —  Dozen. 

D.   P. —  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
Dpt. —  Department. 
Dr.—  Debtor  ;  Doctor  ;  Drachms. 
D.  S. —  I^al  segno,  from  the  sign. 
D.  Sc. —  Doctor  of  Science. 
D.    T. — Delirium    tremens;    Doctor    Thcologiw, 

Doctor  of  Theology. 
Dub.— Dublin. 

D.  V.— Deo  volente,  God  willing. 
Dwt.—  Pennyweight. 

Dyn. —  Dynamics. 

F..—  East. 

E:  (Lib.  cat.). —  Edward. 
E..  (Lib.  cat.).— Elizabeth. 
Ea. —  Each. 

E.  &  O.  E. —  Errors  and  omissions  excepted. 
E.  B.— English  Bible. 

Eben. —  Ebenezer. 

Ebor. —  Eboracum,  York. 

Feci. —  Ecclesiastes. 

Ecclus. —  Ei  cli    ia  ticus. 

Ed. —  Editor;  Edition. 

E.  D. —  Eastern  District. 

Edin. —  Edinburgh. 

Edm. —  Edmund. 

Edw. —  Edward. 

E.   E. — Errors  excepted. 

E.  E.  T.  S. —  Earlv  English  Text  Society. 

E.  Fl.— Ells  Flemish. 

E.   Fr. —  Ells   French. 

E.  G. —  Exempli  gratia,  for  example ;  Ex  grege, 

among  the  rest. 
E.  I. —  East  Indies  or  East  India. 
E.  I.  C.  S. —  East  India  Company's  Service. 
Eliz.— Elizabeth. 
E.  Lon. —  East   longitude. 
E.  M. —  Mining  Engineer. 


Emp. —  Emperor;  Empress. 
Encyc. —  Encyclopedia. 
Km  ye.  Amer. —  Encyclopedia  Americana. 
E.N.E. —  East-northeast. 

Eng. —  Engineering ;  Engineers ;  England  ;  Eng- 
lish. 
Hut  .  Entom. —  Entomology. 
Env.  Ext. —  Envoy  Extraordinary. 
El  "1      -  H\  ei  \   i  .tiler  day. 
Eow. —  Every  other  week. 
Ep. —  Epistle. 

l'.ph. — ■  Ephesians ;  Ephraim 
Epis. —  Episcopal. 

E.  S.—  Ells  Scotch. 
Esd. —  Esdras. 

E.S.E. —  East-southeast. 

Esq. —  Esquire. 

Esth. —  Esther. 

H.  T. —  English  Translation. 

Et  al. —  Et  alii,  and  others. 

Etc.,   or   &c. —  Et  ccctcri,  ei   caters,    ei    catera, 

and  others ;  and  so  forth. 
Eth. —  Ethiopic;  Ethiopian. 
Et    seq. — Et  sequentes,   et   scqucntia,   and    what 

follows. 
Etym. —  Etymological  ;  Etymology. 
I'..    U    -Stats  litis,  United  States;   Evangelical 

Union. 
Ex. —  Example;   Exodus. 
Exc. —  Excellency  ;  exception. 
Exch. —  Exchequer  ;  Exchange. 
Ex.  Doc. — Executive  Document. 
Exec. —  Executive;  Executor. 
Exccx. —  Executrix. 
Ex.  gr. —  Exempli  gratia,  for  example. 
Exon. —  E.vonia,    Exeter;    Exonicc,    Exonicnsis, 

of  Exeter. 
Ex  p. — Ex  parte,  in  behalf  of, 
Exr. —  Executor. 
Ez. —  Ezra. 
Ezek. —  Ezekiel. 

F. —  Fahrenheit;    Farthing;    Fathom;   Fathoms; 

Forte;   Franc;   France;   Francs;   French;   Eri- 

day. 
F:    (Lib.  cat.). —  Frederick. 

F.  .    (Lib.  cat.). —  Fanny. 
Fahr. —  Fahrenheit. 

F.  and  A.  M. — Free  and  Accepted  Masons. 

F.  A.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Antiquarian  Society. 

F.  B.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Botanical  Society. 

F.  C. —  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

Fcap.  or  fcp. —  Foolscap. 

F.  C.  P.  S.—  Fellow  of  the  Cambridge  Philo- 
logical Society. 

F.  C.  S. — ■  F'cllow  of  the  Chemical  Society. 

F.  D. —  Fidei  Defendor,  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

F.  E. —  Flemish  ells. 

Feb. —  February. 

Fee. —  Fecit,  he  did  or  made  it. 

Fed. —  Federal. 

Fern. —  Feminine. 

F.  E.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Entomological  Society; 
F(  How  of  the  Ethnographical  Society. 

Ff. —  Fecerunt,  they  did  or  made  it ;  -Folios ;  Fol- 
lowing;  Forti     imo 

F.  F.  V. —  First  Families  of  Virginia. 

F.  G.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Geological  Society. 

F.  H.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Horticultural   Society. 

Fid.  Def. —  Fidei  Defendor,  Defender  of  the 
Faith. 

Fi.  fa. — -Fieri  facias,  that  you  cause  to  be  donf 
or  made, —  a  writ  of  execution. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Fig. —  Figure. 

Fin. —  Finland. 

Finn. — ■  Finnish. 

Fir. —  Firkin. 

F.  K.  Q.  C.  P.  I. —  Fellow  of  King's  and  Queen's 
College  of  Physicians,   Ireland. 

Fl. —  Florin  ;  Florins  ;  Flourished. 

Fla. — ■  Florida. 

Fl.  E.— Flemish  ells. 

F.  L.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Linnaean  Society. 

Fm.  ;  Fms. —  Fathom;  Fathoms. 

F.-M.—  Field-Marshal. 

Fo. —  Folio. 

F.-O.—  Field-Officer. 

F.  o.  b. —  Free  on  board. 

Fol. —  Folio. 

For. — ■  Foreign. 

F.  P.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Philological  Society. 

Fr. —  Fragmentum,  fragment;  Franc;  France; 
Francis  ;   Francs  ;   French  ;   From. 

F.  R.  A.  S.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  So- 
ciety; Fellow  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  So- 
ciety. 

F.  R.  C.  P.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians. 

F.  R.  C.  S.  (E,  I.,  or  L.).— Fellow  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  (Edinburgh,  Ire- 
land, or  London). 

Fr.  E. —  French  ells. 

Fred. —  Frederick. 

F.  R.  G.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society. 

F.  R.  Hist.  Soc— Fellow  of  the  Royal  His- 
torical Society. 

Fri. —  Friday. 

Frs. —  Frisian. 

F.  R.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.  R.  S.  E. —  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  Edin- 
burgh. 

F.  R.  S.  L. —  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  Lon- 
don. 

F.  R.  S.  S.  A.— Fellow  of  the  Royal  Scottish 
Society  of  Arts. 

F.  S.  A. —  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  or  of 
Antiquaries. 

F.  S.  A.  E. —  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Anti- 
quaries, Edinburgh. 

F.  S.  A.  Scot. —  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  An- 
tiquaries of  Scotland. 

F.  S.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Statistical  Society. 

Ft. —  Foot ;  feet ;  Fort. 

Fth. —  Fathom. 

Fur. —  Furlong. 

F.  Z.  S. —  Fellow  of  the  Zoological  Society. 

G. —  Guineas. 

G:   (Lib.  cat.). —  George. 

G.  (Lib.  cat.). —  Grace. 
Ga. —  Georgia. 

G.  A. — ■  General   Assembly. 

Galv. —  Galvanism  ;   Galveston. 

G.  A.  R. —  Grand  Army  of  the  Republic. 

G.  B. —  Great  Britain. 

G.  B.  &  I. —  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

G.     C. —  Grand     Chapter ;     Grand     Conductor ; 

Grand  Cross. 
G.  C.  B. —  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 
G.  C.  H. —  Grand  Cro^s  of  Hanover. 
G.  C.  K.  P. —  Grand  Commander  of  the  Knights 

of  St.  Patrick. 
G.    C.   L.    H. —  Grand   Cross   of  the   Legion   of 

Honor.  [St.  George. 

G.  C.  M.  G. —  Grand  Cross  of  St.   Michael  and 


G.  C.  S.  I. —  Grand   Commander  of  the  Star  of 

India. 
G.  D. —  Grand  Duke  ;  Grand  Duchess. 
G.  E. —  Grand  Encampment. 


Tenesis ; 


Gen. —  Genealogy  ;    Genera  ;    General ; 

Genus. 
Gent. —  Gentleman. 
Geo. —  George. 
Geog. —  Geography. 
Geol. —  Geology. 
Geom. —  Geometry. 
Ger. —  German  ;  Germany. 
Gl.,  or  Gloss. —  Glossary. 
G.  L. —  Grand  Lodge. 
G.  M. —  Grand  Master. 
G.  M.  K.  P.— Grand  Master  of  the  Knights  of 

St.  Patrick. 
G.  M.  S.  I. —  Grand  Master  of  the  Star  of  India. 
G.  O. —  General  Order. 
Goth. —  Gothic. 
Gov. —  Governor. 
Gov.-Gen. —  Governor-General. 
Govt. —  Government. 

G.  P. —  Gloria  Patri,  «  Glorv  be  to  the  Father. » 
G.  P.  O.— General  Post-Office. 
Gr. —  Greek  ;  Gross. 
G.  R. —  Georgius  Rex,  King  George. 
Gr.,  Grs. — -Grain;   Grains. 
Grad. —  Graduated. 
Gram. —  Grammar. 
Grot. — ■  Grotius. 
G.  S. —  Grand  Secretary;  Grand  Sentinel;  Grand 

Scribe. 
G.  T. — ■  Good  Templars  ;  Grand  Tyler 
Gtt. —  Gulta  or  gutter,  drop;  drops. 

H.—  Hour. 

H:   (Lib.  cat.).— Henry. 

H..   (Lib.  cat).— Helen. 

H.  A. — -Hoc  anno,  this  year. 

Hab.— Habakkuk. 

Hab.  corp. —  Habeas  corpus,  that  you  have  the 
body. 

Hab.  fa.  poss. —  Habere  facias  possessionem,  that 
you  cause  to>  have  possession, —  a  legal  writ. 

Hab.  fa.  seis. —  Habere  facias  seisinam,  thai  you 
cause  to  have  seisin, —  a  legal  writ. 

Hag.—  Haggai. 

Hants. —  Hampshire. 

H.  B.  C. —  Hudson  Bay  Company. 

H.  B.  M. —  His  or  Her  Britannic  Majesty. 

H.  B.  M.  S  — His  (or  Her)  Britannic  Majesty's 
Ship. 

H.  C. —  House  of  Commons:   Heralds'   College. 

H.  C.  M. —  His  or  Her  Catholic  Majesty. 

Hdkf.— Handkerchief. 

H.  E. —  His  Excellency;  Hoc  est,  that  is,  or  this  is. 

Heb. —  Hebrew;    Hebrews. 

H.  E.  I.  C.  S. —  Honorable  East  India  Com- 
pany's Service. 

Her. —  Heraldry. 

Herp. —  Herpetology. 

Hf.-bd.—  Half-bound. 

H.  G. —  Horse  Guards. 

H.  II  —  His  or  Her  Highness;  His  Holiness 
(the  Pope). 

Hhd. —  Hogshead. 

H.  I. —  Hawaiian  Islands. 

Hier  —  Hierosolyma,  Jerusalem. 

H.  I.  II. —  His  or  Her  Imperial  Highness. 

Hil.— Hilary. 

Hind. —  Hindu:   Hindustan:   Hindustanee. 

Hipp. —  Hippocr, 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Hist. —  Historical;  History. 

II.  J.  S. —  Hie  jacet  sepultus,  here  lies  buried. 

H.  L. —  House  of  Lords. 

H.  M. —  His  or  Her  Majesty. 

II.   M.    P. —  Hoc   monumentum   posuit,   erected 

this  monument. 
H.    M.    S. —  His    or    Her    Majesty's    Ship    or 

Service. 
Holl.— Holland. 
Hon. —  Honorable. 
Hort. —  Horticulture. 
Hos. —  Hosea. 

H.-P. —  High-priest;   Horse-power;    Half-pay. 
Hr  — Hour. 

H.  R. —  House  of  Representatives 
H.  R.  E. —  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
H.  R.  H.— His  or  Her  Royal  Highness. 
H.  R.  I.  P. —  Hie  requiescit  in  pace,  Here  rests 

in  peace. 
H.  S. —  Hie  situs.  Here  lies. 
H.  S.  H. —  His  or  Her  Serene  Highness. 
H.  T. —  Hoc  titulum,  this  title;  hoc  titulo,  in  or 

under  this  title. 
Hund. —  Hundred. 
Hung. —  Hungarian. 
H.  V. —  Hoc  verbum,  this  word;   his  verbis,  in 

these  words. 
Hyd. — Hydraulics  ;  Hydrostatics. 
Hypoth. —  Hypothesis  ;  Hypothetical. 

I. —  Island. 

I:   (Lib.  cat.). —  Isaac. 

I..   (Lib.  cat.).— Isabella. 

la. —  Iowa. 

lb.,  or  ibid. —  Ibidem,  in  the  same  place. 

Icel. —  Iceland;  Icelandic. 

Ich.,  or   Ichth. —  Ichthyology. 

Icon.   Encyc. —  Iconographic   Encyclopedia. 

I.  Ch.  Th.  U.  S.— 'I  (»i<ro?t)  Xipurrit)  0UoJ)  T(los) 
S(utt)p)  (lesous  Christos,  Theou  Uios.Soter), 
Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  the  Saviour  ;  also 
written  Ix0i>s=a  fish  ;  whence  the  symbol  of  a 
fish  (or  the  sacred  nami  . 

Id. —  Idem,  the  same;  Idus,  the  Ides;  Island. 

Ida. —  Idaho. 

I.  E  —  Id  est,  that  is. 

I.  G.— Inside  Guardian. 

I.  H.  S. —  (Corrupted  from  Gr. IHZ,  abbrev.  of 
IHSOTS,  Jesus).  Now  read  Jesus  Hominum 
Salvator,  Jesus  the  Saviour  of  Men. 

111.— Illinois. 

Imp. —  Imperative;  Imperator,  emperor;  Imper- 
fect;  Imperial. 

In. —  Inch;   inches. 

Inc.  or  Incor. —  Incorporated. 

Incog. —  Incognito,  unknown. 

Ind.  T.,  or  Ind.  Ter. —  Indian  Territory. 

I.  H.  P. —  Indicated  horse-power. 

Ind. —  Indiana;  Index. 

I.  N.  D. —  In  nomine  Dei,  in  the  name  of  God. 

Indef. —  Indefinite. 

Inf. —  Infra,  beneath,  or  below. 

In  f.—  In  line,  al  the  end 

Inhab. —  Inhabitant ;    Inhabited. 

In  lim. —  In  limine,  at  the  outset. 

In  loc. —  In  loco,  in  the  place. 

In  pr. —  In  principio,  in  the  beginning. 

I.  N.  R.  I. —  Jesus  Nasarenus,  Hex  Judeeorutn, 
Jesus  of  Nazareth.  King  of  the  Jews. 

Inst. — -Instant;  Institute;  Institutes;  Institu- 
tion. 

Int. — 'Interest. 

Int.  Dept. —  Department  of  the  Tnterior. 


Interj. — Intei  iection. 

In  trans. —  In  transitu,  in  transit. 

[nt.   Rev. —  Internal   Revenue. 

Introd. —  Introduction. 

Ion. —  I 

I.    0.    O.    P.— Independent    Order    of    Odd    Fel 

lows. 
I.  O.  S.  M. —  Independent  Order  of  the  Sons  of 

Malta. 
I.  O.  U. —  I  owe  you. 
Ipecac. —  [pecacuanha. 
I.  Q. —  Idem  quod,  the  same  as. 

Ire. —  Ireland. 

I.  R.  O. —  Internal  Revenue  Office. 

Is.,  Isl. —  Island;  Islands. 

Isa. —  Isaiah. 

It.—  Italy. 

I.  T. —  Inner  Temple. 

Ital. —  Italic ;  Italian. 

I.  W.— Isle  of  Wight. 

J. —  Justice,  or  Judge. 
J:  (Lib.  cat.). —  John. 
J..   (Lib.  cat.). —  Jane. 

J.  A. —  Judge-Advocate. 

Jac. —  Jacob;  Jacobus,  James. 

J.  A.  G. —  Judge  Advocate-General. 

Jam. —  Jamaica. 

Jan. —  January. 

Jas. — -James. 

Jo — Junction. 

J.  C. —  Jurisconsultus,  jurisconsult. 

J.  C.  D. —  Juris  Civilis  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Civil 

Law. 
J.  D. — -Junior  Deacon. 
Jer. —  Jeremiah. 

J.  G.  W. —  Junior  Grand  Warden. 
JJ. —  Justices. 
Jno. —  John. 
Jona. —  Jonathan. 
Jos. —  Joseph. 
Josh. —  Joshua. 
J.  P. — Justice  of  the  Peace. 
J.  Prob. —  Judge  of  Probate. 
Jr. —  Junior. 

J.  R. —  Jacobus  Rex,  King  James. 
Jud. —  Judicial;  Judith. 
J.  U,  D.,  or  J.  V.  D. —  Juris  utriusque  Doctor, 

Doctor   of   both   laws    (of  the   Canon  and   the 

Civil  Law  ). 
Judg.— Judges. 

Judge-Adv. —  Judge-Advocate. 
Jul.   Per. —  Julian    Period. 
Jim. —  Junii  >r. 
June. —  Junction. 
Jus.  I'. —  Justice  of  the  Peace. 
Just, —  Justinian. 
J.  W. —  Junior  Warden. 

K. —  Karat;  Karats;  King. 

K:   (Lib.  ca(  ).— Karl. 

K.  .    (Lib.  cat.). —  Katharine. 

K.  A. —  Knight  of  St.  Vndrew,  in  Russia. 

Kal. —  Kalends,  the  Kalends. 

Kan. —  Kan 

K.  \  N. —  Knight  of  Alexander  Nevskoi,  in 
Russia. 

K.  B  —  King's  Bench:  Knight  of  the  Bath. 

K.  B.  A. —  Knight  of  St.  Bento  d'Avis,  in  Por- 
tugal. 

K.   R.  E. —  Knight  of  the  Black  Eagle,  in  Russia. 

K.  C. —  King's  Counsel;  Knight  of  the  Crescent, 
in   Turkey. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


K.  C.  B. —  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath. 

K.  C.  H. —  Knight  Commander  of  Hanover. 

K.  C.  S. — Knight  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain. 

K.  E. —  Knight  of  the  Elephant,  in  Denmark. 

K.  F. —  Knight  of  Ferdinand,  in  Spain. 

K.  F.  M. —  Knight  of  St.  Ferdinand  and  Merit, 
in  Sicily. 

Kg.,  Kgs.— Keg;  Kegs. 

K.  G. —  Knight  of  the  Garter. 

K.  G.  C— Knight  of  the  Golden  Circle;  Knight 
of  the  Grand  Cross. 

K.  G.  C.  B. —  Knight  of  the  Grand  Cross  of  the 
Bath. 

K.  G.  F. —  Knight  of  the  Golden  Fleece,  in  Spain. 

K.  G.  H. —  Knight  of  the  Guelphs  of  Hanover. 

K.  G.  V. —  Knight  of  Gustavus  Vasa,  in  Sweden. 

K.  H. —  Knight  of  Hanover. 

Ki. —  Kings. 

Kilo.,  Kilog. —  Kilogram. 

Kilo.,  Kilom. —  Kilometer. 

Kingd. —  Kingdom. 

K.  J. —  Knight  of  St.  Joachim. 

K.  L. —  Knights  of  Labor. 

K.  L.,  or  K.  L.  A. —  Knight  of  Leopold  of  Aus- 
tria. 

K.  L.  H. — Knight  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

K.  M.—  Knight  of  Malta. 

K.  Mess. —  King's  Messenger. 

K.  M.  H  —  Knight  of  Merit  of  Holstein. 

K.  M.  J. —  Knight  of  Maximilian  Joseph,  in  Ba- 
varia. 

K.  M.  T. —  Knight  of  Maria  Theresa,  in  Austria. 

Knick. —  Knickerbocker. 

K.  N.  S.— Knight  of  the  North  Star,  in 
Sweden. 

Knt.  or  Kt. —  Knight. 

K.  P.— Knight  of  St.  Patrick;  Knight  of 
Pythias. 

K.  R.  C— Knight  of  the  Red  Cross. 

K.  R.  E. —  Knight  of  the  Red  Eagle,  in  Prussia. 

K.  S. —  Knight  of  the  Sword,  in  Sweden. 

K.  S.  A. —  Knight  of  St.  Anne,  in  Russia. 

K.  S.  E. —  Knight  of  St.  Esprit,  in  France. 

K.  S.  F. —  Knight  of  St.  Fernando,  in  Spain. 

K.  S.  F.  M.—  Knight  of  St.  Ferdinand  and  Mer- 
it, in  Naples. 

K.  S.  G —  Knight  of  St.  George,  in  Russia. 

K.  S.  H.—  Knight  of  St.  Hubert,  in  Bavaria. 

K.  S.  J. —  Knight  of  St.  Januarius,  in  Naples. 

K.  S.  L. — Knight  of  the  Sun  and  Lion,  in  Persia. 

K.  S.  M.  &  S.  G— Knight  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George,  in  the  Ionian  Islands. 

K.  S.  P. —  Knight  of  St.  Stanislaus  of  Poland. 

K  S.  S. — Knight  of  the  Southern  Star,  in  Bra- 
zil ;  Knight  of  the  Sword  of  Sweden. 

K.  S.  W. — Knight  of  St.  Wladimir,  in  Russia. 

Kt. —  Knight. 

K.  T. —  Knight  of  the  Thistle ;  Knight  Templar. 

K.  1. 1.  (GnK.r.X). —  Kat  ra  \dwo^va  {kai  ta  Icipo- 
mena), .  or  \017ra  (loipa),  and  so  forth;  and  the 
rest;  same  as  «  etc.» 

K.  T.  S. — ■  Knight  of  the  Tower  and  Sword,  in 
Portugal. 

K.  W. —  Knight  of  William,  in  the  Netherlands. 

K.  W.  E.—  Knight  of  the  White  Eagle,  in  Po- 
land. 

Ky. —  Kentucky. 

L. —  Lake;    Liber,   book;    Libra,    libra,    pound, 

pounds 
L:  (Lib.  cat.). —  Louis. 
L. .    (Lib.  cat.). —  Louise. 
La. —  Louisiana. 


L.  A.  C. —  Licentiate  of  the  Apothecaries'  Com- 
pany. 

Lam. —  Lamentations. 

Lang. —  Language. 

Lapp. —  Lappish. 

Lat. —  Latitude;  Latin. 

L.  A.   W. —  League  of  American  Wheelmen. 

Lb.,  or  lbs. —  Libra  or  libra,  pound  or  pounds 
in  weight. 

L.  C. —  Loco  citato,  in  the  place  cited;  Lord 
Chamberlain ;  Lord  Chancellor ;  Lower  Can- 
ada ;  Lower  case. 

L.  C.  B. —  Lord  Chief  Baron. 

L.  C.  J. —  Lord  Chief  Justice. 

L.  C.  M. —  Least  common  multiple. 

Ld. —  Lord;  Limited. 

Ldp. —  Lordship. 

Leg. —  Legal ;  Legate. 

Legis. —  Legislature. 

Leip. — ■  Leipsic. 

Lett. —  Lettish. 

Lev. —  Leviticus. 

Lex. —  Lexicon. 

L.  G. —  Life  Guards. 

L.  H.  A. —  Lord  High  Admiral. 

L.  H.  C. —  Lord  High  Chancellor. 

L.  H.  D. —  Litterarum  Humaniorutn  Doctor, 
Doctor  of  the  More  Humane  Letters. 

L.  H.  T. —  Lord  High  Treasurer. 

L.  I. —  Long  Island. 

Lib. — Liber,  book. 

Lieut. —  Lieutenant. 

Lieut. -Col. —  Lieutenant-Colonel. 

Lieut.-Gen. —  Lieutenant-General. 

Lieut.-Gov. —  Lieutenant-Governor 

Lim. —  Limited. 

Lin. —  Lineal. 

Linn. —  Linnaeus  ;  Linnxan. 

Liq. —  Liquid  ;  Liquidation  ;  Liquor. 

Lit. —  Literally ;  Literature. 

Lith. —  Lithuanian. 

L.  L. —  Loco  laudato,  in  the  place  praised  (quot- 
ed) ;   Lord  Lieutenant. 

L.  Lat. —  Low  Latin ;  Law  Latin. 

LL.  B. —  Legum  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

LL.  D. —  Legum  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

LL.  M. —  Legum  Magistcr,  Master  of  Laws. 

L.  M. —  Long  metre. 

L.  M.  D. —  Long  metre  double. 

L.  M.  S. —  London  Missionary  Society. 

Loc.  cit. —  Loco  citato,  in  the  place  cited. 

Lon. —  Longitude. 

Lond. —  London. 

L.  P. —  Large  Paper  ;  Lord  Provost. 

L.  P.  M. —  Long  particular  metre. 

L.  P.  S.—  Lord  Privy  Seal. 

L.  R.  C.  P.—  Licentiate  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians. 

L.  R.  C.  S.— Licentiate  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons. 

L.  S. —  Locus  sigilli,  place  of  the  seal. 

L.  S.  D. —  Pounds,  shillings,  and  pence. 

Lt. —  Lieutenant. 

Lt.  Inf. —  Light  Infantry. 

L.  U.  E. —  Left  upper  entrance. 

LXX. —  The  Septuagint  (Version  of  the  Old 
Testament). 

M. —  Married ;   Meridics,  noon  ;   Mile  ;   Mille,  a 
thousand;  Minute,  minutes;  Monsieur,  mister. 
M:   (Lib.  cat.). —  Matthew. 
M..   (Lib.  cat.). —  Mary. 
M.  A. —  Master  of  Arts ;  Military  Academy. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


M.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. —  Member  American  Society 
Civil  Engineei  s. 

Mace. —  Maccabees. 

Maced.     Mao  donian. 

Mag. —  Magazine. 

Mil. —  Major. 

Maj    Gen. —  Major-Genera!. 

Mai. —  Malachi. 

Man. —  Manassas. 

Mar. —  March. 

March. —  Marchioness. 

Marg. —  Margin;   Marginal. 

Marq. —  Marquis. 

Masc —  Masculine. 

Mass. —  Massachusetts. 

Math. —  Mathematics  ;  Mathematician. 

Matt. —  Matthew. 

Max. —  Maxim. 

M.  B. —  Medicines  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of 
Medicine;  Musicte  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of 
Music. 

M.  B.  F.  et  II. —  Magna  Britannia,  Francia.  el 
Hibemia,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland. 

M.  C. —  Member  of  Congress;  Master  of  Cere- 
monies; Master  Commandant. 

Mch.— March. 

M.  C.  S. —  Madras  Civil  Service. 

Md.  —  Maryland. 

M.   I). —  Medicina  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Mdlle. —  Mademoiselle. 

Mdse. —  Merchandise. 

Me.  —  Maine. 

M.  E. —  Methodist  Episcopal;  Military  or  Me- 
chanical Engineer. 

Mech. —  Mechanic  ;  Mechanical. 

M     il       -  Medicine. 

M.  E.  G.  H.  P.— Most  Excellent  Grand  High 
Priest. 

Mem. —  Memento,   remember;   Memorandum. 

Merc. —  Mercury. 

M.  E.  S. —  Methodist  Episcopal,  South. 

Mess.  &  Docs. —  Messages  and  Documents. 

Messrs. — Messieurs,  Gentlemen. 

Met-  -  Metaphysics. 

Metal. —  Metallurgy. 

Meteor. —  Meteorology. 

Meth. —  Methodist. 

Mi  ■■ — Mexico,  or  Mexican. 

M.  F.  A. —  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

Mfd. —  Manufactured. 

Mfg. —  Manufacturing. 

M.  F.  II. —  Master  of  Foxhounds. 

Mfrs. —  Manufacturers. 

Mfs. —  Manufactures. 

M.  Goth. —  Mccso-Gotliic. 

Mic. —  Micah. 

M.  I.  C.  E. —  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers. 

Mich. —  Michael;   Michaelmas;  Michigan. 

Mil  — Military. 

Min. —  Mineralogy;  Mining;  Minute,  minutes. 

Minn. —  Minne 

Min.  Plen. —  Minister  Plenipotentiary. 

Mir.  for  Mag. —  Mirror  for  Magistrates. 

Miss  —  Mississippi. 

M.  I..  A  —  Mercantile  Library  Association. 

MM. —  Messieurs,  Gentlemen;  (Their)  Majes- 
ties. 

Mine. —  Madame.  Madam. 

M.  M.  S. —  Moravian  Missionary  Society. 

M.  M.  S.  S. —  Massachuseltensis  Medicines  So- 
cietatis  Socius,  Fellow  of  the  Massachusetts 
Medical  Society. 


M.  N.  A.  S. —  Member  of  the  National  Academy 
of  Sciences. 

Mo. —  Missouri;  Month. 

Mod. —  Modern. 

Mon. —  Montana;  Monday. 

Mons. —  Monsieur,  Sir. 

Mont. —  Montana. 

Morn. —  Morning. 

Mos. —  Months. 

M.  1'. —  Member  of  Parliament;  Member  of  Po- 
lice ;  Methodist  Protestant 

M.  P.   P. —  Member  of  Provincial  Parliament. 

M.    P.    S. —  Member  of  the  Philological   Society; 

Member  of  the  Pharmaceutical  Society. 

Mr. —  Mister. 

M.  R.-  -Master  of  the  Rolls. 
M.  K.  A.  S. —  Member  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  So- 
ciety; Member  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sci- 

i  nee. 
M.  R.  C.  C. —  Member  of  the  Royal  College  of 

Chemistry. 
M.  R.  C.  P. —  Member  of  the  Royal  College  of 

Preceptors. 
M.  R.  C.  S.— Member  of  the  Royal  College  of 

Surgeons. 
M.  R.  C.  y.  S.— Member  of  the  Royal  College 

of  Veterinary   Surgeons. 
M.  R.  G.  S. —  Member  of  the  Royal  Geographical 

S^  iciety. 
M.   R.   I. —  Member  of  the  Royal  Institution. 
M.     R.     I.     A  — Member    of    the     Royal     Irish 

Academy. 
Mrs. —  Mistress. 
M     R.  S.  L.— Member  of  the  Royal  Society  of 

Literature. 
MS. —  Manuscriptum,  manuscript. 
M.    S. —  Master    of   Science;    Memories  sacrum, 

sacred  to  the  memory. 
M.  S.  A. —  Master  of  Science  in  Agriculture. 
M.  S.  L. —  Mean  sea  level. 
MSS. —  Manuscripta,  manuscripts. 
Mt. —  Mount,   or   mountain. 
M.  T.  C. —  Marcus  Tullius  Cicero. 
Mth  ;  Mths  —  Month  ;    Months. 
Mus.    B. —  Musica    Baccalaureus,    Bachelor    of 

Music. 
Mus.  D. —  Musica-  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Music. 
M.    W.—  Most   Worthy;   Most  Worshipful. 
M.    W.   G.    C.    P.— Most   Worthy   Grand   Chief 

Patriai  ch. 
M.    W.    (',.   M  —  Most    Worthy   Grand   Master; 

Most   Worshipful  Grand   Master. 
M.  W.  P.-     Most  Worthy  Patriarch. 
Myth. —  Mythology. 

N. —  Neuter;  North;   Note;  Noun;  Number. 

N  :    (  Lib.  cat.). —  Nicholas. 

N.  .   (Lib.  cat.). —  Nancy. 

Na.— Nail. 

N.  A. —  National  Academician;  North  America; 

North  American. 
Nab. —  Nahum. 
Nap. —  Napi  ilei  >n :  Napoleonic. 
N.  A.  S. —  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 
Nat. —  Natural. 

Nath. —  Nathanael,  or  Nathaniel. 
Nat.  Ord. —  Natural  Order. 
Naut. —  Nautical. 
Naut.  Aim. —  Nautical  Almanac. 
N.    B. — New    Brunswick;    North'    Britain    (i.e. 

Scotland)  ;  North  British  (i.e.  Scotch)  ;  Nota 

bene,  mark  well ;  take  notice. 
N.  C. —  North  Carolina. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


N.  D.—  No  date ;  Not  dated  ;  North  Dakota. 

N.   E. — New  England  ;   Northeast. 

Neb. — ■  Nebraska. 

Neh. —  Nehemiah. 

N.  e.  i. —  Non  est  inventus,  he  is  not  found. 

Nem.  con.,  or  nem.  diss. —  Nemine  contradi- 
cente,  or  nemine  disscntientc,  no  one  opposing 
or  dissenting;   unanimously. 

Neth. —  Netherlands. 

Neut. —  Neuter  (gender). 

Nev. —  Nevada. 

N.  F. —  Newfoundland. 

N.  G. —  New  Granada;  Noble  Grand;  (slang) 
No  good. 

N.  H. — -New  Hampshire. 

N.  J. —  New  Jersey. 

N.  I. —  Non  liquet,  it  does  not  appear. 

N.  lat.— North  latitude. 

N.  M. —  New  measurement ;  New  Mexico. 

N.  N.  E. —  North-northeast. 

N.  N.  W. —  North-northwest. 

No. —  Numero,  number. 

N.  O. —  New  Orleans. 

Nol.  Pros. —  Nolle  prosequi,  unwilling  to  pro- 
ceed. 

Nom. —  Nominative. 

Non-com. —  Non-commissioned    (officer) . 

Non  con. —  Not  content;  dissenting  (House  of 
Lords). 

Non  cul. —  Non  culpdbilis,  not  guilty. 

Non  obst. —  Non  obstante,  notwithstanding. 

Non  pros. —  Non  prosequitur,  he  does  not  prose- 
cute. 

Non  seq. —  Non  sequitur,  it  does  not  follow 

N.  o.  p. —  Not  otherwise  provided  for. 

Nos. —  Numbers. 

Notts. —  Nottinghamshire. 

Nov. —  November. 

N.  P. — Nisi  Prius;  Notary  Public. 

N.  P.  D. —  North  Polar  Distance. 

N.  S. —  New  Series ;  New  Style  (after  1752)  ; 
Not  specified  :  Nova  Scotia. 

N.  S.  J.  C. — Nostcr  Salvator  Jesus  Christus, 
Our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ. 

N.  S.  W.—  New  South  Wales. 

N.  T. —  New  Testament. 

N.  u. —  Name  or  names  unknown. 

Num. —  Numbers    (Book  of);    Numeral. 

N.  V. —  New  Version. 

N.  V.  M. —  Nativity  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

N.  W. —  Northwest. 

N.  W.  T. —  Northwest  Territory. 

N.  Y.— New  York. 

N.  Z. —  New  Zealand. 

O— Ohio. 

O:   (Lib.  cat.).— Otto. 

O..  (Lib.  cat.).— Olivia. 

Ob. —  Obiit,  he  or  she  died. 

Obad.— Obadiah. 

Obs. —  Obsolete;  Observatory;  Observation. 

Obt.,  or  Obdt.—  Obedient. 

Oct.— October. 

Oct.,  or  8vo. —  Octavo. 

O.   F.— Odd  Fellow,  or  Odd  Fellows. 

O.  G. —  Outside  Guardian. 

O.  H.  M.  S. —  On  His  or  Her  Majesty's  Service. 

O.  K.  (Jocular) — All  right  or  correct. 

Okl.— Oklahoma. 

Olym. —  Olympiad. 

O.  M. —  Old  Measurement. 

Ont. —  Ontario. 

Opt.—  Optics. 


Or.,  Ore.,  Oreg. —  Oregon. 

Orig. —  Originally. 

Ornith. —  Ornithology. 

O.  S  —  Old  Series;  Old  Style;  Outside  Sentinel. 

O.  T.— Old  Testament. 

O.  U.  A. —  Order  of  United  Americans. 

Oxf.— Oxford. 

Oxon. —  O.ronia,  Oxford;   Oxonia,  Oxoniensis, 

of  Oxford. 
Oz. — ■  Onsa,  ounce. 

P. —  Page  ;  Part ;  Participle  ;  Pondcre,  by  weight. 

P:   (Lib.  cat.).— Peter. 

P..    (Lib.  cat.).— Pauline. 

Pa.,  or  Penn. —  Pennsylvania. 

Pal. —  Palxontology. 

Par. —  Paragraph. 

Pari. —  Parliament. 

Par.  Pas. —  Parallel  passage. 

Pathol. —  Pathology. 

Pat.  Of.—  Patent  Office. 

Paym.-Gen. —  Paymaster-General. 

Payt. — ■  Payment. 

P.  B. —  Philosophies  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy;  Primitive  Baptist. 

P.  C. —  Patres  Conscripti,  Conscript  Fathers, 
Senators  ;  Postal  card  ;  Privy  Council ;  Privy 
Councilor. 

P.  C.  P.— Past  Chief  Patriarch. 

P.  C.  S. —  Principal  Clerk  of  Sessions. 

Pd.—  Paid. 

P.  D.— Philosophic?  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Phi- 
losophy. 

P.  E. — -Protestant  Episcopal. 

P.  E.  I. —  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Penn. —  Pennsylvania. 

Pent. —  Pentecost. 

Per. —  Persia;  Persian. 

Per  an. —  Per  annum,  by  the  year. 

Per  cent. —  Per  centum,  by  the  hundred. 

Peri.—  Perigee. 

Per  proc. —  Per  procurationem,  by  procuration, 
or  by  power  of  attorney. 

Peruv. — ■  Peruvian. 

Pet. —  Peter;  Petrine. 

P.  G—  Past  Grand. 

Phar. —  Pharmacy. 

Ph.  B. —  Philosophies  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy. 

Ph.  D.—  Philosopliite  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Phi- 
losophy. 

Phil. —  Philadelphia ;  Philemon;  Philip;  Philip- 
pians  ;  Philosophical  ;  Philosophy. 

Phila.— Philadelphia. 

Philem. —  Philemon. 

Philom. —  Philomathes,  a  lover  of  learning. 

Philomath.- — Philomathematicus,  a  lover  of 
mathematics. 

Phren. —  Phrenology. 

P.  I. —  Philippine  Islands. 

Pinx.,  or  pxt. —  Pinxit,  he   (she)   painted  it. 

Pk.—  Peck. 

Pkt.—  Packet. 

PI.,  or  Plur.—  Plural. 

P.  L. —  Foet  Laureate. 

Plfif.— Plaintiff. 

Plupf. —  Pluperfect. 

P.  M. —  Passed  Midshipman;  Post  meridiem, 
afternoon,  evening;   Postmaster. 

P.  M.  G. —  Postmaster-General. 

Po.— Pole. 

P.  O. —  Tost-Officc  ;   Province  of  Ontario. 

P.  of  H. —  Patrons  of  Husbandry. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


P.-O.  O  —  Post-Office  order. 

Pop. —  Population. 

Port. —  Portugal,  or  Portuguese. 

Pp. —  Pages. 

PP.— Patres.  Fathers. 

P.  P. —  Parish  priest ;  Per  procurationem,  by 
procuration,  or  by  power  of  attorney. 

P.  P.  C. —  Pour  prendre  conge,  to  take  leave. 

Pph.—  Pamphlet. 

P.  Q. —  Previous  Question ;  Province  of  Quebec. 

Pr. —  Per,  by,  or  by  the. 

P.  R. —  Populus  Romanus,  the  Roman  people; 
Porto  Rico;  Prize  Ring. 

P.  R.  A. —  President  of  the  Royal  Academy. 

P.  R.  C. —  Post  Romanum  conditum,  from  the 
building  of  Rome. 

Preb.—  Prebend. 

Pref. —  Preface;  Preferred. 

Prep. —  Preparatory;    Preposition. 

Pres. —  President. 

Presb. —  Presbyterian. 

Prin. —  Principally. 

Priv. —  Privative. 

Pro. —  Procedure. 

Prob.—  Probably ;  Problem. 

Proc. —  Proceedings  ;   Procedure. 

Prof. —  Professor. 

Pron. —  Pronoun  ;    Pronounced ;    Pronunciation. 

Prop. —  Proposition. 

Prot. —  Protestant. 

Pro  tern. —  Pro  tempore,  for  the  time  being. 

Prov. —  Proverbs ;  Province ;   Provost. 

Prox. —  Proximo,  next  (month). 

Prs. —  Pairs. 

P.  R.  S. —  President  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Prus. —  Prussia;  Prussian. 

Ps. —  Psalm,  or  Psalms. 

P.  S. —  Paddle  steamer;  Post  scriptum,  post- 
script;  Privy  Seal. 

Psych. —  Psychic  ;   Psychical ;  Psychology. 

Pt  —  Part ;  Pint ;   Payment  ;   Point ;   Port. 

P.  T.  O. —  Please  turn  over. 

Pub. —  Publisher ;  Publication  ;  Published ;  Pub- 
lic. 

P.  v. —  Post-village. 

P.  W.  P.— Past  Worthy  Patriarch. 

Pwt. — ■  Pennyweight ;  pennyweights. 

Pxt. —  Pinxit,  he   (or  she)   painted  it. 

Q. — Quadrigans.    farthing;    Quasi,    as    it    were, 

almost ;  Queen  ;  Query',  or  question. 
Q.  B. —  Queen's  Bench. 
Q-  C. —  Queen's  College  ;   Queen's  Counsel. 
Q.  d. —  Quasi  dicat,  as  if  he  should  say;  quasi 

dictum,  as  if  said;  quasi  dixisset,  as  if  he  had 

said. 
Q.  c. —  Quod  est,  which  is. 
Q.  e.  d. —  Quod  erat  demonstrandum,  which  was 

to  be  proved. 
Q.  e.  f. —  Quod  erat  faciendum,  which  was  to  be 

done. 
Q.  e.  i. —  Quod  erat  inveniendum,  which  was  to 

be  found  out. 
Q.  1. —  Quantum  libet,  as  much  as  you  please. 
Qm. —  Quomodo,  how;  by  what  means. 
Q.  M. —  Quartermaster. 
Q.  Mess. —  Queen's  Messenger. 
Q.  M.  G. —  Quartermaster-General. 
Q.  p..  or  q.  pi. —  Quantum  placet,  as  much  as  you 

please. 
Qr. —  Quarter. 
Q.  S. —  Quantum  sufiicit,  as  much  as  may  suffice  ; 

Quarter  Sessions. 


Qt.— Quart. 

(Ju.,  or  qy, —  Oniric,  inquire;  query. 

Quad. —  (Juadrant ;   Quadrate. 

Quar. —  Quarterly. 

Que. —  Quebec. 

Ques. —  Question. 

Q.  V. —  Quod  vide,  which  see;  Quantum  j -is.  as 
much  as  you  will. 

R. —  Railroad;  Railway;  Recipe,  take;  Regina, 
Queen;    River;   Rod;   Rood. 

R:    (Lib.   cat.).— Richard. 

R. .    (Lib.  cat.). —  Rebec 

R.  A. —  Royal  Academician;  Royal  Academy; 
Royal  Arch ;   Royal   Artillery. 

RC. — ■  Reseriptum,  a  counterpart. 

R.  C. —  Roman  Catholic. 

R.  C.  S. —  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 

R.  C.  P. —  Royal  College  of  Physicians. 

R.  D.—  Rural  Dean. 

R.  E. —  Reformed  Episcopal;   Royal   Engineers. 

Rec. —  Recipe ;  Record  ;  Recorder ;  Recording. 

Reed. —  Received. 

Rect. —  Rector;  Receipt. 

Ref. —  Reformed  ;  Reformation  ;  Reference. 

Reg. —  Regiment;  Register;  Registrar;  Regular. 

Reg.  Prof. —  Regius  Professor,  Royal  Professor. 

Rel. —  Religion. 

Rep. —  Report ;  Reporter ;  Representative  ;  Re- 
public;  Republican. 

Retd. —  Returned. 

Rev. —  Reverend;  Revelation  (Book  of);  Re- 
view;  Revenue;  Revise. 

Rhet. —  Rheti 

R.  H.  S. —  Royal  Humane  Society;  Royal  His- 
torical Society. 

R.  I.— Rhode  Island. 

R.  I.  P. —  Requiescat  in  pace,  Let  him  (her) 
rest  in  peace. 

R.   M. —  Royal   Marines;  Royal  Mail. 

K.  M.  S. —  Railway  Mail  Service;  Royal  Mail 
Service :    Roval   Mail   Steamer. 

R.  N.—  Roval  Navy. 

R.  X.  R.  -Royal  Naval  Reserve. 

Ro. —  Recto,  right-hand  page;  rood. 

Robt.—  Robert. 

Rom. —  Roman  ;  Romans. 

R.  P. —  Reformed  Presbyterian;  Regius  Profes- 
sor, Roval  Professor. 

R.  R.— Railroad. 

Rs. —  Rupees. 

R.  S. —  Recording  Secretary. 

R.  S.  A. —  Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries  ;  Royal 
Scottish  Academy. 

R.  S.  V.  P. —  Repondec,  s'il  i-ous  plait,  answer, 
if  you  please. 

Rt.  Hon. —  Right  Honorable. 

Rt.  Rev. —  Right  Reverend. 

R.  T.  S. —  Religious  Tract  Society. 

Rt.  WpfuL—  Right  Worshipful. 

R.  U.  E. —  Right  upper  entrance. 

Russ. —  Russia;  Russian. 

R.  V. —  Revised  Version. 

R.  W.  D.  G.  M.— Right  Worshipful  Deputy 
Grand  Master. 

R.  W.  G.  R  —  Right  Worthy  Grand  Representa- 
tive. 

R.  W.  G.  S.—  Right  Worthy  Grand  Secretary. 

R.  \y.  G.  T.— Right  Worthy  Grand  Treasurer; 
Right  Worshipful  Grand  Templar. 

R.  W.  G.  W.—  Right  Worthy  Grand  Warden. 

R.  W.  J.  G.  W.— Right  Worshipful  Junior 
Grand  Warden. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


R.    W.    S.    G.    XV.—  Righl    Worshipful    Senior 

Grand  Warden. 
Rx. —  Rupees. 
Ry. —  Railway. 

S. — -Saint;  Scribe;  Second:  Series;  Solidus,  a 
shilling;  South:  Sun;  Sunday. 

S:  (Lib.  cat.). —  Samuel. 

S. .   (Lib.  cat.)- — Sarah. 

S.  A. —  Secundum  artem,  according  to  art; 
South  America ;  South  Australia. 

Sam. —  Samuel. 

Sansc,  or  Sansk. —  Sanscrit,  or  Sanskrit. 

Sard.—  Sardinia. 

S.  A.  S. —  Societatis  Antiquariorum  Socius,  Fel- 
low of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 

Sat. —  Saturday. 

Sax. —  Saxon  ;   Saxony. 

S.  C. —  Scnatus  Consultum,  a  decree  of  the  Sen- 
ate; Small  capitals;  South  Carolina;  Staff 
Corps ;  Supreme  Court. 

Sc. —  Scene  ;  Scilicet,  namely,  to  wit ;  Scruple ; 
Sculpsit,  he   (or  she)   engraved  it. 

Scan.  Mag. — -Scandalum  magnatiim,  scandal  of 
the  great. 

Scapa  (S.  C.  A.  P.  A.). —  Society  for  Checking 
Abuses  in    Public  Advertising. 

Sc.  B. — -Scientice  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of  Sci- 
ence. 

Schol. —  Scholium,  a  note. 

Schr. —  Schooner. 

Sclav. —  Sclavonic. 

Scot. —  Scottish  ;   Scotland. 

Scr. —  Scruple. 

Scrip. —  Scripture. 

Sculp. —  Sculpsit,  he  (or  she)  engraved  it. 

S.  D. —  Sainton  dicit,  sends  health;  Senior  Dea- 
con ;  South  Dakota. 

S.  D.  U.  K. —  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Use- 
ful Knowledge. 

S.  E. —  Southeast. 

Sec—  Secretary ;   Second  ;   Section. 

Sec.  Leg. —  Secretary  of  Legation;  Secundum 
legem,  according  to  law. 

Sec.  Reg. —  Secundum  rcgulam,  according  to 
rule. 

Sect. —  Section. 

Sem. —  Scmble,   it   seems;    Seminary. 

Sen. —  Senate  ;   Senator  ;   Senior. 

Sept.—  September ;  Septuagint. 

Seq. —  Sequentia,  following;  Sequitur,  it  follows. 

Ser. —  Series. 

Serg. —  Sergeant. 

Serg.-Maj. —  Sergeant-Major. 

Servt. —  Servant. 

Sess. —  Session. 

S.-G. —  Solicitor-General. 

Shak. —  Shakespeare. 

S.  H.  ,S. —  Societatis  Historic?  Socius,  Fellow  of 
the   Historical   Society. 

S.  I.  M. —  Society  for  Increase  of  the  Ministry. 

Sing. —  Singular. 

S.  J. — ■  Society  of  Jesus. 

S.  J.  C. —  Supreme  Judicial  Court. 

S.  M. —  State  Militia;  Short  Meter;  Sergeant- 
Major;  Sons  of  Malta. 

S.  M.  Lond.  Soc. —  Societatis  Medicce  Londo- 
nensis  Socius,  Member  of  the  London  Medical 
Society. 

Soc.   Isl. —  Society  Islands. 

S.  of  Sol. —  Song  of  Solomon. 

Sol. —  Solomon  ;   Solution. 

Sol. -Gen. —  Solicitor-General. 


Sp. —  Spain  ;  Spanish. 

S.  P. —  Sine  prole,  without  issue. 

S.  P.  A.  S. — Societatis  Philosophies  Americana 
Socius,  Member  of  the  American  Philosophi- 
cal Society. 

S.  P.  C.  A. —  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Animals. 

S.  P.  C.  C. —  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Children. 

S.  P.  C.  K—  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Christian  Knowledge. 

S.  P.  G. —  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel. 

Sp.  gr. —  Specific  gravity. 

S.  P.  M. — ■  Short  particular  metre. 

S.  P.  Q.  R. —  Senatus  Populusque  Romanus,  the 
Senate  and  people  of  Rome. 

S.  P.  R.  L. —  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Re- 
ligion and  Learning. 

Sq.- — Scquens,  following;  usually  ct  seq.,  and 
following  (pages)  ;  Square. 

Sqq. —  Sequcntibus,  the  following  (pages  or 
places). 

Sr. — ■  Senior. 

S.  R.  I. —  Sacrum  Romanian  Imperium,  Holy 
Roman  Empire. 

S.  R.  S. —  Societatis  Regice  Socius,  Fellow  of  the 
Royal   Society. 

SS. —  Saints;  Scilicet,  to  wit;  Semis,  half;  Ses- 
sions. 

S.  S. —  Screw  steamer  ;  Steamship  ;  Sunday- 
school. 

S.  S.  E. —  South-southeast. 

S.  S.  W. —  South-southwest. 

St. —  Saint ;  Statute ;  Stone ;  Strait ;  Street 

Sta. —  Station. 

Stat. —  Statute. 

S.  T.  B. —  Sacrce  Theologies  Baccalaureus,  Bach- 
elor of  Sacred  Theology. 

S.  T.  D. —  Sacrce  Theologian  Doctor,  Doctor  of 
Sacred  Theology. 

Ster.,  or  Stg. —  Sterling. 

S.  T.  P. —  Sacrce  Theologia  Professor,  Pro- 
fessor of  Sacred  Theology. 

Str. —  Steamer. 

Subj. —  Subjunctive. 

Subst. — ■  Substantive. 

Su.-Goth. —  Suio-Gothic. 

Sun.,  or  Sund. —  Sunday. 

Sup. —  Superfine ;  Supplement ;  Supra,  above , 
Supreme. 

Supt. —  Superintendent. 

Surg. —  Surgeon  ;   Surgery. 

Surg.-Gen. —  Surgeon-General. 

Surv. —  Surveyor. 

S.    V. —  Sub    voce,    under    the    word    or    title. 

Sw. —  Swiss. 

S.  W.—  Southwest. 

Swe. —  Sweden;  Swedish;  Swedenborg;  Swe- 
denborgian. 

Switz. —  Switzerland. 

Syn. —  Synonym  ;  Synonymous. 

Syr. —  Syriac 

T. — Term  ;  Territory  :  Tome,  volume. 

T:    (Lib.  cat). — Thomas. 

T.  .    (Lib.  cat). —  Theresa. 

Tab. —  Table  ;  Tabular. 

Tan. —  Tangent. 

T.   E. —  Topographical    Engineers. 

Tenn. —  Tennessee. 

Ter. —  Territory. 

Tex. —  Texas. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Text.  Rcc. —  Textus  Receptus,  Received  Text. 

Tf.— Till  forbidden. 

Tfn. —  Till  further  notice. 

Th. — Thui 

Thco. —  Theodore. 

Theol. —  1  neology  ;    1  hcological. 

Theoph. —  Theophilus. 

Theor. — 'I  In  i  iri  in 

Thess. —  Thessalonians. 

Thos. —  Thomas. 

Thurs. — Thursday. 

Tim.—  Timi  ithj 

Tit— Title  ;  Titus. 

T.  O. —  Turn  over. 

Tob.— Tobit 

Tom. — Tome,  volume. 

Topog. —  Topography  ;   Topographical. 

Tp. —  Township. 

Tr. —  Transpose;         Translator;        Translation; 

Trustee. 
Trans. —  Translator;  Translation;  Transactions; 

Tran -r 
Treas. —  Treasurer. 
Trill. — Trinity. 
Tr.   S. — Triple  screw. 
T.   S. — 'Twin   screw. 
Tu.,  Tue.,  or  Tues. — Tuesday. 
Tur. —  Turkey. 
Typ. —  Typical ;   Typographer  ;   Typographical. 

U. —  Union. 

U:    (Lib.   cat.).— Uriah. 
I.— Ursula. 
U.   B.-  -  United   Brethren. 
U.  C. —  Upper  Canada  ;  /  Wbe  condita,  year  of  the 

founding   of    Home. 
I".    J.    C. —  I  'triusque   Juris    Doctor,   Doctor   of 

both  Laws  i  Canon  and  Civil). 
U.  K.  -  I  nited   Kingdom. 

U.  K.  A. —  lister  King-at- Arms ;  United  King- 
dom Alliance. 
Ult. —  Ultimo,  last;  of  the  last  month. 
Unit. —  Unitarian. 

Univ. —  Universal;  Universalist ;  L'niversity. 
U.    P. —  \  iiiu  d  Presbyterian. 
U.  S. —  United  States;   Ut  supra,  or  uti  supra, 

as  above. 
U.    S.    A. —  United   States  of  America;    United 

States   Army. 
U.   S.   M  — United  States  Mail;  United   States 

Marines- 
U.  S.  M.  A. —  United  States  Military  Academy. 
U.  S.   M.  C. —  United  States  Marine  Corps. 
U.  S.  M.  H.  S. —  United  States  Marine  Hospital 

Service. 
U.  S.  N.— United  States  Navy. 
U.  S.  N.  A. —  United  States  Naval  Academy. 
U.  S.  S. —  United  States  Senate;  United  States 

Ship. 
U.  s.  w. —  Vnd  so  writer,  and  so  further;  same 

as  «ctc.» 
Ut— Utah. 

V. —  Versus,  against :  Versiculo,  in  such  a  verse; 

Vide,  see  ;  Village  ;  Violin. 
V:    (Lib.   cat.).— Victor. 
V..   (Lib.  cat.). —  Victoria. 
Va. — Virginia. 
Val  —  Valorem;  Value. 
Vat. — Vatican. 
V.    C. — Victoria    Cross ;    Vice-Chairman ;   Vicc- 

Chanccllor. 
V.  D.  L. — Van  Dicmen's  Land. 


V  I'.  M. — Verbi Dei  Minister,  Minister  of  God's 
u  i  >rd. 

Ven. — Venerable. 

Vei      Vei  se. 

V.  G. — Vicar-General. 

V.  g. — Verbi  gratia,  as  for  example. 

Vid. —  /  'id,  . 

Vise. — Viscount. 

Yi/..  or  vl. — Videlicet,  to  wit;   namely;  that   is 

to  say. 
Vo. — Verso,  left-hand  page. 
Vol. — Volume  ;  Volunteer. 
Vols. — Volunteers. 

V  P.— Vice-President. 

V.  R. — -Victoria  Regina,  Queen  Victoria. 

Vs. —  Versus,  against  ;  /  'ersiculo,  in  such  a  verse. 

V.  S.-  -Veterinary  Surgeon. 

N't. — Vermont. 

Vul.— Vulgate. 

W.— Wednesday ;  West. 

W:  (Lib.  cat.).— William. 

W.  .    (Lib.  cat.).—  Wilhclmina. 
gton. 

\V.   B.  M. — Woman's  Hoard  of  Missions. 

W.   C.   A. — Woman's   Christian   Association. 

W.  C.  T.  U.  Women's  Christian  Temperance 
Union. 

Wed.-  -Wednesday. 

W.  F.— Wrong  font. 

W.  F.  M.  S. — Woman's  Foreign  Missionary  So- 
ciety. 

W.  II.   M.  A. — Woman's  Home  Missionary  As- 
ition. 

W.   L—  West    Indies. 

Wis. —  Wisconsin. 

\\',m1.— Wisdom   (Book  of). 

W'k .—  Week. 

Wm. —  William 

W.    M. —  Worshipful    Master. 

W.  M.  S. —  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society. 

W.  X.  C.  T.  U. —  Woman's  National  Christian 
Temperance   Union. 

W.   N.  W.— West -northwest. 

W.  S.—  Writer  to  the  Signet. 

W.  S.  W.— West-southwest. 

Wt—  Weight. 

W.  Va. —  West   Virginia. 

Wyo. —  Wyoming. 

X.,  or  Xt. —  Christ.     (X  in  this  and  the  follow- 
ing abbreviations  is  the  Greek  clii.) 
X:  (Lib.  cat.). —  Xavier. 
Xmas.,  or  Xm. — •  Christmas. 
Xn..  or  Xtian. —  Christian. 
Xnty.,  or  Xty. —  Christianity. 
Xper.,  or  Xr. —  Christopher. 

Yd.—  Yard. 

Y.  M.  C.  A. —  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion. 

Y.   M.  C.  U. —  Young  Men's  Christian  Union. 

Y.  P.  S.  C.  E.— Young  People's  Society  of 
Christian  Endeavor. 

Yr.— Year:   Your. 

Yrs. —  Years;   Yours. 

Y.  W.  C.  A. — Young  Women's  Christian  Asso- 
ciation. 

Zach. —  Zachary. 
Zech. —  Zechariah. 
Zeph. —  Zephaniah. 
Zool. —  Zoology. 


ABD-ER-RAHMAN  —  ABDICATION 


Abbreviators,  a  body  of  72  writers  in  the 
Papal  Chancery  who  have  charge  of  sketching 
and  putting  in  shape  papal  bulls,  briefs,  and 
consistorial  decrees,  and  signing  them  in  the 
name  of  the  Cardinal  Vice-Chancellor.  This 
body  receives  its  name  from  the  fact  of  their 
taking  short-hand  notes  of  the  decisions  to  be 
later  expanded.  They  have  existed  at  least  since 
1400. 

Abd-er-Rahman  I.,  abd-er-ra'man,  founder 
of  the  Moorish  emirate  (later  caliphate)  of 
Cordova  (q.v.)  :  b.  Damascus,  731;  d.  788. 
He  was  a  grandson  of  the  Ommiad  caliph 
Hisham,  and  having  fled  to  Africa  escaped 
the  frightful  massacre  of  his  family  (see  Om- 
miads  and  Abbassides)  by  Abu  '1- Abbas;  a 
hunted  fugitive  in  the  desert,  but  faithfully 
protected  by  the  tribesmen,  who  respected  his 
blood  and  pitied  his  misfortunes.  Meanwhile 
Spain  was  seething  with  anarchy ;  each  new 
caliph  sent  a  new  emir  there ;  the  governor  of 
Africa  claimed  the  right  to  interfere  on  the 
ground  that  the  African  governors  had  cap- 
tured it ;  the  native  chiefs  were  unwilling  to 
submit  to  a  constant  succession  of  interlopers 
with  no  interest  but  their  own,  and  at  last  the 
situation  became  so  intolerable  that  the  Spanish 
Arabs  determined  to  choose  a  ruler  with  his 
residence  in  Spain.  They  selected  the  wander- 
ing heir  of  the  overthrown  house,  and  seeking 
him  out  in  Africa  offered  him  the  place.  He 
landed  in  Spain  25  Sept.  755,  and  fixed  his  royal 
seat  at  Cordova.  His  reign  was  one  of  incessant 
warfare.  Hosein  ben-Yahva,  the  Abbasside 
emir,  driven  from  Spain,  fled  to  Charlemagne 
and  implored  his  assistance ;  it  was  granted  and 
Hosein  was  re-enthroned  at  Saragossa,  but  while 
the  Frankish  army  was  returning  through  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Basque  mountaineers  fell  upon  the 
rear-guard  and  annihilated  it  in  the  pass  of 
Ronccsvalles,  with  its  commander  Roland.  Sar- 
agossa was  taken  after  two  years'  siege,  Ho- 
sein put  to  death  as  a  rebel,  and  Spain  to  the 
Pyrenees  subdued.  A  formidable  rising  in  786 
was  crushed,  and  Abd-er-Rahman  had  two  years 
of  life  to  devote  to  the  arts  of  peace  and  the 
building  of  his  famous  mosque  at  Cordova  (now 
used  as  a  cathedral),  with  its  rows  of  cupolas 
supported  by  850  pillars  of  jasper. 

Abd-er-Rahman  III.,  the  greatest  of  the 
caliphs  of  Cordova,  and  the  first  under  whom 
the  emirate  assumed  the  title  of  caliphate :  b. 
891,  acceded  912;  d.  961.  Measured  by  what 
he  found  and  what  he  left,  he  must  be  counted 
among  the  ablest  rulers  of  history.  The  former 
was  a  throne  to  which  most  of  the  provincial 
governors  had  thrown  off  allegiance,  and  the 
rest  rendered  such  obedience  as  suited  them ;  a 
country  in  a  state  of  permanent  anarchy  and  civil 
war,  perishing  of  racial,  religious,  and  factional 
quarrels  between  Arabs  and  Moors ;  the  Fatimite 
.dynasty  establishing  a  great  empire  in  Africa, 
and  looking  for  _  a  speedy  succession  to  the 
heritage  of  Spain;  on  the  north,  the  new 
Christian  states  rapidly  growing, — Alfonso  III. 
had  recently  moved  his  capital  across  the  moun- 
tains to  Leon,  and  Sancho  had  founded  the 
kingdom  of  Navarre, —  so  that  what  escaped  the 
Africans  would  probably  fall  into  the  hands  of 
the  Christians.  Abd-er-Rahman  first  put  down 
the  worst  internal  revolt,  that  of  the  family  of 
the    old    brigand    Omar    ben    Hafsun,    whose 


stronghold  in  the  mountains  of  Andalusia  had 
become  a  centre  for  all  the  renegades.  Chris- 
tians, and  rebels  of  the  south.  He  tied  the 
hands  of  the  Fatimites  by  subsidizing  the  native 
princes  who  held  out  against  them.  The  north- 
ern danger  was  the  worst.  Ordono  II.  in  914 
raided  the  territory  of  Merida ;  and  though 
Merida  had  thrown  off  allegiance  to  Cordova, 
Abd-er-Rahman  wished  the  more  to  show  them 
that  he  was  their  protector.  Collecting  and 
equipping  a  splendid  army,  in  918  he  gained  a 
great  victory  over  the  combined  forces  of  Leon 
and  Navarre,  following  it  up  with  several  cam- 
paigns in  which  he  penetrated  to  Pamplona,  the 
capital  of  Navarre.  These  victories  were  not 
final :  his  fortunes  were  checkered  on  the  Chris- 
tian side,  and  he  suffered  some  defeats.  But 
his  suzerainty  over  Navarre  was  recognized,  and 
in  960  a  deposed  king  was  reseated  on  the  throne 
of  Leon  by  Abd-er-Rahman's  troops.  Internal- 
ly his  success  and  glory  were  unqualified.  At 
his  death  he  left  a  consolidated  kingdom,  a  full 
treasury  in  place  of  an  empty  one.  internal  order 
kept  by  a  vigilant  police,  flourishing  agriculture 
based  on  scientific  irrigation,  prosperous  indus- 
tries, commerce  whose  customs  dues  furnished 
the  majority  of  the  revenue,  an  income  of  whicn 
one-third  paid  the  current  expenses  and  another 
third  was  used  for  building,  and  the  rest  kept 
for  a  reserve,  the  best  army  in  Europe,  a  superb 
navy  which  made  him  lord  of  the  gates  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  equality  in  diplomatic  rank 
with  the  proudest  sovereigns  of  the  world. 

Abd-er-Rahman,  Saracen  chieftain  who  led 
an  army  of  nearly  90,000  into  Gaul,  and  was  de- 
feated and  slain  near  Poitiers  (usually  known 
as  the  battle  of  Tours)  by  Charles  Martel 
(q.v.). 

Abd-er-Rahman.     See  Abd-ur-Rahman. 

Abdication,  in  strictness,  the  renunciation 
of  any  office  by  the  holder  before  the  expiration 
of  its  term ;  in  actual  use,  applied  only  to  sover- 
eign rulers,  dc  jure  or  dc  facto,  who  resign  the 
crown  in  their  lifetimes.  The  motives  for  this 
are  as  various  as  human  fate,  character,  policy, 
or  necessity,  or  the  events  of  history.  It  may  he 
compulsory- — in  which  case  it  is  really  not  abdi- 
cation but  deposition  —  or  voluntary.  Compulsion 
may  come  from  foreign  conquest ;  from  foreign 
commands  when  the  king  is  a  puppet,  as  with 
the  later  Polish  kings,  or  Napoleon's  shifting  his 
brothers  from  throne  to  throne ;  from  the  com- 
mands of  de  facto  controllers  of  the  state  within, 
as  with  the  puppet  Roman  emperors  under  the 
barbarian  commanders-in-chief  of  the  army;  or 
from  popular  or  factional  insurrection's.  If 
voluntary,  it  may  be  from  desire  to  let  a  con- 
stitutional machine  have  a  fair  chance  to  work 
alone,  as  with  Sulla  and  Diocletian  ;  from  satiety 
with  royal  power  and  weariness  of  royal  bur- 
dens, as  with  Murad  II.  of  Turkey ;  from  physi- 
cal ailments  and  discouragement,  as  with  the 
Emperor  Charles  V. :  from  penitence  and  desire 
to  live  a  religious  life,  as  with  more  than  one 
mediaeval  prince  who  furnished  real  models  for 
.Shakespeare's  usurper  in  <  As  You  Like  It  I  ; 
from  weariness  of  the  restraints  of  royal  eti- 
quette, as  with  Christina  of  Sweden, —  perhaps 
also  sincere  conversion  to  Catholicism  and  un- 
willingness to  enforce  a  Protestant  establish- 
ment ;  from  unwillingness  to  obey  an  overlord  to 
the  harm  of  his  kingdom,  as  with  Louis  Bona- 


ABDI-CHIBA  — ABDUCTION 


parte;  from  inability  to  face  the  results  of  crush- 
ing defeat,  as  with  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia; 
from    acceding    ti>    a    higher    throne,    as    with 

Charles  of  Naples;  from  shame  at  the  results  of 
a  bad  policy,  as  with  William  I.  of  the  Nether- 
lands; from  unwillini  o  retain  a  throne 
against  the  popular  will,  as  with  Louis  Philippe 
—  for  his  resignation  was  not  enforced;  or  other 
reasons.  In  monarchies  as  a  whole,  the  sover- 
eign can  abdicate  at  will ;  in  England,  only  by 
consent  of  Parliament  —  which  however,  as  in 
the  case  of  James  II.,  can  assume  an  implied 
abdication  which  the  monarch  had  no  intention 
of  executing,  the  term  being  a  euphemism  for 
deposition. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  chief 
historical   abdications,   with   their   dates: 

Sulla    the    Dictator B.C.     79 

Diocletian  the   Emperor a.d.  305 

Benedict     IX,     Pope 1048 

Stephen    TI    of    Hungary 1141 

Ladislas  111.   Duke  of   Poland 1167 

Albert    the    Hear   of    Brandenburg 1169 

John    Ballio!   of    Scotland 1296 

Joannes   Cantacuzenos,   Emperor  of  the    East 1355 

John   XX11I.   Pope 1415 

Eric   VII    of   Denmark  and   XIII  of   Sweden 1439 

Murad   II,   Ottoman    Emperor 1444  and    1445 

Charles  V,   Emperor 25   Oct.    155S 

Christina    of    Sweden 1654 

John  Casimir  of    Poland 1668 

James   II   of  England 1 688 

"Frederick   Augustus  of    Poland 1706 

Philip   V   of  Spain 1724 

Victor  Amadeus    11   »>f   Sardinia 1730 

Ahmed   III,   Ottoman    Emperor 1730 

Charles    of    Naples     (on    accession    to    throne    of 

Spain)     1759 

Stanislaus    II    of    Poland 1795 

Charles   Emanuel   IV   of   Sardinia 4    Tune    1802 

Charles  IV  of  Spain 19  March   1808 

Joseph    Bonaparte  of   Naples    (transferred  to   Spain 

by    Napoleon)     6    Tunc    1808 

Gustavus   IV   of  Sweden 29   March    1809 

Louis  lionaparte  of  Holland 2  July   1810 

Napoleon  1  of  France 1  April  1814  and  22  June  1815 

Victor  Emanuel  of  Sardinia 13   March   1821 

Charles    X    of    France 2   Aug.    1830 

Pedro   of    Brazil 7    April    1831 

(Also  abdicated  the  throne  of  Portugal  in_  favor 
of  his  daughter,  at  once  on  his  accession  in 
1826.) 

Miguel  of   Portugal 26  May  1834 

William    I   of  Holland I    Oct.    1840 

Louis    Philippe   of    France 24    Feb.    1848 

Louis    Charles   of    Bavaria 21    March    1848 

Ferdinand    of   Austria 2    Dec.    1848 

Charles   Albert   of    Sardinia 22    March    1849 

Leopold    11    of  Tuscany 21   July    1859 

Isabella    II    of    Spain 25    June    1870 

Amadeus    I    of   Spain 11    Feb.    1873 

Abdul- Aziz.   Sultan  of  Turkey 30  May   1876 

Pedro  II  of  Brazil 15   Nov.   1888 

Milan  of  Servia 0  March,  1889 

Abdiel,  ab'di-el  ("servant  of  God"),  the 
one  loyal  seraph  in  heaven,  according  to 
(Paradise  Lost,>  «  among  the  faithless,  faith- 
ful only  he,»  who  withstands  Satan  when  the 
latter  is  inciting  revolt  against  God  for  pro- 
moting his  Son  over  the  heads  of  the  angel 
peers.  Milton  took  the  name  from  the  Jew- 
ish cabalists. 

Abdomen,  ab-do'men,  in  human  anatomy, 
that  portion  of  the  body  bounded  above  by  the  di- 
aphragm, below  by  the  pelvis,  behind  by  the 
lumbar  vertebrae,  and  in  front  by  a  thin  layer  of 
muscles,  the  abdominal  muscles.  This  cavity  con- 
tains the  chief  organs  of  digestion  and  the  genito- 
urinary system.  By  reason  of  the  movements  of 
the  diaphragm  it  is  rhythmically  changing  its  size, 
and  the  movements  of  the  intestines  somewhat 
modify  its  internal  contour.  For  purposes  of 
description  and  for  localization  the  abdomen  is 


divided  by  a  tit-tat-toc  figure  into  nine  regions; 
the  upper  and  lower  horizontal  lines  passing  at 
the  lower  level  of  the  ribs  and  the  upper  borders 
of  the  pelvis.  From  above  downward  tile  mid- 
dle squares  are  termed  the  epigastric,  the  um- 
bilical, and  hypogastric;  to  the  sides  of  the 
epigastric  regions  are  the  right  and  left  hypo- 
chondrium (  under  the  ribs)  ;  the  right  find  left 
lumbar  Hank  the  central  umbilical  region,  and 
the  right  and  left  iliac  regions  lie  down  in  the 
pelvis  on  either  side  of  the  hypogastric  area. 
The  general  location  of  the  abdominal  viscera 
in  the  various  areas  is  of  interest.  The  liver 
lies  up  under  the  ribs  in  the  right  hypochon- 
drium.  stretching  over  the  upper  pari  of  the 
epigastrium  into  the  left  hypochondrium ;  the 
stomach  lies  mostly  in  the  left  hypochondrium 
and  reaches  into  the  epigastrium  just  below  the 
sternum;  the  large  intestine  starts  in  the  right 
iliac  region,  the  appendix  being  there  also,  goes 
up  the  right  lumbar  into  the  lower  portion  of 
the  right  hypochondrium,  crosses  straight  over, 
dipping  slightly  into  the   umbilical   region,   from 

the  left  hypochondrium  it  descends  into  the  left 
iliac  region  and  then  turns  back  into  the  centre 
and  ends  at  the  rectum.  The  small  intestine 
occupies  most  of  the  umbilical  region,  extending 
out  into  the  others.  The  pancreas  lies  just  be- 
hind the  lower  end  of  the  stomach  in  the  epigas- 
trium. The  spleen  lies  higher  up  on  the  left 
side  behind,  resting  on  the  10th  and  nth  ribs. 
The  kidneys  are  behind  high  up,  in  the  hypo- 
chondriac lumbar  region,  just  coming  below  the 
free  borders  of  the  ribs ;  most  pains  in  the  small 
of  the  back  thought  to  be  kidney  pains  are  pains 
from  constipated  bowels;  kidney  pains  are  high 
up  under  the  ribs  behind.  The  genital  organs  lie 
in  the  hypogastric  and  right  and  left  iliac  re- 
gions, the  bladder  low  in  front  in  the  centre,  the 
uterus  slightly  above  in  the  centre,  the  ovaries.to 
the  right  and  left  in  the  right  and  left  iliac  fossae. 

In  entomology,  the  whole  body  of  an  in- 
sect behind  the  thorax.  It  usually  consists  of 
rings  or  short  hollow  cylinders,  which  are  united 
by  a  joint  or  membrane,  and  in  some  cases,  as 
in  the  grub  of  the  chameleon  fly,  slide  upon  one 
another  like  the  tubes  of  a  telescope.  Some- 
times it  bears  a  sting  or  an  ovipositor,  though 
in  the  perfect  insect  no  appendages  are  found. 

An  abdominal  ring  is  one  of  two  oblong  ten- 
dinous openings  or  "  rings  »  existing  in  either 
groin,  or  in  the  right  and  left  inguinal  regions. 
Through  these  rings  pass  the  spermatic  cord  in 
the  one  sex,  and  the  circular  ligament  of  the 
uterus  in  the  other.  It  is  through  these  rings 
that  inguinal  hernia,  or  rupture,  occurs. 

Abduction,  the  act  of  abducing  or  abduct- 
ing; a  taking  or  drawing  away,  and  specifically 
an  unlawful  taking.  In  the  United  St 
the  word  abduction  is  ordinarily  applied  to  the 
illegal  seizure  and  detention  of  a  female  for  the 
purpose  of  concubinage,  prostitution,  or  marriage. 
The  punishment  for  abduction  varies  in  the 
different  States  of  the  Union.  The  punishment 
in  the  United  States  is  lighter  than  it  is  in  Eng- 
land for  this  offense.  For  instance,  in  New- 
York  the  crime  is  punishable  by  imprisonment 
for  not  more  than  five  years,  or  by  a  fine  of  not 
more  than  $1,000,  or  by  both. 

In  common  and  English  law  this  offense  is 
of  three  kinds:  (1)  If  any  person  shall  ma- 
liciously, either  by  force  or  fraud,  lead,  or  take 


ABDUCTOR  —  ABD-UL-HAMID 


away,  or  detain,  any  child  under  the  age  of  10 
years,  with  intent  to  deprive  the  parents  or 
other  persons  having  the  lawful  charge  of  such 
child,  or  with  intent  to  steal  any  article  on  its 
person ;  or  shall  receive  or  harbor  such  child, 
knowing  the  same  to  have  been  so  stolen  or  en- 
ticed,—  every  such  offender  shall  be  guilty  of 
felony,  and  shall  be  liable  to  penal  servitude  for 
not  more  than  seven  or  less  than  three  years,  or 
imprisoned,  with  or  without  hard  labor,  for  any 
term  not  more  than  two  years.  (2)  If  the  girl 
is  under  the  age  of  16  years,  the  offender  shall 
be  guilty  of  misdemeanor,  and  being  convicted 
thereof  shall  be  liable  to  suffer  such  punish- 
ment, by  fine  or  imprisonment,  or  both,  as  the 
court  shall  award.  (3)  If  any  person  shall, 
from  motives  of  lucre,  take  away  or  detain 
against  her  will,  any  woman  having  any  interest, 
present  or  future,  in  any  real  or  personal  estate, 
with  intent  to  marry  or  defile  her,  or  to  cause 
her  to  be  married  or  defiled  by  any  other  person, 
every  such  offender,  and  every  person  counsel- 
ing, aiding,  or  abetting  such  offender,  shall  be 
guilty  of  felony,  and  liable  to  penal  servitude  for 
life,  or  for  any  time  not  less  than  three  years,  or 
to  be  imprisoned,  with  or  without  hard  labor, 
for  any  term  not  exceeding  five  years.  If  the 
woman  first  consent  to  be  taken  away,  and  after- 
ward refuse  to  continue  with  the  offender,  and 
he  forcibly  detain  her ;  or  if  she  be  forcibly  taken 
away  and  she  afterward  consent  to  her  marriage 
or  defilement;  or  if  she  be  taken  away  with  her 
own  consent,  obtained  by  fraud  or  imposition, 
the  offense,  is  the  same.  But  if  a  man,  without 
fraud,  deceit,  or  violence,  marries  a  woman 
under  age,  without  the  consent  of  her  father  or 
guardian,  that  act  is  not  indictable  at  common 
law. 

In  logic,  abduction  is  a  form  of  reasoning  in 
which  the  greater  extreme  is  contained  in  the 
medium ;  but  the  medium  is  not  so  evidently  in 
the  lesser  extreme.  Example  :  «  Whatever  God 
has  revealed  is  certainly  true;  now  God  has  re- 
vealed a  future  retribution ;  therefore  a  future 
retribution  is  certainly  true.»  In  the  use  of  this 
kind  of  reasoning  the  minor  proposition  must  be 
proved  to  be  contained  in  the  major. 

Abductor,  a  muscle,  the  office  of  which  is  to 
draw  a  limb  or  portion  of  a  limb  to  which  it  is 
attached  away  from  the  centre  of  that  limb. 
Abductor  of  the  thigh,  for  example,  raises  the 
thigh  away  from  the  centre  of  the  body. 

In  law,  a  person  guilty  of  abduction. 

Abd  -  ul  -  Akhad  -  Khan,  abd-ool-aK-ad'ican, 
amir  of  Bokhara :  b.  1852 ;  succeeded  his  father 
Muzaffar  12  Nov.  1885,  and  without  trying  to 
throw  off  Russian  suzerainty  abolished  slavery 
and  underground  prisons,  reduced  the  army, 
regulated  taxes,  and  proved  himself  an  able  and 
progressive  ruler. 

Abd-ul-Aziz,  iibd-ool-a-zez',  32d  Sultan  of 
the  Ottoman  Turks:  b.  9  Feb.  1830;  succeeded 
his  brother  Abd-ul-Medjid  (q.v.),  25  June  tSoi  ; 
■  I.  4  June  1876.  At  first  he  showed  himself  liberal- 
minded  and  open  to  Western  ideas,  and  promised 
economy  and  reform.  But  ere  long  he  began  to 
spend  vast  sums  on  his  army,  the  embellishment 
of  his  capital,  hunting,  and  costly  journeys. 
Despite  this,  reforms  were  long  hoped  for,  espe- 
cially after  his  visit  to  western  Europe  in  1867. 
His  government  had  great  difficulties  to  contend 


with  in  the  Cretan  insurrection  of  1866,  the 
struggle  of  Rumania  and  Servia  for  full  auton- 
omy, and  finally  the  outbreak  of  Mohammedan 
fanaticism.  In  1871  the  Sultan  strove  to  get  the 
succession  settled  upon  his  son,  instead  of  his 
nephew  Murad  according  to  Turkish  custom. 
He  next  tried  to  set  Russia  against  the  other 
powers,  and  plunged  ever  into  deeper  financial 
difficulties,  while  his  stupid  misgovernment 
alienated  the  provinces  and  led  in  1875  to  ris- 
ings in  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Bulgaria.  At 
last  a  conspiracy  forced  him  to  dismiss  his  minis- 
ters, and  next  to  abdicate  the  throne.  30  May 
1876.  Four  days  later  he  was  found  dead.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  nephew  Mehemet  Murad, 
who  was  shortly  deposed  on  the  ground  of  al- 
leged insanity,  in  favor  of  the  present  Sultan, 
Abd-ul-Hamid,   and    murdered. 

Abd-ul-Hamid,  I.,  abd-ool-ha-mid',  Sultan 
of  Turkey,  son  of  Ahmed  HI.:  b.  1725;  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Mustapha  III..  1774;  d.  [789. 
He  was  involved  in  two  wars  with  Russia,  and 
the  treaty  of  Kutchuk-Kainardji  in  1774  com- 
pelled him  to  relinquish  the  Crimea  and  other 
districts;  and  in  1788  Ochakov,  in  the  Kherson 
district,  was  taken  by  the  Russians. 

Abd-ul-Hamid  II.,  34th  Sultan  of  the  Otto- 
man Turks :  b.  22  Sept.  1842,  second  son  of  Abd- 
ul-Medjid:  acceded  1876  on  the  deposition  of 
his  brother  Murad  V.  At  this  time  the  insur- 
rection of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  was  in  full 
blaze,  and  the  intolerable  misgovernment  in 
Bulgaria  by  the  local  zaptiehs  and  others  was 
preparing  that  province  to  follow  suit  —  the  de- 
sire of  the  people  for  security  of  life,  property, 
and  female  honor  being  of  course  accredited  to 
«  Russian  intrigues,"  no  other  cause  being  ade- 
quate. Internally,  the  «  Young  Turkey"  party, 
headed  by  Midhat  Pasha  —  which  wished  to  free 
Turkey  from  its  European  leading-strings,  but 
by  honest  reforms  and  a  parliamentary  system  — 
were  equally  obnoxious  to  him  as  reformers  and 
as  revolutionists.  The  storm  of  Oriental  butch- 
ery and  outrage  he  turned  loose  on  a  Bulgarian 
district  (see  Batak)  roused  the  Russians  to  a 
frenzy  of  rightful  horror  which  forced  the  hand 
of  the  Czar,  who  did  not  wish  war:  and  in  the 
conflict  of  1877-8  the  Russian  armies  advanced 
almost  to  Constantinople.  Christian  Europe 
would  perhaps  have  been  nearly  freed  from  the 
Turkish  incubus,  which  has  blighted  every  land 
it  has  rested  on,  but  that  the  great  powers  flamed 
out  in  jealousy  of  Russia  :  the  English  Tories 
were  barely  restrained  from  making  war  on  her 
and  leaving  Turkish  power  over  the  provinces 
just  as  it  was,  by  the  Liberal  uprising  headed  by 
Mr.  Gladstone.  Even  the  Treaty  of  San  Stefano 
(q.v.),  which  Russia  exacted  from  Turkey,  was 
not  allowed  to  stand,  the  Berlin  Congress  (q.v.) 
cutting  down  the  Turkish  sacrifices ;  even  so, 
however,  Servia,  Rumania,  and  Montenegro 
were  freed  altogether  from  Turkish  suzerainty, 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were  handed  over  to 
Austria,  and  Bulgaria  was  left  in  only  nominal 
dependence,  though  by  a  futile  contrivance  di- 
vided into  two  provinces  which  shortly  reunited  ; 
a  small  part  of  Armenia  was  also  ceded  to  Rus- 
sia. The  treaty  obligated  the  Sultan  to  intro- 
duce reforms  into  the  remaining  Christian 
provinces,  as  if  the  history  of  the  previous  half- 
ceut  tiry  had  not  shown  what  that  meant  even 
with  a  sincere  Sultan  ;   and   Abd-ul-Hamid  had 


ABDULLAHI  — ABD-UR-RAHMAN 


no  design  of  paying  any  attention  to  it.  He  was 
a  bigoted  Mussulman  of  the  very  party  which 
had  nullified  all  the  efforts  of  Mahmud  II.,  Alxl- 
ul-Medjid,  and  Reshid  Pasha,  and  believed  that 
infidels  should  have  no  choice  but  slavery  or  the 
sword,  according  to  the  Prophet's  word.  He 
mi  himself  at  once  to  recover  the  fullest  autoc- 
racy at  home  and  evade  the  demands  of  the 
Christian  states  abroad.  Midhat  was  shortly  ar- 
rested, nominally  for  the  acts  that  had  given  the 
Sultan  his  throne,  banished,  and  died  soon  and 

Suddenly.      All  power  was  centred  in  the  seraglio 

at  Constantinople,  wholesale  murders  and  ter- 
ror m  cowed  all  opposition,  and  for  many  years 
no  whisper  of  constitutionalism  has  been  heard 
in  Turkey.  The  European  powers  were  astutely 
set  by  the  ears  to  prevent  each  other  from  gain- 
ing any  advantage  of  it ;  the  Christians  were 
treated  WOI  e  than  ever;  finally,  ill  1895-6  the 
signal  was  given  to  let  loose  on  all  Armenia  the 
horrors  winch  in  one  spot  of  Bulgaria  had  cost 
Turkey  half  her  European  possessions  less  than 
twenty  years  before.  Abd-ul-Hamid  had  done 
his  work  well:  no  abler  diabolic  statesman  has 
existed  in  our  era.  Not  a  power  lifted  a  finger: 
even  the  English  Liberal  ministry,  though  Eng- 
land had  forced  Russia  to  leave  Armenia  to 
Turkey  hy  guaranteeing  good  government  for  it, 
raised  no  hand  to  protect  it.  A  considerable 
percentage  of  the  Armenians  were  exterminated 
by  hordes  of  savage  Kurds  and  other  irregulars, 
with  indescribable  details  of  outrage  and  tor- 
ture: and  the  Sultan  found  himself  raised  to 
such  consideration  in  Europe  thai  he  shortly  at- 
tempted to  evade  payment  of  a  small  Austrian 
debt,  when  Count  Goluchowski  threatened  to 
bombard  Smyrna,  an  effective  proceeding  which 
secured  a  prompt  settlement  of  the  debt.  In 
1807  Crete  again  rose,  and  Greece  took  her  part, 
in  the  expectation  of  European  help ;  but  the 
tune  had  gone  by.  In  the  ensuing  war  with 
Turkey  she  was  not  only  beaten  but  disgraced  ; 
Europe,  however,  had  the  grace  not  to  allow 
Turkey  to  resume  sovereignty  over  any  Chris- 
tian land.  Shortly  after,  Abd-ul-Hamid  was 
imprudent    enough    to    let    some    Englishmen    be 

murdered,  and  the  Powers  took  Crete  from  him 
and  gave  it  a  separate  government.  The  basis 
of  his  internal  power  has  been  his  championship 
of  orthodox  Mussulmanism :  he  claims  the  lit- 
eral caliphate. 

Abdullahi.      See  Khalifa,  The. 

Abd-uI-Latif,  abd'ool-la-tef,  eminent  Arab 
writer:  b,  Bagdad,  tl6l  ;  d.  there  123I.  By  way 
of  education  be  committed  to  memory  the  Koran, 
the  chief  poets,  and  not  a  few  grammatical 
treatises.  He  studied  medicine  and  practised 
till  [185,  when  to  complete  his  culture  he  be- 
took himself  to  Damascus,  where  the  famous 
Saladin  had  gathered  round  him  the  most 
learned  men  of  the  time.  After  the  death  of 
Saladin.  who  bad  liberally  assisted  him.  he  went 
to  Cairo,  delivered  lectures  on  medicine  and 
other  sciences,  and  published  an  excellent  de- 
scription of  Egypt,  still  extant  and  keeping  his 
fame  alive:  translated  into  Latin  by  White  (Ox- 
ford 1800).  and  into  French  by  De  Sacy  (1810). 
He  died  at  Bagdad  in  1231.  on  bis  way  to  Mecca. 

Abd-ul-Medjid,  abd-ool-me-jid',  31st  Sultan 
of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  son  of  Mahmud  II. :  b. 
23  April  or  6  May  1823;  acceded  1  July  i83g; 
d.    25    June    1 861.     He    received    the    usual    en- 


feebling harem  education,  his  father  failing  in 
his  efforts  to  rescue  his  children  from  1 1 
teni.  On  Ins  accession  Turkish  affairs  were 
critical.  The  great  viceroy  of  Egypt,  Mehemet 
Ali,  had  a  second  time  revolted;  (en  days  pre 
viously  the  Turkish  admiral  bad  turned  traitor 
and  put  the  entire  Beet  m  his  hands;  and  three 
days  afterward  Melu  nut's  son  Ibrahim,  the 
greatest    Moslem    soldier    of    the    century,    had 

routed  the  Turkish  army  at  Xi/ih.  and  was 
marching  straight  on  Constantinople,  where  I he- 
orthodox  party,  enraged  at  Mahmud's  reforms, 
had  conspired  to  place  Mehemet  Ali  on  the 
throne.  Hut  the  European  powers  interfered, 
and  the  treaties  of  _>;  \ov.  1K40  and  July  1 S4 1 
routined      Mi  In  iin  1       1,  .      I   ■■  -.on         \bd   nl 

Medjid  at  once  set  about  complying  with  his 
father's  express  instructions  and  carrying  out 
his  reforms:  3  Nov.  1X30  he  promulgated  the 
"  I  latti-shcrif  of  Gulhane."  placing  all  his  sub- 
jects   on    full    religions    and    end    equality,    and 

providing  for  security  of  life  and  property  to  all, 
with  lust  and  equal  taxation,  administration  of 
laws,  and  conscription;  February  1856,  after  the 
Crimean  war,  it  was  supplemented  by  another  to 
the  same  purport.  But  the  Mussulman  aris- 
tocracy and  the  educated  classes  (Ulema)  re- 
garded it  as  an  anti-Mussulman  revolution  to  no 
profit  but  that  of  the  infidels,  and  fought  it  so  fu- 
riously that  it  remained  practically  inoperative, 
and  rather  sharpened  the  edge  of  their  ill-treat- 
ment of  the  Christians  ;  and  repeated  conspiracies 
were  formed  against  his  life,  whose  members 
however  the  kindly  Sultan  would  not  put  to  death. 
His  right  hand  in  reform  work  was  the  able  and 
humane  Reshid  Pasha,  a  Mussulman  educated 
in  France:  through  him  the  army  was  reorgan- 
ized 1843-4;  a  board  of  education  instituted 
1840;  a  university  founded,  with  military,  med- 
ical, and  agricultural  colleges;  a  hateful' capita- 
tion lax  abolished,  slave-trading  repressed,  and 
commerce  advanced.  Nothing  can  better  prove 
the  intrinsic  and  hopeless  rottenness  of  the 
Mussulman  system  under  modern  conditions 
than  the  fact  that  these  measures  were  written 
in  water  and  died  almost  with  their  birth  ;  their 
main  fruit  was  bloody  insurrections  in  various 
parts  (,f  the  empire,  of  which  the  great  Syrian 
massacres  of  [860  (see  Syria)  were  the  worst. 
In  1840  Abd-ul-Medjid  honored  himself  by  bold- 
ly refusing  to  surrender  Kossuth  and  the  other 
Hungarian  refugees,  after  the  failure  of  the 
Hungarian  revolution,  at  the  joint  demand  of 
Russia  and  Austria.  For  the  Crimean  war.  and 
its  antecedents  and  results,  see  that  head.  In 
later  life  he  sunk  into  extravagance  and  sensual- 
ity;  but  he  was  essentially  a  good-hearted  and 
honorable  man.  powerless  against  fate.  He  was 
succeeded  not  by  one  of  his  seven  sons,  but  by 
his  brother  Abd-ul-Aziz,  the  oldest  living  mem- 
ber of  the  house  of  Othman. 

Abd-ur-Rahman,  abd-oor-ra'man,  sultan  of 
Fez  and  Morocco:  b.  1778;  succeeded  his  uncle 
1823:  d.  1859.  His  first  four  years  of  rule  were 
occupied  in  quelling  insurrections.  Next,  Aus- 
tria refused  to  pay  the  tribute  for  safety  against 
pirates  levied  by  Morocco  on  European  ships  in 
the  Mediterranean:  the  Sultan  wisely  adjusted 
the  dispute  by  relinquishing  this  blackmail.  (See 
Morocco.)  The  religions  war  under  Abd-el- 
Kader  against_  the  French  in  Algeria  involv- 
ed   Morocco     in     its     movements :     the     defeat 


ABD-UR-RAHM  AN-KH  AN  —  ABELARD 


by  the  French  in  1844  compelled  the  Sultan  to 
order  Abd-el-Kader  to  quit  the  country,  which, 
however,  he  did  not  for  three  years  longer.  The 
piratical  habits  of  the  Moroccans  brought  him 
to  the  brink  of  war  with  more  than  one  Euro- 
pean State.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  son, 
Sidi-Mohammed   (1859-73). 

Abd-ur-Rahman-Khan,  abd-oor-ra'man-Han, 
amir  of  Afghanistan,  son  of  Afzul  (uf-'zool) 
Kahn,  nephew  of  the  amir  Shere  Ali,  grandson 
of  Dost  Mohammed:  b.  Kabul,  1844;  d.  3  Oct. 
iyoi.  During  the  civil  war  of  1864  in  Afghanis- 
tan (q.v.)  between  Dost  Mohammed's  sons,  he 
played  a  leading  part  on  his  father's  side  against 
his  uncle,  won  several  battles, —  the  important 
victories  of  Shaikhabad  and  Khelat-i-Ghilzai 
were  mainly  due  to  his  ability, —  and  for  a  time 
his  father  seemed  secure  of  the  amirate:  Abd- 
ur-Rahman  was  made  governor  of  Balkh,  and 
won  great  popularity  by  his  moderation  and  by 
marrying  the  daughter  of  the  chief  of  Badakh- 
shan.  In  1868,  however,  Shere  Ali  gained  the 
mastery,  and  the  English  government  helped  to 
put  down  further  resistance  for  order's  sake. 
Vakub-Khan  drove  out  his  cousin  Abd-ur- 
Rahman,  who  after  hunted  wanderings  reached 
Russian  territory,  and  Gen.  Kaufman  allowed 
him  to  live  at  Samarcand  with  a  pension  of 
25,000  rubles  a  year.  Here  he  remained  till  1879, 
when  Shere  Ali's  death,  and  the  weakness  of 
Yakub,  whom  the  English  had  recognized  as 
amir,  gave  him  a  chance  to  return  to  Balkh, 
where  he  was  welcomed.  The  murder  of  the 
British  Resident  at  Kabul  and  Yakub's  deposi- 
tion followed;  Abd-ur-Rahman  came  forward 
once  more,  and  was  acknowledged  amir  by  the 
principal  chiefs  and  the  English  government, 
which  gave  him  a  subsidy  of  £160,000  a  year, 
and  large  gifts  of  artillery,  rifles,  ammunition, 
etc.  In  1893  the  Indian  government  turned 
over  to  him  Kafiristan,  in  the  Hindu-Kush 
mountains,  and  he  brought  its  savage  tribes 
under  control  in  1896.  The  English  government 
showed  him  great  honor,  as  he  deserved ;  and 
made  him  G.C.B.  and  G. C.S.I.  He  was  succeed- 
ed by  his  eldest  son,  Habibullah-Khan,  who  had 
been  associated  with  him  in  the  government  for 
some  time. 

A  Becket,  Thomas.   See  Becket,  Thomas  a. 

Abeel,  David,  American  missionary:  b. 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  12  June  1804:  graduated 
at  Rutgers,  studied  theology,  and  held  a  pastor- 
ate in  Athens,  N.  Y.,  1826-9 ;  resigned  from 
failing  health,  and  went  to  China,  October  1829, 
as  chaplain  for  the  Seamen's  Friend  Society,  and 
in  1830  for  the  A.  B.  C.  F.  M.  He  visited  Java, 
Singapore,  and  Siam,  studying  Chinese ;  his 
health  again  failing  he  started  for  home  1833  by 
way  of  Europe,  giving  addresses  on  the  claims 
of  the  heathen  in  Holland,  France,  and  Switzer- 
land, in  England  forming  a  society  to  promote 
Eastern  women's  education,  and  in  America 
publishing  works  on  similar  subjects  and  his 
Chinese  experiences.  In  1839  he  revisited  Ma- 
lacca, Borneo,  and  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  1842 
established  a  mission  at  Amoy.  In  1845  bis 
health  failed  finally,  and  returning  he  died  in 
Albany  in  1846.  He  was. one  of  the  ablest,  most 
practical,  and  most  successful  of  early  mission- 
aries. See  <Life>  by  G.  R.  Williamson  (N.  Y. 
1848). 


Abel,  John  J.,  American  physiological 
chemist:  b.  Cleveland,  Ohio,  19  May  1857.  ^e 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  in 
1883  ;  studying  abroad,  he  took  M.D.  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Strasburg  in  1888.  He  has  devoted 
himself  to  the  chemistry  of  the  human  body,  and 
is  professor  of  pharmacology  in  Johns  Hopkins, 
as  well  as  in  charge  of  the  department  of  physio- 
logical chemistry. 

Abelard,  ab-e-lar  (Fr.  Abelard,  ab-a-lar), 
Pierre,  pe-ar,  a  distinguished  philosopher, 
and  lover  of  Heloise.  His  real  name  was  Pierre 
de  Palais,  the  other  being  a  nickname  spelled  in 
many  other  ways,  but  originally  Bajolardus, 
"bacon-licker,"  from  a  school  joke,  which  he 
changed  to  Habelardus,  "bacon-haver,"  as  a 
retort :  b.  1079  near  Nantes,  in  the  little  village 
of  Pallet,  the  property  of  his  father  Berenger; 
d.  1 142.  Full  of  intellectual  enthusiasm,  he  gave 
up  his  patrimony  to  his  younger  brothers  to  de- 
vote himself  to  a  life  of  study.  Those  studies 
were  very  wide,  though  the  usual  inclusion  of 
Greek  and  Hebrew  is  an  error ;  but  his  chief 
passion  was  philosophy,  and  its  great  implement, 
the  scholastic  logic,  in  which  he  soon  became 
the  most  eminent  master  of  his  age.  Having 
learned  all  that  Brittany  could  teach  him,  he 
went  to  Paris,  the  university  of  which  attracted 
students  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Guillaume 
de  Champeaux,  a  follower  of  Anselm  and  an 
extreme  Realist,  was  the  most  skilful  disputant 
of  his  time,  and  Abelard,  profiting  by  his  in- 
structions, was  often  victorious  over  his  master 
in  contests  of  wit  and  logical  acumen.  The 
friendship  of  Champeaux  was  soon  succeeded  by 
enmity ;  and  Abelard,  who  had  not  yet  com- 
pleted his  22d  year,  removed  to  Melun,  whither 
he  was  soon  followed  by  a  multitude  of  young 
men,  attracted  from  Paris  by  his  great  reputa- 
tion. Hostility  still  pursued  him,  but  he  left 
Melun  for  Corbeil,  nearer  the  capital,  where  he 
was  still  more  admired  and  persecuted.  Soon 
after  he  ceased  teaching  to  recruit  his  strength, 
and  after  two  years  returned  to  Paris  and  found 
that  his  former  teacher  had  removed  to  a 
monastery  outside  the  city. 

He  again  joined  issue  with  him  and  gained  so 
complete  a  triumph  that  he  opened  in  Paris  a 
school  of  rhetoric,  the  fame  of  which  soon  de- 
prived all  the  others  of  their  pupils.  Shortly 
afterward  he  was  appointed  to  his  rival's  chair 
in  the  cathedral  school  of  Notre  Dame,  where  he 
educated  many  distinguished  scholars,  among 
whom  were  the  future  Pope  Celestin  II.,  Peter 
of  Lombardy,  bishop  of  Paris,  Berenger,  bishop 
of  Poictiers,  and  St.  Bernard. 

At  this  time  there  resided  close  to  Notre 
Dame,  a  young  lady,  by  name  Heloise.  niece  to 
the  canon  Fulbert,  then  of  the  age  of  17,  and 
remarkable  for  her  beauty,  genius,  and  varied 
accomplishments.  Abelard  became  inspired  with 
such  violent  love  for  Heloise  as  to  forget  his 
duty,  his  lectures,  and  his  fame.  Heloise  was 
no  less  susceptible.  Under  the  pretext  of  fin- 
ishing her  education  he  obtained  Fulbert's  per- 
mission to  visit  her,  and  finally  became  a  resident 
in  his  house.  His  conduct  in  abusing  the  confi- 
dence which  had  been  placed  in  him  opened  the 
eyes  of  Fulbert.  He  separated  the  lovers,  but 
too  late.  Abelard  fled  with  her  to  Brittany, 
where  she  was  delivered  of  a  son.  who  died 
early.  Abelard  now  resolved  to  marry  her  se- 
cretly.    Fulbert  gave  his  consent,   the   marriage 


ABERCROMBY  — ABERDEEN 


was  performed,  and  in  order  to  keep  it  secret 
Heloise  remained  with  her  uncle,  while  Abelard 
retained  liis  formei  lodgings  and  continued  his 
lectures.  Abelard,  however,  carried  her  oil  a 
■nd  time  anil  placed  her  in  the  convent  of 
Argenteuil. 

Fulbert  erroneously  believed  it  was  intended 
to  four  her  to  take  the  veil,  and  under  the  in- 
fluence of  rage  subjected  Abelard  to  mutilation. 
I  [e  became,  in  consequence,  a  monk  in  the  abbey 
of  St.  Denis,  and  Heloise  took  the  veil  at  St.  Ar- 
genteuil. Alter  time  had  somewhat  moderated 
his  grief  he  resumed  teaching.  At  the  Council 
of  Soissons  (lI2l),  no  defense  being  permitted 
him,  his  "Essay  on  the  Trinity"  was  declared 
heretical,  and  he  was  condemned  to  burn  it  with 
his  own  hands.  Continued  persecutions  obliged 
him  at  la-t  to  leave  the  abbey  of  St.  Denis  and 
to  retire  to  a  place  near  Nogent-sur  Seine, 
where  he  built  a  rude  hut  in  which  lie  deter- 
mined to  live  a  hermit's  life.  Even  here,  how- 
ever,  students  flocked  to  him,  and  they  built  him 
an  oratory,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  Holy 
Ghost  and  hence  called  Paraclete.  Being  subse- 
quently appointed  abbot  of  St.  Gildas  de  R.UJ5, 
in  Brittany,  he  invited  Eieloise  and  her  religious 
sisterhood,  on  the  dissolution  of  their  monastery 
at  Argenteuil,  to  reside  at  the  above  oratory,  and 
received  them  there.  He  lived  for  some  ten 
years  at  St.  Gildas.  Ultimately,  however,  he 
fled  from  it  and  lived  for  a  time  in  other  parts 
of  Bi  many. 

St.  Bernard,  of  Clairvaux,  the  leading  op- 
ponent of  the  rationalistic  school  of  Abelard, 
laid  his  doctrines  before  the  Council  of  Sens  in 
1 140,  had  them  condemned  by  the  Pope,  and  ob- 
tained an  order  for  his  imprisonment.  Abelard 
appealed  to  the  Pope,  publishing  his  defense,  and 
went  to  Rome.  Passing  through  Cluny  he  vis- 
ited Peter  the  Venerable,  who  was  abbot  there. 
This  humane  and  enlightened  divine  effected  a 
reconciliation  between  him  and  his  enemies,  but 
Ahelard  resolved  to  end  his  days  in  retirement. 
The  severe  penances  which  he  imposed  upon 
himself,  together  with  the  grief  which  never  left 
his  heart,  gradually  consumed  his  strength,  and 
he  died,  a  pattern  of  monastic  discipline,  in 
1 142,  at  the  abbey  of  St.  Marcel,  near  Chalons- 
sur-Saone.  Heloise  begged  his  body  and  had 
him  buried  in  the  Paraclete,  of  which  she  was 
at  that  time  the  abbess,  with  the  view  of  repos- 
ing in  death  by  his  side.  In  1800  the  ashes  of 
both  were  carried  to  the  Museum  of  French 
Monuments  at  Paris,  and  in  November  1817 
were  deposited  under  a  chapel  within  the  pre- 
cincts of  the  church  of  Monamy.  The  small 
chapel,  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  marble  monu- 
ment, in  which  the  figures  of  the  ill-fated  pair 
are  seen  reposing  side  by  side,  is  now  one  of  the 
most  interesting  objects  in  the  Parisian  cemetery 
of  Pere  la  Chaise. 

Abelard  was  distinguished  as  a  grammarian, 
orator,  logician,  poet,  musician,  philosopher, 
theologian,  and  mathematician.  As  a  philoso- 
pher he  founded  an  eclectic  system  commonly 
but  erroneously  termed  Conceptualism,  which 
lay  midway  between  the  prevalent  Realism,  rep- 
resented in  its  most  advanced  form  by  William 
of  Champeaux,  and  extreme  Nominalism,  rep- 
resented in  the  teaching  of  his  other  master, 
Roscellin,  and  largely  approached  the  Aristote- 
lian philosophy.  In  ethics  Ahelard  placed  much 
emphasis  on  the  subjective  intention,  which  he 
held   to   determine  the   moral   value   as   well   as 


the  moral  character  of  man's  action.  Along  this 
line  his  wank  is  notable,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
ln>  successors  did  little  in  connection  with 
morals,  for  they  did  not  regard  the  rules  of 
human  conduct  as  within  the  field  of  philosophic 
discussion.  His  love  and  his  misfortunes  have 
secured  lus  name  from  oblivion  ;  and  the  man 
whom  his  own  century  admired  as  a  profound 
dialectician  is  now  celebrated  as  the  martyr  of 
love.  The  letters  of  Abelard  and  Heloise  have 
been  often  published  in  the  original  and  in  trans- 
lations. Pope's  poetical  epistle,  'Floisa  to  Ahe- 
lard.' is  founded  on  them.  Abelard's  autobiog- 
raphy, entitled  "Historia  Calamitalum,'  is  still 
extant. 

Abercromby,  David,  Scottish  philosopher: 
d.  about  1702.  His  chief  work  is  entitled  'A 
Discourse  of  Wit*  (1686).  He  also  wrote  many 
treatises  and  bis  work  is  said  to  antedate  the 
so-called   Scottish  School  of  Philosophy. 

Aberdeen,  4TH  Earl  of  (George  Hamil- 
ton Gordon),  British  statesman  and  premier: 
b.  Edinburgh,  28  Jan.  1784;  succeeded  to  title 
in  1801  ;  d.  14  Dec.  i860.  He  was  educated  at 
Harrow  and  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
Shortly  after  returning  from  a  Continental  and 
Grecian  tour,  full  of  classical  enthusiasm,  he 
established  the  Athenian  Society;  whence 
Byron's  sneer  at  "the  traveled  thane,  Athenian 
Aberdeen."  He  severely  criticised  Gell  in  the 
'Edinburgh  Review,'  and  wrote  an  introduction 
to  Wilkins'  translation  of  Vitruvius,  published 
separately  in  1822  as  'An  Inquiry  into  the 
Principles  of  Beauty  in  Athenian  Architecture.' 
In  1806  he  entered  Parliament  as  a  Scotch  rep- 
resentative peer,  and  was  twice  re-elected.  In 
1813  he  was  sent  to  Austria  to  bring  it  into  the 
coalition  against  Napoleon,  and  in  1814  was  a 
signatory  of  the  Treaty  of  Prague;  he  won 
credit  in  diplomacy,  and  the  same  year  was 
made  Viscount  Gordon  in  the  British  peerage. 
During  1815-28  he  devoted  himself  to  his  es- 
tates. In  1828  he  became  chancellor  of  the 
Duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  a  few  months  later 
foreign  secretary  in  Wellington's  Cabinet,  and 
had  the  satisfaction  of  seeing  Greek  independ- 
ence recognized.  He  warmly  supported  repeal 
of  the  test  and  corporation  acts,  and  Catholic 
emancipation.  Peel  had  him  in  both  his  Cabi- 
nets, 1834-5  as  colonial  secretary,  1841-6  as 
foreign  secretary.  In  1846,  during  the  struggle 
which  rent  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland 
in  twain,  he  brought  in  a  compromise  bill  which 
was  denounced  by  both  halves;  and  after  the 
Disruption  in  1843  again  attempted  conciliatory 
measures  without  result.  On  Peel's  death  in 
1850  he  became  the  leader  of  the  free-trade 
Conservatives.  The  Derby  administration  being 
unable  to  stand,  Lord  Aberdeen  in  1853  formed 
a  coalition  ministry.  For  a  time  it  was  very 
popular;  unluckily  the  Crimean  war  supervened. 
Aberdeen's  tardiness  of  action  and  reluctance 
to  enter  on  hostilities,  the  result  of  a  constitu- 
tional aversion  to  war,  irritated  the  country, 
which  was  in  one  of  its  periodical  anti-Russian 
frenzies,  and  bent  on  fighting.  Moreover,  the 
early  portion  of  the  war  was  shockingly  mis- 
managed, as  those  of  commercial  countries  al- 
ways are ;  and  on  the  appointment  of  a  commit- 
tee of  inquiry,  the  ministry,  wdiich  had  uniformly 
resisted  the  motion,  resigned,  and  Palmerston's 
succeeded    it.      This    closed    Aberdeen's    public 


ABERDEEN  —  ABERNETHY 


life.  His  dislike  10  "spirited"  foreign  policies 
and  interference  with  other  countries,  and  his 
sympathy  with  the  Holy  Alliance,  gave  him  the 
name  of  an  enemy  to  liberty ;  but  the  above 
detail  shows  its  injustice. 

Aberdeen,  Miss.,  city  and  seat  of  Monroe 
county;  on  the  Tombigbee  River,  and  the  Illi- 
nois Cent.,  the  Kansas  City,  M.  &  B.,  and  the 
Mobile  &  O.  R.R.'s;  130  m.  S.E.  of  Memphis, 
Tenn.  Its  chief  trade  and  manufacture  are  cot- 
ton and  cotton  products,  lumber  coming  next. 
Pop.   (1900)  3,434. 

Aberdeen,  S.  D.,  seat  of  Brown  County,  on 
the  Chicago  &  N.  W.,  Chicago,  M.  &  St.  P., 
and  Great  Northern  R.R.'s;  settled  1880,  inc. 
1882 ;  280  m.  W.  of  Minneapolis,  125  m.  N.E.  of 
Pierre.  It  is  the  farming  and  lumber  trade  cen- 
tre of  a  large  section ;  manufactures  boots  and 
shoes,  flour  and  feed,  soap,  plows,  machinery, 
etc.,  and  has  10  grain  elevators,  granite  and 
marble  works  and  creameries.  Its  factories  are 
supplied  with  abundant  water  power  furnished 
by  artesian  wells.  It  has  national  banks,  sev- 
eral daily,  weekly,  and  monthly  periodicals,  a 
system  of  graded  public  schools,  free  library, 
and  an  assessed  property  valuation  of  about 
$1,500,000.  The  mayor  and  city  council,  co- 
operating in  most  appointments,  are  elected  bi- 
ennially.    Pop.   (1900)  4,087;   (1903)  5,572. 

Ab'erdeen,  the  chief  city  and  seaport  in 
N.  Scotland,  fourth  largest  in  all  Scotland  ;  lies 
in  Aberdeenshire,  III  miles  N.  of  Edinburgh. 
William  the  Lion  gave  it  a  charter  in  1179;  the 
English  burned  it  in  1336,  but  it  was  soon  re- 
built ;  within  the  same  parliamentary  boundary 
is  a  small  town  a  mile  N.  near  the  Don  mouth, 
the  seat  of  St.  Machar's  Cathedral  (1357-1527), 
now  represented  by  the  granite  nave,  which,  as 
restored  since  1869,  is  used  as  a  parish 
church.  King's  College  and  University, 
founded  by  Bishop  Elphinstone  in  Old 
Aberdeen  in  1494,  and  Marischal  College 
and  University,  founded  by  the  Earl  Marischal 
in  New  Aberdeen  in  1593,  were  in  i860  united 
into  one  institution,  the  University  of  Aberdeen. 
It  has  23  professors  and  from  800  to  900  students 
in  its  four  faculties  of  arts,  divinity,  law,  and 
medicine.  The  students  are  divided  into  four 
"  nations,"  Mar,  Buchan,  Moray,  and  Angus. 
There  is  a  lord  rector,  chancellor,  vice-chancel- 
lor, and  two  secretaries.  With  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity, it  sends  one  member  to  Parliament.  Maris- 
chal College  was  rebuilt  in  1841.  King's  College 
is  a  stately  fabric  dating  from  1500,  its  chapel 
adorned  with  exquisite  wood-carvings.  In  the 
17th  century  Aberdeen  had  become  an  impor- 
tant place,  but  it  suffered  much  from  both  par- 
ties in  the  civil  wars.  It  has  a  flourishing  trade 
and  thriving  manufactures ;  and  having  been 
largely  rebuilt  and  extended  since  the  formation 
of  Union  Street  in  1800,  the  "Granite  City8  now 
offers  a  handsome  and  regular  aspect.  Among 
the  chief  public  edifices  are  the  county  build- 
ings, the  post-office,  the  Market  Hall,  the  Trades 
Hall,  the  Royal  Infirmary,  the  lunatic  asylum, 
the  grammar  school,  the  art  gallery  and  art 
school,  and  Gordon's  College.  The  last  has 
been  much  extended  as  a  technical  school,  the 
foundationers  being  no  longer  resident;  while 
the  infirmary  was  reconstructed  and  modern- 
ized to  celebrate  the  Queen's  Jubilee  (1887). 
Of  more  than  60  places  of  worship  the  only  one 
of  much  interest  is  the  ancient  church  of  St. 
Vol.  1— j 


Nicholas,  now  divided  into  the  East  and  West 
churches,  and  having  an  imposing  spire  190  feet 
high.  A  fine  carillon  of  2i7  bells  was  placed 
here  in  1887.  One  may  also  notice  the  market- 
cross  (1686),  the  Wallace,  Gordon  Pasha,  and 
three  other  statues,  and  the  Duthie  public  park 
of  47  acres.  It  has  a  large  trade  from  the  port, 
and  good  railway  facilities.  The  chief  exports 
are  woolens,  linens,  cotton  yarns,  paper,  combs, 
granite  (hewn  and  polished),  cattle,  grain,  pre- 
served provisions,  and  fish.  Aberdeen  has  the 
largest  comb  and  granite-polishing  works  in  the 
kingdom.  There  are  also  several  large  paper 
works  near  by.  Wooden  ship-building  was  for- 
merly a  prosperous  industry,  the  Aberdeen  clip- 
per-bow ships  being  celebrated  as  fast  sailers, 
but  since  i860  they  have  been  gradually  super- 
seded by  iron  or  steel  steamships ;  and,  owing 
to  its  remoteness  from  coal  and  iron,  its  ship- 
building now  is  greatly  contracted.  Pop.  of 
parliamentary  borough  (1891)  121,623;  (1901) 
153,108;  9,386  in  Kincardineshire. 

Aberdeen  University,  See  Aberdeen  (Scot- 
land). 

Abernethy,  John,  Irish  dissenting  clergy- 
man and  pioneer  of  toleration :  b.  Coleraine,  19 
Oct.  1680;  d.  1740.  The  son  of  a  Nonconformist 
minister,  he  graduated  successively  from  Glas- 
gow and  Edinburgh  universities,  was  licensed  to 
preach  before  coming  of  age,  urged  to  take  an 
important  charge  in  Antrim  at  21,  and  two  years 
later  was  ordained  there.  The  work  he  did  there 
for  many  years  was  of  the  most  remarkable  kind, 
in  drafts  on  body,  braui,  soul,  and  will ;  and  he 
was  eminent  in  all.  In  1717  he  was  invited  at 
once  to  Dublin  and  Belfast;  the  Synod  assigned 
him  to  Dublin ;  he  refused  to  leave  Antrim  and 
was  considered  a  Church  mutineer ;  a  furious 
quarrel  followed,  developing  into  the  fight  in 
the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  between  "sub- 
scribers" and  "non-subscribers"  (Abernethy's 
party),  the  latter  being  formally  barred  out  in 
1726.  The  real  question  at  issue  was  of  old 
orthodoxy  versus  the  liberalizing  opinions  which 
he  disclaimed  holding,  but  which  have  of  course 
long  since  left  his  position  far  behind.  In  1730 
he  was  nevertheless  called  to  Dublin.  The  next 
year  came  up  the  question  of  the  Test  Act,  really 
involving  the  whole  subject  of  religious  tests  in 
civil  life ;  and  Abernethy  took  a  firm  stand 
against  "all  laws  that,  upon  account  of  mere 
differences  of  religious  opinion  and  forms  of 
worship,  excluded  men  of  integrity  and  ability 
from  serving  their  country,"  asserting  near  a 
century  ahead  of  his  time  that  a  Roman  Catholic 
could  be  such.  His  'Tracts'  were  later  collected, 
and  did  good  service  in  the  Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion fight  of  the  next  century.  Abernethy  was 
the  bravest  of  the  brave,  not  only  in  advocating 
unpopular  truths  to  his  own  harm,  but  in  resist- 
ing the  highest  dignitaries  in  the  cause  of  right. 
See  'Diary,'  6  vols.;  Duchal's  'Life';  'History 
of  Irish   Presbyterian  Church.' 

Abernethy,  John,  the  great  English  sur- 
geon, grandson  of  the  preceding:  b.  London,  3 
April  1764;  d.  20  April  1831.  Educated  at  Wol- 
verhampton grammar  school,  he  was  apprenticed 
at  15  to  Sir  Charles  Blicke,  a  leading  London 
surgeon,  assistant  surgeon  at  St.  Bartholomew's 
Hospital ;  he  also  attended  the  lectures  of  Pott, 
the  chief  surgeon  there,  of  John  Hunter,  and  the 
anatomical  lectures  at  London  Hospital  of  Sir 
William   Blizzard,   who  early  employed  him  as 


ABERRATION  — ABILENE 


demonstrator.  Pott,  resigning,  Blicke  took  his 
place,  and  made  Abernethy  assistant  surgeon  in 
1787.  His  lectures  drew  such  crowds  that  a  spe- 
cial building  was  erected,  now  the  celebrated  St. 

Bartholomew's  Scl I     In  1813  he  was  appointed 

Surgeon  tO  Christ's  Hospital,  in  I S 1 4  prole-  -or 
of  anatomy  and  surgery  to  the  College  of  Sur- 
geons, and  in  1815  full  surgeon  to  St.  Bartholo- 
mew's, a  post  wliicli  he  resigned  in  1829.  Of  his 
numerous  medical  works  the  most  important  is 
'Surgical  Observations  on  the  Constitutional 
Origin  and  Treatment  of  Local  Diseases,'  which, 
from  his  frequent  references  to  it.  became  known 
as  '  My  Book.'  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  prove 
that  topical  symptoms  should  be  treated  by 
general  remedies,  especially  for  the  stomach  and 
bowels;  and  he  was  a  persuasive  and  influential 
teacher,  though  over-dogmatic.  He  was  the  first 
to  introduce  the  capital  surgical  improvement  of 
tying  the  great  arteries  in  operations  for  aneu- 
rism, etc.  See  'Works,'  S  vols.  1820;  'Me- 
moirs' by  Macilwain,  1853,  not  highly  esteemed. 

Aberration.  In  physics,  (1)  that  property 
of  a  lens  or  curved  mirror  in  virtue  of  which  it 
does  not  form  a  sharp,  Bat  image  devoid  of  false 
color  fringes.  Spherical  aberration  is  the  geo- 
metrical distortion  of  the  image  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  surface  of  the  lens  or  mirror  is 
spherical  instead  of  having  the  theoretically  best 
form.  It  is  easy  to  grind  a  spherical  surface, 
and  more  difficult  to  grind  those  of  other  forms; 
hence  in  the  practical  manufacture  of  a  high- 
grade  lens  the  curvatures  are  carefully  calcu- 
lated, so  that  spherical  surfaces  may  be  used, 
while  the  spherical  aberration  is  still  kept  within 
limits  that  are  consistent  with  the  use  of  the 
lens  ( See  Lens.)  Chromatic  aberration  is 
the  defect  in  virtue  of  which  the  focal  length 
of  the  lens  is  not  the  same  for  all  colors.  A 
lens  possessing  chromatic  aberration  gives  an 
image  that  is  blurred  with  rainbow-like  fringes; 
one  that  is  devoid  of  chromatic  aberration  is 
said  to  be  achromatic  (see  Light).  Mirrors, 
whether  concave  or  convex,  have  no  chromatic 
alu  1  ration. 

(2)  The  slight  displacement  of  the  apparent 
position  of  a  star  or  other  celestial  object,  due 
to  the  fact  that  although  the  velocity  of  light  is 
very  great  it  is  not  infinite.  In  recent  years 
much  attention  has  been  paid  to  aberration 
phenomena,  because  the  observed  amount  of  the 
displacement  of  a  star  indicates  that  the  ether 
of  space  is  stationary  and  that  the  earth  passes 
through  it  like  a  fish  through  stagnant  water; 
while  direct  experiments  indicate,  on  the  con- 
trary, that  the  ether  is  dragged  along  with  the 
earth  to  a  considerable  extent.     See  Ether. 

Ab'ert,  John  James,  American  military  en- 
gineer: b.  Shepherdstown,  Va.,  17  Sept.  1788; 
d.  1863.  He  graduated  at  West  Point  in  181 1, 
and  at  once  went  into  the  War  Office ;  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar;  served  in  the  War  of  1812, 
becoming  topographical  engineer  with  the  rank 
of  major;  was  made  chief  and  colonel  of  topo- 
graphical engineers  in  1838,  and  assisted  in  de- 
veloping important  canals  and  other  works. 
His  engineering  reports  are  standard,  and  he 
was  a  founder  of  the  National  Institute  of 
Science,  since  merged  in  the  Smithsonian. 

Abeyance,  meaning  expectancy;  probably 
derived  from  the  French  bayer,  to  gape  after. 
When    real    or   personal   properties   are   in    ex- 


pectation, or  the  intendment  of  the  law,  they 
are  said  to  be  in  abeyance,  or  not  actually  pos- 
sessed. The  word  is  often  used  in  the  Church 
of  England,  a  living  being  known  as  "in  abey- 
ance" when  it  is  left  vacant  owing  to  the  un- 
willingness of  the  patron  to  declare  himself  in 
favor  of  any  particular  applicant  for  the  office. 

Abich,  Wilhelm  Herman,  German  miner- 
alogist and  naturalist:  b.  Berlin  11  Dec.  1806; 
d.  Graz  2  July  1886.  After  completing  a  course 
of  study  in  the  natural  sciences  at  the.  Univer- 
sity of  Purlin,  he  traveled  in  Italy  and  Sicily. 
In  [842  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  nun 
eralogy  in  the  university  at  Dorpat,  and  in  1853 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
(ii.  is  in  Saint  Petersburg,  for  whom  he  wrote 
exhaustive  reports  of  the  explorations  which 
he  had  made  in  the  Caucasus,  Russian  Ar- 
menia and  northern  Persia.  He  also  published 
several  books  descriptive  of  the  minerals  found 
in  the  different  countries  in  which  he  had  trav- 
eled, the  most  important  of  which  are:  'Erlau- 
ternde  Abbildungen  von  geologischcn  Erschei- 
nungen,  beobachtet  am  Vesuv  und  Aetna  18.13 
und  1834'  (1837);  '  L'eber  die  Natur  und  den 
Zusammenhang  der  vulkanischen  Bildungen' 
(1841);  "Ueber  die  geologische  Natur  des  ar- 
menischen  Hochlander'  (1843);  'l'eber  die 
Natronseen  auf  der  Araxesebeni '  (1846-9); 
'  Vergleichende  geologische  Grundziige  der 
kaukas-armenischen  und  nordpersischen  Ge- 
birge'  (1858)  ;  'Sur  la  Structure  et  la  Geologie 
du  Daghcstan'    (1862). 

Abildgaard,  a'bil-gord,  Nikolai  Abraham, 
Danish  painter:  b.  Copenhagen  4  Sept.  1744;  d. 
Frcderiksdal  4  June  ]8<><,.  lie  studied  for 
some  time  at  the  academy  in  Copenhagen,  but 
in  1772  went  to  Rome  to  study  under  the  mas- 
ters. After  his  return  he  was  appointed  to  a 
professorship  at  the  academy  in  1786,  and  in 
1789  was  elected  a  director.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  his  paintings  were  of  an  historical  nature 
and  he  had  much  to  do  with  the  founding  of  the 
Danish  school  of  historical  painting.  A  series 
of  10  pictures  in  the  castle  of  Christiansborg, 
which  burned  in  1794,  and  scenes  from  Shake- 
speare and  Ossian  were  his  most  important 
works. 

Abilene,  Kan.,  city,  seat  of  Dickinson 
County,  163  m.  W.  of  Kansas  City,  on  the 
Kansas  River  and  three  railroads  :  Union  Pacific, 
Chicago,  R.  I.  &  P.,  and  Atchison,  T.  &  S.  F. 
R.R.'s;  settled  1856,  incorporated  1869,  the  orig- 
inal charter  being  still  in  force.  For  many 
years  it  has  been  one  of  the  great  agricultural 
market  centres  of  the  State,  the  focus  of  a  large 
farm  loan  business,  and  the  sales-ground  for 
the  large  droves  of  cattle  that  are  annually 
brought  from  Texas.  It  has  also  large  manu- 
facturing interests,  including  several  flour-mills 
and  creameries,  as  well  as  manufactures  of  iron 
bridges,  carriages,  etc.  Mineral  water  from  ad- 
jacent sand  springs  is  bottled  for  export.  The 
government  consists  of  a  mayor  and  council. 
Pop.  (1000)  3,507. 

Abilene,  Tex.,  city,  seat  of  Taylor  County, 
160  m.  W.  by  S.  of  Fort  Worth,  on  the  Texas 
&  P.  R.R.  The  centre  of  a  farming,  cotton,  and 
stock-raising  district,  its  chief  interests  lie  in 
its  cotton-gins,  flour-  and  feed-mills  and  grain 
elevators,  although  it  also  has  flourishing  man- 
ufactories of  saddlery,  harness,  lumber,  and  ice. 
Its    educational    advantages    are    excellent,    and 


ABINGDON  — ABLUTION 


include  a  public  high   school   and  a  prosperous 
Baptist  college.     Pop.  (1900)  3,411. 

Abingdon,  111.,  city,  Knox  County;  85  m. 
N.E.  of  Quincy;  on  the  Chicago,  B.  &  Q.  and 
the  Iowa  C.  R.R.'s.  Settled  1828,  incorporated 
1857,  now  acting  under  charter  of  1859.  Among 
its  many  industrial  interests,  which  include 
wagon-works,  saw-mills,  and  manufactories  of 
gloves  and  organs,  it  has  the  largest  animal-trap 
factory  in  the  world.  Besides  its  excellent 
school  system,  it  is  the  scat  of  Hedding  College 
(M.  E.)  and  Abingdon  (Christian)  College,  the 
latter  having  been  founded  in  1855.  A  mayor 
and  council  of  five  is  annually  elected.  Pop. 
(1900)   2,022. 

Abingdon,  Va.,  post  village,  seat  of  Wash- 
ington County;  on  the  Norfolk  &  W.  R.R.,  315 
m.  S.W.  of  Richmond  and  140  m.  W.  by  S.  of 
Lynchburg.  Settled  1730,  incorporated  1788,  it 
has  long  been  noted  for  its  large  tobacco  and 
live-stock  interests,  as  well  as  for  its  valuable 
deposits  of  iron,  gypsum,  and  salt,  much  of  the 
salt  used  in  the  Southern  States  during  the 
Civil  War  having  been  obtained  in  this  vicinity. 
Its  manufactures  include  wagon-works  and 
planing-mills,  besides  cigar,  tobacco,  and  pipe 
factories.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  Martha  Wash- 
ington College  for  girls,  the  Stonewall  Jackson 
Female  Institute,  the  Academy  of  the  Visitation, 
and  Abingdon  Academy  for  boys.  Pop.  (1900) 
1,306. 

Abington,  Mass.,  a  post  township  in  Ply- 
mouth County,  20  m.  S.E.  of  Boston,  on  the 
Old  Colony  division  of  the  New  York,  N.  H.  & 
H.  R.  R.R.  Settled  in  1680,  incorporated  1712. 
Its  southern  portion  is  now  known  as  Whit- 
man ;  its  northern  portion  as  North  Abington, 
and  both  are  important  manufacturing  centres, 
the  chief  industries  being  the  making  of  ma- 
chinery, shoes,  and  leather  goods.  The  govern- 
ment is  by  town  meeting.     Pop.  (1900)  4,489. 

Abiogenesis.    See  Biogenesis. 

Abjuration,  the  act  of  forswearing,  abjur- 
ing, or  renouncing  upon  oath ;  a  denial  upon 
oath ;  a  renunciation  upon  oath.  Chiefly  a  law 
term  and  used  in  the  following  senses : 

1.  In  the  United  States  when  an  alien  wishes 
to  become  a  citizen  he  must  declare  among 
other  things,  that  he  doth  absolutely  and  en- 
tirely renounce  and  abjure  all  allegiance  and 
fidelity  which  he  owes  to  any  foreign  sovereign, 
etc.,  and  especially,  by  name  the  sovereign, 
etc.,  whereof  he  was  before  a  citizen  or  subject. 

2.  An  abjuration  of  the  realm.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  the  right  of  sanctuary  was  con- 
ceded to  criminals.  A  person  fleeing  to  a  church 
or  churchyard  might  permanently  escape  trial 
if,  after  confessing  himself  guilty  before  the 
coroner,  he  took  an  oath  abjuring  the  kingdom: 
promising  to  embark,  at  an  assigned  port,  for 
a  foreign  land,  and  never  to  return  unless  by 
the  king's  permission.  By  this,  however,  he 
forfeited  his  goods   and  chattels. 

3.  Special.  An  abjuration  or  renunciation  of 
all  imagined  allegiance  to  the  Jacobite  line  of 
rulers,  after  the  English  nation  had  given  its 
verdict  in   favor  of  William  and  Mary. 

The  oath  nf  abjuration  was  fixed  by  13  Win. 
III.  c.  16.  By  the  21  &  22  Vict.  c.  48,  one  form 
of  oath  was  substituted  for  the  oaths  of  alle- 
giance,   supremacy,    and    abjuration.     For    this 


form  another  was  substituted  by  the  Act  30  & 
31  Vict.  c.  75,  §  5.  This  has  in  turn  been  super- 
seded by  the  Promissory  Oaths  Act,  31  &  32 
Vict.  c.  72. 

4.  An  abjuration,  renunciation,  or  retraction 
of  real  or  imagined  heresy  or  false  doctrine. 
Thus  the  now  abolished  25  Chas.  II.  c.  2,  enacted 
that  certain  tenets  of  the  Church  of  Rome  were 
to  be  solemnly  renounced. 

Ablution,  or  the  ceremonial  act  of  wash- 
ing to  symbolize  purification  from  uncleanness, 
is  a  rite  which  has  been  observed  by  many  races 
of  people  from  the  early  Mosaic  days  down  to 
our  own  time.  Under  the  Mosaical  dispensa- 
tion the  act  of  ablution  had  four  purposes:  (1) 
To  cleanse  from  the  taint  of  an  inferior  position 
before  initiation  into  a  higher  state,  as  when 
Aaron  and  his  sons,  having  been  chosen  for  the 
priesthood,  were  washed  with  water  before  they 
were  invested  with  their  robes  of  office ;  (2)  to 
cleanse  in  order  to  fit  one  for  special  acts  of 
religious  ceremony,  as  when  the  priests  were 
required,  under  the  penalty  of  death,  to  wash 
both  their  hands  and  feet  before  approaching 
the  altar;  (3)  to  cleanse  from  defilement  con- 
tracted by  some  particular  circumstance  which 
prevented  one  from  enjoying  the  privileges  of 
ordinary  life,  of  which  there  were  no  less  than 
1 1  species  of  uncleanness  recognized  by  the  law ; 
and  (4)  to  cleanse  or  absolve  oneself  from  the 
guilt  of  a  particular  act,  as  when,  in  expiation 
for  an  unknown  murder,  the  elders  of  the  village 
washed  their  hands  over  the  slaughtered  heifer, 
saying,  "Our  hands  have  not  shed  this  blood, 
neither  have  our  eyes  seen  it"  (Dent,  xxi .). 
This  practice  was  also  common  both  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  it  was  undoubtedly  in 
accordance  with  this  practice  that  Pilate  called 
for  water  and  washed  his  hands  to  signify  that 
he  held  himself  innocent  of  the  blood  of  Jesus 
Christ   (Matt,  xxvii.  24). 

Ablution  by  the  priests  before  the  perform- 
ance of  sacred  ceremonies  was  common  even 
among  the  heathen,  while  the  Egyptian  priests 
carried  the  practice  to  such  an  extreme  that 
they  shaved  their  entire  bodies  every  third  day 
and  then  washed  themselves  in  cold  water  twice 
every  day  and  twice  each  night,  that  no  particle 
of  filth  might  even  rest  upon  them.  Such  an 
act  corresponds  somewhat  to  the  more  simple 
wadu  of  the  Mohammedans,  a  ceremonial  wash- 
ing which  they  are  compelled  to  observe  five 
times  daily,  or  immediately  before  their  stated 
prayers,  and  these  do  not  begin  to  represent 
the  formal  acts  of  cleansing  required  by  the 
Moslem  law.  For  example,  the  ablution  for 
positive  defilement  required  by  Moses  has  its 
counterpart  in  the  Mohammedan  ghual,  and  yet 
again,  under  the  Moslem  law,  the  causes  of  such 
defilement  are  specified  so  minutely  that  they 
greatly  exceed  those  of  the  ancient  Jews.  So 
strict  was  the  law  upon  this  point,  however, 
that,  when  water  could  not  be  obtained,  it  was 
required  that  the  purification  should  be  made 
with  something  that  might  represent  the  water. 
Iii  times  of  drought,  therefore,  or  on  occasions 
nf  sickness,  the  act  of  purification  might  be 
performed  by  rinsing,  or  rubbing  the  hands  and 
face  with  dry  sand.  This  form  of  cleansing 
was  called  tayetnmum. 

The  ceremony  of  ablution  at  communion  was 
adopted  by  the  early  Christian  Church,  and  has 
been   retained  both  in  the   Eastern  and  Roman 


ABNORMAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


Catholic  Churches.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  it  has  become  a  liturgical  term,  denoting 
the  two  acts  of  cleansing  performed  during  the 
mass:  (i)  When  wine  is  poured  into  the  chal- 
ice to  disengage  any  particles  which  may  be  left 
in  the  vessel ;  and  (2)  when  both  wine  and 
water  arc  poured  over  the  priest's  fingers  into 
the  chalice.  In  the  Greek  Church  the  word 
"ablution"  is  applied  to  a  ceremony  performed 
seven  days  after  baptism,  when  the  unction  of 
the  chrism  is  formally  washed  off  from  those 
who  have  been  baptized. 

Abnormal  Psychology  covers  all  consider- 
able deviations  from  the  typical  normal  mind. 
Normal  minds  like  normal  bodies  differ  much 
among  themselves ;  it  is  therefore  impossible 
to  lay  down  any  arbitrary  rule  by  which  varia- 
tions from  a  type  or  "norm"  —  at  least,  if  the 
variation  be  but  slight  —  may  be  identified.  A 
pulse  rate  which,  in  a  young  child,  indicates 
health,  may,  in  an  adult,  be  a  symptom  of  dis- 
ease; a  pallid  skin  which  is  "normal"  to  one 
individual  may,  in  another,  proceed  from  a  de- 
ranged circulation.  Similarly,  emotional  ex- 
citement which,  for  a  person  of  sanguine  tem- 
perament, is  entirely  "natural,"  may,  if  found  in 
a  phlegmatic  individual,  express  a  highly  ab- 
normal mental  state ;  and  what  is  unhesitatingly 
pronounced  insanity  in  one  person  may,  in  an- 
other, be  laid  to  eccentricity.  Abnormality 
must,  therefore,  be  taken  as  a  deviation,  not 
from  a  general  normal  type,  but  from  a  par- 
ticular standard  which  a  given  class  of  indi- 
viduals represents.  Abnormal  psychology  is  a 
wider  term  than  "mental  pathology"  or  "mental 
disease."  It  is  wider  because  many  abnormali- 
ties of  mind  occur  in  a  perfectly  healthy  —  non- 
pathological —  condition.  Deaf-mutism,  for  ex- 
ample, is  no  more  pathological  than  the  having 
of  supernumerary  toes  and  fingers.  Abnormal 
psychology  falls  into  three  parts;  the  first  deals 
with  temporary  derangements,  the  second  with 
more  or  less  permanent  derangements  (mental 
diseases,  including  insanity),  and  the  third  with 
defective  and  exceptional  minds. 

I.  Under  temporary  derangements  are  to  be 
classed  abnormal  illusions,  hallucinations,  dreams, 
and  hypnosis.  All  these  derangements  indicate 
a  loss  of  efficient  mental  functioning  without, 
however,  necessarily  entailing  a  permanent  mor- 
bid condition.  In  order  to  understand  the  sig- 
nificance of  such  deficiencies  it  will  be  necessary 
to  keep  in  mind  the  more  important  functions 
which  devolve  upon  consciousness.  These  are 
(i)  perception,  the  correct  apprehension  of  the 
external  world  of  objects  and  events,  (2)  the 
appropriate  reaction  of  the  individual  upon  ob- 
jects (for  example,  instinctive,  impulsive,  and 
volitional  actions),  and  (3)  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  adequate  social  relations 
with  other  individuals  and  groups  of  individuals 
(states,  corporations,  etc.).  It  is,  in  general, 
an  omission,  a  defect,  or  an  exaggeration,  con- 
nected with  one  or  more  of  these  great  func- 
tions, that  marks  the  passage  from  a  normal  to 
a  deranged  state  of  consciousness. 

Among  abnormal  illusions  are  to  be  found 
some  of  the  slightest  and  least  serious  delin- 
quencies of  mental  function :  delinquencies 
which  are  analogous  to  the  lesser  and  more 
fleeting  ills  of  the  body.  Instances  are  fur- 
nished  by    the    mistaken    perception    of    ghosts 


and  goblins  under  stress  of  strong  imagina- 
tion or  high  emotional  tension,  and  the  seeing  of 
fantastic  forms  in  fire,  rock,  and  cloud.  Illusions 
of  this  type  may,  however,  rot  upon  other  con- 
ditions;  upon  a  general  temperamental  bias,  or 
upon  prejudice,  or  superstition,  or  excessive 
fatigue,  or  hunger,  or  upon  the  use  of  drugs, 
or,  finally,  upon  disease.  Hallucinations  are 
closely  related  to  abnormal  illusions.  The  tra- 
ditional distinction  between  the  two  has  been 
handed  down  from  the  time  of  the  French 
alienist,  E.  Esquirol  (1838),  who  defined  illu- 
sion as  "a  false  perception  of  an  object,"  hallu- 
cination as  "a  perception  without  an  object." 
This  distinction,  though  it  has  little  psycholog- 
ical significance,  possesses  a  certain  value  in 
diagnosis;  for  hallucinations,  as  thus  conceived, 
indicate  a  more  serious  psychological  derange- 
ment than  illusions.  A  relatively  small  num- 
ber of  hallucinations  depend,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  upon  the  brain  alone;  in  most  cases,  a 
peripheral  disturbance,  somewhere  throughout 
the  body,  is  their  ultimate  condition.  Thus  the 
hallucinatory  belief  that  a  part  of  the  body  is 
dead  may  come  from  a  local  paralysis  or  the  con- 
viction that  the  bones  are  tubes  of  glass  from  de- 
ranged organic  sensations.  Hallucinations  arc  far 
less  frequent  in  the  sane  and  healthy  than  arc  the 
illusions  described  above.  (See  PSYCHICAL 
Research.)  They  are,  however,  frequent  ac- 
companiments of  certain  nervous  disorders,  for 
example,  epilepsy  and  hysteria,  and  in  ecstasy, 
in  the  dancing  epidemics  of  the  Middle  Ages 
and  in  demoniacal  possession,  hallucinations 
have  played  a  prominent  part ;  while  in  those 
forms  of  insanity  which  are  accompanied  by 
cloudiness  of  perception  and  thought  (delu- 
sional insanity,  paranoia,  and  general  paralysis) 
they  are  extremely  frequent.  Dreams.  The 
dream  consciousness  is  chiefly  a  perceiving  con- 
sciousness; will,  sentiment,  memory,  and  rea- 
soning are  much  less  prominent  than  in  waking 
life.  But  it  is,  nevertheless,  a  consciousness 
which  does  not  fulfill  the  normal  functions  of 
perception.  Dream  perceptions  are  "unreal," 
and  may,  therefore,  be  considered  as  derange- 
ments ;  although  they  are  no  more  pathological 
in  their  nature  than  the  sleeping  state  in  which 
they  occur.  The  dream  slate  is  further  charac- 
terized by  diffuse  unconcentrated  attention  and 
by  loose  and  scattered  associations.  Hypnosis. 
One  degree  further  removed  from  the  normal 
mind  than  the  dreaming  state  is  the  state  of 
hypnosis.  The  two  states  possess,  however, 
certain  significant  points  of  resemblance  and  of 
difference.  (1)  In  both,  consciousness  is  more 
or  less  cut  off  from  the  influence  of  the  outside 
world.  In  sleep,  the  avenues  of  sense  are 
closed.  We  seek  darkness  and  quiet,  avoiding, 
in  general,  conditions  which  would  make  de- 
mands upon  the  organs  of  sense  and  of  move- 
ment. Furthermore,  the  sleeping  state  itself 
tends  to  protect  the  nervous  system  from  intru- 
sion ;  the  sensory  paths  are  blocked.  In  hyp- 
nosis, similar  conditions  obtain.  There  is  a  gen- 
eral insensitivity  of  the  nervous  system;  so  that 
appeals  from  the  environment  arc,  as  a  rule, 
unsuccessful.  The  subject  is  unaware  of  what 
is  going  on  about  him.  (2)  Again,  both  in 
dreams  and  in  hypnosis,  certain  stimuli  are  ef- 
fective. The  course  of  dreams  is  partly  deter- 
mined   by    strong    or    persistent    appeals    from 


ABNORMAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


without,  for  example,  the  chirp  of  insects,  the 
rumble  of  traffic,  the  chill  of  the  room,  the 
cramp  of  an  uncomfortable  position.  The 
course  of  the  hypnotic  consciousness  is  similarly 
determined  by  the  words  and  gestures  of  the 
operator.  (3)  The  dream  and  the  hypnotic  con- 
sciousness share  a  common  attitude  of  belief  in 
whatever  situation  is  presented.  Capacity  for 
discriminating  the  world  of  sense  from  the 
world  of  memory  and  of  imagination  is  lacking 
to  both.  The  individual  is  completely  cred- 
ulous. The  past  and  the  future  are,  for  the 
time  being,  annihilated.  The  person  lives  only 
in  the  present.  (4)  Along  with  these  similari- 
ties there  stands  a  striking  and  a  fundamental 
difference  between  dreams  and  hypnosis.  The 
dream  consciousness  is  broad  and  shallow.  As- 
sociations run  riot.  The  selective  function  of 
the  attention  which,  in  the  normal  conscious- 
ness, rejects  the  trivial  and  the  accidental  and 
fixes  upon  the  essential  features  of  the  percep- 
tion or  the  idea,  is  lacking.  One  thing  appears 
as  important  and  as  valuable  as  another.  There 
is  no  subordination.  Consciousness  is  scatter- 
brained. Consequently,  the  dream  is  (as  one 
discovers  upon  waking)  absurd  and  fantastic. 
In  hypnosis,  on  the  contrary,  consciousness  is 
deep  and  narrow.  Along  with  the  general  in- 
sensitiveness  just  noted  (anaesthesia)  there  goes 
a  special  high  sensitiveness  (hyperesthesia). 
The  slightest  sound  or  gesture  of  the  operator 
is  caught  up  by  the  subject  and  acted  upon. 
This  special  sensitiveness  —  not  occult  power 
in  the  operator  —  is  the  secret  of  rapport.  The 
immediate  and  uncritical  response  of  the  hyp- 
notized subject  is  due  to  his  own  abnormal  psy- 
chophysical condition  and  not  to  any  "force8  ex- 
erted from  without.  Although  certain  of  the 
physiological  phenomena  of  hypnotism  are  to 
be  found  in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  in  the 
state  of  catalepsy,  human  hypnosis  is,  on  its 
conscious  side,  essentially  a  social  phenomenon. 
It  rests  upon  the  general  fact  that  all  persons 
are,  even  in  normal  life,  suggestible ;  that  is, 
that  their  beliefs  are  largely  determined  by  the 
personal  or  social  influence  which  the  indi- 
vidual exerts  over  his  fellows.  This  influence 
shows  itself  normally  in  a  mood  or  intellectual 
attitude  of  acquiescence.  When  the  mood  grows 
strong  and  overpowering  —  as  in  the  presence 
of  a  captivating  rhetorician  —  it  becomes  the 
attitude  of  obedience,  of  submission  to  author- 
ity. Now,  in  the  abnormal  state  of  hypnosis, 
the  mood  of  submission  is  heightened,  by  the 
narrowing  and  deepening  of  consciousness,  to 
the  exclusion  of  all  contrary  and  inhibitory  as- 
sociations. The  result  is  that  the  beliefs  and, 
consequently,  the  actions  of  the  subject  are  en- 
tirely at  the  mercy  of  the  meagre  perceptual 
processes  supplied,  by  way  of  "suggestion,"  from 
the  operator.  Hypnosis  is,  then,  an  abnormal 
psychophysical  state  which  nevertheless  closely 
resembles,  in  certain  prominent  features,  both 
the  dreaming  and  the  waking  states  of  every- 
day life. 

2.  Permanent  mental  derangements. —  There 
is  no  general  agreement  among  alienists  regard- 
ing the  precise  limits  of  insanity.  Some  alien- 
ists regard  practically  all  classes  of  mental  dis- 
ease as  falling  under  insanity;  others  restrict 
the  term  to  those  derangements  of  mind  which 
show  a  distinct  loss  of  equilibrium  among  men- 
tal functions.  The  meaning  of  the  term  is,  how- 
ever, aooroximately  fixed  by  practical  and  leeal 


considerations  ;  an  individual  is  often  pronounced 
insane  when  his  mental  condition  so  paralyses  or 
perverts  his  personal  and  social  relations  that 
detention  and  treatment  in  a  hospital  for  the 
care  of  the  insane  appears  advisable. 

On  the  border  line  of  mental  alienation  stand 
such  derangements  as  hysteria,  neurasthenia, 
and  hypochondria.  It  is  clear  that  these  affec- 
tions stand  on  a  different  plane  of  abnormality 
from  dreams  and  hypnosis,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  from  more  serious  forms  of  insanity,  on 
the  other.  They  are  all  of  interest  to  the 
psychologist  (but  especially  hysteria)  because 
they  present  typical  abnormalities  of  develop- 
ment, of  the  state  of  attention,  and  of  the  func- 
tions of  memory,  volition  and  emotion.  Con- 
sider hysteria.  The  hysterical  is  abnormally 
absent-minded.  The  range  of  her  attention  is 
exceedingly  narrow,  so  that  she  may,  for  exam- 
ple, in  observing  an  object  before  her  eyes, 
become  quite  blind  to  all  other  objects  in  the 
range  of  vision.  Her  capacity  for  learning  is 
inhibited.  She  suffers  a  partial  or  total  loss  of 
memory  (amnesia).  The  will  power  is  im- 
paired (abulia).  The  patient  becomes  a 
victim  to  habits  of  automatic  action  and  to  un- 
controllable emotions  and  moods.  Hysteria  fur- 
nishes, moreover,  a  rare  field  for  the  study  of 
suggestion  and  for  the  analysis  of  personality. 
French  psychologists,  who  work  by  preference 
from  the  abnormal  to  the  normal  mind,  have 
recently  made  important  contributions  to  our 
knowledge  of  this  form  of  mental  disease. 

When  we  come  to  insanities  proper,  we  find 
a  bewildering  number  of  symptoms  and  of  dis- 
eases. Out  of  these  we  can,  however,  extract 
a  few  general  and  typical  forms.  These  in- 
clude mania,  melancholia,  circular  insanity 
(all  distinguished  by  abnormal  emotions  and 
moods),  delusional  insanity  (distinguished  by 
fixed,  irrational  beliefs  of  grandeur,  unseen 
agency,  persecution,  etc.),  volitional  derange- 
ments whose  various  forms  (destructive,  homo- 
cidal,  dipsomaniac,  kleptomaniac,  etc.),  are 
characterized  by  the  lack  of  voluntary  control, 
and,  finally,  a  class  of  mental  diseases  which 
present  the  most  complete  and  general  loss  of 
function  —  the  highest  degrees  of  mental  abnor- 
mality. This  class  includes  general  paralysis, 
amentia,  and  dementia. 

3.  Defective  and  exceptional  minds. —  Our 
third  class  of  abnormality  covers  (1)  minds 
that  are  lacking  in  certain  simple  processes 
common  to  all  normal  individuals  (the  mind 
of  the  congenitally  blind  and  congenitally  deaf, 
the  color-blind,  and  persons  suffering  from  va- 
rious impairments  of  the  function  of  speech). 
(2)  minds  in  which  some  set  of  processes 
or  some  function  is  abnormally  developed 
(phenomenal  chess-players,  "lightning  calcula- 
tors," and  trance  "mediums"),  (3)  the  genius, 
(4)  the  habitual  criminal,  the  sexual  pervert, 
and  other  "degenerates." 

The  deficient  minds  of  (1)  are  of  interest 
to  the  psychologist  inasmuch  as  they  show,  by 
their  very  deficiency,  the  part  played,  in  con- 
sciousness at  large,  by  the  lacking  elements. 
The  comparison,  that  is,  of  a  normal  mind  with 
a  mind  wanting  in  visual  or  auditory  sensation 
or  verbal  imagery  is  important  for  the  psy- 
chology of  vision  or  of  audition  or  of  language. 
The  comparison  is  useful  also  in  a  study  of 
mental  substitution ;  for  the  functions  of  mem- 
ory,    imagination,     and     social     communication 


ABOLITIONISTS  —  ABORTION 


ordinarily  borne  by  visual,  auditory  and  motor 
imagery  must,  in  the  affections  named,  be  borne 
by  other  mental  processes.  Finally,  the  mental 
aberrations  to  be  found  in  the  habitual  criminal 
and  the  pervert  bring  the  psychologist  back  to 
the  domain  of  mental  pathology  and,  at  the 
same  time,  they  offer  material  for  investigating 
the  influence  upon  mental  constitution  of  hered- 
itary tendency. 

Consult:  Parish,  'Hallucinations  and  Illu- 
sions* (1897)  ;  Nordau,  'Degeneration'  (trans. 
[89s);  Galton,  'Hereditary  Genius'  (1887); 
Mercier,  'Sanity  and  Insanity'  (180x3); 
'Psychology,  Normal  and  Morbid'  (1001); 
Janet,  'The  Mental  State  of  Hystcricals' 
(trans.  1901). 

I.  M.  Bentley, 

Asst.  Prof,  of  Psychology,  Cornell  University. 

Abolitionists,  the  extreme  section  of  the 
anti-slavery  party  in  the  United  States,  who  ad- 
vocated immediate  sweeping  away  by  the  national 
government  of  Southern  slavery,  without  regard 
to  constitutional  guarantee';,  vested  interests,  or 
political  facts;  this  section  and  its  nickname 
date  from  about  1835.  Gradual  abolition  had 
been  the  desire  of  many  of  the  best  men  even 
of  the  South ;  and  till  after  the  War  of  1812 
there  was  no  prejudice  against  the  freest  ex- 
pression of  opinion  on  the  subject.  But  the 
effects  of  Whitney's  cotton-gin  were  now  begin- 
ning to  be  felt  in  making  the  slave  system  for 
the  time  enormously  profitable;  and  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise,  with  the  insistence  of  the 
South  thereafter  that  States  should  be  admitted 
only  in  pairs,  one  slave  and  one  free,  showed 
that  the  time  of  apathy  had  gone  by.  'Hie  new 
zeal  of  the  South  in  upholding,  increasing,  and 
justifying  the  system  was  met  by  a  new  intensity 
of  the  North  in  opposing  it,  though  for  a  long 
time  confined  to  a  small  band  of  agitators.  In 
18.13  the  National  Anti-Slavery  Society  was 
formed  in  Philadelphia;  in  183 1  William  Lloyd 
Garrison  had  founded  the  Liberator,  a  weekly 
continued  till  1800,  filled  from  the  first  with  the 
fiercest  denunciation  not  only  of  the  system  but 
of  all  connected  with  it;  and  a  brilliant  band  of 
orators,  philanthropists,  and  growing  political 
forces. —  Wendell  Phillips,  Charles  Sumner, 
(unit  Smith,  and  women  like  Lucretia  Mott, — 
kept  the  public  mind  on  the  alert  and  furnished 
a  monotonous  moral  to  the  course  of  political 
events  which  the  people  might  not  otherwise 
have  drawn  SO  readily.  There  were  grades  even 
among  these;  and  the  extremists  denied  the  duty 
of  obeying  the  United  States  Constitution,  since 
it  contained  the  clause  warranting  the  fugitive 
slave  law.  which  was  denounced  as  "a  covenant 
with  death  and  an  agreement  with  hell."  In 
practice  they  violated  it  systematically  by  assist- 
ing in  the  escape  of  runaway  slaves,  through  the 
machinery  known  as  the  "Underground  Rail- 
road," concealing  them  from  pursuit  and  for- 
warding them  from  stage  to  stage  till  they 
reached  Canada.  But  in  1840  the  abolitionists 
divided  on  the  question  of  the  formation  of  a 
political  anti-slavery  party,  and  the  two  wings 
remained  active  on  separate  lines  to  the  end. 
It  was  largely  due  to  the  abolitionists  that  the 
Civil  War,  when  it  came,  was  regarded  by  the 
North  chiefly  as  an  anti-slavery  conflict,  and 
they  looked  upon  the  Emancipation  Proclama- 
tion as  a  vindication  of  this  view.     See  Anti- 


Slavery    Society;    Liberty    Partv:    Slavery; 
United  States  —  Causes  of  the  Civil  War, 

Aborigines  (Lat.  "from  the  origin";  the 
Greek  name  was  autochthonoi) ,  the  earliest  in- 
habitants of  a  country  discoverable  by  civilized 
investigation.  Their  relation  to  the  animal 
world  as  a  whole  comes  under  the  head  of 
Anthropology;  to  other  races,  under  Ethnol- 
ogy; their  culture  and  conditions,  under  Am  11.1:- 
OLOGY  ;  of  special  countries,  under  their  names, 
or  those  of  particular  tribes.  Specifically,  in 
Roman  writers,  a  race  traditionally  said  to  have 
been  driven  by  the  Sabines  from  their  )ir>t 
homes  in  the  mountains  around  Reate  (Rieti), 
invaded  l.atmin.  subjugated  the  native  Siculi 
and  occupied  the  land,  along  with  a  tribe  of 
Pelasgi,  the  two  thenceforth  taking  the  name  of 
Latini.  If  true,  these  Aborigines  would  be 
of  Oscan  stock  and  form  the  non-Pelasgian  ele- 
ment  in   the   Romans. 

Abortion,  the  expulsion  of  a  foetus  from  its 
natural  resting-place  before  it  is  capable  of 
carrying  on  its  own  life.  A  variety  of  different 
terms  have  been  applied  to  indicate  variations 
in  the  character  of  this  process;  thus:  acciden- 
tal, when  brought  about  by  purely  accidental 
means;  artificial  or  induced,  when  caused  for 
medical  therapeutic  reasons;  criminal,  when  in- 
duced for  social  rather  than  medical  exigencies; 
tubal,  when  rupture  of  the  Fallopian  tube  oc- 
curs, discharging  the  foetus  into  the  abdominal 
cavity,  the  pregnancy  being  extra-uterine. 

The  causes  for  this  accident,  apart  from  in- 
duced abortion,  may  be  due  to  paternal,  ma- 
ternal, or  foetal  defects.  The  proportion  of 
abortions  to  full-time  pregnancies  is  about  1  to 
7  or  10.  Of  the  paternal  causes,  alcoholism, 
syphilis,  old  age,  or  physical  weakness  may  be 
cited.  I'be  most  frequent  causes,  however,  are 
of  foetal  and  maternal  causes,  I  leath  of  the 
foetus  is  the  most  frequent  foetal  cause.  The 
maternal  causes  may  be  local  or  constitutional. 
Inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the  uterus, 
tumors  or  new  growths  of  the  uterus,  disease 
of  the  ovary,  and  inflammatory  adhesions  of  the 
closely  associated  organs,  act  as  local  causes. 
Alcoholism,  starvation,  as  in  times  of  famine, 
syphilis,  lead  poisoning,  coal-gas  poisoning,  acute 
diseases,  as  typhoid,  pneumonia,  and  sudden 
severe  shock,  are  the  most  common  agents  act- 
ing on  the  mother  that  bring  about  the  death  of 
the   toiii-  and   its   subsequent  expulsion. 

The  symptoms  are  hemorrhage,  discharge  of 
the  amniotic  fluid,  and  pain.  The  treatment  is 
always  medical.  The  dangers  are  mostly  those 
of    hemorrhage    and    blood-poisoning. 

In  law,  when  abortion  is  produced  with  a 
malicious  design,  it  becomes  a  misdemeanor,  and 
the  party  causing  it  may  be  indicted  and  pun- 
ished. When,  in  consequence  of  the  means  used 
to  produce  abortion,  the  death  of  the  woman 
ensues,  the  crime  is  murder.  In  all  cases  of 
abortion  the  body  of  the  offence  must  first  be 
proven.  The  fact  of  the  pregnancy,  the  use  of  the 
instruments,  and  the  administering  of  the  drugs 
must  be  established  beyond  a  doubt.  The  evidence 
of  the  woman  upon  whom  the  abortion  was  com- 
mitted is  admissible  but  her  dying  declarations 
are  not  admissible  unless  homicide  is  charged  A 
person  who  sells  a  drug  or  instrument,  knowing 
that  it  is  to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  causing  a 
miscarriage,  is  also  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor. 


ABRA  — ABRAM 


Abra,  a'-bra,  a  province  and  a  river  in  the 
N.  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands.  The  province 
contains  numerous  deposits  of  placer  gold,  and 
the  river  gravel  is  auriferous.  Other  minerals, 
such  as  coal,  copper,  lead,  iron,  and  sulphur, 
are  believed  to  exist  in  paying  quantities,  as 
Luzon  is  known  to  be  rich  in  these  and  other 
economic  minerals.  For  its  head-hunting  tribes, 
see  Igorrote;  Philippines. 

Abraham  or  Abram,  the  progenitor  of  the 
Hebrews  and  the  Arab  Bedouin.  After  deriving 
his  genealogy  through  Shem  to  his  father  Terah 
and  his  brothers  Nahor  and  Haran,  the  narra- 
tive in  Gen.  xi.-xxv.  proceeds  as  follow. — 
each  step  in  the  pilgrimage  being  by  express 
direction  of  Yahwe,  to  his  purpose  of  founding 
the  Hebrew  nation: — 

After  Haran's  death  Terah  removes  with  his 
family  from  his  native  Ur  of  the  Chaldees 
(  ?  Mugheir  in  southern  Babylonia),  north  to 
Haran,  where  he  dies.  Abram  then  (at  75) 
takes  his  wife  Sarai  and  his  nephew  Lot,  Haran's 
son,  and  makes  his  way  north  by  way  of  Da- 
mascus (stopping  to  build  altars  to  Yahwe  at 
Shechem  and  Bethel)  to  Canaan,  where  he 
receives  the  promise  that  he  shall  become  the 
founder  of  a  great  nation,  and  all  the  families 
of  the  earth  shall  be  blessed  in  him.  Being  a 
pastoral  nomad,  a  drouth  in  Canaan  forces  him 
to  seek  forage  in  fertile  Egypt ;  where  he  passes 
off  Sarai  as  his  sister,  in  fear  ti.at  her  beauty 
will  lead  to  his  murder  to  possess  her,  and  she 
is  taken  by  Pharaoh,  who,  on  discovering  the 
deception,  restores  her,  but  orders  Abram  out 
of  Egypt.  Accompanied  by  Lot,  he  returns  to  a 
former  encampment  between  Bethel  and  Ai. 
The  clans  of  the  two  kinsmen  quarrel  over  the 
limited  pasturage,  as  usual  with  nomad  tribes, 
and  Abram  proposes  that  each  follow  his  own 
fortune.  Lot,  wishing  to  quit  nomad  life, 
chooses  the  fertile  Jordan  plain ;  Abram  pitches 
his  tent  among  the  oak  groves  of  Mamre,  close 
to  Hebron,  and  the  previous  promise  of  his 
posthumous  glory  is  repeated  and  solemnly  cove- 
nanted. Lot  is  captured  in  a  raid  of  the  Baby- 
lonian king,  with  his  Syrian  and  other  allies, 
against  his  revolted  vassals  of  the  Dead  Sea 
and  Jordan  valleys,  including  the  kings  of  So- 
dom and  Gomorrah,  who  are  overthrown : 
Abram  sallies  out  to  his  rescue  with  a  band  of 
tribesmen,  beats  the  confederacy  and  chases 
them  near  to  Damascus,  and  not  only  recovers 
his  nephew  but  restores  the  above  kings  to  their 
thrones,  refusing  any  reward.  The  property  of 
the  childless  Abraham  is  to  descend  to  his  trusted 
servant  Eliezer,  and  Sarai  suggests  that  he  avoid 
this  by  having  a  child  from  a  concubine,  a  com- 
mon enough  arrangement ;  accordingly  he  has 
Ishmael  by  Sarai's  maid  Hagar,  at  86.  Four 
years  later  it  is  revealed  by  Yahwe  in  person 
to  Abram  that  he  shall  have  a  legitimate  son  by 
Sarai,  whose  name  is  thenceforth  to  be  Sarah 
(princess)  and  his  own  to  be  Abraham  (father 
of  peoples)  ;  the  promise  is  afterward  repeated 
by  Yahwe  and  two  angels,  who  visit  Abram's 
tent  in  human  form,  the  latter  going  on  to  de- 
stroy Sodom  and  Gomorrah  for  their  wicked- 
ness, and  the  former  staying  behind  to  inform 
Abram  of  it.  Abram's  plea  wins  a  promise  of 
mercy  contingent  on  ten  righteous  men  being 
found  there,  but  they  are  not  forthcoming,  and 
only  Lot  and  his  family  escape.  Abram  goes  to 
Gerar    (Negeb)    in    southern    Palestine,    repeats 


precisely  the  same  performance  with  the  nona- 
genarian Sarai  as  before,  and  the  king  Abime- 
lech  repeats  the  part  of  Pharaoh,  with  the  same 
apologies  and  reproaches.  Isaac  is  born,  Sarah 
being  90,  and  Hagar  and  her  boy  Ishmael  are 
driven  into  the  desert  by  Sarah's  jealous  fears, 
where  Ishmael  becomes  ancestor  of  the  Bedouin. 
Isaac  is  circumcised  at  eight  days  old,  as  a  token 
of  Yahwe's  covenant  with  Abraham.  Some 
time  in  Isaac's  boyhood  Abraham  is  commanded 
by  Yahwe  to  make  a  burnt-offering  of  him,  and 
proceeds  to  obey,  but  is  spared  the  sacrifice  by 
Yahwe,  who  accepts  a  stray  ram  instead  and 
blesses  him  for  his  faith.  Sarah  dies  in  Hebron 
and  is  buried  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  which 
Abraham  buys  of  Ephron  the  Hittite.  He  later 
marries  Keturah,  has  six  sons  by  her,  dies  at 
175,  and  is  buried  beside  Sarah.  Isaac  has 
previously  married  Rebekah,  so  that  the  suc- 
cession is  assured. 

The  Jewish  stories  of  Abraham  were  by  no 
means  confined  to  this  account  in  our  canonical 
book ;  they  had  many  others,  associating  him 
with  Nimrod,  etc.,  which  are  collected  in  the 
Talmud ;  and  the  Mohammedans  invented  or 
preserved  many  more.  The. critical  view  is  that 
there  was  a  real  Abram  or  Abraham  (the  tradi- 
tions existing  in  both  forms) ,  with  his  home  at 
Hebron,  probably  a  considerable  man  from  the 
number  and  persistence  of  the  legends  about 
him  ;  but  that  this  is  all  we  know.  The  names 
of  his  brothers  and  ancestry  are  not  persons  but 
Arab  clans,  and  their  relations  and  movements 
represent  what  was  handed  down  or  believed 
concerning  the  North-Arab  league  that  grew 
into  the  Hebrew  nation,  or  its  original  elements. 
The  path  of  the  "bne  Terah"  from  the  southern 
Euphrates  valley  into  Palestine  and  elsewhere 
is  certainly  a  correct  type  of  the  actual  course, 
as  revealed  to  us  by  archaeology,  of  the  Semitic 
tribes  who  century  after  century  poured  out  of 
the  Arabian  deserts,  into  and  up  through  west- 
ern Mesopotamia,  to  plunder  or  share  the  rich 
Babylonian  civilization  and  wealth,  as  the  bar- 
barians did  that  of  the  Roman  empire :  accord- 
ing to  the  resistance  they  found  they  stayed  in 
the  Moabite  district,  turned  west  to  overrun  the 
Jordan  valley,  or  moved  north  into  Syria.  For 
the  archaeological  results  see  the  chapters  on 
early  times  in  various  histories  of  the  Hebrew-;. 
Kittel's,  Stade's,  Guthe's.  etc.:  Sayce's  'Patri- 
archal Palestine'  and  'Early  History  of  the 
Hebrews,'  reverent  in  tone;  Tompkins  'Studies 
on  the  Times  of  Abraham.'  Critical  commen- 
taries on  Genesis  are  also  serviceable.  For  the 
rabbinical  legends,  the  sources  —  in  German  — 
are  Beer  on  the  life  of  Abraham,  and  Griinbaum 
on  the  'Semitic  Sagas,'  which  gives  the  Moham- 
medan legends  likewise. 

Abrahamites,  (1)  A  oth-century  sect  of 
Syrian  deists,  denying  the  divinity  of  Christ. 
(2)  In  modern  use,  the  Bohemian  deists  of  the 
later  18th  century,  who  called  themselves  fol- 
lowers of  Huss,  but  accepted  no  religious  doc- 
trine beyond  the  unity  of  God,  and  nothing  of 
the  Bible  but  the  Lord's  Prayer.  They  avowed 
this  creed  in  1782  on  Joseph  II. 's  promise  of 
toleration;  but  as  they  would  join  neither  Jewish 
nor  Christian  folds,  he  expelled  them  from  Bo- 
hemia the  next  year  and  scattered  them  through 
Hungary,  Transylvania,  and  Slavonia.  Many 
were    martyred,    others    turned    Catholic. 

Abram.      See  Abraham. 


ABRASIVES 


Abrasives,  or  those  substances  used  in 
grinding  or  polishing,  include  (a)  mineral  sub- 
stances, such  as  grindstones  and  whetstones, 
which  are  used  by  simply  shaping  up  the  ma- 
terial found  in  nature;  (b)  mineral  substances 
which  occur  disseminated  in  the  rocks  or  which 
must  first  be  freed  from  impurities  and  are  pre- 
pared for  use  by  an  initial  pulverization;  (c) 
artificial  abradants.  The  history  of  abrasives 
shows  that  in  ancient  times  the  first  class  was 
most  largely  used,  while  the  artificial  abrasives 
now  so  extensively  employed,  were  unknown 
until  quite  recently. 

(a)  Oilstones  and  Whetstones  (q.v.)  are 
largely  American  products.  For  nearly  a  cen- 
tury New  Hampshire  has  been  the  headquarters 
of  the  whetstone  industry.  Whetstone  rock  is 
also  found  in  Vermont,  Massachusetts  and  Indi- 
ana. The  best  oilstones  from  New  Hampshire 
are  inferior  to  those  of  Garland  County,  Arkan- 
sas, in  which  region  there  are  extensive  beds  of 
a  remarkably  compact,  white,  Paleozoic  quartz 
rock,  called  Novaculite.  Griswold  in  1890  an- 
nounced that  this  material  is  a  sedimentary 
deposit  of  fine-grained  quartz  and  not  a  chemi- 
cally precipitated  deposit  as  had  been  previously 
supposed.  The  quarries  were  largely  worked 
for  implements  in  prehistoric  times  and  since 
1840  they  have  yielded  the  finest  oilstones  known. 
These  are  sold  under  the  names  of  "Washita" 
and  "Arkansas"  oilstones.  The  production  of 
oilstones  and  whetstones  in  the  United  States 
during  1902  amounted  to  $221,762.  The  imports, 
chiefly  of  razor  hones  from  Belgium  and  Ger- 
many, and  of  "Turkey"  oilstones  from  Italy  and 
France  amounted  to  $56,456.  Grindstones  are 
manufactured  from  a  tough,  gritty  sandstone, 
found  chiefly  in  Ohio,  though  Michigan,  Mon- 
tana, Wyoming,  and  West  Virginia  add  to  the 
output,  and  England,  Scotland,  and  Bavaria  are 
also  producers.  The  production  of  grindstones 
in  the  United  States  in  1902  amounted  to 
$667,431.  Millstones  and  buhrstones  are  far  less 
used  now  than  before  the  introduction  of  the 
roller  process  of  making  flour,  for  while  the 
American  production  in  1880  amounted  to  $200,- 
000,  it  fell  in  1894  to  $13,887.  Since  1894  it 
has  steadily  increased  till  in  1902  it  was  $59,808. 
This  is  owing  to  the  increased  demand  for  buhr- 
stones for  grinding  the  coarser  cereals,  fertiliz- 
ers, cement  rock,  and  various  minerals.  Mill- 
stones are  finer  grained  and  more  compact  than 
grindstones.  They  are  usually  made  from  sand- 
stone or  a  quartz  conglomerate.  The  buhrstone 
(q.v.)  from  France  is  the  best,  but  the  stones 
from  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia 
meet  most  of  the  requirements  of  the  trade. 

(b)  Pumice  (q.v.),  a  spongy  lava,  or  a  vol- 
canic ash,  is  used  in  scouring  powders  and  soaps. 
It  comes  chiefly  from  the  Lipari  Islands,  but  is 
also  produced  in  Utah  and  Nebraska.  Infuso- 
rial or  diatomaceous  earth  occurs  in  beds  often 
miles  in  extent.  It  is  formed  of  the  siliceous 
shells  of  infusoria  and  diatoms,  and  is  used  in 
scouring  soaps  and  powders.  The  chief  Ameri- 
can localities  are  in  Maryland.  Virginia,  New 
Hampshire  and  California.  Tripoli  is  a  similar 
variety  of  opal,  but  formed  from  a  siliceous 
limestone  by  the  leaching  out  of  the  calcium 
carbonate.  Its  use  as  an  abrasive  is  as  a  polish- 
ing powder  for  metals,  etc.,  but  it  is  also  exten- 
sively manufactured  into  filters,  for  which  it  is 
admirably  adapted.  Extensive  deposits  are 
worked  at  Seneca,  Missouri,  but  the  chief  sup- 


ply is  imported  from  Tripoli.  Crystalline 
quartz,  of  which  over  15,000  tons  were  mined  111 
Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania  in  i'K)2,  is  used  as 
a  wood  finisher,  in  the  manufacture  of  sand- 
paper, in  the  sawing  of  marble,  for  cleaning  cast- 
ings, etc.  Garnet  (q.v.)  occurs  in  many  of  the 
crystalline  rocks,  especially  in  pegmatite  and 
mica  schist.  Many  varieties  are  recognized  by 
the  mineralogist ;  but  the  value  of  garnet  as  an 
abrasive,  aside  from  its  great  hardness,  is  de- 
pendent not  on  its  composition,  but  oh  its  struc- 
ture. If  this  is  distinctly  lamellar  the  material 
will  continually  present  the  sharp  edges  which 
are  so  essential  to  a  good  abrasive.  Garnet 
which  lacks  this  lamellar  structure  is  of  com- 
paratively little  efficiency  for  grinding  and 
smoothing.  Garnet-paper  is  much  superior  lo 
sandpaper  and  is  extensively  used  in  woodwork- 
ing and  finishing  the  soles  and  heels  of  shoes. 
The  most  important  localities  are  in  New  York, 
Connecticut,  Pennsylvania,  and  North  Caro- 
lina. Corundum  (q.v.),  being  the  hardest  min- 
eral known,  except  the  diamond,  ranks  next  to  it 
among  the  natural  abrasives.  It  occurs  in  enor- 
mous quantities  in  Ontario,  which  since  1901 
has  been  the  leading  producer.  It  is  also  ex- 
tensively mined  in  Montana,  while  North  Caro- 
lina and  Georgia  have  until  very  recently  fur- 
nished nearly  all  of  the  domestic  supply.  Small 
quantities  of  corundum  are  produced  in  India 
which  go  chiefly  to  the  English  market.  Emery 
(q.v.)  is  a  natural  mixture  of  corundum  with 
magnetite  or  hematite.  It  has  been  largely 
mined  at  Chester,  Mass.,  and  Peekskill,  New 
York.  The  chief  supply,  however,  comes  from 
the  Island  of  Naxos.  Greece,  and  from  Asia 
Minor.  The  material  is  brought  to  this  country 
as  ballast  and  owing  to  the  low  prices  at  which 
it  is  marketed,  the  sale  for  the  American  min- 
eral is  much  reduced.  Diamond,  owing  to  its 
far  greater  hardness,  brings  many  times  the 
price  per  carat  which  any  other  abrasive  brings 
per  pound.  The  black  amorphous  "carbonado" 
found  in  Brazil  is  much  harder  than  the  crystal- 
lized diamond,  but  it  is  almost  exclusively  used 
for  diamond  drills,  while  the  dust  of  the  South 
African  "bort"  is  the  material  commonly  em- 
ployed as  an  abrasive  in  the  cutting  of  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones. 

(c)  Among  artificial  abrasives,  carborundum 
(q.v.)  holds  first  rank.  Discovered  in  1890,  its 
production  has  steadily  increased  from  1,000 
pounds  valued  at  $15  per  pound  in  i8g3,  to 
3,741,500  pounds  valued  at  8  to  10  cents  per 
pound  in  1902.  It  is  generally  acknowlc'1 
that  it  is  exceeded  in  hardness  only  by  the  dia- 
mond, thus  ranking  above  pure  corundum.  The 
chief  objection  to  it  is  its  brittleness.  Car- 
borundum wheels  and  stones,  as  well  as  car- 
borundum cloth  and  paper,  are  now  active 
competitors  of  the  similar  manufactures  of 
emery  and  corundum.  Crushed  steel  is  exten- 
sively used  in  sawing,  grinding,  rubbing,  and 
polishing  marble,  granite,  and  other  stones, 
while  the  finer  grades  of  crushed  steel, 
known  as  "steel  emery"  and  "rouge"  are  used  in 
grinding  glass.  Artificial  corundum  is  now 
being  manufactured  at  Niagara  Falls  by  heating 
the  mineral  bauxite  in  the  electrical  furnace. 

For  further  particulars  about  abrasives  see 
'Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,'  pub- 
lished annually  by  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey.  George  Letchworth  English, 

Mineralogist,  New  York  City. 


ABSALOM  —  ABSINTHE 


Absalom,  third  son  of  King  David  (2  Sam.  Absconding,  the  going  clandestinely  or  se- 

xiii.-xv.,  xviii. ;   I   Chron.  iii.  2).     He  revenged  cretly  out  of  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts,  or 

his  brother  Amnon's  outrage  of  his  sister  Tamar  lying  concealed,  in  order  to  avoid  their  process, 

by  killing  him,  and  was  banished  from  his  fa-  A  person  who  has  been  in  a   State   only  tran- 

ther's  court   for   five  years.     The  grudging  re-  siently  or  has  come  into  it  without  any  intention 


admittance  probably  left  him  feeling  insecure: 
he  cleverly  ingratiated  himself  with  the  people, 
and  by  aid  of  the  shrewd  Ahithophel  organized 
a  rebellion  against  his  father,  which  took  David 
unaware  and  forced  him  to  fly  east  of  the  Jor- 
dan with  a  small  following,  while  Absalom 
gained  possession  of  Jerusalem  and  the  court. 
With  this  enormous  de  facto  advantage  he  might 


of  settling  therein  cannot  be  treated  as  an  ab- 
sconding debtor  (15  Johns.  N.  Y.  196),  nor  can 
one  who  openly  changes  his  residence  (3  Yerg. 
Tenn.  414).  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  debtor 
should  actually  leave  the  State. 

Absenteeism,  a  term  applied  to  the  owners 
of  estates  in  a  country  who  habitually  absent 
themselves  from  that  country  and  spend  the  in- 


easily  have  maintained  his  seat ;  but  according  come  of  their  estates  in  it  in  another ;  in  current 

to  the  story,  one  Hushai,  pretending  to  desert  use>  referring  almost  wholly  to  the  Irish  nobil- 

David,    ingratiated   himself   with   Absalom,   and  jty  whose  fixed  residence  is  outside  of  Ireland, 

by  cunning  and  flattery  persuaded  him  to  a  pol-  Much  of  the  poverty  and  many  of  the  disturb- 

icy   of   delay,    while   Ahithophel    urged    him    to  ances  in  Ireland  have  been  charged  directly  to 

strike   quick   and    hard,    the    obviously    sensible  it,  and  the  Irish  people  have  protested  against  it 

course.     David  with  this  breathing-space  collect-  since  1380.     While  an  Irish  Parliament  existed, 


ed  an  army ;  his  veteran  captain  Joab,  gray  in 
victories  and  blood,  routed  Absalom's  forces  in 
« the  wood  of  Ephraim » ;  and  on  report  that 
Absalom  had  been  caught  by  his  long  hair  in 
the  branches  he  was  riding  under,  and  refusal 


there  seemed  hope  for  its  gradual  dwindling, 
careers  being  open  for  ambitious  men  in  Ire- 
land; but  with  its  abolition  the  evil  is  almost 
incurable.  Hungary  suffered  heavily  from  the 
same   cause  —  its   aristocracy   looking   on    their 


of  the  messenger  to  lay  hands  on  the  king's  son,  native  country's  language  and  life  as  badges  of 

Joab    himself    dispatched    him    with    his    spear  barbarism,  priding  themselves  on  being  Germans 

(about   980   B.C.).      David   could   not  have   suf-  and   living   in   Vienna  —  till    the    great   national 

fered  the  rebel  to  live  ;  but  the  statement  that  he  movement    set    going     by    Szechenyi    and    his 

held  a  grudge  against  Joab  for  killing  him.  and  companions  early  in  the  19th  century-     Despite 

ordered  public  mourning  for  his  son,  has  noth-  the  defense  of  the  system  by  some  economists, 

ing  intrinsically  improbable   in   it.     Absalom   is  and  the  good  theoretical  arguments  that  may  be 

represented  as  a  very  handsome  and  charming  made  for  it,  in  practice  its  economic,  social,  per- 

prince,  and  the  chronicler  plainly  has  much  sym-  sonal,  and  political  mischiefs  are  obvious.     Not 

pathy  with  him.  only    is    the    absent    landowner    and    property- 

Absalom  and  Achitophel,  a  satire  of  Dry-  owner,  collecting  his  rents  by  agents  inaccessible 

den's,  published   1681,  with  a   second  part  next  to  complaints,  representations,  appeals  for  help  in 


year  mainly  by  Nahum  Tate.  It  was  aimed  at 
the  efforts  of  the  Whig  party  to  put  forward  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  Charles  II.'s  illegitimate 
son,  for  the  succession  against  the  Duke  of 
York,  afterward  James  II.  It  is  classic  liter- 
ature for  the  force  and  fire  of  its  poetry,  its 
intellectual  keenness,  and  its  brilliant  character- 
izations of  politicians  of  the  «  Popish  Plot » 
time  under  the  guise  of  Scriptural  characters: 
the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  as  Achitophel  (Ahith- 
ophel), Buckingham  as  Zimri,  Slingsby  Bethel 
as  Shimei,  Halifax  as  Jotham,  etc. ;  also  his 
poetical  contemporaries  Shadwell  and  Settle  as 
Og  and  Doeg. 

Abscess,  a  local  collection  of  pus  in  a  cavity 
formed  by  the  breaking  down  of  tissue.  See 
Suppuration. 

Abschatz,  Hans  Assmann,  ap'-shats,  Frei- 
herr  von,  poet :  b.  Wiirbitz,  4  Feb.  1646 ;  d. 
Liegnitz,  22  April  1699.  A  lyric  poet  of  his  day, 
whose  poems  were  in  great  part  called  forth  by 
his  indignation  at  the  predatory  wars  of  the 
French.  They  are  simple  and  without  bombast, 
and  show  sincere  feeling,  pure  sentiment,  and  a 
sturdy,  patriotic  mind  entirely  free  from  class 
prejudices.  His  <  Poems  and  Translations) 
(1704)  include  a  German  translation  of  Gua- 
rini's  <  Pastor  Fido.>  Selections  from  them  were 
edited  by  W.  Miiller  in   1824. 

Absecon,  or  Absecum,  a  bay  and  an  inlet 
on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,  northeast  of  At- 
lantic  City. 


upbuilding  local  institutions,  etc.,  and  unwilling 
to  acknowledge  rackrenting  he  does  not  per- 
sonally see  to  be  such  (even  a  generous  and 
kindly  agent  dares  not  be  as  lenient  as  he  would, 
in  fear  of  his  master)  ;  but  he  should  be  the 
leader  of  his  section,  the  fountain  of  careers, 
furnishing  it  employment,  having  his  own  suc- 
cess depend  on  its  prosperity,  and  the  active  de- 
fender of  its  interests,  and  rights,  and  suscepti- 
bilities. The  estate  of  an  absentee  owner,  in 
fact,  is  essentially  like  a  colony  in  the  old  con- 
ception,—  a  mine  to  exploit  for  outsiders  who 
cared  nothing  for  it ;  but  the  colonists  of  a 
distant  province  have  a  collective  power  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  tenants  of  an  absent 
landlord.  Furthermore,  it  makes  social  co-opera- 
tion for  general  needs  almost  impossible.  The 
literature  on  this  subject  is  nearly  coincident 
with  that  of  the  Irish  question  as  a  whole ;  and 
the  debates  in  Hansard's  <  Parliamentary  Re- 
ports >  abound  in  its  discussion. 

Ab'sima'rus,  a  soldier  of  fortune  who  raised, 
against  the  Byzantine  emperor  Leontius,  an 
army  which  proclaimed  him  emperor,  a.d.  698. 
He  slit  Leontius'  ears  and  nose  and  threw  him 
into  a  convent.  He  was  taken  in  705  by  Jus- 
tinian II.,  who,  after  having  used  him  as  a  foot- 
stool at  the  hippodrome,  ordered  him  to  be 
beheaded. 

Absinthe,  a  drink  prepared  from  alcohol, 
the  active  principle  of  Artemisia  absinthium, 
and  other  aromatics,  notably  the  volatile  oil  of 
anise.  Its  frequent  and  prolonged  use  leads  to 
a  diseased  condition  known  as  absinthism  that 
is  a  product  of  chronic  alcoholism  to  which  the 


ABSOLUTE  — ABSOLUTION 


effects  of  the  volatile  oil  of  Absinthium  are 
added.  Other  volatile  oils  probably  contribute 
somewhat  to  the  general  result.  Absinthism,  in 
the  main,  is  characterized  by  a  greater  amount 
of  affection  of  the  brain  than  is  simple  alcohol- 
ism. The  action  of  the  volatile  oils  is  to  height- 
en cerebral  excitement,  and  absinthe-mania  is  a 
frequent  result  of  this  form  of  intoxication. 
See  Wormwood. 

Absolute,  opposed  to  relative;  means  that 
the  tiling  is  considered  in  itself  and  without  ref- 
erence to  other  things. 

In  Logic. —  (i)  Absolute  or  non-connotative, 
according  to  VVhately,  is  opposed  to  attributive 
or  connotative.  The  former  docs  not  take  note 
of  an  attribute  connected  with  the  object,  which 
the  latter  does.  Thus  «  Rome  »  and  «  sky  »  are 
absolute  terms ;  but  «  Rome,  the  capital  of 
Italy,»  and  « our  sky »  are  attributive  or  con- 
notative. (See  Whately's  <  Logic,'  bk.  ii..  ch. 
v.,  §§  I,  2-5.)  (2)  According  to  J.  S.  Mill,  it  is 
incorrect  to  regard  non-connotative  and  abso- 
lute as  synonymous  terms.  He  considers  abso- 
lute to  mean  non-relative,  and  to  be  opposed  to 
relative.  It  implies  that  the  object  is  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  whole,  without  reference  to  any- 
thing of  which  it  is  a  part,  or  to  any  other  object 
distinguished  from  it.  Thus  «  man  »  is  an  abso- 
lute term,  but  «  father  »  is  not,  for  father  implies 
the  existence  of  sons  and  is  therefore  relative. 
(J.   S.   Mill's  (Logic,)  bk.   i..  ch.  ii.) 

In  Grammar,  a  case  absolute  is  one  consist- 
ing essentially  of  a  substantive  and  a  participle, 
which  form  a  clause  not  agreeing  with  or  gov- 
erned by  any  word  in  the  remainder  of  the  sen- 
tence. In  Greek,  the  absolute  case  is  the  geni- 
tive; in  Latin,  the  ablative;  in  English,  it  is 
considered  to  be  the  nominative.  In  Latin,  the 
words  sole  stante  in  the  expression  sole  slants 
tend  vcrtitur  (the  earth  turns  round,  the  sun 
standing  still — that  is,  while  the  sun  is  stand- 
ing still)  are  in  the  ablative  absolute.  In  Eng- 
lish, thou  leading,  in  the  following  familiar 
quotation  — 

«  I  shall  not  lag  behind,  nor  err 
The    way,   thou   leading — »    (Milton) 
is  in  the  nominative  absolute.     So  also  is  /  rapt 
in  the  line  — 

«  And,  I  all  rapt  in  this,  'Come  out,'  he  said.'' 
—  Tennyson's  (Princess,'  Prol.  50. 
In  Law. —  (1)  Personal  rights  are  divided  into 
absolute  and  relative  —  absolute,  which  pertain 
to  men  as  individuals ;  and  relative,  which  are 
incident  to  them  as  members  of  society,  standing 
in  various  relations  to  each  other.  The  three 
chief  rights  of  an  absolute  kind  are  the  right  of 
personal  security,  the  right  of  personal  liberty, 
and  the  right  of  private  property.  (Black- 
stone's  'Commentaries,'  bk.  i.,  ch.  i.)  Simi- 
larly there  are  absolute  and  relative  duties. 
Public  sobriety  is  a  relative  duty,  while  sobriety, 
even  when  no  human  eye  is  looking  on,  is  an 
absolute  duty.  (Ibid.)  Property  in  a  man's 
possession  is  described  under  two  categories,  ab- 
solute and  qualified  property.  His  chairs,  tables, 
spoons,  horses,  cows,  etc.,  are  his  absolute  prop- 
erty:  while  the  term  ((qualified  property"  is  ap- 
plied to  the  wild  animals  on  his  estate.  (2)  An 
absolute  decision  is  one  which  can  at  once  be 
enforced.  It  is  opposed  to  a  rule  nisi,  which 
cannot  be  acted  on  until  cause  be  shown,  unless, 
indeed,  the  opposite  party   fail  to  appear.     (3) 


Absolute  law:  The  true  and  proper  law  of  na- 
ture. 14)  Absolute  warrandice  ( Scotch  convey- 
ancing) :  A  warranting  or  assuring  against  all 
mankind. 

In  Physics,  absolute  is  opposed  to  relative. 
As  this  relativity  may  be  of  many  kinds,  various 
shades  of  meaning  arise;  thus  :  — 

(1)  Absolute  or  real  expansion  of  a  liquid,  as 
opposed  to  its  apparent  expansion,  the  expan- 
sion which  would  arise  when  the  liquid  is  heat- 
ed if  the  vessel  containing  it  did  not  itself 
expand. 

(2)  Absolute  gravity  is  the  gravity  of  a  body 
viewed  apart  from  all  modifying  influences,  as, 
for  instance,  of  the  atmosphere.  To  ascertain 
its  amount,  therefore,  the  body  must  be  weighed 
in  vacuo. 

(3)  Absolute  motion  is  the  change  of  place 
on  a  body  produced  by  the  motion  so  desig- 
nated, viewed  apart  from  the  modifying  influ- 
ence arising  from  disturbing  elements  of  another 
kind. 

(4)  Absolute  force  of  a  centre:  strength  of 
a  center. 

In  Astronomy,  the  absolute  equation  is  the 
aggregate  of  the  optic  and  eccentric  equations. 

In  Algebra,  absolute  numbers  are  those  which 
stand  in  an  equation  without  having  any  letters 
combined  with  them.  Thus,  in  the  equation 
2.r  +  Q=l7,  9  and  17  are  absolute  numbers,  but 
2  is  not  so. 

In  Theology,  God  is  often  spoken  of  as  abso- 
lute, because  any  relations  he  has  to  other  beings 
are  unessential  to  his  nature. 

In  Morals,  absolute  ethics  are  those  based  on 
a  fixed  standard,  independent  of  time  or  society. 

In  Metaphysics,  the  absolute  is  an  existence 
apart  from  all  attributes  by  which  it  is  known 
as  a  phenomenon ;  but  as  it  cannot  be  known 
except  by  the  relation  between  such  attributes 
and  those  already  known  to  the  mind,  know- 
ledge of  the  absolute,  or  of  ultimate  reality,  is 
contradiction  in  essence,  as  the  means  of  know- 
ing it  necessarily  reduce  it  to  a  phenomenon. 
In  other  words,  the  absolute  must  exist  apart 
from  all  relations,  and  knowledge  itself  is  rela- 
tion. It  would  be  possible  only  to  a  being 
whose  consciousness  and  the  objects  cognized 
were  one  and  the  same  —  that  is,  an  existence 
which  in  itself  is  the  universe  both  of  objects 
and  of  mind  at  once,  and  those  objects  phases  of 
its  own  mind — the  Spinozan  conception.  Ab- 
solute space  is  considered  apart  from  the  mate- 
rial bodies  in  it.  Absolute  time  is  time  viewed 
apart  from  events  or  any  other  subjects  of  men- 
tal conception  wu'th  which  it  may  be  associated. 
Absolute  Zero. —  The  temperature  at  which 
bodies  are  entirely  destitute  of  heat.  For  dis- 
cussion of  the  principles  upon  which  the  dctcr- 
mihation  of  the  absolute  zero  is  based,  sec  Ther- 
modynamics ;  Zero. 

Absolute,  Sir  Anthony,  a  character  in  <  The 
Rivals,'  a  comedy  by  R.  B.  Sheridan.  He  is  a 
hot-headed,  fiery-tempered,  generous  old  man, 
always  in  a  towering  passion,  even  while  he 
commends  his  own  mildness  of  manner.  His 
son,  Captain  Absolute,  is  the  hero  of  the  play. 

Absolution,  in  ecclesiastical  usage,  the  free- 
ing from  sin  or  its  penalties.  In  the  Catholic 
Church  absolution  has  two  important  and  dis- 
tinctive bearings:  (  1  I  Absolution  from  sin;  (2) 
Absolution  from  censures.  The  first  is  defined 
as  the  remission  of  sin,  and  can  only  be  given 


ABSORPTION  —  ABYDOS 


by  a  duly  ordained  priest  in  the  Sacrament  of 
Penance,  which  requires,  on  the  part  of  the 
penitent,  a  sincere  confession  of  all  his  sins, 
contrition  and  a  firm  purpose  of  amendment. 
The  basis  of  the  doctrine  is  the  authority  of  the 
Church  and  the  commission  in  John  xx.  23. 
In  circumstances,  where  the  conditions  of  the 
Sacrament  of  Penance  cannot  be  fulfilled,  as  in 
severe  illness  when  the  penitent  is  too  weak  to 
speak,  or  in  instant  danger  of  death,  conditional 
absolution  may  be  given  on  the  ground  of 
the  moral  conviction  of  the  penitent's  virtual 
desire  to  comply  with  all  the  necessary  condi- 
tions. The  Councils  of  Florence  and  of  Trent 
defined  the  form  of  words  to  be  used  :  "I  absolve 
thee  from  thy  sins,  etc."  In  the  Greek  or  East- 
ern Church  the  deprecatory  form  is  used:  "May 
Christ  absolve  thee,  etc.8  Absolution  from  cen- 
sures merely  removes  penalties  imposed  by  the 
Church.  It  may  be  given  either  in  the  Sacra- 
ment of  Penance,  or  in  the  external  form,  that  is, 
in  the  courts  of  the  Church.  It  is  not  necessary 
for  the  person  to  be  absolved  from  censures,  to 
be  present  or  even  living.  Absolution  for  the 
dead  is  a  short  prayer  imploring  eternal  rest 
and  the  remission  of  the  temporal  penalties  of 
sin  over  a  dead  body.  In  the  Protestant 
Churches  in  general  absolution  is  simply  a 
declarative  power  of  the  minister  imploring  the 
divine  forgiveness.  Consult:  'Decrees  of  Coun- 
cil of  Trent'  ;  Denys  de  St.  Marthe,  'Traite  de 
la  Confession'  ;  Morinus. 

Absorption.  In  chemistry,  absorption  is 
the  taking  up  of  a  gas  by  a  liquid  or  by  a  porous 
solid;  and  in  natural  philosophy  it  is  the  taking 
up  of  rays  of  light  and  heat  by  certain  bodies 
through  which  they  are  passing.  Absorption  of 
light  is  the  retention  of  some  rays  and  the  re- 
flection  of  others  when  they  pass  into  an  imper- 
fectly transparent  body.  If  all  were  absorbed, 
the  body  would  be  black;  if  none,  it  would  be 
white ;  but  when  some  rays  are  absorbed,  and 
others  reflected,  the  body  is  then  of  one  of  the 
bright  and  lively  colors. 

In  chemistry  the  co-efficient  of  absorption  of 
a  gas  is  the  volume  of  the  gas  reduced  to  o° 
Cent,  and  "60  m.  m.  pressure,  which  is  absorbed 
by  the  unit  of  volume  of  any  liquid. 

Absorption  of  heat  is  the  retention  and  con- 
sequent disappearance  of  rays  of  heat  in  passing 
into  or  through  a  body  colder  than  themselves. 

Absorption  of  the  earth  is  a  term  used  by 
Kircher  and  others  for  the  subsidence  of  tracts 
of  land  produced  by  earthquakes. 

In  physiology  it  is  the  taking  in  by  the  spe- 
cialized cells  of  the  products  of  digestion.  See 
Gases,  General  Properties  of  ;  Light  ;  Occlu- 
sion; Spectrum. 

Abstract  of  Title,  a  synopsis,  or  brief  state- 
ment, of  the  evidences  of  ownership  of  real 
estate.  An  abstract  should  set  forth  briefly  but 
clearly  every  deed,  will,  or  other  instrument,  to- 
gether with  every  fact  relating  in  any  way  to 
the  title,  in  order  to  enable  the  party  in  interest 
to  form  an  opinion  as  to  the  exact  state  of  the 
title.  The  vendor  of  land,  in  England,  usually 
furnishes  the  purchaser  with  an  abstract  of 
title.  The  vendor  is  not  compelled  to  fur- 
nish an  abstract  of  title  in  the  United  States. 
He  usually  undertakes  to  give  only  a  mar- 
ketable 1  title.  Plans  and  sketches  of  the 
premises  are  generally  inserted  in  abstracts  of 
title. 


Abstraction.  In  psychology,  that  process 
of  the  mind  by  which  the  attention  is  concen- 
trated upon  one  element  of  a  complex  idea  to 
the  exclusion  of  the  other  elements.  In  thought 
one  object  may  be  taken  out  —  abstracted  from 
—  a  group  of  objects,  or  one  element  separated 
frorn  the  group  of  elements  that  go  to  make  up 
the  object  presented  to  our  senses.  Another 
form  of  abstraction  is  that  process  of  the  mind 
by  which  general  notions  or  concepts  are 
formed.  The  process  of  abstraction  for  the  child 
begins  in  his  noticing  differences  in  familiar 
objects.  Within  certain  groups  some  differences 
are  found  to  be  unimportant.  These  qualities 
which  are  found  to  be  of  less  importance  are 
then  abstracted  or  removed  from  the  complex 
idea  for  which  the  word  denoting  this  group  of 
objects  stands.  As  this  process  develops  it  be- 
comes deliberate,  and  the  attention  may  be 
directed  upon  resemblances  instead  of  differ- 
ences. At  this  stage  the  grouping  of  objects 
according  to  likenesses  results  in  classification. 
Consult:  G.  T.  Ladd,  'Psychology,  Descriptive 
and  Explanatory,'  New  York,  1894;  W.  James, 
'Principles  of  Psychology,'  New  York  1890;  or 
any  work  on  general  psychology. 

Absyrtus.    See  Argonauts. 

Abt,  Franz,  apt,  a  German  song-writer  and 
conductor:  b.  Wiesbaden,  22  Dec.  1819;  d.  31 
March  1885.  He  studied  theology  at  Leipsic, 
but  abandoned  it  for  music  at  Mendelssohn's 
instance.  In  1841  he  became  kapellmeister  at 
the  court  theatre  at  Bernburg;  shortly  afterward 
relinquishing  the  post  for  a  similar  one  in  Zu- 
rich, where  he  remained  till  1852.  He  was  then 
called  to  Brunswick  as  chief  conductor  of  the 
orchestra  in  the  royal  theatre,  and  made  court 
kapellmeister  in  1855.  In  1872  he  came  to  the 
United  States  at  the  invitation  of  a  number  of 
choral  societies,  and  was  very  favorably  re- 
ceived: he  conducted  at  the  famous  Peace 
Jubilee  in  Boston  in  that  year.  In  1881  he 
retired  to  Wiesbaden  on  a  pension.  Many  of 
his  songs  (for  example,  'When  the  Swallows 
Homeward  Fly,'  'Good  Night,  Thou  Child  of 
My  Heart,'  'O  Ye  Tears,'  etc.),  have  endeared 
themselves  to  the  heart  of  the  people  all  over 
the  world. 

Abydos,  Greece,  town  and  castle  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  Hellespont  or  Straits  of  Galli- 
poli,  nearly  opposite  Sestus.  It  is  famous  as 
being  the  point  from  which  Xerxes  made  his 
celebrated  crossing  of  the  Hellespont  on  the 
bridge  of  boats ;  and,  also,  as  being  the  scene 
of  the  loves  of  Hero  (q.v.)  and  Leander  (see 
Mus.eus).  Byron  adopts  the  name  in  his 
"Bride  of  Abydos'  (1813),  characterizing  it  as 
a  clime  where  "All,  save  the  spirit  of  man  is 
divine."  It  is  thought  originally  to  have 
been  a  Thracian  town,  but  it  subsequently  be- 
came a  Milesian  colony.  In  411  b.c.  Abydos 
revolted  from  Athens  and  went  over  to  Dercvlli- 
das  the  Spartan.  Subsequently  the  city  was 
captured  by  Philip  II.  of  Macedonia,  but 'in  1./, 
n.c.  it  was  declared  free  by  the  Romans.  An- 
other Abydos  was  situated  in  Egypt  on  the 
upper  Nile,  and  in  the  Thebaid  was  second  in 
importance  only  to  Thebes.  It  has  become 
famous   in   modern   times   because  of   important 

nuns   found  there,   the   Palace   of   Mem 1   and 

the    tomb   of  Osiris   being  among   them.      Here 
also  was   found  the  Tablet  of  Abydos. 


ABYSSINIA 


Abyssinia,  or  Habesh,  ha'-bcsh,  an  ancient 
kingdom  ol  E.  Africa,  now  under  a  monarch 
who  claims  the  title  of  emperor.  Pop.  some 
3,500,000.  Abyssinia  may  be  said  to  extend  be- 
tween  lat.  8°  and  16°  N.,  and  Ion.  350  and 
410  E.,  having  Nubia  N.  and  \Y.,  the  Sudan  \Y., 
the  Red  Sea  littoral  (Erythrsea,  Danakil  coun- 
try, etc.)  E.,  and  to  the  S.  the  Galla  country. 
The  area  within  these  limits  1-  about  IOO.OOO 
square  miles,  but  the  present  ruler  claims  a 
much  more  extensive  territory;  and  latterly 
Abyssinia  has  come  to  be  surrounded  by  re- 
gions belonging  to  or  influenced  more  or  less 
by  Italy.  Prance,  and  Great  Britain.  The  prin- 
cipal divisions  of  Abyssinia  arc  the  provinces  or 
Kingdoms  of  Shoa  in  the  south  (including  Efat), 
the  strongest  and  best  organized  state  in  Abys- 
sinia,—  capital,  Ankobar,  of  some  7,000  people, 
8,000  feet  above  sea-level,  with  a  salubrious  cli- 
mate ;  Amhara  in  the  centre  (including  Gojam), 
capital,  Gondar,  situated  on  the  Gondar  plateau, 
7.500  feet  above  the  sea  :  and  Tigre  in  the  north, 
chief  places,  Antalo.  and  Adua  or  Adowa,  with 
Axum  near  the  latter,  none  of  them  much  over 
2,000  population.  Adis  Abeba  in  Shoa  is  the 
present  residence  of  the  ruler,  transferred  from 
Adowa  after  the  Italian  war,  and  has  grown 
within  two  or  three  years  from  a  small  village 
to  a  city  of  some  80,000  inhabitants. 

Topography. —  The  more  marked  physical 
features  of  the  country  may  be  described  gen- 
erally as  consisting  of  a  vast  series  of  table- 
lands of  various  and  often  of  great  elevations, 
and  of  numerous  ranges  of  high  and  rugged 
mountains,  some  of  them  of  very  singular  forms, 
dispersed  over  the  surface  in  apparently  the 
wildest  confusion.  From  these  mountains  flow 
inexhaustible  supplies  of  water,  which,  pour- 
ing down  by  the  deep  and  tremendous  ravines 
that  everywhere  intersect  them,  impart  an  ex- 
traordinary fertility  to  the  plains  and  valleys 
below. 

The  loftiest  and  most  remarkable  mountain 
summits  occur  in  the  centre  of  the  northern  part 
of  the  kingdom,  immediately  west  of  the  Ta- 
cazze River.  Among  the  highest  of  these  (so 
far  as  known)  is  Ras  Dashan,  calculated  at 
15.167  feet  and  capped  with  perpetual  snow. 
Abba  Tared  and  Buahit  are  estimated  even 
higher.  Along  the  eastern  side  of  the  country 
extends  a  mountain  range  or  escarpment  form- 
ing a  natural  rampart,  with  a  mean  elevation  of 
7,000  or  8,000  feet  for  some  600  miles.  No 
volcanoes  are  known  to  exist  at  present,  but 
almost  everywhere  are  numerous  evidences  of 
past  volcanic  action.  Perhaps  the  principal  river 
of  Abyssinia  is  the  Tacazze,  rising  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Lasta,  about  lat.  12°  N. ;  Ion.  390  20'  E. 
It  runs  north  and  then  west,  and  after  leaving 
the  bounds  of  Abyssinia  takes  the  name  of 
Atbara,  and  finally  joins  the  Nile.  The  chief 
of  the  other  rivers  —  if  not  indeed  the  chief  of 
all  —  is  the  Abay  or  Abai  in  the  southwest, 
which  after  flowing  through  Lake  Dembea,  runs 
south  and  then  northwest,  and  later  becomes  the 
Bahr-el-Azrek  or  Blue  Nile,  of  which  it  is  in 
fact  the  upper  portion. 

Fauna. —  The  domestic  animals  consist  of 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  camels,  mules,  and 
asses.  Mules,  camels,  and  asses  are  the  usual 
beasts  of  burden,  the  horses  being  generally 
reserved  for  war  and  the  chase.  Vast  herds  of 
oxen  are  met  with  throughout  the  country.  The 
wild    animals    are    the    lion    (rare),    elephant, 


hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  crocodile,  buffalo, 
hyena,  leopard,  boar,  antelope,  zebra,  quagga, 
giraffe,  gazelle,  and  civet.  The  hippopotamus 
abounds  in  Lake  Tsana,  and  great  numbers  are 
killed  annually  for  their  flesh  and  hides.  The 
rhinoceros,  like  the  elephant,  inhabits  the  low, 
moist  grounds,  and  is  numerous  in  certain  dis- 
tricts. Crocodiles  are  found  in  various  rivers, 
but  the  largest  and  most  dreaded  are  those  that 
inhabit  the  Tacazze.  The  buffalo,  a  compara- 
tively harmless  animal  in  other  countries,  is 
here  extremely  ferocious.  Serpents  are  numer- 
ous, among  them  being  the  boa,  which  often 
attains  a  length  of  20  feet.  Bees  are  numerous, 
honey  being  a  general  article  of  food ;  lo- 
custs often  lay  the  land  waste,  and  the  tsetse 
fly  is  destructive  to  cattle  during  the  rainy 
season. 

Productions. —  The  chief  mineral  products  of 
Abyssinia  are  iron,  sulphur,  coal,  and  salt.  Coal- 
beds  extend  along  the  whole  of  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Shoa,  but  as  a  combustible  coal  is 
scarcely  known  in  the  country.  Salt  is  obtained 
in  various  places,  especially  from  a  plain  on  the 
southeastern  border  of  Tigre.  Gold  is  obtained 
from  alluvial  deposits,  but  not  in  great  quan- 
tity. In  some  parts  of  the  country  iron  is 
abundant  and  is  manufactured  into  implements. 
A  few  hot  mineral  springs  are  known  and 
used. 

Climate. —  The  climate  of  Abyssinia  is  as  va- 
rious as  its  surface.  In  the  valleys  it  is  delight- 
ful, but  on  the  mountains  often  cold.  The  rains 
begin  in  June  and  continue  till  September  (over 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  country  at  least), 
during  which  period  they  are  often  so  violent  as 
to  put  a  stop  to  agricultural  labor  and  all  other 
outdoor  operations.  The  finest  months  of  the 
year  are  December  and  January. 

Commerce. —  The  foreign  trade  is  chiefly  car- 
ried on  through  Massowa,  Berbera,  Zeila,  Jibutil, 
Obok,  and  other  non-Abyssinian  ports  on  the 
Red  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Aden ;  but  the  external 
traffic  has  never  been  of  great  importance,  as  the 
nature  of  the  country  is  adverse  to  an  extensive 
trade,  and  there  are  relatively  few  commodities 
suited  for  export ;  moreover,  till  recently  the 
natives  dared  not  trust  their  treasures  out  of 
their  secret  hoards,  and  the  royal  court  was  the 
chief  buyer.  Menelek's  firm  administration, 
however,  with  its  better  security  for  life  and 
property,  has  recently  been  extending  Abyssinian 
trade  considerably,  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  being  the  chief  beneficiaries,  France  and 
Germany  ranking  next.  The  imports  of  1899- 
1900  into  Adis  Abeba,  the  capital,  and  Harrar, 
near  British  Somaliland,  the  chief  trade  centres, 
were  about  $3,500,000.  The  chief  exports  are 
coffee  to  Arabia,  gold  to  India,  wool,  skins, 
ivory  and  rhinoceros  horns,  honey,  wax,  gums, 
civet,  and  ostrich  feathers ;  the  chief  imports, 
cotton  goods,  in  which  American  fabrics  take 
the  lead,  silks,  firearms  and  needles,  bottles,  to- 
bacco, pepper,  and  antimony  for  cosmetics.  Trade 
is  greatly  hampered  by  the  primitive  methods 
of  communication,  which  is  carried  on  by  mules 
and  pack-horses ;  the  distance  traversed  being 
not  above  six  to  eight  miles  a  day  at  best. 
Now,  however,  French  capital  is  building  — 
for  politics,  but  none  the  less  to  the  profit 
of  trade  —  a  railroad  184  m.  long  from 
Jibutil  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden  to  Harrar, 
south-southwest,  to  be  eventually  extended  to 
Adis  Abeba;  and  the  Italians  are  building  one. 


ABYSSINIAN   CHURCH 


Arabs  had  invaded  the  country  and  obtained  a 
footing  in  Adel,  though  they  were  unable  to  ex- 
tend their  conquests  farther.  For  several  cen- 
turies afterward  the  kingdom  continued  in  a 
distracted  state,  now  torn  by  internal  commo- 
tions, and  now  invaded  by  external  enemies 
(Mohammedans  and  Gallas).  To  protect  him- 
self from  the  last  the  emperor  of  Abyssinia, 
about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century,  applied  for 
assistance  to  the  king  of  Portugal,  promising  at 
the  same  time  implicit  submission  to  the  Pope. 
The  solicited  aid  was  sent,  and  the  empire  saved. 
The  Roman  Catholic  priests,  having  now  ingra- 
tiated themselves  with  the  emperor  and  his 
family,  endeavored  to  induce  them  to  renounce 
the  tenets  and  rites  of  the  Coptic  Church  and 
adopt  those  of  Rome.  This  attempt,  however, 
was  resisted  by  the  ecclesiastics  and  the  peo- 
ple, and  finally  ended,  after  a  long  struggle,  in 
the  expulsion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  priests 
about  1630.  The  kingdom  gradually  fell  into 
a  state  of  anarchy,  which  about  the  middle  of 
the  18th  century  was  complete.  The  Negus  re- 
ceived no  obedience  from  the  provincial  govern- 
ors, who  besides  were  at  feud  with  one  an- 
other and  severally  assumed  the  royal  title. 

Abyssinia  thus  became  divided  into  a  number 
of  petty  independent  states.  A  remarkable,  but, 
as  it  proved,  quite  futile  attempt  to  resuscitate 
the  unity  and  power  of  the  ancient  kingdom  was 
begun  about  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  by 
King  Theodore,  who  aimed  at  the  restoration 
of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Ethiopia,  with  him- 
self for  its  sovereign.  He  introduced  European 
artisans,  and  went  to  work  wisely  in  many 
ways,  but  his  cruelty  and  tyranny  counteracted 
his  politic  measures.  In  consequence  of  a 
slight,  real  or  fancied,  which  he  had  received  at 
the  hands  of  the  British  government,  he  threw 
Consul  Cameron  and  a  number  of  other  British 
subjects  into  prison  in  1863,  and  refused  to  give 
them  up.  To  effect  their  release  an  army  of 
nearly  12,000  men  under  Sir  Robert  Napier  was 
dispatched  from  Bombay  in  1867 ;  it  landed  at 
Zulla  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden  in  November,  and 
marching  up  the  country  came  within  sight  of 
Magdala,  Theodore's  capital,  in  the  beginning 
of  April  1868.  Defeated  in  a  battle,  Theodore 
delivered  up  the  captives  and  shut  himself  up  in 
Magdala,  which  was  taken  by  storm  13  April. 
Theodore  was  found  among  the  slain,  the  gen- 
eral opinion  being  that  he  had  fallen  by  his  own 
hand. 

After  the  withdrawal  of  the  English,  fighting 
immediately  began  among  the  chiefs  of  the  dif- 
ferent provinces ;  the  three  most  powerful,  Kasa, 
Gobasie,  and  Menelek,  struggling  for  the  su- 
premacy. This  state  of  matters  continued  for 
some  time ;  but  at  last  the  country  was  divided 
between  Kasa,  who  secured  the  northern  and 
larger  portion  and  assumed  the  name  of  Jo- 
hannes, and  Menelek,  who  gained  possession  of 
Shoa.  Latterly  Johannes  made  himself  supreme 
ruler,  with  the  title  of  emperor,  or  king  of 
kings  (Negus  Negusti).  Taking  advantage  of 
the  troubles  in  Abyssinia  the  Egyptians  annexed 
Massowa  and  adjoining  territory  on  the  Red 
Sea,  and  hostilities  were  repeatedly  carried  on 
between  them  and  Johannes.  In  1885  the  Egyp- 
tian forces  were  withdrawn,  and  Italy,  with 
the  consent  of  Great  Britain,  declared  a  pro- 
tectorate over  Massowa  and  the  strip  of  terri- 
tory along  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.     In  the  fol- 


lowing year  the  Italians  pushed  inward  to 
Saati,  a  few  miles  west  of  Massowa,  an  action 
which  led  to  war  with  Johannes.  An  Abyssinian 
force  was  sent  in  1887  to  recover  Saati ;  but 
though  a  small  Italian  force  was  cut  to  pieces 
at  Dogali  the  Italians  maintained  their  posi- 
tion. 

On  the  death  of  Johannes  in  1889,  while 
fighting  against  the  Mahdists.  Menelek,  who  had 
concluded  an  alliance  with  Italy,  raised  himself 
to  the  imperial  throne.  The  result  of  this  was 
the  strengthening  of  the  Italian  hold  on  the 
country.  The  Italians  regarded  their  treaty 
with  Menelek  as  giving  them  a  protectorate  over 
Abyssinia,  and  by  1892  the  whole  of  Ethiopia 
was  generally  recognized  as  within  the  Italian 
sphere.  Proceeding  to  extend  and  strengthen 
their  position,  the  Italians  in  1889  occupied 
Keren,  capital  of  the  Bogos  country,  situated 
60  miies  west  of  Massowa,  and  also  fortified 
Asmara,  southwest  of  Massowa.  Adowa,  the 
capital  of  Tigre,  and  the  centre  of  opposition  to 
Menelek,  was  occupied  in  the  following  year. 
The  Mahdists  were  also  defeated,  and  Kassala 
in  the  Sudan  was  occupied  by  the  Italians. 
Menelek,  however,  later  repudiated  the  Italian 
protectorate,  broke  with  his  former  allies,  and 
in  1896  his  troops  inflicted  on  them  such  a  de- 
feat as  gave  a  death-blow  to  their  claim  of  a 
protectorate  over  all  Abyssinia.  The  treaty  con- 
cluded in  that  year  between  Menelek  and  the 
Italians  practically  abrogated  the  treaty  of  seven 
years  before,  but  left  Italy  in  possession  of  a 
strip  along  the  Red  Sea  coast  from  the  French 
colony  of  Obok  on  the  south  to  Ras  Kasar  on  the 
north,  known  officially  as  Eritrea  (Erythrsa).  A 
British  mission  in  1897  was  favorably  received 
by  the  emperor,  and  the  boundaries  between 
Abyssinia  and  the  British  Somali  protectorate 
were  arranged.  In  1903,  Robert  P.  Skinner  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  State  nego- 
tiated a  commercial  treaty  with  Emperor  Mene- 
hk.  The  American  commissioner  was  impressed 
by  the  commercial  possibilities  of  Abyssinia. 
He  found  the  country  admirably  suited  "to  cot- 
ton growing.  Minerals  are  abundant,  and  the 
deposits  are  practically  untouched. 

Abyssinian  Church,  The.  Founded  by 
Frumentius,  the  first  bishop  of  Ethiopia,  about 
330  a.  p.  About  470  a  great  company  of  monks 
established  itself  in  the  country,  completely 
changing  the  doctrines  and  affairs  of  the 
Church,  but  was  a  few  years  later  expelled. 
From  1528  to  1540,  the  country  was  overrun 
by  Mohammedans,  followed  at  the  end  of 
the  15th  century  by  the  Portuguese  missions, 
which  remained  till  1633,  when  the  Abyssinians 
resumed  allegiance  to  the  Church  at  Alexandria. 
The  metropolitan  or  head  of  the  Church  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  is 
always  a  foreigner.  The  Abyssinians  are  mon- 
ophysites,  generally  agreeing  with  the  Copts 
in  ritual  and  practice.  The  fasts  are  long  and 
rigid:  confession  and  absolution  are  strictly  en- 
forced and  the  Sabbath  and  the  Levirate*  law 
are  generally  observed.  Idolatry,  purgatory, 
extreme  unction,  crucifixes,  etc.,  are  prohibited. 
The  priests  must  marry,  but  only  once.  The 
liturgy  is  celebrated  on  the  ark  in  the  king's 
palace  at  Christmas,  Epiphany,  Easter,  and  the 
Feast  of  the  Cross.  The  Scriptures  are  read 
in  Geez.  the  literary  language,  which  is  used 
for  all  services. 


ACACIA  —  ACADEMY 


Acacia  (Gr.  akS,  spine,  from  their  spiny 
stalks),  a  genus  of  plants,  order  /.(•!,'")"'""-"<". 
sub-order  Mimosete.  They  arc  trees  or  shrubs 
with  compound  pinnate  leaves  and  small  leaf- 
lets,—  in  some  species  wholly  or  partially  unde- 
veloped, when  the  petiole  or  leaf-stalk  expands 
into  a  blade  resembling  a  leaf,  hence  called 
phyllodium.  It  yields  gum  arabic,  gum  Senegal, 
and  other  .minis;  some  have  astringent  barks 
and  pods,  used  in  tanning.  The  Australian  spe- 
cies contains  considerable  tannin,  and  hence  is 
exported  to  a  large  extent.  The  Indian  tree 
yields  an  astringent  called  catechu. 

Acacius,  a-ka'-shius,  bishop  of  C;esarea  340- 
365  a.d.  He  founded  a  curious  Christian  sect 
called  Acacians,  and  that  may  be  termed  homo- 
iothelites,  as  they  held  that  the  Son  was  like 
the  Father  in  will,  but  not  of  the  same  or  simi- 
lar substance ;  thus  differing  from  the  Arians. 
He  induced  a  synod  at  Constantinople  in  359  to 
accept  the  doctrine,  whereon  St.  Jerome  said 
that  « the  world  groaned  and  wondered  to  find 
itself  Arian.»  It  was  finally  condemned,  how- 
ever, and  he  was  banished. 

Acacius,  St.,  bishop  of  Amida  in  Mesopo- 
tamia, early  in  the  5th  century.  He  sold  the 
church  plate  to  redeem  7,000  starving  Persian 
slaves.  Vararanes  (Bahram),  the  king,  is  said 
to  have  been  so  affected  by  this  noble  action 
that  he  sought  an  interview  with  the  bishop, 
which  resulted  in  a  peace  between  that  prince 
and  Theodosius  II.,  A.D.  422,  and  a  hundred 
years'  peace  was  sworn  between  Rome  and  Per- 
sia. 

Academics,  a  name  given  to  a  series  of 
philosophers  who  taught  in  the  Athenian  Acad- 
emy, the  scene  of  Plato's  discourses.  They  are 
commonly  divided  into  three  sects:  (1)  The 
Old  Academy,  of  which  Plato  was  the  imme- 
diate founder,  was  represented  successively  by 
Speusippus,  Xenocrates,  and  Polemon.  (2)  To 
them  succeeded  Arcesilaus,  the  founder  of  the 
Middle  Academy.  Under  his  hands  the  Pla- 
tonic method  assumed  an  almost  exclusively 
polemical  character.  His  main  object  was  to 
refute  the  Stoics,  who  maintained  a  doctrine  of 
perception  identical  with  that  promulgated  by 
Dr.  Reid  in  the  [8th  century.  Socrates  is  said 
to  have  professed  that  all  he  knew  was  that 
he  knew  nothing.  Arcesilaus  denied  that  he 
knew  even  this.  Wisdom  he  made  to  consist  in 
absolute  suspension  of  assent;  virtue,  in  the 
probable  estimate  of  consequences.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Lacydes,  Telecles,  Evander.  and 
Hegesinus.  (3)  The  New  Academy  claims 
Carneades  as  its  founder.  His  system  is  a 
species  of  mitigated  scepticism.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  disciple.  Clitomachus.  Charmi- 
des,  the  third  and  last  of  the  new  academicians, 
appears  to  have  been  little  more  than  a  teacher 
of  rhetoric. 

Academie  des  Beaux  Arts,  ak-ad-a-me  da 
bo  zar.     See  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

Academy,  the  gymnasium  in  the  suburbs  of 
Athens  in  which  Plato  taught,  and  so  called  after 
a  mythical  hero  Academus,  to  whom  it  was  said 
to  have  originally  belonged.  Anciently  there  were 
two  public  academies:  one  at  Rome,  founded  by 
Adrian,  in  which  all  the  sciences  were  taught, 
but  especially  jurisprudence;  the  other  at  Bery- 
tus,  in   Phcenicia,  in   which  jurists  were  princi- 


pally educated.  Academy  is  the  name  also  of  a 
society  or  an  association  of  artists,  linked  to- 
gether for  the  promotion  of  art,  or  of  scientific 
men  similarly  united  for  the  advancement  of 
science,  or  of  persons  united  for  any  more  or 
less  analogous  object.  Thus  the  French  pos- 
sess the  celebrated  Academy  or  Institute.  (See 
Academy,  French.)  The  use  of  the  word 
"academy,"  different  from  the  ancient  one,  is 
believed  to  have  arisen  first  in  Italy  at  the  re- 
vival of  letters  in  the  1 3 1 1 1  century.  The  near- 
est approach  to  these  institutions  in  America  is 
the   Smithsonian    Institution    in    Washington. 

Academy,  French,  an  institution  founded 
in  1(535  by  Cardinal  Richelieu  for  the  purpose 
of  refining  the  French  language  and  style.  It 
became  in  time  the  most  influential  of  all  liter- 
ary societies  in  Europe.  Together  with  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lcttres,  the 
Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Sciences,  and 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  it  composes  the  Na- 
tional Institute  of  France.  It  published  in  [694 
the  first  edition  of  a  dictionary.  It  has  exer- 
cised a  conservative  influence  on  French  litera- 
ture and  favors  taste  rather  than  originality. 
It  consists  of  40  members,  besides  a  director,  a 
chancellor,  and  a  secretary.  In  1793  it  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  Convention,  but  was  re-estab- 
lished in  1816.  The  French  Academy  originated 
in  a  simple  meeting  of  friends  who  nut  at  the 
house  of  Conrart,  one  of  their  number.  These 
reunions  were  held  informally  for  many  years. 
At  last  they  attracted  the  attention  of  Richelieu. 
who  in  1034  proposed  to  form  an  Academy,  and 
from  the  13th  of  March  in  that  year  a  record 
was  kept  of  their  transactions  and  a  director  or 
chancellor  and  a  perpetual  secretary  were  ap- 
pointed. The  Academy  was  definitely  formed 
by  letters  patent  of  Louis  XIII.  in  January  1635; 
they  were  registered  by  Parliament  10  July  1637. 
At  first  the  number  was  30.  The  perpetual 
secretaries  since  the  foundation  have  numbered 
19,  and  the  incumbent  receives  a  salary  of 
6.000  francs  and  lodgings  at  the  Institute.  Or- 
dinary members  receive  1.500  francs  a  year. 
In  1880  the  discussion  of  the  qualifications  of 
candidates  which  had  been  in  vogue  for  more 
than  10  years  was  abolished,  but  restored  in 
1896.  In  1071  tin-  sessions  of  the  Academy  be- 
came public.  The  library  of  the  Institute  was 
founded  by  Louis  XIV.,  who  presented  to  it 
660  volumes.  The  members  of  the  Academy, 
often  spoken  of  as  «  the  forty  immortals,"  were, 
in  1901,  with  the  dates  of  their  election:  Er- 
nest W.  G.  B.  Legouve,  1855;  Due  de  Broglic, 
1862;  Emilc  Ollivier,  1870:  Alfred  J.  F.  Me- 
zieres,  1874;  Gaston  Boissier,  1876;  Victorien 
Sardou,  1877;  Due  d'  Audiffret-Pasquier,  1878; 
Ainu-  J.  F.  Rousse,  1880 ;  Rene  F.  A.  Sully- 
Prudhomme.  1881  ;  Adolph  L.  A.  Perraud,  1882; 
fedouard  J.  H.  Pailleron.  1SX2:  FraiiQois  E.  J. 
Coppee,  1884;  Joseph  L.  F.  Bertrand.  1884; 
Ludovic  Halevv.  1884;  Vallery  C.  O.  Greard, 
1886;  Comte  d'  Haussonville.  1886:  Jules  A.  A. 
Claretie.  1888;  Vicomte  de  Vogue,  1888:  Charles 
L  de  Frcycinet.  1890;  Julien  Viaud,  1891;  Er- 
nest Lavissc,  1892;  Vicomte  de  Bornier,  1893; 
Paul  L.  Thureau-Dangin,  1893 ;  Ferdinand  Bru- 
netiere,  1893;  Albert  Sorel,  1894;  Jose  M.  de 
Heredia.  1894;  Paul  Bourget,  1894;  Henri 
Houssayc,  1894;  Jules  Lemaitre,  1895;  Anatole 
France,    1896;    Marquis    de    Beauregard,    1896; 


ACADEMY 


Gaston  Paris,  1896;  Andre  Theuriet,  1896; 
Comte  Vandal,  1896 ;  Comte  de  Mun,  1897 ;  Ga- 
briel Hanotaux,  1897;  Claude  J.  B.  Guillaume. 
1898;  Henri  L.  E.  Lavedan,  1899;  Paul 
Deschanel,  1899 ;  Marquis  de  Vogue  and  Ed- 
mond  Rostand,   1901. 

Academy,  The  Royal  Spanish,  an  institution 
established  at  Madrid  in  1714  for  the  same  pur- 
poses as  the  French  Academy.  The  number  of 
members  is  limited  to  24. 

Academy  of  Arts,  The  Royal,  a  British 
institution  for  the  encouragement  of  painting, 
sculpture,  and  designing;  founded  in  1768  by 
George  III.,  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  presi- 
dent. It  is  composed  of  a  president  (P.R.A.), 
40  academicians  (R.A.),  and  20  associates 
(A.R.A.).  which  include  professors  of  painting, 
architecture,  anatomy,  and  perspective.  It 
holds  an  annual  exhibition,  open  to  all  artists, 
at  Burlington  House,  London,  of  paintings, 
sculpture,  and  designs  which  reach  a  certain 
standard  of  merit. 

Academy  of  Design,  National,  an  American 
institution  in  New  York  city,  founded  in  1826, 
conducting  schools  in  various  branches  of  the 
fine  arts,  and  holding  semi-annual  exhibitions  at 
which  prizes  are  awarded.  The  membership 
consists  of  academicians,  who  are  the  corporate 
body  and  use  the  title  N.A.  (National  Acade- 
mician), and  the  associates,  who  use  the  title 
A.N. A.  (Associate  of  the  National  Academy), 
all,  of  necessity,  artists.  Laymen  may  become 
fellows  of  the  academy  on  payment  of  graded 
fees. 

Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  The,  a  French  insti- 
tution, originally  founded  in  1648  at  Paris  un- 
der the  name  of  the  Academy  of  Painting  and 
Sculpture.  In  1795  it  was  joined  to  the  Acad- 
emy of  Architecture,  and  has  borne  its  present 
name  since  1819.  It  publishes  memoirs,  pro- 
ceedings, and  a  dictionary  of  the  fine  arts.  It 
has  41  members,  besides  corresponding  mem- 
bers, etc. 

Academy  of  France  at  Rome,  an  institution 
for  the  advanced  study  of  the  fine  arts  in  Rome, 
Italy,  founded  by  Colbert  in  1666,  during  the 
reign  of  Louis  XIV.  It  was  at  first  established 
in  the  ruined  villa  Mancini  on  the  Corso.  and  in 
1803  at  the  villa  Medicis.  The  young  artists, 
painters,  sculptors,  architects,  engravers,  and 
musicians  who  secure  the  annual  prizes  of  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in  Paris  spend  four 
years  there,  with  an  annual  pension  of  3,500 
francs  and  traveling  expenses. 

Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres, 
an  institution  founded  at  Paris  by  Colbert  in 
1663,  under  the  name  of  Petite  Academic  It 
was  composed  originally  of  four  members, 
chosen  by  the  ministry  to  belong  to  the 
Academie  Francaise.  The  first  members.  Chap- 
elain,  Charpentier,  the  Abbe  de  Bourzers.  and 
the  Abbe  Cassagne,  met  in  a  salon  of  the 
Louvre  or  in  Colbert's  library,  and  devoted 
themselves  to  composing  the  inscriptions  for  the 
monuments  erected  by  Louis  XIV.  and  the 
medals  struck  in  his  honor ;  hence  their  popular 
name.  They  undertook  a  medallic  history  of 
the  reign  of  the  king.  In  1701  the  Academy  as- 
sumed its  definitive  form :  40  academicians  were 
named.  In  1803  the  Academy  was  reconsti- 
tuted  and  became  the  third  class  of  the   Insti- 


tute. Comparative  philology,  Oriental,  Greek, 
and  Roman  antiquities  and  epigraphy,  have  re- 
ceived the  attention  of  the  Academy,  which  has 
published  a  series  of  invaluable  records  and 
works. 

Academy  of  Medicine,  a  French  institution, 
founded  in  Paris  in  1820  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  government  informed  on  all  sub- 
jects appertaining  to  the  public  health.  It  has 
sections  of  medicine,  surgery,  and  pharmacy, 
and  its  publications  are  highly  prized  by  sani- 
tarians. 

Academy  of  Moral  and  Political  Science, 
founded  at  Paris  in  1795,  became  the  second 
class  of  the  Institute.  It  was  suppressed  by  Na- 
poleon in  1803,  but  was  re-established  by  Louis 
Philippe  in  1832,  and  forms  the  fifth  class  of 
the  Institute.  It  is  composed  of  30  members, 
divided  into  5  sections,  with  5  free  academicians, 
5  foreign  associates,  and  30  corresponding  mem- 
bers. 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadel- 
phia, an  institution  founded  in  1812.  It  has 
one  of  the  best  natural-history  collections  in  this 
country  —  especially  rich  in  stuffed  birds  —  and 
a  valuable  scientific  library.  It  has  published 
'Journals'  since  1817,  and  'Proceedings'  since 
1841. 

Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 
American,  an  institution  organized  at  Phila- 
delphia in  1889  and  incorporated  in  1891.  It 
has  a  large  number  of  members  and  publishes 
bi-monthly   <  Annals. > 

Academy  of  Sciences,  an  institution  founded 
at  Paris  in  1666  by  Colbert,  and  approved  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1699.  It  published  about  130  vol- 
umes of  memoirs  from  1666  to  1793,  when  it 
was  suppressed.  It  was  re-established  in  1816. 
It  has  now  66  members  in  II  sections,  with  two 
perpetual  secretaries  and  100  corresponding 
members. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  The  Imperial,  a  Rus- 
sian institution,  founded  in  St.  Petersburg  by 
Catherine  I.  in  1725,  and  largely  endowed  by 
Catherine  II.  It  has  15  professors,  a  president 
and  director,  a  fine  library  containing  300.000 
volumes  and  many  manuscripts,  and  a  museum 
very  rich  in  curiosities  and  objects  of  natural 
history.  It  has  published  <  Transactions  >  since 
1728.  and  at  present  publishes  two  volumes  an- 
nually, called  <  Acta  Academic.'  including 
many  memoirs  on  the  higher  mathematics  and 
the   astronomical   observations   at    Pulkowa. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  The  National,  an 
American  institution,  founded  in  1863,  consist- 
ing of  100  members,  elected  from  among  the 
most  distinguished  scientific  men  of  the  United 
States ;  analogous  to  the  Royal  Society  of  Lon- 
don. 

Academy  of  Sciences,  The  Royal,  a  Danish 
institution  in  Copenhagen,  established  by  the 
king  of  Denmark  in  1743.  It  has  published 
transactions  (  <  Skrifter  >  1  since  its  foundation, 
and  memoirs    (  <  Afhandlinger  >  )    since   1823. 

Academy  of  Sciences.  The  Royal,  a  German 
institution  in  Berlin,  founded  by  Frederick  I. 
in  1700;  had  Leibnitz  as  its  first  director,  and 
held  its  first  meetings  in  1711.  It  is  divided 
into  four  sections,  devoted  to  mathematics, 
physics,  philosophy,  and  history.  It  publishes 
memoirs  and  monthly  reports. 


ACADEMY  OF  SCIENCES  — ACCENT 


Academy  of  Sciences,  The  Royal,  a  Swed- 
ish institution,  known  also  as  the  Royal  Swed- 
ish Academy,  founded  in  Stockholm  as  a  pri- 
vate society  in  1739;  incorporated  under  its 
second  name  in  1741 ;  issues  annual  volumes  of 
'Transactions,*  which  were  at  first  published 
quarterly. 

Academy  of  Sciences  and  Arts,  American, 
an  academy  established  in  Boston  in  1780  by  the 
Council  and  House  of  Representatives  of  Mas- 
sachusetts; the  successor  of  an  institution 
founded  by  Franklin.  It  has  published  monthly 
'Proceedings'  since  1846,  and  annual  'Memoirs' 
since  1785, 

Acadia  (Micmac,  "plenty").  See  Nova 
Scotia. 

Acadialite,  a  name  given  to  chabazite  (q.v.) 
from  Nova  Scotia  (Acadia).  Its  color  is  usually 
salmon  to  flesh-red. 

Acajutla,  ak-a-hoot'la,  Salvador,  Central 
America:  its  second  port  in  importance, —  next 
to  La  Libertad,  the  port  of  San  Salvador, —  10 
m.  south  of  Sonsonati,  and  the  seat  of  a  con- 
sular agent. 

Acanthite,  a  mineral  found  chiefly  in  the 
silver  mines  of  Bohemia  and  Saxony.  It  is  a 
silver  sulphide,  Ag;S,  identical  with  argentite 
(q.v.)  in  composition,  chemical  and  physical 
properties,  but  differs  in  form,  its  crystals  being 
orthorhombic,  their  habit  being  prismatic  and 
usually  elongated.  Krcnner  argues,  however, 
and  with  considerable  force,  that  acanthite  is 
but  a  distorted  form  of  argentite. 

Acan'thus,  the  typical  genus  of  the  order 
Acanthacea,  or  acanthads,  a  natural  order  of 
monopetalous  exogens,  consisting  of  herbaceous 
plants  or  shrubs,  found  chiefly  in  the  tropics, 
where  they  often  form  a  large  part  of  the  weedy 
herbage.  Acanthus  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of 
southern  Europe.  The  family  is  represented  in 
America  by  a  few  wild-growing  species;  but 
they  are  best  known  as  tender  garden  plants. 
The  best-known  species  of  the  genuine  acanths 
(or  brancursines,  as  they  were  formerly  called 
by  a  euphemism  for  the  still  older  "bear's- 
breech").  are  A.  mollis  and  A.  spinosus.  The 
former  has  a  stem  about  two  feet  high,  sur- 
rounded in  its  lower  half  with  large,  soft,  shin- 
ing, hairy,  and  deeply  indented  leaves,  and  cov- 
ered from  the  middle  to  the  top  with  large 
white  flowers  tinged  with  yellow. 

In  Architecture. —  The  leaves  of  either  A. 
mollis  or  A.  spinosus,  conventionalized  and  used 
for  decoration.  The  latter  only  were  used  by 
the  Greeks  in  the  Corinthian  capital,  of  which 
they  were  the  characteristic,  or  in  acrotcria  (see 
Acroterion),  and  the  leaves  were  three-lobed, 
straight,  and  pointed.  The  Etruscan  and  early 
Roman  forms  were  of  split  curling  leaves ;  the 
later  Roman  of  the  Greek  trilobate  form  but 
using  the  .1.  mollis  with  its  ampler  foliage,  and 
combining  it  with  other  leafage  —  olive,  laurel, 
parsley,  etc. —  to  make  a  luxuriant  decoration  of 
architectural  features.  The  acanthus  was  also 
used  in  decorating  furniture,  table-ware,  vases, 
embroideries,  etc.,  and  in  frescoes.  It  was  in- 
herited by  the  Byzantine  and  Romanesque  art- 
ists, and  persisted  till  the  Renaissance,  when  in 
some  parts  the  Gothic  displaced  it. 

Acaroid  Resin,  or  Gum,  a  resin  which  ex- 
udes so  abundantly  from  the  grass-trees  (Xan- 
thorrhara)   of  Australia  as  to  cover  the  base  of 


the  leaves  and  the  underground  portions  of  the 
plants,  and  is  also  obtained  by  crushing  and 
sifting  or  washing,  as  much  as  50  or  60  pounds 
being  obtained  from  one  plant.  Two  kinds,  red 
and  yellow,  are  generally  distinguished,  and  are 
used  in  varnishes  as  well  as  for  several  other 
purposes. 

Acarus,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  tribe 
Acaridcc.  order  Arachnida.  They  are  oviparous, 
have  eight  legs,  two  eyes,  and  two  jointed  ten- 
tacula.  and  are  very  prolific.  All  the  species  are 
extremely  minute,  or  even  microscopic,  as  the 
cheese-mite  (Acarus  domes ticus),  and  many  of 
them  parasitic ;  of  the  latter,  the  itch-insect 
(Sarcoptes  scabici)  is  a  remarkable  example. 
It  is  a  microscopic  animal  found  under  the 
human  skin  in  the  pustules  of  a  well-known 
cutaneous  disease.  Many  others  infect  the  skin 
of  different  animals,  such  as  dogs.  hogs,  and 
cattle,  and  sometimes  in  considerable  numbers. 
In  some  instances  they  damage  cow-hides.  (See 
Mites.)  Acarus  folliculorum  is  a  microscopic 
parasite  of  the  hair  follicles  of  the  skin.  It  is 
the  lowest  form  of  mite,  and  is  known  also  as 
Demodex  folliculorum.     See  Blackhead. 

Acceleration,  the  rate  of  change  of  the 
velocity  of  a  body.  If  the  velocity  of  the  body 
is  constant,  its  acceleration  is  said  to  be  zero. 
If  the  velocity  increases  uniformly,  so  that  at 
the  end  of  every  second  it  is  greater  than  it  was 
at  the  end  of  a  preceding  second  by  a  constant 
amount,  the  acceleration  is  said  to  be  uniform, 
and  the  motion  is  said  to  be  uniformly  acceler- 
ated. If  the  velocity  is  decreasing,  the  accelera- 
tion is  said  to  be  negative.  A  body  falling 
freely  under  the  influence  of  gravity  affords 
the  most  familiar  example  of  uniform  (or 
constant)  acceleration.  When  the  body  falls  in 
air  or  any  other  medium,  the  phenomena  are 
complicated  by  the  resistance  of  the  medium; 
but  when  it  falls  in  a  vacuum  its  velocity  in- 
creases every  second  by  the  same  constant 
amount.  Thus  if  the  body  starts  from  rest,  it 
will  have  a  velocity  of  32.2  feet  per  second  at 
the  end  of  the  first  second,  64.4  feet  per  second 
at  the  end  of  the  second  second,  96.6  feet  per 
second  at  the  end  of  the  third  second,  and  so 
on.  The  acceleration  produced  by  gravity  is 
therefore  said  to  be  32.2  feet  per  second  per  sec- 
ond ;  but  this  varies  somewhat  with  the  latitude 
and  the  height  above  the  sea.  (See  Force  of 
Gr.witv. )  The  acceleration  experienced  under 
given  circumstances  is  proportional  to  the  force 
acting  upon  the  body  in  the  direction  in  which 
its  motion  is  accelerated.  Thus  if  the  foregoing 
experiment  with  a  falling  body  were  tried  upon 
some  other  planet,  and  we  found  that  the  veloc- 
ity of  the  falling  body  was  increased  by  322.0 
feet  per  second  every  second  (instead  of  32.2 
feet),  we  should  know  that  the  force  of  gravi- 
tation at  the  surface  of  that  planet  is  precisely 
ten  times  as  great  as  it  is  upon  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  In  physics  and  theoretical  mechanics 
a  force  is  always  measured  by  the  acceleration 
it  produces  when  exerted  upon  a  unit  mass. 
For  a  further  account  of  the  relation  between 
force,  mass,  and  acceleration,  also  see  Force. 

Accent,  the  stress  or  emphasis  given  by  the 
voice'  to  a  certain  syllable  or  syllables  of_  a 
word,  or  to  certain  notes  in  a  bar  of  music; 
also,  the  peculiar  intonation  of  one  spoken  lan- 
guage when  compared  with  another ;  further, 
marks  used  in  printing  or  writing  to  show  the 


ACCENTOR  — ACCESSION 


position  of  the  stress.  In  a  dissyllable  there  is 
but  one  accent,  as  a-back',  hut  in  a  polysyllable 
there  may  be  more  than  one.  One  of  these, 
however,  is  always  greater  than  the  rest  and  is 
called  the  primary  accent ;  the  others  are  called 
secondary. 

Two  wholly  distinct  classes  of  accent  are 
found  in  Aryan  languages,  the  musical  and  the 
expiratory ;  the  former,  which  is  that  of  some 
Semitic  tongues  also,  being  that  of  Greek  and 
Sanskrit,  the  latter  that  of  Latin  and  Teutonic. 
Some  languages,  as  French,  have  no  accent,  the 
stress  on  all  syllables  being  the  same,  but  even 
here  the  stopping  of  the  voice  gives  the  final 
syllable  a  slight  tilt  upwards,  with  the  effect  of 
an  accent  on  that  syllable.  Accent  may  be  free, 
as  in  Greek  or  old  Teutonic, —  that  is,  its  posi- 
tion in  a  word  may  shift  in  accordance  with  the 
nature  of  the  syllables  or  of  the  words  which 
follow, —  or  fixed,  as  in  later  Teutonic  and 
English :  perhaps  the  only  remnant  of  the  free 
accent  in  English  is  the  word  «  cannot,"  which, 
though  often  spelled  as  two  words,  is  really  a 
compound  word  with  an  accent  shifting  accord- 
ing to  emotion.  By  a  change  of  stress  we  often 
indicate  the  change  of  an  adjective  or  a  noun 
into  a  verb,  as  fre'quent  (adj.),  frequent' 
(verb)  ;  pro'ject  (noun),  project'   (verb). 

In  compound  words  the  accent  is  commonly 
on  the  first ;  but  when  the  first  element  is  a 
prefix,  separable  or  inseparable,  it  is  accented 
only  when  the  root-word  is  noun  or  adjective, 
the  root  receiving  the  accent  if  it  is  a  verb, — 
this  of  course  not  applying  to  words  borrowed 
from  other  languages,  for  which  there  is  no 
settled  rule,  the  chance  of  first  usage  commonly 
determining  it.  The  inflections  have  almost  al- 
ways been  left  unaccented,  and  this  has  aided 
greatly  in  the  sloughing  off  of  the  whole  in- 
flectional system  in  modern  languages :  even 
where  retained  to  the  eye  they  are  often  not 
pronounced   at   all,  as   in   French. 

There  is  a  certain  analogy  between  accent 
and  emphasis,  emphasis  doing  for  whole  words 
or  clauses  of  sentences  what  accent  does  for 
single  syllables.  One  result  .of  this  has  been 
to  develop  duplicate  words  with  different  mean- 
ings, as  of  and  off,  to  and  too,  through  and 
thorough  (originally  pronounced  tho-roo').  All 
modern  verse  depends  on  stress-accent  (see 
Metre)  ;  while  that  of  classical  Greek  and 
Latin,  as  of  some  Semitic  tongues  still,  rested  on 
quantity  or  length  of  syllables, —  a  system  not 
easy  for  those  reared  on  stress  to  comprehend, 
much  less  imitate. 

Marks  of  Accent. —  In  ancient  Greek,  accents 
marked  the  rise  and  fall  in  pitch  of  the  voice, 
and  were  three  in  number,  the  acute  (a),  the 
grave  (a),  and  the  circumflex  (a  or  a).  The 
same  marks  are  now  used  in  French,  and  the 
first  two  in  Italian,  though  they  are  largely  of 
historical  or  etymological  interest  only,  and 
do  not  always  indicate  a  difference  in  pronunci- 
ation. A  mark  similar  to  the  acute  accent  is 
sometimes  used  to  signify  stress  in  English 
words,  chiefly  in  poetry ;  and  one  like  the  grave 
is  used  to  mark  as  a  separate  syllable  letters 
otherwise  not  pronounced  so,  for  example,  learn- 
ed, abhorred.  Marks  sometimes  called  accents  are 
used  in  mathematics;  for  example,  a'+  b'  (read 
a  prime  plus  b  prime).  In  geometry  and  trigo- 
nometry', a  circle  at  the  right  of  a  figure  indi- 
cates  degrees,    one    mark   minutes,    two   marks 

Vol.  1—4 


seconds  of  a  degree,  as  13°  4'  5*.  In  mensura- 
tion and  engineering,  the  mark  denotes  feet, 
inches,  and  lines,  as  4'  6"  10'". 

In  Music. — The  greater  emphasis  or  inten- 
sity given  to  certain  notes  or  passages,  as 
distinguished  from  their  length  in  time  and  their 
quality  or  timbre.  It  is  divided  into  three 
classes,— grammatical,  rhythmical,  and  rhetori- 
cal or  aesthetic.  The  grammatical  accent  is  al- 
most always  on  the  first  part  of  a  bar;  long 
measures  have  usually  secondary  ones,  as  have 
polysyllables  in  words.  Rhythmical  accent  is 
the  more  pronounced  character  given  to  certain 
parts  of  larger  compositions, —  phrases,  themes, 
motifs,— to  mark  off  entrances,  finales,  or  cli- 
maxes. Rhetorical  accent  corresponds  strictly 
to  the  same  emphasis  in  oratory,  in  accordance 
with  emotion  or  a  desired  effect,  and  is  at  the 
will  of  the  performer. 

Accentor  («  singer-together »),  a  literary 
name  for  the  American  water-thrushes  (genus 
Siurus)  and  the  European  warblers,  of  which 
the  British  hedge-sparrow  (incorrectly  named) 
is  best  known. 

Acceptance,  a  bill  of  exchange  drawn  on 
one  who  agrees  absolutely  or  conditionally  to 
pay  it,  according  to  the  tenor  of  the  document 
itself.  To  render  it  so  valid  that,  if  the  drawee 
fails  to  liquidate  it,  the  drawer  may  be  charged 
with  costs,  the  promise  of  the  drawer  should 
be  in  writing  under  or  upon  the  back  of  the 
bill.  An  acceptance  may  be  made  before  the 
bill  is  drawn,  in  which  case  it  must  be  in  writ- 
ing (15  Johns.  N.  Y.  6).  It  may  be  made  after 
it  is  drawn  and  before  it  becomes  due.  which 
is  the  usual  course,  or  after  it  becomes  due 
(1  H.  Blackst.  313),  or  even  after  a  previous 
refusal  to  accept.  The  proper  form  for  the 
acceptance  of  a  bill  is  to  write  the  word  «  Ac- 
cepted »  across  the  bill  and  sign  the  acceptor's 
name,  but  the  drawee's  name  alone  is  sufficient, 
or  any  words  of  equivalent  force  to  "accepted.* 
Byles  on  Bills,  147;  21  Pick.  Mass.  307.  See 
Bill. 

Access,  Right  of.  The  owner  of  land  ad- 
joining a  road  or  public  highway  is  entitled 
to  access  to  such  highway  at  any  point  where  it 
comes  up  to  his  land.  He  may  also  have  an 
action  for  the  removal,  by  injunction,  of  any 
obstruction  to  such  access,  as  well  as  an  action 
for  damages. 

It  has  been  expressly  held  also  that  an  abut- 
ting owner  has  a  property  right  in  the  use  of  the 
street  in  front  of  his  land  as  a  means  of  egress 
and  ingress,  and  for  light  and  air.  47  N.  J.  Eq. 
421 ;  106  N.  Y.  157. 

If  a  man  buys  a  lot  of  land  from  which  there 
is  no  access  to  a  public  highway,  upon  applica- 
tion to  the  proper  authorities  he  may  obtain 
an  order  for  the  construction  of  a  road  or 
highway  leading  from  his  land  to  a  public  high- 
way.    See  also  Right  of  Way. 

Accession  is  the  right  to  all  which  a 
man's  own  property  produces,  and  the  right  to 
that  which  is  united  to  it  by  accession  either 
naturally  or  artificially  (2  Kent.  Comm.  360). 
If  a  man  builds  a  house  upon  his  own  grounds 
witli  the  materials  of  another,  or.  on  the  con- 
trary, if  a  man  shall  have  built  a  house  with 
his  own  materials  upon  the  ground  of  another, 
in  either  case  the  house  becomes  the  property  of 
him  to  whom  the  land  belongs,  for  every  build- 


ACCESSORY  — ACCIDENT    INSURANCE 


ing  is  an  accession  to  the  ground  upon  which  it 
stands,  and  the  owner  of  the  land,  if  liable  at 
all.  is  only  liable  to  the  owner  of  the  materials 
for  the  value  of  them  (2  Kent,  Comm.  362). 
The  same  rule  holds  where  vines,  trees,  fruits, 
and  vegetables  are  planted  or  sown  in  the 
ground  of  another. 

Accessory,  in  law,  one  who  is  not  the  chief 
actor  in  an  offense  or  present  at  its  commission, 
but  still  is  connected  with  it  in  some  other  way. 
Accessories  may  become  so  before  the  fact  or 
after  the  fact.  Sir  Matthrt  Male  defines  an 
accessory  before  the  fact  as  one  who,  being 
absent  at  the  time  of  the  crime  committed,  does 
yet  procure,  counsel,  or  command  another  to 
commit  a  crime.  If  the  procurer  be  present 
when  the  evil  deed  is  being  done,  he  is  not  an 

1  ^sory,  but  a  principal.  An  accessory  after 
the  fact  is  one  who.  knowing  a  felony  to  have 
been  committed,  receives,  relieves,  comforts,  and 
-is  the  felon.  In  high  treason  of  a  pro- 
nounced character  there  are  no  accessories  — 
all  are  principals.  In  petit  treason,  murder,  and 
felonies,  there  may  be  accessories;  except  only 
n:  those  offenses  which,  by  judgment  of  law, 
arv.  sudden  and  unpremeditated,  as  manslaugh- 
ter and  the  like,  which,  therefore,  cannot  have 
any  accessories  before  the  fact.  So,  too,  in  petit 
larceny  and  in  all  crimes  under  the  degree  of 
felony,  there  are  no  accessories  either  before  or 
after  the  fact;  but  all  persons  concerned  therein, 
if  guilty  at  all,  are  principals.  (Blackst.  Comm., 
bk.  iv.,  ch.  iii.)  Presence  and  actual  participa- 
tion are  necessary  to  constitute  a  person  an 
accessory.  The  mere  fact  of  presence  or  failure 
to  interfere  to  prevent  the  commission  of  a 
crime  is  not,  alone,  an  indictable  offense.  The 
person  must  act  in  concert  with  the  active  party. 
He  must  by  word  or  act  contribute  to  the 
felonious  purpose.  Presence  need  not  he  actual, 
it  may  be  constructive.  A  man  may  commit 
a  crime  through  the  agency  of  an  innocent  per- 
son, but  the  agent  cannot  be  convicted.  Where 
an  offense  is  committed  within  a  State  by  means 
of  an  innocent  agent,  the  employer  is  guilty  as 
a  principal,  although  he  did  no  act  in  the  State 
where  the  crime  was  committed,  and  at  the  time 
of  the  commission  of  the  offense  was  in  another 
State.  1  N.  Y.  173  (s.  c.  45  Am.  Dec.  468)  ;  123 
Mass.  430. 

Accho.     See  Acre. 

Acciaioli,  Renatus,  atch-yi-6'le,  a  Floren- 
tine who  conquered  Athens,  Corinth,  and  part 
of  Ikcotia :  lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  15th 
century.  He  bequeathed  Uhcns  to  the  Vene- 
tians ;  Corinth  to  Theodosius  Palsologus,  who 
married  his  eldest  daughter;  and  I'xeotia  with 
Thebes  to  his  natural  son  Anthony,  who  also 
got  Athens,  but  this  was  retaken  in  1455  by 
Mohammed  II. 

Accident,  an  unforeseen  occurrence,  par- 
ticularly if  it  be  of  a  calamitous  character. 
This  is  the  most  common  use  of  the  word. 

In  logic:  (a)  Whatever  does  not  really  consti- 
tute an  essential  part  of  a  person  or  thing;  as 
the  clothes  one  wears,  the  saddle  on  a  horse, 
etc.  <t>)  The  qualities  or  attributes  of  a  person 
or  thing,  as  opposed  to  the  substance.  Thus 
bitterness,  hardness,  etc.,  are  attributes,  and 
not  part  of  the  substance  in  which  they  inhere. 
I  That  which  may  be  absent  from  anything, 
leaving  its  essence  still  unimpaired.    Thus  a  rose 


might  be  white  without  its  ceasing  to  be  a  rose, 
because  color  in  the  flowers  of  that  genus  is  not 
essential    to    their    character. 

Accidents,  in  logic,  are  of  two  kinds,  separable 
and  inseparable.  If  walking  be  the  accident  of 
a  particular  man.  it  is  a  separable  one.  for  he 
would  not  cease  to  be  that  man  though  he  stood 
still  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  if  Spaniard  is  the 
accident  connected  with  him,  it  is  an  inseparable 
one,  since  he  never  can  cease  to  be,  ethnologi- 
cally  considered,  what  he  was  horn.  (Whately's 
<  Logic, >   bk.  ii.,  ch.  v..  sec.  4.1 

In  grammar,  a  property  attached  to  a  word 
v.lnch  nevertheless  does  not  enter  into  its  essen- 
tial definition.  Each  species  of  word  has  its 
accidents:  thus  those  of  the  noun  substantive 
are  gender,  declension,  and  number.  Compari- 
son in  an  adjei  live   is  also  an  accident. 

In  law,  an  event  which  under  the  circum- 
stances is  unusual  and  unexpected  by  the  person 
to  whom  it  happens.  It  is  the  happening  of  an 
event  without  the  concurrence  of  the  will  of 
the  person  by  whose  agency  it  was  caused,  or 
the  happening  of  an  event  without  any  human 
agency.  If  a  house  should  be  burned  in  conse- 
quence of  a  fire  nude  for  the  purpose  of  cook- 
ing, or  warming  the  house,  this  would  be  an 
accident  of  the  first  kind.  If  the  house  should 
be  set  on  fire  by  lightning,  this  would  be  an 
accident  of  the  second  kind.  I  Fonblanque,  Eq. 
374.  375  "•  The  best  test  of  liability  for  the 
consequence  of  an  accident  turns  upon  the  fact 
whether  the  person  causing  the  accident  was 
guilty  of  negligence  or  not.  If  he  was  guilty  of 
negligence  he  would  be  liable  unless  the  person 
injured  was  guilty  of  contributory  negligence. 

In  heraldry,  an  additional  note  or  mark  on  a 
coat  of  armor  which  may  be  omitted  or  retained 
without   altering   its    essential   character. 

Accident  Insurance,  a  system  which  indem- 
nities the  insured  person  for  loss  of  business 
lime  resulting  from  disabling  bodily  injuries 
inflicted  by  external  and  accidental  violence,  or 
in  case  of  death  therefrom  within  a  certain 
lime  pays  the  legal  heirs  a  sum  stated  in  the 
contract.  The  former  is  done  by  a  weekly  in- 
demnity (graduated  according  to  premium  and 
hazard  of  occupation)  paid  in  a  lump  sum  on 
recovery  or  at  the  end  of  a  fixed  expiration 
term ;  or  by  a  stated  sum  at  once  in  case  of 
irremediable  mutilations.  It  is  a  system  of 
limited  health  and  life  insurance,  paying  the 
benefits  only  in  case  of  death  or  disablement 
from  a  specified  class  of  contingencies  instead  of 
from  any  contingency  ;  therefore  bounded  on  the 
one  hand  by  life  insurance  and  on  the  other  by 
the  benefit  societies,  but  less  costly  than  the  one 
and  to  larger  amounts  than  the  other.  These 
boundaries  of  limitation  are  stated  in  the  con- 
tracts: varying  in  detail,  they  are  and  must  be 
in  essence  the  same  in  all,  as  they  reduce  to  the 
two  classes  which  accident  insurance  exists  by 
excluding,  those  which  are  not  accidental  and 
those  which  are  not  violent.  These,  however, 
form  five  individual  groups:  (1)  Disease  or 
bodily  infirmity,  direct  or  as  indirect  cause;  (2) 
effects  of  one's  own  will,  vice,  or  recklessness,  as 
suicide,  drunkenness,  fighting  or  breaking  the 
law,  voluntary  exposure  to  unnecessary  danger, 
etc.;  (3)  legal  sentences;  (4)  poison;  (5) 
weather,  except  violent  manifestations  like 
stroke  of  lightning.     These,  however,  are  much 


ACCIDENT  INSURANCE 


less  simple  in  practical  application  than  in 
theory  and  in  some  cases  are  virtually  dead 
letters  by  popular  prejudice  or  even  legal  en- 
actment. The  suicide  clause  has  been  scarcely 
enforceable  for  many  years  through  the  refusal 
of  juries  to  find  it  as  a  question  of  fact;  and 
of  late  years  several  States  have  passed  laws 
invalidating  it  in  any  insurance  contract. 
Drunkenness,  though  not  barred  by  law,  is  so 
nearly  impossible  to  make  a  jury  accept  that  it 
is  practically  never  entered  in  plea.  The  others 
are  of  course  contestable  and  perpetually  con- 
tested. Furthermore,  different  companies  and 
forms  of  policy  vary  in  the  extent  or  severity 
of  their  exclusions,  some  waiving  important 
factors  in  this  list ;  and  all  of  them  now,  under 
stress  of  competition,  have  added  some  portions 
of  health  and  life  insurance  to  the  accident  con- 
tract proper, —  giving  indemnities  and  payment 
of  principal  sum  for  loss  of  time  or  for  death 
through  certain  contagious  diseases. 

The  modern  system  of  accident  insurance 
dates  only  from  1848 ;  but  its  purposes  were 
fragmentarily  embodied  in  earlier  arrangements. 
The  Hanseatic  League,  the  originator  of  so 
many  good  business  ideas,  seems  to  have  devised 
this ;  at  least  the  Sea  Laws  of  Wisby  in  1541 
mention  the  insurance  of  shipmasters  by  owners 
against  the  perils  of  the  sea, —  the  insurance  of 
their  families  of  course.  A  mercantile  treatise 
probably  of  the  same  century,  compiled  for  the 
traders  of  Rouen,  in  France,  states  that  «  other 
nations  »  insure  men's  lives  on  voyage,  «  paying 
certain  sums  to  their  heirs  or  creditors  »  ;  pos- 
sibly it  refers  to  the  same  Hanse  practice.  In 
1665  England  applied  a  rough  form  of  it  to  the 
casualties  of  warfare :  a  regular  schedule  of 
indemnities  to  be  paid  to  soldiers  in  the  Nether- 
lands war  was  compiled,  ranging  from  £62  ias. 
for  both  eyes  or  both  arms,  £50  for  both  hands, 
£29  4s.  for  both  legs,  and  £18  15^.  for  both  feet, 
down  to  £8  Js.  for  one  foot,  and  with  graduated 
amounts  between.  Later,  a  year's  pay  (not 
much  then)  for  the  loss  of  a  limb  was  the  cus- 
tomary gauge.  But  this  was  a  mere  pension 
system;  and  none  of  these  had  the  essential 
feature  of  modern  insurance,  a  business  con- 
tract as  matter  of  bargain  and  sale,  with  the 
insurance  proportioned  to  the  payment. 

Modern  accident  insurance  originated  in  Eng- 
land. Its  germ,  oddly  enough,  was  primarily 
not  personal  but  property  insurance ;  not  against 
bodily  injury  so  much  as  loss  of  goods  in  rail- 
way accidents.  The  first  charter  applied  for  was 
for  the  British  and  Foreign  Life  and  Property 
Insurance  Co.,  which  never  organized ;  and  the 
insurance  of  human  beings  was  added  apparent- 
ly rather  to  make  up  a  «  blanket  charter  >»  than 
with  much  idea  of  profiting  by  it.  But  the  swift 
clarification  of  business  ideas  on  this  point,  due 
to  the  public  horror  of  great  railway  accidents, 
—  the  concentrated  volume  of  destruction  in 
which  makes  them  much  more  impressive  to  the 
imagination  than  the  really  far  more  formidable 
mass  of  scattered  daily  accidents,— is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  of  ten  other  similar  charters  grant- 
ed in  the  next  three  years  none  of  them  mention 
goods  in  their  titles,  and  most  of  them  show 
that  their  business  was  personal  insurance  alone. 
All,  however,  had  « Railway »  in  their  names, 
and  the  « ticket  »  business  was  long  supposed  to 
be  the  only  one  feasible.  Only  2  of  these  II 
ever  organized,  and   the  pioneer  company,  the 


Railway  Passengers'  Assurance  Co., —  opened 
business  22  March  1849, —  for  a  long  time  in- 
sured only  passengers  actually  in  the  coaches, 
and  by  the  terms  of  the  policy  (thoueh  not  en- 
forced) only  covered  them  while  moving,  ex- 
cluding even  collisions  at  stations.  Its  fir-.t  rival 
to  be  chartered  (though  not  to  begin  busine  1 
covered  also  accidents  on  platforms,  etc.  lint 
the  real  birthday  of  the  modern  general  accident 
business  is  3  June  1850,  when  another  company 
adopted  the  plan  of  its  actuary.  Edward  Riley, 
and  extended  its  insurance  to  cover  all  violent 
bodily    injuries. 

The  next  field  to  be  opened  was  among  work- 
men in  the  manufacturing  districts,  their  great 
hazards  and  consequent  need  of  it  making  it 
seem  that  they  would  welcome  it ;  but  their 
poverty  and  ignorance  overbalanced  their  re 
quirements,  and  the  experiment  was  a  failure 
In  1852  Cornelius  Walford  suggested  that  the 
true  field  lay  among  the  business  and  profes- 
sional classes;  and  although  this  at  first  was 
scouted  as  fantastic,  their  individual  hazards 
appearing  too  slight  to  found  a  great  business 
on,  it  was  followed  by  a  brilliant  success  and 
the  creation  of  the  modern  system  substantially 
as  it  stands.  Attempts  were  occasionally  made 
to  frame  narrower  schemes,  as  for  carriage 
accidents  alone,  etc. ;  but  no  success  has  attend- 
ed these  experiments.  A  basis  as  broad  as 
consistent  with  the  essential  nature  of  the  busi- 
ness has  been  found  the  only  one  practicable. 

The  business  in  the  Linked  States  was  found- 
ed in  1863  by  James  G.  Batterson,  a  Hartford 
builder,  on  a  suggestion  afforded  by  the  Railway 
Passengers'  Assurance  Co.'s  tickets,  and  after 
consultation  with  the  officers  of  that  company, 
who  generously  put  all  their  experience  at  his 
disposal ;  it  proved,  however,  to  be  very  mis- 
leading for  American  conditions.  On  his  re- 
turn to  Hartford  he  associated  several  other 
Hartford  gentlemen  with  him,  and  a  charter 
was  procured  for  the  Travelers  Insurance 
Co.;  but  owing  to  entire  popular  disbelief 
in  the  system  no  business  was  done  till  April 
1864,  its  first  premium  being  one  of  two  cents, 
paid  in  jest  by  a  business  man  to  insure  himself 
in  going  from  his  house  to  his  office.  A  storm 
of  railway  accidents  about  that  time,  however, 
shocked  the  public  so  that  the  enterprise  soon 
became  a  brilliant  success,  though  it  was  nearly 
ruined  by  the  new  companies  which  swarmed 
into  the  field.  Five  western  States  in  the  winter 
of  1864  chartered  nearly  100  insurance  com- 
panies of  all  kinds,  over  a  dozen  of  them  acci- 
dent companies ;  and  in  April  1865.  25  of  the 
latter  were  organizing  in  the  United  States. 
To  save  multiplication  of  ticket  equipments  at 
railway  stations,  where  several  companies  some- 
times had  them  on  sale  at  once,  the  Railway 
Passengers'  Assurance  Co.  was  organized  in 
May  1865,  to  consolidate  all  the  ticket  business 
under  one  head,  with  office  in  Hartford.  In 
1878  all  the  companies  but  the  Travelers  having 
been  long  dead,  that  company  reunited  the  busi- 
ness to  its  own.  There  are  now  several  str 
companies  in  the  United  States,  which  heads 
the  world  in  the  volume  of  its  accident  business. 
None  of  them  transact  this  branch  of  busin 
alone:  all  combine  it  with  employers'  liability 
(q.v.)  (indirect  accident  insurance,  by  a  subro- 
gated blanket  liability  to  an  employer  instead 
of  to  his  employees  individually),  and  most   ol 


ACCIPITRES  —  ACCLIMATIZATION 


them  variously  either  with  life,  steam-boiler, 
elevator,  plate-glass,  surety,  or  other  forms  of 
personal  guaranty.  Owing  to  certain  peculiar- 
ities of  the  business,  its  statistics  arc  not  easy 
to  give;  but  it  certainly  protects  a  million  of 
men  and  their  families,  and  pays  $20,000,000  a 
year  for  death  and  indemnity  claims.  About 
one-tenth  of  the  insured  are  paid  claims  of  some 
sort.  The  most  hazardous  of  the  large  general 
occupations  —  excluding  special  hazards  like  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder  and  dynamite  —  is 
that  of  freight  brakemen ;  due  not  entirely  to  the 
inevitable  perils  of  the  employment,  though  they 
are  large,  but  partly  to  the  reckless  bravado 
bred  of  familiarity.  Next  to  these  in  hazard 
are  the  employees  of  rolling-mills.  Among  the 
business  and  professional  classes,  much  the 
greatest  volume  of  loss  is  from  horse  and  car- 
riage accidents,  which  are  many  times  more  de- 
structive than   railway  accidents. 

The  development  of  the  accident-insurance 
field  should  be  noted.  It  may  be  compared  with 
the  origin  of  banking  from  note  circulation, 
which  afterward  became  a  feature  so  insignifi- 
cant as  to  be  neglectible.  Similarly,  accident 
insurance  arose  from  a  desire  to  give  protection 
against  the  results  of  railway  accidents:  but  the 
losses  from  these  do  not  constitute  more  than 
five  or  six  per  cent  of  the  total  losses  among 
recent  companies.  Another  significant  fact  is 
the  change  in  the  class  mainly  covered  by  it. 
Theoretically,  it  should  find  its  chief  patronage 
and  profit  among  those  hazardously  employed : 
in  fact,  the  larger  companies  found  long  ago 
that  a  great  business  can  only  be  done  among 
these  under  conditions  that  render  it  unprofit- 
able, and  after  carrying  it  on  for  many  years 
on  the  installment  plan,  have  mostly  been  obliged 
to  abandon  it  altogether  and  confine  their  efforts 
to  the  business  and  professional  classes,  or  to 
such  of  the  working  class  as  have  means  to  pay 
yearly  premiums  in  advance.    Sec  Insurance. 

Accipitres  (Lat.  plural  of  Accipitcr.  the  com- 
mon hawk),  or  Rap  tores.  An  order  of 
birds,  comprising  the  birds  of  prey, —  eagles, 
hawks,  owls,  and  vultures.     See  Birds  of  Prev. 

Acclamation  («  calling  to  »)  :  properly,  ex- 
pressing any  judgment  of  an  assembly  or  a 
large  part  of  it  by  shouting:  but  in  usage  re- 
stricted entirely  to  a  favorable  one.  The  choice 
of  rulers  among  most  early  Aryan  tribes  or  na- 
tions was  by  acclamation:  the  candidate  was 
presented  by  a  previous  understanding  —  among 
the  Vikings  raised  on  a  shield  in  the  presence 
of  the  chiefs  —  and  acclaimed  by  the  voices  of 
the  assembled  multitude.  In  some  cases,  as 
with  the  Poles  even  quite  late  in  their  history, 
the  agreement  was  only  made  when  the  throng 
had  gathered  and  there  were  more  than  one  set 
of  acclaimers,  often  ending  in  a  pitched  battle 
to  decide  which  party  preponderated.  In  the 
minor  divisions  of  modern  political  life,  voting 
by  acclamation  is  usual ;  a  ballot  being  called 
for  only  when  the  parties  are  so  evenly  balanced 
that  the  preponderance  is  dubious,  or  a  small 
majority  has  great  strength  of  lungs,  or  the 
minority  wish  to  make  the  majority  put  their 
position  on  record,  or  simply  to  have  the  satis- 
faction of  a  proved  vote.  In  ecclesiastical  coun- 
cils the  vote  by  acclamation  comes  first  also, 
the  question  being  put  as  « placet »  or  «jit>u 
placet.*      In    private    matters,    acclamation    has 


been  used  from  early  times  as  an  expression  of 
good  feeling  or  enthusiasm,  as  in  the  customary 
«  hurrahs,"  "  huzzas,"  and  «  tigers,"  and  the 
"  hear,  hear  "  of  political  assemblies,  and  the 
responsive  shouts  and  groans  of  religious  re- 
vivals or  prayer-meetings.  The  applause  in 
theatres,  etc.,  being  non-vocal  does  not  etymo- 
logically  belong  to  the  group,  but  is  usually  in- 
cluded as  having  the  same  intent.  It  began  with 
genuine  applause,  an  actor  closing  the  play  by 
some  word  asking  for  approval  of  the  company 
—  in  the  Roman  theatre,  «  Plaudite  »  ("applaud 
yc»),  or  a  poet  or  orator  who  recited  in  public 
expecting  and  receiving  applause;  but  the 
claque,  in  modern  French  phrase,  was  very 
early  organized  by  rich  amateurs,  who  kept 
bands  of  paid  applauders  not  only  for  their  own 
use  but  to  lend  to  friends.  Nero  had  5,000  of  these, 
many  of  them  equites  or  knights,  to  chant  his 
praises  at  the  direction  of  a  professional  music- 
master ;  they  were  called  Augusliniani.  In  the 
modern  French  theatre  the  1  laque  is  on  a  more 
modest  footing  and  is  paid  by  the  management; 
the  understood  reason  being  (curiously)  that  it 
keeps  up  the  spirit s  of  the  actors  when  the  au- 
dience's coldness  might  depress  them  beyond 
the  power  to  play  well,  and  more  rationally 
that  it  guides  and  stimulates  the  audience  itself 
to  genuine  applause  when  it  might  be  simply 
sluggish  and  indifferent.  In  old  times  applause 
was  shouted  at  marriages,  as  «  Io  Hymen, » 
«  Hymenxe,"  «  Talassio  »  ;  in  festal  or  religious 
processions;  to  victorious  commanders  in  tri- 
umphs or  ovations,  as  «  Io  triumphe  »  :  and  even, 
contrary  to  modern  feelings  of  decorum,  in 
churches,  the  pulpit  orator  being  cheered  at 
good  passages. 

Acclimatization,  the  gradual  alteration 
which  tits  a  plant  or  animal  to  a  climate  differing 
from  that  in  which  the  habits  of  its  species  or 
race  have  been  formed.  Acclimatization  and 
naturalization  are  often  mistakenly  used  as  syn- 
onymous, but  naturalization  properly  means 
establishment  in  a  new  country,  and,  if  the  cli- 
mates of  the  two  countries  chance  to  be  the 
same,  acclimatization  is  not  implied.  In  the 
consideration  of  marine  animals  and  plants  ac- 
climatization takes  on  a  slightly  different  mean- 
ing, since  aquatic  life  is  more  affected  by  the 
various  conditions  of  the  surrounding  water 
than  by  climate. 

In  Plants. —  Many  examples  of  acclimatization 
are  furnished  by  cultivated  plants,  among  which 
the  most  noteworthy  are  perhaps  the  cereals. 
The  original  species  of  most  of  these  has  not 
been  discovered,  but  in  most  cases  it  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  sub-tropical  or  warm  temperate 
regions.  Some  of  these  cereals  now  thrive 
far  better  or  are  more  productive  in  cold, 
northern  climates  than  in  warm  regions.  But  in 
such  cases  an  important  influence  may  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent  obliterate  or  emphasize 
the  apparent  period  of  growth,  the  productive- 
ness, etc.  This  is  the  daily  duration  of  sunlight. 
During  the  growing  period  the  sunlight  lasts 
longer  as  the  pole  is  approached,  so  that  the 
shorter  season  is  more  than  compensated  for  by 
the  increased  hours  of  sunlight.  It  has  been 
found  by  experiment  that  certain  varieties  of 
corn  brought  from  the  southern  States  to  the 
northern  attained  their  customary  height,  but 
generally  failed  to  ripen  seed.     The  progeny  of 


ACCO  — ACCOLTI 


?uch  plants  as  did  mature  seed  gradually  as- 
sumed the  characteristics  of  northern  varieties; 
they  reduced  their  height  and  shortened  the 
time  necessary  to  attain  maturity.  In  a  few 
years  they  resembled  other  northern  varieties  in 
these  two  respects.  The  reverse  of  this  case 
has  also  been  proved ;  northern  varieties  taken 
to  the  South  at  first  reached  the  height  and  at- 
tained maturity  in  the  time  natural  to  them  in 
the  North,  but  gradually  assumed  the  character- 
istics of  southern  varieties  —  increased  height 
and  greater  number  of  days  to  reach  maturity. 
But  even  considering  the  frequent  preponder- 
ance of  this  influence  and  remembering  that  the 
production  of  seed  is  usually  in  opposition  to 
marked  development  of  vegetative  parts,  there 
is  no  doubt  that  plants,  in  becoming  acclimatized, 
are  compelled  to  adjust  themselves  to  many 
other  less  prominent  influences,  such  as  humid- 
ity, temperature,  light,  and  wind.  The  peach 
is  supposed  to  have  come  from  China  by  way  of 
Persia,  and  since  early  historical  times  has  grad- 
ually been  fitting  itself  to  more  and  more 
northern  conditions.  It  is  now  found  to  be  a 
profitable  crop  in  Michigan  and  New  York, 
which  are  several  degrees  farther  north  than  its 
supposed  place  of  origin.  The  influence  of  cli- 
mate upon  cultivated  plants  is  recognized  by 
progressive  agriculturists  and  horticulturists, 
and  each  prefers  seed  grown  in  a  more  norther- 
ly locality  than  his  own.  The  effects  of  the 
new  environment,  however,  soon  become  evi- 
dent, and  new  importations  must  be  made. 
Seeds  grown  at  high  altitudes  exhibit  the  same 
characteristics  as  those  produced  in  high  lati- 
tudes ;  that  is,  they  are  hardier  and  require  a 
shorter  period  to  reach  maturity  than  those 
grown  in  low  altitudes  or  low  latitudes. 

Among  naturally  acclimatized  plants  are  many 
remarkable  phenomena.  Deciduous  plants  taken 
from  cool  climates  to  tropical  conditions  hold 
their  leaves  for  a  much  longer  period  than 
where  they  are  indigenous,  or  may  even  become 
evergreen  like  their  new  associates.  Plants  im- 
ported from  warm  regions  to  cooler  may  lose 
the  power  to  ripen  seeds,  but  this  defect  may 
be  compensated  by  the  development  of  vegeta- 
tive reproductive  powers.  The  reverse  case  is 
also  true.  Southern  plants  may  fail  to  ripen 
wood  completely,  and  winter  killing  may  result. 
In  cultivated  plants,  however,  this  phenomenon, 
which  is  often  observed  in  the  peach,  may  be  due 
to  improper  methods  of  cultivation  resulting  in 
abnormal   wood-development. 

In  Animals. — The  capacity  for  acclimatization 
is  possessed  in  very  different  degrees  by  differ- 
ent animals,  even  by  different  individuals  of  the 
same  species,  and  depends  much  upon  general 
hardihood.  Exactly  what  changes  take  place 
during  acclimatization  is  not  known  :  sometimes 
the  very  specific  gravity  of  the  animal  is  altered, 
as  when  fresh- water  fishes  become  adapted  to 
the  denser  water  of  the  ocean ;  similarly,  the 
normal  temperature  of  the  individual  may  grad- 
ually become  altered,  as  in  the  case  of  fishes 
native  to  cool  water,  which  chance  to  work 
up-stream  into  hot  springs  and  live  there  at  a 
temperature  which  would  kill  normal  individ- 
uals of  the  same  species.  The  animals  which  are 
most  wide-spread  over  the  earth  are  those 
which  have  the  greatest  adaptability  to  new 
climates  and  new  conditions  of  environment,  and 
the  best  examples  of  this  adaptability  are  found 


among  domestic  animals  (q.v.).  About  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  there  was  much  en- 
thusiasm for  transplanting  animals  from  one 
country  to  another ;  but  the  results  have  so 
often  been  harmful  rather  than  beneficial  to  the 
recipients  of  the  new  forms  that  the  effort  to 
improve  on  nature  in  this  way  has  been  aban- 
doned. Conspicuous  examples  are  afforded  by 
the  sending  of  the  European  rabbit  to  Australia 
and  New  Zealand,  where  it  multiplied  so  ex- 
cessively in  a  favorable  climate,  with  abundant 
food,  and  through  the  almost  complete  lack  of 
enemies,  as  to  become  a  nuisance  and  a  menace 
to  the  pastoral  industry.  (See  Rabbit.)  The  in- 
troduction of  the  agua  toads,  and  afterward  of 
the  mungoos  (qq.v.)  into  Jamaica,  to  subdue  the 
rats  that  were  devouring  the  sugar-cane,  had 
evil  results.  The  spread  of  the  European  house- 
sparrow  (q.v.)  in  the  United  States  is  another 
pertinent  example.  Many  highly  injurious  in- 
sects have  been  accidentally  introduced  and  ac- 
climatized in  America  from  abroad;  and  the 
same  is  true  of  other  countries.  On  the  other 
hand  a  few  instances  like  the  acclimatization 
of  the  silkworm  in  Europe,  of  bumblebees  in 
New  Zealand,  or  of  ladybirds  in  California, 
have  been  highly  beneficial ;  while  much  good 
has  come  from  stocking  new  streams  with  de- 
sirable fishes.  Of  the  several  societies  founded 
to  promote  such  transferences,  that  of  Paris 
(Societe  d'Acclimatation)  is  most  important, 
but  latterly  has  been  inactive. 
In  Human  Beings.  See  Hygiene. 
Bibliography.—  'Variations  of  Animals  and 
Plants  Under  Domestication.)  Darwin  ;  <  Island 
Life,)  Wallace;  'Tropical    Colonization.) 

Acco,  ak'6.      See  Acre. 

Accolade,  ak-6-lad'  (Fr.  «embrace,»  literally, 
«  on  the  neck  » ) ,  in  heraldry,  the  ceremony  by 
which  in  mediaeval  times  one  was  dubbed  a 
kright.  On  the  question  what  this  was,  anti- 
quaries are  not  agreed.  It  has  been  made  an 
embrace  round  the  neck,  a  kiss,  or  a  slight  blow 
upon  the  cheek  or  shoulder.  In  some  cases  it 
was  a  literal  box  on  the  ear,  for  which  later 
was  substituted  a  gentle  tap  on  the  shoulder 
with  the  flat  of  a  sword.  In  conferring  knight- 
hood Queen  Victoria  struck  the  kneeling  sub- 
ject lightly  on  the  shoulder  with  a  sword  and 
used  the  words  «  I  bid  thee  rise,  Sir  Knight. »> 

Accolti,  Benedetto,  ak-ol'te,  ben-a-det'6,  the 
Elder,  distinguished  Italian  jurist:  b.  Arezzo, 
1415:  d.  Florence,  1466.  Several  other 
members  of  his  family  were  noted  for  legal 
attainments.  He  became  professor  of  jurispru- 
dence in  the  University  of  Florence,  and  on  the 
death  of  the  famous  Poggio  was  made  chancel- 
lor of  that  republic.  With  his  brother  Leonardo 
he  wrote  in  Latin  a  three-volume  history  of  the 
first  crusade,  not  of  great  value,  but  interesting 
as  having  furnished  Tasso  the  material  'or 
'Jerusalem  Delivered):  pub.  Venice  1452.  Italian 
tr.  1543,  French  tr.  1620.  He  also  wrote  a  vol- 
ume of  biographies  of  his  distinguished  con- 
temporaries,  pub.   Parma   1689. 

Accolti,  Bernardo,  ak-ol-te,  ber-nar'do, 
Italian  poet:  b.  Florence,  before  1466:  d.  after 
1334.  He  was  greatly  admired,  especially  as  an 
improvisatore.  Whenever  he  announced' his  in- 
tention   of   reciting   his   verses   the   shops    were 


ACCOMMODATION  — ACCORD   AND   SATISFACTION 


closed  and  the  people  flocked  in  crowds  to  hear 
him.  He  was  surrounded  by  prelates  of  the 
first  eminence;  a  body  of  Swiss  troops  accom- 

ed  him;  and  the  court  was  lighted  by 
torches.  Leo  X.  esteemed  him  highly  and  made 
him  apostolic  secretary,  cardinal,  and  papal 
legate  at  Aucona.  He  it  was  who  drew  up  the 
papal  bull  against  Luther  (  1520).  Though 
styled  in  his  own  day  "  The  Only  (one)  of 
Arez/.o  »  (L1  Unico  Aretino),  the  fame  of  his 
works  perished  with  him.  I  heir  style  is  hard, 
his    images    forced,    and    his    taste    marred    by 

Ctation.  The  best  known  is  a  comedy, 
<l.a  Virginia.1  His  other  productions  include 
some  lyric  poetry,  epigrams,  octaves,  and  verses 
in   terta    rima. 

Accommodation,  the  process  by  which  the 
mind  is  brought  into  adjustment  with  its  sur- 
roundings  ;  adaptation. 

In  physiology,  the  accommodation  of  ti 
is  the  function  by  which  objects,  near  or  distant, 
may  be  seen   distinctly.     Ii   is  accomplished  by 
tin    relaxing  or  contracting  of  the  ciliary  mus- 
cle.    See  Eve. 

In  biology,  the  process  by  which  an  organism 
becomes  adapted  to  its  environment. 

In  theology,  properly,  the  presentation  of  a 
truth  not  absolutely,  but  with  some  modification 
to  suit  it  either  to  some  other  mull  or  to  the 
person  addressed.  It  is  distinguished  as  formal 
and  material,  the  former  relating  to  the  method 
of  teaching,  and  the  latter  to  what  is  taught. 
The  former  includes  teaching  by  parables  or 
symbols,  by  progressive  stages  graduated  to  the 
capacity  of  the  learner,  etc.;  more  usually,  now, 
the  forcing  of  texts  from  their  obvious  mean- 
ing to  conform  them  to  theories  derived  from 
other  sources.  The  latter,  as  now  commonly 
used,  means  the  theory  that  Christ  and  the 
writers  of  Scripture  modified  or  perverted  tin- 
truth  to  accommodate  it  to  the  limited  intelli- 
gence or  the  prejudices  of  their  times. —  the 
mogonies  of  Genesis,  or  Jesus'  acceptance  of 
iiiac  possession  as  a  truth,  etc. 

In  commerce  it  usually  denotes  temporary 
financial  assistance  rendered  by  one  merchant 
or  bank  to  another.  Accommodation  paper  in- 
cludes notes  or  bills  of  exchange  made,  accepted, 
01  indorsed,  without  any  consideration.  While 
in  the  hands  of  the  party  to  whom  it  is  made, 
or  for  whose  benefit  the  accommodation  is  given, 
such  paper  is  open  to  the  defense  of  want  of 
consideration,  but  when  received  by  third  parties 
in  the  usual  course  of  business  it  is  governed 
by  the  same  rules  as  other  paper.  (2  Duer,  N. 
Y.  33;  2  Kent,  Comm.  86.) 

Accompaniment,  in  music,  is  that  part 
which  serves  for  the  support  of  the  principal 
melody  (solo  or  obbligato  part).  This  can  be 
executed  either  by  many  instruments,  by  a  few, 
or  even  by  a  single  one ;  we  have  therefore  pieces 
with  an  accompaniment  for  several,  or  only  for 
a  single  instrument.  The  principles  on  which 
the  effect  of  accompaniment  rests  are  so  little 
led  that  its  composition  is  perhaps  more 
difficult  than  even  that  of  the  melody.  Fre- 
quently the  same  musical  thought  produces  a 
good  or  bad  effect,  according  to  the  character  of 
tin-  accompaniment,  without  our  being  able  to 
give  a  satisfactory  reason  for  the  difference. 
The  accompaniment  requires  of  the  performer 
th*  most  scrupulous  study,  and  of  the  composer 


the  greati  -1  skill  and  delicacy.  As  the  object  of 
every  musical  accompaniment  is  to  give  effect 
to  the  principal  part,  the  accompanist  should 
always  aim  really  to  support  and  by  no  means  to 
overpower  it. 

Accomplice  is  the  term  applied  to  one  who 
is  in  some  way  connected  with  the  commission 
of  a   crime,   though   not    as  a   principal, 

In  tin.  absence  of  a  il   is  not  a  rule 

of  law,  but  a  rule  of  practice  only,  that  a  jury 
should  not  convict  on  tin-  uncorroborated  testi- 
ly of  an  accomplice.  Ordinarily  the  judge 
will  advise  the  jury  to  acquit  unless  the  testi- 
mony of  the  accomplice  is  corroborated  as  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  offense  and  the  participa- 
tion of  the  accused.  It  is  provided  by  the  N. 
Y.  Code  Crim.  Proa,  5  399,  that  a  conviction 
cannot  be  had  upon  the  testimony  of  an  ac- 
complice unless  he  be  corroborated  by  such 
i  evidence  as  tends  to  connect  the  defendant 
with  the  commission  of  the  crime.  This  statute 
has  been  adopted  in  many  of  the  States  of  the 
Union. 

Accoramboni,  Vittoria,  ak-o-ram-bo'ne,  vit- 
6're-a,  an  Italian  lady  famous  for  her  beauty  and 
her  wild  tragii  date  of  birth  unknown  ; 

d.  22  Dec.  1585.  Her  contemporaries  thought 
the   most  k'   woman   ever   in    Italy. 

Paolo  Giordano  Orsini,  Duke  of  Bracciano.  who 
was  believed  to  have  murdered  his  wife  with  his 
own  hand,  sought  hers  with  her  passionate  ac- 
quiescence ;  but  her  father  gave  her  to  Fran- 
cisco Peretti,  nephew  of  Cardinal  Montalto  anil 
living  in  his  house.  Peretti  was  assassinated 
1  - S r  ;  and  Vittoria  fled  to  Bracciano;  the  scan- 
dal was  great,  and  Gregory  XIII.  imprisoned 
her  nearly  a  year  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo, 
but  she  married  the  duke  as  soon  as  released. 
Montalto  becoming  Pope  as  Sixtus  V..  the 
couple  took  refuge  in  Venetian  territory.  After 
a  few  months'  residence  at  Salo  on  Lake  Garda, 
the  duke  died,  leaving  her  almost  the  whole  of 
his  great  fortune;  but  an  incensed  relative  of 
his.  Ludovico  Orsini,  had  her  murdered  at  Pa- 
dua, whither  she  had  removed.  This  recital, 
valid  on  ble  ti j>  to  now.  and 

accepted  by  Gnoli  in  his  "Life"  of  her  (Flor- 
ence 1870).  leaves  Vittoria  much  on  the  level  of 
other  passionate  Italian  1  her  age;  but 

the  Countess  Martinengo-Cesaresco  has  recent- 
ly re-examined  the  evidence  in  her  <  Lombard 
Studies, >  and  thinks  her  innocent  of  complicity 
in  crime.  Much  literary  use  has  been  made  of 
her  story,  and  Webster's  play  <  The  White 
Devil  '    is   based    on    it. 

Accord  and  Satisfaction  signifies  a  satisfac- 
tion agreed  upon  between  the  party  injured  and 
the  party  injuring,  which  when  performed  is  a 
bar  to  all  actions  upon  this  account.  It  must 
be  legal.  An  agreement  to  stifle  a  criminal 
prosecution  for  a  criminal  offense  such  as  an 
assault  and  imprisonment  is  void.  (2  Wils. 
241  ;  s  East.  204) 

Where  a  release  is  given  to  one  of  two  joint 

tort-feasors  which  recites  the  receipt   from  him 

of  a  certain  sum  as  full  payment,  it   will  operate 

as   a   bar  to  an   action   against  the   other   torl- 

(  136  Mass.  503.) 

Accord  with  satisfaction,  when  completed, 
has  two  effects:  it  is  a  payment  of  the  debt: 
and  it  is  a  species  of  sale  of  the  thing  given  by 
the  debtor  to  the  creditor  in  satisfaction;  but  it 


ACCORDION  —  ACCUMULATOR 


differs  from  it  in  this,  that  it  is  not  valid  until 
the  delivery  of  the  article,  and  there  is  no  war- 
ranty of  the  thing  thus  sold,  except  perhaps  the 
title ;  for  in  regard  to  this  it  cannot  be  doubted 
that  if  the  debtor  gave,  on  an  accord  and  satis- 
faction, the  goods  of  another,  there  would  be 
no  satisfaction.  But  the  intention  of  the  parties 
is  of  the  utmost  consequence.     (30  Vt.  424.) 

Accordion,  a  musical  instrument  in  the 
form  of  a  small  box,  generally  from  8  to  12  in. 
long  by  4  wide,  and  containing  a  number  of 
metallic  reeds  fixed  at  one  extremity,  but  left 
to  vibrate  freely.  A  small  bellows,  formed  by 
a  folding  apparatus  v.  hich  unites  the  top  and 
bottom  of  the  box,  supplies  the  wind,  which, 
admitted  by  keys  acting  on  valves,  sets  the  reeds 
in  vibration.  In  the  harmonium  (q.v.)  and 
the  American  cabinet-organ  the  same  prin- 
ciple is  also  employed.  The  accordion  was 
introduced  into  America  from  Germany  about 
1828,  but  the  principle  has  long  been  known  in 
China,  and  employed  for  instruments  played  by 
the  breath.  The  concertina,  flutina,  and  organ- 
accordion  are  improvements. 

Account,  a  register  of  pecuniary  transac- 
tions, whether  for  personal  use,  to  satisfy  a 
contract,  in  obedience  to  law,  or  as  a  bill  of 
items  sent  to  a  customer  who  buys  on  credit. 
A  mutual  account  is  one  where  debtor  and 
creditor  items  are  opposed  between  two  parties. 
An  open  account,  or  account  current,  in  com- 
merce is  one  in  which  the  balance  has  not  been 
struck;  in  banking,  one  that  may  be  added  to  or 
drawn  upon  at  any  time,  as  opposed  to  a  deposit 
account,  where  notice  is  required  for  withdraw- 
als. To  keep  an  open  account  is  to  keep  such 
a  one  running  on,  instead  of  closing  it.  A  stated 
account  is  one  which  all  parties  have  expressly 
or  by  implication  (as  by  the  debtor's  retaining 
it  beyond  a  reasonable  time  without  objection) 
admitted  to  be  correct.  To  open  an  account  is 
to  begin  pecuniary  transactions  with  a  banker  or 
merchant. 

In  law,  an  account  is  a  detailed  statement  of 
the  mutual  demands  in  the  nature  of  debt  and 
credit  between  parties,  arising  out  of  contracts 
or  some  fiduciary  relations.  (32  Pa.  St.  202; 
1   Mete.   (Mass.)   216.) 

An  open  account  is  one  in  which  some  term 
of  the  contract  is  not  settled  by  the  parties, 
whether  the  account  consists  of  one  item  or 
many.     (1   Ala.  x.s.  62.) 

In  equity,  jurisdiction  concurrent  with  courts 
of  law  is  taken  over  matters  of  account  (9 
Johns.  (N.  Y.)  470;  1  Paige  Ch.  (N.  Y.)  41)  on 
three  grounds:  mutual  accounts;  dealings  so 
complicated  that  they  cannot  be  adjusted  in  a 
court  of  law;  and  the  existence  of  a  fiduciary 
relation  between  the  parties. 

Accountant,  properly  any  one  who  keeps 
accounts,  and  till  lately  applied  in  the  United 
States  to  all  bookkeepers  without  distinction ; 
more  generally  now  restricted  to  the  head  book- 
keepers of  large  houses  or  corporations,  with 
difficult  or  complex  accounts  calling  for  expert 
ability.  Especially  an  « expert  accountant  »  or 
«  public  accountant  »  is  understood  as  one  not 
in  the  employ  of  any  one  house,  but  hiring  his 
services  out  to  such  firms  or  companies,  banks, 
or  public  institutions,  as  either  find  their  ac- 
counts in  disorder  or  wish  a  legal  verification  or 
a  guaranteed  statement  for  the  public;  or  report 


on  bankrupt  estates  under  legal  process.  Few 
large  financial  institutions  neglect  to  support 
public  confidence  by  having  their  books  period- 
ically investigated  and  reported  upon  by  an  ac- 
countant unconnected  with  the  concern.  This 
is  gradually  building  up,  through  many  scandals 
and  frauds  upon  the  public,  a  much  higher 
standard  of  professional  duty  among  these  ex- 
perts: it  is  recognized  that  it  is  their  duty  not 
merely  to  certify  to  the  correct  balancing  of  the 
figures  submitted  to  them,  but  to  use  reasonable 
intelligence  and  honorable  purpose  on  the  man- 
ner in  which  those  figures  were  made,  and 
whether  they  represent  facts  or  gross  fictions  to 
deceive  outsiders  and  lure  in  money  to  be  mis- 
handled. The  proper,  and  in  the  United  States 
the  only,  business  of  an  accountant  is  to  exam- 
ine accounts  and  make  out  balance-sheets  and 
statements.  In  England  they  assume  a  still 
further  duty,  that  of  managing  estates  and 
legacies. 

Accretion,  the  increase  of  real  estate  by 
the  addition  of  portions  of  soil,  by  gradual 
deposition  through  the  operation  of  natural 
causes,  to  that  already  in  possession  of  the 
owner.  If  an  island  in  a  non-navigable  stream 
results  from  accretion,  it  belongs  to  the  owner 
of  the  bank  on  the  same  side  of  the  Alum  aqua:. 
(2  Washburn,  Real  Prop.  452;  3  Kent,  Comm. 
328;  6  Cow.  (N.  Y.)  537.)  In  some  cases  it  has 
been  held  that  it  makes  no  difference  whether 
the  stream  is  navigable  or  not  (24  How.  (  V . 
S.)  41 ;  10  Pet.  662)  where  the  owner  of  land 
has  received  accretions  thereto.  The  term  «  allu- 
vion »  is  applied  to  the  deposit  itself,  while  «  ac- 
cretion »  denotes  the  act. 

Accrington,  a  manufacturing  town  and  mu- 
nicipal borough  of  England,  in  Lancashire,  on 
the  Hyndburn.  20  m.  N.  of  Manchester  and  5 
m.  E.  of  Blackburn ;  on  the  Lancashire  &  Y. 
Ry. ;  inc.  1878.  It  is  well  laid  out,  and  has  va- 
rious handsome  buildings,  including  the  town- 
hall,  a  splendid  market  hall,  technical  school 
and  school  of  art,  clubs,  etc.  The  manufacture 
and  printing  of  cottons,  chemical  works  fur  their 
use,  and  the  manufacture  of  spinning  and  other 
machinery,  are  the  chief  industries.  Coal  is 
wrought  extensively.  Pop.  (1841)  under  9,000; 
(1881)  31,435:  (1901)  43.095-  Accrington  gives 
name  to  a  parliamentary  division  of  the  county; 
pop.  84.878. 

Ac'cum,  Friedrich,  fred'riH,  German  chem- 
ist:  b.  Buckeburg,  1769;  d.  Berlin,  1838.  Re- 
moving to  London  at  24,  eight  years  later  he 
was  made  professor  of  chemistry  and  min- 
eralogy at  the  Surrey  Institution.  He  published 
several  text-books  on  these  sciences,  but  is  re- 
membered mainly  for  being  (with  an  energetic 
print-seller,  Ackermann)  the  introducer  of  gas- 
lighting  into  England.  His  <  Practical  Treat- 
ise on  Gaslight  >  appeared  in  1815.  Another 
valuable  service  to  society  was  his  <  Treatise  on 
Adulterations  of  Food  and  Culinary  Poisons > 
(1820).  As  the  result  of  charges  against  his 
honesty  he  returned  to  Germany,  and  in  1S22  was 
made  professor  in  the  Industrial  Institute  and 
Academy  of  Architecture  in  Berlin. 

Accumulator,  a  device  for  the  storage  of 
energy,  more  particularly  when  the  energy  is 
supplied  from  an  intermittent  source,  or  when  it 
is  to  be  withdrawn  intermittently  or  irregularly. 
The  fly-wheel  on  a  steam-engine  is  a  device  c< 


ACCUSATIVE  CASE  — ACETAL 


this  sort,  hut  it  is  nol  commonly  referred  to  as 
an  accumulator.  The  word  is  practically  re- 
stricted to  the  following  two  senses:  (i)  a 
storage-battery  (q.v.)  ;  (2)  a  hydraulic  appara- 
tus, commonly  consisting  of  a  plunger  which  is 
fitted  to  a  vertical  cylinder  and  heavily  loaded 
with  weights.  Water  is  forced  into  the  cylin- 
der by  pumps,  with  the  result  that  the  plunger 
and  its  weights  are  raised,  and  a  considerable 
quantity  of  water  is  thus  stored  in  the  cylinder 
under  a  high  pressure.  By  the  use  of  such  an 
accumulator  it  is  possible  to  deliver  water  for 
a  short  time  in  far  greater  volume  than  the 
pumps  feeding  the  accumulator  could  deliver  it, 
and  vet  at  the  maximum  pressure  that  the  pumps 
are  capable  of  producing.  Hydraulic  accumu- 
lators are  used  in  connection  with  riveting- 
machines,  cranes,  and  many  other  heavy  tools. 

Accusative  Case,  in  Latin, — and  thence 
applied  to  the  corresponding  case  in  Greek  and 
other  declensions, —  that  case  of  the  noun,  pro- 
noun, etc.,  which  designates  the  object  to  which 
the  action  of  a  verb  is  immediately  directed. 
It  corresponds  with  what,  although  the  English 
noun  is  nearly  without  declension,  is  called  in 
English  the  objective  case.    See  Declension. 

Aceldama,  a-sel'da-ma,  a  cemetery  in  Jeru- 
salem used  to  bury  strangers  in.  The  traditional 
site  is  on  a  small  plateau  half-way  up  the  southern 
slope  of  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  near  its  junction 
with  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat;  and  it  was 
certainly  used  in  the  6th  century  for  the  burial 
of  Christian  pilgrims,  and  continued  in  use  till 
the  17th.  According  to  Malt,  xxvii.  7,  8  it  was 
bought  by  the  chief  priests  and  elders  for  a 
burial-ground,  with  the  30  pieces  of  silver  re- 
turned by  Judas  after  the  betrayal;  according 
to  Acts  i.  19  it  was  bought  by  Judas  himself 
with  the  money,  which  he  did  not  return,  and 
his  bowels  burst  open  in  it ;  according  to  both, 
the  name  means  « the  field  of  blood,"  and  it  was 
a  potter's.  But  as  the  Greek  text  gives  a  form 
« Aceldantach,*  which  would  mean  "field  of 
sleep,*  a  natural  and  beautiful  term  for  a  bury- 
ing-ground,  and  as  according  to  Jer.  xviii.  2  and 
xix.  2  there  was  a  potter's  in  the  valley  of 
Hinnom,  it  would  seem  that  the  use  and  name 
of  the  place  were  very  old  at  the  time  of 
Christ,  and  that  the  meaning  «  field  of  blood  » 
was  a  misunderstanding,  or  a  play  on  the  real 
meaning,  and  its  connection  with  Judas  arti- 
ficial. (History  and  description  by  Schick, 
1892,  quarterly  statement  of  the  Palestine  Ex- 
ploration Fund,  pp.  283-9.) 

Aceph'ali  ("headless"),  in  civil  history, 
certain  levelers,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  of 
England,  who  acknowledged  no  head  or  em- 
peror; or,  according  to  another  explanation, 
who  were  too  poor  to  own  any  property,  and  so 
have  any  legal  superior. 

In  Church  history':  (1)  Bishops  exempt  from 
the  jurisdiction  and  discipline  of  a  patriarch. 
(2)  Clergy  belonging  to  no  diocese.  (3)  Those 
who,  on  occasion  of  a  dispute  in  the  Council  of 
Ephesus,  a.d.  431,  refused  to  follow  either  John 
of  Antioch  or  Cyril  of  Alexandria.  (4)  Those 
who  rejected  the  decision  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  451,  on  the  nature  of  Christ.  (5) 
In  the  Sth  and  6th  centuries,  a  large  section 
of  the  followers  of  the  Monophysite,  Peter 
Mongus,  who  cast  him  oflf  as  their  leader  be- 
cause of  his  accepting  a  peaceful  formula  called 


the  Henoticon  (q.v.).  They  soon  afterward 
split  into  three  parties,  tin-  Anthropomorphites, 
the  Barsanuphites,  and  tin  I  ianists,  who 
again  gave  origin  to  other  sects.  (6)  The  Fla- 
gellants   ( q.v, ). 

Aceph'alocyst'  ("headless  cyst1),  a  growth 
found  in  the  liver,  kidneys,  and  other  glandular 
of  man  and  oftentimes  those  of  the  lower 
animals.    Sec   I  1  ma. 

Acer.    See  Maple;  Whistlewood. 

Aceratherium,  a-se-ra-the'ri-um,  an  ex- 
tinct rhinoceros  which  inhabited  Europe  during 
the  Miocene  epoch.  It  had  no  distinct  horn, 
whence  the  name  (Gr.  <t-  without,  Kipas  horn. 
d-f/p  animal),  but  a  small  boss  on  the  top  o( 
the  skull  indicates  a  rudimentary  horn  or  callos- 
ity. American  fossil  hornless  rhinoceroses 
formerly  referred  to  this  genus  are  now  dis- 
tinguished as  Casnopus   (q.v.). 

Acerbi,  Giuseppe,  a-cher'-be,  ju-sep'-a,  Ital- 
ian traveler  and  scientist:  b.  near  Mantua.  3 
May  1773;  d.  there  August  1846.  He  studied  at 
Mantua,  devoting  himself  to  natural  science;  in 
1798  journeyed  through  Scandinavia,  Finland, 
and  Lapland,  and  in  1799  visited  the  North  Cape, 
the  first  Italian  ever  there.  On  his  return  he 
stayed  some  time  in  England  and  published 
his  « Travels »  in  English,  later  having  them 
translated  into  French  and  German.  He  ren- 
dered great  service  to  Italian  literature  by  start- 
ing in  1816  the  Biblioteca  Italiana,  which  fought 
the  Accademia  della  Crusca  (q.v.).  Made  Aus- 
trian consul-general  to  Egypt  in  1826,  he  con- 
tributed valuable  articles  on  Egypt  to  the  Bib- 
lioteca, and  obtained  many  Oriental  objects  of 
interest  to  European  museums.  From  1836  till 
his  death  he  lived  at  his  native  place. 

Acerra,  a-cherr'a,  Italy  (the  ancient  Acer- 
R.e,  admitted  to  Roman  citizenship  332  B.C., 
plundered  and  burnt  by  Hannibal)  :  an  episcopal 
city  9  m.  N.E.  of  Naples,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  railroad,  and  opposite  Mt.  Somma. 
It  |  has  a  cathedral.  The  inundations  of  the 
neighboring  Agno  formerly  made  it  very  un- 
healthy, but  the  marshes  are  now  drained. 
Pop.   (1891)    13,633;    (1901)    16,443. 

Aces'tes,  or  .ffiges'tus,  in  Greek  legend,  son 
of  Crinisus  and  /Egesta,  and  king  of  the  country 
near  Drepanum,  in  Sicily.  He  assisted  Priam  in 
the  Trojan  war.  entertained  /Eneas  during  his 
voyage,  and  helped  him  to  bury  his  father  on 
Mount  Eryx.  In  commemoration  of  this  ./Eneas 
built  a  city  there  and  called  it  Acesta. 

Acetal.  (1)  A  colorless,  pleasant-smelling 
liquid,  formed  as  a  by-product  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  aldehyde  from  alcohol,  and  occurring 
naturally  in  crude  alcohol.  Its  formula  is 
CH..CH  (OCJ  I ,),.  It  boils  at  219°  F.  under 
ordinary  atmospheric  pressure.  Its  specific  grav- 
ity is  about  O.831,  and  its  critical  temperature  is 
4900  F.  Acetal  mixes  in  all  proportions  with  alco- 
hol and  ether.  It  is  soluble  in  eighteen  volumes 
of  water  at  80°  F.,  and  is  more  soluble  at  higher 
temperatures. 

(2)  «  Acetal  »  is  also  used  to  signify  any  one  of 
a  group  of  compounds  formed  by  the  combination 
of  one  molecule  of  an  aldehyde  with  two  mole- 
cules of  an  alcohol,  and  the  elimination  of  one 
molecule  of  water.  They  are  obtained  as  by- 
products in  the  preparation  of  aldehydes  from 
alcohols,  a  certain  portion  of  the  aldehyde 
formed  combining  with  the  unmodified  alcohoL 


ACETANILIDE  —  ACETONE 


Ac'etan'ilide  (known  in  the  drug  trade 
as  antifebrin),  a  crystalline  compound  obtained 
by  the  action  of  glacial  acetic  acid  upon  aniline 
(q.v.).  Its  formula  is  GH5NHCOCH3.  It 
melts  at  237°  F.,  and  boils  at  563°  F.  without 
decomposition.  It  is  readily  soluble  in  alcohol 
and  ether,  and  dissolves  in  hot  water,  but  is 
only  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water.  It  is 
given  in  medicine  as  a  sedative  and  febrifuge. 
Its  physiological  action  is  similar  to  that  of 
antipyrin,  but  its  administration  is  considered 
to  be  safer. 

Ac'etates,  compounds  of  acetic  acid  with 
metals  or  organic  radicals.    See  Acetic  Acid. 

Ace'tic  Acid,  an  organic  acid  belonging  in 
the  fatty  series,  important  on  account  both  of 
its  extensive  use  in  the  arts,  and  of  its  proper- 
ties as  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
theoretical  chemist.  Its  formula  is  CH3COOH, 
or  GH3O.OH  It  is  a  monobasic  acid,  the 
hydrogen  in  the  radical  CH3  not  being  replace- 
able by  a  metal  or  another  radical.  In  its 
dilute  state  it  has  been  known  for  centuries  as 
vinegar,  and  in  strong  vinegar  the  characteris- 
tic odor  of  the  acid  is  quite  marked.  It  may 
be  formed  by  the  oxidation,  decomposition,  and 
destructive  distillation  of  many  organic  bodies. 
It  is  produced,  as  in  the  manufacture  of  cider 
vinegar,  by  the  action  of  the  microscopic  plant 
Mycodcrma  aceti,  better  known  as  «  mother-of- 
vinegar,»  upon  weak  alcohol.  In  the  manufac- 
ture of  vinegar  the  alcohol  required  for  the 
transformation  is  present  in  the  cider  as  the 
result  of  a  preliminary  alcoholic  fermentation. 
It  has  been  shown  that  « mother-of-vinegar » 
has  no  effect  upon  pure  alcohol,  the  reason  for 
this  being  that  a  certain  amount  of  albuminous 
and  mineral  matter  must  be  present  to  serve  as 
food  for  the  plant.  The  greater  part  of  the 
acetic  acid  of  commerce  is  obtained  by  the  de- 
structive distillation  of  wood,  acetate  of  lime 
being  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  wood- 
alcohol.  (See  Wood-Alcohol,  under  Alcohol). 
The  acetate  of  lime  so  obtained  may  be  de- 
composed by  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid, 
when  acetic  acid  is  liberated,  or  it  may  be 
treated  in  any  one  of  a  number  of  other  ways 
for  the  recovery  of  the  acetic  acid.  One  of 
the  best  methods  consists  in  mixing  the  com- 
mercial acetate  of  lime  with  calcium  chloride, 
and  concentrating  the  solution  until  the 
compound  known  as  calcium  aceto-chloride 
(CaQH^CI.sHsO)  crystallizes  out.  The 
crystals  so  formed  are  then  dissolved  in  water, 
the  solution  is  filtered  through  animal  charcoal, 
more  calcium  chloride  is  added,  and  the  opera- 
tion is  repeated  to  obtain  a  new  crop  of  purer 
crystals.  These  crystals  are  finally  distilled 
with  moderately  strong  sulphuric  acid,  when 
a  very  pure  acetic  acid  is  given  off. 

By  heating  acetate  of  sodium  with  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid  it  is  possible  to  obtain 
acetic  acid  in  a  state  free  from  water.  The 
acid  so  obtained  is  a  colorless  liquid  boiling 
at  244°  F.,  and  solidifying,  at  about  630  F., 
into  an  ice-like  mass;  from  this  property  the 
anhydrous  acid  has  been  called  glacial  acetic 
acid. 

Acetic    acid    is    uninflammable    in    its    liquid 

state,    but    its    vapor    burns    with    a    fine    blue 

flame.     It  is  used  as  a  solvent  for  organic  sub- 

istances,  being  a  useful  substitute  for  alcohol  in 


certain  cases  on  account  of  its  relative  cheap- 
ness. 

Lead  acetate  (or  sugar  of  lead)  and  copper 
acetate  (or  verdigris)  are  the  most  important 
compounds  of  acetic  acid  with  the  heavy  metals. 
Aluminum  acetate  and  the  iron  acetates  are 
much  used  in  dyeing.  The  acetates  of  lead, 
potassium,  and  ammonia  are  also  largely  used 
in   medicine. 

Acetic  acid  may  be  formed  synthetically  by 
exposing  a  mixture  of  one  volume  of  acetylene 
(q.v.)  and  two  volumes  of  air  to  daylight,  in 
the  presence  of  a  weak  solution  of  caustic 
potash.  The  acetylene  is  slowly  oxidized,  com- 
bining simultaneously  with  the  caustic  potash  to 
form  acetate  of  potash,  according  to  the 
formula 

GH>       +0        +  KOH  =  CH3.COOK 

Aretvlene  Caustic        Acetate  of 

Acetylene  pQtash  poUsh 

From  the  acetate  of  potash  so  formed  the  acetic 
acid  can  readily  be  obtained.  This  mode  of 
formation  is  of  no  practical  value,  but  it  has 
a  theoretical  interest. 

The  relations  of  acetic  acid  with  the  organic 
radicals  are  too  numerous  and  complicated  to 
receive  general  treatment  in  the  present  article. 
The  more  important  ones  are  noticed  elsewhere, 
see  Aldehyde;  Alcohol;  Ether;  etc. 

Acetic  Ether,  or  Ethyl  Acetate,  a  color- 
less, inflammable  liquid  having  the  formula 
CH3.COO.C2H5,  or  GHsO;,  prepared  by  the  ac- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  upon  a  mixture  of  alcohol 
and  acetic  acid.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
about  0.91  and  a  specific  heat  of  0.48,  and  boils 
at  171°  F.,  under  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. It  mixes  readily  with  alcohol  and  with 
ether,  and  at  ordinary  temperatures  is  soluble 
in  about  17  parts  of  water.  See  Esters;  Ether. 
Ac'etin,  a  substance  resembling  fat  in  its 
constitution,  obtained  by  acting  upon  glycerin 
with  glacial  acetic  acid.  Acetins  are  known  as 
monoacetin,  diacetin,  and  triacetin,  according 
as  the  acetic  acid  has  displaced  one,  two,  or 
three  of  the  hydroxyl  molecules  in  the  glycerin. 
The  formula  of  monoacetin  is  GHs(OH). 
(OGH3O);  of  diacetin,  GH5(OH)  (OGH, 
0)i;  of  triacetin,  GHs(OGHsO).. 

Ace'to-ace'tic  Acid,  a  thick  acid  liquid, 
having  the  formula  CHXO.CH-.COOH.  At 
212°  F.  it  splits  up  into  carbon  dioxide  and 
acetone. 

Ac'etone.  (1)  A  limpid,  mobile  liquid  with 
a  taste  suggestive  of  peppermint.  Formula, 
CH3.CO.CH3.  It  occurs  in  crude  wood-alcohol, 
from  which  it  can  be  separated  by  distilling 
over  calcium  chloride.  It  is  also  obtained  by 
the  destructive  distillation  of  acetates,  notably 
those  of  barium  and  lead. 

It  occurs  in  the  urine,  blood,  and  brain  of 
calcium  diabetic  patients.  Lieben's  test  for  ace- 
tone in  the  urine  is  as  follows:  Distilled  urine 
is  made  alkaline  by  caustic  potash,  and  a  few 
drops  of  a  solution  of  iodine  and  iodide  of 
potassium  are  added.  If  acetone  is  present  a 
yellow  precipitate  of  iodoform  is  formed  at 
once;  if  alcohol  be  present  in  the  distillate, 
the  same  reaction  takes  place,  but  more  slowly; 
but  with  acetone  the   reaction   is   immediate. 

Acetone  is  very  inflammable,  and  burns  with 
a  white  smokeless  flame.    It  boils  at  1330  F.  at 


ACETONITRILE  — ACETYLENE 


ordinary  atmospheric  pressuri  lfic  grav- 

ity at  ordinary  temperatures  is  0S00. 

Any  one  of  a  certain  class  of  carbon 
compounds  in  which  two  alcoholic  radicals  are 
united  by  the  group  CO.  These  compounds  arc 
now  called  ketones  (q.v.).  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  particular  member  of  the  group  defined 
in    ( i ),  above. 

Ac'etoni'trile.  a  colorless  liquid  with  a 
pleasant  ethereal  odor,  and  burning  with  a  red- 
dish-bordered flame.  It  has  the  formula  CI  I  X. 
and  is  isomeric  with  methyl  cyanide.  It  is 
best  prepared  by  distilling  a  mixture  of  potas- 
sium cyanide  and  potassium-methyl-sulphate.  It 
boils  at  l"8°  F.  at  ordinary  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.79.  It  mixes 
with  alcohol  and  water. 

Ac'etyl,  the  radical  of  acetic  acid,  its 
formula  being  CHa.CO.  Acetic  acid  may  be 
regarded  as  the  hydrate  of  this  radical,  its 
formula  being  CHs.COOH.  Acetyl  chloride, 
CH3.COCI.  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  phos- 
phorustrichloride  upon  acetic  acid.  Acetyl 
chloride  evolves  hydrochloric  acid  when  it  is 
heated  with  any  substance  containing  the  rad- 
icals hydroxyl,  amidogen,  or  imidogen,  and 
hence  it  is  of  importance  as  a  test  for  these 
substances. 

Acet'ylene,  a  hydrocarbon  gas,  CiHj,  com- 
mercially prepared  by  adding  water  to  calcium 
carbide,  when  both  decompose  and  rccombine 
into  acetylene  and  slaked  lime.  It  was  discov- 
ered in  1836  by  Edmund  Davy,  when  experi- 
mentally trying  water  on  the  impure  carbide 
produced  by  distilling  calcined  potassium  tar- 
trate to  obtain  potassium ;  named  by  Berthclot, 
who  in  1862  prepared  it  by  red-heating  ethylene, 
by  electrically  vaporizing  carbon,  and  by  incom- 
plete combustion  of  coal-gas ;  the  same  year 
W'uhlcr  produced  the  carbide  by  heating  carbon 
with  an  alloy  of  calcium  and  zinc.  Acetylene 
is  also  produced  by  the  direct  union  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen  when  an  electric  arc  is  caused  to 
pass  between  carbon  terminals  in  an  atmosphere 
of  hydrogen.  But  both  carbide  and  gas  were 
laboratory  curios  till  after  1892,  when  a  new 
method  of  obtaining  cheap  carbide  was  acci- 
dentally discovered  at  the  works  of  Thos.  L. 
Willson,  a  Canadian,  at  Spray,  N.  C,  and  per- 
fected by  the  chemist  Dr.  G.  de  Chalmot  and 
the  electrician  J.  M.  Morchead ;  and  not  long 
afterward  Prof.  Henri  Moissan  of  Paris  inde- 
pendently discovered  the  same  in  essence, —  the 
electric  arc  acting  on  mixed  lime  and  carbon. 
This  at  once  made  the  gas  of  great  industrial 
importance  for  lighting,  and  the  carbide  as  an 
agricultural  germicide. 

Acetylene  is  a  colorless  gas  of  an  agreeable 
ether-like  odor ;  but  the  impurities  of  commercial 
carbide  give  it  often  a  garlicky  smell.  It  is 
much  less  poisonous  than  coal-gas  or  water-gas. 
and  practically  harmless.  It  is  .02  the  weight 
of  air,  so  that  a  10-foot  cube  weighs  upwards 
of  75  lbs.  It  takes  fire  at  896°  F,  and  in  the 
open  air  burns  very  smokily,  with  clouds  of 
soot ;  but  when  consumed  in  a  suitable  burner, 
with  a  sufficient  supply  of  air.  it  gives  the 
whitest  and  clearest  light  of  any  common  illumi- 
nant,  the  final  products  of  its  combustion  being 
carbon  dioxide  and  water  vapor,  with  no  trace 
of  the  poisonous  carbon  monoxide.  At  1200° 
it    changes   to    isomeric    hydrocarbons,    yielding 


benzene  (C«H«)  and  tar;  at  1400°  it  decom- 
poses into  its  elements.  It  gives  off  much 
greater  heat  in  combustion,  volume  for  vol- 
ume, than  coal-gas;  but  light  for  light  it  gives 
off  much  less,  owing  to  its  vastly  greater  il- 
luminating power  and  consequently  much 
smaller  volume  to  equal  light.  Mixtures  of  air 
and  acetylene  containing  from  2.8  to  65  per  cent 
of  the  gas  arc  inflammable  in  the  open,  but  in 
tubes  the  possibility  of  combustion  striking 
through  decreases  with  their  diameter  until  ir 
ceases  at  about  one  fifth  of  an  inch 

Pure  acetylene  is  sometimes  objected  to  be- 
cause the  small  dazzling  point  of  light  strains 
the  eye  unless  hidden,  and  the  black  shadows 
diminish  the  real  illuminating  power.  Various 
diluents  have  been  tried;  the  only  ones  in  prac- 
tical service  are  oil-gas.  which  is  used  on  all  the 
Prussian  government  railroad  lines,  mixed  with 
20  per  cent  of  acetylene  under  10  atmospheres 
pressure;  and  air,  which  in  the  best  burners 
(the  Napheys,  a  Philadelphia  invention  of  the 
Bunsen  order)  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  acety- 
lene to  secure  perfect  combustion  and  the  best 
illumination.  Prof.  Vivian  B.  Lewes  of  England 
thinks  methane  or  marsh  gas  by  far  the  best; 
it  is  too  costly  by  itself,  but  can  be  generated 
along  with  water  gas  so  as  to  give  a  cheap  mix- 
ture which  a  little  acetylene  enriches  into  a  pow- 
erful   light. 

When  added  to  coal-gas  or  water-gas  in 
small  proportions  (5  per  cent  or  so)  acetylene 
does  not  increase  the  illuminating  power  of 
the  mixture  nearly  as  much  as  might  be  ex- 
pected. When  added  in  considerable  propor- 
tions it  becomes  a  most  valuable  enricher  of 
coal-gas ;  but  so  is  coal,  and  even  the  low  cost 
of  that  is  grudged. 

Storage. —  It  has  been  desired  to  use  the  gas 
without  the  cost  and  trouble  of  installing  and 
operating  generators  ;  and  the  two  possible  meth- 
ods are  to  liquefy  it  and  make  a  solution  of  it. 
The  former  has  been  done  by  a  pressure  of  39.76 
atmospheres  at  68°,  making  a  liquid  .33  the 
weight  of  water  and  1-500  the  volume  of  the 
gas;  a  jet  allowed  to  escape  evaporates  so  fast 
that  the  resultant  cold  of  — 130°  F.  freezes  part 
of  the  liquid  to  a  white  solid.  It  is  shipped  in 
steel  cylinders  containing  9  lbs.  liquid,  or  z/i 
cu.  ft.,  giving  250  feet  of  gas,  equal  to  3,000  feet 
of  good  coal-gas  or  some  6,000  of  such  as  many 
cities  give. 

Frequent  explosions  of  these,  however,  have 
caused  insurance  companies  to  put  them  under 
b^n.  According  to  some  authorities  these  ex- 
plosions have  invariably  been  due  to  gross  care- 
lessness ;  but  according  to  others,  acetylene  gas, 
when  stored  in  the  compressed  state,  is  liable 
to  explosive  spontaneous  decomposition.  This 
last  view  may  very  possibly  be  correct,  since 
acetylene,  like  nitro-glyccrine,  is  an  endothcrmic 
substance;  that  is,  its  formation  directly  from 
carbon  and  hydrogen  is  attended  by  the  absorp- 
tion of  heat.  These  objections  do  not  apply  to 
ne,  except  when  it  is  stored  in  consider- 
able quantity  or  under  a  considerable  pressure. 
Acetylene  is  usually  produced  as  fast  as  it  is 
consumed,  so  as  to  avoid  storage  so  far  as 
possible ;  but  where  this  is  impracticable  it  is 
much  safer  to  keep  the  acetylene  in  solution  than 
to  store  it  in  any  quantity.  At  68°  F.  water 
dissolves  I.I  its  volume  of  acetylene,  alcohol  6, 
acetone    (q.v.)    15,   or   at    12   atmospheres   300; 


ACH/EA  —  ACHAIA 


besides,  a  rise  of  temperature  makes  much  less 
increase  of  pressure  within  the  vessel  than  with 
the  liquid  acetylene,  and  hence  lessens  the  danger 
of  storage  and  transportation.  The  acetone  so- 
lution, also,  cannot  be  exploded,  which  is  the 
great  public  bugbear  against  acetylene. 

Generators. —  Prof.  Lewes  divides  acetylene 
generators  into  four  types:  (i)  where  water 
drips  on  a  mass  of  carbide  (as  in  ordinary 
bicycle  lamps)  ;  (2)  where  it  rises  against  a 
basket  of  carbide  in  a  bell,  or  (3)  against  layers 
of  it  in  trays  without  a  bell ;  (4)  where  carbide 
drops  slowly  into  excess  of  water.  The  first 
two  are  liable  to  overheat,  decomposing  part  of 
the  acetylene,  losing  that  much  and  spoiling  the 
burners  with  tar ;  the  third  is  better,  the  fourth 
best  of  all. 

For  small  lamps  acetylene  is  nearly  confined 
to  bicycles,  where  water  is  dropped  on  a  heap 
of  carbide ;  they  are  too  small  to  be  in  danger 
from  overheating,  but  are  costly  to  use  because 
the  carbide  remaining  after  each  lighting  is  too 
mixed  with  refuse  to  use  again.  Household 
lamps  are  sold,  but  are  not  yet  in  favor. 

The  popular  books  on  chemistry  state  that 
acetylene  combines  with  copper,  forming  a  com- 
pound which  readily  undergoes  explosive  de- 
composition ;  but  in  order  to  obtain  this  com- 
pound it  is  necessary  to  pass  the  gas  into  an 
ammoniacal  solution  of  cuprous  chloride.  A 
red  precipitate  of  cuprous  acetylide,  having  the 
formula  GH2Cu:0,  is  then  formed,  and  this 
precipitate  explodes  violently  upon  percussion. 
A  similar  compound  of  silver  is  known.  Acety- 
lene will  not  directly  attack  any  of  the  common 
metals  or  alloys,  and  hence  the  current  fear  of 
.ts  being  charged  with  explosive  copper  salts 
under  the  conditions  of  ordinary  practice  has 
no  warrant. 

Its  commercial  future  belongs  to  the  domain 
of  prophecy,  not  of  statistical  fact.  In  theory  a 
manufactured  product  like  carbide  cannot  com- 
pete with  a  cheap  native  product  like  soft  coal; 
and  improvements  in  burners  and  cheap  water- 
gas  should  greatly  increase  light  and  reduce 
cost. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  relatively  enormous 
illuminating  power  of  acetylene  largely  offsets 
the  cost  of  the  raw  material.  The  use  of  acety- 
lene for  practical  illumination  is  certainly  ex- 
tending, and  the  immense  output  of  calcium 
carbide    (q.v.)    must  find  a  market. 

Achaea.     See  Achaia. 

Achaei,  ak-i'e,  Achaians,  ak-a-yans,  or 
Achaeans,  ak-e'ans,  the  descendants  of  the 
mythical  Achaeus,  son  of  Xuthus  and  grandson 
of  Helen ;  a  generic  term  employed  by  Homer  to 
designate  the  whole  Hellenic  host  before  Troy, 
and  in  poetic  use  applied  to  all  the  Greeks  in- 
discriminately. They  appear  to  have  been  that 
branch  of  the  Greeks  which  inhabited  south- 
eastern Thessaly  and  northern  Peloponnesus,  and 
by  the  Dorian  invasion  were  driven  altogether 
beyond  the  Corinthian  Gulf  and  cooped  into  a 
strip  of  Peloponnesus  along  its  southern  shore, 
where  they  were  the  nucleus  of  the  later  Achaian 
League.     See  Achaia. 

Achaemenidae,  ak'e-men'i-de,  the  Greek 
name  of  the  Persian  dynasty  (558-330  B.C..) 
founded  by  Cyrus  the  Great,'  incfudi'ng  Cam- 
byses,  Darius  I.  and  II.,  Xerxes.  Artaxerxes,  etc., 
and  ended  by  Alexander  the  Great.     The  familv 


took  its  name  from  an  ancestor  of  Cyrus,  found 
in  Persian  inscriptions  as  Haxamanisya.  which 
the  Greeks  softened  to  Achasmenes  (a-ke'men- 
ez). 

Achaia,  ak-a'ya,  or  Achaea,  ak-e'a,  in  Ho- 
mer, southeastern  Thessaly,  where  was  Phthia, 
the  home  of  Achilles.  In  later  history,  a  strip  of 
Peloponnesus  along  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Corinthian  Gulf,  rising  from  the  coast  to  wooded 
hills  abounding  in  beasts  of  the  chase ;  the  up- 
lands were  fertile  with  grapes,  olives,  and  other 
fruits.  The  nome  called  Achaia  (including  Elis) 
in  the  modern  Greek  kingdom,  the  northwestern 
part  of  Morea  with  capital  at  Patras.  is  still  so, 
except  along  the  west  coast,  on  the  Ionian  Sea. 
When  it  first  appears  in  authentic  history  (He- 
rodotus), it  is  a  confederacy  of  twelve  towns  — 
Pellene,  iEgeira,  /Egae,  Bura,  Helice,  ^Egium, 
Rhypes.  Patrae,  Pharae.  Olenus,  Dyme.  and  Tri- 
txa — -headed  by  Helice,  and  keeping  much  to 
itself  in  Greek  affairs.  Helice  was  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake  and  swallowed  by  the  waves  373 
B.C.,  and  yEgium  succeeded  to  the  hegemony ;  and 
at  some  time  unknown  Olenus  was  deserted. 

The  League  took  no  share  in  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  war,  but  the  Macedonian  supremacy  and 
the  dynastic  struggles  after  Alexanders  death 
broke  it  up  altogether.  Some  of  the  remaining 
ten  towns  were  held  by  Macedonian  garrisons, 
some  by  local  tyrants;  a  state  of  disunion  equal- 
ly gratifying  to  Macedonia  and  intolerable  to 
Greek  patriots.  In  280,  when  several  kings 
were  dead,  Macedonia  in  confusion,  and  the 
great  Pyrrhus  absent  in  Italy,  Patrae  and  Dyme, 
the  two  westernmost  towns,  formed  an  alliance : 
Tritaea  and  Pharae  joined  them :  and  the  new 
Achaian  League,  famous  in  history,  which  gave 
southern  central  Greece  more  than  a  century  cf 
order  and  good  government,  was  begun.  The 
cities  probably  drove  out  their  garrisons  or 
rulers,  as  later  ones  certainly  did.  Five  years 
afterward  Tigium  expelled  its  garrison  and 
joined  the  League ;  Bura  was  freed  and  its 
tyrant  slain  by  its  people  and  their  exiled 
brethren,  and  joined  also;  and  Iseas,  tyrant  of 
Ceryneia,  seeing  how  events  were  trending, 
voluntarily  surrendered  his  position  with  a  guar- 
anty of  safety,  and  annexed  the  city  to  the 
League.  Seven  towns  were  now  included;  and 
the  other  three  were  recovered  and  annexed 
not  long  after.  But  al!  were  small  and  poor ; 
fortunately  for  the  League,  as  it  was  thought 
too  insignificant  to  molest,  and  grew  up  peace- 
fully and  solidly  for  some  30  years.  The  chief 
name  in  its  early  history  is  Markos  of  Ceryneia, 
who  helped  liberate  Bura  even  before  his  own 
city  was  freed,  and  seems  to  have  been  the 
Washington  of  the  League.  But  its  first  en- 
trance into  the  role  of  a  great  Greek  political 
force  began  with  the  expulsion  in  249  of  the 
tyrant  of  Sicyon  by  Aratus  of  that  city,  who 
induced  it  to  join  the  League:  it  not  only  gained 
thereby  the  first  city  outside  the  old  Achaian 
confederacy,  and  became  more  or  less  Pan- 
Greek,  but  gained  Aratus.  its  second  founder, 
and  a  statesman  and  administrator  of  high  order. 
though  his  jealousy  of  other  leaders  and  his 
military  incompetency  injured  it  deeply, 
still  greater  accession  came  in  242.  when  Corinth 
expelled  its  Macedonian  garrison  and  joined ; 
and  in  234  Lydiadas,  ivrant  of  Megalopolis,  the 
powerful   city  founded  by  Epaminondas,   voIud- 


ACHAQUA  —  ACHARN.E 


tarily  resigned  his  place  like  Iscas  and  brought 
in  his  city,  being  made  commander-in-chief  of 
the  League's  army  the  next  year.  Before  the 
century  had  begun  its  last  quarter  the  League 
included  all  northern  and  central  Peloponnesus, 
and  many  towns  elsewhere. 

The  League  was  a  federal  union  of  absolutely 
independent  States,  each  having  equal  power  in 
the  Council,  which  met  twice  a  year  —  at  first 
and  for  a  long  time  in  a  grove  near  /Egium,  but 
later,  at  Philopcemen's  motion,  in  the  League 
cities  in  rotation.  The  vote  of  each  city  was 
given  as  a  unit,  not  by  elected  delegates,  but 
by  any  of  its  citizens  who  were  present,  any 
one  over  30  having  a  right  to  be  so;  attendance 
therefore  naturally  fell  to  the  richer  citizens 
with  means  and  leisure,  and  the  assemblv  was 
a  rough  representative  body  of  the  leading 
men.  The  union  acted  as  a  unit  in  foreign 
affairs,  and  there  was  a  secretary  to  record  the 
debates  and  resolutions.  The  head  officer  was 
the  strategos,  who  was  commander-in-chief  and 
civil  president  at  once;  he  had  under  him  a 
hipparchos  (cavalry  commander)  and  nauarclws 
(admiral),  and  a  board  of  ten  demiourgoi  as 
assistants  in  the   Council. 

The  League  of  course  had  its  internal  feuds 
and  discordances  of  policy;  and  the  /Etolian 
League  north  of  the  Gulf  (only  half  Greek,  and 
wholly  barbarian  in  instability  and  lack  of  pro- 
Greek  feeling),  which  alternately  allied  itself 
with  it  and  ravaged  its  territory,  was  a  mis- 
chievous rival  and  enemy.  But  the  League 
would  probably  have  fully  held  its  own  till  the 
Romans  came,  but  for  Sparta.  Clcomenes  II. 
had  revolutionized  that  State,  which  had  shrunk 
into  the  narrowest  of  oligarchies  and  could  not 
maintain  its  position ;  he  had  turned  it  into  a 
socialistic  one,  and  wished  to  force  the  League- 
to  join  him  in  a  great  Peloponnesian  union,  of 
which  Sparta  would  be  master,  imposing  both 
its  foreign  policy  and  perhaps  its  internal  or- 
ganization on  the  rest,  and  which  would  destroy 
the  internal  independence  of  the  League  and 
menace  the  possessions  of  every  property-holder 
in  it.  The  League  was  badly  defeated  by  Cleo- 
in  the  field,  and  was  between  hammer  and 
anvil  ;  for  the  only  power  which  could  save  it 
was  Macedonia,  its  natural  foe  and  old  master, 
and  Antigonus  Doson  refused  to  give  aid  unless 
the  citadel  of  Corinth,  the  key  of  Peloponnesus, 
held  by  the  League,  were  given  up  to  him.  Aratus 
felt,  however,  that  the  suzerainty  of  Macedonia, 
now  that  the  League  was  strong  enough  to  pre- 
vent active  tyranny,  was  a  less  evil  than  the 
mastery  of  Cleomenes  ;  and  by  cunning  manage- 
ment he  induced  the  League  to  pay  the  price 
asked  for  Antigonus'  help.  Cleomenes  was 
1  at  Scllasia,  and  his  Spartan  constitution 
came  to  an  end,  and  the  League  became  a  de- 
ncy  of  Macedonia.  Yet  Aratus'  policy  was 
justified  by  events  so  far  as  the  League  was 
concerned:  it  did  not  suffer  from  Macedonian 
tyranny,  though  the  chance  of  forming  a  united 
Greece  was  at  an  end.  But  that  was  probably 
as  little  possible  under  Cleomenes  as  under 
Macedonia. 

In  point  of  fact  the  destroying  enemy  was 
not  Macedonia  but  Rome.  Under  the  noble  and 
able  Philopoemen  of  Megalopolis,  soldier  and 
statesman  of  high  rank,  the  League  was  prosper- 
ing and  giving  the  citizens  an  enviable  govern- 
ment.    But  a  pro-Roman  policy  prevailed,  and 


Philopoemen  left  the  country.  In  198  it  allied 
itself  with  Rome  against  Macedonia,  and  this 
was  always  the  beginning  <>f  the  end  with  the 
other  party  to  a  Roman  alliance.  There  were 
wars  against  Sparta,  and  a  struggle  between 
Roman  and  anti-Roman  partisans  in  the  assem- 
bly, with  Roman  envoys  and  intriguers  to  fan 
the  flames.  Finally,  in  167,  the  Romans  de- 
ported the  flower  "f  the  Achaian  citizens  to 
Italy,  many  of  them  being  imprisoned,  others  — 
as  the  future  historian  Polybius  (q.v.),  then  a 
youth  of  18  —  kept  as  hostages  but  given  Roman 
advantages.  The  last  struggle  took  place  in 
140.  when  Mummius  defeated  the  League  at 
Corinth,  and  the  independence  of  Greece  or  any 
fraction  of  it  was  at  an  end.  All  southern  and 
central  Greece  was  made  a  Roman  province 
called   Achaia. 

)  The  first-hand  authority  for  the  League  is 
Polybius,  unfortunately  extant  only  in  frag- 
ments :  in  some  parts  he  is  pieced  out  by  Livy, 
passages  of  whose  work  are  often  obvious  trans- 
lations from  Polybius.  In  English  the  one 
great  work  is  E  A.  Freeman's  unfinished  '  His- 
tory of  Federal  Government,)  nearly  all  devoted 
to  the  Achaian  League ;  London,  1863 ;  reissued 
with  a  fragment  on  Federalism  in  Italy.) 

Achaqua,  a-cha'kwa,  a  South  American  In- 
dian tribe  probably  extinct,  though  a  few  hun- 
dreds, who  lived  in  the  upper  Orinoco  forests  in 
northeastern  Colombia,  were  still  existent  in 
1850.  They  were  utter  savages,  practising  in- 
fanticide beyond  the  second  child,  polyandry,  and 
tattooing. 

Achard,  Franz  Karl,  aii'art,  frants  karl, 
German  chemist  and  physicist :  b.  Berlin  28 
April  1753;  d.  1821.  He  published  in  1780  the 
rt  Milts  of  many  and  careful  experiments  on  the 
adhesion  of  bodies.  But  later  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  development  of  the  beet-sugar  manu- 
facture, and  after  six  years  of  laborious  endeav- 
or discovered  the  true  method  of  separating  the 
sugar  from  the  plant.  His  process  was  of 
enormous  service  to  the  countries  whom  the 
Napoleonic  blockade  shut  off  from  the  West 
India  sugars.  lie  was  afterward  director  of  the 
class  of  physics  in  the  Academy  of  Science  in 
Berlin. 

Achard,  Louis  Amedee  Eugene,  ash-ar, 
loo-e  am-a-da  e-zhan,  French  novelist :  b.  April 
1S14:  d.  25  March  1875.  Originally  a  merchant, 
he  became  a  contributor  to  several  Paris  jour- 
nals in  1838.  After  the  revolution  of  1848  he 
was  active  as  a  royalist  political  writer;  1848-72 
the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  brought  out  al- 
most annually  a  new  story  from  his  pen.  He 
depicts  pre-eminently  conflicts  in  family  life  and 
society.  <  Parisian  Letters,'  published  in  1838 
under  the  pseudonym  of  «  Grimm, »  made  his 
reputation.  Other  works  of  his  are:  <  Belle 
Rose'  (1847).  'The  Royal  Chase'  (1849-50), 
<  Castles  in  Spain  >  ( 1854  ) ,  <  The  Shirt  of  Nes- 
sus>  (1855),  'Chains  of  Iron*  (1867),  <  The 
Viper.   (1874). 

Acharnae,  a-kar'ne,  a  large  town  of  Attica, 
where  the  Thirty  Tyrants  (q.v.)  encamped 
when  they  marched  against  Thrasybulus ;  and 
where  the  Lacedaemonians,  under  their  king 
Archidamus,  pitched  their  tents  when  they 
made  an  irruption  into  Attica  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Aristophanes,  in  his 
ccmedy  '  The  Acharnians  < —  where  a  citizen  of 


ACHATES  —  ACHILLES 


the  place,  sick  of  war,  ravage,  and  the  stoppage 
of  trade,  makes  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the 
Lacedaemonians  on  his  own  account  —  represents 
the  inhabitants  as  charcoal-makers ;  and  other 
comic  writers  stigmatize  them  as  rough  and 
boorish. 

Achates,  in  the  .Eneid,  a  friend  of 
/Eneas,  whose  fidelity  is  depicted  as  so  exem- 
plary that  fid  us  Achates  (the  faithful  Achates) 
has  become  a  proverb. 

Acheen.    See  Achin. 

Achelous,  ak-e-16'us  (now  Aspropotamo, 
«  White  River»),  the  largest  river  in  Greece: 
130  m.  long,  and  not  navigable.  It  rises  on  the 
Pindus  range,  flows  south  in  a  boisterous  torrent, 
forming  the  boundary  between  /Etolia  and 
Acarnania.  and  empties  into  the  Ionian  Sea 
opposite  Ithaca.  In  its  lower  course  it  is  an 
alluvial  stream,  winding  in  great  loops  through 
very  fertile  and  marshy  plains ;  it  comes  from 
the  mountains  heavily  laden  with  fine  white 
mud,  which  it  deposits  along  its  banks  and  in 
the  sea  at  its  mouth,  where  it  has  formed  a 
number  of  small  islands. 

In  Greek  legend,  the  son  of  Oceanus  and 
Terra,  or  Tethys,  god  of  the  river.  As  one  of  the 
numerous  suitors  of  Dejanira,  daughter  of 
CEneus,  Achelous  entered  the  lists  against  Her- 
cules, and,  being  inferior,  changed  himself  into 
a  serpent  and  afterward  into  an  ox.  Hercules 
broke  off  one  of  his  horns,  and  Achelous,  being 
defeated,  retired  into  his  bed  of  water.  The 
broken  horn  was  given  to  the  goddess  of  plenty. 

Achen,  Johann  («  Hans  »)  von,  a'Hen,  yo'- 
han  fon,  or  Acken,  a'ken,  German  painter: 
b.  Cologne,  1512;  d.  1615.  He  studied  at  home, 
and  at  Venice  under  Kaspar  Rems,  and  took 
service  with  the  Bavarian  court  1500:  later  went 
to  Prague  at  the  invitation  of  Emperor  Rudolph 
II.  The  Protestant  church  at  Cologne  con- 
tains his  <  Crucifixion,)  the  cathedral  at  Bonn  his 
<  Entombment,'  and  among  his  other  works  are 
1  Christ  Raising  the  Widow's  Son,'  and  <  Truth 
Victorious   under   Protection   of  Justice.' 

Achenbach,  Andreas,  a'Hen-baH,  German 
landscape  and  marine  painter:  b.  Cassel,  1815. 
He  studied  under  the  eminent  Schadow  at  Diis- 
seldorf,  and  became  one  of  the  leading  artists 
of  that  school.  He  painted  in  Holland,  along 
the  Rhine,  and  in  Norway,  producing  landscapes 
of  rich  coloring  and  intense  realism.  He  was 
made  R.A.  in  Berlin,  and  knight  of  ;he  Legion 
of  Honor  in  France :  and  took  a  first  medal  in 
Paris,  1855.  Private  galleries  in  the  United 
States  have  many  of  his  finest  works. 

His  younger  brother  Oswald,  b.  Diisseldorf 
1827  ;  d.  1  Feb.  1905,  was  also  a  landscape  artist, 
esteemed  of  more  ideal  quality  than  Andreas ; 
and  his  pictures  of  Switzerland.  Italy,  etc.,  were 
largely  bought  in  the  United  States. 

Achene,  Achenium,  Akene,  a-ken',  etc. 
(«  not  gaping"),  a  dry,  hard,  one-seeded  fruit 
in  which  the  wrappings  of  the  seed  set  closely 
to  it;  forming  almost  a  coat.  The  entire  family 
of  Composite  are  of  this  sort:  the  «  seeds  »  of 
borage,  the  sunflower,  thistle,  dandelion,  etc. 
Sometimes  they  are  grouped  on  a  common  re- 
ceptacle, called  an  etccrio ;  as  in  the  strawberry, 
where  it  is  fleshy,  the  achenes  being  the  «  pits'" 
or  in  the  centre  of  the  buttercup,  where  they 
form  the  «  fruit  » ;  sometimes  they  are  inclosed 
in  the  fleshy  tube  of  the  calyx,  as  in  the  rose. 


Achensee,  a'Hen-za,  a  lake  in  N.  Tyrol,  Aus- 
tria, 5;.!  m.  long  by  l/2  m.  wide,  20  m.  N.E.  of 
Innsbruck.  Its  shores  are  of  great  beauty,  and 
it  is  a  noted  summer  resort,  having  many  hotels 
and  private  villas,  while  steamers  carry  passen- 
gers to  points  of  interest. 

Achenwall,  Gottfried,  a'Hen-val,  got'fred, 
German  statistician:  b.  Elbing,  20  Oct.  1719: 
d.  Gottingen,  1  May  1772.  He  studied  at  Jena, 
Halle,  and  Leipzig,  and  became  professor  of 
philosophy,  and  later  of  law,  at  Gottingen.  In 
economics  he  belongs  to  the  school  of  «  moderate 
mercantilists " :  but  it  is  in  statistics  that  he 
holds  a  really  high  place.  The  work  by  which 
he  is  best  known  is  his  <  Constitution  of  the 
Present  Leading  European  States'  (1752).  In 
this  he  gives  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  various  countries,  describes 
the  condition  of  their  agriculture,  manufactures, 
and  commerce,  and  frequently  supplies  statistics 
in  relation  to  these  subjects.  German  econo- 
mists claim  for  him  the  title  of  «  Father  of  Sta- 
tistics »  ;  but  English  writers  dispute  this,  assert- 
ing that  it  ignores  the  prior  claims  of  Petty,  and 
other  earlier  waiters  on  the  subject.  He  gave 
currency  to  the  term  Staatswissenschaft  (pol- 
itics), which  he  proposed  should  mean  all  the 
knowledge  necessary  to  statecraft  or  statesman- 
ship. 

Acheron,  ak'e-ron,  the  ancient  name  of  sev- 
eral rivers  in  Greece  and  Italy,  all  connected  by 
legend  with  the  lower  world.  The  principal 
was  a  river  of  Thesprotia  in  Epirus.  which 
passes  through  Lake  Acherusia,  receives  the 
Cocytus  (Vuvo),  and  flows  into  the  Ionian  Sea 
south  of  the  promontory  of  Chimerium,  at  Glycys 
Limen  or  Elaea,  now  Port  Fanari.  At  one  part 
its  course  lies  between  mountains  rising  pre- 
cipitously to  the  height  of  3.000  feet.  The  name 
is  also  given  to  a  river  of  Elis,  a  tributary  of 
the  Alpheus,  and  to  a  small  river  of  Bruttium, 
in  Italy,  near  Pandosia  (location  uncertain), 
near  which  Alexander  of  Epirus  fell  in  battle 
against  the  Lucanians  and  Bruttians  (326  B.C.). 
Their  legendary  celebrity  appears  to  have  been 
originally  due  to  the  Acheron  in  Thesprotia. 
This  country  being  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as 
the  end  of  the  world  in  the  West,  they  sup- 
posed the  entrance  to  the  lower  world  to  be 
here.  As  this  district  became  better  known,  the 
legendary  river  was  placed  elsewhere,  and  final- 
ly transferred  to  the  lower  regions.  In  Homer. 
Acheron  is  represented  as  a  river  of  Hades. 
According  to  later  traditions  a  son  of  Helios 
and  Gsea  or  Demeter,  who  bore  this  name,  was 
changed  into  an  infernal  river  as  a  punishment 
for  giving  drink  to  the  Titans  during  their  war 
with  Zeus.  The  Etruscans  are  said  to  have 
worshipped  Acheron.  The  name  of  Acheron 
was  ultimately  used  in  a  poetic  or  figurative 
way  to  designate  the  whole  of  the  lower  world. 

Acherontia  Atropos.  See  Death's  head 
Moth. 

A  Cheval.     See  Tactics. 

Achillea.     See  Yarrow. 

Achilles,  a-kil'ez,  one  of  the  heroes  of 
Greek  mythology,  and  in  particular  the  hero  of 
Homer's  Iliad.  According  to  the  latter  he  was 
the  son  of  Peleus.  king  of  the  Mvrmidons  in 
Phthiotis.  a  district  of  Thessalv.  and  of  the 
Nereid  or  sea-goddess  Thetis,  and  the  grandson 


ACHILLES  — ACHIMENES 


of  /Eacus;  hence  ofter.  called  Peleides  and 
.Kacides.  He  was  educated  from  childhood 
by  Phoenix,  a  friend  of  his  father,  who  accom- 
panied him  to  the  Trojan  war;  and  Cheiron  the 
centaur  instructed  him  in  the  art  of  healing. 
Achilles  went  to  this  war  with  the  knowli 
that  he  was  to  perish  in  it;  his  mother  having 
foretold  him  that  he  should  either  live  a  li 
and  inglorious  life,  or  die  young  after  a  glori- 
ous career.  He  led  ps,  the  Myrmidons, 
against  Troy  in  50  ships.  During  the  first  nine 
years  of  the  war  we  have  no  minute  detail  of  his 
actions;  in  the  tenth  a  quarrel  hroke  out  be- 
tween him  and  the  general-in-chief.  Agamem- 
non,  which  led  him  to  withdraw  entirely  from 
the  contest.  In  consequence  the  Trojans,  who 
before  scarcely  ventured  without  their  walls, 
now  waged  battle  in  the  plain  with  various  issue, 
till  they  reduced  the  Greeks  to  extreme  distress. 
The  Greek  council  of  war  sent  its  most  influen- 
tial members  to  soothe  Achilles'  anger,  and 
induce  him  to  return  to  arms,  hut  without  effect. 
Rage  and  grief  caused  by  the  death  of  his  friend 
Patroclus.  slain  by  Hector,  induced  Achilles  to 
return  to  battle.  Thetis  procured  from  Heplue- 
stus  (Vulcan)  a  fresh  suit  of  armor  for  her 
son.  who  at  the  close  of  a  day  of  slaughter 
killed  Hector  and  dragged  him  at  his  chariot 
wheels  to  the  camp,  but  afterward  gave  the  I 
to  Priam,  who  came  in  •   it       Vchilles 

then  performed  the  funeral  rites  of  Patroclus, 
with  which  the  Iliad  closes.  It  contains,  how- 
ever, several  anticipative  allusions  to  the  death 
Vchilles,  which  is  also  mentioned  in  the 
Odysse}  lie  was  killed  in  a  battle  at  the 
Scaean  Gate. 

Here  ends  the  history  of  Achilles  so  far  as 
it  is  derived  from  Homer.  By  later  authors  a 
variety  of  fable  is  mixed  up  with  it;  some  per- 
haps old  legend,  much  certainly  outright  in- 
vention. To  make  him  immortal,  his  mother 
during  his  infancy  concealed  him  by  night  in 
fire,  to  destroy  the  mortal  parts  inherited  from 
his  father,  and  anointed  him  by  day  with  am- 
brosia (the  story  of  Demeter  and  Demophoon). 
His  father  discovering  him  one  night  in  the 
fire,  Thetis  fled ;  and  his  father  entrusted  him 
to  the  care  of  Cheiron.  who  fed  him  with  the 
hearts  of  lions  and  the  marrow  of  bears,  and 
gave  him  the  education  proper  to  a  hem.  Ac- 
cording to  another  story  Thetis  made  him  in- 
vulnerable by  dipping  him  in  the  Styx,  hut  the 
heel  by  which  she  held  him  was  untouched  by 
the  water ;  accordingly  he  received  his  fatal 
wound  in  the  heel.  The  story  of  Siegfried  is 
patterned  on  this.  To  prevent  his  going  to 
Troy,  where  it  was  predicted  he  should  perish, 
Thetis  sent  him.  disguised  as  a  girl,  to  the  court 
of  Lycomedes  of  Scyros.  He  was  educated  with 
Lycomedes'  daughters,  one  of  whom.  I  )• 
meia,  became  the  mother  of  Pyrrhus  or  Xeop- 
tolemus  by  him.  Odysseus  (Ulysses)  weni 
the  court  of  Lycomedes  to  discover  him  and 
induce  him  to  join  the  war,  in  which  Calchas 
had  declared  his  aid  indispensable.  Me  si  c- 
ceeded  by  a  stratagem.  Presenting  himself  as 
a  merchant,  he  offered  the  daughters  of  I  • 
medes  female  ornaments  and  articles  of  attire 
for  sale,  among  which  he  laid  a  shield  and 
spear.  He  then  raised  an  alarm  of  danger,  on 
which  the  girls  fled,  and  Achilles  seized  the 
weapons.  He  is  said  to  have  been  killed  either 
by   Apollo    in    the   likeness   of   Paris,   or   by   an 


arrow  of  Paris  directed  by  Apollo.  According 
to  another  account  he  made  love  to  1'olyxena, 
a  daughter  of  Priam;  and.  induced  by  the  prom 
ise  of  her  band  on  condition  of  his  joining  the 
Trojans,  went  unarmed  to  the  temple  of  Apollo 
at  Ihymlit.i.  and  was  there  assassinated  by 
Paris.  Various  stories  are  told  oi  the  relations 
of  Achilles  with  [phigenia  (q.v.),  who  was 
brought  to  the  camp  at  Aulis  on  pretext  of  being 
married  to  Achilles.  In  one  account  Achilles 
interferes  to  rescue  her  from  being  sacrificed, 
and  sends  her  to  Scythia  ;  in  another  he  marries 
her,  and  she  becomes  the  mother  of  Pyrrhus. 
Others  say  be  was  united  to  her  in  the  lower 
world,  where  he  became  a  judge;  others  again 
say  be  married  Medea  in  Elysium.  Annual  sac- 
rifices were  offered  to  Achilles  by  the  Thessa- 
lians  at  Troas  by  command  of  the  oracle  of 
Dodona ;  at  Olympia  and  other  places  in  Greece 
sacred  honors  were  likewise  paid  to  him.  This 
has  led  to  the  unsafe  inference  that  he  was 
originally  an  Achaian  god  ;  hut  remembering  the 
propensity  of  uncivilized  races  to  deify  superior 
geniuses  among  them,  and  such  cases  as  that 
of  Roland,  it  is  much  more  likely  that  he  was 
a  chief  before  be  was  a  god.  It  is  probable  that 
a  real  Thessalian  warrior  existed  who  has  been 
thus  idealized,  though  we  do  not  know  his  name 
or  real   deeds. 

Achilles  Tatius,  a-kil'ez  ta'shi-us,  a  I 
writer  of  romances:  b.  in  Alexandria;  flourished 
in  the  5th  century  of  our  era.  Suidns  says  he 
was  a  Christian  bishop,  but  this  is  doubted. 
He  wrote  'The  Loves  of  Clitophon  and  Leu- 
cippe.i  an  erotic  story  in  eight  books,  of  pleas- 
ing but  florid  style,  and  without  much  regard  to 
unity  or  consistency  of  plot;  it  was  mod. 
on  Heliodorus'  '  Ethiopica.>  That  the  story 
was  very  popular  in  its  day  is  proved  by  the 
number  of  copies  of  it  that  are  Still  in  MSS., 
and  by  the  plentiful  imitation  oi  it  in  the  Mid- 
dle Ages.  An  English  translation  by  Anthony 
Hodges   was  published  in   1638. 

Achilles  Tendon,  a  tendon,  s,,  called  be- 
cause, as  fable  reports.  Thetis,  the  mother  of 
Achilles,  held  him  by  that  part  when  she  dipped 
him  in  the  river  Styx  to  make  him  invulnerable. 
It  is  the  strong  and  powerful  tendon  of  the 
heel,  which  is  formed  l.v  the  junction  of  divcis 
muscles,  and  which  extends  from  the  calf  to 
the  heel.  When  this  tendon  is  unfortunately 
cut  or  ruptured,  as  it  may  be  in  consequence  of 
a  violent  exertion  or  spasm  of  the  muscles  of 
which  it  is  a  continuation,  the  use  of  the  leg 
is  immediately  lost  ;  and  unless  the  part  be 
afterward  successfully  united  the  patient  will 
remain  a  cripple  for  life.  The  indications  arc 
to  bring  the  ends  of  the  divided  parts  together, 
and  to  keep  them  so  until  they  have  become 
firmly  united.  This  tendon  is  frequently  the 
seat  of  a  synovitis,  just  above  the  heel,  from 
excessive  exercise. 

Achimenes,  a-kfm'e-nez  (from  the  Greek 
name  of  an  East  Indian  plant  used  in  magic), 
a  genus  of  tropical  American  plants  of  the  order 
Gcstirract-ir.  greatly  cultivated  in  greenhouses 
for  the  beauty  of  their  red.  white,  and  blue 
flowers,  wdiich.  if  the  rhizomes  are  potted  by  the 
first  of  April,  bloom  from  the  last  of  May  till 
into  October  or  even  November.  It  may  also 
be  propagated  by  cuttings.  The  species  are  nu- 
merous. 


ACHIN 


Achin,  Acheen,  or  Atcheen,  a-chen'  (prop- 
erly Aclieh,  Portuguese  corruption  Achetii, 
Dutch  Atjeh  or  Ajeli),  a  district  at  the  N.W.  ex- 
tremity of  Sumatra,  till  1873  an  independent  sul- 
tanate, now  a  province  of  the  Dutch  Indies  :  area, 
20,471  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1897)  stated  at  531,705  (but 
a  true  census  must  be  impossible).  The  surface 
is  divided  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  half 
by  a  mountain  chain  which  traverses  the  whole 
island,  rising  in  the  peak  of  Abong-Abong 
to  11.000  feet.  At  the  farthest  north  is  the 
famous  Gold  Mountain,  at  the  base  of  which  lies 
the  capital.  On  both  sides  are  numerous 
stretches  of  level  or  undulating  soil,  watered  by 
small  but  deep  streams,  and  admirably  adapted 
for  tree-culture,  gardening,  and  rice.  The  flora 
and  fauna  agree  with  those  of  Sumatra :  pepper- 
trees  and  areca-nuts  grow  there.  The  natives 
employ  themselves  in  agriculture,  cattle-rearing, 
trade,  fisheries,  weaving  cloth,  and  working  in 
gold,  silver,  and  iron.  The  chief  agricultural 
industry  is  the  production  of  rice  and  pepper, 
the  latter  sent  from  many  small  western  ports. 
From  Pedir  and  other  northern  ports  large 
quantities  of  betel-nut  are  exported  to  India, 
Burmah,  and  China.  Achin  ponies  are  also 
much  reputed  and  exported.  Minor  exports  are 
sulphur,  iron,  sapan-wood,  gutta-percha,  dam- 
mer.  rattans,  bamboos,  benzoin,  and  camphor. 
the  latter  highly  valued  in  China  and  bringing 
an  enormous  price.  Silk,  once  plentiful,  has 
nearly  disappeared.  Nor  is  there  now  much 
export  of  the  gold  that  once  drew  so  much 
trade  thither  and  made  it  so  rich  as  to  astonish 
foreigners.  No  place  in  the  East  save  Japan 
was  so  abundantly  supplied  with  it.  and  it  was 
from  far  antiquity  part  of  the  Golden  Cher- 
sonese. It  exported  probably  15,000  to  20.000 
ounces  a  year.  The  imports  are  mainly  rice 
(the  native  supply  being  insufficient),  opium, 
salt,  dried  fish,  cotton  goods,  iron  and  copper 
wares,  firearms,  pottery,  etc.  The  people  are 
distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  Sumatrans,  who 
are  Malays:  they  are  taller,  handsomer,  and 
darker,  more  active  and  industrious,  and  good 
seamen ;  but  they  are  treacherous,  bloodthirsty, 
and  revengeful,  immoral,  and  inordinately  ad- 
dicted to  opium.  Their  ethnological  place  is 
not  settled ;  they  are  believed  to  be  Malay  at 
root,  though  probably  with  some  admixture 
from  India,  and  not  impossibly  an  Arab  strain. 
Their  speech  is  said  by  some  to  be  Polynesian 
at  root,  though  with  much  Malay  loan  element. 
Their  literature  is  entirely  Malay,  and  comprises 
poetry,  theology,  and  chronicles. 

The  capital  of  the  province  is  Kota  Radja  or 
Achin',  situated  at  the  northwest  extremity,  on  a 
stream  navigable  by  boats,  about  4V2  miles  from 
its  port  Oleh-leh,  with  which,  since  1876,  it  has 
been  connected  by  a  railway.  Formerly  a  large 
and  flourishing  city,  it  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed during  the  war,  but  is  now  beginning  to 
revive.  It  contains  a  Dutch  garrison  of  2,000 
men. 

History. —  Civilization  was  first  introduced 
into  Sumatra  by  Hindu  missionaries  in  the  7th 
century,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  immigra- 
tion from  India  followed.  In  the  13th  century 
it  was  converted  to  Mohammedanism  by  Arabs 
—  the  sultans  of  Achin  claim  descent  from  the 
first  Mohammedan  missionary  —  and  the  Arabic 
alphabet  displaced  the  Japanese.  Northern  Su- 
matra was  visited  by  several  European  travelers 


in  the  Middle  Ages,  as  Marco  Polo,  Friar  Odor- 
ico,  and  Nicolo  Conti ;  and  some  of  these,  as 
well  as  Asiatic  writers,  mention  Lambri,  a  State 
which  must  have  corresponded  nearly  with 
Achin :  but  the  first  to  name  it  as  such  is  Alvaro 
Tellez,  a  captain  of  the  Portuguese  Tristan 
d'Acunha's  fleet,  in  1506.  It  was  then  a  de- 
pendency of  Pedir  adjoining;  but  within  twenty 
years  it  had  not  only  gained  independence,  but 
swallowed  up  all  the  other  States  of  northern 
Sumatra.  It  attained  the  climax  of  power 
under  Sultan  Iskandar  Muda.  1607-36,  when  it 
extended  from  Aru,  opposite  Malacca,  round  by 
the  north  to  Padang  on  the  western  coast,  a  sea- 
board of  1,100  miles;  and  its  supremacy  was 
owned  also  by  the  large  island  of  Nyas,  and  by 
the  continental  Malay  States  of  Johor,  Pahang, 
Quedah,  and  Perak.  It  is  in  fact  the  only  Su- 
matran  State  which  has  at  any  time  been  power- 
ful since  the  Cape  route  to  the  East  was  dis- 
covered. Its  wealth  astonished  the  European 
visitors  and  traders ;  and  its  great  commercial 
repute  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  was  to  Achin 
port  that  the  first  Dutch  (1599)  and  English 
(1602)  commercial  ventures  were  directed. 
Lancaster,  the  English  commodore,  carried  let- 
ters from  Queen  Elizabeth  to  « the  king  of 
Atcheen."  James  I.  exchanged  letters  with  Iskan- 
dar Muda  in  1613,  and  the  Achinese  sent  envoys 
to  the  Dutch  republic,  who  were  received  by 
Prince  Maurice  in  camp  (1602).  But  native 
jealousy  of  foreigners  and  the  latter's  rivalry 
with  and  destruction  of  each  other's  ventures 
prevented  the  establishment  of  permanent  fac- 
tories there.  Still,  the  trade,  though  spasmodical- 
ly interrupted,  was  very  important ;  foreign 
merchants  of  many  nations  were  settled  in 
Achin  city  port,  while  other  Chinese  merchants 
came  annually  and  held  a  great  fair  through 
June  and  July.  For  58  years  after  Iskandar's 
death  the  Malay  oligarchy  of  chiefs  placed  fe- 
males on  the  throne;  in  1699  the  Arab  party 
suppressed  this  system  and  set  up  an  Arab 
ruler,  and  the  State  rapidly  decayed  from  inter- 
nal factions.  From  1666  on,  the  Dutch  had  held 
possessions  around  Padang  on  the  western 
coast,  and  gradually  gained  much  in  old  Achin ; 
in  181 1  the  British  seized  this  as  well  as  the 
other  Dutch  East  Indies.  In  1816  Java  was 
restored  to  the  Dutch,  but  the  English  colonies 
insisted  the  more  strenuously  that  English  in- 
fluence should  be  maintained  in  Achin ;  and  in 
1819  the  Calcutta  government  made  a  treaty  ex- 
cluding all  other  foreigners  from  permanent 
settlements  there.  In  1824  an  exchange  was 
made  with  the  Dutch,  of  the  Sumatran  settle- 
ments for  others  in  Asia ;  the  above  article  was 
not  mentioned,  but  it  was  privately  understood 
that  it  should  not  be  insisted  on  if  the  Dutch 
would  make  no  war  on  Achin.  In  the  conven- 
tion at  The  Hague,  2  Nov.  1871,  the  Dutch  in- 
sisted on  the  latter  stipulation  being  formally 
withdrawn,  as  the  Achinese  were  pirates  and 
chastisement  was  often  needed;  and  in  1873 
Holland- — with  plenty  of  provocation,  but  grave 
doubts  even  at  home  of  its  necessity  —  embarked 
in  the  war,  which  has  cost  it  15.000  lives  and 
over  $100,000,000.  and  has  not  yet  ended  in  the 
real  subjugation  of  the  interior  country.  Achin 
city  was  captured  and  civil  government  has 
been  instituted  in  the  coast  territory ;  but  the 
natives  are  fierce  and  have  a  good  country  for 
guerrilla  warfare,  and  English  blockade-runners 


ACHISH  — ACIDS 


keep  them  supplied  with  arms  and  ammunition. 
Many  evidences  of  these  wars  may  be  seen  in 
Holland.  (The  authoritative  works  are  all  in 
Dutch:  the  chief  is  Smouck's  'Die  Ajchers,'  2 
vols.  Batavia  1893-s;.  There  was  also  one  of 
Veth,  <Atchin,>  Leyden  1873.) 

Achish,  king  of  Gath  in  Philistia,  with 
whom  David  takes  refuge  when  out  of  favor 
with  Saul;  represented  as  a  dull  easy  man, 
whom  David  dupes  into  believing  that  he  is 
making  war  only  on  the  Judahites  and  their  al- 
lies, when  in  fact  he  is  raiding  the  native  tribes, 
and  enriching  his  stronghold  Ziklag  with  their 
plunder.  His  lords  are  not  so  blind,  however, 
and  make  him  dismiss  David  before  going  to 
battle  at  Mount  Gilboa.  David  lived  with  him 
four  months  according  to  one  account,  a  year 
and   four  months  according  to  another. 

Achromatism.  Because  the  several  com- 
ponents of  a  beam  of  ordinary  light  are  of 
different  refrangibilities,  it  follows  that  they 
are  not  brought  to  a  common  focus  by  a  simple 
convex  lens.  The  violet  rays  meet  at  a  point 
nearer  the  lens  than  that  at  which  the  red  rays 
unite,  and  the  optical  image  is  confused  and 
fringed  with  prismatic  colors. 

This  difficulty  is  greatest  with  lenses  of  short 
focus,  whence  the  early  practice  of  constructing 
telescopes  of  enormous  length.  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton, misled  by  a  really  remarkable  series  of 
petty  accidents,  concluded  that  this  difficulty 
could  not  be  obviated,  and  that  large  refracting 
telescopes  were  therefore  impracticable.  He 
therefore  gave  his  attention  to  the  development 
of  the  reflector. 

In  1757,  however,  John  Dollond,  a  Spitalfields 
weaver,  discovered  that  different  substances 
separate  the  colors  of  light,  for  a  given  mean 
refraction,  to  a  different  degree.  He  therefore 
constructed  double  lenses  of  two  different  kinds 
of  glass, —  crown  glass  and  flint  glass.  A  con- 
cave lens  of  flint  glass  brings  the  colors  to- 
gether while  not  entirely  destroying  the  refrac- 
tion caused  by  a  convex  lens  of  crown  glass. 
The  correction  is  far  from  perfect,  however. 
and  even  the  best  telescope  lenses  produce  a 
blue  halo  surrounding  the  stellar  images.  This 
outstanding  color  may  be  reduced  by  combina- 
tions of  three  or  more  lenses  ;  but  such  devices 
greatly  increase  the  mechanical  difficulties  of  the 
optician.  The  present  practice  is  to  bring  to- 
gether such  portions  of  the  light  as  most  power- 
fully effect  the  eye  or  the  photographic  plate, 
leaving  the  other  tints  uncorrected.  Tin-  intro- 
duction of  new  kinds  of  glass,  especially  the 
Jena  glass,  so  called,  has  somewhat  improved 
the  chromatic  correction  of  smaller  objectives. 
See  Dispersion;  Lens:  Microscope;  Telescope; 
Light. 

Achsharumov,  Nikolei  Dmitriyevich,  ach- 
sha-roo'mof,  ne-kolM  dme-tre-ycv'ich,  Rus- 
sian novelist  and  critic:  b.  St.  Petersburg,  15 
Dec.  1810 ;  d.  Moscow,  30  Aug.  1803.  For  a 
time  he  held  a  post  in  the  ministry  of  war,  but 
came  later  to  devote  himself  to  painting,  and 
particularly  to  literature.  He  first  attracted  at- 
tention by  a  dramatic  sketch,  (The  Masked 
Ball,'  and  became  more  widely  known  through 
his  novels,  (The  Double);  (The  Gambler); 
<  The  False  Name '  ;  ( An  Unusual  Case  >  ; 
(  The  Mandarin  >  ;  and  <  At  All  Costs  >  (  (  Was 
es  auch  Kosten  mag  >  ).     His  critical  essays  in- 


clude studies  of  Tolstoi,  Turgenicv,  Dostoievski, 
and  Herbert  Spencer. 

A  Chula,  a-shoo'la  (Port.),  a  dance  resem- 
bling  the    fandango    (q.v.). 

Achurch,  Janet,  English  actress:  stage 
name  of  Janet  Achurch  Sharp,  now  Mrs.  Charles 
Charrington :  b.  Lancashire;  debut  at  Olympic 
Theatre,  January  1883.  In  1887  she  joined 
Beerbohm  Tree's  company;  7  June  1889  cre- 
ated the  part  of  Nora  in  Ibsen's  <  Doll's  House,' 
the  first  presentation  of  Ibsen  in  English.  She 
afterward  starred  in  India  and  Australia,  and 
in  1895  came  to  the  United  States,  acting  with 
Richard  Mansfield  and  for  herself.  June  1897 
she  played  Cleopatra  (Shakespeare's)  at  the 
Olympic   Theatre,  London. 

Acic'ulite,  a  mineral  better  known  as 
needle-ore  (q.v.). 

Acidaspis  («  spine-shield  »),  a  small  trilobite 
widely  distributed  through  Silurian  and  De- 
vonian rocks,  whose  striking  characteristic  is 
the  thick  setting  of  the  dorsal  shield  with  such 
numerous  and  formidable  spines  that  it  must 
have  been  almost  impossible  for  even  much 
larger  enemies  to  prey  on  it.  The  head-shield 
is  entirely  different  from  that  of  other  trilo- 
bites,  the  trilobation  being  obscured  by  extra 
furrows  and  longitudinal  false  furrows.  The 
thorax  has  9  or  to  segments,  each  with  long 
lateral  spines  and  two  shorter  median  ones; 
the  small  tail-shield  in  nearly  all  species  also 
has  them  ;  in  some  a  row  of  slender  ones  on  the 
sides  of  the  head-shield,  and  a  long  one  project- 
ing from  each  posterior  angle;  and  from  the 
middle  posterior  edge  two  long  ones,  straight 
or  curved,  often  project  upward  and  backward. 
A  few  species  have  the  eyes  placed,  like  some 
crabs  and  lobsters,  on  the  ends  of  long,  slender 
stalks,  commanding  a  view  in  all  directions. 

Ac'idim'etry.      See  Chemical  Analysis. 

Acids.  In  popular  usage,  acids  are  sub- 
stances of  a  corrosive  nature,  with  a  sour  taste 
when  diluted  sufficiently  to  lose  their  corrosive 
action  on  the  tongue,  capable  of  turning  certain 
blue  vegetable  coloring  matters,  such  as  litmus, 
to  a  red,  and  forming  neutral  compounds  with 
alkalies.  In  modern  chemistry  an  acid  is  usual- 
ly regarded  as  a  salt  of  hydrogen  in  which 
one  or  more  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  are  replace- 
able by  metallic  atoms  or  by  organic  radicals. 
An  acid  containing  one  such  atom  of  replaceable 
hydrogen  is  called  monobasic ;  if  it  has  two  such 
atoms  of  hydrogen  it  is  called  dibasic  or  bibasic; 
if  three,  tribasic ; _  and  so  on.  Hydrochloric 
acid.  HO,  is  a  familiar  example  of  a  monobasic 
acid;  it  has  only  one  atom  of  hydrogen  that  can 
be  replaced  by  potassium  (for  example),  with 
the  formation  of  the  single  compound  KC1. 
Sulphuric  acid,  H:SO,,  is  a  familiar  dibasic  acid ; 
with  potassium  it  forms  the  two  compounds 
HKSO,  (hydrogen  potassium  sulphate),  and 
K:SO.  (normal  or  basic  potassium  sulphate). 
Phosphoric  acid,  H.PO,,  is  a  tribasic  acid  in 
which  one.  two,  or  all  three  of  the  hydrogen 
atoms  may  be  replaced  by  metals  or  radicals. 
In  a  polybasic  acid  the  hydrogen  atoms  need 
not  necessarily  all  be  displaced  by  the  same  ele- 
ment or  radicals ;  thus  microcosmic  salt  is  a 
phosphate  of  hydrogen,  sodium,  and  ammonium, 
with  the  formula  HNa(NTL)  PO,  +  4ILO. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT  —  ACOMA 


When  an  acid  contains  oxygen  it  is  com- 
monly named  for  the  substance  that  is  present 
with  the  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  the  acid.  For 
example,  nitric  acid  is  named  for  nitrogen,  and 
phosphoric  acid  for  phosphorus.  It  often  hap- 
pens that  the  same  element  forms  more  than  one 
acid  with  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  In  these  cases 
it  is  usual  to  give  the  termination  -ic  to  the  one 
which  contains  the  larger  amount  of  oxygen, 
and  the  termination  -ous  to  the  one  containing 
the  lesser  amount  of  oxygen.  For  example, 
H2S04  is  called  sulphuric  acid,  while  rLSOa  is 
called  sulphurous  acid.  The  salts  formed  by 
acids  ending  in  -ic  have  the  ending  -ate,  such  as 
the  acid  sulphate  of  potassium,  produced  by 
substituting  the  metal  potassium  for  one  of  the 
hydrogen  atoms  of  sulphuric  acid,  while  those 
formed  by  acids  ending  in  -ous  have  the  ending 
-itr.  A  vast  number  of  organic  acids  are  known, 
of  which  acetic  acid  is  a  familiar  illustration. 

Acknowledgment,  the  act  of  one  who  has 
executed  a  deed,  in  going  before  some  competent 
officer  or  court  and  declaring  it  to  be  his  act 
and  deed.  The  function  of  an  acknowledgment 
is  twofold :  to  authorize  the  deed  to  be  given  in 
evidence  without  further  proof  of  its  execution, 
and  to  entitle  it  to  be  recorded.  The  same  end 
may  be  attained  by  a  subscribing  witness  going 
before  the  officer  or  court,  and  making  oath  to 
the  fact  of  execution,  which  is  certified  in  the 
same  manner,  but  in  some  States  this  is  permit- 
ted only  in  case  of  the  death,  absence,  or  re- 
fusal of  the  grantor.  The  certificate  should  be 
in  substantially  the  following  form : 


I, 


hereby  certify   that 


whose  name  is  signed  to  the  foregoing  conveyance, 
and  who  is  known  to  me,  acknowledged  before  me 
on  this  day  that  being  informed  of  the  contents  of 
the  conveyance,  he  executed  the  same  voluntarily  on 
the  day  the  same  bears  date. 

Given   under   my   hand   this  day    of  ,    19 — . 

In  many  of  the  States  it  is  necessary  that  a 
married  woman  be  examined  separately  and 
apart  from  her  husband  touching  her  voluntary 
execution  of  the  deed,  and  the  fact  of  such  ex- 
amination must  be  included  in  the  certificate. 

Acland,  Lady  Christian  Henrietta  Caroline 
Fox,  commonly  called  "Lady  Harriet"; 
daughter  of  the  first  Earl  of  Ilchester :  b.  3  Jan. 
1750;  d.  21  July  1815.  She  married  Maj.  John 
Dyke  Acland,  September  1770,  accompanied  him 
to  America,  and  shared  Burgoyne's  campaign  of 
1777  with  him.  He  being  wounded  and  carried 
prisoner  into  the  American  lines  in  the  second 
battle  of  Saratoga,  7  October,  she  left  the  Brit- 
ish camp  by  night  in  a  small  rowboat  and  in  a 
driving  storm  to  rejoin  him,  with  her  chaplain 
and  maid ;  was  cordially  received  by  Gates  and 
nursed  her  husband  back  to  health.  Acland 
reciprocated  the  kindness  when  on  parole  in 
New  York,  by  helping  to  relieve  the  sufferings 
of  American  prisoners.  He  died  of  a  paralytic 
stroke  2  Dec.  1778;  the  gratifying  story  that  he 
was  killed  in  a  duel  for  defending  American 
courage  against  aspersion  being  pure  invention. 
Equally  untrue  is  it  that  she  went  insane  and 
afterward  married  Chaplain  Brudenell ;  she  died 
Acland's  widow.  She  was  a  graceful  and  ele- 
gant woman  and  is  remembered  for  her  chari- 
ties. 

Acland,  Sir  Henry  Wentworth  Dyke,  Eng- 
lish  sanitarian:   b.    1815;    d.    16   Oct.    1900.     He 
Vol.  1— s 


was  long  an  expert  on  cholera  and  the  various 
forms  of  plague.  He  was  professor  of  medicine 
at  Oxford  (1858-94),  besides  serving  on  various 
sanitary  bodies.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Oxford  University  Museum,  and  with 
Rtiskin  published  an  account  of  its  objects 
(1859).  He  accompanied  the  Prince  of  Wales 
to  America  in  i860.  He  was  author  of 
'Memoirs  of  the  Cholera,'   etc. 

Aclin'ic  Line,  an  imaginary  line  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  at  every  point  of  which  the 
magnetic  dip  is  zero.  It  is  irregular  in  shape, 
and  its  shape  and  position  vary  somewhat  from 
year  to  year;  but,  roughly  speaking,  it  lies  close 
to  the  equator.    See  Magnetism,  Terrestrial. 

Ac'mite,  a  mineral,  in  Dana's  pyroxene 
group,  crystallizing  in  the  monoclinic  system, 
and  having  essentially  the  composition 
Na.O.Fe«03.4Si02.  Hardness  6  to  6.5 ;  sp.  gr. 
3.5 ;  lustre  vitreous,  inclining  to  resinous ;  usual 
color  dark  blackish-green  or  reddish-brown.  Oc- 
curs in  slender  lustrous  prisms  in  the  elaeolite- 
syenites  of  Norway,  Greenland  and  Arkansas. 

Acne,  a  disease  of  the  sebaceous  glands  of 
the  skin  and  of  the  hair  follicles  about  them, 
characterized  by  an  infection,  an  inflammation, 
and  a  breaking  down  of  the  tissue  about  the 
gland.  Three  main  varieties  are  described,  sim- 
ple acne,  deep  or  indurated  acne,  and  acne  rosa- 
cea, which  is  a  complex  affair. 

Acne  simplex. —  In  this  form  the  affection  is 
superficial,  is  found  usually  about  the  time  of 
puberty,  and  is  more  often  found  in  young 
women.  It  is  a  result  of  the  great  activities  of 
the  skin  at  this  period  of  development,  and  is 
normal  if  not  excessively  developed.  The 
"blackhead"  or  comedo  is  the  first  stage.  This 
consists  of  the  swollen  sebaceous  gland,  slightly 
blackened  at  its  outlet.  This  swelling  continues, 
and  a  pustule  forms,  by  reason  of  infection  by 
one  of  the  many  pus-producing  bacteria  lying  in 
and  upon  the  skin.  This  results  in  an  inflamed 
pimple,  which  may  burst  and  discharge  its  con- 
tents, leaving  a  scar.  In  a  badly  inflamed  area 
or  pimply  skin  all  stages  of  this  development  are 
usually  present. 

Acne  indurata  is  a  more  deep-seated  form. 
Here  the  gland  lies  deep  in  the  skin,  and,  as  it 
inflames,  gives  rise  to  the  feeling  of  shot  beneath 
the  skin.  These  deep  glands  rarely  rupture 
through  the  skin  unless  irritated  by  squeezing, 
in  which  instance  they  frequently  form  small 
boil-like  pimples. 

Acne  rosacea  is  a  combination  of  a  disease  of 
the  skin,  rosacea,  plus  an  acne.  This  is  the 
type  of  diseased  nose  so  commonly  termed  a 
"rum-blossom." 

Acoma,  a-ko'ma,  New  Mexico  (the  old 
Spanish  Acufia  or  Acuco),  in  Valencia  CO., 
60  m.  S.W.  of  Albuquerque  and  15  m.  S.W. 
of  Lagun.  It  is  an  Indian  pueblo  of  492  people 
(566  in  1890),  famed  especially  for  its  original 
sue.  the  "Enchanted  Mesa";  a  rock  table  430 
feet  high,  accessible  now  only  by  scaling,  and 
of-  old  (traditionally)  by  spiral  stairs  cut  in  the 
stone,  in  a  deep  cleft  of  the  upper  portion  and 
along  a  huge  detached  fragment  leaning  against 
it  from  the  bottom,  itself  reached  by  a  tail  tree 
or  a  ladder,  furnishing  a  secure  fortress  against 
enemies.  The  Indian  tradition  is  that  a  long 
slorm  washed  the  loose  earth  away  from  the 
foot  of  the  lower  rock  while  all  the  tribe  except 


ACONCAGUA  —  ACOSTA 


two  women  were  away  in  the  fields,  and  it  fell 
over  into  the  plain,  leaving  the  upper  portion 
inaccessible;  the  women  perished,  but  the  re- 
mainder of  the  tribe  built  a  new  place  en  the 
present  site,  which  is  the  same  as  when  the 
Spaniards  found  it.  The  essence  of  the  tradi- 
tion is  verified  by  the  finding  of  an  old  trail, 
and  of  shards,  etc..  in  the  tains  high  around  the 
base.  Acoma  was  visited  in  1340  by  Alvarado, 
of  Coronado's  command,  and  in  1582  by  Es- 
pejo,  who  estimated  the  population  at  about 
5,000.  The  Indians  under  Zutucapan  stubbornly 
resisted  the  Spaniards,  anil  in  1500.  defeated  a 
band  of  them  from  Onatc's  force;  later  in  the 
same  year  Zaldivar  captured  Acoma  and  slew 
five  sixths  of  the  inhabitants.  A  Spanish  mis- 
sion was  afterward  set  up  for  the  small  rem- 
nant. (H.  H.  Bancroft's  'Arizona  and  New 
Mexico,'  1880;  F.  YV.  Hodge,  <  The  Enchanted 
Mesa,'  «  National  Geographic  Magazine,' 
vol.  8.) 

Aconcagua,  Chile,  a-kon-kii'gwa  (Sp.-Am. 
pron.  ka'wa).  (1)  An  extinct  volcano  in  the 
S.  Andes,  on  Chilean  territory  and  dividing  it 
from  Argentina ;  one  of  the  highest  summits  in 
the  western  hemisphere,  estimated  at  about 
23,000  or  sometimes  nearly  24.000  feet.  (2)  A 
river  about  200  miles  long,  rising  on  the  south- 
ern slope  of  the  above  mountain,  and  emptying 
into  the  Pacific  12  miles  north  of  Valparaiso. 
(3)  A  central  province  of  Chile,  bounded  N.  by 
Coquimbo,  S.  by  Santiago,  E.  by  Argentina, 
S.YV.  by  Valparaiso.  For  route  of  Trans-Andine 
Railway,  via  Uspallata  pass  in  this  province, 
see  South  America.  The  valleys  are  very  fer- 
tile, vineyards  and  orchards  are  plentiful,  and  in 
summer  numerous  flocks  are  pastured  on  the 
mountain  slopes ;  figs,  nectarines,  peaches,  etc., 
are  sent  to  Santiago  and  Valparaiso.  Cop- 
per, silver,  and  gold  are  found.  Area,  6,226 
square  miles.  Pop.. about  135,000.  Capital,  San 
Felipe. 

Aconite  (Aconitum),  a  genus  of  hardy  her- 
baceous plants,  of  the  natural  order  Ranuncula- 
cea,  long  known  for  their  poisonous  properties. 
Many  of  them  are  of  great  beauty,  and  several 
are  cultivated,  especially  the  common  wolf's- 
bane  or  monk's-hood  (A.  napellus).  so  called 
from  the  form  of  its  flowers,  characteristic  of 
the  genus,  which  are  shaped  like  a  helmet  or 
hood.  The  United  States  has  also  several  spe- 
cies growing  wild.  The  wild  monk's-hood  (A. 
uncinatum)  is  common  in  rich  shady  soils  along 
the  margins  of  streams  as  far  west  as  Wiscon- 
sin, its  blue  flowers  being  one  of  the  marked 
features  of  the  summer's  bloom.  Trailing 
wolf's-bane  (A.  reclinatum),  a  white-flowered 
variety,  grows  in  the  southern  Alleghanies.  The 
winter  aconite  (Eranthis),  with  yellow  flowers, 
is  common  throughout  the  Rocky  Mountain 
regions  extending  to  the  Pacific  coast.  It  is 
perhaps  more  closely  related  to  the  hellebores. 
These  flowers  hang  clustered  round  an  upright 
stalk  and  make  the  aconite  a  very  imposing 
plant.  Some  powerful  medicines  are  prepared 
from  the  leaves  and  roots  of  monk's-hood.  Ap- 
plied externally  they  produce  numbness  of 
sensory  nerves,  and  are  used  to  relieve  pain  in 
certain  forms  of  neuralgia,  and  in  acute  and 
chronic  rheumatism.  Given  internally  they 
diminish  the  force  and  frequency  of  the  heart's 
action,    render   breathing   slower,   and   are   em- 


ployed in  acute  fevers  and  inflammations.  A 
poisonous    dose   causes   cessation   of   breathing 

and  of  the  heart's  action.  All  the  plants  of  this 
genus  are  poisonous;  common  monk's-hood  is 
very  virulent;  but  tin  most  deadly  seems  to  be 
the  A.  ferox,  the  bish,  or  bikh,  of  Nepal. 

Aconitic  Acid,  (also  called  equisetic  or 
cilrulie  acid),  a  tribasic  acid  having  the  formula 
GHj(0  K  Ml  1  .  tbe  calcium  salt  of  which  occurs 
in  several  plants  of  the  genus  Aconitum,  and  in 
the  common  Equisetum,  or  horsetail.  The  acid 
itself  is  most  easily  prepared  by  the  dry  distilla- 
tion of  citric  acid. 

Aconitine,  a  powerful  vegetable  alkaloid 
found  in  the  tuberous  root  of  Aconitum  napel- 
lus and  other  species  of  Aconitum.  In  its  chem- 
ical   structure    it    is    an    acetyl-benzoyl-aconinc, 

CH,  (OCH,).NGv  jcocir'  or'  cxPressed  in 

simple  form,  Cj«H.:NOu  (Freund  and  Beck). 
It  is  one  of  the  most  deadly  poisons  and  has 
been  known  for  hundreds  of  years.  Its  action 
as  a  medicine  was  first  carefully  studied  by 
Stoerck  in  1702.  When  locally  applied  it  pro- 
duces the  constitutional  symptoms.  Its  local 
use  in  the  form  of  an  ointment  is  of  service  in 
neuralgias.  Internally  its  main  action  is  on  the 
heart  muscle  and  on  the  blood-vessels.  It  slows 
the  heart  and  dilates  the  blood-vessels,  causing 
a  marked  decrease  of  blood  pressure.  It  is  be- 
cause of  this  action  that  it  is  so  widely  used  in 
the  acute  stages  of  many  affections  that  are  ac- 
companied by  a  rapid  heart  and  a  tense,  bound- 
ing pulse.  Aconite  has  been  called  the  «  vege- 
table lancet  »  since  it  dilates  the  blood-vessels 
so.  bleeding  one  into  one's  own  veins,  as  it  were. 
In  poisonous  doses  it  causes  nausea,  vomiting, 
cold,  clammy  skin,  very  slow  weak  pulse  and 
breathing,  and  finally  paralysis  of  the  heart  and 
respiration,  and  death.  Death  has  taken  place 
in  from  one  to  five  hours  from  the  root.  Doses 
above  3  milligrams  (1-20  gr.)  a  day  are  dan- 
gerous: 1-200  gr.  is  a  safe  initial  dose.  Treat- 
ment is  symptomatic,  special  attention  being 
paid  to  the  respiration  by  artificial  means,  and 
heart  stimulants,— strychnine,  etc. 

Acontius,  in  a  Greek  legend  retold  by  Ovid 
in  his  1  Heroides.'  a  youth  of  the  island  of 
Cea.  who  went  to  Delos  to  see  the  sacred  rites 
performed  by  a  crowd  of  virgins  in  the  temple 
of  Diana,  and  fell  in  love  with  Cydippe,  a  beau- 
tiful virgin.  Not  daring  to  ask  her  in  marriage 
on  account  of  the  meanness  of  his  birth,  he  pre- 
sented her  with  an  apple  on  which  were  in- 
scribed these  words:  «I  swear  by  Diana. 
Acontius  shall  be  my  husband."  Cvdipoe  read 
the  words,  and,  feeling  herself  compelled  by 
the  oath  she  had  inadvertently  taken,  married 
Acontius.  William  Morris  has  used  the  story 
in  the   <  Earthly  Paradise.) 

Acorn-shell,  a  barnacle  of  the  family  Balan- 
id;e.     See   BARNACLE. 

Acorus.   See   Flag.   Swef.t. 

Acosta,  Gabriel,  a-kos-ta,  Portuguese  phi- 
losopher:  b.  Oporto  1 591 ;  d.  April  1640.  Of  a 
converted  Jewish  family,  educated  a  Roman 
Catholic,  his  studies  led  him  back  to  Judaism, 
and  he  fled  with  his  mother  and  brothers  to 
Amsterdam.  He  again  developed  heretical  opin- 
ions, was  taken  to  task  by  the  synagogue, 
and  excommunicated ;  his  writings  were  confis- 


ACOSTA  —  ACOUSTICS 


cated  and  himself  fined ;  and  years  of  persecu- 
tion by  the  Jewish  authorities  and  his  family 
drove  him  to  suicide.  Gutzkow  made  him  the 
hero  of  his  novel  'Die  Sadducaer  von  Amster- 
dam' (1834),  and  of  his  tragedy  'Uriel  Acos- 
ta'  (1846).  The  work  which  caused  Acosta's 
excommunication  was  'Examen  Traditionum 
Pharisseicarum  Collatarum  cum  Lege  Scripta' 
(1623,  in  Latin). 

Acosta,  Joaquin,  a-kos'ta,  hooa-ken',  South 
American  soldier  and  geographer:  b.  Guachias, 
Colombia,  29  Dec.  1799:  d.  there  1852.  He  was 
an  officer  of  engineers  in  the  Colombian  army, 
member  of  the  New  Grenada  Convention  1831, 
later  representative  in  its  Congress.  In  1834 
he  explored  the  Socorro  valley  to  the  Magda- 
lena  with  the  botanist  Cespedes,  and  in  1841 
traveled  from  Antioquia  to  Aserma  to  study  the 
various  Indian  tribes.  For  a  time  he  was  min- 
ister from  Xew  Grenada  to  Ecuador ;  was 
charge  d'affaires  at  Washington  20  July  to  8 
Nov.  1842:  and  later  secretary  of  state  in  New 
Grenada.  He  published  at  Paris  in  1848  a  his- 
tory of  the  discovery  and  settlement  of  Xew 
Grenada,  with  a  valuable  map  of  his  own  draw- 
ing, the  first  made  since  the  independence  of 
Colombia:  and  in  1849,  at  Paris,  a  'Miscellany 
of  Xew-Grenadan  Sciences,  Literature,  Arts, 
and  Industries,*  with  portraits  and  map. 

Acosta,  Jose,  a-kos'ta,  ho-sa',  Jesuit  and  his- 
torian :  b.  Spain,  c.  1540:  d.  rector  of  Salamanca 
in  1600.  In  1571  he  went  to  Peru,  where  he 
spent  15  years,  becoming  provincial  of  his  order. 
After  two  years  in  Mexico  and  the  West  Indies 
he  returned  to  Spain  laden  with  manuscripts 
and  information,  and  became  a  royal  favorite. 
His  theological  works  evinced  great  learning, 
but  it  is  by  his  <Xatural  and  Moral  History  of 
the  Indies'  that  he  is  best  known.  The  complete 
work  was  published  at  Seville  in  1590  and 
proved  the  most  popular  and  most  satisfactory 
account  of  the  Xew  World  up  to  that  time. 
An  English  translation  appeared  at  London  in 
1604,  a  reprint  of  which  was  issued  by  the 
Hakluyt  Society  in  1880. 

Acouchi,  or  Acouchy.     See  Aguti. 

Acoumeter  ("hearing-measurer"),  an  in- 
strument to  determine  the  acuteness  of  hearing. 
It  is  a  small  steel  bar  of  uniform  pitch,  to  be 
struck  with  a  hammer  or  falling  weight  with 
gradations  of  force. 

Acoustics  (from  &Koiav,  to  hear)  is  the 
science  of  the  production,  propagation,  and 
audition  of  sound.  The  term  sound  is  some- 
times by  definition  restricted  to  the  sensation 
involved  in  hearing,  but  is  never  consistently 
so  used.  Both  by  derivation  and  by  common 
and  best  usage  it  should  be  applied  to  those 
aerial  or  other  vibrations  which,  were  they  to 
reach  the  ear,  would  produce  audition.  The 
term  being  thus  used,  sound  consists  of  waves  of 
longitudinal  vibration,  that  is  to  say  of  waves 
of  to  and  fro  motion  perpendicular  to  the  wave 
front.  Such  motion,  propagated  through  an 
elastic  medium  with  a  finite  velocity,  results  in 
alternate  rarefaction  and  condensation. 

A  moment's  consideration  of  any  source  of 
sound  will  show  it  to  be  of  such  a  nature  as 
to  give  either  a  single  impulsive  blow  or  re- 
peated blows,  usually  systematically  repeated,  to 
the  surrounding  medium.  In  the  great  majority 
of   cases,    and    thcc«    the   rporp    rr^erpsting  both 


theoretically  and  practically,  the  source  of 
sound  consists  of  an  elastic  body  distorted  from 
its  normal  shape,  and,  released,  vibrating  more 
or  less  symmetrically  about  this  normal  shape 
or  position.  It  results  from  this  vibratory  mo- 
tion that  a  series  of  impulses  is  given  to  the 
surrounding  medium  which  are  periodic,  nearly 
similar  in  character,  and  nearly  equally  timed. 
These  impulses,  propagated  through  the  sur- 
rounding medium  all  with  the  same  velocity, 
follow  each  other  'in  the  form  of  a  train  of 
waves.  The  distance  from  a  point  in  one  im- 
pulse to  the  corresponding  point  in  the  next 
impulse  is  called  the  wave  length  of  the  sound. 
The  frequency  of  these  waves  as  they  strike  the 
ear  determines  the  pitch  of  the  sound;  the 
character  of  the  wave  in  respect  to  form  de- 
termines the  quality  of  the  sound :  while  both 
of  these  together  with  the  amplitude  of  vibra- 
tion and  the  density  of  the  medium  determine 
the  loudness  or  strength  of  the  sensation. 

In  respect  to  pitch  sounds  audible  to  the 
human  ear  range  in  frequency  from  about  24 
vibrations  per  .  second  to  40.000  vibrations. 
Sounds  very  much  higher  in  pitch  are  audible 
to  some  animals,  the  cat  for  example,  while 
for  some  animals  it  is  probable  that  the  upper 
limit  is  not  so  high,  although  in  regard  to  the 
latter  point  no  reliable  data  have  been  secured, 
the  interest  of  the  biologists  apparently  being 
to  extend  the  range.  In  regard  to  the  lower 
limit  in  other  auditors  than  man  no  reliable  ex- 
periments have  been  made,  and  if  attempted 
would  be  extremely  difficult  because  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  distinguishing  the  reactions  due  to  the 
mechanical  disturbance  from  the  reaction  due  to 
true  audition, —  a  difficulty  which  indeed  affects 
all  such  experiments,  but  which  is  enhanced  in 
the  case  of  the  lower  limit. 

The  quality  of  a  sound  is  determined  by  the 
wave  form.  A  pure  musical  tone  is  due  to  sim- 
ple harmonic  motion,  a  type  of  periodic  motion 
best  described  as  the  projection  on  a  diameter 
of  uniform  circular  motion,  and  most  famil- 
iarly illustrated  by  the  motion  of  the  pendulum 
of  a  clock.  Perfectly  pure  tones  are  rare,  the 
nearest  approach  being  that  of  a  tuning  fork  re- 
enforced  by  a  resonator.  Most  musical  sounds 
are  far  from  being  pure  tones.  They  may,  how- 
ever, be  regarded  as  a  complex  of  a  number  of 
pure  tones,  each  pure  tone  being  then  called  a 
partial  tone.  Of  these  partial  tones  the  lowest, 
which  is  generally  though  not  always  predom- 
inant, is  called  the  first  partial,  and  the  other 
partial  tones  in  order  of  their  pitch  are  called 
the  second,  third,  etc.,  partials.  In  many  of 
the  more  interesting  cases  such  as  the  tones  of 
the  organ  pipe,  or  of  a  bowed,  struck  or  plucked 
string,  the  upper  partials  are  harmonics  of  the 
fundamental.  The  pitch  and  the  relative  in- 
tensities of  the  partial  tones  determine  what  is 
called  the  quality  of  the  sound,  the  pitch  of  the 
whole  being  usually  rated  as  that  of  the  lowest 
partial.  When  a  sound  is  incapable  of  analysis 
into  pure  tones  it  is  called  a  noise.  In  many, 
indeed  it  is  safe  to  say  that  in  most  sounds 
that  are  classed  as  noise  there  is  some  trace  of 
a  predominant  note,  and  of  a  definite  musical 
pitch    which   a   trained   ear   can    detect. 

The  loudness  of  a  sound  is  capable  of  be- 
ing variously  defined.  If  by  the  loudness  of  a 
sound  is  meant  physical  energy  and  if  the  sound 
is  a  pure  tone  then  its  loudness  depends  on  the 
amplitude  of  vibration  and  the  pitch,  being  pro- 


ACOUSTICS 


portional    to    the    square   of   each,    and   on    the 
density  of  the  medium,  to  which   it   is  directly 

proportional.  The  loudness  of  a  sound  is  ordi- 
narily defined,  however,  by  the  intensity  of  the 
ition  which  it  is  capable  of  producing. 
Thus  defined  loudness  is  a  function  not  merely 
of  the  amplitude  of  vibration  and  the  density 
of  the  medium,  but  of  the  pitch  and  the  quality 
as  well,  and  moreover  it  is  a  complicated  func- 
tion of  each.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  in 
man  there  is  a  definite  sense  of  loudness  which 
renders  it  possible  to  compare,  in  respect  to  the 
intensity  of  the  sensations  which  they  produce, 
sounds  differing  in  pitch  by  the  whole  of  the 
musical  scale.  Moreover,  "this  sense  of  loud- 
ness is  apparently  physiological  and  not  de- 
pendent  on  familiarity  with  the  "balance"  of  any 
musical  instrument,  and  is  to  a  high  degree  of 
accuracy  the  same  for  different  persons,  inde- 
pendent of  age,  sex,  or  musical  training. 

Production  of  Sound. —  The  best  example  of 
the  single  impulse  as  a  source  of  sound  is  an 
explosion  in  unconfined  and  therefore  non- 
resonant  space.  The  result  is  an  approximately 
single  wave.  When,  however,  the  explosion  oc- 
curs in  a  resonant  cavity  the  result  is  a  note 
of  definite  pitch  determined  by  the  cavity.  Or 
a  single  explosion  and  impulsive  wave  may  re- 
sult in  a  train  of  waves  and  therefore  a  sound 
of  definite  pitch,  by  being  reflected  from  uni- 
formly spaced  surfaces,  such  for  example  as  the 
pickets  of  a  fence.  The  next  simplest  source 
of  sound  is  a  siren,  long  a  laboratory  instru- 
ment, more  recently  made  familiar  by  use  in 
fog  signals  and  steam  whistles.  The  siren  con- 
sists of  two  circular  discs,  the  one  fixed,  the 
other  pivoted  to  revolve  nearly  in  contact  with 
it.  Both  discs  are  pierced  by  a  circle  or  by  cir- 
cles of  holes  through  which  steam  or  com- 
pressed air  escapes  as  the  holes  in  the  two 
discs  come  opposite  each  other. 

A  straight  bar  of  metal  or  wood  may  vibrate 
either  transversely  or  longitudinally.  If  dis- 
torted transversely  it  vibrates  to  and  fro 
through  its  normal  straight  form.  The  simplest 
form  of  this  transverse  vibration  is  that  in 
which  the  bar  at  points  one  quarter  the  total 
length  from  either  end  remains  at  rest.  These 
points  of  rest  arc  called  nodes  and  the  inter- 
mediate part  of  free  vibration  is  called  an  anti- 
node.  When  vibrating  in  this  manner  the  bar 
emits  its  fundamental  note,  the  lowest  note  of 
which  it  is  capable  if  entirely  free.  The  next 
simple  mode  of  vibration  is  that  in  which  there 
are  three  nodes,  or  points  of  rest,  at  points  one 
sixth  the  total  length  from  cither  end  and  in 
the  middle.  In  this  case  the  bar  emits  a  note 
having  twice  the  frequency  of  the  fundamental 
and  in  pitch  an  octave  above  it.  Continuing  in 
this  way  a  series  of  simple  types  of  motion  may 
be  determined.  The  notes  thus  produced  have 
twice,  three  times,  four  times,  etc.,  the  vibration 
frequency  of  the  fundamental.  Any  transverse 
free  vibration  of  the  bar  is  a  combination  of 
these  forms,  and  the  sound  which  it  emits  is  a 
combination  of  these  notes.  In  this  manner  the 
quality  of  the  sound  i-  determined.  If  the  bar 
is  clamped  at  one  end  the  lowest  note  which  it 
emit  -tave  lower  than  the  lowest  when 

entirely  free  ;  and  the  higher  tones,  instead  of 
being  two.  three,  etc..  multiples  of  the  funda- 
mental, skip  every  other  one.  being  three,  five, 
seven,  etc..  multiples  of  the  fundamental. 
Touching   the   bar   at   any   point   tends   to   pro- 


duce a  node  at  that  point  and  to  strengthen  the 
corresponding  partial  tone,  and  to  diminish  the 
partial  tones  having  antinodes  at  that  point. 
The  exact  converse  is  true  in  regard  to  striking 
the  rod.  Finally,  the  frequency  of  the  several 
notes  is  proportional  inversely  to  the  length,  and 
to  the  square  root  of  the  density,  and  directly 
to  the  square  root  of  the  rigidity,  other  dimen- 
sions being  the  same  in  each  case. 

When  the  rod  is  rubbed  or  stroked  so  as 
to  vibrate  longitudinally,  either  free  or  clamped 
at  one  end,  its  fundamental  and  overtones  form 
the  same  systems  as  before,  but  all  are  of  a 
different  pitch,  determined  now  by  the  length, 
density  and  modulus  of  elasticity.  Thus  the 
longitudinal  vibrations  of  the  free  rod  have  as 
vibration  frequencies  of  its  overtones,  all  inte- 
gral multiples  of  the  fundamental.  If  the 
same  rod  is  rigidly  clamped  at  one  end,  its 
fundamental  is  an  octave  lower  than  the  funda- 
mental of  the  free  rod,  and  the  even  integral 
overtones  are  absent. 

A  stretched  string  or  wire,  so  small  in 
diameter  in  comparison  with  its  length  that 
its  rigidity  is  insignificant  in  comparison  with  its 
tension,  vibrates  for  its  fundamental  over  its 
whole  length  with  nodes  at  each  end.  The 
first  overtone  is  an  octave  above  this  in  pitch, 
the  wire  vibrating  with  a  node  at  the  centre. 
The  second  overtone  (third  partial)  is  three 
times  the  fundamental  in  pitch  frequency,  the 
wire  vibrating  with  nodes  a  third  of  the  whole 
length  of  the  wire  from  either  end.  The  third 
overtone  (fourth  partial)  is  four  times  the  fun- 
damental in  pitch  frequency,  with  nodes  at  the 
quarter  and  middle  points.  A  string  set  in  vi- 
bration by  any  ordinary  method  vibrates  in  a 
more  or  less  complex  manner,  emitting  a  sound 
containing  the  fundamental  and  overtones.  The 
overtones  present  and  their  relative  intensities 
are  determined  by  whether  the  string  is  plucked, 
struck  or  bowed,  and  also  by  the  point  of  appli- 
cation. The  fundamental  note  emitted  by  a 
string  is  of  a  vibration  frequency  equal  to  the 
square  root  of  the  tension  divided  by  the  mass 
per  centimeter  of  length,  divided  by  twice  the 
length. 

If  the  vibrating  elastic  solid  is  in  the  form 
of  a  plate  the  system  of  overtones  bears  a  com- 
plicated relationship  to  the  fundamental,  no 
longer  being  integer  multiples  in  vibration  fre- 
quency. The  manner  in  which  the  plate  vi- 
brates may  be  shown  by  sprinkling  sand  on 
the  plate,  the  latter  being  horizontal.  When  the 
plate  vibrates  the  sand  dances  away  from  the 
parts  of  the  plate  in  motion  and  settles  in  ridges 
along  the  nodes.  When  the  plate  is  square  and 
emitting  its  lowest  tone  the  nodal  lines  traced 
by  the  sand  form  a  cross  reaching  from  the 
centres  of  the  sides.  By  bowing  the  plate  at 
different  points  the  plate  may  be  made  to  vi- 
brate in  very  complicated  forms.  The  sand 
figures  thus  traced  often  making  attractive  de- 
signs. The  production  of  these  various  pat- 
terns is  much  guided  by  touching  the  plate  at 
various  points  on  the  edge  with  the  fingers,  thus 
determining  the  ends  of  nodal  lines.  This  ex- 
periment was  first  performed  by  Chladni,  and 
the  sand  figures  are  called  after  their  inventor 
Chladni's  figures.  Similar  experiments  can  be 
carried  out  on  stretched  membranes,  and  one 
may  investigate  in  this  way  the  vibration  of 
drum  heads.  The  result  of  such  an  experi- 
ment  shows   that   the  quality  of  sound   from  a 


ACOUSTICS 


drum  depends  on  the  point  at  which  it  is  struck, 
and  that  the  upper  partials  are  inharmonics  of 
the  fundamental. 

Next  to  the  stretched  string  the  most  inter- 
esting case  of  a  vibrating  body  is  that  of  a  col- 
umn of  air.  To  a  first  approximation  the  prob- 
lem of  the  vibration  of  an  air  column  is  as 
simple  as  that  of  a  stretched  string,  but  in  its 
practical  forms  and  more  accurate  solution  it  is 
by  no  means  so  simple.  The  vibration  of  a 
column  of  air,  according  to  the  theory  ad- 
vanced by  Bernoulli,  is  identical  with  the  longi- 
tudinal vibration  of  a  straight  bar  of  metal.  If 
the  column  of  air  is  in  a  tube  open  at  both  ends, 
the  simplest  form  of  vibration  and  that  in  which 
it  emits  the  lowest  possible  note  is  such  that 
the  air  moves  to  and  fro  at  both  ends  having 
a  node  at  the  middle.  The  first  overtone,  hav- 
ing a  vibration  frequency  twice  that  of  the  fun- 
damental, is  produced  by  the  column  of  air 
vibrating  freely  at  both  ends,  vibrating  freely 
at  the  middle,  and  having  nodes  at  points  one 
quarter  of  the  total  length  of  the  pipe  from 
either  end.  The  second  overtone  has  three 
times,  the  third  overtone  four  times,  etc.,  the 
vibration  frequency  of  the  fundamental.  If 
the  column  of  air  is  closed  at  one  end  the  low- 
est tone  which  it  can  emit  is  an  octave  below 
the  lowest  tone  emitted  by  the  same  pipe  open 
at  both  ends.  The  overtones  in  this  case  are 
three,  five,  seven,  etc.,  times  the  fundamental 
in  frequency.  The  analogy  of  this  with  the 
bar  of  metal  is  obvious.  It  might  be  added  that 
according  to  Bernoulli's  theory  the  note  emit- 
ted by  the  column  of  air  is  such  that  the 
sound  could  travel  from  the  open  end  to  the 
first  node  during  one  quarter  of  a  vibration. 
This,  only  approximately  true  in  the  case  of 
the  column  of  air,  is  very  strictly  true  in  the 
case  of  the  metal  rod.  It  follows  from  this 
that  the  pitch  of  the  note  emitted  by  a  column 
of  air  can  be  varied  either  by  varying  the  length 
of  the  column,  the  pitch  being  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  length,  or  by  so  exciting  the 
air  that  it  vibrates  according  to  the  higher 
forms  with  nodes  nearer  the  ends.  The  appli- 
cation of  this  to  musical  instruments  is  very 
simple.  Take,  for  example,  organ  pipes  of  what 
are  called  flue  stops  as  distinguished  from  reed 
stops.  All  such  organ  pipes  are,  obviously, 
open  at  the  end  at  which  they  are  blown.  Ac- 
cording as  they  are  open  or  closed  at  the  other 
end  they  are  called  open  or  closed  pipes.  Open 
pipes  have  nodes  at  their  middle  when  sound- 
ing the  fundamental  note,  while  the  closed 
pipes  have  their  nodes  at  the  closed  end.  A 
closed  pipe  is  therefore  an  octave  lower  in 
pitch  than  an  open  pipe  of  the  same  length,  ac- 
curately according  to  the  theory  of  Bernoulli, 
but  as  a  matter  of  fact  only  approximately  so. 
In  a  pipe  organ  the  variation  in  pitch  is  accom- 
plished not  merely  by  using  open  and  closed 
pipes,  but  principally  by  using  pipes  of  different 
lengths.  The  pipes  not  uncommonly  vary  in 
length  from  thirty-two  feet  to  half  an  inch. 
In  the  military  trumpet  we  have  an  exceedingly 
simple  instrument  whose  whole  available  scale 
consists  in  the  overtones,  the  particular  note 
being  determined  by  lip  tension  and  wind  pres- 
sure. In  the  slide  trombone  the  scale  is  pro- 
duced not  merely  as  in  the  trumpet,  but  by 
varying  the  length  by  means  of  the  slide.  In 
the  comet  the  variation  in  length  is  accom- 
plished by  means  of  keys  turning  valves  which 


throw  into  the  length  of  the  pipe  or  cut  out 
from  it  short  auxiliary  convolutions.  In  the 
French  horn  the  scale  is  played  not  merely  by 
the  means  adopted  in  the  cornet,  but  by  means 
of  the  hand  thrust  into  the  bell  or  flared  end, 
thus  partially  closing  it  and  so  lowering  the 
pitch.  In  the  flute,  clarionet,  and  wood  wind- 
instruments  generally  the  variation  in  pitch  is 
accomplished  by  opening  and  closing  ports  on 
the  side  of  the  tube. 

A  little  more  might  be  said  in  regard  to 
stringed  instruments.  The  strings  are,  in  gen- 
eral, so  narrow  that  when  vibrating  they  cut 
through  the  air,  communicating,  practically,  no 
motion  to  the  air  and  therefore  emitting,  prac- 
tically, no  sound  directly.  The  sound  which 
we  hear  therefore  comes  not  from  the  string, 
but  from  the  sounding  boards  with  which  they 
are  always  placed  in  contact.  It  is  thus  be- 
cause the  sound  which  we  hear  comes  from  the 
body  of  the  violin  and  scarcely  at  all  from  the 
strings  directly  that  its  quality  depends  so  much 
more  on  the  instrument  than  on  the  strings 
with   which   it   is   stretched. 

Propagation  of  Sound .—  When  a  sound  is 
produced  in  free  air  at  a  distance  from  all  ob- 
stacles it  spreads  in  spherical  waves,  diminish- 
ing as  it  spreads  over  greater  and  greater  sur- 
faces, the  intensity  of  the  sound  diminishing  as 
the  wave  increases.  The  area  of  a  sphere  be- 
ing proportional  to  the  square  of  the  radius  we 
have  the  so-called  law  of  the  inverse  square 
of  the  distance.  The  velocity  of  propagation  of 
a  sound  through  a  medium  is  independent  of 
the  pitch  of  the  sound  or  of  its  loudness  and 
depends  only  on  the  nature  of  the  medium  —  its 
elasticity  and  its  density.  In  any  medium  the 
velocity  of  the  sound  is  proportional  directly 
to  the  square  root  of  the  elasticity  and  in- 
versely to  the  square  root  of  the  density  of  the 
medium.  Since  the  waves  follow  each  other 
with  so  great  rapidity  that  the  air  does  not  have 
time  to  cool  during  compression,  the  elasticity 
here  referred  to  is  that  of  adiabatic  compres- 
sion. A  table  is  here  given  of  the  velocity  of 
sound  in  various  media. 

Carbonic    acid    gas 866 

£ir , i  .092 

Hydrogen     4lI90 

Water      ■■; 4.730 

Pine    wood    10,900 

Copper    1 2,200 

Iron     15,700 

In  this  table  the  velocities  given  are  in  feet 
per  second  and  at  0°  C.  A  variation  in  tem- 
perature produces  a  variation  in  the  velocity, 
particularly  in  the  case  of  gases.  A  rise  in 
temperature  results  in  an  increase  of  velocity, 
the  increase  being  about  .18  per  cent  for  every 
degree  Centigrade  for  all  gases.  This  amounts 
to  a  little  less  than  two  feet  per  second  in  the 
case  of  air. 

When  the  source  of  sound  is  coming 
toward  the  observer,  the  observer  being  sta- 
tionary, the  sound  as  heard  is  of  a  higher  pitch 
than  if  the  source  were  stationary,  for  the  num- 
ber of  waves  reaching  the  observer  per  second 
is  increased  in  the  ratio  of  the  velocity  of 
sound  plus  the  velocity  of  the  source  to  the 
velocity  of  sound.  Similarly  when  the  source 
is  receding  from  the  observer  the  sound  re- 
ceived is  of  lower  pitch.  The  change  is  strik- 
ingly observed  as  a  bicycle  bell  or  a  clanging 
street  car  gong  passes  close  by  an  observer.     In 


ACOUSTICS 


tln^  case  the  fall  in  pitch  is  abrupt  and  marked. 
Similar  phenomena  are  produced  as  the  ob- 
server approaches  or  recedes  from  a  stationary 
source.     This   is   called    Doppler's  principle. 

When  thf  sound  instead  of  being  produced 
in  uniform  and  stationary  air  is  produced  in  air 
moving   with    various    m  the    phenomena 

are  much  complicated.  These  phenomena  were 
first  studied  with  care  in  connection  with  fog 
signals  by  Henry,  Tyndall,  and  Stokes.  It  was 
an  old  observation  that  fog  signals  plainly  audi- 
ble  at  a  very  great  distance  could  often  not  he 
heard  at  a  little  less  distance,  still  nearer  were 
audible  again,  still  nearer  inaudible, —  that  these 
regions  of  silence  and  audibility  varied,  not 
merely  on  different  days,  but  rapidly  in  the 
must  mysterious  and  disconcerting  manner,  so 
much  so  as  to  receive  the  name  of  "sound 
ghosts."  The  explanation,  for  a  long  time 
sought  in  vain,  was  ultimately  given  in  a  sug- 
gestion by  Stokes  that  they  were  due  to  a  varia- 
bility in  the  velocity  of  the  wind  in  different 
strata  of  the  atmosphere.  The  result  of  such 
an  irregularity  would  he  that  the  spreading 
sound  waves  instead  of  remaining  spherical 
would  be  distorted  very  considerably,  ror  ex- 
ample, the  waves  would  be  tipped  back  if  the 
wind  were  greater  at  the  higher  altitude  and 
against  the  sound.  In  such  case  the  sound 
would  rise  from  the  water  and  there  would  be 
a  region  close  to  the  surface  over  which  the  fog 
signal  would  be  inaudible.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  wind  retarded  the  sound  less  above 
than  below,  or  if  the  wind  above  favored  the 
sound  the  wave  would  be  tipped  forward  and 
the  sound  would  descend  upon  the  sea  and 
there  would  be  a  resulting  area  of  audibility. 
As  the  wind  at  different  altitudes  varies  greatly 
and  changes  abruptly  we  have  an  entirely  ade- 
quate explanation  of  the  phenomena. 

If  the  medium  through  which  the  sound  is 
being  propagated  is  not  homogeneous  another 
very  interesting  series  of  phenomena  will  occur. 
Whether  the  variation  in  homogeneity  results 
from  the  variation  in  composition  or  a  variation 
in  temperature,  the  effect  is  the  same.  A 
change  in  either  temperature  or  composition  re- 
sults in  general  in  a  change  in  the  velocity  of 
the  sound.  Whenever  sound  passes  from  one 
medium  to  mother  or  from  one  region  to  an- 
other in  which  the  velocity  is  different  the 
direction  of  the  sound  is  changed.  It  is  said 
to  be  refracted.  The  law  of  refraction  i-  a 
very  simple  one, —  that  the  ratio  of  the  sines  of 
the  angles  made  by  the  direction  of  propagation 
of  the  sound  in  the  two  media  with  a  normal 
to  the  surface  separating  the  media  is  equal  to 
the  ratio  of  the  velocities  in  the  two  media. 
The  sound  is  thus  always  bent  toward  the  nor- 
mal in  passing  from  a  medium  in  which  the 
velocity  is  greater  to  a  medium  in  which  it  is 
less.  According  to  this  principle  the  so-called 
acoustical  lenses  have  been  made.  This  may 
be  done  by  filling  a  large  but  thin  walled  spher- 
ical balloon  with  some  heavy  gas.  Such  a  lens 
properly  placed  will  focus  the  sound  of  the  tick- 
ing of  a  watch  so  that  it  can  be  heard  at  a  dis- 
tance consideiably  greater  than  that  at  which 
it  can  ordinarily  be  heard.  When  the  lens  is 
thus  made  with  heavy  gas  it  is  a  converging 
lens  ;  when  made  with  light  gas  it  is  a  diverging 
lens.  A  curion'  but  unintentional  example  of 
the  latter  occurred  in  the  House  of  Parliament 
when   a   shaft   ol   warm   air,   rising  through   the 


large  ventilator  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  SO 
diverted  the  sound  that  a  speaker  on  one  side 
could  not  he  heard  clearly  by  a  member  imme- 
diately opposite  him. 

\\  1m  never  a  sound  traveling  through  one 
medium  comes  to  another  medium  in  which  its 
velocity  is  different  a  certain  portion  is  re- 
flected,  the  amount  reflected  depending  upon 
the  change  in  velocity  of  the  sound  and  upon 
the  angle  at  which  it  s-trikes  the  surface  of 
separation.  This  furnishes  the  explanation  of 
the  so-called  aerial  echoes  observed  by  Tyndall, 
and  a  partial  explanation  of  the  rolling  of  thun- 
der. 

When  the  reflecting  surface  is  a  solid  wall 
a  very  large  per  cent  of  the  sound  is  reflected, 
how  much,  depends,  of  course,  on  the  nature  of 
the  wall  Under  these  circumstances  there  are 
produced  a  large  number  of  important  phe- 
nomena which  are  most  strikingly  interesting  in 
connection  with  architectural  acoustics.  Under 
special  but  usually  accidental  conditions  very 
peculiar  phenomena  arise  as  is  illustrated  in  the 
case  of  whispering  galleries.  Whispering  gal- 
leries are  of  one  or  the  other  of  two  general 
types  usually  illustrated,  following  the  lead  of 
flerschel,  by  the  dome  in  Saint  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, London,  and  by  a  much  less  familiar  build- 
ing, the  cathedral  in  Girgenti.  In  Saint  Paul's 
Cathedral  if  a  person  takes  a  position  at  one 
side  of  the  dome  and  very  close  to  the  wall  he 
can  whisper  with  great  ease  and  distinctness  to 
a  person  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  dome. 
This  i^  not  the  case  of  focusing  sound  in  the 
ordinary  sense.  The  sound  starting  from  one 
point  is  carried  by  the  curved  surface  along 
great  circles  on  the  interior  of  the  almost  spher- 
ical dome.  The  sounds  traveling  by  all  these 
paths  meet  again  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
diameter.  As  distinguished  from  this  the  whis- 
pering gallery  in  the  cathedral  at  Girgenti  is 
produced  by  a  --ingle,  isolated,  but  focused  re- 
flection. A  better  and  more  familiar  illustra- 
tion 'if  this  was  until  recently  to  he  found  in 
the  Hall  of  Statues  in  the  capitol  at  Washing- 
ton. It  is  a  necessary  condition  for  both  types 
of  whispering  galleries  that  the  wall  surfaces 
should  he  smooth  and  free  from  great  projec- 
tions. The  whispering  gallery  in  the  Capitol 
at  Washington  has  recently  been  destroyed  by 
replacing  the  formerly  smooth  spherical  ceiling 
by  a  rather  deeply  coffered  ceiling  in  plaster. 
The  ideal  whispering  gallery,  should  one  he 
planned,  would  he  secured  by  constructing  a 
room  a  considerable  portion  of  whose  wall  sur- 
face would  be  part  of  an  ellipsoid  of  revolu- 
tion with  foci  at  the  points  between  which  the 
whispering  is  to  occur.  Another  interesting  and 
somewhat  related  phenomenon  is  that  of  multi- 
ple reflections.  An  interesting  example  of  this 
recently  occurred  in  a  private  athletic  court  at 
Rhincbeck-on-the-Hudson.  In  this  case  the 
ceiling  was  a  smooth  dome  so  nearly  flat  that  its 
centre  of  curvature  was  at  a  distance  below  the 
floor  equal  to  the  height  of  the  room.  Hen. 
the  echo  was  repeated  very  many  times  and 
the  sound  was  reflected  three  times  between 
each  repetition  of  the  echo.  Such  special  forms 
of  walls  not  infrequently  occur  in  auditoriums, 
often  in  a  subtly  concealed  manner,  and  are 
the  occasion  of  much  annoyance.  It  might  be 
added  that  it  would  not  he  a  safe  generaliza- 
tion to  say  that  all  cusved  surfaces  are  bad  ot 
that  all   disturbing   surfaces   are  curved. 


ACOUSTICS 


In  the  absence  of  specially  disturbing  sur- 
faces the  multiple  reflection  of  the  sound  re- 
sults in  a  general  reverberation,  which  is  from 
some  points  of  view  advantageous  and  from 
some  harmful.  The  reverberation  results  in  an 
increased  loudness  particularly  of  sustained 
tone.  On  the  other  hand  by  the  prolongation  of 
each  sound  it  results  in  more  or  less  confusion. 
When  the  room  is  to  be  used  for  musical  pur- 
poses, the  effect  of  this  reverberation,  unless  it 
be  carried  to  too  great  an  extent,  is  to  blend 
the  tones  and  to  give  to  the  performer  a  sense 
of  support  from  the  auditorium.  There  is  ap- 
parently a  nice  balance  which  for  the  best  mu- 
sical effects  must  be  accurately  attained  in  or- 
der to  fully  satisfy  expert  musical  taste.  The 
reverberation  in  the  room  as  well  as  the  gen- 
eral loudness  and  even  the  loudness  at  the  sev- 
eral points  can  be  calculated  when  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  room  and  the  absorbing  power  of 
its  various  surfaces  are  known. 

Another  feature  of  architectural  acoustics  is 
the  phenomenon  of  interference.  Taking  first 
the  simplest  possible  case  when  a  sound  from 
a  distant  source  strikes  normally  on  a  plane 
wall,  the  reflected  waves  meeting  the  following 
on-coming  waves  produce  by  their  superposi- 
tion a  system  of  stationary  waves  parallel  to  the 
reflecting  surface.  The  result  would  be  great 
nodal  and  antinodal  surfaces  parallel  to  the  re- 
flecting wall.  An  observer  moving  about  in 
such  a  medium  would  hear  the  sound  as  very 
loud  at  the  nodal  surfaces.  When  the  sound 
is  produced  in  a  confined  space,  such  as  a  room, 
it  is  reflected  from  wall  to  wall  many  times 
and  in  many  directions  before  it  is  ultimately 
absorbed.  The  result  is  an  exceedingly  com- 
plicated system  of  stationary  waves.  Under 
certain  conditions  the  sound  may  be  so  intense 
at  certain  points  of  the  room  as  to  be  unen- 
durable, while  at  other  points  but  a  few  feet 
distant  it  is  so  faint  as  to  be  scarcely  audible. 
The  distribution  of  such  a  system  of  stationary 
waves  depends  on  the  shape  of  the  room,  the 
material  of  the  walls,  and  the  position  of  the 
source  of  sound.  It  also  depends  on  the  pitch 
of  the   sounds. 

When  the  conditions  of  the  room  are  such 
that  a  system  of  stationary  waves  are  so  formed 
that  a  region  of  great  intensity  coincides  with 
the  source,  the  phenomenon  of  resonance  oc- 
curs. That  is  to  say  the  emission  of  that  par- 
ticular note  will  be  increased  in  comparison 
with  other  notes  of  such  pitch  that  their  great- 
est nodal  intensity  in  their  own  interference  sys- 
tems do  not  coincide  with  the  source.  This 
phenomenon  is  called  resonance.  Both  interfer- 
ence and  resonance  result  in  the  destruction  of 
chordal  balance. 

Audition. —  The  ear  is  ordinarily  divided,  in 
anatomical  work,  into  three  parts,  the  outer,  the 
middle  and  the  inner  ear.  The  drum  of  the 
ear  separates  the  outer  from  the  middle  ear, 
the  middle  ear  being  an  air  cavity  connected  by 
the  eustachian  tube  with  the  nasal  cavity.  The 
sound  is  conducted  across  the  middle  ear  by  a 
system  of  three  bones  which  connect  the  drum 
with  another  membrane  separating  the  middle 
ear  from  the  inner  ear.  The  inner  ear  is  a 
somewhat  complicated  cavity  in  the  solid  bone 
of  the  skull.  It  consists  essentially  of  three 
semicircular  canals,  and  a  much  longer  and 
larger   snai's^ell-like   cavity   called   the   cochlea. 


This  inner  ear  is  separated  from  the  middle  ear 
not  merely  by  the  membrane  already  referred  to 
pressed  against  and  vibrated  by  the  bones,  but 
also  by  another  small  membrane.  Starting  from 
between  these  two  membranes  a  diaphragm  runs 
the  length  of  the  cochlea.  This  diaphragm 
somewhat  intricate  in  its  complete  structure,  has 
as  an  essential  part  a  system  of  numerous 
stretched  fibres,  varying  in  length  and  probably 
also  in  tension.  When  the  sound  is  conducted 
from  the  outer  ear  to  the  inner  ear  by  the 
three  bones  in  the  middle  ear,  the  vibration  is 
communicated  to  a  liquid  which  fills  the  inner 
ear.  This  liquid  in  vibrating  causes  the  small 
fibres  of  the  diaphragm,  called  the  fibres  of 
Corti,  to  vibrate.  As  the  fibres  of  Corti  are  of 
different  lengths  and  of  a  different  tension,  dif- 
ferent regions  of  the  diaphragm  respond  to  dif- 
ferent notes.  On  this  diaphragm  terminate 
the  auditory  nerves. which  are  stimulated  by  the 
vibration  of  the  fibres,  and  communicate  the 
corresponding  sensation  to  the  brain.  The  vari- 
ation in  pitch  sensation  is  due  to  variation  in 
the  stimulated  region  of  the  diaphragm.  When 
the  sound  is  not  a  pure  tone  the  various  partial 
tones  excite  the  corresponding  parts  of  the 
diaphragm.  When  two  notes  are  sounded, 
each  with  its  system  of  overtones,  there  are 
regions  of  the  diaphragm  more  or  less  excited 
simultaneously  by  the  two  systems.  When  the 
two  partials  which  excite  overlapping  regions 
of  the  diaphragm  are  not  of  exactly  the  same 
pitch  beats  occur  between  them.  These  beats 
when  slow  are  not  wholly  disagreeable,  and 
having  a  tremulo  effect  in  moderate  use  are  not 
without  musical  value.  When,  however,  the 
beats  are  more  rapid,  and  this  occurs  when  the 
overlapping  partial  tones  differ  more  in  pitch, 
the  beats  lose  their  distinct  character  as  such 
and  produce  the  effect  known  as  discord.  If  the 
two  partial  tones  differ  still  more  in  pitch  the 
regions  which  they  excite  overlap  less  and  less 
and  the  discord  diminishes.  Following  out  this 
line  of  argument  Helmholtz  was  able  to  show 
that  when  the  fundamentals  having  harmonic 
upper  partials  bear  to  each  other  simple  ratios 
in  their  vibration  frequency  their  discord  is  a 
minimum,  deriving  in  this  way  a  complete  ex- 
planation of  the  musical  scale  as  used  in  har- 
monic composition.  The  scale  thus  obtained  is 
the  true  or  natural  scale.  The  intervals  be- 
tween the  successive  notes  are  not  equal,  but 
fall  into  two  groups  of  so-called  whole  and  half 
tone  intervals.  The  whole  tone  intervals  are 
not  equal  among  themselves  and  are  not  twice 
the  half  tone  intervals.  Therefore,  even  after 
inserting  sharps  and  flats  to  sub-divide  the 
whole  tone  intervals  the  resulting  chromatic 
scale  is  not  one  of  equal  interval.  While  this 
is  the  scale  which  would  be  employed  by  instru- 
ments without  fixed  key-boards,  and  by  the  hu- 
man voice  accurately  trained,  it  cannot  be  em- 
ployed in  instruments  with  fixed  key-boards  if 
such  instruments  are  to  be  used  in  different 
keys. 

For  this  purpose  Bach  invented  a  scale 
called  the  equally  tempered  scale  in  which  all 
the  half  tone  intervals  are  made  equal.  On 
this  scale  no  key  is  accurate,  but  no  key  is  so 
inaccurate  as  to  result  in  serious  discord.  The 
following  table  gives  the  vibration  frequency  of 
the  eight  notes  of  the  middle  octave  on  the 
natural  and  on  the  tempered  scale : 


ACQUAVIVA  —  ACRE 


Natural    Scale. 

Temper* 

:d    Scale, 

c 

258.7 

258-7 

D 

291.0 

290.3 

E 

323-4 

325-9 

F 
G 

388.0 

345-3 
3876 

A 
I! 

43'-1 
485.0 

4350 
488.2 

C 

517-3 

5  "7-3 

As  the  invention  of  the  musical  scale  long 
preceded  its  use  in  harmonic  composition,  and 
during  the  period  preceding  the  nth  century  was 
used  only  in  melodic  composition  —  that  is  for 
notes  sounded  in  sequence  —  the  simultaneity 
necessary  for  harmonic  effect  was  obtained  by 
the  prolongation  of  one  note  into  the  other. 
This  probably  resulted  from  reverberation  due 
to  architectural  conditions. 

Wallace  Clement  Sabine, 
Professor  of  Physics,  Harvard  University. 

Acquaviva,  Andrea  Matteo,  an'dra-a  mat'- 
5-6  iik'wa-vc'va,  Duke  of  Atri  and  Prince  of 
Teramo.  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples:  b.  1456;  d. 
1528.  lb-  seems  to  have  been  the  first  who  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  an  'Encyclopaedia,'  or  'Uni- 
versal Dictionary  of  Arts  and  Sciences.'  He 
published  a  useful  work  under  that  title  in  two 
folio  volumes. 

Acqui,  ak'we,  N.  Italy.  (1)  A  district  in  the 
province  of  Alessandria,  on  the  N.  side  of  the 
Ligurian  Apennines.  Area,  445  sq.  m.  Pro- 
ductions, corn  and  fruit.  Chestnut-trees  fur- 
nish the  peasantry  with  an  article  of  common 
food,  and  silkworms  are  reared.  (2)  Its  capi- 
tal and  episcopal  city,  on  the  Bormida,  18  m. 
S.S.W.  of  Alessandria,  37  m.  N.W.  of  Genoa. 
It  has  commodious  hot  sulphur  baths,  and  is 
celebrated  for  its  great  antiquity  and  for  the  re- 
mains of  a  Roman  aqueduct.  The  hot  sulphur 
baths  were  known  to  the  Romans,  who  called 
the  place  Aqua  StatiellcB,  There  is  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  wine,  silk,  lace,  and  rope. 
Acqui  has  a  cathedral,  a  royal  college,  and 
is  a  bishop's  see.  It  was  taken  by  the  Span- 
iards in  1745:  retaken  by  the  Piedmontese ;  and 
afterward  dismantled  by  the  French.  Pop. 
(1901)   13,786. 

Acquisition  is  the  act  by  which  a  person 
procures  property  in  a  thing;  also  the  thing  the 
property  in  which  is  secured.  Original  acqui- 
sition is  that  by  which  a  man  secures  a  property 
in  a  thing  which  is  not  at  the  time  he  acquires 
it,  and  in  its  then  existing  condition,  the  prop- 
erty of  any  other  individual.  It  may  result  from 
occupancy,  accession,  or  intellectual  labor. 

Acquittal,  in  law,  the  judicial  setting  free 
or  releasing  a  person  from  a  contract,  debt,  or 
other  obligation  :  but  the  term  is  more  commonly 
used  in  criminal  law  to  signify  the  deliverance 
from  a  charge  of  an  offense,  either  by  a  verdict 
of  not  guilty  by  a  jury,  or  by  simple  operation 
of  law,  as  in  the  case  of  an  accessory  where  the 
principal  is  acquitted.  In  the  United  States  ac- 
quittal may  be  the  result  of  some  technical  de- 
fect in  the  proceedings  or  by  the  verdict  in  favor 
of  the  accused  on  the  merits  of  the  case.  In 
the  first  case  a  second  trial  of  the  case  may  be 
instituted,  but  the  second  case  is  a  bar  to  any 
further  prosecution  of  the  accused  for  the  same 
offense.  This  is  guaranteed  by  a  Constitutional 
provision  that  "no  person  shall  be  twice  put  in 
icopardy  for  the  same  offense.1' 


Acraeinae,  a  sub-family  of  butterflies  of 
the  family  Nyniplialida-.  deriving  its  name  from 
the  leading  genus  Acrao.  There  arc  about  85 
species,  mostly  African.  They  are  of  small  or 
moderate  size,  and  have  semi-transparent  wings, 
reddish-brown  marked  with  black. 

Acra'nia,   a   primary   division   of   Vertebrata, 

represented  by  Amphioxus  (q.v.)  in  which,  as 
the  name  indicates,  there  is  no  skull,  while  the 
notochord  extends  to  the  anterior  end  of  the 
snout,  in  advance  of  the  central  nervous  sys- 
tem.  There  is  no  true  brain,  the  region  corre- 
sponding to  the  brain  of  the  genuine  vertebrates 
being  very  imperfectly  differentiated.  There  are 
only  two  pairs  of  cerebral  nerves,  and  the  dor- 
sal and  ventral  spinal  nerves  do  not  unite. 
There  is  also  no  trace  of  limbs.  The  pharynx 
is  of  comparatively  immense  size,  perforated  by 
very  numerous  gill-slits,  and  surrounded  by  an 
atrium.  The  liver  is  a  hollow  pouch  of  the  in- 
testine. There  is  no  heart,  and  the  blood  is 
colorless.  The  numerous  nephridia  remain  dis- 
tinct and  open  into  the  atrium.  There  are  no 
paired  eyes,  only  a  single  median  pigment-spot 
in  the  wall  of  the  brain;  there  are  no  ears, 
though  an  olfactory  pit  is  present.  The  repro- 
duction glands  are  segmentally  arranged,  but 
have  no  ducts. 

Acrasia  (Gr.  anpaala,  intemperance),  a  beauti- 
ful woman,  the  personification  of  all  that  is 
intemperate  and  immoderate,  portrayed  in  Spen- 
ser's 'Faerie  Quecne.'  She  lives  in  a  "Bower 
of  Bliss,"  on  a  floating  island,  in  which  there  is 
everything  to  delight  the  senses.  Her  character 
was  suggested  by  Circe,  but  probably  more  di- 
rectly by  the  Alcina  of  Ariosto. 

Acre,  Syria  (Biblical  Accho,  Greek  Ptolemais, 
other  forms  Acco,  Akka,  Aeon,  Accaron;  mod- 
ern French  St.  Jean  d'Acre),  a  port  some  miles 
north  of  Mt.  Carmel,  on  the  Bay  of  Acre, 
opposite  Haifa  on  the  opposite  horn.  The  har- 
bor is  one  of  the  best  on  the  coast ;  even  so.  it  is 
much  choked  with  sand.  Its  interest  is  chiefly 
in  its  varied  and  picturesque  past:  as  the  chief 
landing  place  for  invasion  of  Syria,  it  has  per- 
haps suffered  more  from  political  revolutions  and 
war  ravages  than  any  other  place  in  history.  Its 
name  first  occurs  in  a  letter  of  King  Burna- 
buriash  of  Babylon  to  Amenhotep  IV.  of  Egypt. 
c.  1400  B.C.  Sennacherib  of  Assyria  captured 
it  701  B.C.,  and  his  son  Esarhaddon  about  675 
gave  it  to  the  king  of  Tyre.  After  the  break-up 
of  Alexander's  empire,  Ptolemy  Soter  of  Egypt 
took  possession  of  it  and  renamed  it  Ptolemais ; 
it  afterward  became  part  of  the  Seleucid  empire 
of  Syria;  and  later  the  Romans  acquired  it  and 
made  a  colony  of  it.  Under  the  early  empire  it 
was  a  city  of  great  importance,  and  remnants  of 
its  grandeur  in  the  shape  of  fine  granite  and 
marble  pillars  still  exist.  In  635  A. D.  the  Saracens 
under  Khaled  and  Obeida  captured  it  and  Da- 
mascus. They  were  expelled  from  it  in  mo  by 
the  Crusaders,  who  made  it  their  principal  port 
and  retained  it  till  1187,  when  it  was  recovered 
by  Saladin.  Four  years  later  it  was  retaken  by 
Richard  Cceur  de  Lion  and  Philip  II.  of  France, 
at  the  cost  of  100,000  lives.  They  made  it  a 
bishopric  and  gave  it  to  the  order  of  St.  John 
(Fr.  St.  Jean,  from  which  it  took  its  French 
title).  These  held  it  for  just  a  century,  despite 
continual    assaults    from    the    Saracens;    and    it 


ACRE  — ACRE  RIVER 


was  a  large,  rich,  and  powerful  city,  filled  with 
churches,  convents,  and  hospitals.  In  1291, 
when  it  had  become  the  last  Christian  strong- 
hold left  in  Syria,  the  Saracens  retook  it  after 
a  bloody  siege  which  injured  it  greatly.  From 
that  time  it  sank  rapidly.  In  1517  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks  under  Selim  I. ;  and  at 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  it  was  a  vast 
scene  of  ruin,  relieved  only  by  a  few  cottages, 
a  mosque,  and  the  houses  of  French  factors. 
Toward  the  end  of  that  century  the  Turks, 
especially  Djezzar,  much  strengthened  and  im- 
proved it,  and  it  rose  to  some  importance  again. 
It  is  best  known  in  modern  times  for  its  brave 
and  successful  defense  in  1799,  by  means  of  a 
body  of  English  soldiers  and  marines  under 
command  of  Sir  Sydney  Smith,  against  Napo- 
leon, who,  after  spending  61  days  before  it,  was 
obliged  to  retreat.  It  continued  to  prosper  and 
be  the  seat  of  a  considerable  trade  till  1832,  with 
consuls  from  all  the  great  states,  though  crippled 
by  the  imposts,  monopolies,  and  misgovernment 
with  which  the  Turks  blight  every  place  that  en- 
dures them.  On  the  revolt  of  Mehemet  Ali,  the 
great  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  his  son  Ibrahim  besieged 
it  for  5  months  and  21  days  in  the  winter  of  1831- 
2,  and  before  he  captured  it,  its  public  and  pri- 
vate buildings  were  mostly  destroyed.  The 
Egyptians  repaired  and  improved  its  fortifica- 
tions ;  but  on  3  Nov.  1840  a  3-hours  bombard- 
ment by  a  combined  English,  Austrian,  and 
Turkish  fleet  reduced  it  to  a  ruin.  The  Turks 
were  again  put  in  possession  of  it  in  1841. 

Acre,  originally  «  field, »  «  pasture," 
«  hunting-ground  » ;  but  later  a  rough  measure 
of  size,  somewhat  similar  in  different  countries, 
and  supposed  to  represent  what  one  man  could 
plow  in  a  day.  The  Italian  term  giornate  (day's 
H'ork)  is  significant  on  this  point.  In  England 
reckoned  as  the  amount  a  yoke  of  oxen  could 
plow  in  a  day.  till  the  laws  of  the  13th  century 
and  later  settled  a  definitive  measure.  There 
and  in  the  United  States  this  is  termed  the 
statute  acre,  old  customary  acres  being  still  used 
in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales,  as  well  as  in 
several  English  counties,  all  different  and  some 
of  them  less  than  half  the  statute,  while  others 
are  more  than  double.  The  statute  acre  is  43,- 
560  square  feet,  or  4.840  square  yards,  or  160 
square  rods  or  perches  (from  the  yard  and  the 
rod  or  pole  with  which  it  was  measured)  ;  also 
divided  into  4  roods,  though  this  and  perch  are 
mere  book-words  in  the  United  States  at  least, 
as  is  the  square  « chain »  of  22  yards  or  484 
square  yards,  from  the  surveyor's  chain  used  in 
measuring  it.  The  following  table  gives  various 
measures  in  relation  to  the  English  and  Ameri- 
can acre.  The  German  empire  having  adopted 
the  French  metrical  system,  the  German  mor- 
gcn  are  becoming  of  historical  significance 
merely. 


English    acre 

Cheshire    " 

Westmoreland     " 

Lincolnshire    " 

Cornwall      " 

Leicestershire     " 

Scotch    " 

Irish    " 

Welsh     erw 


1. 00 

2. 1  1 
1.40 
'■-5 
1. 19 
0.48 
1-7 
1.62 
0.89 


stang    0.67 

Austria     joch     1.42 

Baden     moreen     0.89 

Belgium    hectare   (Fr.) 2.47 

Denmark    toende     5.50 


France   hectare    (100   ares) 2.47 

arpent    (common) 0.99 

Hamburg       morgen     2.38 

Hanover    0.64 

Holland   "  2.10 

Naples    moggia    0.83 

Poland    morgen     0.83 

Portugal    geira    1 .43 

Prussia    little  morgen    0.63 

great  morgen    1.40 

Russia    deciatina    2.70 

Sardinia     giornate    0.93 

Saxony     morgen     1.36 

Spain    f anegada    1.06 

Sweden    tunneland    1 . 1 3 

Switzerland    faux    1 .62 

Geneva arpent     1.27 

Tuscany    saccata   1.22 

LTnited    States acre     1.00 

Wurtemberg    morgen    2.40 

Roman,    ancient jugerum    0.66 

Greek,  ancient plethron 0.23 

NUMBER     OF     PLANTS     FOR     AN     ACRE     OF     GROUND. 

Dist.  apart.  Number  of 

Inches.  plants. 

3  by     3 696,960 

4  by      4 392,040 

6        by      6 1 74,240 

9       by     9 77.44o 

Feet. 

1  by  1 43.560 

i*A   by  i'A 19.360 

2  by  1 21,780 

2  by  2 1 0,890 

2ZA   by  2l/2 6,960 

3  by  1 14.520 

3   by  2 7,260 

3  by  3 4,840 

3»  by  3'A 3,55s 

4  by  1 10,890 

4   by  2 5,445 

4   by  3 3,630 

4  by  4 2,722 

4'A   by  4^ 2,151 

5  by  1 8,712 

5  by  2 4.356 

5  by  3 2.904 

5  by  4 2,178 

5  ,  by  5-; 1,742 

S'A  by  s'A 1. 417 

6  by  6 1,210 

6]A  by  6'A 1,031 

7  by  7 881 

8  by  8 680 

9  J>y  9 537 

■o   by  10 435 

11  by  11 360 

12  by  12 302 

13  by  13 257 

14  by  14 222 

15  by  15 193 

16  bv  16 170 

16'A  by  16V1 160 

17  by  17 150 

18  by  18 134 

19  by  19 120 

20  by  20 108 

25  by  25 69 

30  by  30 48 

33  by  33 40 

40  by  40 27 

5°  by  50 I7 

60  by  60 12 

66  by  66 10 

Acre  River,  a'kra,  South  America  (also 
called  Aquiry,  a'ke-re),  a  tributary  of  the 
Purus  River.  Its  sources  have  not  yet  been 
precisely  located,  but  are  probably  on  the  east- 
ern Andean  slopes  near  lat.  u°  S.  From  the 
point  at  which  it  becomes  navigable  for  small 
steamers  its  course  is  generally  northeast  to  its 
confluence  with  the  Purus ;  the  latter  flows 
nearly  parallel  to  and  north  of  the  Madeira, 
emptying  into  the  Amazon  west  of  Manaos. 
Together  these  rivers  give  access  to  an  exceed- 
ingly valuable  rubber  forest  district,  long  in 
dispute  between  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Brazil.  The 
name  Acre  is  commonly  applied  to  the  entire 
region.  Bolivia,  claiming  that  her  sovereignty 
had  been  recognized  by  Brazil  in  the  treaty  of 
1867  and  by  subsequent  acts,  granted  a  conces- 


ACRES  —  ACROPOLIS 


sion  for  developing  the  rubber  products  to 
an  Anglo-American  syndicate  in  1002;  but  she 
was  not  allowed  to  live  up  to  tins  agreement, 

though  she  had  troops  and  a  military  governor 
on  the  ground.     The  Brazilian  inhabits 
imprisoned  or   i  lit   every   Bolivian   in   the 

district,  captured  Port  Acre  24  Jan.  1 903,  in- 
stalled a  new  governor,  and  proclaimed  their 
allegiance  to  Brazil.  The  latter  country  there- 
upon sent  an  ultimatum  to  Bolivia,  and  on  8 
February  the  Bolivian  government  agreed  to 
admit  Brazilian  occupation  pending  a  settlement 
The  treaty  between  Bolivia  and  Brazil  signed  17 
Nov.  1903  provides  for  the  relinquishment  by 
the  former  country  of  all  that  part  of  the  vast 
Acre  region  lying  north  of  the  Abunan,  in  lat. 
10°  20'  S.,  and  a  line  following  water  courses  in 
a  southwesterly  direction  from  that  point  to  lat. 
ii°  S.,  or  approximately  to  the  sources  of  Acre 
River.  Brazil  agrees  to  pay  "an  indemnity  of 
£2,000.000  sterling,  which  the  Republic  of  Bolivia 
accepts  with  the  intention  of  using  the  same  . 
mainly  in  the  construction  of  railways  or  other 
works  tending  to  improve  the  communications 
and  develop  commerce  between  the  two  coun- 
tries'0 (Art.  3).  Moreover,  Brazil  (in  Art.  7) 
"binds  herself  to  build  on  Brazilian  territory, 
by  herself  or  by  a  private  company,  a  railway 
to  extend  from  Santo  Antonio  on  the  Madeira 
River  to  Guajara-Mirim  on  the  Mamore,  with  a 
branch  road  running  through  Villa-Murtinho, 
or  another  point  near  it  in  the  Stale  of  Matto 
Grosso,  to  Villa  Bella  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Beni  and  Mamore,"  the  object  being  to  furnish 
an  outlet  to  the  Madeira  and  Amazon  for  Boliv- 
ian products  (see  South  America.)  ;  and  in 
Art.  8  Brazil  "declares  that  she  will  negotiate 
directly  with  the  Republic  of  Peru  the  boundary 
dispute  concerning  the  territory  comprised  be- 
tween the  source  of  the  Javary  (or  Yavari : 
about  lat.  70  S.)  and  parallel  11°.  and  will  en- 
deavor to  reach  a  friendly  solution  of  the  litiga- 
tion.8 Bolivia  and  Peru  agreed  by  treaty  of 
21  Nov.  1901  to  submit  to  arbitration  all  contro- 
versies pending  between  them;  their  long-stand- 
ing boundary  disputes  were  actually  referred  to 
the  President  of  the  Argentine  Republic  as  arbi- 
trator in  1904.  There  still  remained  to  be  de- 
termined the  conflicting  claims  of  Peru  and 
Brazil  to  that  portion  of  the  great  Amazon 
basin  comprised  between  lat.  7°  S.  and  lat.  11° 
S. ;  extending  from  the  eastern  cordillera  of  the 
Andes  to  the  heart  of  the  continent :  watered 
not  only  by  the  Acre  but  by  the  Jurua  and 
Purus  rivers  as  well;  a  country  imperial  in  size 
and  of  incalculable  undeveloped  resources,  yet 
so  situated  that  it  is  wholly  dependent  upon 
Brazil.  An  examination  of  the  maps  (see 
South  America)  will  show  that  the  lands  in 
question  are  valueless  unless  Brazil  keeps  open 
the  only  outlets  for  their  produce,  the  water- 
ways through  Brazilian  territory  to  the  Atlantic; 
that,  therefore,  Peru  cannot  reasonably  hope  to 
gain  anything  in  this  contention  by  force  of 
arms  if  Brazil  is  unwilling  to  yield.  Besides,  a 
resort  to  arbitration  was  indicated  as  the  pn  per 
course  by  the  experience  of  Bolivia  and  Brazil. 
Nevertheless,  when  Brazil  demanded  the  evacu- 
ation of  points  in  the  disputed  territory  occupied 
by  Peru,  as  a  condition  precedent  to  arbitration, 
Peru  refused  compliance,  saying  that  she,  for 
her  part,  proposed  arbitration  "without  demand- 
ing previous  conditions  which  should  be  re- 
garded   as    unnecessary   by    governments    really 


wishing  to  reach  a  prompt,  just,  and  pacific  set- 
tlement of  their  differences"  (May  1904).  The 
delay  proved  fatal  to  Peruvian  interests  in  this 
quarter.  While  diplomatic  notes  were  being  ex- 
changed,  Brazilian  troops  from  Manaos  defeated 
the  small  army  of  occupation  maintained  by 
Peru.  Thus  the  Acre-Purus-Jurua  region 
pas  ed  under  Brazilian  control. 

Acres,    Bob,   an    awkward    young    country 
booby  of  the  gentleman  class  of  England,  who 

figures  in  Sheridan's  comedy  of  'The  Rivals.' 

Acrisius,    in    Greek    mythology,    king    of 
Are,"-,    lie  expelled   his   twin   brother   Prcetus 

(q.v.)  from  lu-  inheritance  and  for  a  time  ruled 
alone  in  Tiryns  and  ArgOS,  but  was  later  forced 
irrender  to  his  brother  the  former  kingdom. 
He  was  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Delphic 
amphictyomy.  For  the  legend  concerning  the 
prediction  of  the  oracle  that  he  would  die  at 
the   hands  of  Ins  grandson,  see    PERSEUS. 

Acrobat.     See  Gymnastics. 

Acroceraunium,  ak'ro-se-ra'ne-um,  the 
N.W.    promontory   of    Epirus,   with   mountains 

called  Acroceraunia  ("thunder-peaks"),  which 
separated  the  Ionian  and  Adriatic  Seas,  and 
were  noted  for  attracting  storms,  and  hence 
dreaded  by  mariners.  Its  modern  name  is 
Chimara  or  Cape  Glossa,  or  Cape  Linguetta. 

Acrocorinthus,  in  ancient  times  the  acrop- 
olis or  citadel  of  Corinth :  a  steep  rock  nearly 
1,900  feet  high,  overhanging  the  city,  and 
crowned  with  the  remains  of  Venetian  and  Tur- 
kish fortifications,  ruins  of  mosques  and  dwell- 
ing-houses, and  also  a  barrack  with  a  few 
soldiers.  On  its  top  stood  of  old  a  temple  of 
Aphrodite. 

Acrop'clis,  the  high  part  of  any  ancient 
Greek  city  ;  usually  an  eminence  overlooking  the 
city,  and  frequently  its  citadel.  Notable  among 
such  citadels  were  the  Acropoleis  of  Argos,  of 
Messenc.  of  Thebes,  and  of  Corinth ;  but  pre- 
eminently the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  to  which  the 
name  is  now  chiefly  applied.  This  was  the 
original  city  (as  indeed  most  of  the  acropoleis. 
dating  from  the  times  of  barbaric  insecurity). 
later  the  upper  city  as  distinguished  from  the 
lower,  and  was  built  upon  a  separate  spur  or 
butte  of  Hymettus.  The  hill  rises  out  of  the 
plain,  a  mass  of  rock  about  260  feet  high,  witli 
precipitous  sides  save  for  a  narrow  access  at  the 
western  end  where  there  was  a  zigzag  road  foi 
chariots.  The  summit  of  this  rock  forms  an 
uneven  plain  500  by  1,150  feet  at  the  maximum 
breadth  and  length.  Within  this  area  were 
reared,  chiefly  in  the  days  of  Pericles,  remark- 
able specimens  of  architectural  art.  The  build- 
ings were  grouped  around  two  principal 
temples,  the  Parthenon  and  the  Erechtheum.  Be- 
tween  these  temples  stood  the  statue  of  Athene 
Promachos  («  fighter  in  front  »),  by  Phidias,  the 
helmet  and  spear  of  which  were  the  first  objects 
visible  from  the  sea.  About  these  centre-pieces, 
covering  the  rocky  height  and  extending  down 
the  steep  sides,  were  lesser  temples,  statues, 
theatres,  fanes,  and  odea  (music  halls).  Among 
the  famous  buildings  on  the  sides  of  the  Acropo- 
lis were  the  Dionysiac  theatre,  the  Odeum  of 
Pericles,  and  the  Odeum,  built  by  Herodes  Atti- 
cus  in  honor  of  his  wife  Regilla.  The  ravages 
of    accident    and    war    and    Athenian    marble- 


ACROSTIC  — ACT 


mercnants,  and  in  case  of  the  Parthenon  (q.v.) 
its  deliberate  dismantling  by  Lord  Elgin  early 
in  the  19th  century,  have  largely  destroyed  and 
despoiled  these  classic  works.  Archaeologists 
have  secured  many  important  remains  of  the 
Acropolis,  which  are  preserved  in  the  collections 
of  various  European  capitals  and  in  the  new 
archaeological  museum  at  Athens. 

Acros'tic,  a  poetical  composition,  disposed 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  initial  letters  of  each 
line,  taken  in  order,  form  a  person's  name  or 
other  complete  word  or  words.  This  kind  of 
poetical  trifling  was  very  popular  with  the 
French  poets  from  the  time  of  Francis  I.  until 
Louis  XIV.  Among  other  English  writers,  Sir 
John  Davies,  who  lived  in  the  16th  century. 
amused  himself  in  this  way.  He  produced  26 
pieces  called  1  Hymns  to  Astrea.>  each  of  them 
forming  an  acrostic  upon  the  words  Elisabetha 
Regina.     The  following  is  an  example: 

E  ternal   virgin,    goddess    true, 

L  et  me  presume  to  sing  to  you. 

I    ove,  e'en  great  Jove,   nath  leisure 

S  ometimes  to  hear  the  vulgar  crew, 

A   nd  heed  them  oft  with  pleasure. 

B  lessed  Astrea!   I   in  part 

E  njoy  the  blessings  you  impart, 

T  he  peace,   the  milk  and    honey, 

H  umanity  and  civil  art, 

A  richer  dow'r  than  money. 

R  ight  glad  am  I  that  now  I  live, 

E  'en  in  these  days  whereto  you  give 

G  reat  happiness  and  glory; 

I    f  after  you  I  should   be  born, 

N  o  doubt  I   should  my  birthday  scorn, 

A  dmiring  your  sweet   story. 

In  the  Old  Testament  tnere  are  12  psalms 
written  according  to  this  principle.  Of  these 
the  119th  Psalm  is  the  most  remarkable;  it  con- 
sists of  22  stanzas,  each  of  which  commences 
with  a  Hebrew  letter  and  is  called  by  its  name. 
Acrostic  verse  is  no  longer  cultivated  by  serious 
poets,  and  has  in  fact  been  relegated  mainly  to 
country  newspapers,  except  as  a  jest  or  social 
pastime.  Edgar  Allen  Poe.  however,  wrote 
some  striking  acrostics,  varying  the  form  with 
great  ingenuity.  One  example,  beginning  with 
the  first  letter  of  the  first  line,  the  second  of  the 
second,  and  so  on,  forms  a  lady's  name. 

Acroterion  («  extremity  »),  in  architecture, 
an  ornament  —  statue,  palmette,  or  leaf-deco- 
ration—  placed  on  the  apex  of  a  pediment  or 
one  of  its  lower  angles. 

Act.  In  the  drama:  one  of  the  parts  into 
which  a  play  is  divided,  to  mark  change  of 
time  or  place,  to  give  a  respite  to  the  actors  and 
audience  from  the  strain  and  physical  fatigue 
of  sitting  intent  on  a  long  play,  and  to  enable 
actors  to  change  costumes  and  managers  to 
change  scenery.  In  Greek  plays,  where  there 
was  no  scenery  and  no  change  of  costume,  there 
were  no  separate  acts, —  the  episodes  separated 
by  the  lyrical  portions  being  not  such  either  in 
design  or  effect, —  and  the  action  was  continuous 
from  beginning  to  end  and  the  unities  strictly 
observed.  If  the  principal  actors  left  the  stage, 
the  chorus  took  up  the  argument  and  con- 
tributed an  integral  part  of  the  play ;  chiefly  in 
the  form  of  comment  on  the  action,  but  often  by 
supplying  necessary  information  impossible  to 
give  in  the  regular  speeches.  When  it  was  de- 
sired to  develop  the  story  further  than  the  sin- 
gle play  could  conveniently  do,  another  drama. 
—  etymologically  the  same  as  act, —  carried  it  on 
to  another  time  or  place,   forming  the  common 


Greek  trilogies,  or  groups  of  three,  in  which 
the  same  characters  reappear.  The  Roman  the- 
atre first  adopted  the  division  into  acts,  sus- 
pending all  stage  business  in  the  intervals.  They 
made  the  regular  number  five,  and  Horace  sets 
this  down  as  a  fixed  rule  of  art.  On  the  revival 
of  letters  it  was  almost  universally  used  by 
dramatists ;  and  that  it  rests  on  something  more 
than  caprice  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  Shake- 
speare, who  cared  nothing  for  fixed  rules  of 
art  and  utterly  disregarded  the  unities,  never 
varies  this  division.  For  a  great  drama  there 
is  a  real  reason,  though  in  light  comedy  it  is 
almost  universally  dropped  at  present.  The 
natural  division  is  into  three, —  introduction, 
climax,  and  conclusion ;  and  the  central  act  still 
fulfills  the  same  function.  But  for  a  great  ac- 
tion this  is  apt  to  hurry  matters  too  fast  for  a 
proper  development  either  of  character  or  in- 
terest ;  hence  the  first  and  the  last  act  are 
doubled,  the  approach  to  the  main  point  and  the 
preparation  for  the  catastrophe  being  both  ren- 
dered more  gradual.  Some  critics  have  laid 
down  exact  rules  as  to  the  part  each  act  is  to 
sustain  in  a  play;  but  these  cannot  be  justified 
and  have  never  been  regarded.  It  is  obvious, 
however,  that  each  act  should  form  a  certain 
unity,  ending  with  a  point  of  deep  but  suspended 
interest,  yet  should  be  an  integral  part  of  the 
whole.  Moliere  _  began  the  three-act  comedy ; 
but  even  to  an  impatient  generation  this  is  too 
short  for  a  play  of  power,  and  four  is  most 
preferred.    See  Drama. 

In  Law. —  (1)  Anything  officially  done  bv 
the  court,  as  the  phrases  « Acts  of  Court," 
«Acts  of  Sederunt,"  etc.  (2)  In  bankruptcy, 
an  act  the  commission  of  which  by  a  debtor 
renders  him  liable  to  be  adjudged  a  bankrupt. 
(3)  In  civil  law,  a  writing  which  states  in  a 
legal  form  that  a  thing  has  been  said,  done,  or 
agreed.  (4)  In  evidence,  the  act  of  one  con- 
spirator performed  in  pursuance  of  the  common 
design  may  be  given  in  evidence  against  his  co- 
conspirators. (5)  Acts  done,  distinguished  into 
acts  of  God  (q.v.),  of  the  law,  and  of  men. 

In  mental  philosophy,  an  operation  of  the 
mind  supposed  to  require  the  putting  forth  of 
energy,  as  distinguished  from  a  state  of  mind  in 
which  the  faculties  remain  passive.  In  this 
sense  such  expressions  as  the  following  are 
used:  the  act  of  thinking,  the  act  of  judging, 
the  act  of  resolving,  the  act  of  reasoning  or  of 
reason  ;  each  of  these  being  viewed  as  a  single 
operation  of  the  human  mind. 

In  parliamentary  language,  an  ellipsis  for  a 
law  enacted  by  a  congress,  legislature,  parlia- 
ment, etc.  A  statute,  law,  or  edict,  consisting 
of  a  bill  which  has  been  successfully  carried 
through  both  Houses  of  Congress  or  legislature, 
and  received  the  approval  of  the  executive.  See 
specific  titles  infra,  Act  of  God  ;  Act  of  Settle- 
ment; Act  of  Supremacy;  Act  of  Toleration  ; 
Act  of  Uniformity. 

In  theology,  the  carrying  out  of  an  operation 
in  a  moment,  as  contradistinguished  from  the 
performance  of  a  work  requiring  a  considerable 
time  for  its  accomplishment. 

In  universities,  of  old,  the  commencement  or 
taking  of  degrees ;  now  disused  save  as  a  form 
at  Cambridge.  England.  The  Student  «  keeps 
the  act  »  by  reading  a  Latin  thesis  which  he 
must  defend  against  three  opponents  named  by 
the  proctors. 


ACTA  DIURNA  — ACTINOMETER 


Acta  Diurna  ("Daily  Acts»);  also  called 
At  r\  Popi  11."  Arts  of  the  People  •;  Pubi  n  \. 
ot  Public  Acts";  Urbana,  "Municipal  Acl 
Written  daily  newspapers  in  ancient  Rome, 
posted  up  in  public  to  be  read  nr  copied,  then 
taken  down  and  filed  in  the  public  archives.  The 
news  was  collected  by  reporters  (actuarii)  em- 
ployed hy  the  Stale,  and  consisted  of  much  the 
same  sort  of  matter  as  that  contained  in  modern 
newspapers:  a  miscellany  of  everything  that 
might  interest  the  citizen,  from  the  latest  war 
news,  abstracts  of  the  best  speeches  in  the 
Senate  or  Forum  or  the  courts,  the  most 
important  legal  decisions  or  political  events, 
\jrobably  even  to  interviews,  down  to  the  most 
trivial  gossip  of  the  town, —  not  only  births, 
marriages,  divorces,  and  deaths,  murders,  do- 
mestic infelicities,  and  accidents,  but  any  unusual 
omens  or  prodigies,  lusus  naturw,  etc.  Pctronius 
in  t Trimalchio's  Feast  '  gives  an  admirable  bur- 
lesque of  it.  The  letters  of  Romans  to  out-of- 
town  friends  were  regularly  furnished  with 
spicy  news  from  the  Acta  Diurna,  which  seem 
to  have  taken  the  place  of  the  older  <  Annates' 
or  yearly  chronicles,  too  slow  for  the  active 
later  republic  and  only  reporting  the  more  im- 
portant occurrences,  some  time  after  i.ii  B.C. 
The  usual  statement  is  that  Julius  Csesar  intro- 
duced them  ;  but  it  hardly  seems  probable  that 
the  Roman  people,  once  used  to  even  an  imper- 
fect form  of  news-gathering,  dispensed  with  it 
altogether  for  three-quarters  of  a  century  and 
did  not  think  of  it  again  until  it  was  invented 
for  them.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  it  was 
in  use  in  Caesar's  time,  for  he  ordered  Antony's 
offer  of  a  crown  to  him  on  the  Lupercalia  to  be 
set  down  in  the  Acta  Diurna.  (Le  Clerc,  'Ro- 
man Newspapers.'  in  French,  1838,  entertaining 
but  not  cautious  in  facts;  Hiibner,  <  Acta  of  the 
Roman  Republic,'   in  Latin,  Leipsic,  i860.) 

Actaea.  a  genus  of  the  natural  order 
Ranunculacear,  represented  in  the  L'nited  States 
by  the  baneberries.  A.  alba  or  white  cohosh,  or 
baneberry,  is  found  in  rocky  woods  north  from 
Georgia.  A.  spicata,  red  cohosh,  or  red  banc- 
bem  farther  west  and  near  to  the  north 

than  the  white  baneberry. 

Acta  Eruditorum,  the  first  literary  journal 
of  Germany.  It  was  started  in  1682  by  Prof. 
Otto  Mencke  of  Leipsic.  and  enjoyed  a  long 
existence  and  great  popularity.  It  was  owned 
by  his  family  till  1754-  after  which  it  began  to 
decline  in  value  and  in  the  number  of  its  sub- 
scribers  ;  and  the  irregularity  of  its  appearance 
became  at  length  so  great  that  the  last  volume, 
for  i"*',  was  published  in  1782,  exactly  a  cen- 
tury from  the  time  when  the  journal  was  com- 
menced. The  whole  consists  of  1 17  quarto 
volumes,  including  the  supplementary  volumes 
and  indices.  In  this  journal  Leibnitz  first  gave 
the  world  his  notions  respecting  the  differen- 
tial calculus. 

Actaeon,  ak-te'on,  in  Greek  mythology,  the 
son  of  Aristaeus  and  Autonoe  (a  daughter  of 
Cadmus),  a  great  hunter.  He  was  turned  into  a 
stag  by  Artemis  (1  liana)  for  looking  at  her 
when  she  was  bathing  (or,  as  some  say,  for 
boasting  that  he  was  superior  to  her  in  hunting), 
and  was  torn  to  pieces  by  his  own  dogs.  This 
incident  is  exhibited  in  various  ancient  works 
of  art. 


Acta  Sanctorum,  or  Martyrum,  the  col- 
lective title  given  to  several  old  writings  re- 
specting saints  and  martyrs  in  the  Creek  and 
Roman  Catholic  Churches,  but  now  applied  es- 
pecially to  one  extensive  collection  begun  by  the 
Jesuit  Rosweyd,  and  continued  by  J.  Holland. 
The  work  was  carried  on  i  [661  1  by  a  society  of 
learned  Jesuits,  who  were  styled  Bollandists, 
until    1794,  when   its  further   p  was  pre- 

vented through  the  invasion  of  Holland  by  the 
French.  In  recent  times  the  undertaking  has 
been  resumed. 

Actin'ia.     See  Sea-Anemone. 

Actinia'ria  (Gk.  aktis.  ray),  the  sea-anem- 
ones.   See  Anthozoa;  Sea-Anemone. 

Actin'ium.  (1)  A  supposed  metallic  ele- 
ment, occurring  in  nature  associated  with  zinc. 
Its  existence  was  announced  in  1881  hy  Dr.  T.  L. 
Phipson,  who  observed  that  certain  salts  of 
zinc  gave  a  white  precipitate  of  zinc  sulphid 
which  blackens  upon  exposure  to  light  and  re- 
turns again  to  its  white  state  in  the  dark;  the 
blackening  effect  not  being  observed  when  the 
substance  is  ed  to  the  light  under  a  sheet 

of  glass.  Phipson  attributed  this  action  to  the 
presence  of  a  previously  unrecognized  element 
which  he  called  actinium  on  account  of  the 
of  its  sulphid  to  light.  The  zinc 
sulphid  with  which  he  experimented  appeared 
to  yield  about  four  per  cent  of  actinium  sul- 
phid, and  he  suggested  that  "the  presence  of 
this  new  element  in  zinc  will  account,  probably, 
for  the  discrepancies  noticed  in  the  equivalent 
of  this  metal  as  determined  hy  various  ,  .'serv- 
ers." The  hydrate  of  actinium  is  described  as 
a  voluminous,  white,  gelatinous  precipitate,  with 
a  slight  tinge  of  salmon  when  seen  in  bulk. 
The  anhydrous  oxid  is  not  volatile  and  has  a 
pale  fawn  color.  The  sulphid  is  nf  a  pale 
canary-yellow  color,  and  when  exposed  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun,  unshielded  hy  glass,  it 
becomes  quite  black  in  about  20  minutes.  Dr. 
Phipson's  account  of  the  preparation  of  the  salts 
of  actinium  is  given  in  the  'Journal  of  the 
Franklin  Institute5  for  December  1881.  The 
existence  of  the  element  is  not  now  admitted 
by  chemists.  (2)  A  radioactive  substance, 
presumably  an  element,  discovered  by  V  De- 
bierne  in  tooo.  It  gives  off  the  same  kinds  of 
rays  as  radium,  but  the  "emanation"  that  it 
emits  dies   away   with   gn  ty.      Actinium, 

like  radium  and  polonium,  is  prepared  from 
pitchblende,  and  belongs  to  the  iron  group.  See 
Radioactivity. 

Actin'ograph,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
the  actinometer  (q.v. ),  especially  when  it  is 
arranged  so  as  to  give  an  automatic  record 
of  the  intensity  of  the  light. 

Actin'olite,  a  mineral  in  Dana's  Amphibole 
group,  having  the  composition  Ca(Mg.Fc)3Sii 
Ou.  It  occurs  in  various  forms,  and  includes 
the  varieties  nephrite,  asbestus,  smaragdite,  uro- 
Iite,  cummingtonite,  dannemorite,  and  grunerite. 
Actinolite  is  greenish  in  color,  and  occurs  usual- 
ly in  the  form  of  long  slender  crystals  or  in  a 
fibrous   and    radiated    state. 

Actinom'eter,  an  instrument  for  measur- 
ing the  intensity  of  the  chemical  action  of  the 
sun's  rays.  For  use  in  photography  for  the 
judging  of  times  of  exposure,  the  essential  part 
of  the   instrument  is  a  strip  of  sensitive   silver 


ACTINOMYCOSIS  — ACTION 


paper,  which  is  blackened  by  the  sun's  rays,  the 
time  required  to  darken  the  paper  to  a  definite 
shade  being  taken  as  the  index  to  the  intensity 
of  the  light.  Any  other  chemical  action  that 
light  rays  are  capable  of  performing  may  be 
made  the  basis  of  an  actinometer ;  but  the  indi- 
cations of  instruments  in  which  the  fundamental 
chemical  changes  are  different  will  not  neces- 
sarily agree  with  one  another,  because  any  given 
actinometer  shows  nothing  but  the  intensity  of 
the  particular  part  of  the  spectrum  which  per- 
forms the  chemical  change  upon  which  that  in- 
strument is  based. 

Actinomyco'sis,  a  disease  due  to  a  vegetable 
parasite,  Actinomyces  bovis,  of  the  fungus  class. 
This  fungus  lives  its  life  in  grasses  and  plants 
and  thus  infects  cattle,  in  which  animals  it  is 
comparatively  frequent,  causing  the  disease 
known  as  "lumpy  jaw.B  These  in  turn  affect 
man.     See  Parasites. 

In  man  the  symptoms  are  often  very  obscure. 
Some  infections  of  the  lungs  have  appeared  to 
be  cases  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  Pathologic- 
ally the  disease  is  one  of  new  connective  tissue 
formation  with  abscess  production.  It  is  a 
chronic  disease  and  often  is  a  slow,  suppurative 
affair  affecting  the  tissues  about  the  pharynx 
and  neck.  The  bones,  lungs,  and  intestinal  tract 
may  be  affected.  The  diagnosis  may  be  readily 
made  by  the  microscope.  Consult:  Salmon,  'In- 
vestigation Relating  to  the  Treatment  of  Lumpy- 
Jaw,  or  Actinomycosis  in  Cattle.  Department 
of  Agriculture  Bulletin  Xo.  2  (1893). 

Actin'ophone,  better  known  as  the  radiophone 
(q.v.) 

Actinozo'a,  or  An'thozoa,  a  class  of  ccelen- 
terates  which  exist  only  in  the  polyp  state,  not 
giving  rise  to  a  medusa  form.  They  are  repre- 
sented by  the  sea-anemone  (q.v.)  and  coral 
polyps.  Their  bodies  are  vase-shaped,  usually 
fixed  at  one  end,  though  most  of  them  are  cap- 
able of  slowly  moving  about.  They  are  provided 
with  a  digestive  sac  partially  free  from  the  body- 
cavity  opening  into  it  below,  and  held  in  place 
by  six  or  eight  mesenteries  radiating  from  the 
digestive  cavity  and  dividing  the  perivisceral 
space  into  chambers.  The  mouth  is  surrounded 
with  a  circle  of  tentacles,  which  are  hollow,  com- 
municating directly  with  the  perivisceral  cham- 
bers. There  is  a  slightly  marked  bilateral  sym- 
metry. To  the  edges  of  the  mesenteries  (usually 
the  free  ones)  are  attached  the  reproductive 
glands,  both  male  and  female,  or  of  one  sex 
alone ;  also  the  «  craspeda,»  or  mesenterial  fila- 
ments, which  contain  a  large  number  of  thread- 
cells  (qv.).  The  body  is  either  entirely  fleshy 
or  secretes  a  calcareous  or  horny  coral-stock, 
and  when  the  species  is  social  it  is  connected 
by  a  coenenchyme.  In  some  forms,  as  sea-pens 
(q.v.)  the  entire  colony  is  capable  of  limited 
locomotion.  There  is  no  well-marked  nervous 
system,  but  a  plexus  of  fusiform  ganglionic  cells 
connected  by  nerve-fibres  in  the  base  of  actin- 
ians.  Reproduction  takes  place  by  self-division, 
gemmation,  or  by  eggs,  the  sexes  being  separate 
or  united  in  the  same  individual ;  the  young  un- 
dergoing a  blastula  and  gastrula  condition,  and 
then  becoming  fixed. 

The  Actinozoa  are  divided  into  two  sub-classes, 
the  Zoantharia.  and  the  Alcyonaria  (qq.v.). 

Action.  In  law,  the  formal  demand  of 
one's  right  from  another  person,  made  and  in- 


sisted in  a  court  of  justice  which  has  jurisdiction 
of  the  person  and  the  subject-matter  of  litiga- 
tion. In  a  quite  common  sense,  action  includes 
all  the  formal  proceedings  in  a  court  of  justice 
attendant  upon  the  demand  of  a  right  made 
by  one  person,  or  party,  of  another  in  such 
court,  including  an  adjudication  upon  the  right, 
and  its  enforcement  or  denial  by  the  court. 

The  parties  to  an  action  are  called  plaintiff 
and  defendant,  and  the  former  is  said  to  sue  or 
prosecute  the  latter,  hence  the  word  suit  instead 
of  action.  In  some  few  instances  the  redress 
sought  by  a  civil  action  consists  in  the  recovery 
of  some  specific  article  of  property  wrongfully 
and  unlawfully  taken  by  the  defendant  from 
the  plaintiff,  but  most  frequently  the  object  of  an 
action  is  to  obtain  compensation  in  money  for  an 
injury  complained  of,  which  compensation  is 
technically  called  damages. 

The  action  is  said  to  terminate  properly  at 
judgment. 

Civil  actions  are  those  actions  which  hive 
for  their  object  the  recovery  of  private  rights, 
or   of   damages    for   their    infraction. 

Criminal  actions  are  those  actions  prosecuted 
in  a  court  of  justice,  in  the  name  of  the  govern- 
ment, against  one  or  more  persons  accused  of  a 
crime. 

Transitory  actions  are  those  civil  actions  the 
cause  of  which  might  have  arisen  in  one  place  or 
county   as   well   as   another. 

Local  actions  are  those  civil  actions  the  cause 
of  which  could  have  arisen  in  some  particular 
place  or  county  only. 

Personal  actions  are  those  civil  actions  which 
are  brought  for  the  recovery  of  personal  prop- 
erty, for  the  enforcement  of  some  contract,  or 
to  recover  damages  for  the  commission  of  an 
injury  to  the  person  or  property. 

Real  actions  are  those  brought  for  the  recov- 
ery of  lands,  tenements,  and  hereditaments. 
Mixed  actions  are  those  which  partake  of  the 
nature  of  both  real  and  personal  actions. 

In  higher  theoretical  mechanics  the  word 
«  action  »  is  used  to  signify  the  value  of  a  cer- 
tain integral,  whose  form  may  vary  according  to 
the  character  of  the  problem  in  hand.  In  the 
case  of  a  single  particle  the  action  is  the  space 
integral  of  the  momentum  of  the  particle,  or  it 
is  double  the  time  integral  of  its  kinetic  energy. 
In  a  system  of  such  particles  the  total  action  is 
the  sum  of  the  actions  of  the  constituent  parti- 
cles. It  is  probable  that  the  physical  principle 
corresponding  to  the  mathematical  expression 
called  «  action  »  will  some  day  be  exhibited  to 
us  in  a  simple  form ;  but  up  to  the  present 
time  no  mathematician  or  physicist  has  succeed- 
ed in  doing  this.  The  importance  of  «  action  » 
as  a  mathematical  conception  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  theorem,  which  has  long  been 
known :  «  If  the  sum  of  the  potential  and  kinet- 
ic energies  of  a  system  is  the  same  in  all  its 
configurations,  then,  of  all  the  sets  of  paths  by 
which  the  parts  of  the  system  can  be  guided  by 
frictionless  constraint  to  pass  from  one  given 
configuration  to  another,  that  one  for  which  the 
action  is  least  is  the  natural  one.  and  requires  no 
restraints  The  theorem  just  stated  is  known  as 
Maupertuis'  «  principle  of  least  action. »  There  is 
also  a  principle  of  stationary  action,  and  one 
of  varying  action;  but  it  is  impossible  to  eluci- 
date   these    without    a    prohibitive    amount    of 


ACTIUM  — ACTON 


mathematics.  The  last  two  principles  were  for- 
mulated by  Sir  William  Rowan  Hamilton. 

In  theoretical  mechanics  the  word  « action* 
is  also  used  to  signify  a  force  acting  upon  a 
body,  as  in  the  expression  «  action  and  reaction." 
See  FORCE;  Motion.  Laws  of. 

In  applied  mechanics  the  mechanism  by  which 
some  operation  is  effected  in  a  machine  is  often 
called  the  action  of  the  machine;  thus  we  speak 
of  the  action  of  a  gun.  meaning  the  mechanism 
governing  the  loading  and  tiring  of  the  gun; 
or  of  the  action  of  a  piano,  meaning  the  com- 
bination of  keys,  hammers,  and  other  parts,  by 
which  the  player  causes  the  strings  of  the  instru- 
ment  to    vibrate. 

In  psychology.    See  Expression. 

Actium.  ak'shium,  Greece,  now  La  Tunta, 
la  poon'ta  :  a  promontory  on  the  W.  coast  jutting 
out  from  the  N.W.  extremity  of  Acarnania,  on 
the  Ionian  Sea  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of 
Arta  (old  Anibricia),  opposite  Prevesa  and  just 
N.  of  Santa  Maura  (old  Lcucadia).  Forts 
Punta  and  Aktium  defend  it.  It  represents  one 
of  the  greatest  of  historical  landmarks:  the 
naval  battle  of  -'  Sept.  31  B.C.,  between  Octavian- 
us  (later  the  Emperor  Augustus)  and  Antony, 
which  decided  the  mastership  of  the  then  civ- 
ilized world.  For  the  reasons  of  the  engagement, 
see  Antonius:  it  was  fought  by  him,  not  for 
victory  but  for  escape,  which  partly  explains 
its  half-heartedness  and  result  on  his  side.  Botii 
armies  were  drawn  up  on  the  shore  watching 
it.  After  waiting  four  days  for  a  calm  they 
engaged  about  noon  on  the  fifth.  Antony  bad 
some  500  large  ships,  Octavianus  fewer  and 
lighter  ones.  Antony  on  his  right  was  opposed  to 
Agrippa,  Octavianus  on  his  to  Cselius;  Cleopa- 
tra's to  were  in  the  rear.  Antony's  vessels  were 
huge  hulks,  too  clumsy  for  manoeuvring;  but  on 
the  other  hand  so  impenetrable  with  iron-bolted 
timbers  and  brass  plates  and  spikes  that  Octa- 
vianus' galleys  dared  not  ram  them  for  fear 
of  shattering  themselves,  and  skirmished  rapidly 
around,  hurling  missiles  and  trying  to  board.  It 
was  more  like  the  besieging  of  forts  than  a  naval 
battle :  one  of  Antony's  tall  structures  being 
often  surrounded  with  three  or  four  of  its 
nimble  foes  pouring  darts  and  fire-balls  into  it, 
to  which  it  replied  from  catapults  loaded  with 
heavy  missiles.  At  length  Agrippa  used  his 
superior  numbers  to  attempt  a  flanking  move- 
ment; Antony's  flag-captain  drew  his  wing 
away  from  the  centre  to  prevent  it :  Cleopatra 
took  alarm,  and  to  make  sure  of  escape  her 
squadron  broke  through  the  front  rank,  throw- 
ing it  into  disorder,  and  sailed  away  for  Egypt. 
Antony  jumped  into  a  small  galley  and  followed 
her.  leaving  his  command  to  its  fate:  even  so  it 
fought  on  till  about  4  p.m.,  when  300  ships  had 
been  taken  and  many  burned,  and  5,000  men 
killed;  it  then  yielded.  The  land  army  surren- 
dered a  week  later.  In  commemoration  of  the 
triumph  Octavianus  enlarged  the  temple  of 
Apollo  at  Actium,  dedicated  his  trophies  there, 
instituted  quinquennial  games,  and  built  Nicop- 
olis  («  city  of  victory  »)  on  the  site  of  his  army's 
camp,  near  the  modern  Prevesa.  (Plutarch's 
<Life  of  Antony)'  is  the  only  first-hand  account 
in  an  English  translation;  and  Dion  Cassius,  in 
Greek,  is  much  later  and  less  judicious.) 

\      Active  Constituents  of  Plants.     See  Plants. 


Act  of  God,  an  accident  which  arises  from 
a  cause  which  operates  without  interference  or 
aid  from  man.  The  term  is  sometimes  used  as 
equivalent  to  inevitable  accident,  but  incorrectly 
according  to  some  authorities,  although  Sir 
YVm.  Jones  proposed  the  use  of  «  inevitable 
accident  »   instead  of  «  act  of  God.» 

Act  of  Settlement,  an  act  of  the  Parliament 
of  England  in  1701.  vesting  the  hereditary  right 
to  the  English  throne  in  Sophia,  Electress  of 
Hanover,  and  her  Protestant  descendants,  con- 
stituting the  source  of  the  sovereignty  of  the 
Mouse  of  Hanover  or  Brunswick,  the  present 
ruling  line.  The  act  prohibited  the  king  (or 
queen)  from  going  to  war  in  defense  of  non- 
English  powers  without  the  assent  of  Parlia- 
ment. 

Act  of  Supremacy.  (1)  An  act  of  the  Par- 
liament of  England,  in  15.54,  by  which  the 
king  was  made  the  sole  and  supreme  head  of 
the  Church  of  England.  (2)  A  re-enactment  of 
the  above,  with  changes,  in  1559. 

Act  of  Toleration,  usually  known  as  the 
Toleration  Act,  an  act  of  the  reign  of  William 
and  Mary,  granting  freedom  of  religious  wor- 
ship, under  certain  comparatively  moderate  con- 
ditions, to  all  dissenters  from  the  established 
Church  of  England  except  Roman  Catholics  and 
persons  denying  the  Trinity.  This  act,  as  con- 
firmed in  the  reign  of  Anne,  was  the  basis  of 
various  subsequent  measun  s  of  religious  tolera- 
tion, culminating  in  the  Catholic  Relief  Act  of 
George  IV.  and  the  still  more  liberal  legislation 
of  Victoria. 

Act  of  Uniformity.  (  1  )  An  act  of  the  Par- 
liament of  England  (1550)  adopting  a  revised 
liturgy  for  the  Church  of  England,  entitled  «  An 
Act  for  the  Uniformity  of  Common  Prayer  and 
Service  in  the  Church,  and  Administration  of  the 
Sacraments.*  (2)  An  act  of  Parliament  (1662) 
requiring  that  the  revised  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  and  Ordination  of  Ministers,  and  no 
other,  should  be  used  in  all  places  of  public 
worship  and  be  assented  to  by  clergymen.  By 
this  test  more  than  2,000  non-conforming  clergy- 
men were  ejected  from  their  churches.  It  took 
effect  on  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  (24  Aug.  1662), 
and  accordingly  is  known  in  English  history  as 
the  «  Bartholomew  Act,"  the  day  of  its  enforce- 
ment being  known  as  «  Black  Bartholomew." 

Acton,  John  Emerich  Edward  Dalberg, 
baron,  historian:  b.  Naples,  10  Jan.  1834;  d. 
Bavaria,  19  June  1902.  He  was  educated  under 
Dr.  (afterward  Cardinal)  Wiseman  at  Oscott 
College,  England,  and  at  Munich  under  Ignatius 
von  Doliinger,  whose  friend  and  adherent  he  re 
mained  throughout  life.  He  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Carlow  (1859)  and  for  Bridg- 
north (1865),  but  was  unseated  on  a  scrutiny  of 
the  vote;  created  a  peer  (Baron  Acton  of  Aldeii 
ham)  in  1869  by  Gladstone,  whose  trusted  friend 
and  adviser  he  was.  A  strong  Liberal  in  poli- 
tics and  religion,  he  founded  the  <  Llomc  ami 
Foreign  Review)  (1862-4)  in  the  interest  of  the 
liberal  Catholic  party,  and  adopted  the  Home 
Rule  idea  before  Gladstone  himself.  At  the 
CEcumenical  Council  in  Rome  (1870)  he  vigor- 
ously opposed  the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility. 
From  1895  to  1902  he  held  the  office  of  regius 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Cambridge  Uni- 


ACTON  — ACTS   OF  THE   APOSTLES 


versity.  A  scholar  of  wick-  and  vast  erudition, 
his  passion  for  acquiring  knowledge  seemed  to 
act  as  a  check  upon  his  productive  powers.  No 
modern  man  of  such  first-rate  abilities  has  left 
so  few  literary  productions  by  which  posterity 
may  judge  of  those  abilities.  Between  1868-00 
he  gave  to  the  press  a  few  historical  essays  and 
anonymous  letters;  and  in  1895  he  published  a 
'  Lecture  on  the  Study  of  History.''  In  1882 
he  planned  a  comprehensive  history  of  liberty, 
but  never  carried  out  the  design.  His  univer- 
sity lectures  were  models  of  narrative,  fulness 
of  thought,  and  flawless  exactitude  of  statement. 
i The  Cambridge  Modern  History)  (vol.  1,  1902) 
was  planned  and  outlined  by  him. 

Acton,  Sir  John  Francis  Edward,  English 
adventurer,  son  of  an  English  physician  and  a 
French  lady :  b.  Besancon,  France,  bapt.  3  June 
1737;  d.  Sicily,  12  Aug.  181 1.  Entering  the 
Tuscan  navy  under  his  uncle's  auspices,  he  com- 
manded a  frigate  in  the  Algerian  expedition  of 
1775.  performed  daring  exploits  in  covering  its 
retreat,  and  attracted  the  notice  of  Caramanico, 
favorite  of  Queen  Caroline  of  Naples;  and  the 
queen,  ambitious  of  playing  a  large  European 
part,  persuaded  her  brother,  the  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  to  lend  Acton  to  her  to  reorganize  her 
navy.  He  soon  became  her  prime  favorite,  com- 
mander-in-chief by  both  land  and  sea,  and  ulti- 
mately prime  minister,  shelving  Caramanico  on 
foreign  missions.  He  improved  the  roads  and 
ports,  but  excited  great  discontent  by  the  con- 
sequent taxation  and  the  positions  given  to  for- 
eigners. In  1793  he  formed  the  league  between 
Naples,  Austria,  and  England  against  France; 
in  1798  the  French  victories  forced  him  to  fly 
with  the  royal  family  to  Sicily,  and  the  Partheno- 
pean  Republic  was  formed.  Five  months  later 
they  were  back,  and  he,  with  a  «  Junta  of  State," 
instituted  a  reign  of  terror,  sending  many  to  the 
prison  or  the  block.  In  1804  he  was  removed  at 
French  demand,  and  in  1806,  when  the  French 
entered  Naples,  he  was  obliged  to  take  refuge  in 
Sicily  again,  where  he  died  with  the  ill  will  of 
all  parties. 

Acton,  Thomas  Coxon,  American  financier 
and  public  official :  b.  New  York  city,  23  Feb. 
1823  ;  d.  there,  1898.  He  was  a  leading  banker, 
and  in  early  years  was  assistant  to  the  county 
clerk,  and  deputy  register;  1860-9  metropolitan 
police  commissioner,  1862-9  president  of  the 
board.  During  the  draft  riots  of  July  1863  he 
commanded  the  entire  police  force  in  person  for 
a  week,  rendering  highly  valuable  service.  He 
was  superintendent  of  the  United  States  Assay 
Office  1870-82,  and  assistant  treasurer  of  the 
United  States  at  New  York  1882-6.  He  was 
always  an  active  agent  in  administrative  and 
social  reforms  in  the  city ;  carried  through 
against  bitter  opposition  the  creation  of  a  paid 
fire  department ;  and  assisted  in  founding  the  So- 
ciety for  the_  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals 
and  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Children.  He  declined  a  nomination  for 
mayor. 

Acts,  Apocryphal.    See  Apocrypha. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  fifth  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament canon,  and  last  of  the  canonical  narra- 
tives of  Christian  origins:  and,  aside  from  the 
meagre  notes  in  the  Epistles,  our  one  source  of 
the  history  of  Christianity  for  the  first  thirty  or 
thirty-five  years  after  the  death  of  Christ.     Im- 


memorial tradition  has  assigned  it  to  the  authoi 
of  the  Gospel  of  Luke,  and  from  the  close  re- 
semblance of  matter,  tone,  and  evident  purpose, 
modern  criticism  is  inclined  to  validate  this, 
though  there  are  some  discrepancies  not  easy  to 
explain  if  so.  In  any  case  the  author  of  each 
was  a  Gentile  Christian,  writing  to  explain  to 
pagan  Gentiles  the  origins  of  Christianity,  and 
its  spread  by  divinely  directed  methods  from 
Jews  to  Gentiles ;  but  the  «  Acts  »  is  the  later, 
showing  some  theologic  development,  very  harsh 
toward  the  non-Christian  Jews,  and  attributing 
all  harassing  of  the  aposttcs  and  resisting  of  the 
extension  of  the  gospel  to  them  and  not  the 
Gentiles,  who  in  fact  are  called  into  the  fold 
because  the  Jews  will  not  listen.  Both  are  anx- 
ious also  to  show  that  the  Roman  government 
from  the  first  had  no  hostility  to  the  new  move- 
ment, and  rather  favored  it  but  for  Jewish 
pressure:  Pilate  admires  and  wishes  to  save 
Jesus ;  Paul's  first  converts  are  Roman  officers, 
and  the  Roman  magistrates  find  no  crime  in  him 
and  go  out  of  their  way  to  screen  him  from  con- 
spiracies. A  further  and  strong  object  of  the 
«  Acts  »  is  to  show  that  the  first  Christians  were 
of  one  heart  and  soul,  without  selfishness  or 
jealousy  and  single  in  aim:  they  distribute  their 
possessions  and  have  all  things  in  common ;  they 
accompany  and  take  the  tenderest  farewells  of 
each  other;  and  there  is  no  book  with  more 
beautiful  and  attractive  characters, —  Stephen, 
Cornelius,  Lydia,  the  jailer  at  Philippi,  etc. 
Hence  too  some  of  the  divergences  from  the 
facts  stated  in  other  books,  and  presumably  true 
as  there  was  no  motive  for  their  invention,  but 
the  reverse :  for  instance,  the  bitter  conflicts  of 
Paul  with  the  other  heads,  as  told  in  Galatians 
and  Corinthians.  The  apostles  and  Paul  are 
the  co-foundations  of  the  Christian  world,  at 
God's  will.  But  the  notion  that  the  book  is  a 
Pauline  apology  is  contradicted  by  its  matter: 
not  only  are  conditions  laid  down  for  an  apostle 
which  would  exclude  Paul  (i.  21  sqq.), 
but  the  narrator  takes  pains  to  show  that  Paul 
only  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  the  apostles  and 
originated  nothing.  The  suppression  of  his  wan- 
derings in  Arabia,  Syria,  and  Cilicia  makes  it 
appear  that  Peter  and  not  he  gained  the  first 
Gentile  convert;  Peter's  miracles  duplicate  his 
in  remarkable  number  and  exactness ;  and  in 
nearly  all  cases,  when  Paul  goes  into  a  strange 
town  to  preach,  he  cannot  gain  the  right  till  he 
has  first  attempted  to  preach  to  the  Jews  and 
been  rejected  by  them,  thereby  forcing  him  to 
appeal  to  the  Gentiles.  In  one  place  (xxviii. 
17-28)  the  existence  of  a  prior  Christian  Church 
is  actually  ignored  to  this  end ;  and  after  Jesus' 
appearance  to  Paul  he  still  has  to  be  inducted 
into  his  work  by  human  hands  (Ananias  and 
Barnabas),  though  the  church  at  Antioch  —  the 
first  Gentile  Christian  church  and  Paul's  first 
important  congregation  —  has  already  been 
founded  by  Christians  from  Jerusalem.  The 
real  hero  of  the  book  is  the  united,  co-equal, 
self-abnegating  band  of  God-sent  Christian  mis- 
sionaries. 

.  The  title  is  probably  not  the  original  and  cer- 
tainly not  the  correct  one :  nine  of  the  apostles 
are  mentioned  only  by  name,  and  James  and 
John  hardly  more:  while  it  is  much  fuller  on 
several  subordinate  figures  than  on  any  others 
but  Peter  and  Paul. —  the  deacons  Stephen. 
Philip,  Apollos,  Cornelius,  etc.    It  professes  to 


ACTUALITY,  LAW  OF  — ADAIR 


be  the  relation  of  an  eye-witness,  and  in  a  por- 
tion of  the  narrative  uses  the  personal  "we"; 
but  this  relation  —  which  is  entirely  trustworthy 
—  forms  hut  a  small  part  of  the  bunk,  and  rep- 
resents a  document  (probably  a  journal)  bj  a 
companion  of  Paul,  which  the  later  actual  writer 
used,  in  part  bodily,  in  part  as  unavowed  ma- 
terial, claiming  its  credit  for  his  entire  work. 
This  is  shown  among  other  things  by  the  cx- 
ive  minuteness  of  the  itinerary  and  other 
unimportant  items  in  some  cases,  contrasted 
with  the  vague  generality  of  others,  its  igno- 
rance of  the  most  important  facts  or  traditions 
(the  gift  of  tongues,  for  instance,  and  Paul's 
wanderings),  or  even  categorical  contradiction 
of  others,  as  the  contentions  of  Paul.  Whether 
this  is  lack  of  knowledge  or  "tendency"  writ- 
ing,  it  equally  slvws  the  composite  nature  of  the 
work :  as  do  the  discrepancies  in  relating  the 
same  facts:  for  example,  in  ix.  7,  Paul's  com- 
panions hear  a  voice  but  see  no  one ;  in  xxii.  9 
they  see  the  light  from  heaven  but  hear  nothing; 
in  xxvi.  12-18  they  tall  down  with  Paul  but 
nothing  more  is  told.  The  other  sources  —  oral 
traditions  and  lost  works  —  doubtless  enshrined 
much  genuine  history.  The  theory  that  it  is  a 
later  recension  of  his  own  work  by  "Luke," 
from  an  earlier  rough-draft  represented  by  the 
"we"  narrative,  is  not  sustained. 

'Ilie  minimum  date  is  approximately  fixed  by 
the  fact  that  the  author  knows  Joscplius'  works, 
which  began  with  the  "Jewish  War,"  79  A.D., 
and  ended  with  his  autobiography,  shortly  after 
100;  it  cannot  therefore  be  much  earlier  than 
105,  or  ff  "Luke"  knew  Josephus  also,  about 
no.  The  maximum  is  reckoned  about  130;  but 
curiously.  Marcion,  c.  140,  had  the  Third  Gospel 
but  not  "Acts,"  or  if  he  had  it  he  rejected  it. 
In  any  event  it  is  of  the  first  half  of  the  2d 
century,  which  agrees  also  with  its  tone  toward 
the  Roman  power.  The  _ "Good  Emperors" 
reigned  cX>-iSo  A.D.  The  chief  critical  examina- 
tions are  in  German:  H.  Meyer  (ed.  Wende, 
Gottingen  1899);  Ewald,  "The  First  Three 
Evangelists  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles'  (Got- 
tingen 1872). 

Actuality,  Law  of,  in  philosophy,  the  state 
of  being  actual;  reality.  "The  actuality  of  these 
spiritual  qualities  is  thus  imprisoned,  though 
their  potentiality  be  not  quite  destroyed." — 
Cheyne. 

Actuarial  Society  of  America,  a  scientific 
organization,  established  in  April  1889,  having 
for  its  object  the  promotion  of  actuarial  science 
bv  such  methods  as  may  be  found  desirable. 
The  membership  is  composed  of  those  con- 
nected with  actuarial  pursuits.  The  enrollment 
is  divided  into  members  and  associates.  Candi- 
dates for  associate  are  required  to  pass  such 
preliminary  examination  as  may  be  prescribed; 
a  second  examination  is  demanded  of  candi- 
dates for  member.  An  annual  meeting  is  held 
on  the  first  Thursday  after  14  May  in  each  year. 
Other  meetings  may  be  called  by  the  council 
from  time  to  time  and  by  the  president  at  any 
time  on  the  written  request  of  jo  members.  The 
officers  of  the  society  are  a  president,  a  first  and 
second  vice-president,  a  secretary,  and  a  treas- 
urer. President  and  vice-presidents  are  not  eli- 
gible for  the  same  office  for  more  than  two 
consecutive  years.  The  council  is  composed  of 
the  officers  and  six  other  member5,  two  elected 
to  serve  for  three  years,  two  for  two  years,  and 


two  for  one  year.  The  society  publishes  trans- 
actions,* containing  the  proceedings  of  the 
meetings,  including  original  papers  presented  by 
members  or  associates,  discussions  on  said 
papers,  and  other  matter  expressly  authorized 
by  the  council.  On  1  June  1903  the  total  num- 
ber of  members  was  123 ;  that  of  associates,  29. 
Enrollment  is  not  restricted  to  the  United 
States.  Office  of  the  secretary,  32  Nassau  Street, 
New  York. 

Actuary,  in  ancient  Rome,  a  clerk  of  public 
bodies  who  recorded  their  acta;  also  one  of  the 
public  reporters  who  prepared  the  daily  news  of 
the  city  as  a  written  newspaper.  (See  Acta 
DlTJRNA.)  In  modern  times,  the  mathematician 
of  an  insurance  company,  who  makes  the  calcu- 
lations on  which  its  policy  plans  and  prices  are 
based,  and  applies  the  doctrine  of  probabilities 
to  fire,  life,  or  accident  insurance.  Although  the 
material  on  which  he  works  is  theoretically  fur- 
nished by  the  experience  of  his  and  other  cog- 
nate companies,  and  the  records  of  public  and 
private  bodies,  with  the  common  rules  of  inter- 
est, in  fact  it  needs  not  only  great  mathematical 
capacity  but  great  practical  sagacity  to  apply 
them  to  actual  business ;  and  no  actuary  of  the 
highest  class  is  a  mere  mathematician.  In  the 
early  days,  when  experience  was  still  mostly  to 
make,  the  actuaries  were  usually  the  presidents 
of  their  companies;  in  recent  times  a  safe  body 
of  experience  has  accumulated  which  enables 
business  men  to  head  them,  and  the  actuary's 
computations  and  advice  relate  to  slighter  varia- 
tions or  special  plans.  In  accident  companies 
the  actuary  needs  to  be  and  usually  is  a  man  of 
large  practical  acquaintance  with  different  em- 
ployments, their  hazards,  the  meaning  of  given 
employment-names,  and  those  under  which  the 
more  hazardous  employments  are  disguised  as 
less  so:  in  fire  insurance  equally  he  must  know 
the  character  of  different  risks.  See  Insur- 
ance. 

Acufia,  Manuel,  a-koon'ya,  man-oo-el', 
Mexican  poet:  b.  1S49;  committed  suicide  1873 
from  disappointed  love,  which  was  the  princi- 
pal theme  of  his  poem-. 

Acufia  de  Figueroa,  Francisco,  a-koon'ya 
da  fe-ga-ro'a,  fran-thes'ko,  Uruguayan  poet: 
b.  Montevideo,  1791 ;  d.  there,  6  Oct.  1862.  His 
works  are  a  Spanish-American  classic  from  their 
metrical  perfection,  though  deficient  in  warmth. 
The  collection  'Poetic  Mosaic'  comprises 
every  variety  of  secular  and  religious  poetry, 
from  heroic  poems  to  psalms. 

Adair',  James,  American  18th-century  In- 
dian trader  and  author.  He  lived  1735-75 
among  the  Indians,  mainly  the  Cherokees  and 
Chickasaws;  and  in  the  latter  year  published  a 
'History  of  the  Indian  Tribes,'  especially  the 
southeastern  ones,  containing  an  admirable  first- 
hand account  of  their  manners  and  customs,  and 
a  still  more  valuable  though  unsatisfactory  set 
of  Indian  vocabularies.  But  the  chief  object  of 
writing  the  book  was  to  trace  the  origin  of  the 
Indians  to  the  Lost  Tribes  of  Israel ;  a  curious 
phantasm  (especially  as  the  tribes  are  known 
not  to  have  been  lost,  and  the  differentiation  of 
stocks  must  far  antedate  the  Christian  era) 
which  has  bewitched  many  enthusiasts  since, 
and  was  revived  and  expounded  bv  Dr.  Elias 
Boudinot  in  his  'Star  of  the  West'  (1816). 
Adair's  views  are  summarized  in  H.  II.  Ban- 
croft's '  Native  Races,'  vol.  5,  p.  91. 


ADAIR  — ADAM 


Adair,  John,  American  general  and  public 
officer:  b.  Chester  co.,  S.  C,  1759;  d.  Harris- 
burg,  Ky.,  18  May  1840.  He  served  in  the  Revo- 
lution :  removed  to  Kentucky  1787;  in  1791 
was  major  under  St.  Clair  and  Wilkinson  in  the 
northwestern  Indian  expeditions,  and  was  de- 
feated by  the  Miami  chief  «  Little  Turtle  »  near 
Fort  St.  Clair.  He  was  a  member  of  the  consti- 
tutional convention  which  made  Kentucky  a 
State,  1  June  1792;  was  State  Representative  and 
Speaker,  register  of  the  United  States  Land 
Office,  and  1805-6  United  States  Senator.  He 
was  volunteer  aid  to  Gen.  Shelby  at  the  battle 
of  the  Thames,  5  Oct.  1813 ;  made  brigadier- 
general  of  State  militia  Nov.  1814,  and  as 
such  commanded  the  State  troops  at  New  Or- 
leans under  Jackson,  8  Jan.  1815.  He  was  gov- 
ernor of  Kentucky  1820-4,  and  L'nited  States 
Representative  1831-3,  on  the  committee  on  mili- 
tary affairs. 

Adair,  Robin.  See  Robin  Adair. 
Adalbert,  or  Al'debert,  a  native  of 
France,  who  preached  the  gospel  in  744  on  the 
banks  of  the  Main.  He  is  remarkable  as  the  first 
opponent  to  the  introduction  of  the  rites  and  or- 
dinances of  the  Western  Church  into  Germany^ 
He  rejected  the  culture  of  the  Saints  and  Con- 
fession, but  distributed  his  own  hair  as  sacred 
relics  to  his  followers  ;  was  accursed  of  heresy  by 
Boniface  the  apostle  of  Germany,  and  condemned 
by  two  councils,  at  Soissons  in  744  and  at  Rome 
in  745.  Finally  escaping  from  prison,  he  is  said 
to  have  been  murdered  by  some  peasants  on  the 
banks  of  the  Fulda. 

Adalbert,  St.,  of  Prague,  the  apostle  of 
Prussia  proper:  b.  939;  d.  23  April  997.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Bohemian  nobleman,  and  his 
real  name  was  Voitech  («host  —  comfort  »)  ; 
was  educated  in  the  cathedral  of  Magdeburg, 
and  appointed  the  second  bishop  of  Prague  in 
983.  He  labored  in  vain  to  convert  the  Bohe- 
mians from  paganism,  and  to  introduce  among 
them  the  ordinances  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Discouraged  by  the  fruitlessness  of  his  pious 
zeal,  he  left  Prague  (988)  and  lived  in  convents 
at  Montecasino  and  Rome  until  the  Bohemians 
in  993  recalled  him ;  but  after  two  years  he 
again  left  them,  disgusted  with  their  barbarous 
manners.  He  returned  to  Rome,  and  soon  fol- 
lowed the  Emperor  Otho  III.  to  Germany;  on 
which  journey  he  baptized,  at  Gran,  St.  Stephen, 
afterward  king  of  Hungary.  He  proceeded  to 
Gnesen  to  meet  Boleslas,  Duke  of  Poland.  Be- 
ing informed  that  the  Bohemians  did  not  wish 
to  see  him  again,  he  resolved  to  convert  the 
pagans  of  Prussia,  but  was  murdered  by  a 
peasant  near  what  is  now  Fischhausen.  His 
body  was  bought  by  Boleslas  for  its  weight  in 
gold,  and  became  famous  for  its  miraculous 
power.  Its  influence  was  greater  than  that  of 
the  saint  himself:  the  Bohemians,  who  had  re- 
fused to  receive  the  ordinances  of  the  Church, 
now  suffered  them  to  be  introduced  into  Prague, 
on  the  sole  condition  that  these  miraculous  relics 
should  be  transferred  to  their  city.  They  were 
rediscovered  in  a  vault  in  1880  and  deposited  in 
the  cathedral.  (Life  by  Heger,  Konigsberg  1897  ; 
Voigt.  Berlin  1898.) 

Adalbert,    « The    Great,"    Archbishop    of 

Bremen   and   Hamburg:    b.    about    1000:    d.    17 

March    1072;    descendant    of   a    Saxon    princely 

house.     He  received  his  office  in   1043   from  the 

Vol.  1—6 


Emperor  Henry  III.,  whose  relation,  friend,  and 
follower  he  was.  He  accompanied  Henry  to 
Rome  in  1046  and  was  a  distinguished  candidate 
for  the  papal  chair.  Pope  Leo  IX.  made  him 
his  legate  in  the  north  of  Europe  (1050).  He 
superintended  the  churches  of  Denmark,  Nor- 
way, and  Sweden,  converted  the  Wends,  and  as- 
pired to  a  great  northern  patriarchate  to  vie  with 
the  Roman  Curia.  During  the  minority  of 
Henry  IV.  he  usurped,  in  concert  with  Hanno 
archbishop  of  Cologne,  the  guardianship  of  the 
young  prince  and  the  administration  of  the  em- 
pire, and  gained  an  ascendancy  over  his  rival 
by  indulging  the  passions  of  his  pupil.  After 
Henry  had  become  of  age  Adalbert  exercised 
the  government  without  control  in  his  name. 
His  pride  and  arbitrary  administration  induced 
the  German  princes  in  1066  to  remove  him  by 
force  from  the  court;  but  after  a  short  contest 
with  the  Saxon  nobles,  who  laid  waste  his  terri- 
tory, he  recovered  his  former  power  in  1069.  and 
held  it  till  his  death  in  Goslar  in  1072.  His  in- 
justice and  tyranny  were  instrumental  in  pro- 
ducing the  confusion  and  calamities  in  which  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.  was  involved. 

Adalia,  Turkey  in  Asia,  a  seaport  on  the 
S.  coast,  in  the  vilayet  of  Konieh,  finely  situated 
on  the  Gulf  of  Adalia,  from  which  the  houses 
rise  in  terraces  like  an  amphitheatre,  on  a  rocky 
hill  and  surrounded  by  fig,  orange,  and  mul- 
berry gardens.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  but  hot  and 
unhealthy  locality,  producing  grain,  figs,  oranges, 
wine,  etc.  It  has  a  small  but  good  port,  and 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade;  exporting  grain, 
timber,  cattle,  valonia,  etc.  It  was  anciently  called 
Attalia,  later  Satalia.  Pop.  about  30,000.  7.000 
Greeks. 

Adam  («  one  made  »)  and  Eve  («  living 
being, »  feminine).  As  the  Old  Testament  almost 
invariably  uses  the  article  before  «  adam  »  («the 
adam»  =  «the  made  one  »  or  « the  man"),  its 
use  as  a  personal  name  is  a  mere  misapprehen- 
sion, and  the  implications  drawn  from  it  are  no 
part  of  the  text;  nor  is  there  any  reason  to  sup- 
pose it  was  so  intended  by  the  writers  who  used 
it,  or  so  understood  by  the  Jews.  This,  however, 
is  a  minor  point,  as  the  narratives  of  the  creation 
and  fall,  etc.,  have  the  same  bearing  whether  the 
first  created  beings  had  names  or  not :  they  re- 
main themselves  no  less.  But  those  narratives 
were  certainly  not  understood  by  their  compilers 
themselves,  who  merely  took  them  from  Baby- 
lonian sources  (see  Creation),  as  implying  lit- 
eral history, —  which  their  discordance  should 
render  obvious, —  and  the  difficulties  involved  in 
it  result  from  being  more  Biblical  than  the  Bible, 
as  the  Yahvistic  portions  of  the  later  chapters 
disregard  them,  and  the  Yahvish  adds  to 
them  at  will.  The  accounts  in  Genesis  are 
three:  (1)  The  Elohistic  (q.v.),  in  which 
"male  and  female »  are  created  at  the  same 
time;  that  is.  the  whole  race,  just  as  the  whole 
animal  race  is  created  at  a  stroke.  The  inter- 
pretation as  «  one  couple  »  is  thrown  back  from 
the  second  account.  (2)  The  Yahvistic,  in 
which  «  the  adam  »  is  made  from  the  dust,  and 
«  the  eve  »  from  the  adam ;  and  which  contains 
the  theological  part  of  the  story.— the  location  in 
the  Garden  of  Eden,  the  prohibition  of  God  and 
its  disregard,  the  expulsion,  the  birth  of  Cain 
and  Abel,  and  the  first  murder.  (3)  The  ge- 
nealogical list  in  chapter  v.,   where  the  race  is 


ADAM  —  ADAMAWA 


derived  through  Seth,  and  Cain  and  Abel  are 
unknown;  and  where  the  first  generations  of 
men  are  demigods  with  enormous  -pans  of  life. 
The  last  is  not  only  later  than  the  Other  two,  and 
corresponding  to  Greek,  Assyrian,  etc..  pcdi- 
grees  carrying  the  race  or  its  first  families  hack 
to  the  gods,  hut  it  is  entirely  unconnected  with 
the  first  two.  which  have  a  certain  relation  as 
efforts  of  early  man  to  account  for  the  origin 
and  propagation  of  life  on  the  earth,  which  every 
race  has  undertaken  as  soon  as  it  attained  self- 
consciousness.  The  first,  however,  is  that  pure 
and  simpie.  with  no  ulterior  purpose.  The  sec- 
ond is  quite  other,  combining  the  creation  story 
of  a  single  couple,  the  progenitors  of  the  human 
race. —  as  with  the  Greek  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha. 
etc.. —  with  a  deeply  moralized  account  of  the 
origin  of  moral  evil,  and  the  rapine  and  violence, 
pain  and  disease  and  hardship,  which  it  brought 
into  a  world  previously  free  from  them.  It  is 
this,  reflecting  the  predominant  religious  tone  of 
the  Jewish  mind,  that  has  formed  the  basis  first 
of  the  Jewish  and  then  of  its  successor  the 
Christian  theology:  Adam  as  the  reason  for  and 
spring  of  human  sin.  This  resulted  in  Paul's 
conception  of  two  Adams:  the  fleshly  one. 
whence  come  sin  and  death ;  and  the  spiritual 
one,  whence  springs  salvation. 

Most  of  the  later  Jews  regarded  the  story 
as  an  allegory.  Philo.  the  foremost  writer  of 
the  Alexandrian  school,  explains  Eve  as  the 
sensuous  part,  Adam  as  the  rational  part,  of 
human  nature.  The  serpent  attacks  the  sensuous 
element,  which  yields  to  the  temptation  of  plea- 
sure and  next  enslaves  the  reason.  Clement  and 
Origen  adapted  this  interpretation  somewhat 
awkwardly  to  Christian  theology.  Augustine  ex- 
plained tiie  story  as  history,  hut  admitted  a 
spiritual  meaning  superinduced  upon  the  literal; 
and  his  explanation  was  adopted  by  the  re- 
formers, and  indeed  generally  by  the  orthodox 
within  the  Catholic  and  the  various  Protestant 
Churches  alike.  More  modern  critics,  loth  to 
abandon  it  wholly  as  legend,  have  sought  to 
separate  a  kernel  of  history  from  the  poetical 
accretions,  and  attribute  the  real  value  of  the 
story  not  to  its  form,  but  to  the  underlying 
thoughts.  Martensen  describes  it  as  a  combina- 
tion of  history  and  sacred  symbolism,  «a  fig- 
urative presentation  of  an  actual  event.»  The 
second  narrative  may  be  regarded  as  embodying 
the  philosophy  of  the  Hebrew  mind  applied  to 
the  everlasting  problem  of  the  origin  of  sin  and 
suffering:  a  question  the  solution  of  which  is 
scarcely  nearer  us  now  than  it  was  to  the  primi- 
tive Hebrews.  Hesiod  describes  man  in  his 
primitive  state  as  free  from  sickness  and  evil 
before  Prometheus  (q.v.)  stole  fire  from  heaven, 
and  Pandora  ( who  corresponds  to  Eve)  brought 
miseries  to  the  earth.  Prometheus  gives  man 
the  capability  of  knowledge;  his  daring  theft  is 
for  man  the  beginning  of  a  fuller  and  higher 
life.  /Eschylus  regards  Prometheus  as  the  rep- 
resentative of  humanity  led  into  misery  by  his 
self-will  until  he  submits  to  the  higher  will  of 
God.  This  corresponds  with  the  story  of  Gene- 
sis, save  that  in  the  latter  the  spiritual  features 
are  clearer  and  more  distinct. 

Adam,  Graeme  Mercer,  Canadian  author 
and  editor:  b.  Scotland  iS.tQ.  He  was  trained 
in  Blackwood's  publishing  house  in  Edinburgh, 
and,  emigrating,  became  a  publisher  in  Toronto 


and  New  York.  He  later  edited  several  Cana- 
dian periodicals,  assisted  Goldwin  Smith  on  the 
i  Bystander,)  and  founded  with  him  the  <  Cana- 
dian Monthly)  (1872).  In  1870  he  founded  the 
1  Canadian  Educational  Monthly.'  In  i8oX>  he 
e  editor  of  1  Self-Culture.'  He  has  writ- 
ten 'An  Outline  History  of  Canadian  Liter 
ature  '  (1886)  ;  <  The  Canadian  Northwest  > 
(1895)  :  and  with  Ethclwyn  W'etherald,  the  his- 
torical novel  <  An  Algonquin  Maiden  > ;  etc. 

Adam,  Juliette,  ad-an,  zhii-le-ct  (Mme. 
Adam,  nee  Lamber),  prolific  Parisian  journalist 
and  author:  b.  Verberie,  Oise,  4  Oct.  1836.  She 
founded  in  1879  the  Nouvelle  Revue,  the  organ 
of  the  Extreme  Republicans,  and  edited  it  till 
her  retirement  in  1897;  and  her  salon  was  a 
noted  influence  in  Paris.  Her  second  husband, 
Edmond  Adam  (later  life  senator,  d.  1877),  was 
prefect  of  police  in  Paris  during  the  Prussian 
siege,  and  her  first  book  was  a  diary  of  the  siege. 
She  has  written  largely  (often  under  the  pseudo- 
nyms Juliette  Lamber  and  Comte  Paul  Vasili) 
on  women's  rights  and  various  literary  and  so- 
cial subjects;  novels  assailing  Christianity  for 
its  crucifixion  of  natural  instincts;  'The  Hun- 
garian Fatherland  »    (1884),  <  General  Skobeleff> 

(1886).  etc. 

Adam,  Quirin  Frangois  Lucien,  ad-au,  ke- 
rari  fran-swa  loo-scaii,  French  philologist:  b. 
Nancy,  1833.  His  works,  largely  devoted  to  the 
study  of  primitive  or  savage  tongues,  have  in- 
cluded among  others  American  Indian  subjects, 
as  'Sketch  of  a  Comparative  Grammar  of  Cree 
and  Chippcway  >  (2d  ed.  1870 1;  'Studies  on 
Six  American  Languages1  (1878):  also 
«  Grammar  of  the  Manchouc  Language  >  (1873)  ; 
*  Lorraine  Patoises  >  (18.81  I  :  '  Negro-Aryan 
and  Malay-Aryan  Idioms'    (1883). 

Adam,  Book  of.    See  Apocrypha. 

Adamant,  a  word  loosely  used  to  signify 
a  substance  of  extreme  hardness.  It  is  probably 
derived  from  the  Greek  adamas,  «  unconquer- 
able." Very  possibly  the  name  adamant  was  at 
one  time  applied  to  a  definite  substance;  but  it 
has  been  used  to  signify  corundum,  various 
gems,  a  hard  metal  (probably  steel)  that  was 
used  in  making  armor,  the  lodestone.  and  various 
other  substances.  It  is  now  chiefly  used  in  a 
poetical  or  rhetorical   sense. 

Adamantine  Spar,  a  name  sometimes 
applied  to  corundum  (q.v.)  on  account  of  its 
hardness:  especially  to  the  dark  colored,  non- 
transparent  varieties  which  are  used  in  pulver- 
ized form  for  polishing  gems. 

Adaman'toid,  a  crystalline  form  belong- 
ing to  the  isometric  system,  and  bounded  by 
48  similar  scalene  triangles.  It  has  6  octahedral 
solid  angles,  at  the  extremities  of  the  principal 
axes :  8  hexahedral  solid  angles,  at  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  trigonal  axes ;  and  12  tetrahedral  solid 
angles,  at  the  extremities  of  the  digonal  axes. 
Its  name  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  diamond 
usually  occurs  in  this  crystalline  form.  (Also, 
and  more  commonly,  called  hexoctahedron.) 

Adamawa,  a'da-ma'wa  (formerly  Fumbi- 
na),  an  internally  autonomous  sultanate  of 
central  Africa,  between  lat.  6°  and  n°  N.,  and 
Ion.  11°  and  170  E, :  part  of  the  Sokoto  empire 
in  northern  Nigeria :  area  some  50,000  sq. 
m.  Much  of  the  surface  is  mountainous,  the 
mountains  rising  to  about  8,000  ft.     The  princi- 


ADAM  BEDE  — ADAM  OF  BREMEN 


pal  rivers  are  the  Benue  and  its  tributary  the 
Faro.  The  eastern  part  belongs  to  the  German 
Kamerun ;  the  western  to  British  North  Nigeria. 
A  great  part  of  the  country  is  covered  with  thick 
forests,  though  there  are  also  extensive  and 
splendid  pasture  lands  and  cultivated  fields. 
The  native  inhabitants  are  industrious  and  in- 
telligent, but  they  have  been  in  a  great  measure 
subdued  by  the  Mohammedan  Fulahs.  who  pos- 
sess innumerable  slaves.  Slaves  and  ivory  are 
the  chief  articles  of  trade.  Pop.  conjectured  at 
3.000.000.  Chief  towns,  Yolo  the  capital,  est. 
12.000  to  20.000;  Banjo,  chief  ivory  mart;  and 
Nganudere. 

Adam  Bede,  the  earliest  of  George  Eliot's 
novels,  was  published  in  1859  as  «  by  the  author 
of  (Scenes  of  Clerical  Life. >»  A  skeleton  of 
the  plot  gives  but  a  poor  impression  of  the 
strength  and  charm  of  the  story.  It  seems  to 
have  been,  in  the  author's  mind,  a  recognition 
of  the  heroism  of  commonplace  natures  in  com- 
monplace surroundings,  of  the  nobility  of  noble 
character  wherever  found.  But  Adam  Bede,  in- 
telligent, excellent,  satisfactory  though  he  is,  is 
subordinated  in  interest  to  the  figure  of  Hetty, 
made  tragic  through  suffering  and  injustice. 
Dinah  Morris,  the  woman  preacher,  is  a  study 
from  life,  serene  and  lovely.  Mr.  Irwine  is  a 
typical  English  clergyman  of  the  early  19th 
century;  Bartle  Massey,  the  schoolmaster,  is 
one  of  those  humble  folk,  full  of  character, 
foibles,  absurdities,  and  homely  wisdom,  whom 
George  Eliot  draws  with  loving  touches ;  while 
Mrs.  Poyser,  with  her  epigrammatic  shrewdness, 
her  untiring  energy,  her  fine  pride  of  respecta- 
bility, her  acerbity  of  speech,  and  her  charity  of 
heart,  belongs  to  the  company  of  the  Immortals. 

Adam  de  la  Hale,  or  Halle,  ad-ari  duh  la 
al,  French  poet  and  composer :  b.  Arras  about 
1235;  d.  Naples  about  1287'  nicknamed  the 
Hunchback  of  Arras,  although  he  w-as  not  de- 
formed. His  satirical  extravaganza,  (  The  Play 
of  Adam,  or  The  Play  in  the  Arbor)  (1262), 
constitutes  the  earliest  comedy  in  the  vulgar 
tongue ;  while  the  pastoral  drama.  <  The  Play  of 
Robin  and  of  Marion,*  may  be  looked  upon  as 
the  earliest  specimen  of  comic  opera. 

Adami,  Friedrich,  a-da'me,  fred'riH,  German 
author:  b.  Suhl,  18  Oct.  1816;  d.  Berlin, 
S  Aug.  1893.  He  wrote  stories,  plays,  etc.,  a 
very  popular  biography  of  Queen  Louise,  and 
«The  Book  of  Emperor  William  >  (1887-90). 

Ad'ami,  John  George,  English-American 
pathologist :  b.  Manchester,  Eng.,  1862 ;  edu- 
cated at  Owens  College  there  and  Christ's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge ;  studied  at  Breslau  and  Paris ; 
became  demonstrator  of  pathology  at  Cambridge 
in  1887;  fellow  of  Jesus  College  1891.  In  189? 
he  came  to  Montreal  as  professor  of  pathology 
at  McGill  University;  from  1894  has  been  head 
of  the  pathological  department  at  the  Royal  \  ic- 
toria  Hospital  there ;  from  1896  lecturer  to  the 
New  York  Pathological  Society.  He  has  pub- 
lished papers  on  pathological  topics,  and  articles 
in  Allbutt's  <  System  of  Medicine.) 

Adamine,  a  mineral  better  known  as 
adamite. 

A'damite  (named  for  M.  Adam,  a  French 
mineralogist),  a  mineral,  isomorphous  with 
olivenite,  and  occurring  in  small  orthorhombic 
crystals  that  are  often  grouped  in  fine  granular 


aggregations.  It  is  an  arsenate  of  zinc,  having 
the  formula  Zn3As3Os.Zn( OH):,  although  cop- 
per and  cobalt  may  also  be  present.  Its  hard- 
ness is  3.5,  and  its  sp.  gr.  4.35.  Its  color  is 
variable.  It  occurs  at  Cap  Garonne,  near 
Hyeres,  France;  and  also  at  Laurium,  Greece, 
and  in  cer!ain  parts  of  Chile. 

Adamites.  (1)  A  Christian  sect  said  to  have 
existed  in  the  2d  century :  so  called  because 
both  men  and  women  appeared  naked  ir  theii 
assemblies,  either  to  imitate  Adam  in  the  stale 
of  innocence  or  to  prove  the  control  which  they 
possessed  over  their  passions.  The  tradition  is 
probably  baseless,  originating  in  a  name  of  deri- 
sion given  to  the  Carpocratians.  (See  Gnos- 
tics.) (2)  Also  called  Picards,  from  the 
founder  of  their  sect,  Picard  (nerhaps  also  Beg- 
hards).  He  called  himself  Adam  the  Son  of 
God,  and  advocated  community  of  women.  They 
appeared  about  the  year  1421  on  an  island  in 
the  River  Lusinicz,  where  Zisca  surprised  them, 
but  was  not  able  to  destroy  the  whole  sect.  In 
the  following  year  they  were  widely  spread  over 
Bohemia  and  Moravia,  and  especially  hated  by 
the  Hussites  (whom  they  resembled  in  hatred 
toward  the  hierarchy)  because  they  rejected 
transubstantiation,  the  priesthood,  and  the  Sup- 
per. They  subsequently  formed  one  sect  with 
the  remaining  Taborites.  who  have  accordingly 
been  confounded  with  them.  In  1849  a  similar 
sect  sprang  up  in  Austria. 

Ad'amnan,  St.  (dim.  of  Adam),  an  Irish 
ecclesiastic  and  author :  b.  in  Donegal,  c.  625 ; 
d.  703  or  704.  He  was  descended  from  a  cousin 
of  St.  Columba  and  from  powerful  Irish  chief- 
tains. Entering  the  monastery  of  Iona,  he  be- 
came abbot  in  697 ;  but  was  involved  in  quarrels 
with  his  monks  over  Easter  and  the  tonsure  (en- 
forcing the  orthodox  Roman  view  against  the 
Irish  Church  view),  which  hastened  his  death. 
He  wrote  a  most  valuable  life  of  St.  Columba 
(q.v.),  the  founder  of  Iona,  full  of  historical 
information  about  the  early  Irish- Scotcli 
Church  (best  edition  Reeves',  1857;  English 
translation  in  the  (Historians  of  Scotland,') 
1874,  reissued  Oxford  1895)  \  and  a  hearsay  but 
valuable  report  of  matters  in  Palestine  in  his 
time,  the  first  we  have  of  that  land  in  the  early 
Middle  Ages. 

Adam  of  Bremen,  celebrated  German  his- 
torian: b.  probably  in  Meissen,  Saxony:  d.  12 
October  of  an  unknown  year,  probably  1076.  He 
lived  at  Magdeburg,  removed  to  Bremen  in  1067, 
was  made  canon  of  its  cathedral  and  next  year 
principal  of  the  cathedral  school.  His  fame 
rests  on  his  ■(  History  of  the  Church  of  Ham- 
burg) (1072-6),  an  inestimable  mediaeval  classic, 
for  which  he  gathered  material  far  and  wide ; 
making  a  special  trip  to  Denmark  to  interview 
King  Svend  Estridson,  whose  communications 
he  gives.  As  an  appendix  to  his  last  book  he 
gives  an  account  of  the  Danish,  Swedish,  and 
Norwegian  possessions,  containing  a  passage  of 
ihe  first  interest  to  Americans,  as  verifying  the 
Saga  stories  of  Vinland:  «  He  [Svend]  told  of 
still  another  island  found  by  many  in  that  [At- 
lantic] ocean.  It  is  called  Wineland,  because 
grapes  grow  there  spontaneously.  ...  I  have 
learned  through  definite  information  from  Danes 
that  unsown  crops  also  grow  there  in  abun- 
dance.)) 


ADAM   OF  ST.  VICTOR  — ADAMS 


Adam  of  St.  Victor,  famous  medieval 
hymnologist:  d.  in  Paris  c.  1192;  nothing  is 
known  of  him  save  liis  great  hymns,  the  most 
numerous  of  any  mediaeval  writer,  and  among 
the  foremost  in  rank.  A  few  have  heen  finely 
translated  by  J.  M.  Neale;  a  complete  (so  far 
as  known)  edition  was  published  in  London, 
3  vols.  1881. 

Adam  Family,  British  architects,  a  cele- 
brated 18th-century  family  consisting  of  William 
and  his  four  sons.  William.  Robert,  James,  and 
John:  of  whom  Robert  ranks  first  and  James 
next.  The  father  was  born  in  Fifeshire,  Scot- 
land, and  his  work  was  done  in  his  native  coun- 
try: the  town  hall  at  Dundee,  the  library  and 
university  at  Glasgow,  and  many  other  public 
and  private  buildings  there  and  in  Edinburgh, 
etc.  Robert  was  born  iii  Edinburgh,  studied  in 
Italy,  and  examined  the  noble  remains  of  Dal- 
matia  before  settling  in  London:  his  work  on 
Diocletian's  palace  at  SpalatO  was  a  valuable  ad- 
vertisement to  Ins  talents  and  taste,  and  all  the 
brothers  increased  their  repute  by  publishing 
engravings  of  their  plans.  Under  Robert's  di- 
rection they  constructed  a  great  number  of  build- 
ings in  London, —  the  Adclphi  Terrace  and  the 
streets  around  commemorates  them  specifically. 
He  also  did  much  to  remodel  the  appearance 
of  the  city.  Robert  also  built  Lansdowne 
House.  Kedleston  Hall  near  Derby,  and  Regis- 
ter House  near  Edinburgh.  A  special  feature 
of  the  brothers'  work  was  their  careful  atten- 
tion to  harmonious  interior  arrangement  and 
decoration. 

Adam's  Apple,  in  botany,  (1)  the  name 
given  by  Gerard  and  other  old  authors  to  the 
plantain  tree  (Musa  paradisiaca),  from  the  no- 
tion that  its  fruit  was  that  sinfully  eaten  by- 
Adam  in  Eden.  (2)  The  name  given,  for  the 
same  reason,  to  a  species  of  Citrus. 

In  anatomy,  a  protuberance  on  the  fore  part 
of  the  throat, "due  to  the  thyroid  cartilages.  The 
name  is  supposed  to  have  arisen  from  the  ab- 
surd popular  notion  that  a  portion  of  the  for- 
bidden fruit,  assumed  to  have  been  an  apple, 
stuck  in  Adam's  throat  when  he  attempted  to 
swallow  it. 

Adam's  Bridge,  or  Ra-ma's  Bridge,  a  chain 
of  shoals  across  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  between 
Hindustan  and  the  island  of  Ceylon,  in  the 
Ramaana  fabled  to  have  been  constructed  by 
monkeys. 

Adam's  Peak,  one  of  the  highest  moun- 
tains in  the  island  of  Ceylon,  about  45  m.  E. 
of  Colombo.  It  is  of  a  conical  shape,  7,420  ft. 
high,  and  can  be  seen  in  clear  weather  from 
sea  150  m.  away.  From  its  solitary  position 
and  immense  height  above  the  surrounding  coun- 
try the  peak  forms  a  striking  and  awe-inspiring 
object  and  has  been  for  centuries  venerated 
by  the  inhabitants.  On  the  top.  under  a  sort  of 
open  pagoda,  is  the  sacred  footmark,  a  natural 
hollow  in  the  rock,  artificially  enlarged,  and 
bearing  a  rude  resemblance  to  a  human  foot. 
Mohammedan  tradition  makes  this  the  scene  of 
Adam's  penitence  after  his  expulsion  from  Para- 
dise;  he  stood  1,000  years  on  one  foot  weeping 
for  his  sin,  hence  the  mark.  To  the  Buddhists, 
the  impression  is  the  Sri-pada,  or  sacred  foot- 
mark, left  by  Buddha  on  his  departure  from 
Ceylon;  and  the  Hindus  recognize  Buddha  as  an 
avatar    of    Vishnu    or    Siva.     Devotees    of    all 


creeds  here  meet  and  present  their  offerings 
(consisting  chiefly  of  rhododendron  flowers)  to 
the  sacred  footprint,  finishing  their  devotions  by 
a  draught  from  the  sacred  well,  The  ascent  of 
the  mountain  is  very  steep,  and  toward  the  sum- 
mit is  assisted  by  steps  cut  and  iron  chains 
riveted  in  the  rock,  the  last  40  feet  being  accom- 
plished by  an  iron  ladder.  The  top  is  an  area 
of  64  feet  by  45. 

Adams,  Abigail  Smith,  wife  of  President 
John  Adams:  b.  Weymouth,  Mass.,  23  Nov. 
1744:  d.  28  Oct.  1818.  Sin-  was  daughter  of 
a  Weymouth  clergyman,  who  opposed  the 
match  and  took  for  a  text  «  My  daughter  is 
grievously  tormented  with  a  devil. »  Though 
lacking  strength  and  regular  school  education, 
she  became  a  self-made  force  of  high  order  in 
public  affairs  and  one  of  the  best  of  early  Amer- 
ican writers :  her  letters  to  her  husband,  col- 
lected and  published,  are  not  only  of  great  his- 
torical and  social  value,  but  full  of  delightful 
genial  humor  and  acute  comment  and  judg- 
ment. Her  husband's  position  kept  them  apart 
for  years;  but  she  joined  him  in  France  in 
17S4.  went  with  him  to  his  life  of  torment  in 
London,  and  lived  in  Washington  1789-1801; 
thence  till  death  at  Braintree,  now  Quincy. 

Adams,  Alvin,  founder  of  Adams  Express 
Co.:  b.  Andover.  \'t..  16  June  1804;  d.  2  Sept. 
1877.  On  4  May  1840  he  started  an  express 
business  between  Boston  and  New  York  which 
developed  into  the  great  company  above  named, 
formed  in  1854  by  the  consolidation  of  several  ri- 
val firms, —  including  Harnden's,  the  initiator  of 
the  express  business, —  with  Mr.  Adams  as  pres- 
ident. In  1850  he  helped  to  organize  the  pioneer 
express  service  through  the  California  mining 
camps,  which  on  the  consolidation  above  he  sold 
out.  In  the  Civil  War  the  Adams  Express  Co. 
was  of  immense  help  to  the  government;  in  1870 
it  extended  its  business  to  the  far  West. 

Adams,  Brooks,  American  social  writer, 
son  of  Charles  Francis :  b.  Quincy,  Mass.,  2  June 
1848;  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1870;  and 
practised  law  till  1871.  Besides  magazine 
papers    he   has    written    <  The    Gold    Standard,* 

<  The  Emancipation  of  Massachusetts,)  a  bitter 
assault  on  the  Puritan  theocracy  (1887).  <  The 
Law    of   Civilization    and    Decay,>     and    (1900) 

<  America's  Economic  Supremacy.' 

Adams,  Charles  Baker,  American  natural- 
ist :  b.  Dorchester,  Mass.,  1814 ;  d.  1853.  He  was 
graduated  at  Amherst ;  assisted  in  the  geological 
survey  of  New  York,  1836;  held  scientific  chairs 
in  Amherst  (1836-8),  Middlebury  College,  Vt. 
(1838-47),  and  Amherst  again  (1847-53)  ;  State 
geologist  of  Vermont  1845-7.  He  wrote  a  geolo- 
gical text-book. 

Adams,  Charles  Follen,  American  dialect 
poet:  b.  Dorchester,  Mass.,  21  April  1842;  Union 
soldier;  began  writing  broken  German  poems  in 
1872;  author  of  1  Leedle  Yawcob  Strauss,  and 
Other  Poems)  (1878);  (Dialect  Ballads' 
(1887),  etc. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  American  states- 
man, son  of  President  John  Quincy :  b.  in  Bos- 
ton, 18  Aug.  1807;  d.  there  21  Nov.  1886.  At  the 
age  of  two  he  was  taken  by  his  father  to  St.  Pe- 
tersburg; in  1815  went  with  his  mother  thence  to 
Paris;  the  same  year  his  father  was  made  minis- 
ter  to  England,  and  he  was  placed  in  an  English 


ADAMS 


boarding-school.  In  1817  both  returned  to 
America ;  he  was  placed  in  the  Boston  Latin 
School,  and  in  1825  graduated  at  Harvard.  His 
father  had  just  been  inaugurated  President,  and 
he  spent  two  years  in  Washington  ;  then  returned 
to  Boston,  studied  law  with  Daniel  Webster,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1828,  but  never  prac- 
tised—  engaging  in  literature  and  political  writ- 
ing in  magazines  and  pamphlets,  and  editing 
John  and  Abigail  Adams'  letters  (1840-?.).  He 
was  Representative  in  the  legislature  1841-4, 
State  Senator  1844-6,  as  a  Whig;  heading  the 
«  Conscience  Whig  »  wing,  he  edited  the  Boston 
Whig,  1846-8,  was  chairman  of  the  Free-Soil 
Convention  at  Buffalo  in  1848,  and  was  nom- 
inated for  Vice-President  on  the  ticket  with 
Martin  Van  Buren.  In  1850-6  he  edited  John 
Adams'  <  Works  >  in  10  volumes.  He  joined  the 
Republican  party  on  its  organization  in  1855,  and 
in  1858  was  sent  to  Congress,  and  re-elected  in 
i860.  In  1861  Lincoln  sent  him  to  England  as 
minister,  as  his  father  and  grandfather  had  been 
before  him.  But  even  their  problems  were 
trivial  beside  his,  when  the  very  existence  of  the 
Union  perhaps  depended  on  how  far  the  English 
upper  classes  could  drag  the  government  in 
evasion  of  international  obligations  and  covert 
help  to  the  South.  The  seizure  of  Mason  and 
Slidell  on  the  Trent  nearly  precipitated  war ; 
the  fitting  out  of  cruisers  to  destroy  United 
States  commerce  was  put  a  stop  to  only  after  the 
escape  of  the  Alabama  (q.v. )  in  the  face  of  Mr. 
Adams'  representations,  and  his  declaration  to 
Earl  Russell,  then  foreign  secretary,  that  per- 
mitting the  Laird  rams  also  to  leave  Birkenhead 
was  «  war.»  Napoleon  III.'s  persistent  efforts 
to  seduce  the  English  government  into  a  joint 
intervention  in  favor  of  the  Confederacy  had  to 
be  checkmated ;  and  the  rancorous  hostility  of 
one  section  and  the  coldness  of  the  remainder  of 
the  best  society  made  it  a  lonely  and  trying 
place,  which  for  seven  years  he  filled  with  a  dig- 
nified resolution  of  immeasurable  importance  to 
his  country.  Returning  to  America  in  1868,  he 
was  elected  president  of  Harvard  the  next  year, 
but  declined :  for  several  years,  however,  he  was 
president  of  its  board  of  overseers.  In  1871  he 
was  the  United  States  representative  on  the 
board  of  arbitrators  at  Geneva  to  settle  the  Ala- 
bama Claims  (q.v.)  ;  in  1872  he  nearly  obtained 
the  nomination  as  Democratic-Independent  can- 
didate for  the  presidency,  which  Horace  Greeley 
secured.  In  1874-7  he  edited  the  <  Memoirs  of 
John  Quincy  Adams  >   in  12  volumes. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis  (2d),  American 
publicist,  son  of  above :  b.  in  Boston,  27  May 
1835.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1856, 
and  served  as  a  cavalry  officer  through  the  Civil 
War,  rising  from  first  lieutenant  to  colonel, 
and  being  brevetted  brigadier-general  at  its 
close.  Shortly  becoming  noted  for  ability  in 
discussion  of  economic,  political,  and  social 
questions,  he  was  appointed  railroad  com- 
missioner of  Massachusetts  in  1869;  wrote 
'Chapters  of  Erie >  (1871)  in  collaboration 
with  his  brother  Henry,  a  series  of  papers  on 
railroad  accidents  and  on  <  The  State  and  the 
Railroads  i  (1875-6)  for  the  (Atlantic  Month- 
ly,>  <  Railroads,  the  Origin  and  Problems  » 
(1878),  <  Notes  on  Railway  Accidents  >  (1870). 
etc. ;  and  1884-90  was  president  of  the  Union 
Pacific  Railroad  Company.    In  1892  he  published 


<  Three  Episodes  of  Massachusetts  History,' 
on  the  settlement  of  Boston  Bay,  the  Antino- 
mian  controversy,  and  early  town  and  church 
government,  and  in  1893  <  Massachusetts :  Its 
Historians  and  Its  History.)  In  1895  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  Massachusetts  Historical 
Society,  and  in  1901  president  of  the  American 
Historical  Association.  He  has  also  written  lives 
of  R ''chard  Henry  Dana  (1891)  and  of  his 
father  (1900,  Am.  Statesmen  Series),  <  Lee  at 
Appomattox,'  etc.  (1902),  and  much  miscel- 
laneous work.  As  chairman  of  the  State  Park 
Commission,  1893-5,  he  contributed  materially 
toward  planning  out  and  establishing  the  great 
Metropolitan   Park   System  of   Massachusetts. 

Adams,  Charles  Kendall,  American  histo- 
rian and  educator :  b.  Derby.  Vt.,  24  Jan.  1835  '• 
d.  26  July  1902.  He  removed  to  Iowa  in  1855 ; 
graduated  at  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1861 ; 
became  assistant  professor  there  1863-7,  and  pro- 
fessor of  history  1867-85.  He  studied  abroad 
1867-8 ;  in  1869-70  introduced  the  German  sem- 
inary method  into  the  United  States  by  establish- 
ing the  Historical  Seminary  in  the  University  of 
Michigan;  and  was  made  dean  of  its  School  of 
Political  Science  when  established.  In  1885  he 
succeeded  Andrew  D.  White  as  president  of 
Cornell ;  resigned  1892.  and  till  1902  was  presi- 
dent of  the  L'niversity  of  Wisconsin.  He  was 
chief  editor  of  <  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopae- 
dia,) 1892-5.  His  most  valued  work  is  a  <  Man- 
ual of  Historical  Literature'  (1882);  he  wrote 
also  <  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in  France) 
(1872);  'Christopher  Columbus)  (1892);  com- 
piled (British  Orations)  (1884);  and  wrote 
much  magazine  and  review  matter. 

Adams,  Charles  R.,  American  tenor:  b. 
Charlestown,  Mass.,  1848;  d.  1900.  He  studied 
in  Vienna,  sang  three  years  at  the  Royal  Opera 
in  Berlin,  and  nine  in  the  Imperial  Opera  at 
Vienna.  He  was  highly  reputed  as  an  inter- 
preter of  Wagnerian  parts.  In  1879  he  settled 
in  Boston,  where  he  taught  with  great  approval. 

Adams,  Edwin,  American  actor:  b.  1834  in 
Massachusetts ;  d.  in  Australia,  1877.  He  first 
appeared  as  Stephen  in  <  The  Hunchback  >  at  the 
Boston  National  Theatre,  29  Aug.  1853  :  played 
Hamlet  at  Wallack's  (N.  Y.)  in  i860;  starred  in 
other  cities,  and  returned  to  New  York  in  1866 
as  Robert  Landry  in  <  The  Dead  Heart  '  ;  was 
one  of  Booth's  company  when  he  opened  his  the- 
atre 3  Feb.  1867,  and  played  Mercutio  and  Iago, 
but  won  most  fame  as  Enoch  Arden. 

Adams,  Frank  Dawson,  geologist:  b.  Mon- 
treal, Can.,  17  Sept.  1859;  graduated  at  McGill 
University  in  1878 ;  took  advanced  courses  at 
Sheffield  Scientific  School  (Yale),  and  at  Heidel- 
berg, applying  himself  particularly  to  lithology 
and  physical  geology;  in  1888  became  lecturer  on 
geology  at  McGill.  and  in  1803  succeeded  Sir 
William  Dawson  as  Logan  professor  of  geology 
there. 

Adams,  George  Burton,  American  histo- 
rical writer:  b.  Vt.  1851.  He  is  a  professor  of 
historv  at  Yale;  author  of  C Civilization  Dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages)  (1883),  and  <  The  Growth 
of  the  French  Nation.) 

Adams,  Hannah,  American  literary  pio- 
neer: b.  Medfield.  Ma«„  175;:  d.  1?  Nov.  1832. 
Her  principal  works  were  an  <  Autobiogra- 
phy >  ;     <  History    of    New    England)     (i~99)  ; 


ADAMS 


'History  of  the  Jews  >  (1812)  ;  besides  several 
writings     un     religious     topics.     She     lived    in 

:  iir.  Mass 

Adams,  Henry,  American  historian,  son  of 
Charles  Francis:  b.  Boston,  16  Feb.  1858.  He 
was  private  secretary  to  his   father  during  the 

latter's  English  ministry,  and  assistant  professor 
of  history  at  Harvard  1870-7,  being  reputed  one 
of  the  most  stimulating  and  original  instructors 
as  well  as  brilliant  expositors  in  the  country. 
With  several  pupils  he  published  in  1876  <  Essays 
on  Anglo-Saxon  Law,1  of  which  he  wrote  on 
•  Anglo-Saxon  Courts  of  Law.)  In  1871  he 
collaborated  with  his  brother  Charles  Francis  in 
<  Chapters  of  Erie.'  He  edited  the  <  North  Amer- 
ican Review.'  1875-6.  In  18711  he  published  Al- 
bert Gallatin's  writings  (3  vols.)  :  in  1882  a  life 
of  John  Randolph  (American  Statesmen  Series). 
But  his  life-work,  and  with  one  exception  the 
foremost  historical  work  of  America  in  matter  and 
style,  is  his  <  History  of  the  United  States  from 
1801  to  1817 '  —  that  is,  the  presidencies  of  Jef- 
ferson and  Madison  (9  vols.  1889-91):  in  mo- 
tive a  defense  of  his  grandfather  John  Quincy 
Adams  for  deserting  the  Federalist  party;  in 
essence,  a  history  of  the  causes  and  conduct  of 
the  War  of  1812.  For  this  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  Washington  and  spent  years  ransack- 
ing its  archives.  He  also  lived  for  long  periods 
abroad,  examining  various  European  records, 
and  trained  himself  thoroughly  in  military  and 
naval  science  and  construction,  besides  studying 
historical   and   economic   problems. 

Adams,  Henry  Carter,  economist:  b.  Da- 
venport, Iowa,  31  Dec.  1852.  He  was  graduated 
at  Iowa  College ;  afterward  took  a  post-graduate 
course  at  Johns  Hopkins,  of  which  he  became 
fellow  and  lecturer.  Later  a  lecturer  at  Cornell. 
he  is  now  professor  of  political  economy  and 
finance  in  the  University  of  Michigan.  He 
was  statistician  to  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission,  and  had  charge  of  the  transporta- 
tion department  in  the  census  of  1000.  He  has 
published  works  on  public  debts  (1887).  on  tax- 
ation, political  economy,  industrial  subjects,  etc. 

Adams,  Herbert  Baxter,  historical  student 
and  educator :  b.  Shutesbury,  Mass.,  16  April 
1850;  d.  190T.  He  was  graduated  at  Amherst  in 
1872;  took  Ph.D.  at  Heidelberg;  and  on  the 
opening  of  Johns  Hopkins  in  1876  was  made 
fellow  in  history.  1878  associate  in  history,  1883 
associate  professor  in  history,  and  in  1891,  full 
professor.  In  1901  he  resigned  on  account  of  ill 
health,  and  died  shortly  after.  In  1884  he  was 
a  leader  in  organizing  the  American  Historical 
Association,  and  was  secretary  till  1000,  then 
becoming  first  vice-president.  He  edited  the 
(Johns  Hopkins  Studies  in  History  and  Politi- 
cal Science  >  from  the  start,  also  the  <  Contribu- 
tions to  American  Educational  History'  pub- 
lished by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. Ilis  chief  publication  is  'The  Life  and 
Writings  pf  Jarcd  Sparks  >  (2  vols.  1803). 
Among  his  historical  monographs  are  '  The  Col- 
lege of  William  and  Mary.'  (Thomas  Jefferson 
and  the  University  of  Virginia.1  <  The  Germanic 
Origin  of  New  England  Towns.)  and  <  Mary- 
land's Influence  in  Founding  a  National  Com- 
monwealth.1 But  his  best  work  was  not  in 
writing  history,  but  in  training  others  to  write 
it,  and  he  was  a  powerful  influence  in  creating 
the  new  school  of  historical  research. 


Adams,  Isaac,  inventor  of  the  «  Adams 
press"  familiar  to  printers:  b.  in  Rochester,  N. 
11.  1803;  d.  19  July  1883.  He  was  a  cotton- 
mill  hand,  then  cabinet-maker,  then  machinist. 
His  press  —  its  essence  consisting  in  the  raising 
of  the  bed  against  a  stationary  platen  instead  of 
bringing  the  platen  down  on  the  bed  —  was 
patented  in  1828,  and  much  improved  in  1834. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  Senate 
in  1840. 

Adams,  John,  2d  President  of  the  United 
States:  b.  Brauuree.  Mass..  of  a  line  of  farmers, 
19  Oct.  1735;  d.  July  4  182O.  the  year  after  his 
son  was  inaugurated  President.  Graduated  at 
Harvard,  he  taught  school,  and  read  theology 
for  a  Church  career:  but  seeing  Ins  unfitness  for 
it  studied  law  and  began  practice  in  1758,  soon 
becoming  a  leader  at  the  bar  and  in  public  life. 
In  17(14  he  married  his  famous  wife.  All 
through  the  germinal  years  of  the  Revolution  he 
was  one  of  the  foremost  patriots,  steadily  op- 
posing any  abandonment  or  compromise  of  es- 
sential rights;  and  in  1 7(»( »  published  essays  in 
the  Boston  Gazette,  reprinted  in  London  1768, 
entitled  <  \  Dissertation  on  Canon  and  Feudal 
Law,'  really  on  colonial  rights.  In  1765  also 
he  was  counsel  for  Boston,  with  Otis  and  Grid- 
ley,  to  support  the  town's  memorial  against  the 
Stamp  Act.  In  1766  he  was  a  selectman,  or  in 
other  words  one  of  the  three  official  ruicrs  of 
the  head  of  the  New  England  colonics.  In  1768 
the  royal  government  offered  him  the  post  of 
advocate-general  in  the  Court  of  Admiralty, — 
in  fact  a  lucrative  bribe  to  desert  the  opposition; 
but  lie  refused  it.  Vet  in  1770,  as  a  matter  of 
high  professional  duty,  he  took  his  future  in  his 
hands  to  become  counsel  (successfully)  for  the 
British  soldiers  on  trial  for  the  «  Boston  Mas- 
sacre." Though  there  was  a  present  uproar  of 
abuse.  Mr.  Adams  was  shortly  after  elected 
Representative  to  the  General  Court  by  more 
than  three  to  one.  In  March  1774  he  was  con- 
templating writing  the  'History  of  the  Contest 
between  Britain  and  America.'  June  17  he  pre- 
sided over  the  meeting  at  Faneuil  Hall  to  con- 
sider the  Boston  Port  Bill,  and  at  the  same 
hour  was  elected  delegate  to  the  first  Congress 
at  Philadelphia  (1  September),  by  the  Provincial 
Assembly  held  in  defiance  of  the  government. 
Returning  home,  he  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Provincial  Congress,  already  organizing  resist- 
ance to  England.  Just  after  Lexington  he  again 
journeyed  to  Philadelphia  to  the  Congress  of 
May  1775;  where  he  did  on  his  own  motion,  to 
the  disgust  of  his  associates  and  the  reluctance 
even  of  the  Southerners,  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  decisive  acts  of  the  Revolution, — 
induced  Congress  to  adopt  the  forces  already 
gathered  in  New  England  as  a  national  army 
and  put  George  Washington  at  its  head,  thereby 
engaging  the  Southern  colonies  irrevocably  in 
the  war  and  securing  the  one  man  who  could 
make  it  a  success.  In  1776  he  was  a  chief  agent 
in  carrying  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  He 
remained  in  Congress  till  November  1777,  serv- 
ing on  the  Committee  on  Foreign  Relations  and 
as  chairman  of  the  Board  of  War  and  Ordnance, 
very  useful  and  laborious,  but  making  one  dread- 
ful mistake:  he  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
policy  of  ignoring  the  just-rights  and  decent  dig- 
nity of  the  military  commanders,  which  lost  the 
country  some  of  its  best  officers  and  led  ultimate-  • 


JOHN  ADAMS, 

SECOND  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


ADAMS 


ly  to  Arnold's  treason.  His  reasons,  exactly 
contrary  to  his  wont,  were  sound  abstract  logic, 
but  thorough  practical  nonsense. 

In  December  I/""  he  was  appointed  commis- 
sioner to  France  to  succeed  Silas  Deane.  Dr. 
Franklin  and  Arthur  Lee  were  there  before  him; 
r.nd  though  he  reformed  a  very  bad  state  of  af- 
fairs, he  thought  it  absurd  to  keep  three  envoys 
at  one  court  and  induced  Congress  to  abolish  his 
office,  returning  in  1779.  Chosen  a  delegate  to  the 
Massachusetts  Constitutional  Convention,  he  was 
called  away  from  it  to  be  sent  again  to  France. 
There  he  remained  as  Franklin's  colleague,  de- 
testing and  distrusting  him  and  the  foreign  min- 
ister Vergennes,  embroiling  himself  with  both, 
and  earning  a  cordial  return  of  his  warmest  dis- 
like from  both,  till  July  1780.  He  then  went  to 
Holland  as  volunteer  minister,  and  in  1782  was 
formally  recognized  as  from  an  independent  na- 
tion. Meantime  Vergennes  intrigued  energeti- 
cally to  have  him  recalled,  and  did  succeed  in 
tying  his  hands  so  that  but  for  his  contumacious 
stubbornness  half  the  advantages  of  independ- 
ence would  have  been  lost,  as  Vergennes  was 
employed  to  gain  points  for  France  and  not  for 
the  United  States.  In  the  final  negotiations  for 
peace  he  persisted  (against  his  instructions)  in 
making  the  New  England  fisheries  an  ultimatum, 
and  saved  them.  The  wretched  state  of  Ameri- 
can affairs  under  the  Confederation  made  it  im- 
possible to  do  his  country  any  good  abroad,  and 
the  vindictive  feeling  of  the  English  made  his 
life  a  purgatory,  so  that  he  was  glad  to  come 
home  in  178S. 

In  the  first  Presidential  election  of  that  year, 
he  was  elected  Vice-President  on  the  ticket  with 
Washington  ;  and  began  a  feud  with  Alexander 
Hamilton,  the  mighty  leader  of  the  Federalist 
party  and  chief  organizer  of  our  governmental 
machine,  which  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  that 
party  years  before  its  time,  and  had  momentous 
personal  and  literary  results  as  well.  As  official 
head  of  the  party  he  thought  himself  entitled 
to  its  real  leadership  as  well;  Hamilton  would 
not  and  indeed  could  not  surrender  his  position, 
for  the  lesser  men  looked  to  him  for  counsel 
and  policy,  and  the  rivalry  never  ended  till 
Hamilton's  death.  In  1796  he  was  elected 
President  against  Jefferson,  and  his  term  is  rec- 
ognized as  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  useful  of 
our  administrations ;  but  its  personal  memoirs 
are  most  painful  and  scandalous.  The  members 
of  the  Cabinet — nearly  all  Hamiltonians  —  laid 
official  secrets  before  Hamilton  and  took  advice 
from  him  to  thwart  the  President.  They  dis- 
liked Mr.  Adams'  overbearing  ways  and  ob- 
trusive vanity, —  for  modesty  or  a  low  sense 
of  personal  dignity  were  no  parts  of  his  char- 
acter,—  considered  his  policy  destructive  to  the 
party  and  injurious  to  the  country,  and  felt  that 
loyalty  to  them  involved  and  justified  a  dis- 
loyalty to  him.  Finally  his  best  act  brought  on 
an  explosion.  The  French  Directory  had  pro- 
voked a  war  with  this  country,  which  the  Ham- 
iltonian  section  of  the  Federalist  leaders  and 
much  of  the  rank  and  file  hailed  with  delight, 
thinking  it  a  service  to  the  world  to  cripple 
France  as  then  ruled ;  but  when  it  showed  signs 
of  a  better  spirit,  Mr.  Adams,  without  cpnsulting 
his  Cabinet  (who  he  knew  would  oppose  it 
nearly  or  quite  unanimously),  nominated  a  com- 
mission to  frame  a  treaty  with  France.  He  had 
the  constitutional  right  to  do  so;  but  the  storm 


of  fury  that  broke  on  him  from  the  party  has 
rarely  been  surpassed  in  the  case  of  traitors  out- 
right, and  he  was  charged  with  being  little  bet- 
ter. He  was  renominated  for  President  in  1800, 
but  beaten  by  Jefferson,  owing  to  the  defections 
in  his  own  party,  largely  of  Hamilton's  pro- 
ducing. The  Federalist  party  never  won  an- 
other election  ;  the  Hamiltonians  laid  its  death 
to  Mr.  Adams,  and  American  history  is  hot  with 
the  fires  of  this  battle  even  yet. 

His  later  years  were  spent  at  home,  where  he 
was  always  interested  in  public  affairs  and  some- 
times much  too  free  in  his  comments  on  them  ; 
where  he  read  immensely  and  wrote  somewhat. 
He  heartily  approved  his  son's  break  with 
the  Federalists  (see  Adams,  John  Quincy)  on 
the  Embargo  (q.v.).  He  died  on  the  same  day 
as  Jefferson,  both  on  the  50th  anniversary  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence. 

Mr.  Adams'  greatest  usefulness  and  popularity 
sprang  from  the  same  cause  that  produced  some 
of  his  worst  blunders  and  misfortunes:  a  gener- 
ous impulsiveness  which  which  made  it  impos- 
sible for  him  to  hold  his  tongue  at  the  wrong 
time  and  place  for  talking,  his  vehemence,  self- 
confidence,  and  impatience  of  obstruction.  He 
was  fervid,  combative,  opinionated,  and  master- 
ful, and  naturally  won  more  hate  than  love ;  but 
he  had  trust,  admiration,  and  respect  from  the 
majority  of  his  party  at  the  worst  of  times,  and 
history  justifies  it.  ((  Works,'  by  his  grandson 
Charles  Francis  Adams.) 

Adams,  John,  American  educator:  b.  Con- 
necticut, 1772;  d.  1S63.  Graduated  at  Yale  in 
1795.  he  was  a  school-teacher  till  1810,  and 
thence  till  1833  principal  of  Phillips  Academy, 
Andover,  Mass.,  which  he  developed  into  repute 
throughout  the  country.  He  was  teacher  of 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  who,  in  the  lines  be- 
ginning «  Grave  is  the  Master's  look,»  commem- 
orates him  in  his  poem  <  The  School-Boy,)  read 
at  the  Phillips  Academy  centennial  in  1878. 

Adams,  John,  Confederate  soldier:  b.  Ten- 
nessee, 1825;  d.  30  Nov.  1864.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  West  Point  in  1846 ;  was  brevetted  first 
lieutenant  for  bravery  at  Santa  Cruz  de  Ros- 
ales,  1848;  promoted  captain  of  dragoons,  1856; 
and  resigned  1861  to  join  the  Confederate  army, 
in  which  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Frank- 
lin, Tenn. 

Adams,  John,  the  name  assumed  by  Alex- 
ander Smith,  one  of  the  mutineers  of  the 
Bounty.  After  intoxication  and  massacre  had 
killed  off  all  the  mutineers  but  himself,  he  was 
shocked  into  a  complete  change  of  heart,  and  be- 
came sincerely  pious  and  of  upright  life;  he  was 
the  patriarch  of  the  little  native  and  half-caste 
group  on  Pitcairn's  Island,  taught  a  school  and 
held  worship  there.  It  was  nearly  twenty  years 
after  the  mutiny  before  his  existence  was  known; 
and  though  technically  liable  to  execution  for  the 
mutiny  the  English  officials  felt  that  his  hard- 
ships, exile,  and  repentance  had  atoned  for  the 
crime,  and  that  it  would  be  wrong  to  remove  the 
head  from  the  little  settlement.  He  was  left  un- 
molested and  died  in  1829.  See  Bligh.  William; 
Pitcairn's  Island. 

Adams,  John  Couch,  English  astronomer: 
b.  in  Cornwall,  5  June  1819;  d.  21  Jan.  1892.  A 
precocious  mathematician,  he  became  senior 
wrangler  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and 


ADAMS 


mathematical  tutor  there.  lie  discovered  in 
1845,  by  calculation  of  the  perturbations  of  Ura- 
111:  ,  thai  another  planet  must  exist  beyond  it, 
and  fixed  its  position  within  two  degrees;  but 
search  for  it  not  being  made,  Leverrier  of  Paris 
independently  made  the  same  discovery  next 
year,  and  Galle  of  Berlin  at  once  found  the 
planet  (see  Neptune).  In  1851  he  became 
president  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society; 
1858-9  professor  of  mathematics  at  Aberdeen 
University;  [859-92  Lowndean  professor  of  as- 
tronomy and  geometry  at  Camridge,  and  in  1861 
director  of  Cambridge  Observatory.  He  was  a 
delegate  to  tin-  International  Prime  Meridian 
Conference  at   Washington   1884. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  6th   President  of  the 

United  States,  >,„,  ,,f  John  Adams:  !>.  in  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  11  July  ir<>7;  (I.  Washington, 
D.  C,  2.!  Feb.  1848.  At  10  he  accompa- 
nied his  father  on  his  first  embassyto  France, 
and  was  placed  at  school  near  Paris.  He  re- 
turned with  his  father  in  about  18  months;  but 
soon  went  back  with  him  to  Europe,  and  at- 
tended school  in  Holland  and  at  the  University 
of  Leyden.  At  15  Francis  Dana,  his  father's 
secretary  of  legation,  who  had  been  appointed 
minister  to  Ku  ia,  took  him  with  him  as  his  pri- 
vate secretary.  After  14  months'  stay  in  Russia, 
where  Catherine  refused  to  recognize  Mr.  Dana, 
lie  traveled  back  alone  through  Sweden  and 
Denmark  to  The  Hague.  Soon  after  his  father's 
appointment  as  ambassador  a!  London  in  1785, 
he  returned  home  to  complete  his  studies,  as  he 
believed  "an  American  education  to  bethe  best 
for  an  American  career,"  a  coolly  judi* 
choice  for  a  lad  of  18.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1788,  entered  the  office  of  Theophilus 
Parsons  (q.v.),  and  in  1791  was  admitted  to  the 
bar.  He  now  began  to  take  an  active  interest 
in  politics.  He  wrote  a  series  of  letters  to  the 
Boston  Sentinel  under  the  signature  of  «Pub- 
|icola,»  in  reply  to  Paine's  "Rights  of  Man,» 
and  in  1793  defended  Washington's  policy  of 
neutrality  under  the  signature  of  «  Marcellus.» 
These  letters  attracted  attention,  and  in  1794 
Washington  appointed  him  minister  to  The 
Hague.  In  1708  he  received  a  commission  to 
negotiate  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  Sweden ; 
and  traveling  through  Silesia  w-rote  an  ac- 
count  of  it  which  was  published  in  London,  and 
later  translated  into  German  and  French.  On 
Jefferson's  accession  to  the  presidency  he  was 
recalled  and  resumed  law  practice. 

In  1802  he  was  sent  to  the  State  Senate;  the 
next  year  to  the  United  States  Senate  in  place 
of  Timothy  Pickering,  leading  Hamiltonian. 
But  the  Hamilton-Adams  feud  (see  Adams, 
John)  had  split  the  party  into  rancorously  hos- 
tile halves,  and  Mr.  Adams  was  practically 
«  boycotted »  by  the  dominant  section  of  his 
own  party,  as  being  an  Adams,  with  an  in- 
genuity of  indecent  insult  curious  to  read  of; 
-nil  worse  was  it  when  Pickering  was  made 
his  colleague  by  the  other  faction  at  the  next 
vacancy.  It  was  good  training  for  the  great 
career  of  his  later  life;  be  was  not  the  man  to 
conciliate  his  foes,  and  soon  made  the  breach 
irreparable  by  breaking  away  from  the  party 
policy.  Through  life  any  action  which  strength- 
ened the  United  States,  or  increased  its  dig- 
nity in  the  eyes  of  the  world,  or  simply  "  showed 
fight »   for  any  purpose,  met  with  his   heartiest 


approval  and  warmest  support,  even  though'  fa- 
thered by  his  worst  enemies;  and  he  first  sup- 
ported   "(with    some    reservations)    Jefferson's 
Louisiana  purchase, —  precisely  in  the  line  of  the 
former   Federalist  policy  and  the  nature  of  the 
party,  but  now  fought  by  them  as  Jefferson's, — 
and  in  1807  took  a  far  more  radical  step.    The 
action  of  France  and  Great  Britain  in  plunder- 
ing American  commerce  for  evading  their  mu- 
tual  blockade    laws,   and   of  the   latter   for   im- 
pri     ling    American    citizens    under    pretense    of 
their  being  English  runaways,  bad  enraged  the 
country,    but    it    was    helpless    against    both    and 
felt    not    strong    enough    at    the    time    to    fight 
cither ;  finally  the  outrage  of  the  Leopard  on  the 
Chesapeake    (see   the   latter   name)    roused    the 
Republicans  to  fury,  and  even  many  of  the  Fed- 
eralists.    But    the    leaders    of    the    latter    sym- 
pathized with   England's  difficulties   in  the  war 
with  Napoleon,  would  do  nothing   to  embarrass 
her,  and  even  defended  the  Leopard's  action.     Mr. 
Adams  was  as  hot  as  any  Republican;  he  tried 
to  have  the  Boston    Federalists  hold  a  meeting 
and  pledge  the  government  their  support  in  any 
measures  to  curb  British  insolence,  and  on  their 
n  Eusal  attended  a  Republican  meeting  and  was 
put   on  a   committee   to   draft   such   resolutions. 
The  Federalists  were  soon  compelled  by  popular 
feeling   to   do    likewise,    and    Mr.    Adams    also 
drafted  resolutions  there.     At  the  extra  session 
of   Congress   in    October   the    Embargo   on   all 
American   shipping  was  passed,  to  see  if  Eng- 
land could  not  be  starved  into  better  behavior; 
half  ruining  New  England,  most  of  whose  capi- 
tal   was    invested    in    commerce,    and    injuring 
Americans    much    more   than    the    enemy.      Mi. 
Adams  was  a  member  of  the  committee  which 
reported   the   bill,   and    earnestly   advocated   it, — 
not  because   it   went  as   far  as  he  liked,  but  as 
preferable  to  showing  no  resentment   whatever, 
and  all  the  Federalists  would  permit.     The  exe- 
crations   leveled    at    his    father    for    the    French 
mission,  and  the  charges  of  sectional  and  party 
treachery,   were   repeated   on   the   son;   political 
literature   for  half  a  century  was  glowing  with 
the    acrid    polemics    on    the    subject,    and    the 
prime    object   of  his   grandson    1  letiry   Adams's 
<History>     is   to    exculpate    him.     I  lis    term    in 
the  Senate  was  to  expire  3  March  1809;  in  the 
preceding    June    the     Massachusetts    legislature 
elected  James  Lloyd  to  succeed  him,  as  an   in- 
sult,  which   he   accepted   and   at  once   resigned. 
Meantime   lie  had  been  made  professor  of  rhet- 
oric  at    Harvard    and   delivered    lectures    there. 
The  next  month  he  declined  a  Republican  nom- 
ination to  the  House. 

On  Madison's  accession  in  1809  he  at 
once  appointed  Mr.  Adams  minister  to  Russia; 
the  Senate  for  some  months  refused  to  confirm 
the  nomination,  but  at  length  yielded,  and  he 
pass  4'/2  years  there.  In  the  peace  negotiations 
with  England  over  the  War  of  1812.  he  was  a 
commissioner  with  Gallatin  and  Bayard,  and 
again  defeated  assaults  on  the  American  fishing 
rights  like  his  father.  The  treaty  is  usually 
considered  a  humiliating  fiasco  for  America;  but 
it  is  significant  that  the  British  press  consid- 
ered it  a  surrender  on  their  side,  and  especially 
reviled  Mr.  Adams  for  his  share  in  it.  Visit- 
ing Paris,  he  was  made  commissioner  to  nego- 
tiate the  American-English  commercial  treaty 
signed  13  July  1815.  Meantime  he  had  arrived 
in  England,  26  May,  and  received  the  news  of 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS, 

SIXTH    PRESIDENT  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES. 


ADAMS 


Tlis  appointment  as  minister  to  that  country. 
The  synchronisms  of  wars,  treaties,  and  minis- 
terships between  father  and  son  is  so  curious 
that  in  ancient  history  it  would  be  treated  as 
indubitable  confusion  of  persons. 

Eight  years  later,  after  leaving  America,  Mr. 
Adams  was  recalled  to  it  as  Secretary  of  State 
under  Monroe,  inaugurated  March  1817.  His 
greatest  achievement  was  the  treaty  with  Spain 
ceding  Florida  to  the  United  States  for  $5,000,- 
000,  to  be  used  in  paying  American  claims 
against  Spain;  and  rectifying  the  boundaries  of 
Louisiana  and  Mexico.  His  utter  independence  of 
personal  against  national  considerations  is  singu- 
larly shown  in  his  support  of  Jackson  for  invad- 
ing Spanish  Florida  and  hanging  Arbuthnot 
and  Ambrister;  he  hated  and  despised  Jack- 
son, and  the  latter  had  violated  all  international 
law ;  but  he  had  roughly  vindicated  United 
Slates  rights  and  put  down  dangerous  intrigues 
with  savages,  and  Mr.  Adams  vigorously  de- 
fended him.  He  was  the  author  of  the  «  Mon- 
roe Doctrine,»  and  though  he  never  dreamed  of 
its  later  interpretations  would  not  improbably 
have  sympathized  with  them.  He  also  drew  up 
a  report  on  weights  and  measures  which  is  still 
a  classic,  and  shows  an  almost  incredible  amount 
of  investigation.  An  ultimately  far  more  impor- 
tant question  came  up  over  the  admission  of 
Missouri  as  a  slave  State.  The  Missouri  Com- 
promise (q.v.)  had  been  passed  and  put  before 
Monroe  for  signature,  but  he  submitted  to  his 
Cabinet  the  questions  whether  Congress  had  a 
constitutional  right  to  prohibit  slavery  in  a  Ter- 
ritory, and  whether  the  prohibition  of  slavery 
«  forever  »  in  the  territory  north  of  Mason  and 
Dixon's  Line  meant  while  it  remained  a  Terri- 
tory or  thereafter.  The  Cabinet  was  unani- 
mous in  the  affirmative  on  the  first  question ;  Mr. 
Adams  was  alone  in  declaring  that  «  forever » 
included  statehood  also. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1824  there  was 
no  electoral  majority:  Andrew  Jackson  had  99, 
Mr.  Adams  84  (a  remarkable  vote  considering 
his  ungracious  manner,  gift  for  making  enemies, 
and  refusal  to  do  anything  to  promote  his  elec- 
tion), William  H.  Crawford  41,  and  Henry  Clay 
34.  Crawford  was  put  out  of  the  field  by  a 
paralytic  stroke.  As  Clay  could  not  be  elected, 
his  supporters  cast  their  votes  for  Adams  as 
preferable  to  Jackson :  the  former  represented 
the  same  public  policy  as  theirs,  he  was  the 
ablest  public  official  in  the  country  and  not  per- 
sonally hostile  to  Clay,  while  Jackson  was  re- 
garded as  an  ignorant  and  violent  demagogue. 
Mr.  Adams  was  elected,  and  made  Clay  secre- 
tary of  state,  a  place  to  which  Clay's  talents 
and  position  gave  him  almost  a  prescriptive 
claim.  The  Jacksonians  denounced  this  as  a 
corrupt  bargain  to  defeat  the  people's  will,  and 
absurdly  gave  it  the  name  of  the  unsavory  Eng- 
lish _  "Coalition,0  a  catchword  which  was  an 
efficient  party  weapon  for  many  years.  Mr. 
Adams'  administration  had  no  dramatic  events. 
Its  policy  was  based  on  a  new  division  of  par- 
ties. The  Federalists  were  dead,  consequently 
cheir  opponents  were  dead  also,  and  the  new  di- 
vision was  into  National  Republicans,  afterward 
Whigs,  and  Democratic-Republicans,  or  Demo- 
crats :  the  former  favoring  internal  improve- 
ments, a  national  bank,  and  high  tariffs,  the  lat- 
ter opposing  them.  In  reality,  the  division  was 
between  the   preferences   of  the  capitalist  class 


and  the  masses.  The  Adams  administration  was 
Whig,  and  had  the  hostility  of  the  Northern 
commercial  classes  whose  trade  the  tariff  was 
intended  to  cut  down,  and  of  the  Southern 
planters  who  would  lose  as  consumers  while 
having  nothing  to  protect  as  producers.  Still 
more  effectively  the  Jacksonian  party,  steadily 
and  rapidly  growing,  used  the  promise  of 
« spods »  to  gain  support ;  and  in  1828  Mr. 
Adams  was  defeated  for  re-election  by  178 
to  83. 

Mr.  Adams  retired,  as  he  supposed,  from  pub- 
lic life.  But  in  1831  the  constituency  of  his  dis- 
trict around  Braintree  elected  him  a  member  of 
Congress  on  the  Anti-Masonic  ticket  (see  Anti- 
Masonry;  Morgan,  William);  and  though 
that  party  soon  died,  his  immense  ability  and 
unique  power  in  Congress  kept  him  there  till 
his  death.  By  a  singular  fortune,  he  owes  by 
far  his  greatest  fame  to  this  relatively  small  po- 
sition after  his  crowning  office  was  laid  down. 
Belonging  to  no  party,  a  political  Ishmaelite,  of 
the  loftiest  patriotism  and  the  highest  integrity, 
but  scornful  of  nature  and  irritable  in  temper, 
rousing  every  demon  of  hatred  in  his  fellow- 
members,  in  constant  and  envenomed  battle 
with  them  and  more  than  a  match  for  them  all, 
the  «  old  man  eloquent  »  was  for  many  years  a 
storm  centre  of  wonderful  picturesqueness. 
But  his  repute  is  not  a  mere  political  curio:  he 
had  the  fortune  to  take  his  place  at  the  very 
outset  of  the  struggle  of  the  slave  oligarchy  to 
suppress  free  speech  and  writing  on  the  slavery 
question,  and  crush  political  liberty  to  uphold 
slavery.  He  fought  the  attempt  unflinchingly 
year  after  year  by  purely  legal  methods,  up- 
holding the  right  of  petition  as  indefeasible  un- 
der any  government  or  for  any  purpose. —  he  did 
not  hesitate  to  submit  a  petition  from  Virgin- 
ians praying  for  his  own  expulsion  as  a 
nuisance. —  and  consequently  a  right  of  slaves 
or  of  others  in  their  interest:  and  with  little 
sympathy  for  the  anti-slavery  cause  as  such, 
became  by  force  of  circumstances  its  mightiest 
champion.  He  died  of  a  stroke  of  apoplexy  on 
the  floor  of  the  House. 

Adams,  John  Quincy  (2d),  American  poli- 
tician, son  of  Charles  Francis ;  b.  in  Boston.  22 
Sept.  1833;  d.  14  Aug.  1894.  He  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1853,  and  became  a  lawyer.  A 
Democrat  after  the  war,  he  took  hopeless  can- 
didacies for  the  governorship  to  keep  the  organ- 
ization together,  in  1867  and  1871,  and  for  the 
vice-presidency  in  1872.  He  also  served  in  the 
legislature  in  1866,  1869,  and  1870.  In  1877  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  corporation  of  Har- 
vard. 

Adams,  Julius  Walker,  American  civil  en- 
gineer: b.  in  Boston,  Mass..  18  Oct.  1812:  d.  13 
Die.  1899.  Took  part  of  the  course  at  the 
United  States  Military  Academy;  was  engaged 
for  many  years  on  railroad  and  waterworks  con- 
struction, and  planned  the  sewerage  system  of 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ;  was  colonel  of  the  67th  X.  Y. 
Vols,  in  the  Civil  War;  and  was  the  pioneer 
engineer  of  the  East  River  bridge. 

Adams,   Maude   Kiskadden,  American  ac- 
tress :    b.    in    Salt    Lake    City.    1 1     Nov.    1S72 ; 
daughter  of  an  actress  who  was  leading  woman 
of  a  stock  company  in  that  city,  under  the  st 
name    of    Adams.     At    16    Miss    Adams    joined 


ADAMS 


E.  H.  Sothern's  company  in  the  <  Midnight 
Bell'  ;  afterward  she  was  m  Charles  Frohman's 
stock  company,  and  later  supported  John  Drew. 
She  made  a  great  success  in  J.  M.  Barrie's 
(Little  Minister)  in  1898.  as  Lady  Babhie,  and 
in  1900  as  the  Due  de  Reichstadt  in  Edmond 
Rostand's  <  L'Aiglon.>  She  played  Juliet  in 
[899,  and  Miss  Phoebe  in  Barrie's  (Quality 
Street  >   in  1901. 

Adams,  Nehemiah,  American  Congrega- 
tional   clergy]  b.   in    Salem,   Mass.,   19   Feb. 

1806;  d.  6  Oct.  1878.  IL  graduated  at  Harvard 
in  182(1,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary 
in  1829.  The  same  year  he  settled  at  Cam- 
bridge, but  [834-70  was  pastor  of  the  Fssex 
Street  Church  in  Boston,  and  was  widely  re- 
puted for  his  eloquence  and  learning.  He  pub- 
lished   several    polemic    works;    the    most    sen- 

ton  was  created  by  'A  South  Side  View  of 
Slavery,'  published  in  1854  after  a  winter  in 
Georgia,  in  which  be  lauded  slavery  as  beneficial 
to  the  negroes'  religious  character. 

Adams,  Parson  (Abraham),  one  of  (be 
heroes  of  Fielding's  'Joseph  Andrews, »  and 
the  only  creditable  character  in  it  except  the 
heroine,  lie  is  a  huge-framed,  simple-souled, 
great-hearted,  utterly  disinterested  innocent,  a 
brother  of  Don  Quixote,  Colonel  Newcome,  and 
In.  U-   Toby. 

Adams,  Samuel,  American  patriot:  b.  Bos- 
ton, 27  Sept.  1722;  d.  2  Oct.  180,5.  He  was  son 
of  a  rich  merchant,  ship-owner,  and  magistrate, 
a  leader  in  provincial  contests  with  royal  gov- 
ernors, and  inventor  of  the  caucus  in  fact  and 
perhaps  unintentionally  in  name.  Educated  at  the 
Boston  Latin  School,  he  graduated  at  Harvard  in 
1740.  In  174.5  lie  wrote  for  his  master's  degree  a 
is  upholding  the  lawfulness  of  resisting  su- 
preme magistrates,  lie  became  a  lawyer;  but 
the  profession  was  under  ban  with  the  upper 
classes,  and  at  his  family's  wish  be  entered  a 
leading  merchant's  counting-house.  Shortly  af- 
terward his  father  set  him  up  in  business,  in 
which  he  lost  half  his  capital,  losing  the  other 
half  by  a  loan  never  repaid.  Then  he  became  part- 
ner with  his  father  in  a  rather  unsuccessful 
brewery.  Soon  the  father  lost  nearly  all  his 
property  in  a  land-bank  scheme  crushed  by  an  act 
of  Parliament,  which  extended  an  English  bank- 
ing enactment  to  the  colonies.  The  hundreds 
of  ruined  .shareholders  denounced  this  act  as  an 
invasion  of  chartered  colonial  rights,  and  it 
turned  the  cream  of  the  business  leaders  of 
Massachusetts,  and  their  sons  and  daughters, 
into  potential  rebels  at  a  blow.  On  his  father's 
death  in  1748  he  carried  on  the  brewery  alone, 
and  was  nicknamed  by  his  opponents  «  Sammy 
the  maltster."  changed  to  «  Sammy  the  pub- 
lican »  when  he  was  made  tax-collector  of  Bos- 
ton 1763-5.  Meanwhile  he  had  become  a  great 
power  in  town  meetings,  having  strong  and  sin- 
cere democratic  feeling  and  a  marvelous  genius 
for  political  management  and  «  caucusing.))  As 
collector  he  was  a  bad  business  manager  and  was 
sharply  assailed:  but  his  political  headship  is 
shown  by  his  being  selected  in  1764  to  draft  the 
town's  instructions  to  its  representatives  relative 
to  the  Stamp  Act. —  the  first  public  American 
protest  against  the  parliamentary  right  of  taxa- 
tion,—  and  the  like  instructions  the  next  year, 
lie  was  himself  in  the  legislature  1765-74,  being 
clerk  of  the  House  and  on  the  leading  commit- 


tees, drawing  up  the  most  important  state  papers 
of  that  stormy  time,  and  spokesman  as  well  as 
prompter  of  the  incessant  wrangles  with  Govs. 
Bernard  and  1  [utchinson.  When  the  Townsbeiid 
Acts  were  passed  in  1707,  be  drafted  the  legis- 
lature's petition  to  the  king,  the  instructions  to 
the  Massachusetts  agent  in  England,  and  the  cir- 
cular letter  of  February  17(18  to  the  other  colo- 
nies asking  their  aid.  The  latter  led  directly  to 
the  Revolution,  George  III.  ordering  Bernard  to 
command  the  legislature  to  rescind  it  or  be  in- 
stantly dissolved.  The  latter  refusing  by  92  to 
17,  the  king  thereon  resolved  to  send  troops  to 
overawe  the  colony.  The  same  year  Adams 
wrote  'The  True  Sentiments  of  America,)  and 
in  1769  a  famous  <  Appeal  to  the  World.'  The 
morning  after  the  "Boston  Massacre"  he  was 
made  chairman  of  a  committee  to  communicate 
to  Gov.  Hutchinson  and  his  council  the  town- 
meeting  vote  that  the  two  regiments  of  British 
soldiers  should  be  removed  to  the  castle  in  the 
harbor.  When  the  governor  wished  to  compro- 
mise on  one.  Adams  had  the  people  insist  on 
1  and  both  were  removed,  there- 
after being  known  in  Parliament  as  the  «  Sam 
Adams  regiments.))  In  1772  the  order  was  is- 
sue,1  that  the  judges  should  thereafter  be  paid  by 
the  Crown,  not  by  the  colony,  and  be  removable 
at  the  king's  pleasure:  the  Boston  town-meeting 
requested  Gov.  Hutchinson  to  convene  the  legis- 
lature on  the  question,  and  on  his  refusal  Mr. 
Adams  revived  a  proposal  of  Jonathan  May- 
hew's  in  17(15.  to  have  the  towns  of  Massachu- 
appoint  committees  of  correspondence  to 
consult  about  the  common  weal.  Eighty  towns 
soon  adopted  the  suggestion,  forming  an  omnip- 
otent revolutionary  legislature  beyond  the  reach 
of  government  veto  or  dissolution,  yet  quite 
within  the  law.  The  next  spring  intercolonial 
committees  of  the  same  sort  were  formed, —  an 
unorganized  government  of  the  united  colonies. 
Meanwhile  Mr.  Adams  had  kept  the  public  spi- 
rit inflamed  and  alive  to  the  nature  of  the  crisis 
by  articles  under  various  pseudonyms  in  the 
Boston  Gazette,  arguing  the  colonists'  legal 
rights  and  the  practical  impossibility  of  any 
compromise  :  thus  not  only  preparing  the  public 
for  the  crisis  and  bringing  over  the  waverers, 
but  making  the  crisis  itself  more  inevitable.  The 
management  of  the  tea-ship  matter  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  committees  of  correspondence  of 
Boston  and  five  adjoining  towns,  of  which  Mr. 
Adams  was  the  active  head;  and  the  throwing 
of  the  tea  into  the  harbor.  17  Dec.  177.5,  was  un- 
questionably supervised  or  arranged  by  him. 
When  as  a  punishment  the  port  of  Boston  was 
closed  and  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  an- 
nulled in  April  1774,  and  the  legislature  met  at 
Salem  under  parliamentary  order  to  abase  itself 
and  undo  its  bad  work,  Mr.  Adams  locked  the 
door,  pocketed  the  key,  and  carried  through  the 
measures  for  calling  a  congress  at  Philadelphia 
in  September;  the  legislature  adjourned  sine  die 
while  the  governor's  clerk  was  hammering  at  the 
door  with  the  writ  of  dissolution,  ami  British  au- 
thority was  at  an  end.  Mr.  Adams'  lifework  — 
of  assuring  the  breakdown  of  a  system  difficult 
to  work  at  best,  the  government  of  a  country  by 
scornful  aliens  plus  the  aristocratic  native  fami- 
lies—was over.  Though  a  useful  and  upright 
public  servant,  he  was  of  secondary  import:, 
in  presence  of  large  problems  of  constructive 
statesmanship :  his  abilities  were  parochial,  and 


ADAMS  — ADAMS    FAMILY 


he  does  not  figure  on  a  national  scale.  He  could 
manage  caucuses  and  organize  jealousies,  but 
hardly  frame  constitutions.  At  the  Philadelphia 
Congress  he  was  of  course  a  delegate,  and  great- 
ly smoothed  over  sectional  distrusts  by  his 
shrewdness,  tact,  and  geniality.  In  1775  he  and 
Hancock  were  the  only  patriots  excepted  from 
amnesty ;  and  it  was  Gage's  attempt  to  seize 
them  —  under  government  orders,  and  with  Lon- 
don forecasts  that  their  heads  would  soon  adorn 
Temple  Bar  —  that  brought  on  the  battle  of 
Lexington  and  opened  the  Revolutionary  War. 
They  escaped  by  Paul  Revere's  warning.  He 
led  in  pushing  forward  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, of  which  he  was  one  of  the  signers ; 
and  was  active  in  Congressional  work  till  the 
close  of  the  Revolution.  With  much  creditable 
service,  his  sympathies  were  always  with  divi- 
sion of  authority ;  he  believed  in  committees  in- 
stead of  executive  heads,  and  national  policy  was 
often  affected  disastrously  by  the  delays  and  ir- 
responsibility involved.  He  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  framing  the  State  Constitution  of 
1780.  Nationally,  he  was  of  course  an  Anti- 
Federalist,  opposing  a  strong  national  govern- 
ment in  fear  of  tyranny:  after  long  hesitancy 
over  supporting  the  Constitution  of  1787,  he  did 
so  only  on  the  understanding  that  amendments 
constituting  a  bill  of  rights  should  be  submitted ; 
but  his  voice  in  favor  of  ratification  by  Massa- 
chusetts secured  it  by  187  to  168.  and  saved  it  to 
the  nation.  He  was  long  on  the  Executive  Coun- 
cil of  Massachusetts,  lieutenant-governor  1789- 
94,  and  governor  1794-7  (three  terms). 

Adams,  Suzanne,  American  lyric  soprano: 
b.  Cambridge.  Mass.,  28  Nov.  1873 ;  studied  with 
Marchesi  at  Paris :  made  her  debut  1894  at  the 
Opera,  as  Juliet  in  Gounod's  «  Romeo  and  Ju- 
liet." After  three  years  there  she  went  to  Nice, 
then  to  Covent  Garden  in  London,  then  (1898-9) 
to  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House.  New  York. 
She  married  Leo  Stern  the  violoncellist  in  1899. 
She  has  sung  in  many  operatic  soprano  parts. 

Adams,  William,  the  first  Englishman  in 
Japan:  b.  Kent,  c.  1575.  in  1598  he  sailed  as 
pilot  of  five  Dutch  vessels  from  the  Texel  to  the 
East ;  landing  at  Kiushiu,  the  great  Shogun 
Iyeyasu,  who  had  shortly  before  crushed  his 
rivals  and  ended  Japan's  feudal  anarchy,  first 
imprisoned  and  then  took  him  into  service,  em- 
ploying him  in  shipbuilding,  as  informant,  etc. 
In  1613  other  Englishmen  came  on  the  Clove, 
and  with  Adams  started  a  factory  at  Firando,  of 
which  Richard  Cocks  was  chief.  Iyeyasu  dying 
in  1616,  a  reaction  against  foreigners  set  in.  and 
Adams  wished  to  return  to  England,  where  he 
had  left  a  wife  and  children ;  but  was  forbidden, 
and  married  a  Japanese  wife,  their  descendants 
still  living  in  Japan.  He  died  16  May  1620. 
"Pilot  Street"  in  Yedo  (Tokio)  was  named 
after  him. 

Adams,  William  Henry  Davenport,  Eng- 
lish  journalist  and  critic:  b.  185 1 ;  d.  London  2/ 
July  1904.  He  published  'A  Dictionary  of  Eng- 
lish Literature'  (1878);  'The  Witty  and  Hu- 
morous Side  of  the  English  Poets'  (  1SS0)  ; 
'By- Ways  in  Bookland'  (1S88);  <A  Book  ot 
Burlesque'  (1891);  'With  Poet  and  Player' 
(1891). 

Adams,  William  Taylor,  American  author 
and  editor,  best  known  by  the  pseudonym  "Oli- 
ver Optic":  b.  Medway,  Mass.,  30  July  1822:  d. 


27  March  1897.  He  taught  for  many  years  in  the 
Boston  schools.  He  was  a  voluminous  and 
highly  popular  writer  of  fiction  for  young  read- 
ers, his  works  including  over  100  volumes,  main- 
ly travel  and  adventure :  <  Young  America 
Abroad.'    <  Starry  Flag  Series,'   and  others. 

Adams,  Mass.,  town  in  Berkshire  County, 
containing  villages  of  Adams  (formerly  South 
Adams),  Maple  Grove,  Zylonite,  and  Renfrew; 
the  first  and  chief  16  m.  N.  of  Pittsfield,  6  m.  S. 
of  North  Adams,  which  was  set  off  in  1878 ;  on 
Pittsfield  &  N.  A.  branch  of  the  Boston  &  A 
division  of  the  New  York  Cent.  R.R.  It  is  on 
Hoosac  River,  and  contains  Greylock  Mountain, 
the  highest  point  in  Massachusetts.  Founded 
in  1749  as  East  Hoosuck,  it  was  renamed  for 
Samuel  Adams  1778.  Manufactures,  paper, 
foundry  work,  fabrics,  etc.  It  has  a  public 
library  and  a  town  board  of  three  selectmen. 
Pop.  (1900)  11,134. 

Adams  Family,  of  Massachusetts.  In  the 
varied  abilities  and  conspicuous  public  impor- 
tance of  its  members,  this  family  confessedly 
outranks  every  other  in  the  United  States.  It 
has  furnished  in  a  single  line  two  Presidents, 
both  of  great  weight  and  permanent  importance, 
and  even  more  interesting  as  virile  and  indi- 
vidual characters,  provoking  admiration  or  hate, 
but  never  indifference ;  a  statesman  and  a  diplo- 
mat of  high  order ;  the  author  of  one  of  the  two 
first-rate  histories  yet  written  in  America,  mat- 
ter and  style  both  considered ;  a  noted  financier 
and  business  magnate,  and  prominent  author  as 
well :  another  keen  and  vigorous  writer ;  and  an 
able  lawyer  and  local  politician  who  might  have 
attained  larger  importance  but  for  belonging  to 
a  party  in  a  hopeless  minority  in  his  State.  The 
founder  in  America  was  Henry  Adams,  an  Eng- 
lishman with  eight  sons,  who  removed  to  Brain- 
tree,  Mass.,  in  1636;  but  the  fortunes  of  the  fam- 
ily began  when  to  this  tough  stock  —  in  the 
person  of  John  Adams,  who  died  in  1760,  a  se- 
lectman of  Braintree  and  a  deacon,  and  a  farmer 
almost  a  rich  man  for  the  times  —  was  added  the 
energetic,  passionate  Boylston  blood,  a  strain 
commemorated  in  Boylston  Street,  Boston,  and 
the  town  of  Boylston,  Mass.  The  son  of  John 
Adams  and  Susanna  Boylston  was  President  John 
Adams  (q.v.),  the  real  founder  of  the  family 
greatness  and  its  striking  individuality.  All  its 
members  since  have  been  distinguished  by  the 
same  general  qualities  in  varying  mixture.  They 
have  mostly  been  vehement,  proud,  pugnacious, 
and  independent,  with  hot  tempers  and  strong 
wills ;  but  with  high  ideals,  dramatic  devotion 
to  duty,  and  the  intense  democratic  sentiment  so 
often  found  united  with  personal  aristocracy  of 
feeling.  They  have  been  men  of  affairs  first, 
with  large  practical  ability,  but  with  a  deep 
strain  of  the  man  of  letters  which  in  this  gen- 
eration has  outshone  the  other  faculties ;  strong- 
headed  and  hard-working  students,  with  power- 
ful memories  and  fluent  gifts  of  expression.  But 
no  curio  of  heredity  in  all  time  is  stranger  thar 
the  contrast  between  the  President  father  and 
his  President  son.  John  Quincy  Adams  (q.v"). 
when  it  is  remembered  that  to  the  fiery,  com- 
bative, bristling  Adams-Boylston  blood 
added  an  equal  strain  from  the  gay.  genial, 
affectionate  Abigail  Smith  (see  Adams,  Abi- 
gail"). The  son,  though  of  deep  inner  affections. 
and  even  hungering   for  good   will   if   it  woula 


ADAMSITE  —  ADAMSON 


come  without  his  aid,  was  on  the  surface  in- 
comparably colder,  harsher,  and  thornier  than 
his  father,  with  all  the  socially  repellent  traits 
of  the  race  and  none  of  the  softer  ones.  The 
father  could  never  control  his  tongue  or  his 
temper,  and  not  always  his  head:  the  son  never 
lost  the  bridle  "f  either,  and  much  of  his  terri- 
ble  power  in  debate  came  from  his  ability  to 
make  others  lose  theirs  while  perfectly  keeping 
his  own.  The  father  had  plenty  of  warm  friends 
and  allies  —  at  the  worst  he  worked  with  half 
a  party:  the  son  in  the  most  superb  part  of  his 
career  had  no  friends,  no  allies,  no  party  ex- 
cept the  group  of  constituents  who  kept  him  in 
Congress.  The  father's  self-confidence  deepened 
in  the  son  to  a  solitary  and  almost  contemptuous 
gladiatorship  against  the  entire  government  of 
the  country  through  long  years  of  hate  and 
peril.  The  father's  irritable  though  generous 
vanity  changed  in  the  son  to  an  icy  contempt  or 
while-hot  scorn  of  nearly  all  about  him.  The 
father's  spasms  of  acrimonious  judgment 
steadied  in  the  son  to  a  constant  rancor  always 
finding  new  objects.  The  country  has  reason  to 
be  thankful  for  his  unamiable  traits,  for  each 
one  strengthened  his  fibre  to  do  the  work  await- 
ing him,  and  only  John  Quincy  Adams  could 
have  accomplished  the  work  of  John  Quincy 
Adams.  His  son,  Charles  Francis  Adams.  Sr.. 
had  the  useful  and  forcible  qualities  of  both 
without  their  besetting  defects.  He  was  in  youth 
as  hotly  pugnacious  as  his  grandfather:  he  was 
always  as  self-centred  as  his  father,  and  as  will- 
ing to  stand  alone  amid  hate  and  incessant  con- 
flict:  but  he  had  far  more  self-control  than  the 
former,  and  far  less  bristling  repellence  and  con- 
tempt of  co-operation  than  the  latter.  His 
diplomacy  was  cast  in  a  spot  where  he  was  too 
much  "  boycotted  »  to  make  the  softer  side  of 
much  avail  :  but  he  roused  no  useless  and  costly 
hatreds,  and  ranked  the  peer  in  effectiveness  of 
any  European  diplomat.  Of  his  living  sons  (see 
Chari.es  Francis,  2d;  Henry;  Brooks)  it 
would  be  invidious  to  analyze  the  personal 
traits.  The  former,  soldier,  railroad  commis- 
sioner, president  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad, 
and  present  historical  scholar  and  publicist,  has 
shown  the  family  traits  of  courage,  independ- 
ence of  thought  and  action,  and  intellectual  en- 
ergy, to  the  full,  and  is  still  an  active  public 
force.  The  historian  was  distinguished  during 
his  historical  professorship  as  the  most  original, 
independent,  and  stimulating  of  instructors:  and 
his  history  displays  not  only  massive  research, 
enormous  power  of  acquisition  in  the  most  wide- 
ly separated  fields,  and  entire  freedom  from 
beaten  roads  and  traditional  views,  but  tem- 
pered self-control,  the  moderation  of  judgment 
bred  by  thorough  knowledge,  and  a  pervasive  at- 
mosphere of  gentlemanly  irony.  The  essayist, 
assailant  of  the  Massachusetts  « theocracy,"  and 
student  of  economic  history  to  saturation,  is  as 
eager  and  passionate  as  his  great-grandfather, 
and  in  striking  contrast  with  his  brothers  in 
literary  style,  but  none  the  less  a  man  to  reckon 
with.  The  late  John  Quincy  2d  wrould  perhaps 
have  filled  a  larger  public  field  in  a  less  strongly 
Republican  community.  It  is  not  likely  that  this 
virile  stock  has  lost  its  energy  with  the  present 
generation. 

This  by  no  means,  however,  ends  the  con- 
tributions of  the  Adams  stock  to  our  public  life. 
The    patriot,     Samuel    Adams,    the    father    of 


American  liberty,  was  own  cousin  to  John 
Adams  the  President:  a  more  dexterous  and 
politic  man,  and  much  abler  political  manager, 
but  not  otherwise  cast  in  as  large  mold.  From 
different  sons  or  grandsons  of  the  pioneer  have 
d(  scended  William  Taylor  Adams  («  Oliver  Op- 
tic"), the  well-known  juvenile  writer;  Charles 
Baker  Adams,  the  naturalist,  and  Edwin  Adams, 
the  actor,  the  grandfather  of  the  first  being  the 
great  grandfather  of  the  second;  Herbert  Bax- 
ter Adams,  the  eminent  American  historical 
scholar  and  educator,  and  promoter  of  the  higher 
historical  methods  in  America;  Alvin  Adams,  the 
founder  of  the  Adams  Express  Company;  Wil- 
liam Claflin.  the  distinguished  Massachusetts 
merchant  and  governor,  whose  mother  was  an 
Adams:  and  many  other  strong  but  lesser  figures 
in  public  and  private  life. 

A'damsite,  a  variety  of  the  mineral  mttsco- 
vite   (qv.). 

Adamson,  Patrick,  Scotch  prelate  (real 
name  was  spelled  Constyne.  Constean,  Conston, 
Constant,  and  Constans ;  later  changed  to  Con- 
stantine,  then  to  Adamson)  ;  b.  Perth.  15  March 
1536;  d.  19  Feb.  1592.  He  took  his  degree  at 
St.  Andrews,  and  in  1566  went  to  Paris  as 
tutor.  Here  he  wrote  a  Latin  ode  on  the  birth 
in  June  of  James  VI.,  and  called  him  «  king  of 
France  and  England,"  for  which  the  French 
court  gave  him  six  months'  imprisonment.  Re- 
leased, he  went  to  Padua,  Geneva,  and  Paris,  and 
finally  to  Bourges,  where  he  lay  in  hiding  for 
seven  months  in  fear  of  the  rage  against  Protes- 
tants let  loose  by  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew (1572),  and  which  cost  his  host's  life. 
Recalled  to  Scotland  (in  1573),  he  became  a 
prominent  minister,  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
settle  Church  matters,  and  chaplain  to  the  regent 
Morton,  who  in  October  1576  made  him  arch- 
bishop of  St.  Andrews.  The  tragedy  of  his  life 
lay  in  his  attempting  to  be  an  old-fashioned  pre- 
late in  the  new  Scotland  which  hated  prelacy, 
and  to  air  High-Church  preferences  before  men 
who  considered  them  popery.  lie  began  the 
warfare  himself  by  declaring  that  he  would  op- 
pose all  attempts  to  deprive  the  archbishopric  ol 
any  of  its  former  power;  the  presbytery  took  up 
the  glove,  and  never  ceased  till  they  had  pulled 
him  down.  He  was  assailed  first  for  not  having 
been  consecrated  to  his  post ;  making  his  peace 
somehow  for  this,  they  again  attacked  him  for 
insolence  to  the  presbytery,  for  opposing  its  in- 
terests in  Parliament,  for  popery,  and  heresy. 
The  conflict  grew  so  hot  that  he  retired  to  the 
castle  of  St.  Andrew's,  where  he  was  cured  by 
a  «  wise  woman  »  of  a  disease  the  doctors  could 
not  handle,  and  the  presbytery  afterward  seized 
and  burnt  her  for  it.  In  1583  he  went  to  Eng- 
land as  James'  ambassador,  exciting  attention  by 
his  eloquence,  and  being  savagely  libeled  by  the 
Presbyterians  for  alleged  looseness  of  behavior. 
Returning  next  May,  he  was  high  in  favor  with 
James,  and  his  chief  agent  or  prompter  in  severe 
measures  against  the  Puritans.  In  December 
1585  he  published  a  paper  on  the  «  King's  Ma- 
jesty's Intent  in  the  Late  Acts  of  Parliament," 
which  was  a  chief  article  in  his  derelictions  then, 
but  in  1646,  in  the  heart  of  the  Civil  War,  was 
reprinted  by  the  Puritans  as  on  their  own  side. 
In  1585  Andrew  Melville  and  other  Presbyterian 
leaders  returned  after  the  Raid  of  Ruthven 
(q.v.),   and   that  party   was   gaining  the   upper 


ADAMSON  —  ADAPTATION 


hand:  Morton  had  been  executed  in  1581.  In 
April  1586  Adamson  was  impeached  and  excom- 
municated; the  next  year  the  excommunication 
was  removed,  but  in  1588  he  was  freshly  ac- 
cused,—  among  other  things,  of  mutilating  and 
abstracting  registries, —  and  the  king,  tired  of 
the  quarrel  or  convinced  that  it  was  Adamson's 
fault,  transferred  the  revenues  of  his  see  to  an- 
other party  and  left  him  in  actual  want  for  him- 
self and  family.  A  small  pension  was  afterward 
(ranted  him.  but  he  died  poor  and  wretched. 

Adamson,  Robert,  Scottish  philosoph- 
ical writer:  b.  1852;  d.  1902.  He  was  professor 
of  philosophy  at  Owens  College,  Victoria  Uni- 
versity, Manchester,  England.  He  wrote  'The 
Philosophy  of  Science  in  the  Middle  Ages' 
(1876)  ;  <"On  the  Philosophy  of  Kant>  (1879)  ; 
<Fichte>   (1881). 

Adana,  an  ancient  town  in  the  S.E.  of 
Asia  Minor,  capital  of  Adana  vilayet,  on  the 
Sihun,  about  25  m.  from  its  embouchure  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  about  30  m.  from  its  port 
Mersina,  with  which,  and  with  Tarsus  about 
half  way  between,  it  is  connected  by  railway. 
Pop.  45,000. 

Adanson,  a-dan-son,  Michel,  French  nat- 
uralist and  traveler  (of  Scottish  extraction)  : 
h.  7  April  1727;  d.  3  Aug.  1806.  Although  he 
gave  much  time  and  attention  to  the  study  of  the 
sciences,  particularly  electricity,  his  chief  work 
was  in  the  realm  of  botany.  From  1784  he  spent 
five  years  in  Senegal  and  collected  a  large  num- 
ber of  plants  and  animals  which  he  classified 
and  described.  His  more  important  works  are: 
'Histoire  Naturelle  du  Senegal'  and  "Families 
des  Plantes,'  in  which  he  opposed  the  system  of 
Linnaeus. 

Adansonia.     See  Baobab. 

Adaptation,  the  power  and  process  of 
gradual  change  in  an  organism  to  fit  it  to  chang- 
ing conditions  of  environment.  See  Biology; 
Evolution. 

The  initial  causes  of  life  and  evolution  are 
motion  and  change  of  condition  or  environment. 
Whether  there  is  a  principle  of  life  or  a  special 
impelling  life-giving  force  or  not,  or  whether 
what  we  call  life  is  only  a  mode  of  being,  we 
can  easily  perceive  and  realize  that  life  is  a 
relation,  a  process,  and  a  process  of  adaptation 
or  adjustment  to  the  environment  both  physical 
and  biological.  Adaptation  is  a  fundamental 
fact  in  the  material  universe;  the  different  cos- 
mical  realms  are  interrelated  in  their  action, 
and  the  harmony  existing  in  the  movements  of 
the  heavenly  bodies  have  excited  the  wonder  and 
admiration  of  mankind  from  the  time  when  man 
walking  erect  could  look  toward  the  heavens  and 
perceive  the  stars  and  guide  his  course  by  them. 
So  also  in  the  beings  endowed  with  life.  The 
adaptation  of  the  living  world  to  the  environ- 
ment is  a  universal  fact.  The  individual  mem- 
bers of  each  species  of  plant  and  animal  are 
perfectly  adapted  to  their  surroundings.  Though 
the  individual  may  suffer  or  perish,  in  the  long 
run  the  death  of  individuals  does  not  disturb  the 
harmony  existing  throughout  nature,  which  has 
attracted  the  attention  of  observei  s  and  natural- 
ists from  the  earliest  times.  It  should  be  ob- 
served that  plants  and  animals  oft.  n  have  struc- 
tures or  habits  which  are  not  adai  itive,  but  this 
is  an  exception  to  the  rule,  and  dt  >es  not  inter- 
fere with  the  general  course  nf  nat  ure. 


By  the  terms  environment,  surroundings, 
conditions  of  life,  medium  or  milieu,  or  monde 
ambiant,  we  mean  the  nature  of  any  region  or 
area  on  the  earth's  surface  stocked  with  plants 
and  animals.  The  nature  of  the  earth's  surface, 
of  the  soil,  of  well-watered  regions,  of  deserts, 
plains,  or  barrens,  the  physics  of  the  air  and 
sea,  are  taught  in  our  text-books  of  physical 
geography.  Each  such  area  is  inhabited  by  as- 
semblages of  living  beings  adapted  to  such  or 
such  conditions  or  to  such  a  climate,  whether  dry 
or  humid,  hot  or  cold.  We  speak  of  alpine  or 
arctic  life,  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  deserts,  of 
mountains,  of  lowlands,  of  the  great  plains,  of 
forests,  of  the  coasts  and  abysses  of  the  sea. 
The  word  «  fauna »  means  the  assemblage  of 
animals  inhabiting  any  area,  as  the  word 
« flora »  is  used  for  the  plants.  Now  each  of 
these  areas,  with  its  peculiar  surface  features, 
climate,  soil,  etc..  is  characterized  by  a  set  of 
plants  and  animals  perfectly  adapted  to  it.  and 
which  flourish  better  there  than  in  adjoining 
regions. 

The  most  successful  groups  of  animals,  con- 
sidered numerically,  are  the  insects  and  the 
birds,  which  have  become  adapted  for  a  life  in 
the  air,  for  flying,  where  they  are  more  or  less 
out  of  reach  of  their  creeping  enemies.  Adapta- 
tion to  this  or  that  mode  of  life  has  been  the 
cause  of  variability.  Every  species  is  adapted  to 
its  special  niche  or  habitat. 

The  most  remarkable  cases  of  adaptation  to 
extreme  conditions  of  life  are  seen  in  animals 
living  in  the  darkness  of  caves,  or  in  the  dark 
abysses  of  the  sea,  or  parasitic  animals,  as  the 
fluke  and  tapeworm,  the  root-barnacles  (Saccu- 
lina).  the  fish-louse  (Lernaa).  and  many  in- 
sects. In  all  these  forms  the  body  has.  as  the  re- 
sult of  a  parasitic  life,  undergone  profound 
modification,  becoming  so  atrophied  in  certain 
respects  as  to  present  the  utmost  contrast  to 
their  free-living  allies.  Adaptation  is  contin- 
ually correlated  with  certain  given  conditions. 
If  the  conditions  be  changed,  in  time  the  organ- 
isms, unless  they  are  modified  and  changed  to 
what  we  call  new  species,  become  inadapted, 
unfit  for  the  new  environment,  and  unsuccessful 
in  the  struggle  for  existence. 

Extinct  species  are  such  unfit,  inadapted 
forms.  However  well  adapted  they  were  at  the 
period  in  which  they  lived,  when  the  conditions 
of  existence  changed  ;  when  the  climate  changed 
from  warm  to  cold,  or  the  reverse ;  when  the  soil 
changed  its  elevation  above  the  sea,  or  degree 
of  dryness  or  humidity;  when  one  area  subsided, 
and  another  became  elevated, —  certain  species 
or  groups  of  species,  unless  they  migrated,  or 
were  plastic  enough  to  undergo  modification  and 
become  what  we  call  «  new  »  species  or  «  new  » 
genera,  unable  to  resist  the  change,  died  out. — 
became  extinct.  It  is  the  harder  parts  of  these 
extinct  species  which  we  find  in  the  rocks  and 
call  «  fossils."  They  are  the  relics  of  former 
worlds,  witnesses  of  the  profound  changes  in 
physical  geography  through  which  our  planet 
has  passed.  If  we  examine  these  fossil  shells, 
and  the  remains  of  the  hard  parts  of  insects,  the 
bones  of  reptiles,  birds,  mammals,  or  whatever 
they  are.  we  perceive  no  imperfection,  no  half- 
formed  organs,  no  signs  of  decay.  We  see  no 
reason  why  they  were  not  in  their  lifetime  as 
Species  perfectly  adapted  to  their  environment. 
But   living   in   a   changing  world,    they   became 


ADAR  — ADDINGTON 


useless,  cumbered  the  ground,  and  had  to  suc- 
cumb in  the  struggle  lor  existence,  and  make 
way  for  those  Eorm  better  adapted  to  the  new 
conditions  environing  them. 

But  extinction  has  not  been  thoroughgoing 
and  complete.  A  few  ancient  primitive  forms 
have  persisted  and  are  still  nourishing.  Such 
are  many  of  the  Protozoa  (Saccamina  and  oth- 
ers), the  Lingulella  and  Lingula,  the  king-crab 
(Liiuulus),  the  Peripatus  and  Scolopendrella, 
which  are  probably  the  ancestral  forms  of  in- 
sects; among  the  fishes  the  Australian  lung  6  h 
(Ceratodus),  and  among  lizards  the  Hottetia  of 
New  Zealand.  These  forms,  by  reason  of  their 
astonishing  vitality,  have  withstood  the  most 
widespread  and  the  profoundest  geological 
changes,  but  they  are  exceptional  forms.  On  the 
other  hand  there  were  a  vast  number  of  species 
which  were  plastic  enough  to  yield  to  the 
changes  in  their  surroundings  and  became  modi 
lied  into  new  species  adapted  to  the  new  condi 
lions  of  existence.  It  is  undoubtedly  the  case, 
then,  that  certain  forms  became  inadapted  and 
suffered  extinction,  though  all  through  the  ages 
the  plant  and  animal  census  by  no  means  became 
at  any  lime  lessened,  but  rather  gradually  in- 
creased in  extent.  Another  fact  clearly  estab- 
lished is  that  the  earlier  forms  were  generalized 
and  the  later  were  specialized,  and  the  former, 
the  ancestors  of  the  present  species,  had  to  make 
way  for  their  more  specialized  descendants. 
Thus  the  trilobites  were  succeeded  by  the  king- 
crabs,  the  creeping  dinosaurs  were  succeeded  by 
the  flying  reptiles  or  pterodactyls,  and  the  high- 
ly generalized  tailed  Amphibia  yielded  the  right 
of  way  to  the  tailless  frogs  and  toads  of  the 
present  day.  Adaptation,  then,  is  the  process  of 
modification  of  organisms  caused  by  changes  in 
the  conditions  of  life.  See  also  Evolution  ; 
Species. 

Adar,  Jewish  month,  12th  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical and  6th  of  the  civil  year;  representing 
parts  of  February  and  March  of  ours.  The  ;ih 
was  a  fast  for  the  death  of  Moses,  the  9th  for 
the  falling-out  of  Hillel  and  Shammai.  But  the 
important  days  were  the  13th,  a  fast  in  com- 
memoration of  that  of  the  Jews  for  their  threat- 
ened destruction  by  Haman  (see  Esther),  fol- 
lowed by  a  feast  on  the  next  two  days  for  their 
escape. 

Adar'ce,  a-dar'se,  a  salty  deposit  found 
on  the  grasses  and  sedges  growing  in  wet  places 
in  ancient  Galatia.  It  is  used  somewhat  for 
cleansing  the  skin  in  cases  of  leprosy. 

Adda  (ancient  Addua).  a  river  of  north 
Italy,  descending  from  the  Rruetian  Alps,  falls 
into  Lake  Como.  and  leaving  this  joins  the  Po 
after  a  course  of  about  170  miles. 

Addams,  Jane,  American  philanthropist: 
b.  Cedarville,  111.,  6  Sept.  i860.  Graduated  at 
Rockford    College   in    1881,    after   post-graduate 

lies  in  Europe  and  the  United  States  she 
became  an  active  social  reformer.  She  inaugu- 
rated in  1889  at  Chicago  the  establishment 
known  as  Hull  House,  an  adaptation  of  the  «  so- 
cial settlement "  plan  to  Chicago  conditions. 
She  has  acted  as  street -cleaning  inspector  in 
Chicago,  and  has  lectured  on  the  improvement 
of  the  condition  of  the  poor  in  great  cities;  and 
for  executive  power,  practical  rationality,  and 
unselfishness  is  one  of  the  leaders  of  American 
social  reform.     See  Social  Settlements. 


Addax,  or  Addas  (Lat.,  of  African  origin), 
a  North  African  antelope  (Addax  nasomacukh 

his),  related  to  the  oryx  and  similar  to  it  in 
habits.  Its  large  broad  hoofs  lit  it  for  travel- 
ing over  loose  shifting  sand  ;  it  has  a  long  tail, 
long  ears,  and  spirally-twisted  horns  three  to 
four  feet  high.  The  animal  measures  about 
three  feel  in  height  at  the  shoulder;  in  color  it 
is  nearly  white,  with  shading  of  reddish  brown 
On  the  head  and  front  of  the  body.  The  hoofs 
arc  black  and  there  is  a  black,  shaggy  marking 
on  the  forehead  above  a  white  blaze  on  the  nose. 
It  is  now  becoming  very  rare  in  all  parts  of  the 
Sahara.  The  Arabs  hunt  the  adax  with  grey- 
hounds. 

Adder  (Anglo-Saxon  nadder,  Goth,  nadro, 
Ger.  natter,  a  snake),  a  colloquial  name  for 
several  poisonous  snakes,  mostly  belonging  to 
the  family  Viperida,  such  as  the  copperhead, 
moccasin,  asp,  etc.;  and  also  for  certain  harm- 
less snakes  of  the  family  Colubridte,  particu- 
larly the  spreading  adder   (  Heterodon  platyrhi- 

iius).  which  when  angry  resembles  the  poison- 
ous snakes.  (See  IIolvom:.  )  In  England  the 
name  denotes  the  only  venomous  snake  of  Great 
Britain. —  the  European  viper  (Pclias  bcrtts). 
See  Copperhead;  Death-Adder;  Puff-Adder; 
Viper:   etc. 

Addicks.  John  Edward,  American  capital- 
ist: b.  Philadelphia.  21  Nov.  1841  ;  became 
wealthy  and  prominent  first  as  a  flour  merchant, 
then  as  a  gas  manufacturer,  organizing  and  be- 
coming president  of  the  Bay  State  Gas  Co.  of 
Boston  in  1884.  and  buying  control  of  the  Brook- 
lyn (N.  Y.)  Gas  Co.  in  1892.  For  eight  years 
(1895-1903)  he  has  been  of  national  prominence 
as  candidate  for  the  United  States  senatorship 
from  Delaware,  which  he  has  not  succeeded  in 
obtaining,  but  till  recently  he  has  been  able  to 
prevent  the  election  of  any  rival,  leaving  first 
one  and  since  1901  both  of  Delaware's  two  scats 
vacant.  The  details  are:  In  180,5  his  rival  was 
II.  A.  Du  Pont ;  among  the  members  of  the  legis- 
lature voting  was  the  former  speaker  of  the 
Senate,  now  governor  through  the  death  of  Gov. 
Marvel :  the  Democrats  and  Populists  declared 
his  vote  illegal,  and  refused  to  scat  Du  Pont.  In 
1896  the  Republican  State  Convention  to  elect 
delegates  to  the  St.  Louis  National  Convention 
split  and  elected  two  sets.  Du  Pont  and  Addicks: 
the  former  were  recognized  as  "  regular  M  by  the 
St.  Louis  Committee  on  Credentials,  and  the 
other  section  called  themselves  Union  Repub- 
licans. In  1899  a  successor  to  Senator  Gray  was 
balloted  for,  but  there  was  no  election.  In  1900 
as  in  1896  two  sets  of  delegates  went  to  Phila- 
delphia, and  this  time  the  committee  seated  the 
Addicks  party;  though  he  was  thus  recognized 
as  State  party  chief,  the  1901  election  for  sena- 
tor was  again  a  stalemate,  and  as  there  were  two 
to  elect,  the  State  was  left  entirely  unrepre- 
sented in  the  Senate.  In  the  session  of  1903 
Addicks  nominally  withdrew,  and  a  coalition  of 
the  Regular  and  the  Union  Republicans  elected 
two  Senators,  a  Regular  for  the  short  term  and 
a  Union  for  the  long  term. 

Adding-Machine.  See  Calculating  -  M  a- 
chine. 

Addington,  Henry,  Viscount  Sidmouth, 
English  statesman:  b.  30  May  1757;  d.  15  Feb. 
1844;    educated    at    Winchester    and    Brasenose. 


ADDISON 


College,  Oxford ;  he  then  studied  law,  and, 
through  the  influence  of  Pitt,  entered  Parliament 
(1784)  ;  was  speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons 
(1789-1801)  ;  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  and 
first  lord  of  the  treasury;  he  put  through  a  bill 
disqualifying  clergymen  from  sitting  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  later,  with  Pitt's  ad- 
vice, negotiated  (1802)  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  a 
cessation  of  war  much  needed  by  England.  In 
1805  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  As  home 
secretary  (1812-22),  he  was  strict  in  his  ad- 
ministration of  justice  and  in  conservative  over- 
sight of  the  press  and  public  meetings.  Partly 
due  to  his  too  great  zeal  was  the  "Manchester 
massacre."  He  resigned  in  1824,  owing  to  his 
disapproving  of  the  recognition  of  the  independ- 
ence of  Buenos  Ayres. 

Addison,  Joseph,  English  essayist,  son  of 
Rev.  Lancelot  Addison,  subsequently  dean  of 
Lichfield :  b.  at  his  father's  rectory,  Milston, 
Wiltshire,  I  May  1672;  d.  17  June  1719.  At  11 
he  was  sent  to  the  Charterhouse,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  his  friend  and  future  col- 
laborator Steele.  At  15  he  proceeded  to  Oxford, 
entering  first  at  Queen's  College,  but  two  years 
iater  being  elected  to  Magdalen  College  for  skill 
in  Latin  versification.  He  took  M.A.  in  1693, 
and  held  a  fellowship  in  his  college  from  1699  to 
171 1.  He  had  contemplated  entering  the 
clerical  profession,  but  was  diverted  from  his 
purpose  by  his  literary  tastes  and  by  the  early 
patronage  he  received  from  some  of  the  greatest 
statesmen  of  the  Whig  party.  Addison  had  the 
good  fortune  to  secure  as  his  earliest  patron  the 
poet  Dryden.  With  sympathetic  appreciation  of 
Dryden's  skill  as  a  translator  of  classical  poetry, 
the  young  scholar  addressed  to  him  some  com- 
plimentary verses,  which  the  poet  approved  of 
and  inserted  in  his  <  Miscellanies  >  in  1693.  A 
translation  of  the  fourth  «  Georgic,»  with  the 
exception  of  the  story  of  Aristsus,  bv  Addison, 
appeared  in  the  same  collection  in  1694.  and  he 
subsequently  translated  for  it  two  and  a  half 
books  of  « Ovid.»  A  still  higher  honor  was 
conferred  on  Addison  by  Dryden  in  prefixing  his 
prose  essay  on  Vergil's  «Geoigics»  to  his  own 
translation  of  that  poem,  which  appeared  in 
1697.  Addison  published  in  1694  «  An  Account 
of  the  Greatest  English  Poets.»  a  running  criti- 
cism in  verse,  which  he  dedicated  to  his  fellow- 
student,  the  afterward  celebrated  Dr.  Sachever- 
ell.  It  is  said  to  be  chiefly  notably  for  the 
ignorance,  common  to  the  day,  which  it  displays 
of  early  English  poetry. 

Through  the  introduction,  it  appears,  of  Con- 
greve,  Addison  early  secured  an  able  and  power- 
ful patron  in  Charles  Montague,  afterward  Earl 
of  Halifax,  and  in  1695  hi?  own  pen  secured  a 
greater  in  Lord  Somers.  He  dedicated  to  this 
nobleman,  then  lord-keeper,  a  poem  on  one  of 
King  William's  campaigns,  and  received  as  his 
reward  a  pension  of  £300  to  enable  him  to  travel 
in  order  to  fit  himself  for  the  service  of  the  king. 
In  1699,  in  which  year  appeared  a  collection  of 
his  Latin  poems  in  the  second  volume  of  the 
<  Musarum  Anglicanarum  Analecta,>  he  left 
England,  and  after  spending  more  than  two 
years  in  France  and  Italy  was  returning  home 
through  Switzerland  when  he  was  instructed  to 
repair  as  envoy  to  the  quarters  of  Prince  Eu- 
gene, then  engaged  in  an  Italian  campaign.  The 
death  of  King  William  in  March  1702  cancelled 


this  appointment  with  the  overthrow  of  his 
friends.  He  says,  indeed,  that  he  never  teceived 
more  than  a  single  year's  payment  of  his  pen- 
sion, and  had  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his 
travels  himself.  Nevertheless  he  was  able  to 
extend  his  tour  to  Germany  and  Holland,  and 
returned  to  England  at  the  close  of  1703,  having 
attempted  without  success  to  procure  an  ap- 
pointment as  a  traveling  tutor. 

During  his  residence  abroad  his  pen  had  not 
been  idle.  His  tragedy  of  <  Cato  >  is  supposed 
to  have  been  written,  subject  to  after  revision, 
during  his  stay  in  France.  During  his  journey 
across  Mount  Cenis  he  wrote  his  «  Letter  from 
Italy, »  esteemed  the  best  of  his  poems,  and  in 
Germany  his  « Dialogues  on  Medals. »  which 
was  not  published  till  after  his  death.  His  <  Re- 
marks on  Several  Parts  of  Italy  in  the  Years 
1701^03  >  was  published  in  1705.  It  is  an  im- 
personal record  of  impressions  in  which  current 
events  have  hardly  any  place,  the  absorbing  topic 
being  the  correspondences  traced  between  pas- 
sages in  the  Latin  poets  and  the  scenes  it  illus- 
trates. _  It  was  dedicated  to  Lord  Somers.  The 
first  ministry  of  Queen  Anne  was  a  coalition 
one,  in  which  the  Whigs  had  still  considerable 
power,  chiefly  due  to  the  victories  of  Marl- 
borough. Godolphin  mentioned  to  Halifax  his 
desire  to  have  the  achievements  of  the  great 
commanders  celebrated  in  appropriate  verse. 
Halifax  strongly  recommended  Addison,  and  the 
commission  was  at  once  assigned  to  him,  and  he 
produced  the  «  Campaign,))  which  was  about  as 
good  as  a  poem  made  to  order  by  a  man  of  taste 
and  scholarly  accomplishments,  who  was  not 
quite  a  poet,  could  be  expected  to  be.  Before  it 
was  half  finished  Godolphin's  approval  was  ex- 
pressed in  the  form  of  an  appointment  to  suc- 
ceed Locke  as  a  commissioner  of  appeal  on 
excise.  One  official  appointment  succeeded  an- 
other till  the  fall  of  the  ministry,  whose  favor 
he  had  now  made,  in  1710.  In  1706  he  became 
under-secretary  of  state  to  Sir  Charles  Hodges, 
next  year  he  accompanied  Lord  Halifax  as  his 
secretary  on  a  mission  to  the  Elector  of  Hano- 
ver. In  1708  he  was  elected  member  of  Parlia- 
ment for  Lostwithiel,  a  seat  he  exchanged  in 
I/IO  for  Malmesbury,  which  place  he  continued 
to  represent  till  his  death.  In  1709  he  became 
secretary  to  Lord  Wharton  as  lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland. 

It  may  here  be  noticed  that  Addison's  tem- 
perament, which  greatly  facilitated  his  elevation, 
determined  its  limit  in  a  political  direction. 
Extremely  shy  and  even  awkward  in  company, 
especially  among  persons  of  any  superiority  of 
pretension,  he  joined  with  this  diffidence  ex- 
treme caution  of  offending  and  solicitous  anx- 
iety to  oblige.  These  qualities,  which  recom- 
mended him  to  men  in  office,  wholly  disqualified 
him  for  parliamentary  life.  He  is  said  to  have 
once  attempted  to  speak  in  the  House:  but.  if 
ever  he  had  a  higher  ambition,  he  sank  at  once 
and  irretrievably  into  the  position  of  an  abso- 
lutely silent  member. 

The  fall  of  the  ministry  in  August  1710,  fol- 
lowed by  the  accession  to  power  of  an  uncom- 
promising Tory  ministry,  happened  fortunately 
for  Addison's  fame.  While  he  was  absent  in 
Ireland  his  old  school  companion  Steele  had  start- 
ed a  paper  partly  devoted  to  news;  but  chiefly 
to  essays  of  a  social,  moral,  and  literary  charac- 
ter, the  Tatlcr.     Addison  discovered  the  authoi 


ADDISON 


of  *he  enterprise  by  a  literary  criticism  which 
he  had  communicated  to  his  friend,  and  was 
readily  admitted  to  share  in  it.  The  Taller  was 
begun  12  April  1709,  and  terminated  2  Jan.  171 1. 
It  was  followed  on  1  March  by  the  Spectator 
which  dropped  the  news  section  and  consisted 
entirely  of  essays.  It  continued  till  8  Dec.  171Z 
I  he  Guardian  succeeded,  from  2  March  to  I 
Oct.  1713,  and  the  Spectator  was  resumed  from 
18  June  to  20  Dec.  1714.  The  Taller  was  pub- 
lished thrice  weekly,  on  Tuesdays,  Thursdays, 
and  Saturdays ;  the  Spectator  and  Guardian 
•very  week  day.  The  bulk  of  the  papers  were 
contributed  in  nearly  equal  proportion  by  Steele 
and  Addison. 

Addison's  contributions  to  the  Spectator  are 
distinguished  by  one  of  the  initials  C,  L.,  L,  O. 
Itl  humorous  and  satirical  character  sketches  he 
hardly  excelled,  perhaps  equalled  Steele.  If 
more  refined  he  was  less  direct  and  pointed. 
But  he  was  far  ahead  of  his  fellow  contributor 
in  scholarship  and  literary  taste,  and  in  the 
breadth,  and  height  of  his  ambition.  He  poured 
forth  the  stores  of  his  knowledge  on  a  greater 
variety  of  subjects,  and  indulged  his  imagination 
in  more  elaborate  and  artistic  creations.  But 
besides  these  independent  efforts  of  his  own,  he 
aspired  to  be  a  judge  and  censor  of  the  literary 
productions  of  others,  and  he  was,  perhaps,  be- 
yond any  man  of  his  day,  well  qualified  for  the 
task.  Certainly  his  judgments  had  less  force 
and  perhaps  less  depth  than  Johnson's,  but  they 
had  much  more  of  breadth,  harmony,  and  com- 
pleteness, were  woven  with  more  art  into  a  sys- 
tem depending  on  theoretical  principles,  and 
were  delivered  with  a  grace  and  eloquence  of 
which  the  oracular  moralist  was  no  master.  If 
his  system  was  somewhat  shallow,  it  had  prob- 
ably the  merit  of  directing  attention  more  to 
criticism,  and  preparing  the  way  for  better  and 
more  philosophic  standards  of  appreciation. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  of  his  contributions 
to  the  Spectator  are  his  criticism  on  Milton's 
<  Paradise  Lost,>  his  essays  on  the  <  Pleasures 
of  the  Imagination,)  <  Vision  of  Mirza,>  his 
Saturday  essays  on  moral  and  religious  themes, 
and  his  <  Reflections  on  the  Divine  Perfections.) 
Pre-eminent  among  his  character  sketches  is  Sir 
Roger  de  Coverley.  Steele  originated  the  idea 
of  a  «  Spectator  »  Club  and  sketched  the  charac- 
ters of  its  members.  That  of  Sir  Roger  was 
immediately  appropriated  by  Addison,  to  whom 
the  delicate  humor  of  its  subsequent  develop- 
ment is  exclusively  due.  The  remaining  works 
of  Addison  not  yet  mentioned  are  of  compara- 
tively little  interest  or  importance.  In  opposi- 
tion to  the  Examiner,  conducted  by  Swift,  he 
wrote,  in  the  latter  part  of  1710,  five  numbers  of 
a  Whig  Examiner.  In  1713  he  published, 
anonymously,  «  The  Trial  and  Conviction  of 
Count  Tariff,))  a  libel  on  the  financial  policy  of 
the  ministry.  He  had  assisted  Steele  at  an  early 
period  with  his  comedy  of  the  <  Tender  Hus- 
band,' and  die  drama  of  'The  Drummer  or  the 
1  taunted  House  >  was  published  by  Sir  Richard 
Steele  after  his  death  and  attributed  to  him. 
The  Freeholder,  a  political  paper  in  support  of 
the  government,  published  twice  weekly  from 
23  Dec.  1715  to  29  June  1716,  was  written  en- 
tirely by  him.  He  also  wrote  a  work  on  the 
'  Evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion.)  and  a 
'Discourse  on  Ancient  ami  Modern  Learning.) 
<Cato>  was  brought  on  the  stage  in  April  1713, 


'  reluctantly,  as  is  said,  and  though  destitute  oi 
dramatic  qualities  and  even  deficient  in  poetry 
had  a  great  run  of  success,  which  was  largely 
owing  to  political  causes. 

In  August  1716  he  married  the  Countess 
Dowager  of  Warwick.  This  connection  brought 
him  little  accession  of  fortune,  as  the  widow  for- 
feited her  jointure  by  her  remarriage.  Her 
haughty  demeanor,  nevertheless,  is  said  to  have 
made  his  home  unbearable  to  a  man  of  hi*  nicety 
of  feeling.  Whether  from  this  cause,  or  from 
the  long  habit  of  frequenting  taverns,  to  which 
he  appears  ?t  first  to  have  had  rather  an  aver- 
sion, he  acquired,  according  to  prevalent  reports, 
a  habit  of  excessive  wine-libbing  which  short- 
ened his  days.  These  latter  days  were  distin- 
guished by  a  return  to  political  life,  and  dark- 
ened by  some  painful  literary  quarrels.  On  the 
death  of  Queen  Anne  the  lords  justices  who 
assumed  the  government  appointed  Addison 
their  secretary.  For  a  brief  period  he  resumed 
his  former  office  of  secretary  to  the  lord-lieuten- 
ant, and  in  1715  he  was  named  one  of  the  lords 
of  trade.  In  1717  the  leading  Whigs  retired 
from  office,  leaving  an  attenuated  party  called 
the  German  ministry.  From  this  ministry,  on 
16  April,  Addison  accepted  office  as  one  of  the 
principal  secretaries  of  state.  He  was  probably 
equally  unqualified  in  point  of  business  capacity 
and  of  parliamentary  efficiency  for  this  responsi- 
ble post,  and  he  was  probably  also  sensible  of 
his  own  incapacity,  for  it  is  said  that  in  accepting 
it  he  yielded  to  the  ambition  of  his  wife. 

He  retired  after  II  months  with  a  salary  of 
£1.500.  Of  his  literary  quarrels  one  of  the  bit- 
terest was  with  Pope.  The  cause  of  it  was  the 
publication  by  Tickell,  Addison's  secretary,  of  a 
part  of  a  rival  translation  of  the  *  Iliad,)  which 
Pope  suspected  was  Addison's  own,  and  a  re- 
mark of  Addison's  that  Tickell's  translation  was 
more  faithful  than  Pope's.  Pope  in  revenge 
wrote  the  savage  satire  contained  in  his  lines  on 
«  Aniens, »  which  he  published  after  Addison's 
death  in  his  «  Epistle  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot,»  and 
which  at  the  time  he  printed  and  distributed 
among  his  friends.  Addison  does  not  appear  to 
have  replied  publicly,  but  in  the  Freeholder  he 
liberally  praised  Pope's  <  Iliad.'  Addison  had  al- 
so a  quarrel  with  Gay,  and  on  this  occasion  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  in  the  wrong,  as  he  sent  for 
Gay  some  time  before  his  death,  apologized  for 
having  injured  him,  and  promised  amends.  But 
the  saddest,  as  it  appears  to  have  been  the  pal- 
triest, quarrel,  was  with  his  ancient  comrade 
Steele.  The  cause  of  it  was  political.  Steele 
attacked  a  bill  for  the  limitation  of  the  peerage 
in  the  Plebeian.  Addison  replied  in  a  pam- 
phlet called  the  «  Old  Whig.»  Steele  answered 
that  Addison  was  so  old  a  Whig  that  he  had 
forgotten  his  principles,  and  Addison  made  a 
contemptuous  reply.  Addison  died  of  asthma 
and  dropsy  at  Holland  House. 

Of  his  style  as  a  writer  so  much  has  been  said 
that  nothing  remains  to  say  but  to  quote  the 
dictum  of  Johnson,  «  Whoever  wishes  to  attain 
an  English  style,  familiar  but  not  coarse,  and 
elegant  but  not  ostentatious,  must  give  his  days 
and  nights  to  the  volumes  of  Addison.»  Addi- 
son had  great  conversational  powers,  and  his 
intimates  speak  in  the  strongest  term-;  of  the 
enjoyment  derived  from  his  society,  but  it  is 
acknowledged  that  he  was  extremely  reserved 
before  strangers.     There  is  a  story  told  of  his 


ADDISON'S  DISEASE  — ADELAIDE 


hairing  sent  for  his  stepson,  Lord  Warwick,  on 
his  deathbed,  and  addressed  him  in  these  terms, 
"See  in  what  peace  a  Christian  can  die."  It  is 
alluded  to  by  Tickell,  Addison's  executor,  and  is 
first  told  circumstantially  by  Dr.  Young,  but  the 
truth  of  the  story  has  been  questioned.  Addison 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  He  left  a 
daughter  born  in  the  year  of  his  death.  His 
works  were  published  by  Tickell  in  four  quarto 
volumes  in  1721.  An  edition,  with  notes  by 
Bishop  Hurd,  in  six  vols.  8vo,  was  published  in 
181 1.  A  more  complete  edition  with  Bishop 
Hurd's  notes  was  published  and  edited  by  H.  G. 
Bohn  (in  the  well-known  series,  six  vols.).  A 
recent  edition  (in  six  vols.)  is  that  of  Prof. 
Greene.  There  have  been  two  recent  editions  of 
the  Spectator  (both  in  eight  vols.)  edited  re- 
spectively by  G.  A.  Aitkin  and  G.  G.  Smith. 
Among  "Lives'  may  be  mentioned  that  by  Lucy 
Aikin  (1843),  which  drew  from  Macaulay  an 
admirable  essay,  and  that  by  Prof.  Courthope. 

Addison's  Disease,  a  disease  associated 
with  disturbance  of  the  functions  of  the  supra- 
renal glands  and  characterized  by  general  de- 
pression of  the  functions,  anxmia,  lowered  tone 
of  the  circulatory  apparatus,  irritability  of  the 
stomach,  and  pigmentation  of  the  skin.  This 
last  symptom  is  the  most  pronounced  and  was 
fully  described  by  Addison  in  1855.  The  disease 
is  more  common  in  men  and  between  the  twen- 
tieth and  fortieth  years.     It  is  rare  in  America. 

The  chief  symptoms  are  (1)  pigmentation  of 
the  skin ;  this  is  a  peculiar  brownish,  yellow  to 
black,  almost  bronze-like  discoloration ;  (2) 
gastro-intestinal  symptoms,  nausea,  vomiting,  at 
times  marked  pain  in  the  abdomen,  frequent  at- 
tacks of  diarrhcea ;  (3)  asthenia,  the  patient  is 
always  very  tired,  and  is  incapable  of  carrying 
on  his  regular  occupation ;  the  heart  muscle 
also  suffers  very  markedly,  there  being  frequent 
attacks  of  rapid  and  feeble  pulse  with  vertigo, 
and  fainting,  sometimes  fatal.  Headache  is  fre- 
quent and  anaemia  may  be  present.  The  disease 
is  usually  fatal,  but  recovery  has  taken  place. 

The  treatment  is  symptomatic,  with  the  pro- 
longed use  of  the  suprarenal  gland. 

Addled  Parliament,  The,  a  nickname  given 
to  James  I.'s  second  Parliament,  of  1614,  because 
it  passed  no  statute  and  finished  no  business. 
It  did,  however,  settle  a  far  more  important 
question  than  any  point  of  administration : 
namely,  that  the  Commons  were  to  have  the 
power  of  the  purse  thereafter  —  that  is,  the  rule 
of  the  kingdom  —  unless  the  Crown  crushed 
them  by  force.  In  a  word,  it  proclaimed  the 
revolution,  though  not  consciously.  The  previous 
Parliament  had  been  dissolved  for  not  granting 
supplies  until  the  king  had  abolished  the  illegal 
imposts  and  regulated  the  Court  of  High  Com- 
mission by  statute  —  that  is,  given  church  as 
well  as  state  into  their  hands.  The  elections 
for  1614  were  contested  with  a  passion  un- 
known for  generations :  the  court  candidates 
were  overwhelmingly  defeated,  and  300  of  the 
victorious  ones  were  new  men  sent  up  for  the 
first  time,  among  them  John  Pym.  Thomas 
Wentworth  (afterward  Earl  of  Strafford),  and 
John  Eliot.  After  a  two  months'  session  they 
became  involved  in  a  quarrel  of  privilege  with 
the  Lords,  and  the  king  dissolved  the  House 
on  that  pretext, —  really  on  the  point  of  their  re- 
fusal of  supplies, —  and  imprisoned  four  of  them. 
Vol.  1—7 


Add-Ran  Christian  University,  a  Waco, 
Tex.,  coeducational  institution ;  organized  in 
1873  under  the  auspices  of  the  Church  of  the 
Disciples.  Reported  in  1899:  Professors  and  in- 
structors, 20 ;  students,  200 ;  volumes  in  the 
library,  5,000;  grounds  and  buildings  valued  at 
$150,000;  income,  $20,000;  number  of  graduates, 
200;  president,  Albert  Buxton,  Ph.D. 

Ade,  George,  American  journalist  and  author: 
b.  Kentland,  Ind.,  9  Feb.  1866.  He  made  his 
first  mark  as  a  writer  for  years  of  *  Stories  of  the 
Streets  and  the  Town"  in  the  Chicago  News,  with 
remarkable  variety  of  motive  and  local-reporter's 
knowledge;  published  'Artie,*  made  up  from 
these,  and  in  1897  the  dialect  story  'Pink  Marsh'; 
in  1901-2  two  sets  of  'Fables  in  Slang,'  full  of 
pungent  wit  and  knowledge  of  the  less  agreeable 
phases  of  human  character;  and  in  1903  the  satiri- 
cal comic  opera,  'The  Sultan  of  Sulu,'  a  musical 
comedy,  'Peggy  from  Paris, '  a  political  comedy, 
'The  County  Chairman,'  a  comedy  of  college 
life,  'The  College  Widow,'  and  others. 

Adee,  Alvey  A.,  American  diplomat:  b. 
Astoria,  N.  Y.,  27  Nov.  1842,  son  of  a  fleet  sur- 
geon; was  secretary  of  legation  at  Madrid  1870-7, 
charge  d'affaires  at  different  times:  in  1878  be- 
came chief  of  the  United  States  diplomatic  bu- 
reau, 1882  third  assistant  secretary  of  state,  1886 
second  assistant,  which  he  still  remains.  He 
was  secretary  of  state  ad  interim  17-29  Sept. 
1898;  and  acting  secretary  during  some  of  the 
most  acute  Chinese  troubles  of  1900. 

Adelaide,  capital  of  S.  Australia,  7  m. 
by  rail  S.E.  of  Port  Adelaide,  on  St.  Vincent 
Gulf.  It  stands  on  a  large  plain,  and  is  walled 
in  on  the  eastern  and  southern  sides  by  the 
Mount  Lofty  range ;  the  town  proper  is  enclosed 
by  a  wide  belt  of  garden  shrubbery.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  in  1836,  and  named  after 
the  queen  of  William  IV.  The  Torrens  divides 
the  town  into  North  and  South  Adelaide,  the 
former  being  occupied  chiefly  with  residences, 
and  the  latter  forming  the  business  portion  of 
the  town.  Four  substantial  iron  bridges  span 
the  Torrens,  which  has  been  formed  by  a  dam 
into  a  lake  one  and  a  half  miles  long.  The 
streets  are  broad  and  regularly  laid  out,  espe- 
cially in  Adelaide  proper,  to  the  south  of  the 
river,  where  they  cross  each  other  at  right  an- 
gles, and  are  planted  with  trees.  Among  the 
public  buildings  are  the  new  Parliament  Houses, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  about  $500.000 ;  government 
offices,  post-office,  and  town-hall ;  South  Austra- 
lian Institute,  with  museum,  library,  and  art 
galleries ;  and  hospital.  The  botanical  garden, 
with  the  botanical  garden  park,  covers  more  than 
120  acres  of  ground.  The  chief  manufactures 
are  woolen,  leather,  iron,  and  earthenware 
goods ;  but  the  chief  importance  of  Adelaide  de- 
pends on  its  being  the  great  emporium  for  South 
Australia.  Wool,  wine,  wheat,  flour,  and  cop- 
per ore  are  the  staple  articles  of  export.  Among 
educational  institutions  the  most  important  are 
the  Adelaide  LTniversity ;  St.  Peter's  (Episco- 
pal) College:  St.  Barnabas  Theological  College, 
opened  in  1881,  and  Prince  Alfred  (Wesleyan) 
College.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  and  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Glenelg,  on  the  sea, 
5  miles  away,  is  a  favorite  watering-place.  Pop. 
with   suburbs    (1901)    160,691. 

Port  Adelaide,  its  haven,  dates  from  1840. 
It  is  a  principal  port  of  call  for  vessels  arriving 


ADELARD  — ADHESION 


from  Europe;  has  railwa)  communication  with 
Melbourne,  Sydney,  and  Brisbane.  Tramways 
were  introduced  in  [878.     Pop,  with  Semaphore 

about  15,000. 

Adelard,  or  iEthelhard,  of  Hath.  English 
philosopher  and  mathematician  of  the  t2th  cen- 
tury. Little  is  known  of  the  facts  of  his  life, 
except  that  he  traveled  widely,  visiting  Greece, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Africa.  He  wrote  'Perdiffi- 
cilis  Quaestiones  Naturales*  and  <De  Eodem  et 
Diverso,'  a  philosophical  allegory  in  which  he 
sought  to  reconcile  the  theories  of  Plato  and 
Aristotle.  He  also  made  a  Latin  translation  of 
Euclid  ami  of  several  Arabian  mathematical 
treatises      See    Vmthmetic,  History  of. 

Adelbert  College.        See  Western  R> 
University. 

Ad'elieland',  an  Antarctic  continent  dis- 
covered jo  Ian.  1K40  by  L)u  Mont  d'Urville.  It 
consists  of  a  chain  of  mountains  without  promi- 
nent peaks,  with  a  few  shallow  bays  tilled  with 
icebergs,  and  a  number  of  islands  with  rounded 
summits 

Adelochorda,  a  group  standing  at  the 
base  of  the  branch  of  phylum  ChordatQ,  and  in- 
cluding certain  animals,  formerly  supposed  to 
be  worms,  but  now  placed  in  the  same  group 
as  the  vertebrates.  The  class  Adelochorda  is 
represented  by  Balanoglossus,  while  with  11  aii1 
provisionally  associated  two  forms  of  doubtful 
position,     the     worm-like     Rhabdopleura     and 

thalodiscus.  The  Adelocephala  are  worm- 
like, but  from  the  fact  that  the  body  is  in  part 
Supported  by  a  structure  supposed  to  In-  homolo- 
gous with  the  notochord  of  true  vertebrates,  and 
that  the  animal  breathe-  through  gill-slits,  like 
those  of  the  lowest  vertebrate-,  it  is  supposed  to 
be  relate, 1  to  -ome  extinct  form  winch  gave  rise 
to  the  vertebrates.  It  is  also  itself  probably  an 
ancestral  persistent  form.  If  we  throw  out  the 
doubtful  forms  Rhabdopleura  and  Cepholodis- 
.  u-v  leaving  only  Balanoglossus,  we  have  the  old 
group  Enteropneusta.  A  typical  example  of  the 
Adelochorda  is  Balanoglossus  (q.v.). 

Adelphi  College,  Brooklyn,  N.  V..  a  coed 
ucational,  non-sectarian  institution,  was  in- 
corporated bv  the  regents  of  the  University  of 
the  State  of"  New  York,  24  June  1806.  It  is 
intended  to  be  a  school  of  arts,  a  college  of 
liberal  culture.  The  requirements  for  admission 
and  graduation  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
leading  Eastern  colleges.  It  is  the  only  institu- 
tion in  Brooklyn  in  which  a  woman  may  obtain 
the  usual  baccalaureate  degrees.  The  curric- 
ulum is  arranged  semestrally,  and  eight  semes- 
ters are  required  for  graduation.  The  courses 
in  pedagogy  are  arranged  so  that  the  studies 
preparatory  to  the  profession  of  teaching  may 
all  be  taken  as  a  part  of  the  work  offered  for 
the  degrees  of  bachelor  of  arts  and  bachelor  of 
science,  From  the  beginning  the  college  has 
always  offered  special  facilities  to  students  who 
wish  to  enter  the  profession  of  teaching.  It 
also  makes  provision  in  afternoon,  evening,  and 
Saturday  morning  classes  for  teachers  in  public 
schools  who  desire  to  study  for  a  degree  without 
giving  up  their  positions.  Connected  with  the 
college  are  the  Normal  School  for  Kinder- 
gartners,  with  a  two  years'  course,  organized  in 
1893,  and  School  of  Fine  Arts.  The  college 
reported    in    1005 :    professors    and    instructors, 


•.udeiits,   500;    volumes    in   the   library,  g.OCO. 

Adelphi  College  maintains  a  preparatory  depart- 
ment,   known    a-    Adelphi    Academy,    which    ha 
50  instructors  and  760  students.     The  total  value 
of  the   property  and  endowments  of  the  college 
is  $600,000.     The  total  annual  income  is  $118,000. 

Aden,  Arabia:  peninsula  and  town  belong- 
ing to  Great  Britain,  on  the  S.W.  coast.  105  m. 
E,  of  the  strait  of  Bab-el-Mandcb,  the  entrance 
to  the  Red  Sea.  The  peninsula  is  a  mass  of 
volcanic  rocks.  5  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  and 
rising  to  i.77<>  feet.  It  is  joined  to  the  main- 
laud  by  a  narrow,  level,  and  sandy  isthmus.  The 
town  is  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  peninsula, 
stands  in  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  is 
surrounded  by  barren,  cinder-like  rocks.  The 
main  crater  is  known  as  the  Devil's  Punch-bowl. 
Frequently  the  heat  is  intense  ;  but  the  climate  is 
unusually  healthy    for  the   tropics. 

The  Romans  occupied  it  ill  the  1st  century 
A.D.  Till  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  route  to 
India  (1498)  it  was  the  chief  mart  of  Asiatic 
produce  for  the  Western  nations:  but  in  1838 
it  bad  sunk  to  be  a  village  of  fJOO  inhabitants. 
The  increasing  importance  of  the  Red  Sea  route 
gave  Aden  great  value  as  a  station  for  the  Brit- 
ish to  hold:  and  in  1839  after  a  few  hours' 
contest  it  fill  into  their  hands.  It  is  of  high 
importance  both  in  a  mercantile  and  naval 
point  of  view,  especially  as  a  great  coaling  sta- 
tion: it  has  a  garrison  and  strong  fortificatii 

The  population  and  resources  of  the  place 
have  rapidly  increased  since  1838.  and  tin-  open- 
ing of  the  Suez  Canal  in  i860  gave  it  a  great 
impetus.  The  value  of  its  imports  (1892-3) 
was  over  $20,000,000,  while  that  of  its  exerts 
(coffee,    gums,    spices  )    amounted    to    over    $15,- 

000,000.    It  is  a  telegraphic  station  on  the  cable 

between  Suez  and  Bombay,  and  on  the  line  to 
Zanzibar  and  the  Cape.  To  provide  for  its 
growing  population,  a  considerable  territory  on 
the  mainland  has  been  acquired  and  added  to 
the  peninsula,  the  total  area  (including  the 
island  of  Perim)  being  75  square  miles;  and  the 
settlement,  which  is  politically  connected  with 
Bombay  (7  days'  sailing,  or  1,819  nautical  miles, 
distant ).  has  a  population  of  over  41,000. 

Adhesion,  in  physics,  the  force  which 
holds  together  two  surfaces  brought  in  contact; 
distinguished  from  cohesion,  the  mutual  attrac- 
tion exerted  by  particles  of  the  same  body,  and 
from  affinity,  since  the  particles  adhering  re- 
main unchanged.  It  is  a  force  exerted  on  each 
other  by  the  molecules  of  the  adhering  bodies, 
and  not  to  be  confounded  with  mere  mechanical 
contact  due  to  pressure.  The  wetting  of  solid 
bodies  is  an  instance. 

It  usually  happens  that  wdien  a  solid  and  a 
liquid  come  in  contact,  a  film  of  the  liquid 
adheres  to  the  solid  too  firmly  to  be  detached, 
showing  its  adhesion  to  the  solid  to  be  stronger 
than  the  cohesion  of  its  particles  or  the  force 
of  gravitation,  as  it  can  be  removed  only  by 
forcible  rubbing  or  evaporation.  On  the  othei 
hand,  solutions  are  supposably  cases  where  the 
adhesive  force  of  solid  and  liquid  overbal- 
ances the  cohesive  force  of  the  solid,  so 
that  it  loses  its  form  and  adheres  particle  by 
particle;  but  see  Solutions,  the  true  theory 
of  which  is  keenly  debated.  The  force  of 
adhesion  is  measured  by  poising  n  metal  plate 
on  a  balance,  and  then  finding  what  additional 


ADIABATIC   TRANSFORMATION- -ADIPIC    ACID 


force  is  required  to  detach  it  from  the  surface 
of  a  liquid  which  docs  not  wet  it  (otherwise  it 
would  be  measuring  the  cohesive  force  of  the 
liquid)  nor  act  on  it  chemically.  The  phe- 
nomena of  capillary  attraction  (q.v.)  depend  on 
adhesion.  Solid  bodies  also  adhere  to  solids: 
most  smooth  surfaces  will  adhere ;  the  smoother 
the  tighter;  and  two  plates  of  polished  glass 
laid  together  can  hardly  be  parted  without  break- 
ing them.  If  the  solids  are  pressed  together, 
it  usually  increases  the  adhesive  force;  but  it  de- 
pends but  little  on  atmospheric  pressure.  Fric- 
tion is  a  looser  kind  of  adhesion,  which  prevents 
surfaces  moving  freely  on  each  other,  and  may 
result  from  gravitation  or  mechanical  appliances. 
Plating,  gilding,  etc.,  also  depend  on  adhesion. 
Soldering,  the  use  of  mortar,  cementing,  gluing, 
etc.,  are  familiar  applications  of  the  principle,  in- 
termediary substances  being  employed,  whose 
particles  have  at  once  great  cohesion  among  them- 
selves and  great  adhesion  to  each  of  the  bodies 
to  be  joined.  A  familiar  example  is  the  split- 
ting a  thin  sheet  of  paper  by  pasting  it  between 
two  sheets  of  cloth  and  pulling  them  apart  after 
it  has  dried:  the  adhesion  of  paste  to  paper  and 
cloth  is  so  great  that  the  paper  fibres  yield  to  it. 
Furthermore,  air  and  other  gases  adhere  to  sol- 
ids: a  favorite  children's  experiment  is  to  float 
a  dry  needle  in  a  basin  of  water,  it  resting  on  a 
cushion  of  air;  and  when  thermometers  are  filled 
with  mercury  it  has  to  be  boiled  in  them  to  ex- 
pel the  air  that  adheres  to  the  glass.  Every  ma- 
terial body,  and  every  particle  of  such  body  in 
however  fine  division,  is  surrounded  by  its  own 
atmosphere  of  condensed  gases,  which  are  an 
efficient  factor  in  many  physical  and  chemical 
phenomena  ;  this  property  in  comminuted  bodies 
is  called  adsorption,  and  in  metallic  substances 
is  sometimes  so  avid  that  they  grow  red-hot. 

Adiaba'tic  Transformation.     In  thermody- 
namics   (q.v.)    a    body    is    said    to    undergo   an 
adiabatic  transformation  when  its  state  or  con- 
dition  is   modified  in   such  a   way  that  the   fol- 
lowing two  conditions  are  fulfilled:      (i)   There 
is    no    exchange    of    heat    between    the    body 
and     its     surroundings;      (2)     the     transforma- 
tion is  reversible  at  every  stage.     It  is  usual  to 
define    the    adiabatic    transformation    by    stating 
the  first  of  these  conditions  only ;   but  the  sec- 
ond is  equally  essential,  because  if  it  is  omitted 
the  definition  will   also  include  the  transforma- 
tion  known   as   "free   expansion."     (See   Gases, 
General  Properties  of.)     When  the  body  under 
consideration  is  a  «  perfect  gas,»  and  all  possi- 
ble states  are  excluded   from  consideration  ex- 
cept such  as  are  uniquely  determined  when  the 
pressure  and  volume  of  the  body  are  given,  the 
adiabatic      transformation      requires      that      the 
product   fv*   shall   remain   constant   throughout 
the  transformation,   k   being  the   ratio  that   the 
specific    heat    of   the   gas    at    constant    pressure 
bears   to   its    specific   heat    at   constant   volume. 
For  air,  k  is  about  I.41.     When  the  changes  that 
the   body   can   undergo   are   represented    graph- 
ically, as   for  example  on   a   diagram  in  which 
the  volume  is  taken  as  abscissa  and  the  pressure 
as    ordinate,    the    lines    along   which    the    fore- 
going algebraic  expression  is  constant  are  called 
adiabatic     lines     or     curves.     Adiabatic     trans- 
formations   are    often    called    isentropic    trans- 
formations, from  the  fact  that  the  entropy  (q.v.) 
of  the  body  remains  constant  along  every  such 


line.     (For  further  information  concerning  lines 
used  in  thermodynamics,  see  Line.) 

Adiaphorists,  ii-di-af'or-ists,  or  Adiaph- 
orites,  a  party  or  wing  of  the  Lutheran  re- 
formers of  Germany,  who  held  that  certain 
things  practised  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
were  indifferent  and  might  be  received.  In  1548 
an  ecclesiastical  controversy  broke  out  among 
the  reformers.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.  hav- 
ing issued  a  paper  popularly  called  the  « In- 
terim.)) in  which  he  prescribed  what  faith  and 
practice  the  Protestants  were  to  adopt  till  the 
Council  of  Trent  should  dictate  a  permanent 
form  of  belief  and  worship,  Maurice,  Elector  of 
Saxony,  urged  Melanchthon  and  his  friends  to 
decide  what  portions  of  the  document  they 
would  accept  and  follow.  Melanchthon  consid- 
ered that  to  a  very  large  extent  the  «  Interim  » 
might  be  accepted  and  obeyed.  A  controversy 
in  consequence  arose  between  the  followers  of 
Luther  and  those  of  Melanchthon.  It  was  called 
the  adiaphoristic  controversv,  and  embraced  two 
questions:  (1)  What  things  were  indifferent; 
and  (2)  whether,  with  regard  to  things  indiffer- 
ent, the  emperor  could  or  could  not  in  con- 
science be  obeyed. 

Adi-Buddha,  a-de-bud-ha,  from  the  San- 
skrit, the  Primord  Buddha,  a  conception  of 
Buddha  due  probably  to  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity._  It  came  into  vogue  among  the  Northern 
Buddhists  about  the  middle  of  the  10th  century. 
In  this  conception  he  is  represented  as  self- 
existent  and  omniscient. 

Adige,  a'de-je,  a  considerable  river  of 
N.  Italy,  which  has  its  source  in  the  Alps 
of  Tyrol,  above  Brixen  ;  it  enters  Italy  by  Bol- 
zano and  the  valley  of  Trento,  flows  in  a  south- 
ern direction  by  Roveredo,  parallel  to  and  for 
the  most  part  about  6  miles  from  the  lake  of 
Garda,  then,  turning  abruptly  toward  the  east, 
passes  through  Verona  and  Legnano:  it  after- 
ward enters  the  great  delta  between  the  Brenta 
and  the  Po,  and,  forming  several  branches,  emp- 
ties its  waters  into  the  Adriatic  Sea.  It  is  a 
deep  and  rapid  stream,  dividing  by  its  course  the 
old  Venetian  territories  from  Lombardy  proper. 
The  valley  of  the  Adige  has  been  rendered  'or- 
ever  memorable  by  the  wars  of  Bonaparte. 

Adi-Granth,  the  Bible  .of  the  Sikhs  (q.v), 
mainly  compiled  by  the  guru  (spiritual  guide) 
Arjun  (1584-1606),  fifth  successor  of  the 
founder  Nanak  (q.v.).  He  gathered  up  the 
poetical  pieces  of  his  four  predecessors  and 
fragments  from  other  great  teachers  like  Rama- 
nanda,  Kabir,  Namdev,  etc..  and  .ndded  composi- 
tions of  his  own.  The  tenth  and  last  Sikh  guru 
Govmd  (1675-1708),  made  additions  to  it,  and 
composed  an  entirely  new  Granth.  the  «  Grant li 
of  the  Tenth  Reign.»  The  language  of  these  is 
an  archaic  Punjabi  called  Gurmukhi  («  from  the 
gurus  mouth  »).  These  Granths.  with  the  bi- 
ographies of  gurus  and  saints,  and  instructions 
tor  ritual  and  discipline,  comprise  the  Sikh  sa- 
cred books. 

Ad'inole,  a  variety  of  the  mineral  albite. 

Ad'ipate,  any  salt  of  adipic  acid  (q.v). 
1  nus  the  compound  of  adipic  acid  with  so- 
dium is  called   sodium  adipate. 

Adip'ic  Acid,  an  organic  acid  having  the 
formula  C«H,,.0,,  and  crystallizing  in  monoclinic 
Iiminjc    which    are    sparingly    soluble    in    cold 


ADIPITE— ADIRONDACK  MOUNTAINS 


water,  but  freely  so  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It 
melts  at  300°  F.  and  is  formed  by  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  on  natural  fats. 

Ad'ipite,  a  gelatinous  mineral  substance  of 
the  same  composition  as  chabazite   (q.v.). 

Adipocere,  ad'i-po-ser'  Lat.  adefs.  fat,  + 
cera,  wax),  a  fatty  substance  consisting  largely 
of  palmitic,  stearic,  and  margaric  acids,  com- 
bined to  some  extent  with  ammonia.  It  is 
sometimes  formed  by  the  decomposition  of  ani- 
mal matter  from  which  air  has  been  excluded. 
It  was  first  observed  by  Fourcroy.  The  most 
notable  example  of  its  occurrence  was  in  the 
Cimetiere  des  Innocens  at  Paris.  A  large  num- 
ber of  coffins  had  been  piled  together  in  this 
cemetery  for  many  years,  and  in  1786-87,  when 
the  coffins  were  removed,  it  was  found  that  in 
many  cases  the  corpses  had  been  changed  into 
shapeless  masses  of  a  dingy  white  color  and 
waxy  consistency,  only  the  bones  remaining 
unaltered.  Adipocere  is  not  a  result  of  the  de- 
composition of  albuminous  tissue,  but  is  formed 
from  the  fats  that  are  present  in  the  body  at  the 
time  of  death,  the  fatty  matter  collecting  to- 
gether, undergoing  further  decomposition,  and 
finally  losing  its  glycerine  and  oleic  acid.  A 
similar  substance,  called  bog-butter,  is  occasion- 
ally found  in  peat  bogs  in  Ireland  and  Wales. 
Sometimes  spelled  adipocire. 

Adipo'cerite,  a  mineral  better  known  as 
hatchettite  (q.v.). 

Adipose  Tissue,  a  fatty  membrane  or  tissue. 
See  Fat  Tissue. 

Adiposis  Dolorosa,  a  disease  described  by 
Dr.  F.  X.  Dercum  of  Philadelphia  in  1892,  and 
characterized  by  enormous  collections  of  tat  in 
different  parts  of  the  body,  not  in  the  hands 
or  feet,  and  associated  with  neuralgic-like  pains 
and  prickling  sensations. 

Its  cause  is  unknown.  The  internal  use  of 
the  thyroid  gland  has  been  of  benefit  in  some 
cases. 

Adirondack  Mountains,  a  group  in  the 
N.E.  part  of  New  York  State,  lying  between 
the  depressions  occupied  by  Lake  Champlain 
on  the  E.,  the  St.  Lawrence  on  the  N.W.,  and 
the  Mohawk  River  on  the  S.  The  group  is 
sometimes  included  in  the  Appalachian  system, 
but  physically  and  geologically  the  two  uplifts 
are  quite  independent.  The  Adirondack's  cover 
an  area  of  more  than  12,000  square  miles  and 
include  within  their  limits  most  of  the  coun- 
ties of  Clinton,  Franklin,  Essex,  and  Hamilton, 
and  portions  of  St.  Lawrence,  Lewis,  Herkimer, 
and  Warren.  They  are  formed  by  several  folds 
arranged  parallel  or  en  echelon,  with  a  north- 
east-southwest trend,  sloping  on  either  side  to- 
ward the  narrow  longitudinal  valleys  that  sepa- 
rate the  individual  ridges.  Most  of  the  peaks 
have  a  rounded  outline  due  to  long-continued 
erosion,  although  in  the  northern  part,  where  the 
highest  elevations  are  found,  the  peaks  are 
bold  and  picturesque  and  have  bare  rock  walls 
rising  several  hundred  feet  in  vertical  escarp- 
ments. The  summit  of  the  group  is  Mt.  Marcy, 
5.344  feet  above  the  sea,  and  there  are  many 
prominences  exceeding  4,500  feet,  including  Mt. 
Mclntyre,  5,112;  Skylight.  4,920:  Whiteface, 
4.872 ;  Santanoni.  4.644 ;  and  Nipple  Top,  4,684 
feet.    Toward  the  south  and  west  the  elevations 


become  less  pronounced  and  rise  but  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  above  the  level  of  the  plateau,  which 
stands  1,500  feet  or  more  above  the  sea.  The 
parallel  ranges  are  interrupted  frequently  by 
gaps  or  passes;  some  of  them,  like  the  Avalanche 
Pass  and  Indian  Pass,  possessing  beautiful  scenic 
features.  Gorges  and  waterfalls  occur  along 
many  of  the  stream  valleys,  the  Ausable  Chasm 
being  especially  noteworthy. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. —  The  Adirondacks  form 
the  water  parting  between  the  Hudson  and  St. 
Lawrence,  both  of  which  streams  receive  many 
important  tributaries  from  this  region.  Most  of 
the  western  region  drains  directly  into  the  St. 
Lawrence  through  the  Oswegatchie,  Grass, 
Raquette,  and  St.  Regis  rivers,  but  a  small  por- 
tion is  drained  by  the  Black  River,  which  flows 
into  Lake  Ontario.  On  the  eastern  side  there 
are  the  Saranac  and  Ausable  rivers  and  many 
short  streams  flowing  into  Lake  Champlain. 
The  Hudson  River  receives  the  waters  of  the 
Sacondaga,  Indian,  and  Boreas,  and  has  its 
source  in  the  interior  of  the  mountains  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Hamilton  county. 

The  lakes  are  perhaps  the  most  attractive 
feature  of  the  Adirondacks;  they  are  distributed 
over  the  entire  area  to  the  number  of  many  hun- 
dreds. The  greater  proportion  lie  in  the  larger 
valleys,  to  which  they  conform  more  or  less 
closely  in  outline,  being  elongated  along  a  north- 
east-southwest axis.  Many,  however,  are  nes- 
tled on  the  higher  slopes  at  an  elevation  of  2.500 
feet  or  more  above  the  sea.  Lake  Tear  of  the 
Clouds  on  the  crest  of  Mt.  Marcy  has  an  alti- 
tude of  4,320  feet.  Lakes  Champlain  and 
George,  the  largest  of  the  Adirondack  lakes,  are 
among  the  most  attractive  sheets  of  water  in 
the  United  States.  Among  the  smaller  lakes 
much  frequented  by  tourists  are  Long,  Raquette, 
and  Blue  Mountain  in  Hamilton  County,  the 
Fulton  Chain  in  Hamilton  and  Herkimer  coun- 
ties, St.  Regis  and  the  Saranacs  in  Franklin 
County,  and  Lake  Placid  in  Essex  County.  Most 
of  the  lakes  are  of  glacial  formation,  the  outlets 
of  the  old  rivers  having  been  obstructed  by  de- 
posits of  glacial  material. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Resources. — The  strata 
of  which  the  mountains  are  formed  belong  to 
the  most  ancient  geological  period,  consisting 
for  the  most  part  of  crystalline  formations 
which  were  uplifted  long  before  the  Appala- 
chian ranges  had  been  defined.  Gneisses,  gran- 
ites, and  basic  igneous  rocks  predominate,  al- 
though there  are  small  areas  underlaid  by  lime- 
stones and  quartzites.  One  of  the  most  prom- 
inent types  is  a  basic  feldspar  rock  called 
anorthosite,  composed  almost  entirely  of  the  min- 
eral labradorite.  It  constitutes  the  highest 
peaks  in  Essex  County.  On  the  borders  these 
ancient  formations  are  overlaid  by  early  Palaeo- 
zoic strata  of  Cambrian  and  Silurian  age,  which 
have  been  little  disturbed  from  their  original 
horizontal  position.  The  whole  region  was  in- 
vaded by  the  great  northern  ice-sheet,  which 
eroded  and  polished  the  rock  surfaces  and  upon 
its  retreat  left  a  heavy  mantle  of  drift  covering 
all  but  the  highest  elevations.  Valuable  ores 
and  minerals  occur  at  numerous  localities.  The 
deposits  of  iron  ores  have  been  of  great  economic 
importance,  although  in  recent  years  the  indus- 
try has  suffered  from  competition  with  the  Lake 
Superior  and  Pennsylvania  ores,  which  can  be 
extracted  at  much  less  expense.     The  mines  of 


ADIRONDACK  PARK —  ADJUTANT 


magnetite  ore  near  Port  Henry  yield  a  large 
annual  output,  which  is  shipped  to  distant  points 
for  smelting.  There  are  also  deposits  at  Lyon 
Mountain,  Lake  Sanford,  and  Benson  Mines, 
and  other  localities,  which  are  not  exploited  at 
present.  One  of  the  richest  graphite  mines  in 
the  United  States  is  located  at  Hague  on  Lake 
George.  Garnet  for  abrasive  purposes  is  mined 
in  large  quantities  at  North  River,  while  ex- 
tensive deposits  of  foliated  talc  occur  near  Gou- 
verneur.  Marble,  granite,  and  other  stones  suit- 
able for  building  and  other  purposes,  are  the 
basis  of  a  large  quarry  industry. 

Forests. —  Pine,  spruce,  and  hard  woods  are 
found  over  extensive  areas.  The  mountains 
have  been  denuded  of  much  of  the  larger  tim- 
ber, and  the  principal  lumbering  industry  is 
based  upon  the  cutting  of  pulp-wood  for  paper 
manufacture.  Spruce  and  poplar  are  most  valu- 
able for  this  purpose.  The  wholesale  destruc- 
tion of  the  forests  has  induced  th;  State  govern- 
ment to  purchase  extensive  tracts  with  a 
view  to  forest-cultivation  and  to  preserve  the 
sources  of  the  principal  rivers.  (See  Adiron- 
dack Park.) 

Game. —  The  Adirondacks  are  one  of  the  fa- 
vorite hunting-grounds  of  America.  Owing  to 
the  stringent  legal  restrictions  limiting  the  sea- 
son for  killing  game,  there  is  an  abundance  of 
deer,  rabbits,  partridge  (grouse),  and  water- 
fowl. Deer  are  hunted  chiefly  by  stalking,  the 
use  of  dogs  being  prohibited.  Black  bear  and 
wildcats  may  be  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
mountains,  but  moose  and  caribou,  which  for- 
merly were  plentiful,  have  entirely  disappeared. 
Several  moose  were  introduced  from  other 
States  in  1902  with  the  hope  that  they  might 
again  roam  through  the  woods  in  numbers. 
Brook  and  lake  trout  and  black  bass  are  found 
in  most  of  the  streams  and  lakes  and  furnish  ex- 
cellent sport  for  the  angler. 

Resorts. —  The  climate  of  the  mountains  is 
bracing  and  healthful;  in  the  summer  season  the 
heat  is  tempered  by  cool  mountain  breezes  and 
by  the  elevation,  and  the  severe  cold  of  winter 
is  made  more  endurable  by  the  dry  atmosphere. 
There  are  many  sanitariums  for  invalids,  espe- 
cially for  those  afflicted  with  pulmonary  diseases. 
The  pleasure-seekers,  who  visit  the  mountains  in 
great  numbers,  find  ample  accommodations  in 
the  many  hotels  and  camps.  The  railway  lines 
afford  easy  access  to  most  parts  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks, while  by  taking  advantage  of  the  network 
of  rivers  and  lakes  the  most  remote  regions  can 
be  reached  without  much  difficulty.  During  the 
summer  months  steamboats  make  regular  trips 
for  the  convenience  of  travelers  on  many  of  the 
lr.rger  lakes.     See  New  York  (State). 

Adirondack  Park,  a  large  district,  prin- 
cipally forest  land,  set  apart  by  the  State  of 
New  York  in  1892  for  the  protection  of  the 
watershed  of  the  Hudson  and  other  rivers  of 
the  State,  for  public  recreation,  and  for  the  prac- 
tical study  of  forestry.  (See  Cornell  Univer- 
sity.) It  covers  Hamilton  County,  and  parts 
of  Essex,  Franklin.  Herkimer,  and  St.  Law- 
rence counties,  and  contains  many  mountain- 
and  lakes.  From  time  to  time  additions  are 
made  to  the  reservations,  as  the  appropriation  - 
are  available,  and  it  is  hoped  that  in  time  the 
whole  region  not  under  cultivation  for  crop;;, 
will  be  under  State  control,  and  while  saved  for 
the  use  of  the  people,  will  become  a  source  of 


revenue  to  the  State  from  the   forestry   indus- 
tries. 

Adit  («  approach  »),  an  underground  pas- 
sage with  but  one  opening ;  distinguished  from 
the  tunnel  proper,  which  has  two.  In  military 
use,  the  burrow  by  which  miners  approach  a 
place  they  wish  to  sap.  In  industrial  mining,  a 
gently  sloping  drift,  used  to  drain  a  mine  of 
the  water  coming  into  the  workings  from  the 
top  or  sides,  or  pumped  up  from  below ;  usually 
but  improperly  called  a  tunnel.  When  there  are 
two  adits  at  different  levels,  the  lower  one  is 
termed  the  "deep  adit."  The  greatest  in  the 
United  States  is  the  Sutro  Tunnel,  2,000  feet 
deep  and  20,000  feet  long,  made  in  the  palmy 
days  of  the  Comstock  Lode  near  Virginia  City, 
Nev.,  to  drain  the  mines  along  it. 

Aditi,  ad'e-ti,  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Hindu  Rig-Vedas,  Infinity  endued  with  life  and 
form,  from  which  are  born  the  Adityas  —  the 
source  and  substratum  of  the  universe ;  in  later 
Vedic  literature,  the  mother  of  the  gods  of 
storms  (which  are  represented  as  life-produ- 
cing), and  of  the  sun.  Aditi  is  the  daughter  of 
Daksha  and  wife  of  Kasyapa,  and  besides  being 
the  mother  of  the  33  gods  and  of  the  sun,  was 
also  the  mother  of  the  Tushitas,  or  the  12  Adi- 
tyas. The  latter  in  the  Vedic  literature  num- 
bered seven  and  are  the  gods  of  the  heavenly 
light,  with  Varuna  at  their  head.  In  the  Brah- 
manas  and  later  they  numbered  12.  with  sup- 
posed reference  to  the  months  of  the  year. 

Adive,  a  local  Asiatic  name  of  the  corsac 
(q-v.). 

Adjective.   See  Grammar.  , 

Adjustment,  in  insurance,  is  the  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  a  loss.  No  specific  form  is 
necessary  to  an  adjustment.  It  must  be  in- 
tended and  understood  by  the  parties  to  a  policy 
to  be  absolute  and  final,  in  order  to  render  it 
binding.  It  may  be  made  by  indorsement  on 
the  policy,  by  payment  of  the  loss,  or  by  the 
acceptance  of  an  abandonment.  (4  Burr.  1906;  1 
Camp.  134;  22  Pick.  (Mass.)  191.)  If  an  adjust- 
ment is  brought  about  by  the  fraudulent  con- 
duct of  one  of  the  parties,  it  will  not  bind  the 
other  person.  (2  Johns.  Cas.  233 ;  3  Camp. 
319.)  If  one  party  is  led  into  a  material  mis- 
take of  fact  by  fault  of  the  other,  the  adjustment 
will  not  bind  him.  (2  Johns.  (N.  Y.)  157; 
2  Johns.  Cas.  233.) 

Adjutant  ('(assistant"),  in  the  armies  of 
most  chilized  powers,  a  staff  officer,  the  chief 
assistant  to  the  commander  of  a  regiment,  bat- 
talion, or  squadron,  in  the  drill  and  discipline 
of  the  troops,  and  their  general  management  off 
the  battlefield,  and  in  such  other  duties  as  fall 
to  the  commander's  charge.  In  the  United  States 
army  he  is  appointed  by  the  colonel  for  four 
years,  has  the  rank  of  captain,  and  is  not  eli- 
gible to  reappointment;  he  is  the  colonel's  sec- 
retary, and  is  generally  so  indispensable  that 
in.  time  of  war  ambitious  men  often  dreaded  the 
appointment,  as  death  to  further  promotion. 
The  squadron  and  battalion  adjutants  rank  as 
lieutenants,  are  similarly  appointed  for  two  years, 
and  have  the  same  relation  to  their  chiefs ;  there 
are  also  post,  garrison,  and  brigade  adjutants. 
For  further  details  see  the  <  U.  S.  Army  Regis- 
ter.) 


ADJUTANT  — ADMINISTRATION 


Adjutant,  a    large    stork    (Leptoptilus    ar- 

gala)  found  in  India  and  southeastern  Asia,  and 
so  called  by  the  English  on  account  of  its  erect, 
officer-like  appearance.  Its  Hindu  name  is 
«argala.»  Its  height  is  about  5  feet,  its  spread 
of  wings  about  14  feet.  The  back  and  wings 
are  slate-colored,  the  bare,  flesh-colored  head 
anil  neck  are  marked  with  black,  and  elsewhere 
it  is  white.  The  beautiful  «  maribou  »  feathers 
of  commerce  are  taken  from  the  tinder  side  of 
the  wings.  A  pouch,  which  probably  serves 
some  purpose  in  connection  with  the  organs  of 
breathing,  hangs  from  the  under  part  of  the 
neck  and  is  capable  of  great  distension.  The 
bill  is  of  great  size,  and  the  appetite  of  the  .bird 
is  correspondingly  large.  It  is  a  scavenger,  its 
food  being  carrion,  offal,  and  small  live  animals, 
and  it  runs  freely  about  Indian  villages,  pro- 
tected  for  its  useful  works.  The  marabou 
(q.v.)  of  Africa  is  a  closely  related  species. 

Adjutant-General,  an  officer  on  the  staff  of 
the  commander-in-chief,  his  secretary  and  prin- 
cipal assistant  in  issuing  orders  and  supervising 
their  execution,  making  reports  and  keeping 
registers,  etc. ;  and  having  general  charge  of  the 
drill  and  discipline  of  an  army.  In  the  United 
States  he  ranks  as  major-general  and  is  a  lead- 
ing officer  in  the  War  Department ;  he  has 
charge  of  the  recruiting  service,  collection  of 
military  information,  and  preparing  annual  mili- 
tia returns.  Most  of  the  States  have  an  adju- 
tant-general, similarly  related  to  their  militia. 

Adler,  Cyrus,  iid'ler,  librarian  and  archae- 
ologist :  b.  Van  Buren,  Ark.,  13  Sept.  1863.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
in  1883,  and  took  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in  1887  at 
Johns  Hopkins,  where  for  several  years  he  was 
instructor  in  Semitic  languages.  Since  1892  he 
has  been  librarian  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion ;  special  commissioner  of  World's  Fair  to 
Turkey,  Egypt,  Tunis,  Algiers,  and  Morocco; 
President  of  the  American  Jewish  Historical  So- 
ciety, and  member  of  numerous  learned  societies. 
He  is  the  author  of  numerous  articles  on  Ori- 
ental archaeology,  Assyriology,  Semitic  philology, 
comparative  religion,  and  bibliography :  and  one 
of  the  editors  of  the  <  Jewish  Encyclopaedia. > 

Adler,  Felix,  American  lecturer  and  schol- 
ar:  b.  Al/ey,  Germany,  13  Aug.  185 1,  son  of 
an  eminent  Jewish  rabbi.  In  1857  he  emigrated 
tn  the  United  States,  in  which  country  and  at 
Berlin  ami  Heidelberg  he  was  educated. 
After  being  for  some  time  professor  of  He- 
brew ami  Oriental  literature  at  Cornell  he 
founded  in  New  York  (1876)  the  Society  for 
Ethical  Culture,  of  which  he  is  lecturer.  Simi- 
lar societies  have  been  established  elsewhere 
in  the  United  States  and  in  other  countries.  He 
1^  an  effective  writer  and  speaker.  He  has  pub- 
lished 'Creed  and  Deed'  (1878.);  'The  Moral 
Instruction  of  Children'  (1892).  In  June  1902 
he  was  called  to  the  newly  ereated  professor- 
ship of  social  and  political  ethics  in  the  depart- 
ment of  philosophy  in  Columbia  University. 

Adler,  George  J.,  German-American  phi- 
lologist: b.  Germany,  [821  ;  d.  1868.  He  came  to 
New  York  1833;  graduated  at  the  University  of 

the   City   nf    New    York    1S44,   and    from    1846-54 
was  professor  of  German  there.     He  publ 
a  valuable   'German-English   Dictionary'    1 
many  editions   since),   still    very   useful    for   its 


careful  discrimination  of  synonyms;  'German 
Grammar  1  1  X.  Y.  1868)  ;  <  Wilhclm  von  Hum- 
boldt's Linguistic  Studies)  (N.  Y.  1808).  and 
translated  Fauriel's  'History  of  Provencal  Fo- 
etry.> 

Adler,  Hermann,  Anglo-Jewish  leader : 
b.  in  Hanover,  29  May  1839.  He  has  lived  most 
of  his  life  in  England,  where  he  has  held  many 
positions  of  high  trust  connected  with  his  race, 
having  been  since  1891  chief  rabbi  of  the  Brit- 
ish Empire,  and  has  been  active  in  general  be- 
nevolence. He  was  principal  of  the  Jews'  Col- 
lege, London,  1863-91,  and  as  chief  rabbi  be- 
came its  president.  Besides  sermons.  lectures, 
etc.,  he  has  written  <  The  Jews  in  England  • ; 
<The  Chief  Rabbis  of  England'  ;  <  Ibn  Gabirol, 
the  Poet  Philosopher,)  etc. 

Adler,    Nathan    Marcus,    German-Jewish 

leader:  b.  Hanover.  1803;  d.  1890.  Educated  at 
Gottingen,  Erlangen,  and  Wiirzburg,  he  became 
chief  rabbi  of  Oldenburg  1830,  of  Hanover  and 
the  provinces  1831  ;  and  of  the  British  Empire 
1845.  He  was  a  chief  organizer  of  schools  for 
Jews  in  England,  assisted  Sir  Moses  Montefiore 
in  raising  the  £20.000  fund  for  Palestine,  was  co- 
founder  of  the  United  Synagogue  (association  of 
the  leading  synagogues),  and  founder  and  first 
president  of  the  Jews'  College.  He  published 
several  volumes  of  sermons  and  a  commentary 
on  the  Targum. 

Administration,  in  law,  the  management  of 
the  personal  estate  of  anyone  dying  intestate  or 
without  an  executor.  If  the  deceased  leaves 
real  estate,  the  estate  devolves  upon  heirs  related 
by  blood ;  if  personal  property  is  left  and  no 
executors  named,  administrators  are  appointed 
by  some  court. 

In  the  United  States  a  surrogate  or  judge 
of  probate  appoints  the  administrator,  and 
grants  letters  of  administration.  The  adminis- 
trator is  a  trustee  within  the  jurisdiction  of  a 
court  of  equity  as  well  as  of  a  court  of  pro- 
bate. His  duties  are  to  inventory  the  estate, 
collect  accounts  due,  pay  all  debts,  and  distribute 
the  remainder  among  those  entitled  to  it.  In 
England  the  power  of  such  appointment  was 
vested  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts  until  1857, 
when  it  was  transferred  to  a  court  of  probate. 
The  personal  property  of  a  decedent  is  appropri- 
ated to  the  payment  of  his  debts  so  far  as  re- 
quired, and  until  exhausted  must  first  be  resort- 
ed to  by  creditors ;  but  by  certain  statutes, 
courts  may  grant  an  administrator  power  to  sell, 
lease,  or  mortgage  real  estate  when  the  p  'rsonal 
estate  01  the  deceased  is  not  sufficient  to  p;  y  his 
debt:.  At  common  law  the  real  estate  of  an  in- 
testate goes  to  his  heirs;  the  personal  to  his  ad- 
ministrator. The  fundamental  rule  is  that  all 
jusl  debts  shall  be  paid  before  any  further  dis- 
position of  the  property. 

Ancillary  Administration. —  That  which  is 
subordinate  to  the  principal  administration,  for 
collecting  the  assets  of  foreigners.  It  is  taken 
out  in  the  country  where  the  assets  are  locally 
situate. 

Of  Estates. —  The  term  is  applied  broadly  to 
denote  the  management  of  an  estate  by  an  execu- 
tor, and  also  the  management  of  the  estates  of 
minors,  lunatics,  etc..  in  those  cases  where  trus- 
tees have  been  appointed  by  authority  of  law  to 
take  charge  of  such  estates  in  place  of  the  legal 
owners. 


ADMIRABLE   CRICHTON  — ADMIRALTY   LAW 


Foreign  Administration. —  That  which  is  ex- 
ercised by  virtue  of  authority  properly  conferred 
by  a  foreign  power.  In  England  and  in  the 
United  States  the  general  rule  is  that  letters 
granted  abroad  give  no  authority  to  sue  or  to  be 
sued  in  another  jurisdiction,  though  they  may  be 
ground  for  new  probate  authority.  Consequently, 
when  persons  are  domiciled  and  die  in  one  coun- 
try, as  A.  and  have  personal  property  in  another, 
as  B,  the  authority  must  be  had  in  B,  but  exer- 
cised according  to  the  laws  of  A.  (Story  Confl. 
Laws,  23,  447.)  There  is  no  legal  priority  be- 
tween administrators  in  different  States.  The 
principal  administrator  is  to  act  in  the  intes- 
tate's domicile,  and  the  ancillary  is  to  collect 
claims  and  pay  debts  in  the  foreign  jurisdiction 
and  pay  over  the  surplus  to  his  principal.  (2 
Mete.  (Mass.)  114;  3  Day.  74.)  But  some 
courts  hold  that  the  probate  of  a  will  in  a  for- 
eign State,  if  duly  authenticated,  dispenses  with 
the  necessity  of  taking  out  new  letters  in  their 
State.  So  it  has  been  held  that  possession  of 
property  may  be  taken  in  a  foreign  State,  but  a 
suit  cannot  be  brought  without  taking  out  letters 
in  that  State. 

Public  Administration. —  That  which  the  pub- 
lic administrator  performs.  This  happens  in 
many  of  the  States  by  statute  in  those  cases 
where  persons  die  intestate,  without  leaving  any- 
one who  is  entitled  to  apply  for  letters  of  ad- 
ministration. 

Jurisdiction  over  administrations  is  in  Eng- 
land lodged  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  these 
courts  delegate  the  power  of  administering  by 
letters  of  administration.  In  the  United  States 
administration  is  a  subject  charged  upon  courts 
of  civil  jurisdiction.  A  perplexing  multiplicity 
of  statutes  defines  the  powers  of  such  courts  in 
the  various  States  of  the  Union.  The  public 
officer  authorized  to  delegate  the  trust  is  called 
surrogate,  judge  of  probate,  registrar  of  wills, 
etc.  As  to  surrogate  courts  and  proceedings 
therein  in  the  State  of  New  York,  see  the 
Code  of  Civil  Procedure  (Chase's  ed.  1902.  ch. 
18).  The  death  of  the  intestate  must  have  taken 
place  or  the  court  will  have  no  jurisdiction.  A 
decree  of  the  court  is  prima  facie  evidence  of  his 
death  and  puts  the  burden  of  disproof  upon  the 
party  pleading  in  abatement.  26  Barb.  383.  The 
formalities  and  requisites  in  regard  to  valid  ap- 
pointments, and  rules  as  to  notice,  defective 
proceedings,  etc.,  are  different  in  the  various 
States. 

In  Politics,  the  word  is  applied  to  the  collec- 
tive body  of  governmental  officers  exercising  au- 
thority as  an  executive  power  ;  in  this  sense  being 
the  equivalent  of  the  term  government;  as.  the 
bill  was  an  Administration  (or  government) 
measure.  It  is  also  applied  to  a  political  term 
of  office ;  as,  during  the  Roosevelt  administration. 

Admirable  Crichton,  cre'ton,  (N.  Irish 
Cri'ton).    See  Crichton,  James. 

Admiral  (Arabic  aimr-al  or  emir-al,  «  com- 
mander of  the  » — whatever  follows  it),  the  high- 
est rank  of  naval  officer.  The  first  English  ad- 
miral was  William  de  Leybourne  (1286).  His 
duties  corresponded  to  those  afterward  vested  in 
the  lord  high  admiral;  viz..  the  administrative 
oowers  now  delegated  to  the  lords  commissioners 
of  the  admiralty.  In  Great  Britain  there  were 
formerly  three  grades  of  admirals,  commanding 
subdivisions    known  as  the  red,  the  white,  and 


the  blue,  from  the  colors  of  their  flags;  but  this 
di-tinction  is  now  abolished.  The  last  lord  high 
admiral  was  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  afterward 
William  IY\  In  the  British  navy  admirals  are 
classified  as  admirals,  vice-admirals,  and  rear- 
admirals,  ranking  respectively  with  generals, 
lieutenant-generals,  and  major-generals.  These 
distinctions  were  adopted  in  the  United  States 
navy  during  the  Civil  War;  the  rank  of  rear- 
admiral  being  established  in  1862,  vice-admiral 
in  1864.  and  admiral  in  1866,  all  created  for  Far- 
ragut.  David  D.  Porter  succeeded  in  the  titles 
of  vice-admiral  and  admiral,  both  of  which 
grades  were  abolished  at  his  death  (1891).  In 
1899  the  title  wras  recreated  in  the  United  States 
navy,  and  conferred  upon  George  Dewey.  In 
1882  Congress  reduced  the  number  of  rear- 
admirals  from  10  to  6,  and  in  1809  increased  it 
to  18,  comprising  two  classes  of  9  each :  the 
first  corresponding  in  rank  to  major-generals  in 
the  army,  and  the  second  to  brigadier-generals. 
See  Navy  of  the  United  States. 

Admiral.  (1)  In  entomology,  a  nymph- 
alid  butterfly. —  any  one  of  several  species,  as 
the  red  admiral  (Pyrameis  atatanta).  and  the 
white  admirals  of  the  genus  Basiiarchia.  (2) 
In  conchology,  one  of  the  cones  {Conns  am- 
miralis).     See  Cone-Shell. 

Admiralty  Inlet,  a  narrow  body  of  water 
connecting  Puget  Sound  with  the  Strait  of 
Juan  de  Fuca. 

Admiralty  Island,  a  mountainous  island, 
90  m.  long,  off  the  W.  coast  of  Alaska,  to 
the  N.E.  of  Sitka;  belongs  to  the  United 
States. 

Admiralty  Islands,  a  group  of  40  islands, 
to  the  N.E.  of  New  Guinea;  Basco,  the  largest 
of  them,  being  60  m.  in  length,  mountain- 
ous, but  fruitful.  The  total  area  of  the  islands 
is  878  square  miles.  They  were  discovered  by 
Schouten  in  1616.  Carteret  named  them  in  1767. 
Some  are  volcanic ;  others  are  coral  islands. 
They  abound  in  cocoanut-trees  and  are  inhabited 
by  a  race  of  tawny,  frizzle-headed  savages  of 
the  Papuan  stock,  about  800  in  number.  To- 
gether with  New  Britain  and  some  adjoining 
groups  they  were  annexed  by  Germany  in  1S85, 
and  now  form  part  of  the  Bismarck  Archipelago. 

Admiralty  Law,  the  system  of  jurispru- 
dence administered  by  admiralty  courts. 

In  American  law,  a  tribunal  exercising  juris- 
diction over  all  maritime  torts,  contracts,  injuries, 
or  offenses.  Its  civil  jurisdiction  extends  to 
cases  of  salvage,  bonds  of  bottomry  or  hypothe- 
cation of  ship  and  cargo,  seamen's  wages,  seiz- 
ures under  the  laws  of  impost,  navigation,  or 
trade,  cases  of  prize  or  ransom,  charter-parties, 
contracts  of  affreightment  between  different 
States  or  foreign  ports,  contracts  for  conveyance 
of  passengers,  contracts  with  material-men.  jet- 
tisons, maritime  contributions,  and  averages,  and 
generally  to  all  assaults  and  batteries,  dam- 
ages, and  trespasses,  taking  place  on  the  high  seas. 
Its  criminal  jurisdiction  extends  to  all  crimes 
and  offenses  committed  on  the  high  seas  or  be- 
yond the  jurisdiction  of  any  country.  A  suit  is 
commenced  in  admiralty  by  filing  a  libel,  upon 
which  a  warrant  is  issued  for  the  arrest  of  the 
person,  or  attachment  of  his  property  if  he 
cannot  be  found,  or  a  simple  monition  to  appear : 
or,  in  a  proceeding  in  rem.  a  warrant  is  issued 
for  the  arrest  of  the  thing  in  question. 


ADMISSION  —  AUOLPHUS 


Admission.  In  practice,  the  act  by  which 
attorneys  and  counsellors  become  recognized  as 
officers  of  the  court  and  are  allowed  to  practise. 
In  corporations  or  companies,  the  act  of  a 
corporation  or  company  by  which  an  individual 
acquires  the  right  of  a  member  of  such  cor- 
poration or  company.  In  trading  and  joint-stock 
companies  no  vote  of  admission  is  requisite,  for 
any  person  who  owns  stock  therein,  either  by 
original  subscription  or  conveyance,  is  in  general 
entitled  to,  and  cannot  be  refused,  the  rights  and 
privileges  of  a  member.  Nothing  more  can  be 
required  of  a  person  demanding  a  transfer  on 
the  books  than  that  he  prove  to  the  corporation 
his  right  to  the  stock. 

In  evidence,  a  concession  or  voluntary  ac- 
knowledgment made  by  a  party  of  the  existence 
of  certain  things  or  conditions,  or  of  the  truth 
of  certain  statements.  The  admissions  or  declar- 
ations of  a  party  in  respect  to  the  subject-matter 
of  an  action  at  law  or  suit  in  equity,  may  always 
be  given  in  evidence  against  him.  As  distin- 
guished from  confessions,  the  term  is  applied  to 
civil  transactions,  and  to  matters  of  fact  in  crim- 
inal cases  where  there  is  no  criminal  intent. 
Express  or  direct  admissions  are  those  which 
are  made  in  direct  terms.  Incidental  admissions 
are  those  made  in  some  other  connection,  or 
involved  in  the  admission  of  some  other  fact. 
Implied  admissions  are  those  which  result  from 
some  act  or  failure  to  act  of  the  party.  To 
be  considered  as  evidence,  admissions  may 
be  made  by  a  party  to  the  record  or  one  identi- 
fied in  interest  with  him,  but  not  where  the 
party  of  record  is  only  a  nominal  party  and 
has  no  active  interest  in  the  action. 

Adobe,  a-do'ba  (Sp.,  from  adobar,  to  daub 
or  plaster),  colloquially  "dobie"  :  sun-dried 
bricks,  from  any  native  clays ;  especially  those 
made  in  the  arid  western  and  southwestern  re- 
gions of  the  United  States,  as  in  the  Great  Basin, 
Arizona,  New  Mexico,  etc.,  by  molding  the  bricks 
and  then  turning  the  sides  alternately  to  the  sun 
day  by  day  for  a  week  or  two,  stacking  up  for 
use  when  sufficiently  baked.  These,  however, 
are  the  resource  only  of  people  in  an  inferior 
state  of  civilization,  as  the  rain  soon  dissolves 
them  into  streams  of  mud;  hence  also  they  are 
impossible  at  all  save  where  rain  is  very  infre- 
quent. The  sizes  are  usually  two,  18x9x4  and 
16x12x4,  the  larger  ones  in  the  best  building 
used  as  headers  (the  greatest  length  crosswise 
to  the  wall)  and  the  others  as  stretchers  (length- 
wise). The  earliest  building  material  in  Assyria 
and  Egypt  was  adobe,  usually  strengthened  with 
straw,  and  it  is  still  much  used  in  Japan  and 
China.  Adobe  soils  are  clay  soils  very  plastic 
when  wet,  but  too  hard  for  cultivation  when 
dry:  they  arc  lightened  by  plowing  in  sand  or 
sandy  loam,  and  are  often  very  fertile. 

Adolescence,  the  period  of  human  de- 
velopment which  extends  from  puberty  to  men- 
tal and  physical  maturity.  Clouston  restricts 
puberty  to  the  "initial  development  of  the  func- 
tion of  reproduction";  while,  by  adolescence,  he 
denotes  "the  whole  period  of  12  years  [about 
J3-25]  from  the  first  appearance  up  to  the  full 
perfection  of  the  reproductive  energy.*'  The 
period  of  adolescence  is  characterized  by  impor- 
tant anatomical,  physiological,  and  mental 
changes  which  attend  the  development  and  the 
ripening  of  the  adult  individual.  The  first  ap- 
pearance of  the   reproductive   functions,  at  pu- 


berty, is  followed  by  a  long  process  of  gradual 
change  during  which  the  secondary  sexual  char- 
acteristics are  matured  and  during  which,  also, 
general  nervous  functions  are  profoundly  modi- 
fied. The  progress  of  adolescence  depends 
somewhat  upon  sex  —  the  female  maturing 
slightly  faster  than  the  male  —  and  upon  racial 
and  social  conditions. 

The  mind  of  the  youth,  especially  in  the 
latter  half  of  adolescence,  discovers  new  in- 
stincts, new  impulses,  new  powers  of  imagina- 
tion and  of  sensibility.  Along  with  the  dawn- 
ing consciousness  of  sex,  come  strong  emotions 
and  desires  and  a  sense  of  novel  relations  and 
untried  responsibilities.  "The  adolescent  feels 
instinctively  that  he  has  now  entered  a  new 
country,  the  face  of  which  he  does  not  know, 
but  yet  that  is  full  of  possibilities  of  good  and 
happiness  for  him."  Ideals  are  formed,  roman- 
tic situations  imagined,  and  adventures  planned. 
The  feelings  are  unstable  and  are  apt  to  fluc- 
tuate between  excitement  and  depression.  The 
boy  is  likely  to  develop  a  pronounced  egotism, 
a  longing  for  action,  and  a  desire  to  impress 
persons  of  the  opposite  sex.  The  girl  displays 
equally  characteristic  traits;  such  as  sentimen- 
tality, coyness,  self-sacrifice,  and  a  craving  for 
admiration.  It  should  be  remarked,  however, 
that  the  adolescent  consciousness  is  subject  to 
wide  individual  variations.  It  is  during  this 
stage  that  individuality  comes  into  prominence; 
for  it  is  then  that  those  hereditary  tendencies 
which  underlie  temperament  and  character  are 
fully  realized.  As  a  result,  the  youth  attains 
not  only  a  general  sexual  maturity  but  a  definite 
personality   as   well. 

But  "bad"  as  well  as  "good*  inheritance 
comes  to  light  during  adolescence;  and,  since 
it  finds  the  developing  organism  in  an  exceed- 
ingly unstable  equilibrium,  the  result  is  not  in- 
frequently physical  and  mental  derangement. 
Various  mental  diseases  —  particularly  mania 
and  hysteria,  which  are  marked  by  wide  emo- 
tional disturbances  —  frequently  appear  during 
the  latter  half  of  the_  adolescent  years  (20-25). 
Some  alienists  recognize  a  distinct  type  of  "ado- 
lescent insanity." 

Consult:  G.  S.  Hall,  'Adolescence'  (1004); 
Clouston,  T.  S.,  'The  Neuroses  of  Develop- 
ment' (1801)  ;  'Mental  Diseases'  (5th  ed. 
1898),  Lecture  xvi. 

Adolf  of  Nassau.  See  Adolphus  of  Nas- 
sau. 

Adolphus,  or  Adolf,  of  Nassau,  Emperor 
of  Germany:  b.  about  1250;  d.  2  July  1298.  He 
was  elected  emperor  1  May  1292,  and  was 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  25  June  in  the  same 
year.  He  owed  his  election  in  part  to  intrigues 
with  the  electors  of  Cologne  and  Mainz,  who 
imposed  on  him  the  hardest  conditions ;  but,  re- 
fusing to  fulfil  them,  he  soon  saw  himself  hated 
and  deserted.  Urged  by  want  of  money,  he 
took  £100,000  sterling  from  Edward  I.  of  Eng- 
land to  assist  him  against  Philip  the  Fair  of 
France;  but  obeyed  the  Pope's  prohibition  with 
alacrity.  He  thus  made  himself  contemptible 
to  the  German  princes,  and  became  still  more 
odious  by  taking  advantage  of  the  hatred  of 
Albert,  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  against  his  sons, 
and  purchasing  this  territory  from  him.  This 
involved  him  in  a  fruitless  five-years  war  to 
subjugate  his  purchase.  Disgusted,  and  urged 
on  by  Albert  of  Austria,   the   majority   of  the 


ADONAI  —  ADOPTION 


college  of  electors  cited  Adolphus  before  it ;  he 
failing  to  appear,  the  throne  was  declared  vacant 
23  June  1298,  and  Albert  of  Austria  was  elected. 
A  war  already  existed  between  the  rivals,  in 
which  Adolphus  seemed  superior  until  he  was 
outmanoeuvred  and  surrounded  at  Gallheim,  and 
fell  by  Albert's  own  hand. 

Adonai,  a-do'n.u,  a  Hebrew  name  for  the 
Supreme  Being ;  a  plural  form  of  Adon,  « lord.» 
combined  with  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person. 
In  reading  the  Scriptures  aloud,  the  Jews  pro- 
nounce « Adonai »  wherever  the  old  name 
« Jhvh »  is  found  in  the  text ;  and  the  name 
«  Jehovah  »  has  arisen  out  of  the  consonants  of 
«  Jhvh  »  with  the  vowel  points  of  Adonai. 

Adonijah,  the  fourth  son  of  King  David, 
by  Haggith.  His  claim  to  the  throne  was  best 
after  Absalom's  death,  and  the  chief  commander 
Joab  and  the  high-priest  Abiathar  supported 
him;  but  the  captain  of  the  body-guard  Benaiah, 
the  priest  Zadok,  the  prophet  Nathan,  and 
Solomon's  mother  Bathsheba,  induced  the  old 
king  David  to  make  Solomon  associate  at  once. 
Adonijah  fled  to  the  tabernacle  for  protection; 
but  after  the  death  of  David  he  was  slain  by 
order  of  Solomon  on  the  pretext  that  his  re- 
quest for  a  concubine  of  David's  was  a  claim 
to  the  throne. 

Adonis,  a-do'nis,  in  Greek  legend,  son 
of  Myrrha,  daughter  of  Cinyras  king  of 
Cyprus ;  born  in  Arabia.  Before  the  birth 
of  her  son  she  was  transformed  into  the  tree 
which  produces  the  fragrant  gum  called  by  her 
name ;  this,  however,  did  not  hinder  his  being 
brought  into  the  world  in  due  season.  He  grew 
up  a  model  of  manly  beauty  and  was  passion- 
ately beloved  by  Aphrodite  (Venus),  who  quit- 
ted Olympus  to  dwell  with  him.  Hunting  was 
his  favorite  pursuit,  until,  having  gone  to  the 
chase  against  the  entreaties  of  his  mistress,  he 
was  mortally  wounded  in  the  thigh  by  a  wild 
boar.  Venus,  coming  too  late  to  his  rescue, 
changed  his  blood  into  flowers.  After  death 
he  was  said  to  stand  as  high  in  the  favor  of 
Persephone  (Proserpine)  as  before  in  that  of 
Aphrodite ;  but,  the  latter  being  inconsolable, 
her  rival  generously  consented  that  Adonis 
should  spend  half  the  year  with  his  celestial, 
half  with  his  infernal  mistress.  This  is  a  highly 
decorated  form :  the  simpler  and  older  myth 
seems  to  have  been  that  Aphrodite  and  Perse- 
phone contested  the  beautiful  child's  possession, 
and  Zeus  ordered  that  he  should  spend  four 
months  with  each  and  four  as  he  chose.  The 
fable  has  been  variously  interpreted.  The  al- 
ternate abode  of  Adonis  above  and  under  the 
earth  is  typical  of  the  burial  of  seed,  which  in 
due  season  rises  above  ground  for  the  propaga- 
tion of  its  species.  How  much  of  the  myth 
was  cause  and  how  much  result  of  the  famous 
Greek  woman's  festival,  the  Adonia,  cannot 
be  said.  This  represented  the  union  of  Adonis 
and  Aphrodite  on  one  day  and  the  sorrow  over 
his  death  the  other,  and  the  women  performed 
the  funeral  rites  over  small  images  of  him ; 
also  planting  quick-growing  herbs  like  fennel 
and  lettuce  in  shards  filled  with  earth,  and 
throwing  them  into  springs  after  the  burial. 
It  was  a  worship  of  the  reproductive  principle 
of  plants,  which  after  a  short  life  die  and  are 
buried  and  again  spring  up ;  naturally,  it  was 
involved   with   the   grossnesses   of  phallic   wor- 


ship, for  which  all  growth-cults  tended  to  be  an 
excuse.  The  name  is  Semitic,  adon,  «  lord,"  — 
though  of  course  all  the  local  gods  were  «  adons  » 
of  the  place, —  and  the  cult  was  widespread  in 
the  East ;  in  Phoenicia  the  Adon  was  termed 
Thammuz,  « the  hidden."  The  Greek  celebra- 
tion was  often  performed  by  the  priestesses  of 
Aphrodite,  courtesans ;  but  Theocritus'  charm- 
ing Idyl  XV.  shows  that  in  his  time  at  least  it 
was  perfectly  respectable  for  decent  women  to 
attend. 

Adonis,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rannnculacea:,  or  crowfoot  family.  The 
genus  is  a  native  of  Europe,  and  only  a  single 
species,  A.  autumnalis,  the  « pheasant's  eye » 
of  the  flower-garden,  is  shown  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  a  low  leafy  annual  with  scarlet  or 
crimson  flowers,  darker  in  the  centre.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  stained  with  the  blood  of 
Adonis. 

Adoptian  Controversy,  The,  one  which 
arose  in  Spain  toward  the  end  of  the  8th  cen- 
tury. Its  leaders  were  Felix,  bishop  of  Urgel, 
and  Elipand,  archbishop  of  Toledo ;  they  modi- 
fied the  doctrine  of  Nestorius  (see  Xestorian-- 
ism;  to  the  opinion  that  Christ  was  the  Son 
of  God  only  in  his  divine  nature,  and  in  his 
human  nature  only  so  by  adoption.  It  was 
hoped  that  this  doctrine  would  be  more  accept- 
able to  the  Mohammedans  than  the  orthodox 
view,  and  a  means  toward  their  conversion ; 
and  Elipand  was  a  zealous  missionary  among 
them.  Felix  introduced  it  into  Frankish  Spain, 
and  Charlemagne  called  a  synod  at  Regensburg 
(Ratisbon)  in  792  to  have  him  explain  and 
justify  it.  Instead  he  renounced  it,  confirming 
the  renunciation  by  a  solemn  oath  to  Adrian  I., 
to  whom  the  synod  sent  him ;  yet  on  returning 
to  his  diocese  he  taught  it  as  before.  Another 
synod  was  held  at  Frankfort  in  794,  and  the 
doctrine  was  formally  condemned,  neither  Felix 
nor  any  of  his  followers  attending.  After  some 
controversy  a  commission  of  clergy  was  sent  to 
Spain  to  put  down  the  heresy.  Leidrad,  arch- 
bishop of  Lyons,  one  of  the  commission,  per- 
suaded Felix  to  go  before  a  synod  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  799  and  recant ;  which  after  a 
week's  dispute  with  the  great  Alcuin  he  did, 
and  was  prevented  from  further  relapse  by  being 
kept  under  surveillance  at  Lyons  for  the  rest 
of  his  life,  to  816.  Elipand,  at  Toledo,  main- 
tained his  Adoptian  views  despite  their  ban  by 
the  Church;  but  after  his  death  they  were 
abandoned  by  practically  all.  Occasional  advo- 
cates afterward  arose  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
however,  and  the  question  has  been  discussed 
even  in  modern  times. 

Adoption,  the  act  of  taking  a  stranger 
into  one's  family,  as  a  son  or  daughter ;  or  the 
taking  of  a  person,  a  society,  etc.,  into  more 
intimate  relations  than  formerly  existed  with 
another  person  or  society;  or  the  taking  as  one's 
own,  with  or  without  acknowledgment,  an  opin- 
ion, plan,  etc.,  originating  with  another ;  also 
the  selecting  one  from  several  courses  open  to 
a   person's  choice. 

In  law.  both  ancient  and  modern,  the  act  of 
taking  a  stranger  into  one's  family  constituted 
the  person  so  adopted  one's  heir  tn  nil  intents 
and  purposes.  The  practice  was  common  among 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  is  still  in  use 
among  some  modern  nations. 


ADORATION  —  ADOWA 


A  proceeding  which  so  materially  affects  the 
succession  of  property  and  the  rights  of  natural 
heirs  is  a  very  important  one.  It  is  not  recog- 
nized by  the  common  law  of  England,  and 
exists  only  in  the  United  States  by  special 
statute.  Comparatively  few  of  the  States 
have  engrafted  it  upon  their  systems  of  juris- 
prudence. But  among  many  of  the  Continental 
nations  it  has  been  practised  from  the  remotest 
antiquity.  The  effect  of  adoption  was  to  cast 
the  succession  on  the  adopted  in  case  the  adopt- 
ing father  died  intestate. 

The  statute  in  force  in  the  State  of  Michigan 
is  substantially  similar  to  other  statutes  in  the 
various  States  upon  the  subject.  The  Michigan 
statute  provides,  among  other  things,  that  the 
person  or  persons  so  adopting  such  child  shall 
thereafter  stand  in  the  place  of  a  parent  or 
parents  to  such  « child-in-la\v,»  and  be  liable 
to  all  the  duties,  and  entitled  to  all  of  the  rights, 
of  parents;  and  such  child  shall  thereupon  be- 
come an  heir-at-law  of  such  persons,  the  same 
as  if  he  or  she  were  in  fact  the  child  of  such 
nerson  or  persons. 

Adoption  by  matrimony  is  the  placing  the 
children  of  a  former  marriage  on  the  same 
footing,  with  regard  to  inheritance,  etc.,  as  those 
of   the   present   one. 

Adoption  by  testament  is  the  appointing  of  a 
person  one's  heir  on  condition  of  his  assuming 
the  name,  arms,  etc.,  of  his  benefactor. 

Adoption  by  hair  was  performed  by  cutting 
off  the  hair  of  the  person  adopted  and  giving 
it  to  the  adoptive  father. 

Adoption  by  arms  was  the  presentation  of 
arms  by  a  prince  to  a  brave  man.  These  the 
recipient  was  expected  to  use  for  the  protection 
of  his  benefactor. 

In  heraldry,  arms  of  adoption  are  the  heraldic 
arms  received  when  the  last  representative  of 
an  expiring  aristocratic  family  adopts  a  strangcv 
to  assume  his  armorial  bearings  and  inherit  his 
estates.  The  recipient  may  obtain  permission 
from  parliament  to  take  the  name  of  his  bene- 
factor, either  appended  to,  or  substituted  for, 
his   own. 

In  Scripture  and  theology,  the  act  of  ad- 
mitting one  into  the  family  of  God,  or  the  state 
of  being  so  admitted.  The  previous  position  of 
the  person  adopted  in  this  manner  was  that  of 
a  « servant,*  now  he  is  a  «  son."  an  «  heir  of 
God.»  and  a  « joint  heir  with  Christ. » 

In  ecclesiastical  language,  adoption  by  bap- 
tism is  the  act  of  becoming  godfather  or  god- 
mother to  a  child  about  to  be  baptized.  Unlike 
real  adoption,  however,  this  does  not  constitute 
thf  child  heir  to  its  spiritual  father  or  mother. 

Adoration,  in  unspecialized  modern  usage, 
a  spiritual  homage  to  God ;  but  originally  an 
act  to  express  obedience  and  reverence  per- 
formed before  the  images  of  the  gods.  Among 
the  Romans  it  was  performed  by  raising  the 
hand  to  the  mouth,  kissing  it,  and  then  waving 
it  in  the  direction  of  the  image ;  the  devotee  had 
his  bead  covered  except  before  Saturn  and 
Hercules,  and  after  the  act  turned  himself 
around  from  left  to  right.  Sometimes  he  kissed 
the  feet  or  knees  of  the  images.  This  homage 
was  afterward  transferred  to  the  emperors,  by 
bowing  or  kneeling,  laying  hold  of  the  imperial 
robe,  and  then  pressing  the  hand  to  the  lips. 
The  Oriental  methods  were  of  course  still  more 


abject, —  bending  the  knee,  falling  on  the  face, 
striking  the  earth  with  the  forehead,  and  kissing 
the  ground  or  floor.  Alexander  borrowed  this 
from  the  Persians  and  made  it  a  feature  of  his 
court :  the  rough  Macedonian  Cassander  burst 
into  a  roar  of  laughter  when  he  saw  the  Persian 
grandees  performing  this  kotow  (the  Chinese 
term  for  the  same  act)  before  Alexander,  who 
was  so  enraged  that  he  seized  him  by  his  long 
hair  and  dashed  his  head  against  the  wall.  But 
the  Greeks  considered  it  impious  and  degrading, 
and  the  best  of  them  would  not  bend  to  it: 
Conon  refused  it  to  Artaxcrxes,  and  Callisthenes 
to  Alexander.  The  abject  degradations  which  the 
medixval  far-Eastern  rulers  exacted  from  for- 
eign traders,  by  submitting  to  which  the  Dutch 
purchased  trade  privileges,  though  the  English 
would  not, —  crawling  on  the  face  from  the 
door  to  the  monarch's  seat,  licking  up  the  dust 
as  they  went,  till  the  victim  was  often  unable 
to  speak  when  he  reached  it.  and  could  only 
gasp  with  his  mouth  full  of  dirt, —  are  well 
known.  Milder  forms  in  modern  times,  hardly 
thought  degrading  even  by  the  sturdiest  demo- 
crat, are  kneeling  and  kissing  the  monarch's 
hand ;  and  the  similar  homages  of  lovers  have 
never  been  considered  so.  The  ceremony  of 
kissing  the  cross  embroidered  on  the  Pone's 
slipper  is  a  like  form,  said  to  have  been  bor- 
rowed from  a  similar  ceremony  introduced  by 
the  emperor  Diocletian,  who  greatly  extended 
court  ceremonial.  The  original  signification  of 
the  word  as  an  act  and  not  an  emotion  is 
preserved  in  the  marriage  service  of  the  English 
and  Protestant  Episcopal  Churches.  «  with  my 
body  I  thee  worship.!  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  also,  a  distinction  is  made  between 
latria,  the  worship  due  to  God  alone,  and  dulia 
the  veneration  paid  to  the  Saints,  and  hyper- 
dulm,  that  accorded  to  the  Virgin. 

Adour,  a  river  of  southern  France,  hav- 
ing its  source  in  the  mountain  ridge  of  the 
Tourmalet,  in  the  department  of  Hautes-Pyre- 
nees.  Its  course  is  first  X..  then  W.,  SAY'.,  an<f 
S.S.W.,  passing  St.  Sever  and  Dax,  to  the  for- 
mer of  which  it  is  navigable,  and  falling  into 
the  sea  a  little  below  Bayonne.  flowing  through 
many  exceedingly  fertile  valleys.  Its  whole 
length  is  estimated  at  about  200  miles.  The 
current  is  rapid,  and  sometimes  serious  inunda- 
tions are  caused  by  the  melting  of  the  snows 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees.  At  the  mouth 
of  the  river   there  is  a  shifting  bar. 

Adowa,  or  Adua,  Abyssinia,  capital  of 
Tigre;  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hassam,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Tacazze,  6,000  ft.  above  the  sea, 
about  10  m.  E.  of  Axum.  It  is  the  chief  com- 
mercial depot  on  the  great  caravan  route  from 
Massowah  to  Gondar,  about  no  m.  from  the 
fcrmer.  Though  it  still  carries  on  some  trade 
and  has  manufactures  of  cotton  cloths,  iron,  and 
brass  ware,  owing  to  the  Abyssinian  civil  wars 
it  has  greatly  declined  from  its  former  prosperity 
and  presents  a  rather  miserable  appearance.  The 
inhabitants,  numbering  about  4.000  in  1902,  are 
considered  the  most  civilized  of  the  Abyssinians. 
It  was  here  that  the  Italian  Gen.  Baratieri  was 
defeated  by  the  Negus  Menelek,  1  March  1896, 
when  7,000  men,  250  officers,  and  the  whole  ar- 
tillery were  lost. 


ADRA  —  ADRIAN 


Adra  (the  ancient  Abdera),  a  seaport  of 
southern  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Almeria;  29 
m.  W.S.W.  from  the  town  of  that  name,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Adra,  on  an  eminence  facing 
the  Mediterranean.  The  inhabitants  are  em- 
ployed in  agriculture,  fishing,  distilling  brandy, 
and  manufacturing  lead  from  the  ore  produced 
from  the  extensive  mines  in  the  neighborhood. 
Fop.   (1901)   about  12,000. 

Adragan'thin  (from  adragant,  a  corrupt 
form  of  tragacaiitlic) ,  a  gum,  better  known  as 
bassorin  (q.v.). 

Adrar',  Sahara,  a  district  peopled  by  Ber- 
bers, possessing  camels,  sheep,  and  oxen,  and 
cultivating  dates,  wheat,  barley,  and  melons. 
Chief  towns,  Wadan.  pop.  4,000,  and  Shingit, 
which  has  inexhaustible  beds  of  rock-salt.  The 
region  embraces  about  30.000  square  miles  and 
since  1892  is  a  part  of  the  French  possessions. 

Adrastus,  in  Greek  legend,  king  of  Argos, 
son  of  Talaus  and  Lysimache.  Polynices,  being 
banished  from  Thebes  by  his  brother  Eteocles, 
flod  to  Argos,  where  he  married  Argia,  daughter 
of  Adrastus.  The  king  assisted  his  son-in-law, 
and  marched  against  Thebes  with  an  army  led 
by  seven  of  his  most  famous  generals.  All  per- 
ished in  the  war  except  Adrastus.  who,  with  a 
few  men  saved  from  slaughter,  fled  to  Athens 
and  implored  the  aid  of  Theseus  against  the  The- 
bans,  who  opposed  the  burying  of  the  Argives 
fallen  in  battle.  Theseus  went  to  his  assistance 
and  was  victorious.  In  a  later  story  Adrastus 
after  a  long  reign  died  from  grief  occasioned 
by  the  death  of  his  son  /Egialeus.  He  was  wor- 
shipped at  Sicyon,  Megara,  and  Athens,  perhaps 
also  at  Argos  and  the  Troad.  See  Argos  ; 
Thebes. 

Adrets,  Baron  des,  Francis  de  Beaumont: 
b.  Dauphine,  1513 ;  d.  1587;  a  violent  French 
Huguenot,  who  distinguished  himself  by  many 
daring  exploits  as  well  as  cruelties.  From  1562 
on  he  made  himself  noted  for  a  ferocity  match- 
ing his  opponents,  but  seemingly  from  no  reli- 
gious motive.  He  subsequently  became  a  Catholic, 
but  died  as  he  had  lived,  in  general  detesta- 
tion. At  some  places  he  obliged  his  prisoners  to 
throw  themselves  from  the  battlements  upon 
the  pikes  of  his  soldiers.  Reproaching  one  for 
retreating  twice  from  the  fatal  leap,  «  Sir,»  re- 
plied the  man.  «  I  defy  you,  with  all  your 
bravery,  to  take  it  in  three.')  This  keen  rejoin- 
der saved  his  life. 

Adria,  N.  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Rovigo, 
between  the  Po  and  Adige,  is  one  of  the  oldest 
cities  in  Europe,  having  been  founded  by  the 
Etruscans.  So  late  as  the  12th  century  a.d. 
it  was  a  flourishing  harbor  on  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
to  which  it  gave  name ;  but  by  the  continual  de- 
position of  alluvium  on  the  east  coast  of  Italy  it 
has  been  gradually  separated  from  the  sea,  from 
which  it  is  now  15  miles  distant.  It  still  retains 
several  interesting  remains  of  Etruscan  and  Ro- 
man antiquity,  with  a  fine  cathedral.  It  has  a 
considerable  trade  in  cattle,  grain,  and  wine, 
silk,  linen,  leather,  and  pottery.  Pop.  (1900) 
I5.C49- 

Adrian,  Emperor.      See  Hadrian. 

Adrian  I.,  Pope,  b.  Rome;  succeeded 
Stephen  III.  in  772;  d.  795.  Like  his  predeces- 
sor, he  had  to  struggle  against  the  power  of  the 
Longobards,  who  had  invaded  the  Exarchate  and 


other  provinces  bestowed  by  Pepin,  king  of  the 
Franks,  on  the  Roman  see.  Adrian  applied  to 
Charlemagne  for  assistance  against  Desiderius, 
king  of  the  Longobards.  Charlemagne  crossed 
the  Alps,  defeated  Desiderius,  and  overthrew  the 
Longobard  kingdom  in  774;  he  then  went  to 
Rome,  where  Adrian  acknowledged  him  as  king 
of  Italy,  and  the  latter  renewed  Pepin's  grant. 
Charlemagne  paid  another  visit  to  Adrian  at 
Rome  in  787,  when  his  son  Pepin  was  christened 
by  the  Pope.  In  787  the  seventh  General  Council 
of  the  Church  was  held  at  Nicaea.  Adrian  died 
after  a  pontificate  of  nearly  24  years.  He  was 
a  man  of  talent  and  dexterity :  he  succeeded  in 
gaining  and  preserving  the  friendship  of  the 
greatest  sovereign  of  his  time,  and  saved  Rome 
from  the  last  barbarian  invaders  of  the  Western 
Empire.  He  was  the  first  Pope  to  change  his 
name  on  election. 

Adrian  II.,  b.  Rome;  succeeded  Nicholas 
I.  867 ;  d.  872.  He  had  been  married  and  had  a 
daughter  by  his  wife  Stephania.  from  whom  he 
afterward  separated  in  order  to  live  in  celibacy. 
During  his  pontificate  Photius,  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  withdrew  from  the  Church  of 
Pome;  from  which  time  dates  the  schism  be- 
tween the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches.  He  was 
succeeded  by  John  VIII. 

Adrian  III.,  b.  Rome;  succeeded  Marinus 
884,  and  died  the  following  year. 

Adrian  IV.,  the  only  Englishman  ever 
raised  to  the  papacy ;  succeeded  Anastasius  IV. 
1154;  d.  1  Sept.  1159.  He  was  Nicholas  Brake- 
speare,  and  for  some  time  filled  a  mean  situation 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Albans.  Being  refused 
the  habit  in  that  house,  he  went  to  France  and 
became  a  clerk  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Rufus,  of 
which  he  was  afterward  chosen  abbot.  Eugenius 
III.  created  him  cardinal  in  1146,  and,  in  1148 
made  him  legate  to  Denmark  and  Norway,  which 
he  converted  to  Christianity.  As  Pope  he  grant- 
ed to  Henry  II.  a  bull  for  the  conquest  of  Ire- 
land. In  1 155  he  excommunicated  the  king  of 
Sicily;  and  about  the  same  time  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.,  meeting  him  on  a  journey,  held 
his  stirrup  while  he  mounted  his  horse.  Adrian 
took  the  emperor  with  him  and  consecrated  him 
king  of  the  Romans  in  St.  Peter's  church.  The 
next  year  the  king  of  Sicily  submitted  and  was 
absolved.  His  term  was  stormy :  the  Romans, 
influenced  by  Arnold  of  Brescia  (whom  he  put 
to  death),  opposed  him;  his  high  claims  for  the 
papacy  opened  the  long  struggle  with  the  Ho- 
henstaufen  house ;  and  he  was  about  to  excom- 
municate Frederick  II.  when  he  died.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Alexander  III. 

Adrian  V.,  a  Genoese,  succeeded  Innocent 
in  1276,  and  died  five  weeks  after  his  election. 
He  was  suc^e »ded  by  John  XX. 

Adrian  VI..  succeeded  Leo  X.  1522;  d. 
1525.  He  was  born  at  Utrecht,  of  an  obscure 
family,  advanced  himself  by  his  talents  to  the 
post  of  vice-chanceilor  of  the  University  of 
Louvain.  Ferdinand  of  Spain  gave  him  the 
bishopric  of  Tortosa.  After  Ferdinand's  death 
he  was  co-regent  of  Spain  with  Cardinal  Xim- 
enes.  He  was  elected  Pope  chiefly  through  the 
influence  of  Charles  V.,  whose  authority  was 
then  spreading  over  Italy.  He  was  succeeded 
by   Clement   VII. 


ADRIAN  —  ADRIANOPLE 


Adrian,  Mich.,  city  and  county-scat  of  Lena- 
wee County.  (Adrian's  first  name  was  Logan.; 
It  was  founded  in  1825  by  Addison  J.  ComstOC.k, 
incorporated  as  a  village  in  1828,  and  as  a  city 
in  1833.  Situated  on  the  Raisin  River,  30  miles 
from  Toledo,  and  50  miles  from  Detroit,  at 
intersection  of  Lake  Shore,  Wabash  and  Detroit 
Southern  R.R.'s.  The  branch  lines  of  Lake 
Shore,  to  Jackson,  to  Detroit,  and  to  Fayette, 
Ohio,  terminate  here. 

Commerce  and  Manufactures. —  Apart  from 
its  large  business  in  agricultural  products, 
Adrian  has  become  an  important  manufactur- 
ing centre.  Jt  has  extensive  foundry  and  ma- 
chine shops,  and  a  large  flouring  mill.  The 
Adrian  Manufacturing  Company,  the  American 
Electric  Fuse  Company,  the  Bond  Steel  Post 
Company,  the  Clough  &  Warren  Company,  and 
the  Spring  Brook  Brewing  Company  are  all 
large  and  nourishing  concerns.  Adrian  saw  the 
beginning  of  the  woven  wire  fence  industry, 
wdiich  was  established  here  by  J.  Wallace  Page 
111  1886.  The  Page  Wire  Fence  Company  was 
the  pioneer  in  wire  fence  industry,  and  has  be- 
come a  great  institution  with  its  main  factory 
here,  and  its  wire  mills  at  Monesson,  Pa.  Its 
output  in  1904  was  17,543  miles  of  fence,  with 
thousands  of  iron  gates,  employing  in  factories 
and  mills  1,627  men.  Another  large  fence  com- 
pany  is  the  Lamb  Wire  Fence.  Its  output  was 
$1,000,000  for  1904,  with  150  employees,  and 
running  25  fence  looms.  The  Adrian,  the  Lion, 
and  several  other  new  companies  are  also  manu- 
facturers of  wire  fence.  The  factories  of  the 
Anthony  and  Globe  Fence  Companies  are  not 
far  from  Adrian.  Capital  used  in  the  wire  fence 
industry  at  Adrian  is  about  $3,500,000,  and  the 
number  of  men  employed  is  about  1.000. 

Bunks.—  There  are  four  State  banks,  with 
combined  capital  and  surplus  of  $456,000,  and 
deposits  of  $2,750,000. 

Education  and  Religion.—  City  has  fine  sys- 
tem of  public  schools,  with  2.700  pupils,  and 
a  public  library  of  20,000  volumes.  Adrian  Col- 
lege and  a  business  college  furnish  higher  educa- 
tion and  business  training.  Adrian  College  is 
controlled  by  Methodist  Protestants,  has  300 
students  and"  six  departments,— literature,  the- 
ology, music,  arts,  manual  training,  and  prepara- 
tory school.  Saint  Joseph's  Academy,  a  school 
for  girls,  with  150  pupils,  is  conducted  by  the 
Si-tcrs  of  the  Order  of  Saint  Dominic.  The 
Industrial  Home  for  Girls,  a  State  institution 
for  education  and  reformation  of  juvenile  fe- 
male offenders,  is  located  here,  with  353  in- 
mates. There  are  many  fine  church  edifices  and 
a  fine  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building  is  under  construction. 
Two  daily  and  one  weekly  newspaper  are  pub- 
lished in  Adrian. 

Government,  Population,  etc.—  The  city  gov- 
ernment is  by  mayor  and  board  of  12  aldermen. 
Adrian  has  svstem  of  sewerage,  waterworks, 
and  electric  lights,  paving,  public  steam  heating, 
electric  street  car  line,  and  a  fine  new  post- 
office  building.  From  its  beautifully  shaded 
streets,  Adrian  is  called  the  Maple  City.  Pop. 
(1904)    10,680.  Charles  R.  Miller. 

Adrian  de  Castel'lo  (Adriano  di  Castelo, 
a-dre-a'no  de  kas-tel'6).  Italian  cardinal  and 
scholar:  b.  Corneto,  Tuscany,  c.  1460;  d.  1521. 
He  was  educated  at  Rome:  sent  by  Innocent 
VIII.  to  England,  and  to  Scotland  and  recon- 
ciled James  III.  to  his  subjects;  after  that  mon- 
arch's   death    at    Sauchieburn    he    remained    in 


England,   and   obtained   a   prebend   and  rectory 

fnnn  Henry  VII.  After  Innocent's  death  in 
[492  he  returned  to  Rome  and  became  pro- 
thonotary  or  secretary  to  Alexander  VI.  (Bor- 
gia), and  finally  cardinal  just  before  Alexan- 
der's death  in  1503.  The  story  that  Alexander 
fell  a  victim  to  his  own  attempt  to  poison  Adrian 
in  order  to  inherit  his  great  fortune  is  scouted 
by  recent  historians.  In  1502,  in  his  absence 
Henry  VII.  made  him  bishop  of  Hereford,  and 
in  1505  bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.  In  1517  he 
was  involved  in  the  plot  of  Cardinals  Petrucci, 
De  Sauli,  and  Riario  to  poison  Leo  X.,  con- 
fessed, and  was  absolved  on  condition  of  paying 
25,000  ducats,  though  deprived  of  his  cardinal- 
ate  and  English  dignities.  He  lied  from  Rome, 
however,  lived  in  retirement  till  Leo's  death  in 
1521  (probably  in  Venice),  and  died  suddenly 
on  his  way  back  to  Rome,  there  being  a  sus- 
picion that  he  was  murdered  by  a  servant.  He 
is  honorably  remembered  as  one  of  the  first 
wdio  sought  to  rescue  Latin  from  its  mediaeval 
corruptions  and  restore  it  to  purity.  He  wrote 
a  religious  treatise  'De  Vera  Philosophia'  (The 
True  Philosophy,  1507.  printed  Cologne  1548)  ; 
'De  Sermone  Latino  et  Modo  Latine  Loquendi' 
(The  Latin  Speech  and  Mode  of  Speaking 
Latin,  a  scholarly  work  published  at  Rome  in 
1515,  and  repeatedly  since). 

A'driano'ple  ("Hadrian's  city"),  Turkey: 
its  third  city  in  size,  next  after  Constantinople 
and  Salonica;  137  m.  W.N.W.  of  Constantinople, 
connected  by  rail;  near  the  W.  end  of  the  great 
Thracian  coast-plain  where  it  rises  to  the  Rho- 
dope  Mts. ;  at  the  confluence  of  the  large 
Maritza  (ancient  Hebrus)  which  drains  the 
centre  of  S.  Bulgaria,  the  Tunja  from  the  N., 
and  the  Arda  from  the  W.,  all  navigable.  This 
position  and  the  convergence  of  several  trade 
routes  have  made  it  from  very  old  times  a  place 
of  great  importance:  it  was  an  antique  Thracian 
city,  rebuilt  by  the  emperor  Hadrian,  seized  by 
the  Turks  under  Amurath  (Murad)  I.  in  1361, 
and  the  residence  of  the  Sultans  thence  till  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  in  1453.  Since  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-8  and  the  separation 
of  Bulgaria,  it  has  lost  nearly  half  its  popula- 
tion and  a  large  part  of  its  trade.  The  old  wall 
that  once  surrounded  it,  now  existent  only  in  a 
few  fragments,  has  been  replaced  by  a  circle  of 
earthworks.  It  has  a  palace  and  two  fine  ba- 
zaars, besides  schools  and  mosques.  Pop.  about 
80,000,  half  Turks  and  the  remainder  Bulgarians, 
Greeks,    Armenians,   and   Jews. 

It  has  immense  historic  interest  as  the  scene 
of  three  events  of  the  first  importance.  (1)  The 
battle  of  Adrianople,  9  Aug.  378,  A.D.,  the  most 
tremendous  disaster  to  the  Roman  arms  since 
Cannae,  and  incomparably  greater  in  permanent 
effects.  The  Goths,  whose  head  chief  was  Friti- 
gern, —  a  man  of  superior  genius  and  honorable 
character, —  were  being  crowded  southward  by 
the  great  movement  of  the  Huns  which  culmi- 
nated in  Attila's  occupancy  of  all  central  Kurope 
three  generations  later,  and  asked  leave  to  set- 
tle in  the  lands  south  of  the  Danube  they  had 
ravaged  into  semi-desolation.  This  was  granted 
on  condition  that  they  came  unarmed  and  left 
the  children  of  the  leading  families  in  Roman 
hands  as  hostages ;  but  when  the  Goths  complied, 
the  imperial  officers,  who  were  to  supply  them 
with  food,  forced  them  to  pav  famine  prices  for 
it.  and  sold  or  kept  many  of  the  girls  for  con- 
cubines.    The  enraged  Goths,  in  return,  carried 


ADRIATIC  SEA  — ADULLAM 


fire,  sword,  and  plunder  far  down  into  Thrace; 
driven  back  for  a  time,  they  returned  in  the 
spring  of  378,  reinforced  by  Huns  and  Alans, 
and  their  vanguard  came  near  Constantinople. 
The  emperor  Valens  was  an  incompetent  but 
ambitious  man.  Jealous  of  his  brilliant  nephew, 
Gratian,  who  had  just  won  a  great  victory  over 
the  Western  barbarians,  and  eager  to  fight  be- 
fore Gratian  could  join  him  and  have  the  credit 
of  a  fresh  victory,  he  made  a  long  march  on  a 
sultry  dog-day  and  attacked  the  Goths  with  his 
fatigued  troops.  The  Alan  and  Sarmatian  cav- 
alry surrounded  and  hemmed  in  the  Roman 
infantry,  like  Hannibal  at  Cannse,  till  they  could 
not  use  their  weapons ;  thousands  were  driven 
into  a  marsh ;  the  Roman  army  was  practically 
exterminated ;  Valens  was  never  again  seen 
alive,  and  the  Goths  obtained  permanent  pos- 
session of  the  broad  plains  south  of  the  Danube. 
(2)  The  Treaty  of  Adrianople,  1829.  In  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  of  1828-9,  Diebitsch  passed 
the  Balkans,  advanced  on  Constantinople,  and 
halting  at  Adrianople  made  the  demands  of  a 
conqueror,  and  the  panic-stricken  Turks  ac- 
ceded to  everything.  Russia  received  the  N.E. 
coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  all  rights  over  the 
Caucasus  tribes,  the  district  of  Akhaltsikh,  and 
the  protectorate  over  Moldavia  and  Wallachia 
(now  Rumania)  ;  and  Turkey  recognized  the  in- 
dependence of  Greece.  (3)  The  Treaty  of  San 
Stefano  (q.v.),  after  the  capture  of  Osman's 
army  defending  Shipka  Pass  in  the  war  of 
1877-8. 

Adriatic  Sea,  or  Gulf  of  Venice  ("ancient 
Mare  Adriaticum),  an  arm  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, stretching  in  a  N.W.  direction  from  the 
Straits  of  Otranto,  between  the  E.  coast  of  the 
Italian  Peninsula,  and  the  W.  coasts  of  Turkey, 
Dalmatia,  and  Illyria ;  length,  about  480  m. ; 
average  breadth,  about  100  m. ;  area,  estimated 
at  about  60,000  sq.  m..  Its  depth  in  the  north, 
between  Istria  and  Venice,  is  only  from  12  to 
20  fathoms,  but  increases  in  proceeding  south  to 
100  fathoms  near  its  centre,  and  to  500  fathoms 
between  its  centre  and  its  entrance.  At  the 
straits  between  Otranto  and  Valona  its  depth 
does  not  exceed  350  fathoms,  but  increases  very 
rapidly  toward  the  Ionian  Sea.  Its  opposite 
shores  present  a  striking  contrast,  the  east  being 
generally  bold  and  rocky,  lined  with  islands 
and  furnished  with  good  harbors,  but  thinly 
peopled  and  comparatively  sterile ;  while  the 
west  are  low,  shallow,  marshy,  and  ill  provided 
with  harbors,  though  generally  populous  and 
fertile.  The  Adriatic  is  evidently  a  continua- 
tion of  the  longitudinal  valley  of  the  Po,  form- 
ing a  long  and  narrow  trough  between  the  paral- 
lel ranges  of  the  Apennines  and  the  mountains 
of  Illyria.  The  rivers  which  it  receives,  par- 
ticularly the  Po,  its  principal  feeder,  have  pro- 
duced, and  are  still  producing,  great  geological 
changes  in  its  basin  by  their  alluvial  deposits. 
Hence  Adria,  between  the  Po  and  the  Adige, 
which  gives  the  sea  its  name,  though  once  a 
flourishing  seaport,  is  now  15  miles  inland.  The 
principal  trading  ports  on  the  Italian  side  are 
Brindisi,  Bari,  Ancona.  and  Venice;  on  the  op- 
posite side,  Ragnsa,  Fiume,  Pirano,  Pola,  and 
Trieste,  particularly  the  last,  which  is  the  prin- 
cipal seaport  of  Austria  and  possesses  a  large 
trade. 

Adsorption  fa  variation  of  the  word  "ab- 
sorption.") The  condensation  of  a  gas  or  vapor 
upon  the  surface  of  a  solid.  The  fact  that  solid 
bodies  are  capable  of  condensing  upon  their  sur- 


faces air  films  or  gas  films  of  considerable 
density  was  probably  first  forced  upon  the  at- 
tention of  the  physicist  by  the  difficulty  of  ob- 
taining a  permanently  good  vacuum.  Thus  it 
was  found  that  a  glass  globe  (for  example) 
might  be  highly  exhausted,  and  yet  after  a  time 
the  vacuum  would  be  found  to  be  materially  re- 
duced, even  when  it  was  apparently  impossible 
that  any  air  should  have  leaked  in  from  without. 
It  is  now  known  that  unless  special  pains  are 
taken  to  prevent  it,  a  film  of  air  remains  con- 
densed against  the  surface  of  the  glass,  even 
when  the  vacuum  through  the  general  bulk  of 
the  globe  is  very  high ;  and  air  molecules  from 
this  film  are  gradually  given  off  until  the  vacuum 
becomes  much  less  perfect  than  it  was  at  first. 
To  prevent  this  action  it  is  customary  to  heat 
the  vessel  that  is  being  exhausted,  as  the  gas 
film  is  largely  driven  off  from  the  walls  of  the 
vessel  when  they  are  heated.     See  Vacuum. 

The  condensation  of  gaseous  films  upon  the 
surfaces  of  solids  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the 
molecular  attraction  exerted  by  the  solid  upon 
the  gas.  This  molecular  attraction  is  insensible 
at  distances  that  are  easily  measurable,  but 
it  may  be  very  great  at  points  sufficiently  near 
to  the  surface  of  the  solid.  The  expression 
"sensible  molecular  attraction,"  which  is  in  use 
among  physicists,  is  indefinite,  and  no  very  pre- 
cise statement  can  be  made  with  regard  to  the 
limiting  distance  beyond  which  the  attraction  is 
not  sensible ;  but  from  the  investigations  of 
Quincke,  Plateau,  Maxwell,  Kelvin,  and  others, 
we  may  infer,  in  a  general  way,  that  molecular 
attraction  is  not  sensible  at  a  greater  distance 
than  about  i-200.oooth  of  an  inch.  Hence  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  this  is  the  maximum  thickness 
that  the  gas  film  condensed  on  a  solid  surface 
can  have. 

Concerning  the  condition  of  the  gas  in  the 
film  we  can  only  say  that  where  it  is  in  imme- 
diate contact  with  the  solid  it  probably  has  a 
very  great  density,  this  density  rapidly  falling 
off  as  we  pass  away  from  the  solid.  Under  or- 
dinary conditions  of  temperature  the  air  film 
condensed  against  a  solid  cannot  actually  be  in 
the  liquid  state,  because  it  is  not  possible  for  air 
to  exist  in  this  state  at  any  temperature  higher 
than  2200  below  zero  F.     (See  Critical  Point.) 

It  is  well  known  that  a  solid  body  appear-; 
to  weigh  less  when  it  has  been  recently  heated, 
or  is  still  hot,  than  it  does  when  it  has  been  al- 
lowed to  stand  for  some  time  in  contact  with  the 
air  at  ordinary  temperatures.  This  phenomenon 
is  apparently  due,  to  a  considerable  extent,  to 
variations  in  the  thickness  of  the  film  of  air  and 
moisture  that  the  body  condenses  upon  its  sur- 
face. In  accurate  thermometry  (see  Thermom- 
eter), where  the  gas  thermometer,  is  used  as 
a  standard,  great  pains  are  taken,  in  filling  the 
thermometer  bulb  with  gas,  to  avoid  the  con- 
tamination of  the  thermometric  gas  by  moisture 
condensed  upon  the  surface  of  the  bulb;  the 
bulb  being  repeatedly  exhausted,  heated,  and  re- 
filled, until  there  is  no  longer  the  smallest  chance 
of  any  appreciable  part  of  the  original  surface 
film  remaining.  The  phenomena  of  adsorption 
have  not  yet  been  fully  studied. 

Adullam,  Palestine,  a  town  in  the  Shephe- 
lah,  or  southwestern  Judean  coast-land;  the  cen- 
tre of  a  Canaanitish  clan  later  fused  with  Judah- 
ite  Hebrews,  but  not  till  after  David's  time, 
when  it  was  still  "outside  Judah."  for  which 
reason  he  and  his  400  freebooters  took  refuge  in 


ADULLAMITES  — ADULT  EDUCATION 


its  «  stronghold  »  (not  « cave,'  a  misreading 
which  has  led  to  many  fruitless  identifications 
of  site  and  a  familiar  English  nickname  —  see 
below)  when  outlawed  by  Saul  (i  Sam.  xxiij. 
He  also  dwelt  there  when  at  war  with  the  Phil- 
istines. Rchoboam  fortified  it.  In  Judas  Mac- 
cabaeus'  time  it  was  m  "  Idumnea.n  as  he  stopped 
there  when  he  raided  that  territory. 

Adullamites,  in  English  history,  the  Lib- 
erals who  left  their  party  in  1866  and  joined  the 
Conservatives,  to  oppose  extension  of  the  fran- 
chise by  Mr.  Gladstone  and  Earl  Russell.  John 
Bright  in  a  speech  compared  them  to  the  outlaws 
in  the  Cave  of  Adullam;  to  which  Lord  Elcho 
retorted  that  the  hand  was  hourly  increasing, 
and  would  deliver  the  Parliament  from  the 
tyranny  of  Saul  (Gladstone)  and  his  armor- 
bearer  (Bright).  The  group  was  also  known 
as  «  The  Cave." 

Adult  Education.  The  provision  for  edu- 
cation of  adults  that  is  widely  extending  at  the 
beginning  of  the  joth  century  is  the  logical  con- 
sequence of  the  belief  that  universal  education 
is  a  necessity  in  a  democracy,  and  that  it  is  es- 
sentially an  organic  part  of  the  true  political 
and  social  structure.  The  19th  century  wit- 
nessed the  spread  of  educational  opportunities 
open  to  all.  These  opportunities  are  evidenced 
by  the  increase  of  the  length  of  the  school  term ; 
the  lengthening  of  the  period  of  school  life 
of  children  ;  the  establishment  of  compulsory 
education;  the  increase  in  number  of  public 
high  schools,  and  the  establishment  of  colleges 
and  universities,  maintained  either  by  munici- 
palities or  States.  These  facts  indicate  that  in 
a  true  democracy  no  limit  is  recognized  in  the 
field  of  education,  and  that  educational  oppor- 
tunity should  be  open  to  all,  regardless  of  age 
or  sex.  Philosophically  speaking,  the  provision 
for  education  of  adults  can  be  justified  on  the 
ground  that  the  mind  reaches  its  maturity  long 
after  the  school  days  end,  and  that  much  of  the 
best  and  most  effective  work  has  been  done  by 
those  who  have  passed  beyond  middle  age.  Pro- 
vision for  adult  education,  therefore,  may  be 
considered  as  having  two  distinct  lines  of  de- 
velopment: First,  to  provide  means  for  over- 
coming illiteracy,  due  to  immigration  or  to  in- 
sufficient education  during  the  proper  age ;  and 
second,  a  provision  for  a  continuance  of  educa- 
tion as  a  means  of  culture,  on  the  theory  that 
education  is   life. 

The  first  form  of  provision  for  adult  educa- 
tion established  by  municipalities  has  been  by 
evening  schools,  and  such  schools  are  found  in 
the  United  States  and  the  leading  countries  of 
western  Europe.  These  schools  are  either  ele- 
mentary schools,  in  wdiich  the  rudiments  of  an 
ordinary  education  are  imparted,  or  high  schools, 
in  which  systematic  instruction  is  given  in  spe- 
cialties. The  term  of  these  schools,  taking  New 
York  city  as  an  example,  is  from  90  to  120 
nights,  the  session  being  two  hours  a  night. 
There  were,  during  the  year  1902-3,  in  New 
York,  n  evening  high  schools,  and  68  elementary 
schools,  with  an  average  attendance  of  about 
25,000.  The  total  enrollment  of  pupils  in  all 
the  evening  schools  of  the  United  States,  from 
the  latest  report  of  the  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion, was  190,000.  A  new  law  has  just  gone  into 
effect  in  New  York  which  compels  boys  between 
14  and  16  years  of  age,  who  have  not  completed 
the  regular  day  school  course,  but  who  are  en- 


gaged in  any  useful  employment  or  service,  to 
attend  the  public  evening  schools  for  not  less 
than  six  hours  per  week  for  a  period  not 
less  than  [6  weeks  in  each  school  year  or  cal- 
endar year.  One  of  the  most  valuable  features 
of  evening  school  work,  especially  in  great  cities, 
is  teaching  the  foreigners  who  come  to  these 
eitus  our  language  and  our  customs,  and  in- 
forming them  of  the  nature  of  our  government. 
More  than  10,000  foreigners  attended  the  even- 
ing schools  of  New  York  during  the  winter 
of  [902  tor  the  purpose  of  studying  the  English 
language. 

Courses  of  instruction  are  also  provided  for 
the  supplementing  of  the  education  of  working- 
men.  Types  of  these  schools  are  the  Mechan- 
ics' Institute  in  England,  after  the  model  estab- 
lished by  Dr.  Birkbeck;  the  continuation  schools 
that  arc  established  in  1'russia  and  other  German 
cities,  and  in  the  United  States  by  such  insti- 
tutions as  the  Cooper  Union  (q.v.)  classes  for 
science  and  art:  the  evening  classes  at  the  Pratt 
Institute  (q.v.)  ;  the  New  York  Trade  Schools 
(q.v.),  and  the  Hebrew  Technical  Institute. 
Instruction  in  these  institutions  is  given  on  Spe- 
cial lines  and  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
skill  and  general  intelligence  of  the  mechanic. 
In  Germany  this  instruction  is  given  cither  in 
the  evening  hours  of  week-days  or  on  Sundays. 

Education  for  adults  for  the  larger  purpose 
of  adding  to  the  general  culture  of  the  mass  of 
the  people  has  taken  other  forms  during  the  past 
20  years.  In  the  United  States  the  chief  agents 
in  adult  education  have  been  the  Lowell  Insti- 
tute (q.v.)  ;  the  Chautauquan  Movement  (q.v.)  ; 
the  University  Extension  Movement  (q.v.)  ;  the 
Public  Lecture  Movement;  and  the  work  of 
such  institutions  as  the  Brooklyn  Institute 
of  Arts  and  Sciences ;  The  People's  Institute  of 
New  York;  the  League  for  Political  Educa- 
tion; and  the  People's  University  Extension 
Society.  The  Lowell  Institute  was  established 
in  Boston  in  18,39,  through  the  generosity  of 
Mr.  John  Lowell,  a  merchant  of  Boston,  who 
bequeathed  half  of  his  property  to  the  support 
of  public  lectures  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellow 
citizens.  The  Lowell  Institute  has  been  the 
means  of  presenting  the  leading  lecturers  of  the 
world  to  the  citizens  of  Boston,  and  has  pro- 
vided courses,  not  alone  for  the  general  public, 
but  lectures  for  more  advanced  students,  in- 
cluding instruction  in  science  to  the  school 
teachers  of  Boston,  and  has  furnished  instruc- 
tion by  lectures  to  workingmen  in  co-operation 
with  the  Wells  Memorial  YA'orking  Men's  In- 
stitute. 

The  Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific 
Circle  was  established  in  1878,  and  had  for  its 
purpose  the  organization  of  adult  education. 
In  one  of  its  earliest  announcements  it  says: 
"It  is  for  high  school  and  college  graduates ;  for 
people  who  never  entered  either  high  school  or 
college.  Several  of  the  members  are  over  80 
years  of  age,  very  few  arc  under  18.8  The  fea- 
tures of  the  Chautauqua  system  of  education  are 
the  general  survey  or  college  outlook;  the  four- 
years  cycle  and  the  unity  of  each  year;  that  is, 
all  readers  in  a  given  year  read  the  same  course. 
The  course  of  studies  includes  history,  natural 
science,  and  art.  The  seat  of  the  Chautauqua 
Movement  is  Chautauqua,  N.  Y.,  where  a  great 
summer  educational  city  annually  assembles,  and 
wdiere  religion  and  education  go  hand  in  hand. 
The  number  of  local  reading  circles  in  the  past 


ADULT  EDUCATION 


25  years  has  been  about  10,000,  and  there  are 
about  300  educational  gatherings  that  are  known 
as  Chautauquas. 

The  movement  known  as  University  Exten- 
sion is  a  general  provision  for  the  education  of 
adults.  Originating  in  England,  the  attention 
of  the  University  Convocation  in  Albany,  N.  Y., 
July  1888,  was  called  to  the  matter,  and  on  1 
May  1891  a  bill  was  signed  by  the  governor, 
appropriating  $10,000  for  the  New  York  State 
organization  of  University  Extension.  This 
grant  is  the  first  case  on  record  of  a  State  ap- 
propriation for  University  Extension.  Under 
this  appropriation  courses  of  lectures  controlled 
by  university  authority  were  arranged,  and  Li- 
brary Extension  by  means  of  well-selected  clas- 
sified libraries,  suiting  local  needs.  The  Uni- 
versity Extension  work  now  forms  a  part  of  the 
Home  Education  department  of  the  University 
of  the  State  of  New  York.  According  to  the 
latest  report,  394  courses  of  three  or  more  lec- 
tures were  given  during  the  year  1900.  The 
American  Society  for  the  Extension  of  Univer- 
sity Teaching,  which  has  its  chief  office  at  Phil- 
adelphia, has  been  in  operation  since  1890.  In 
the  10  years  from  1890  to  1900  over  5,000  lec- 
tures were  given,  with  a  total  attendance  of 
more  than  1,000,000.  The  University  of  Chi- 
cago, immediately  after  its  opening,  took  part 
in  the  University  Extension  movement,  and  now 
the  extension  division  of  the  University  of  Chi- 
cago forms  an  important  department  of  its 
work.  All  the  non-resident  work  connected 
with  the  University  of  Chicago  is  conducted 
through  the  extension  division  by  means  of 
lecture  study  courses,  correspondence  courses, 
study  clubs,  and  evening  and  Saturday  classes, 
and  in  the  year  1900  it  gave  17  courses  of  lectures 
in  13  different  public  school  buildings. 

The  Free  Lecture  Movement  of  New  York, 
which  is  being  followed  in  other  cities,  is  the 
pioneer  in  an  adaptation  of  University  Extension 
in  its  best  sense,  to  the  purpose  of  educating  all 
the  people  in  a  great  city.  The  provision  for  the 
free  lectures  was  made  by  an  act  of  the  legisla- 
ture in  New  York  in  1889,  authorizing  the  board 
of  education  of  New  York  to  provide  for  lectures 
to  working  men  and  working  women,  and  an 
appropriation  of  $15,000  was  made  for  the  first 
year.  Lectures  were  at  first  given  in  six  school- 
houses,  and  the  attendance  during  the  first  winter 
was  a  little  over  20,000.  In  the  year  1902-3  lec- 
tures were  given  in  128  different  places,  includ- 
ing not  alone  the  assembly  halls  of  schools,  but 
halls  of  museums  and  in  many  cases  church  halls, 
with  an  attendance  of  1,207,000.  The  sum  ex- 
pended during  the  year  1902  was  about  $125,000, 
and  New  York  therefore  spends  a  greater  sum 
than  any  other  city  for  the  education  of  adults. 

This  recognition  by  the  board  of  education  of 
a  great  city  of  adult  education  as  an  integral 
part  of  its  educational  system,  and  its  support 
from  the  general  school  fund,  marks  a  great  edu- 
cational advance.  The  lectures  are  divided  into 
two  classes.  First,  those  intended  to  give  gen- 
eral culture,  under  which  are  included  lectures 
on  travel  and  on  music  (abundantly  illustrated 
either  by  stereopticon  or  vocal  and  instrumental 
music),  and  other  lectures  on  history,  science, 
art  and  literature,  which  are  given  in  courses  of 
from  six  to  eighteen  accompanied  by  a  quiz,  ex- 
amination, syllabus  and  collateral  reading.  The 
lecturers    include    professors    from    the    leading 


colleges  and  universities  and  other  men  who 
have  become  distinguished  in  their  respective 
callings.  Co-operation  with  the  public  library 
is  established  by  means  of  lists  of  books  posted 
in  the  various  libraries  which  bear  upon  the 
lectures.  A  further  extension  of  this  work  in 
New  York  has  recently  been  made  by  the  giving 
of  lectures  in  Italian  and  other  foreign  lan- 
guages to  those  ignorant  of  English,  upon  sub- 
jects relating  to  American  life  and  institutions. 
As  the  population  of  our  land  is  becoming  more 
and. more  urban,  the  question  of  proper  provision 
for  adult  education  will  gradually  become  more 
prominent  in  municipal  administration,  and  the 
provision  for  such  purpose  can  be  defended  on 
the  ground  of  its  necessity  in  a  democracy  and 
also  as  a  means  of  furnishing  rational  joy  to  the 
people.  The  example  of  New  York  has  been 
followed  by  many  of  the  adjoining  cities  and 
also  by  Boston  and  Milwaukee.  Some  agencies 
of  adult  education  in  New  York  are: 

(a)  The  People's  Institute,  which  has  its 
seat  in  Cooper  Union  and  provides  lectures  of 
an  economic,  social,  and  ethical  character  and 
arranges  for  discussions  on  these  subjects. 

(6)  The  People's  University  Extension  So- 
ciety, which  has  been  in  existence  since  1897 
and  works  in  co-operation  with  settlements, 
missions,  mothers'  clubs,  and  other  institutions, 
and  arranges  lectures  on  hygiene  and  sanitation, 
the  care  of  children,  civics,  and  American  his- 
tory. 

The  Brooklyn  Institute  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
received  its  charter  in  1843,  but  began  its  great- 
est period  of  activity  in  1887.  This  institute 
provides  for  courses  of  lectures  in  science  and 
art,  and  maintains  a  library  and  art  and  science 
museum,  and  is  supported  by  membership  dues, 
and  in  the  year  1901-2  the  attendance  at  the 
lectures  was  254,361.  The  city  of  New  York 
in  1901  appropriated  $300,000  toward  the  mu- 
seum of  this  institution. 

In  the  cause  of  adult  education  a  very  im- 
portant factor  now  is  the  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association.  Throughout  the  United  States, 
courses  of  study  for  men  are  established  in  con- 
nection with  all  the  main  associations.  Provision 
for  instruction  in  mechanical  subjects,  literature, 
civil  government,  citizenship,  form  a  feature  of 
such  courses  of  study.  The  league  for  Political 
Education  in  New  York  has  for  its  special 
object  the  study  of  political  and  social  science, 
and  work  for  municipal  and  national  progress, 
and  maintains  day  lectures  and  classes  for 
men  and  women,  and  evening  lectures  and  classes 
primarily  for  men.  The  summer  schools  that 
have  come  into  existence  as  a  result  of  the  Chau- 
tauqua movement  form  a  valuable  feature  of 
adult  education.  Prominent  among  these  schools 
in  America  is  the  Catholic  Summer  School 
which  meets  at  Plattsburg,  on  Lake  Champlain. 
The  objects  of  the  school  are  to  increase  the 
facilities  for  busy  people,  as  well  as  for  those 
of  leisure,  to  pursue  lines  of  study  in  various  de- 
partments of  knowledge,  and  opportunities  for 
instruction  are  provided  by  lectures  from  emi- 
nent specialists.  The  Columbian  Catholic  Sum- 
mer School  assembles  at  Madison.  Wis.,  and  the 
summer  assembly  of  the  Jewish  Chautauqua  at 
Atlantic  City.  The  University  of  Chicago  re- 
cently adopted  the  summer  school  idea,  and  now 
academic  w-ork  goes  on  during  the  entire  year; 
and  Harvard  University  and  Columbia  Univer- 
sity both  now  maintain  summer  schools. 


ADULTERATION 


The  recognition  of  the  right  of  the  adult  to 
education  will  have  its  influence  on  the  character 
of  schoolhouses  that  hereafter  are  to  he  built, 
and  already  many  of  the  newer  school  buildings 
in  New  York  are  equipped  with  auditoriums 
with  ample  provision  for  adults.  Laboratories, 
in",  will  be  provided  in  which  further  edui 
tion  in  science  may  be  given,  so  that  technical 
instruction,  such  a  great  need  in  an  industrial 
age,  may  be  encouraged.  The  extension  of  the 
schoolhouse  will  make  it.  as  Horace  .Mann  said, 
not  only  a  nursery  for  children  but  a  place  of 
intelligent  resort  for  men.  The  public  school- 
house  when  used  for  the  broad  purpose  of  the 
instruction  of  youth  and  the  education  of  the 
adult  fulfills  its  real  mission.    See  Education. 

Henry  M.  I.eipziger, 
Supervisor   of   Lectures,   New    York   Board   of 
Education. 

Adulteration  («  making  otherwise*),  de- 
ceiving buyers  of  goods  as  to  their  quality  by 
secretly  adding  or  taking  away  constituents. 
The  element  of  deception  must  be  present :  open- 
ly selling  any  mixture,  however  poor,  is  not  adul- 
teration legally  or  morally.  In  usage  the  term  is 
restricted  to  food  products,  drugs,  and  dye- 
stuffs;  the  adulteration  of  coinage  is  termed 
« counterfeiting*  (q.v.)  that  of  unsound  meat, 
fish,  etc.,  «  doctoring,')  a  term  which,  with  «  so- 
phistication,8 is  also  used  for  wines  and  liquors. 
Adulterated  woolen  fabrics  are  colloquially  but 
not  always  properly  known  as  "  shoddy."  The 
object  is  to  gain  more  profit:  with  costly  wares, 
either  by  diluting  them  with  cheaper  ones,  or  by 
removing  some  valuable  element  for  separate 
sale ;  with  cheap  ones,  to  make  them  look  like 
or  have  the  flavor  of  costlier  ones ;  with  spoiled 
or  damaged  ones,  to  make  them  appear  sound. 
Most  adulterations  are  not  directly  injurious  to 
health,  the  public  being  cheated  rather  than 
poisoned,  and  it  is  to  some  extent  a  co-operator 
in  the  deception,  as  the  cost  of  wholly  pure  ar- 
ticles would  greatly  curtail  buying;  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  often  forced  into  such  co-operation 
by  inability  to  find  or  know  the  good  when 
willing  to  pay  for  it,  and  wastes  its  money 
by  paying  for  a  pure  article  and  receiving 
an  adulterated  one.  And  as  the  reduction 
of  the  nutritive  value  of  food  is  itself  a 
great  evil ;  as  the  extent  or  harmfulness  of 
adulterations  cannot  be  known  offhand,  and 
tends  always  to  grow  worse  as  the  maker  grows 
greedier  and  his  character  deteriorates  from  los- 
ing his  self-respect  (itself  a  great  social  evil)  ; 
as  honest  dealers  are  not  only  prejudiced  by  un- 
fair competition,  and  suspected  of  fraud  when 
qualities  are  poor,  but  often  driven  into  the 
same  course  in  self-defense ;  and  as  hasty  addi- 
tions of  cheap  materials  are  always  liable  to 
come  from  diseased  sources  and  menace  public 
safety, —  modern  legislation  constantly  broadens 
its  scope  in  dealing  with  this  offense  alike  from 
a  pecuniary,  a  sanitary,  and  a  moral  standpoint. 
Ignorance  is  no  excuse  to  a  dealer  who  sells 
adulterated  wares  under  the  ordinary  trade  title : 
it  is  a  fraud  at  common  law,  and  he  may  be 
compelled  to  take  back  the  goods  or  pay  dam- 
ages. 

The  history  of  adulteration  would  probably 
be  coexistent  with  that  of  trade.  We  know  that 
it  was  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
the  comic  dramatists  have  diverting  references 


to  the  «  doctoring  »  of  stale  fish.  English  stat- 
1 1 1  <  -^  exist  from  1266  with  penalties  for  debasing 
Inn  or  wine  and  selling  inferior  bread  or  meat, 
while  tea  (  see  below  )  had  later  a  special  statute; 
and  the  law-makers  have  never  ceased  struggling 
with  the  problem,  lint  the  first  great  general 
agnation  was  in  1851.  when  the  London  Lamcl 
produced  a  great  effect  by  a  special  investiga- 
tion and  publishing  analyses  and  names  of 
dealers,  and  the  first  parliamentary  commission 
was  appointed.  The  first  general  adulteration 
act  was  passed  in  i860. 

The  chief  articles  subject  to  adulteration  have 
been,  first  of  course  the  great  staples  of  life, 
flour  and  bread,  milk,  butter,  and  cheese,  with 
beer,  wines,  liquors,  and  tobacco,  staple  in  use  if 
not  need;  relishes  and  seasonings,  as  sugar, 
honey,  preserves,  vinegar,  pickles,  condiments, 
and  spices ;  oil  and  lard ;  tea,  coffee,  cocoa, 
and  chocolate;  confectionery;  drugs  and  dye- 
stuffs.  The  selection  and  extent  of  adultera- 
tions vary  indefinitely  with  place  and  time:  as 
cost  or  popular  wealth  differs  in  different  coun- 
tries and  epochs,  adulterations  common  in  one 
place  or  generation  are  almost  unknown  in  an- 
other. 

Beer. —  The  objects  of  its  adulteration  are 
three :  to  give  artificial  strength  to  weak  beer, 
to  disguise  the  badness  of  poor  or  spoiled  beer, 
and  to  keep  it  from  spoiling.  The  mineral  adul- 
terants used  have  been  among  the  worst  pos- 
sible, as  arsenic  (the  cause  of  some  known 
deaths  and  very  likely  others)  and  sulphate  of 
copper.  Picric  and  salicylic  acids  are  used 
for  disguise:  the  latter  is  prohibited  in  Ger- 
many and  is  certainly  liable  to  injure  the  digestive 
system.  Alum,  potash,  cream  of  tartar,  and  salt, 
used  to  make  beer  keep,  are  not  regarded  as  dele- 
terious adulterants  proper.  Wild  cherries,  flax- 
seed, various  herbs  and  foliages,  etc.,  are  em- 
ployed,—  cheats  but  not  injurious. 

Butter. —  A  formidable  list  may  be  made  of 
the  butter  adulterants  at  different  times  and 
places, —  chalk,  gypsum,  alum,  and  borax,  boracic 
and  salicylic  acids,  glucose,  flour,  etc. ;  but  for 
practical  purposes  they  may  be  reduced  to  water, 
buttermilk,  cheese,  salt,  and  oleomargarine  (q.v.) 
as  increascrs  of  bulk,  with  arnotto.  aniline  yel- 
low, etc.,  to  improve  the  color.  The  latter  is 
hardly  adulteration  either  in  bad  intent  or  bad 
effect :  the  public  universally  connects  a  yellow 
tint  with  richness  in  cream, —  quite  irrationally, 
as  the  milk  of  many  cows  gives  butter  as  white 
as  tallow,  yet  of  perfect  quality  and  taste, —  and 
the  harmless  pigments  merely  remove  incorrect 
prejudices.  The  first  four  others  are  equally 
innocuous  (save  that  buttermilk  makes  it  grow 
rancid  more  quickly:  it  is  usually  carelessness  or 
incompetence  rather  than  fraud),  and  are  mere 
diluents.  In  normal  butter,  water  should  not 
exceed  12  per  cent  and  salt  5  per  cent.  Oleo- 
margarine is  not  even  an  inferior  product  in  any 
respect:  its  nutritive  value  equals  that  of  butter, 
and  it  keeps  better ;  and  the  severity  of  the  laws 
regulating  its  manufactui  e  and  inspection  gua- 
rantee its  quality  beyond  that  of  any  other 
manufactured  article.  Only  a  small  percentage 
is  directly  bought  for  table  use,  the  vast  major- 
ity being  sold  to  dairymen  to  churn  with  their 
cream  into  ostensible  butter.  Its  use  as  an  adul- 
terant concerns  business  interests,  not  public 
health. 


ADULTERATION 


Cheese. —  American  and  English  cheeses  are 
practically  not  adulterated.  Fancy  foreign 
cheeses,  as  the  Swiss,  etc.,  often  contain  coloring 
matter  and  potato  meal. 

Cocoa  and  Chocolate. —  The  chief  adulterants 
are  starch  and  sugar ;  but  they  have  also  con- 
tained wheat  and  potato  flour,  sawdust,  oils  and 
tats,  and  other  things.  The  tests  are  for  the- 
obromine (the  characteristic  principle  of  the 
cacao  bean),  fat,  starch,  inorganic  matter,  etc. 

Coffee. —  Its  usual  adulterations  are  seeds 
(roasted  peas,  beans,  etc.),  or  roots  (chicory, 
dandelion,  carrots,  turnips,  parsnips,  etc.),  with 
caramel  to  color  their  gray  tint.  All  these  are 
mere  diluents ;  though  there  are  some  who 
actually  prefer  an  admixture  of  chicory  for  its 
flavor,  though  it  gives  black,  bitter,  and  muddy 
grounds.  It  and  the  roots  may  be  easily  de- 
tected by  putting  a  little  of  the  sample  into  a 
glass  of  water :  each  bit  of  chicory  or  other  root 
will  be  soon  the  centre  of  a  yellowish-brown 
cloud,  which  will  rapidly  spread  till  the  water  is 
all  colored.  There  are  also  chemical  tests  for 
both  tea  and  coffee,  by  determining  the  amount 
of  theine  or  caffeine,  the  percentage  of  matter 
soluble  in  water,  treatment  with  hot  mineral 
acids  which  increase  the  sugar  in  coffee  but  not 
in  chicory,  etc. 

Confectionery. —  The  extreme  cheapness  of 
sugar  has  practically  put  an  end  to  the  adultera- 
tion of  all  but  the  very  poorest  grades  of  can- 
dies; and  those  mainly  with  the  harmless  terra 
alba,  or  pipe-clay. 

Distilled  Liquors. —  Whiskey,  brandy,  and 
rum  are  often  purely  factitious,  being  made  from 
caramel  and  dilute  alcohol,  and  given  the  char- 
acteristic flavors  by  ethers  of  various  sorts  and 
fusel  oil  (often  left  in  genuine  whiskeys,  etc., 
from  carelessness  or  grudging  the  cost  of  puri- 
fication, and  recognizable  by  its  nauseous  smell 
when  a  little  of  it  is  evaporated  in  the  hand). 

Drugs. —  The  adulteration  in  each  case  is 
special,  with  some  article  looking  like  the  gen- 
uine but  inert.  This  is  of  course  potential 
manslaughter  wholesale,  as  each  prescription 
made  from  such  materials  might  cost  a  life. 
Unfortunately,  a  large  part  of  the  drugs  are 
imported,  and  the  fraud  is  probably  committed 
before  they  come  to  this  country  at  all. 

Dycstuffs. —  These  are  very  variously  adul- 
terated with  cheaper  dyes,  determinable  if  at  all 
by  expert  chemical  examination. 

Flour  and  Bread. —  Flour  is  not  much  adul- 
terated in  the  United  States,  though  it  is  in  Eu- 
rope, where  the  masses  are  poorer.  The  chief 
admixture  is  ground  gypsum  or  other  minerals, 
which  can  be  detected  with  the  microscope ; 
diluents  but  harmless.  The  chief  illegitimate  ad- 
ditions to  bread  are  alum  and  sulphate  of  copper, 
to  whiten  it  or  correct  sourness.  Alum  in  bak- 
ing-powder is  not  thought  objectionable,  the 
heat  of  baking  converting  the  mixture  into  in- 
soluble aluminum  phosphate:  and  by  itself  its 
chief  harm  is  in  disguising  the  sourness  of  the 
bread.  Copper  sulphate  is  always  dangerous. 
Both  are  tested  by  dissolving  gelatine,  laid  for 
some  hours  on  a  sop  of  the  bread,  in  a  wood- 
alcohol  tincture  of  logwood  with  ammonium 
carbonate,  which  turns  blue  for  alum  and  green 
for  the  copper  salt. 

Honey.—  Strained  honey,  a  costly  article  when 
pure,  is  heavily  adulterated  with  glucose  syrup 
and   sugar,    cane    sugar,   corn-starch,   etc.     The 


taste  is  a  better  guide  to  these  than  any  analysis, 
as  that  of  native  flower-fed  honey  is  beyond 
counterfeiting;  but  chemical  analysis  can  detect 
most  of  them.  Still  better  is  the  buying  of  comb 
honey.  The  charge  has  been  made  by  English 
chemists  that  American  combs  are  often  made 
of  paraftine  and  filled  with  glucose ;  this  is  most 
improbable,  but  a  very  simple  test  will  decide  it. 
The  microscope  will  show  pollen  grains  in  the 
real,  and  warm  sulphuric  acid  will  blacken  bees- 
wax but  not  paraffine. 

Lard. —  Hogs'  lard  is  adulterated  with  stear- 
ine,  tallow,  and  cottonseed  oil ;  other  vegetable 
oils,  and  the  lard  from  animals  dying  a  natural 
death,  are  sometimes  added,  but  have  no  com- 
mercial importance  if  true. 

Milk. —  The  adulterations  of  this  are  re- 
ducible to  five :  diluting,  skimming,  replacing  the 
skimmed  cream  with  cheaper  animal  fats,  color- 
ing to  give  it  the  look  of  that  cream,  and  adding 
preservatives  or  correctives  to  keep  it  from 
souring  or  to  sweeten  its  taste  when  beginning 
to  turn.  Its  use  as  the  staff  of  life  for  millions  of 
children  and  invalids  makes  its  purity  one  of 
the  most  exigent  demands,  and  its  bad  quality 
or  innutritiousness  a  cause  of  enormous  amounts 
of  disease  and  death.  In  some  great  cities  pure 
milk  is  simply  not  attainable  for  the  masses  at 
any  price  within  the  means  even  of  ordinary 
workmen :  the  dairy  districts  within  reach  of 
the  city  by  train,  during  any  time  it  will  keep 
sweet  and  not  churn,  cannot  supply  enough  for 
all,  and  it  is  inevitably  diluted  with  water,  and 
more  or  less  of  it  treated  with  chemicals.  To 
this  is  added  what  is  not  at  all  necessary,  the 
skimming  off  of  the  cream  to  sell  separately ; 
both  the  first  and  the  last  heavily  reducing  its 
nutritive  value.  Still  worse,  the  water  used  is 
always  liable  to  contamination  from  discharges 
of  diseased  bodies  (diphtheria,  typhoid,  and 
scarlet-fever  outbreaks  have  been  repeatedly 
traced  to  this  cause,  sometimes  merely  from 
cooling  leaky  cans  in  the  tainted  water),  from 
decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  or  from 
the  germs  with  which  street  dirt  is  laden.  (The 
contamination  from  sores  on  cows  kept  in  un- 
sanitary conditions  belongs  to  another  subject.) 
As  to  the  effect  of  the  adulterations :  Skim- 
milk  is  a  cheap  and  valuable  food  for  blood- 
making  protein,  as  evinced  by  the  cheese  made 
from  it ;  but  it  should  be  sold  as  such,  otherwise 
infants  and  invalids  who  need  the  cream  may 
be  injured.  The  fats  simply  do  not  replace  the 
characteristic  and  valuable  qualities  of  the 
cream.  Of  the  chemicals,  formaldehyde  (also 
used  for  preserving  other  foods)  is  dangerous 
and  should  not  be  permitted.  Borax,  salt,  and 
carbonate  of  soda  are  also  used ;  neither  they 
nor  the  arnotto  used  to  give  the  milk  a  cream 
color  are  harmful  in  themselves,  but  only  as  dis- 
guising the  real  quality  of  the  milk  sold.  Chalk 
and  calves'  brains  are  probably  jocular  figments. 

The  method  of  testing  for  dilution  is  by  the 
lactometer,  to  determine  specific  gravity,  which 
is  lowered  by  admixture  of  water;  in  exact  re- 
verse, it  detects  skimming  (which  increases 
specific  gravity  by  removing  the  lighter  cream) 
by  showing  normal  specific  gravity  when  looks 
and  taste  are  inferior.  Skimming  is  also  in- 
ferred from  increase  in  transparency,  as  indicated 
by  the  lactoscope:  opaque  normal  milk  needs 
thinning  with  a  certain  percentage  of  water  be- 
fore a  dark  object,   or  black  line  drawn  on  a 


ADULTERATION 


whhe  surface,  will  show  through ;  the  less 
water  a  given  sample  needs  for  this  visibility, 
the  less  cream  it  contains.  For  more  precise  de- 
termination the  chemist  finds  the  amount  of 
solids  in  a  sample  by  evaporating  a  mixture  of 
milk  and  healed  sand  and  weighing  the  residue; 
the  amount  of  fats,  by  dissolving  them  out  with 
ether  and  evaporating.  Watering  may  often  be 
d  by  u-iing  for  nitrates,  which  milk  does 
not  contain  and  most  water  does,  and  contam- 
inated water  almost  always.  The  detection  of 
animal  fats  used  to  replace  cream  is  not  easy, 
though  the  butyrates  have  some  individual  quali- 
ties. 

Mustard. —  This  is  perhaps  the  most  heavily 
and  universally  adulterated  article  in  the  mar- 
ket :  only  a  small  percentage  of  it  is  pure,  and 
even  that  has  had  its  abundant  essential  oil, 
which  makes  it  difficult  to  grind,  expressed 
from  it.  For  one  harmless  adulteration  the 
public  is  responsible,  as  for  butter-color  and 
pickle-green:  that  of  turmeric  or  ochre  to  give  it 
the  bright  yellow  demanded  by  customers,  while 
real  mustard  is  very  dull.  But  it  is  regularly 
diluted  with  starch. —  wheat,  corn,  or  rice, — 
rape-seed,  flaxseed,  old  turnip-  or  radish-seed 
unfit  to  plant.  For  starch,  easy  tests  are  iodine, 
which  turns  it  blue,  and  its  thickening  in  boil- 
ing water;  for  mineral  matter,  the  chemist  deter- 
mines the  amount  of  ash.  For  the  others, 
though  the  microscope  is  useful,  the  best  remedy 
is  to  pay  for  a  known  brand, —  which  indeed  is 
best   for  all. 

Oil. — -A  large  part  of  the  so-called  olive  oil 
of  the  market  is  cottonseed,  peanut,  or  mustard 
oil.  or  greatly  mixed  with  it:  probably  the  equal 
in  quality  and  taste  of  the  genuine  (as  it  is  in- 
distinguishable), but  a  fraud  as  exorbitant  in 
price  through  deception.  The  use  of  lard  oil  is 
probably  a  figment,  that  of  petroleum  oils  cer- 
tainly so.  Tests:  Nitric  acid  colors  the  adul- 
terant oils,  but  not  olive,  and  sulphuric  acid 
raises  their  temperature  higher. 

Pickles  and  Canned  Goods. —  The  public  de- 
mand for  bright  green  pickles  has  been  gratified 
by  boiling  them  in  copper  kettles  with  vinegar 
and  some  alum,  the  vinegar  forming  the  highly 
poisonous  acetate  of  copper  with  the  kettle,  and 
coloring  the  pickles  green :  it  is  easily  tested  by 
dipping  a  piece  of  clean  bright  iron  in  the  pickle, 
which  will  gain  a  coating  of  copper  if  it  is 
present.  The  same  process  is  said  to  be  gone 
through  with  peas;  and  even  the  copper  salts 
directly  added,  which  would  be  a  basis  for  a 
criminal  prosecution.  The  presence  of  metallic 
salts  from  the  can  —  which  would  result  from 
careless  canning  and  not  deliberate  addition  — 
has  been  thoroughly  demonstrated  to  be  harm- 
less:  oxid  of  tin  would  make  the  canned  food 
too  nauseous  to  eat  long  before  it  reached  even 
a  medicinal  proportion,  and  oxid  of  lead  has 
not  been  found  in  any  quantity.  By  far  the 
greatest  danger  in  canned  foods  is  bad  canning, 
causing  putrefactive  ptomaines  to  be  created, 
which  have  caused  many  deaths. 

Preserves,  Jams,  fellies. —  Gelatine  and  glue 
arc  often  used  to  help  the  fruit  to  jelly  (not 
always  an  easy  thing  to  assure  even  by  experts), 
and  are  often  not  restricted  to  the  amount  need- 
ed :  the  goods  are  also  artificially  colored,  and 
flavored  with  so-called  «  fruit  oils,»  chemical 
analysis  being  needed  to  determine  the  con- 
stituents.    Zinc    oxid   has    been    found    in   pre- 


serves, from  its  use  to  make  covers  of  jars  air- 
tight. 

Spices:  Nutmeg,  Pepper,  Cinnamon,  Mace, 
Cloves,  Allspice,  etc. —  Whole  spices  are  gener- 
ally thought  safe  from  adulteration ;  but  they  are 
not,  as  inferior  members  of  the  same  species  may 
be  substituted  for  them,  with  immense  loss  of 
quality,  exactly  as  if  crab-apples  were  sold  for 
dessert  apples.  Thus,  wild  nutmegs  are  often 
sold  for  the  cultivated  ones,  and  cassia  almost 
always  for  cinnamon.  The  method  of  detection 
is  to  know  the  genuine.  For  instance,  the  best 
nutmegs  are  about  an  inch  long  and  shaped  like 
a  damson  plum,  weigh  one-seventh  to  one-fifth 
of  an  ounce,  and  exude  oil  liberally  when  pricked 
with  a  pin;  the  wild  ones  are  small  and  pointed 
and  have  less  oil  and  fragrance.  The  genuine  or 
Ceylon  cinnamon  is  a  thin  small  roll,  of  delicate 
fragrance  which  lasts  long  in  the  mouth,  and  tears 
rather  than  breaks ;  the  cassia  or  Chinese  cin- 
namon is  much  coarser  and  thicker,  breaks  but 
does  not  tear,  is  rather  mucilaginous  when 
chewed,  and  has  a  strong  woody  flavor.  In 
1875  the  United  States  imported  $4,073  worth  of 
cinnamon  and  $279,250  worth  of  cassia,  or  nearly 
seventy  times  as  much.  Cloves  are  adulterated 
by  making  them  absorb  water,  of  which  they  will 
take  up  a  great  deal,  to  increase  their  weight. 

The  immense  adulteration  of  ground  spices 
makes  their  convenience  a  costly  purchase.  At 
the  outset,  sawdust  and  starch  are  added  even  to 
the  best,  to  absorb  the  oil  which  makes  them 
difficult  to  grind  ;  and  it  rarely  stops  there.  Of  12 
specimens  called  "  ground  cinnamon  "  examined 
by  the  New  York  Board  of  Health  in  1883,  only 
three  contained  any  cinnamon  whatever,  and 
even  those  were  largely  mixed  with  cassia  and 
sawdust  :  the  others  were  almost  entirely  com- 
posed of  those  ingredients,  two  were  sawdust 
with  a  very  little  cassia,  and  one  was  pure  saw- 
dust. Seventy  per  cent  of  the  allspice.  70  per 
cent  of  the  pepper.  82  per  cent  of  the  cinnamon, 
5"  per  cent  of  the  cassia,  76  per  cent  of  the 
cloves,  and  66  per  cent  of  the  ginger,  was  adul- 
terated. The  most  universal  adulterations  are 
starch  for  bulk,  mustard  for  pungency,  and  tur- 
meric for  color.  Black  pepper  demands  a  spe- 
cial note,  as  it  is  the  exception  rather  than  the 
rule  to  find  it  pure.  A  large  percentage  of  the 
samples  examined  in  the  past  have  contained  no 
pepper  at  all.  «  Pepper  dust  »  (the  sweepings  of 
warehouses,  in  trade  a  regular  article  of  sale  as 
«  P.  D.»),  mustard  husks,  ground  wheat,  corn, 
or  rice,  capsicum,  and  even  gypsum  and  sand, 
have  been  found  in  it.  Red  or  cayenne  pepper  is 
much  purer  than  black  pepper  and  is  mainly 
adulterated  with  flour. 

Sugar. —  White  cane  sugar  has  become  so 
cheap  that  it  does  not  nay  to  adulterate  it.  and 
the  old  adulterants  like  marble  dust,  terra 
alba,  etc.,  have  practically  disappeared  except 
in  cheap  confectionery.  Sand  was  never  much 
used  except  in  brown  sugar  (4  per  cent  has 
been  said  to  be  unavoidable  in  Manila  sugars, 
but  any  percentage  is  indictable  if  the  direct 
addition  can  be  proved),  and  glucose  from  saw- 
dust has  taken  its  place:  equally  healthful  with 
cane  sugar,  but  of  course  a  fraud  as  less  sweet 
and  a  deception. 

Tea. —  Owing  to  its  cost  and  the  difficulty  of 
judging  its  quality  by  the  eye  or  taste  (Adam 
Smith  has  some  acute  remarks  on  this),  tea  has 
ahvays  been   a    favorite   article   of  adulteration 


ADULTERY  — AD  VALOREM 


from  its  introduction  into  the  West ;  fortunately, 
more  than  most  products  the  price  is  an  index 
of  the  quality,  and  it  is  easy  to  procure  a  good 
article  by  paying  for  it,  the  supply  of  good  qual- 
ity not  being  limited  by  nature  as  with  foreign 
wines.  It  has  the  distinction  of  having  had  a 
special  law  passed  to  prevent  its  adulteration, 
and  for  the  most  curious  reason  imaginable :  the 
Act  of  17  Geo.  III.  alleges  that  the  admixture 
of  the  leaves  of  sloe,  ash,  elder,  and  other  trees 
and  shrubs  with  it  was  working  great  injury 
to  the  timber  and  undergrowth.  Being  a  luxury 
whose  cost  presses  heavily  on  the  very  poor,  its 
substitutes  within  the  means  of  that  class  have 
usually  none  of  the  characteristic  properties, 
good  or  bad,  of  the  genuine,  and  are  mere 
flavored  warm  drinks ;  curiously,  the  only 
poisonous  adulteration  ever  alleged  against  it 
(groundlessly),  that  of  obtaining  its  green  color 
from  copper  pans,  was  against  the  very  costliest 
brand  of  all.  It  has  been  said,  however,  that  tea 
was  «  faced »  with  Prussian  blue  and  indigo; 
if  so,  the  time  has  gone  by.  But  the  .stuff  sold 
to  the  poor,  besides  spent  tea-leaves,  and  those 
of  various  plants  as  above,  has  been  found  to 
contain  masses  of  sheer  dirt,  sweepings,  brick- 
dust,  etc.,  unwholesome  and  liable  to  contain 
disease  germs.     See  Tea. 

Tobacco. —  Color  and  flavor  are  often  given 
to  inferior  grades  by  artificial  means.  No  leaf 
is  known  which  will  counterfeit  the  tobacco  leaf 
outright.  Snuff,  however,  lends  itself  readily  to 
debasement  by  colored  powder,  and  lime  and 
chromate  of  lead  have  been  found  in  it. 

Vinegar. —  The  most  usual  form  of  adultera- 
tion is  thinning  down  with  water,  then  restoring 
the  lost  strength  with  sulphuric,  muriatic,  nitric, 
or  other  cheap  mineral  acids.  The  first  is 
easily  detected  by  the  considerable  precipitate 
when  barium  chloride  is  added ;  the  second  by  a 
white  flocculent  precipitate  on  adding  a  few 
drops  of  solution  of  silver  nitrate.  Nitric  acid 
needs  special   chemical  tests. 

Wines. —  Naturally  their  chief  adulterants 
are  water  and  alcohol,  to  increase  bulk  or 
strength ;  colors  and  flavors,  astringents,  etc., — 
caramel,  logwood,  glycerine,  syrups,  etc., —  to 
give  artificial  qualities  resembling  reputed 
wines;  salicylic  acid  to  prevent  souring;  gypsum 
to  precipitate  organic  matters  that  muddy  the 
wine  (the  latter  injurious  as  likely  to  turn  into 
acid  potassium  sulphate)  ;  sugar  in  the  must,  to 
increase  the  alcohol,  etc.  Natural  colors  like 
fruit  juices  and  cochineal  are  harmless;  aniline 
colors  not  always.  The  chemical  tests  are  too 
special  to  be  detailed  in  a  popular  work.  It 
should  be  said,  however,  that  by  far  the  leading 
adulteration  consists  in  the  wine  not  being  real 
fermented  grape-juice  at  all :  this  applies  only  to 
foreign  wines,  the  American  being  generally 
pure,  and  practically  the  only  pure  wines  at 
moderate  price  on  the  market.  Real  wine  from 
foreign  vineyards  is  a  costly  article,  and  the 
better  grades  are  pledged  years  ahead  to  the  great 
foreign  courts,  noble  houses,  and  private  Euro- 
pean buyers.  Cheap  foreign  wines  should  be 
understood  from  the  outset  to  be  made  either 
from  exhausted  grape-skins  or  raisins  treated 
with  alcohol  and  water  (it  is  not  for  dessert 
use  that  the  great  majority  of  the  California 
raisin  crop  is  exported  to  France),  or  from  pear- 
juice  (much  the  greater  part  of  the  so-called 
French  «  champagne  »  in  America  being  perry). 


(Ellen  H.  Richards,  <  Food  Materials  and 
Their  Adulterations.)  an  admirable  household 
manual  of  food  selection  and  preparation,  Bos- 
ton 1886;  'Health  in  Diet,  Health  Exhibition 
Literature,'  Vol.  V.,  London  1884;  Battershall, 
<  Food  Adulteration  and  its  Detection,'  New 
York  1887 ;  Wedderburn,  popular  treatise  on 
<Food  Adulterations,'  Washington  1890;  Wiby, 
Richardson,  Crampton,  and  Spencer,  <  Foods 
and  Food  Adulterants,'  7  parts,  Washington 
1887-92;  etc.) 

Adultery,  unlawful  intercourse  between 
two  married  persons  not  standing  to  each  other 
in  the  relation  of  husband  and  wife,  or  between 
a  married  person  and  another  unmarried.  Ii 
the  former  case,  it  has  been  called  double,  and 
in  the  latter  single  adultery.  Unlawful  volun- 
tary sexual  intercourse  between  two  persons, 
one  of  whom  at  least  is  married,  is  the  essence 
of  the  crime  in  all  cases.  In  general  it  is  suffi- 
cient if  either  party  is  married,  and  the  crime  of 
the  married  party  will  be  adultery,  while  that  of 
the  unmarried  party  will  be  fornication.  In  the 
United  States  there  is  a  wide  diversity  in  the 
laws  relating  to  this  offense.  In  some  States  it 
has  been  made  a  crime,  while  in  others  civil 
proceedings  are  allowed  substantially  similar  to 
those  of  the  English  law.  Varied  punishments, 
mostly  of  a  very  severe  character,  have  in  nearly 
all  countries  and  ages  been  inflicted  on  those 
who  have  committed  this  offense.  In  some  cases 
it  has  been  deemed  lawful  for  a  husband  or  the 
woman's  father  to  kill  the  guilty  person  if  taken 
in  the  act.  By  the  law  of  England  the  slaughter 
of  the  offending  parties  in  such  cases  is  deemed 
manslaughter  of  a  not  very  aggravated  sort.  In 
English  law  the  act  is  punishable  only  by  the 
censure  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  but  when 
committed  by  a  wife  it  is  regarded  as  a  civil 
injury,  and  an  action  for  criminal  conversation 
may  be  brought  by  the  husband  against  the  para- 
mour. Adultery  is  now  considered  in  England 
a  ground  for  total  divorce. 

Advance  Guard.     See  Tactics. 

Advaita,  a-dwAl'ta,  a  philosophical  school  of 
India,  founded  by  Sankarujurya  (or  Cankara- 
carya),  who  flourished  about  the  middle  of  the 
8th  century  a.d.,  or  earlier.  Its  principal  doc- 
trines are  that  the  human  soul  is  not  essentially 
different  from  God,  but  that  it  is  imprisoned  in 
the  body  from  which  at  death  it  is  released  to 
return  to  the  impersonal  God,  and  that  the  ma- 
terial world  is  not  different  from  God.  Its  ad- 
herents are  called  Adva'itavadin,  or  Confessors 
of  Monism. 

Ad  Valor'em  ("  according  to  value »),  a 
term  denoting  the  method  by  which  customs 
taxes  are  determined  at  a  percentage  of  the 
value  of  the  imported  article  at  its  place  of  ex- 
port, on  the  seller's  oath  and  the  appraiser's 
estimate.  Theoretically,  this  is  much  fairer 
than  a  specific  duty  (on  a  unit  of  measure,  as 
pound,  yard,  bushel,  bale,  etc.).  since  the  costlier 
pay  their  equal  percentage  with  the  cheaper; 
but  in  practice,  it  has  serious  drawbacks,  annoys 
both  sellers  and  government  much,  defrauds  the 
latter  somewhat  and  its  people  a  great  deal. 
Values  are  unstable,  the  exporter  is  interested 
to  understate  them,  and  the  officials  are  eager 
to  scent  fraud,  whence  much  friction  and  many 
lawsuits.  As  to  the  last  item,  general  tariffs  are 
apt  to  produce  an  appearance  of  moderate  aver- 


ADVANCEMENT  — ADVENTISTS 


age  by  equating  a  low  duty  on  grades  of  slight 
consumption  with  a  high  one  on  those  chiefly 
used  ;  a  deception  impossible  on  specific  duties, 
v  hich    at    bast    must    declare   themselves.     The 

customs  officers  much  prefer  these  also.  The 
United  States  tariffs  are  of  both  kinds,  some  ar- 
ticles having  a  combination  of  the  two. 

Advancement,  in  law,  is  a  gift  by  antici- 
pation from  a  parent  to  a  child  of  the  whole  or 
a  part  of  what  it  is  supposed  such  child  would 
inherit  on  the  death  of  the  parent.  An  advance- 
mint  can  only  be  made  by  a  parent  to  a  child 
(2  Jones,  13"),  or  in  some  States  by  statute 
to  a  grandchild.  (4  Kent  Comm.  419.)  The 
effect  of  an  advancement  is  to  reduce  the  dis- 
tributive share  of  the  child  by  the  amount  so 
received,  estimating  its  value  at  the  time  of  re- 
ceipt. In  some  States,  however,  the  child  has 
his  option  to  retain  the  advancement  and  aban- 
don his  distributive  share. 

Advancement  of  Learning,  The,  by  Fran- 
cis Bacon,  1605,  the  original  title  being  <  Of  the 
Proficience  and  Advancement  of  Learning,  Di- 
vine and  Human.)  This  book,  received  with 
great  favor  by  the  court  anil  by  scholars,  was 
afterward  enlarged  and  published  in  Latin  with 
the  title  <  Dc  Augmentis  Scientiarum,'  as  the 
first  part  of  a  monumental  labor,  <  The  Installa- 
tion of  the  Sciences,'  of  which  the  second  part 
was  the  still  famous  <  Novum  Organum,"  on 
which  Bacon's  fame  as  a  philosopher  rests. 

Advent,  the  period  of  some  weeks  before 
the  Nativity,  observed  in  all  the  apostolic 
churches  as  a  season  of  solemnity  of  emotion 
and  action,  marriages  and  public  amusements 
being  interdicted  or  reprobated  :  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  also  a  season  of  fasting  and 
penance.  In  the  Western  Churches  —  Roman, 
Lutheran,  English,  and  Protestant  Episcopal  — 
it  is  of  four  weeks,  beginning  the  Sunday  next 
after  26  November,  or  that  nearest  St.  Andrew's 
Day  (30  November)  ;  in  the  Greek  Church  it  is 
six  weeks,  beginning  11  November,  St.  Martin's 
Day.  Our  first  notice  of  it  is  in  the  6th  century, 
at  the  Synod  of  Lerida  (524)  ;  and  two  sermons 
on  it  in  542  show  that  it  was  then  in  general  ob- 
servance.  In  that  century  also  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churches,  following  the  Nestorians, 
made  it  the  beginning  of  the  ecclesiastical  year 
instead  of  Easter.  Its  four  Sundays  were  be- 
lieved to  have  been  introduced  into  the  calendar 
by  Gregory  the  Great ;  and  to  have  reference  to 
Christ's  fourfold  coming  early  spoken  of  —  in 
the  flesh,  at  the  hour  of  death  to  his  faithful 
followers,  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  at  the 
day  of  judgment.  On  these  grounds  the  gospels 
were  chosen  for  the  four  Sundays.  Its  ordering 
was  settled  in  the  Western  Church  by  Charle- 
magne's «  Homilarium.» 

Advent,  Second.     See  Mit.i.f.xxium. 

Adventists  (often  spoken  of  as  «  Second- 
Adventists.M  and  formerly  as  «  Millerites »),  a 
sect  founded  bj  William  Miller  (q.v.).  begin- 
ning with  his  preaching  in  1831.  on  no  doctrinal 
creed  or  theory  of  ritual  or  church  government, 
but  the  belief  in  the  speedy  coming  of  Christ  to 
reign  on  the  earth:  a  persuasion  shared  by  so 
many  hundred  thousands  in  many  sects, —  form- 
ing indeed  an  essential  foundation-stone  of  one 
considerable  body,  the  Catholic  Apostolic. —  that 
it  hardly  seems  a  basis  for  a  separate  church; 


and  in  fact  it  is  not  one,  but  six,  each  with  a 
special  creed  and  organization.  Mr.  Miller's 
study  of  the  Biblical  prophecies,  especially  the 
Book  of  Daniel,  had  convinced  him  that  the 
coming  was  to  be  between  21  March  1843  and 
21  March  1^44:  after  this  time  had  passed,  he 
was  led  to  believe  that  he  had  erred  by  a  year 
through  mistaking  the  Jewish  year  for  the 
Roman,  which  would  be  1844,  the  exact  date 
1  the  prophecies  having  given  it  even  to  an  hour 

if    we    undersl 1    them)    being   24-5    October. 

Vast  multitudes,  many  being  first  baptized  by 
immersion,  assembled  in  different  places  (one 
group  on  an  island  in  the  Connecticut  River 
above  Hartford)  to  welcome  the  occasion  and 
the  Saviour  (not  however  in  ascension  robes,  as 
usually  stated,  or  not  generally)  ;  one  lady  went 
to  Palestine  to  meet  her  Saviour  first ;  some  in 
the  fervor  of  their  faith  gave  away  their  prop- 
erty ;  and  the  excitement  scarcely  flagged  till 
far  into  November.  There  was  a  «  Shut-Door  » 
faction,  who  believed  that  on  the  tenth  day  Christ 
had  shut  the  door,  and  the  « tenth-day  »  debate 
and  literature  were  considerable ;  one  of  «  Feet- 
Washers  "  ;  and  in  the  shock  of  disappointment, 
the  Shakers  received  considerable  accessions. 
On  20  April  1845  Mr.  Miller  called  a  convention 
at  Albany,  N.  Y..  of  the  still  faithful  (over 
50.000  in  all),  which  issued- a  declaration  of  be- 
lief and  adopted  the  name  of  Adventists.  The 
declaration  was  that  Christ  will  come  soon,  but  at 
an  unknown  time:  that  the  dead  both  just  and 
unjust  will  arise,  and  with  the  resurrection  of 
the  saints  the  Millennium  will  begin;  but  that 
there  is  no  promise  of  the  world's  conversion, 
and  the  saints  do  not  enter  into  their  inheritance 
at  death.  Mr.  Miller  died  in  1840.  hut  the  sect 
has  maintained  its  vitality  with  remarkable  per- 
sistence in  the  face  of  repeated  disappointments, 
several  other  periods  having  aroused  wide  hopes 
among  them.  They  now,  however,  in  general 
fix  no  specific  date,  but  like  their  fellows  in  other 
Churches  await  the  hour  in  the  Lord's  good 
time.  Their  Church  government  is  congrega- 
tional, save  that  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists 
and  the  Church  of  God  (originally  one)  have  a 
general  conference  which  is  supreme.  Their  bap- 
tism  is  by  immersion. 

Their  branches  are:  (1)  The  Evangelical 
Adventists.  formed  1845,  who  believe  in  the 
resurrection  of  the  saints  first  to  eternal  bliss, 
and  the  wicked  last  to  eternal  torment,  but  that 
all  are  conscious  after  death  while  waiting.  (2) 
The  Advent  Christians,  organized  1861,  who  be 
lieve  that  the  dead  are  unconscious,  that  the 
wicked  are  punished  by  annihilation,  and  that 
salvation  is  free  to  all  who  meet  its  conditions 
before  death.  They  are  chiefly  located  in  New 
England,  and  their  literature  is  published  by  the 
American  Millennial  Association,  Boston.  They 
maintain  home  and  extensive  foreign  missions; 
the  former  aided  by  the  "Helpers'  Union,"  a  wo- 
man's auxiliary.  (3)  The  Seventh-Day  Advent- 
ists (q.v.),  formed  in  1845,  who  believe  as(2)con- 
cerning  the  dead;  that  the  gift  of  prophecy  still 
exists,  and  was  accorded  to  Mrs.  Ellen  G.  White; 
that  the  United  States  is  the  Two-Horned  Beast : 
that  1843  was  a  real  fulfillment  of  prophecy, 
namely,  the  «  cleansing  of  the  sanctuary  »  and 
the  beginning  of  the  «  investigative  judgment)); 
and  that  total  abstinence,  vegetarianism,  and 
hygiene  are  part  of  religion.  This  is  by  far  the 
strongest  of  all.     Its  headquarters  are  at  Battle 


ADVERB  —  ADVERTISING 


Creek.  Mich.,  and  its  members  are  spread 
throughout  the  United  States,  being  especially 
strong  in  the  West,  and  numerous  in  other 
countries  as  well  as  America,  having  a  mis- 
sionary society  active  in  all  parts  of  the  globe. 
It  has  seven  publishing  houses,  in  America,  Eu- 
rope, and  Australia,  and  sanitariums  and  semi- 
naries in  a  number  of  States.  Its  members 
are  spread  throughout  the  Atlantic  States. 
Four  camp-meetings  are  held  each  year,  in  New 
England  and  Virginia.  Home  missions  are  sup- 
ported by  an  adult  and  a  juvenile  society.  The 
publishing     house     is     at      Springfield,      Mass. 

(4)  The  Church  of  God,  formed  1864-5 
by  a  split  from  (3),  on  refusal  to  hold  Mrs. 
White  inspired  or  the  United  States  the 
Beast ;  otherwise  its  beliefs  are  the  same.  It 
is  located  chiefly  in  the  West  and  South- 
west, and  has  a  publishing  house  at  White 
Cloud,  Mich.,  and  a  sanitarium  at  Stanberry,  Mo. 

(5)  The  Life  and  Advent  Union,  organized 
i860,  which  believes  that  the  wicked  never  wake 
from  their  sleep  of  death.  (6)  The  Churches  of 
God  in  Jesus  Christ  (« Age-to-Come  Advent- 
ists»),  who  believe  in  the  establishment  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  on  earth,  with  Christ  as  king 
and  the  saints  partakers  with  him,  the  annihila- 
tion of  the  wicked,  and  the  restoration  of  Is- 
rael. They  are  established  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  size  and 
activities  of  the  various  United  States  Advent- 
ist  bodies  in  1900:  — 

Denominations.                Churches.  Ministers.  Communi- 
cants. 

1.  Evangelicals      30  34  1,147 

2.  Advent    Christians    ...       610  912  26,500 

3.  Seventh    Day    1,494  386  57,539 

4.  Church    of    God 26  19  647 

5.  Life    and    Advent    Un- 

ion             28  60  3,800 

6.  Churches     of     God     in 

Jesus    Christ    95  94  2,872 

Adverb.     See    Grammar. 

Adverse  Possession,  a  possession  against 
any  other  claimant.  It  is  the  enjoyment  of  land, 
or  such  estate  as  lies  in  grant,  under  such  cir- 
cumstances as  indicate  that  such  enjoyment  has 
commenced  and  continued  under  an  assertion  or 
color  of  right  on  the  part  of  the  possessor. 

In  a  majority  of  the  States  of  the  Union, 
when  such  possession  has  been  actual  and  has 
been  adverse  for  20  years,  of  which  the  jury 
are  to  judge  from  the  circumstances,  the  law 
raises  a  presumption  of  a  grant.  This  presump- 
tion, however,  arises  only  when  the  use  or  occu- 
pation would  otherwise  have  been  unlawful. 

Such  possession,  however,  must  be  open, 
notorious,  visible,  exclusive,  and  continuous. 
But  possession  is  not  adverse  when  both  parties 
claim  under  the  same  title,  as  if  a  man  seized  of 
certain  land  in  fee  have  issue  two  sons  and  die 
seised,  and  one  of  the  sons  enter  by  abatement 
into  the  land,  the  statute  of  limitations  will  not 
operate  against  the  other  son:  for  when  the 
abator  entered  into  the  land  of  his  father,  before 
entry  made  by  his  brother,  the  law  intends  that 
he  entered  claiming  as  heir  to  his  father,  by 
which  title  the  other  son  also  claims. 

Adversity  Hume.   See  Hume,  Joseph. 

Advertisements  of  Elizabeth,  orders  issued 
by  Matthew  Parker,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
in  1566,  to  enforce  dignity  and  uniformity  in  the 


conduct  of  Common  Prayer  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  sacraments ;  prescribing  the  wearing 
of  the  surplice  and  college  cap  by  the  clergy, 
and  of  the  cope  in  cathedrals  and  collegiate 
churches.  They  were  so  entirely  in  accord  with 
Elizabeth's  known  views  that  the  Archbishop 
had  no  doubt  of  her  sanction ;  but  after  a  year's 
waiting  and  copious  correspondence  with  her 
minister  Cecil  (Burghley),  he  could  not  extract 
an  official  guaranty  and  was  obliged  to  assume 
personal  responsibility.  Their  modern  importance 
springs  from  the  quarrel  in  the  English  Church 
over  ritual  and  their  varying  interpretation  by 
the  High  and  Low  parties.  In  the  Ridsdale  case 
of  1877,  the  latter,  headed  by  Lord  Selborne, 
held  that  they  prescribed  absolutely  the  vest- 
ments to  be  worn,  and  were  infringed  by  addi- 
tions; the  former,  through  James  Parker,  held 
them  merely  a  minimum  for  decency. 

Advertising.  From  French  Avertir,  to  no- 
tify. Originally,  advertising  implied  mere  pub- 
lication, a  notice  for  an  individual,  or  class,  such 
as  legal  advertisements.  The  word,  however,  is 
now  generally  applied  to  the  advertisement  of 
merchandise  to  the  public  at  large,  through 
periodicals,  circulars,  posters,  painted  signs, 
electrical  display,  etc.  In  its  present  sense  ad- 
vertising is  a  powerful  and  legitimate  force  in 
the  commercial  world  and  in  the  distribution  of 
commodities,  and  it  has  been  designated  as  the 
literature  of  persuasion.  Its  volume  in  the 
United  States  figured  in  dollars  is  greater  than 
any  other  line  of  business  except  banking,  insur- 
ance and  transportation. 

History  of  Advertising. —  The  rudiments  of 
advertising  as  it  is  practised  to-day  for  the  pro- 
motion of  commerce  can  be  traced  back  as  far 
as  commerce  itself.  With  the  invention  of  the 
rudest  forms  of  writing  came  advertisements 
such  as  the  rewards  for  runaway  slaves.  The^e 
were  written  on  papyri  and  well-preserved  copies 
have  been  exhumed  at  Thebes.  Before  writing 
was  developed  advertising  by  means  of  criers 
and  sign-boards  existed.  The  latter  have  been 
used  in  all  ages  for  the  information  of  the  illiter- 
ate. Shops  in  ancient  Pompeii  had  terra-cotta 
signs,  showing  a  goat  to  denote  a  milk-seller's 
stall,  or  two  men  at  sword-play  to  indicate  a 
fencing  school.  Old  tavern  signs  like  the  «Star 
and  Garter"  are  a  medieval  form  of  the  same 
species  of  advertisement.  All  shops  in  London 
and  Paris  had  such  picture-advertisements  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  so  that  servants  unable  to 
read  might  find  them.  Until  the  invention  of 
printing  advertising  was  necessarily  of  this 
primitive  character.  But  since  the  16th  century 
it  has  steadily  kept  pace  with  the  increase  in 
periodicals  and  books.  The  oldest  newspaper 
advertisement  preserved  appears  in  a  German 
newsbook  of  1591,  and  is  a  book  notice.  The 
first  newspaper  traceable  in  France  (1612)  was 
partly  an  advertising  medium.  The  first  Eng- 
lish newspaper  appeared  in  1622.  and  the  first 
advertisement  30  years  later.  But  before  that 
tile  puffing  of  books,  shows,  cure-alls  and  quacks 
hy  posters,  processions,  etc.,  was  very  common 
The  introduction  of  tea,  coffee  and  chocolate 
into  England  is  recorded  in  old  newspaper  ad- 
vertisements (1652-58L  Addison's  "Tatler9 
No.  224  ( 1710)  is  devoted  entirely  to  descrip- 
tions of  advertisements  of  that  day  in  the  pub- 
lic   press,    and    tells    of   methods    of   exploiting 


ADVERTISING 


pills,  plasters,  cosmetics,  books,  houses  for  rent 
and  advertising  lor  lost  animals  and  runaway 
wives.  Fifty  years  later  (1759)  Or.  Johnson 
thought  that  "  the  trade  of  advertising  is  now 
so  near  to  perfection  that  it  is  not  easy  to  pro- 
prose  any  improvement."  The  lir-t  newspaper 
advertisement  in  America  appears  in  the  Boston 
'  News-Letter,'  of  1704.  Notices  of  shipping 
and  rewards  for  slaves  were  numerous  in  the 
'New  England  Weekly  Journal'  (Boston)  of 
17J.S,  and  shortly  after  this  American  newspapers 
began  to  carry  miscellaneous  trade  advertise- 
ments. 

In  Great  Britain  advertisements  were  heavily 
taxed  until  lX,^.  an  impost  oi  3s.  6d.  being  levied 
on  each  one  appearing  in  a  newspaper,  though  it 
might  be  but  a  laborer's  advertisement  for  work. 
Upon  the  abolition  of  this  tax  advertising  imme- 
diately began  to  grow.  To-day  Great  Britain 
probably  stands  next  to  the  United  States  in  the 
extent  of  its  advertising  expenditure.  The  Lon- 
don and  provincial  newspapers  are  heavily  pat- 
ronized, while  outdoor  advertising  is  more  exten- 
sive and  less  sightly  than  in  this  country.  Eng- 
lish magazines,  though  numerous,  have  never 
been  developed  as  advertising  mediums  to  the 
extent  that  the  American  have.  In  advertising 
practise  British  tradesmen  and  manufacturers 
respect  and  study  American  advertising  methods, 
adapting  many  of  our  devices  to  their  own 
needs.  In  Continental  Europe  advertising  finds 
its  chief  outlet  in  the  newspapers,  which  often 
have  tremendous  circulations,  and  by  means  of 
outdoor  posters  and  bulletins.  The  latter  forms 
of  advertisement  are  generally  controlled  by  gov- 
ernments on  the  Continent,  and  not  only  yield 
a  revenue  to  the  State,  but  are  regulated  as  to 
size,  location  and  display.  While  France,  Ger- 
many, Italy  and  other  countries  have  numerous 
weekly  and  monthly  reviews,  none  of  them  have 
ever  attained  the  importance  of  leading  Ameri- 
can magazines  as  advertising  mediums.  Great 
Britain  and  the  continental  countries  have  better 
facilities  for  the  transportation  of  merchandise 
parcels  through  the  posts,  and  it  might  be 
thought  that  on  this  account  some  system  corre- 
sponding to  our  mail  order  advertising  would 
have  been  developed.  But  mail  order  advertis- 
ing is  limited  there,  probably  because  most  of 
the  population  is  in  close  touch  with  distributing 
centers,  and  also  because  the  mass  of  the  people 
not  so  evenly  prosperous  as  American  farmers, 
have  a  smaller  purchasing  power. 

The  real  development  of  advertising  as  a 
factor  in  the  distribution  of  commodities  may 
be  said  to  have  begun  only  with  the  appearance 
of  the  steamboat  and  railroad,  the  modern  pos- 
tal system  and  the  telegraph.  Its  rapid  growth 
since  then,  especially  in  the  United  States, 
where  the  great  distances  between  producer  and 
consumer  lessen  direct  dealing,  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  it  is  a  legitimate  wheel  in  dis- 
tributive machinery  rather  than  a  form  of  ag- 
grandized puffery.  In  this  sense,  advertising  is 
but  little  more  than  50  years  old.  Before  then, 
it  had  chiefly  a  curious  interest.  A  full  and 
entertaining  description  of  early  advertising  will 
be  found  in  Sampson's  'History  of  Advertising 
from  the  Earliest  Times'    (London  1874). 

Development  of  Advertising. — Advertising  in 
the  modern  sense  was  first  sparingly  employed 
by  retail  merchants  in  large  cities.  About  1840 
improved  postal   facilities  in  the  United  States 


broadened  newspaper  circulation  and  brought 
into  being  the  earliest  trade,  denominational, 
agricultural  and  general  periodicals  of  national 
circulation.  These  made  it  profitable  to  adver- 
tise over  wide  territory.  Soon  there  were  firms, 
chiefly  patent  nostrum  makers,  whose  chief 
expenditure  was  for  advertising,  and  the  value 
of  the  new  force  was  appreciated  by  charlatans, 
quacks  and  swindlers  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
public  soon  learned  to  distrust  advertising.  For 
more  than  a  generation  it  was  not  considered 
reputable  by  the  great  majority  of  legitimate 
business  houses.  The  power  of  advertising  as 
a  force  in  merchandising,  however,  eventually 
brought  reputable  interests  into  the  field.  The 
swindler  began  to  retreat.  Among  the  first  classes 
of  manufacturers  to  advertise  widely  were  mak- 
ers of  novel  commodities,  such  as  sewing  ma- 
chines, typewriters,  bicycles,  baking  powders, 
infant  foods,  etc.,  then  quite  new  for  the  most 
part.  In  the  period  from  1880  to  1890  the  char- 
latan was  practically  forced  on:  of  American 
advertising  mediums  as  legitimate  business  in- 
creased in  them,  and  in  the  period  from  1890 
to  1905,  with  public  confidence  gained,  the 
growth  of  both  advertising  and  publications  in 
the  United  States  has  been  so  great  that  pub- 
lishing and  printing  now  rank  seventh  in  the 
country's  industries,  being  exceeded  only  by  iron 
and  steel,  slaughtering,  foundries  and  machin- 
ery, lumbering,  milling  and  men's  clothing. 
Where  formerly  the  novelties  of  commerce  were 
advertised,  it  is  now  the  staples  that  predomi- 
nate, such  as  shoes,  flour,  cereal  foods,  clothing, 
vehicles,  etc.  The  advertising  revenue  of  lead- 
ing publications  is  to-day  so  important  that  most 
publishers  censor  advertising,  and  investigate  a 
doubtful  advertiser  before  his  announcement  is 
inserted.  The  practise  of  the  publisher  making 
good  to  readers  any  loss  they  may  incur  through 
a  swindling  advertisement  is  becoming  common 
in  this  country,  and  few  losses  occur.  More- 
over, the  Government  has  thrown  safeguards 
around  advertising,  and  through  the  Postoffice 
effectually  prevents  swindling  operations  by 
denying  the  use  of  the  mails  to  an  advertiser 
whose  methods  will  not  bear  investigation.  Ad- 
vertising has  had  an  immense  influence  upon 
the  lives  of  the  people,  for  it  not  only  increi 
the  standard  of  living  and  health  by  introduc- 
tion of  modern  conveniences  such  as  baths  and 
sanitary  appliances,  heating  and  lighting  appa- 
ratus, the  spread  of  means  of  culture,  the  en- 
couragement of  travel,  etc.,  but  also  tends  to 
improve  the  quality  of  commodities  without  a 
corresponding  increase  in  cost.  Competition  in 
advertising  takes  the  form  of  price  rivalry  much 
more  rarely  than  might  be  presumed.  Adver- 
tisers seeking  to  create  national  demand  for 
commodities  sold  under  their  trade-brands,  com- 
pete rather  in  offering  excellent  staples,  assur- 
ing purity  and  marketing  in  sanitary  packages. 
Advertising  has  resulted  in  the  invention  and 
use  of  dust,  germ  and  air-proof  cartons,  boxes 
and  containers.  Formerly  it  was  a  kind  of 
puffery,  but  at  present  the  widest  advertising  is 
characterized  by  the  completeness  with  which  it 
presents  information,  and  the  logical  reasoning 
by  which  it  seeks  to  persuade  readers.  In  the 
decade  from  1895  to  1905  advertising  in  the 
United  States  has  outgrown  that  of  every  other 
nation  in  volume,  and  has  also  been  conspicuous 
for  its  division  into  special  channels,  following 


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CHARLES  L.    CAMMAPJN. 

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ADVERTISING 


the  lines  of  the  various  periodicals  and  condi- 
tions of  demand  for  commodities. 

Retail  Advertising  embraces  the  announce- 
ments of  merchants,  large  and  small,  in  their 
own  communities,  from  the  full  page  in  each 
day's  newspapers  employed  by  great  department 
stores  to  the  small  announcements  once  or  twice 
a  week  of  the  minor  shopkeeper.  This  form  of 
advertising  is  really  a  species  of  news,  prepared 
daily,  and  is  of  such  interest  to  the  public  that 
many  readers  take  newspapers  for  their  store 
advertisements,  and  the  journals  which  carry 
most  of  these  have  the  largest  circulations. 
Merchants  also  publish  store  news  by  means  of 
circulars  through  the  mails,  minor  local  jour- 
nals, programmes,  bulletins,  posters,  etc. 

General  Advertising  is  the  general  term  de- 
scribing exploitation  intended  to  reach  the  public 
nationally,  or  in  a  group  of  states.  It  is  found 
chiefly  in  magazines  and  reviews,  and  in  daily 
newspapers.  Street  cars,  billboards  and  bulletins 
are  employed  as  accessories.  General  advertis- 
ers include  large  manufacturers  of  food  articles, 
soaps,  musical  instruments,  clothing,  beverages, 
tobacco,  household  and  office  supplies,  furniture, 
plate,  jewelry,  sanitary  appliances,  etc.,  as  well 
as  the  great  insurance,  steamship  and  railroad 
companies,  cities  and  villages  seeking  popula- 
tion, banks  and  trust  companies,  and  so  forth. 
This  is  easily  the  largest  branch  of  advertising, 
and  the  one  most  influential  in  distribution.  It 
acts  as  a  stimulus  to  the  local  merchant's  efforts, 
and  is  so  wide  in  scope  as  to  touch  every  class 
and  interest  of  the  nation,  however  remote. 

Mail  Order  Advertising  is  the  term  applied 
to  a  form  of  exploitation  peculiarly  American. 
When  the  newer  communities  of  the  West  were 
insufficiently  supplied  by  their  local  merchants, 
several  intelligent  merchants  in  Chicago,  a  city 
situated  geographically  for  this  form  of  trade, 
began  to  advertise  commodities  to  be  forwarded 
direct  to  consumers  by  freight  and  express,  re- 
ceiving orders  and  remittances  through  the 
mails.  This  was  the  beginning  of  "mail  order"  ad- 
vertising. Several  of  these  merchants  have  built 
up  businesses  with  a  gross  annual  income  of 
$-'5,000,000  or  more,  selling  practically  every- 
thing in  the  way  of  supplies,  machinery,  food, 
clothing,  etc.,  direct  to  the  consumer.  Thousands 
of  small  advertisers  operate  with  a  few  com- 
modities through  the  mails,  and  many  local  mer- 
chants conduct  mail  order  departments.  Mail 
order  advertising  is  found  in  the  magazines,  the 
farm  and  religious  press,  the  newspapers,  and 
in  a  class  of  cheaply  printed  periodicals  known 
as  "mail  order  journals,"  having  enormous  cir- 
culations among  people  on  farms  and  in  villages 
who  are  not  reached  by  more  costly  magazines 
or  daily  papers.  A  large  volume  of  mail  order 
advertising  is  also  done  through  catalogues  and 
printed  matter  sent  through  the  mails. 

Agricultural  Advertising  is  a  form  of  pub- 
licity similar  to  mail  order  advertising, but  which 
appears  chiefly  in  farm  periodicals  and  exploits 
machinery,  fertilizers,  farm  animals,  stock  food, 
building  materials  and  farm  supplies. 

Trade  Journal  Advertising  appears  in  the 
numerous  special  publications  devoted  to  manu- 
facturing, retail  and  wholesale,  commerce, 
finance,  medicine  and  the  professions,  mining, 
transportation,  etc.  Its  object  is  to  acquaint 
local  merchants  with  commodities  manufac- 
turers   wish   to   distribute,   to   inform   engineers 


and  superintendents  of  manufacturing  plants 
about  new  machinery,  and,  generally,  to  main- 
tain that  great  organization  which  produces  and 
handles  commodities  up  to  the  point  where  they 
pass  into  the  consumer's  hands. 

Advertising  Mediums. —  In  the  United  States 
advertising  may  be  divided  roughly  into  four 
groups,  represented  by  the  mediums  used : 
Periodical  advertising,  outdoor  advertising, 
street-car  advertising  and  mail  advertising. 

Periodical  Advertising  includes  newspapers, 
magazines,  reviews,  trade,  denominational  and 
farm  publications,  periodicals  printed  in  foreign 
languages,  theatre  and  concert  programs  and 
other  publications,  of  which  there  are  not  less 
than  23.000  of  all  kinds.  In  1900  the  output  of 
printing  and  publishing  in  this  country  was 
valued  at  $350,000,000,  of  which,  it  is  estimated, 
fully  $200,000,000  represented  revenue  from  ad- 
vertisements in  periodicals  and  the  printing  of 
advertising  matter.  This  item  of  expenditure 
is  increasing  so  rapidly  that  it  was  estimated  at 
$275,000,000  for  1905.  Advertising  in  periodicals 
exceeds  receipts  from  subscriptions  by  $30,000,000. 
During  the  20  years  from  1880  to  1900  the  in- 
crease in  advertising  receipts  of  American 
periodicals  was  over  40  per  cent.  In  the  four 
States  that  publish  the  greatest  number  of  pe- 
riodicals—  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Massachu- 
setts and  Illinois  —  the  receipts  from  advertis- 
ing in  1900  were  over  $52,000,000.  The  adver- 
tising revenue  of  some  of  our  largest  newspapers 
runs  into  millions  of  dollars  yearly.  Magazines 
have  shown  the  greatest  growth  in  numbers, 
circulation  and  advertising  patronage  the  past 
decade.  In  November,  1904,  31  leading  monthly 
magazines  in  the  United  States  published  a  total 
of  3.128  pages  of  advertising,  representing,  at 
an  average  of  $21  an  inch,  an  income  of  more 
than  $1,000,000  per  month  from  this  source. 
More  than  7.500  separate  advertisements  were 
represented,  and  2,000  separate  business  houses, 
with  an  average  expenditure  of  $500  each  for 
the  month,  or  $6,000  per  year.  It  is  held  to  be 
a  safe  rule  to  spend  5  per  cent  of  the  selling 
price  of  a  commodity  in  advertising,  so  that  this 
advertising  for  a  single  month  in  31  publications 
would  have  to  return  a  gross  amount  exceeding 
$20,000,000  to  be  profitable,  or  nearly  $250,000,000 
yearly.  While  the  largest  newspaper  circulations 
seldom  exceed  300.000  copies,  daily,  the  circula- 
tion of  several  monthly  magazines  is  more  than 
1. 000.000  copies  per  issue,  and  of  one  weekly 
more  than  800.000  copies  per  issue. 

Outdoor  Advertising  includes  posters  and 
placards  pasted  on  billboards  and  barns,  painted 
signs  on  barns,  fences  and  walls,  as  well  as 
specially  constructed  bulletin  boards  in  large 
cities  which  are  electrically  illuminated  at  night, 
the  erection  of  advertisements  about  buildings 
in  process  of  construction,  the  use  of  advertising 
along  railroad  lines  and  at  populous  seaside  re- 
sorts, etc.  As  much  as  $10  per  square  foot  has 
been  paid  for  the  privilege  of  advertising  on  a 
wall  in  New  York  City.  Electric  signs,  with 
advertisements  outlined  in  incandescent  lamps, 
are  an  important  form  of  expenditure  for  out- 
door advertising.  The  largest  advertisement  of 
this  sort  in  the  world  is  a  single  word  on  a 
New  York  building,  with  letters  60  feet  high. 
visible  to  50,000,000  passenger?  on  ferries  each 
year.  Advertising  of  this  character  adds  to  the 
attractiveness  of  a  city  by  its  diffusion  of  light 


ADVERTISING 


through  the  main  streets  at  no  cost  to  the  public. 
Billboards  and  other  outdoor  advertising  are 
more  often  charged  with  abusi     and  unstghtli- 

ness  than  any  other  form,  and  in  some  cities  are 
prohibited  in  the  vicinity  of  parks  by  municipal 
regulation.  They  have  never  come  under  con- 
trol to  the  extent  common  on  the  Continent,  and 
in  comparison  with  the  outdoor  advertisements 
of  London  are  perhaps  pleasing.  Outdoor  ad- 
vertising  is  thought  t"  be  effective  in  reaching 
persons  not  habitual  readers  of  newspapers,  as 
well  as  to  lay  emphasis  upon  newspaper  and 
magazine  advertising  by  repeating  the  names  of 
commodities  more  fully  described  in  the  press. 
It  necessarily  affords  no  opportunities  for  de- 
scription of  articles,  but  is  confined  to  repetition 
of  brands  and  trademarks. 

Sired  Car  Advertising  is  a  medium  that  has 
become  prominent  in  the  United  States  since  the 
introduction  of  electric  traction  and  the  spread 
of  trolley  lines  through  cities  and  suburbs.  An 
enormous  population  is  carried  in  these  vehi- 
cles—  more  than  5,000,000.000  cash  fares  are 
paid  on  trolleys  yearly,  and  perhaps  two-thirds 
of  these  represent  an  extra  ride  in  the  shape  of 
a  transfer.  It  is  possible  to  maintain  an  adver- 
tising card  in  the  32,000  cars  throughout  the 
United  States,  covering  about  400  towns  and 
cities,  for  $150,000  a  year,  and  in  point  of  the 
number  <if  persons  who  can  be  reached  for  a 
given  sum  the  trolley,  elevated  and  subway  lines 
are  said  to  offer  the  cheapest  form  of  advertis- 
ing. Car  advertising  in  New  York  City,  it  is 
claimed,  has  a  national  circulation  owing  to  the 
fact  that  250,000  persons  from  all  over  the 
country  are  constantly  in  the  metropolis.  More 
matters  may  be  printed  on  a  car  card  than  on 
an  outdoor  poster,  and  while  there  arc  few  in- 
where  large  advertisers  have  attained 
success  through  the  use  of  billboards  alone,  quite 
a  number  have  confined  their  operations  to  street 
cars  with  profit.  As  a  rule,  though,  advertising 
amis  toward  a  balanced  effect  111  magazines, 
newspapers,  cars,  billboards  and  printed  matter. 

Mail  Advertising. —  In  1679  a  London  haber- 
dasher gave  to  each  customer  who  purchased 
goods  to  the  value  of  a  guinea  a  printed  list  of 
his  stock,  and  this  was  regarded  as  a  dangerous 
innovation  because,  if  followed  generally,  it 
would  result  in  the  investment  of  too  much 
tradesmen's  capital  in  printed  bills.  From  this 
humble  beginning  the  use  of  circulars  and  cata- 
logues has  grown  to  a  point  where,  at  present, 
in  the  United  States,  every  second  letter  carried 
through  the  mails  is  an  advertising  letter,  and 
for  every  periodical  posted  there  is  mailed  a  cat- 
alogue or  brochure.  Postage  on  advertising 
matter  aggregated  between  $25,000,000  and  $30,- 
000.000  in  1904,  and  this  perhaps  represented  only 
one-tenth  the  cost  of  compiling  and  printing  such 
advertising.  Mail  advertising  takes  many  forms, 
from  the  leather-bound  catalogue  of  500  or  more 
pages  to  the  humble  postal  card.  Every  general 
advertiser  has  descriptive  matter  in  booklet  form 
which  is  mailed  freely  to  those  who  express  in- 
terest in  his  magazine  or  newspaper  advertising, 
and  in  many  instances  the  periodicals  are  used 
only  to  excite  such  interest,  printed  matter  being 
relied  upon  to  tell  the  whole  story  of  such  com- 
plicated apparatus  as  an  agricultural  implement, 
heating  furnace  or  piano-player.  Many  adver- 
tising letters  are  sent  out  to  lists  of  persons  who 
may  be  interested  in  certain  commodities,  either 


printed  in  imitation  of  typewriting  or  actually 
written  on  a  typing  machine.  Mail  advertising 
also  embraces  the  distribution  at  regular  postal 
rates  of  small  periodicals  devoted  to  the  interests 
1  .1  manufacturing  or  merchandising  house. 
There  are  hundreds  of  these  personal  business 
organs,  some  of  which  have  been  of  sufficient 
interest  to  enlarge  into  standard  magazines. 
Mail  advertising  also  includes  the  distribution 
of  what  are  known  as  "advertising  novelties," 
ingenious  or  useful  trifles  ranging  from  puzzles 
to  match-boxes,  and  comic  cards  to  desk  calen- 
dars, all  bearing  the  name  of  an  advertiser. 
Blotters,  calendars,  almanacs,  reproductions  of 
paintings  and  many  other  forms  of  printed  ad- 
vertising, upon  tin,  cardboard,  paper,  wood, 
leather,  cloth,  bark,  porcelain,  glass  and  other 
substances  travel  through  the  mails.  This  is 
the  most  costly  form  of  advertising  known,  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  persons  that  can  be 
reached  for  a  given  expenditure,  but  as  most  of 
this  matter  is  sent  to  persons  thought  to  be 
directly  interested,  it  often  pays  a  larger  return 
than  advertising  distributed  promiscuously 
through  periodicals,  etc. 

Advertising  Agencies. —  Soon  after  advertis- 
ing began  to  be  used  nationally  instead  of  locally 
it  was  found  convenient  to  put  details  of  corre- 
sponding with  newspapers,  arranging  rates,  writ- 
ing the  advertisements,  seeing  that  they  were 
properly  inserted,  etc.,  into  the  hands  of  a  new- 
functionary  who  then  sprang  up  —  the  Advertis- 
ing Agent.  The  first  advertising  agent  to  open 
an  office  for  the  reception  of  advertisements  in 
this  country  was  Volney  B.  Palmer.  He  began 
business  in  Philadelphia  in  1840,  and  subse- 
quently established  offices  in  Boston  and  Balti- 
more as  well.  Before  this,  however,  the  adver- 
tising agent  was  known  abroad,  for  Balzac  men- 
tions ("Le  Depute  d'Arcis")  as  among  the  ten- 
ants of  a  Paris  rookery  in  the  thirties,  "women 
of  the  town,  still-born  insurance  companies, 
newspapers  fated  to  die  young,  impossible  rail- 
way companies,  discount  brokers  and  advert  1  e 
merit  agents  who  lack  the  publicity  they  profess 
to  sell  —  in  short,  all  description  of  shy  or  doubt- 
ful enterprise."  When  national  advertising  was 
new  there  existed  no  newspaper  directories.  To 
advertise  in  a  given  territory  it  was  necessary 
to  go  to  an  advertising  agent  who  had  lists  of 
the  newspapers  and  knew  their  rates.  Agents 
often  purchased  several  columns  of  space  in  a 
number  of  newspapers  by  the  year,  re-selling 
allotments  to  advertisers  for  a  price  less  than 
the  newspaper  would  charge  direct.  The  adver- 
tising agent  was  thus  a  broker,  and  to  encourage 
him  in  developing  advertising  the  newspapers 
paid  him  a  commission  on  what  he  sent  in. 
Then,  as  demand  grew,  he  became  also  an  ad- 
viser to  new  advertisers,  giving  counsel  as  to  the 
ways  in  which  a  given  appropriation  should  be 
spent,  preparing  the  text  and  illustrations  and 
supplementary'  matter  to  be  us^-d,  checking  in- 
sertions in  papers  and  bills,  etc.  This  detail  work 
is  complex,  and  the  advertising  agent  usually  per- 
forms it  more  reasonably  than  an  advertiser 
could  do  himself.  From  a  broker  in  space,  the 
advertising  agent  of  the  present  day  has  become 
a  specialist  whose  services  are  valued  because 
he  has  a  wide  experience  in  directing  the  opera- 
tions of  many  advertisers,  as  well  as  an  equip- 
ment for  writing  and  illustrating  advertising 
matter.       While    the    advertising   agent    is   still 


ADVOCATE 


paid  by  commissions  of  10  to  15  per  cent 
allowed  him  by  publishers  of  newspapers  and 
magazines,  he  is  in  no  sense  the  agent  of  the  pub- 
lishers, but  receives  rather  a  wholesale  rate  upon 
advertising  space,  which  he  sells  to  the  advertiser 
at  a  retail  or  gross  price.  An  advertising  agent's 
interests  are  so  wholly  bound  up  with  his  adver- 
tising client's  that  in  some  instances  he  receives 
for  his  services  a  salary  besides.  Advertis- 
ing agents  have  been  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance in  the  development  of  advertising, 
for  by  active  work  in  leading  conservative 
business  houses  to  utilize  this  modern  dis- 
tributive force,  they  have  built  up  the  reve- 
nues of  publishers,  improved  publications  and 
driven  advertising  charlatans  from  the  field.  A 
few  of  the  largest  advertisers  maintain  depart- 
ments in  their  business  to  prepare  and  supervise 
their  own  advertising,  while  publishers  of  mag- 
azines and  newspapers  also  carry  on  independ- 
ently the  work  of  converting  business  houses  to 
advertising.  Despite  this,  the  agent's  function 
has  remained  an  indispensable  one,  and  with 
the  development  of  advertising  he  has  en- 
trenched it  by  specializing.  One  of  the  leading 
New  York  advertising  agencies,  for  example,  has 
been  instrumental  in  building  up  the  large  show- 
ing of  steamship,  railroad  and  travel  advertising 
now  carried  in  leading  magazines,  with  supple- 
mentary advertising  of  hotels  and  resorts.  Two 
other  agencies  are  known  for  their  work  among 
advertisers  of  agricultural  implements,  another 
has  found  its  field  in  the  development  of  textile 
advertising  through  magazine  and  trade  journal 
advertising,  etc. 

With  the  past  decade  the  advertising  agent 
has  ceased  to  be  what  the  name  would  imply 
and  has  really  become  a  professional  man  whose 
advice  is  sought  as  such  by  the  largest  commer- 
cial and  financial  concerns.  The  leaders  in 
this  new  profession  have  become  experts  on 
trade  conditions,  and  in  the  introduction  of  new 
goods  or  the  development  of  trade  in  well-estab- 
lished lines.  The  modern  well-equipped  adver- 
tising agency  has  attached  to  it  not  only  compe- 
tent writers  of  advertisments,  artists  and  photog- 
raphers, but  experts  in  salesmanship  who  study 
economic  questions  and  conditions  with  the 
greatest  thoroughness.  This  branch  of  the  work 
has  been  carried  by  some  of  the  leading  agen- 
cies to  the  point  of  becoming  advisors  and  lec- 
turers to  the  regularly  employed  traveling  men 
of  the  concerns  represented. 

Special  Advertising  Agencies  differ  from  the 
foregoing  general  advertising  agencies  in  that 
they  actually  represent  the  publishers  of  certain 
newspapers  or  miscellaneous  journals  in  a  given 
territory,  promoting  advertising  only  for  those 
journals  and  receiving  commissions  on  all  busi- 
ness that  comes  from  such  territory.  These 
special  agents  are  found  chiefly  in  New  York 
and  Chicago,  where  a  large  percentage  of  adver- 
tising originates,  and  are  simply  branch  offices 
of  publishers  outside  such  cities,  who  take  such 
means  for  being  represented.  In  several  States 
associations  have  been  formed  among  the  smaller 
daily  papers  who  unite  in  employing  a  represen- 
tative who  acts  as  their  agent  in  procuring 
business. 

As  advertising  has  developed  in  this  country 
it  seeks  ever  new,  varied  channels,  so  that  while 
it  is  possible  by  a  proper  selection  of  mediums 
to  reach  practically  the  whole  public,  it  is  also 


possible,  on  the  other  hand,  to  appeal  to  a  small 
group  of  persons  interested  in  some  special  com- 
modity. No  adequate  outline  of  the  many  forms 
of  advertising  could  be  given  in  an  article  of  this 
scope,  and  readers  interested  in  a  fuller  presenta- 
tion of  methods,  cost,  the  stories  of  famous  ad- 
vertisers, etc.,  are  referred  to  'History  of  Adver- 
tising* (London,  1874)  ;  'Modern  Advertising' 
(New  York,  1905)  ;  'The  Theory  of  Advertis- 
ing' (Boston,  1904)  ;  'Forty  Years  an  Adver- 
tising Agent'  (New  York,  1906)  ;  'Principles  of 
the  Mail  Order  Business'  (Chicago,  1903)  ; 
'The  Business  of  Advertising'  (London,  1905). 
In  addition  to  the  above  there  are  numerous 
newspaper  directories  published  annually. 

American  advertising  has  a  large  periodical 
literature  of  its  own,  comprising  fully  25  weekly 
and  monthly  journals.  Many  of  these  are  illus- 
trated and  assume  the  dignity  in  matter  and 
typography  of  the  standard  magazine.  Among 
the  most  notable  of  these  publications  are 
'Printers'  Ink'  (weekly,  New  York);  'Profit- 
able Advertising'  (monthly,  Boston)  ;  'Fame' 
(monthly,  New  York);  'Agricultural  Advertis- 
ing' (monthly,  Chicago)  ;  'Mail  Order  Journal' 
(monthly,  Chicago)  ;  'Judicious  Advertising' 
(monthly,  Chicago)  ;  <Ad  Sense'  (monthly, 
Chicago),  and  others.         Frank  Presbrey. 

The  Frank  Presbrey  Co.,  New  York. 

Advocate,  (1)  Originally  one  whose  aid 
was  called  in  or  invoked ;  one  who  helped  in  any 
business  matter;  (2)  in  law,  at  first,  one  who 
gave  his  legal  aid  in  a  case,  without,  however, 
pleading, this  being  the  function  of  the  patronus; 
(3)  the  advocatus  fiiti,  who  attended  to  the  in- 
terests of  the  fisctts,  or  the  emperor's  privy 
purse. 

In  the  old  German  empire,  a  person  ap- 
pointed by  the  emperor  to  do  justice.  In  Ger- 
many and  elsewhere  juridical  advocates  were 
made  judges  in  consequence  of  their  attending 
when  causes  were  pleaded  in  the  count's  court. 

In  the  mediaeval  church,  one  appointed  to  de- 
fend the  rights  and  revenues  of  a  church  or 
monastery.  The  word  advocate,  in  the  sense  of 
a  defender  of  the  Church,  was  ultimately  super- 
seded by  that  of  patron,  but  it  still  lingers  in 
the  term  advow  son. 

Constitutional  advocates,  in  Rome,  pleaded 
before  the  consistory  in  cases  relating  to  the 
disposal  of  benefices  which  they  opposed.  Elec- 
tive advocates  were  chosen  by  a  bishop,  an 
abbot,  or  a  chapter.  Feudal  advocates  were 
persons  assigned  lands  on  condition  of  their 
fighting  for  the  Church,  leading  out  their  vas- 
sals for  the  purpose.  Matricular  advocates  de- 
fended the  cathedral  churches.  Military  advo- 
cates were  appointed  to  fight  for  the  Church. 
The  Devil's  advocate  is  a  Roman  ecclesiastic 
whose  office  it  is  to  urge  whatever  objections 
may  exist  to  the  canonization  of  any  proposed 
saint. 

In  English  law,  originally  one  who  pleaded  a 
cause  in  a  civil,  but  not  in  a  criminal,  court ; 
alone  entitled  to  plead  as  counsel  in  ecclesiastical 
and  admiralty  courts,  which  are  now  thrown 
open  to  the  ordinary  bar.  Now,  in  English  and 
American  law,  one  who  pleads  a  cause  in  any 
court.  It  is  not  properly  speaking,  a  technical 
word,  but  is  used  only  in  a  popular  sense,  while 
the  attorney  and  barrister  (q.v.)  have  defined 
special  attributes. 


JEETES  —  JEGYPTUS 


^Je'tes.     See  Argon  aits. 

iEga'dian  Islands,  ;i  group  lying  ofi  the 
W.  extremity  of  Sicily,  and  consisting  of  Mari- 
time. Favignana,  Levanso,  and  Le  Formiche. 
I  tvignana,  the  lar^<>t.  is  about  14  111.  in  cir- 
cuit, and  has  productive  tunny  and  anchovy 
fisheries.  The  group  lias  a  population  of  6,300. 
.War  these  islands  the  Romans  won  a  great 
naval  battle  with  the  Carthaginians,  741  in., 
which  ended  the  first  Punic  war. 

.ffigean  Sea,  e-je'an  or  i'ga-an,  the  old 
name  of  the  gulf  between  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece,  now  usually  called  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago  (q.v.). 

.ffigeus,  e'jus.     See  Theseus. 

.ffigi'na,  a  Greek  island  about  15  m.  S.W.  of 
Athens.  111  the  Gulf  of  .Egina  (old  Sinus  Saro- 
nicus)  ;  area.  32  sq.  111.;  pop  alxuit  7.000.  It  is 
the  triangular  top  of  a  partly  submerged  rocky 
hill,  with  deep  gorges  and  ravines,  and  the 
eastern  half  rocky  and  unproductive:  hut  the 
western  is  a  well-cultivated  plain,  which  un- 
der the  warm  air  anil  sea  produce  the  best  Greek 
almonds,  with  olives  and  other  fruits,  wine,  and 
some  grain.  The  non-agricultural  inhabitants 
do  a  considerable  commerce  and  navigation 
from  the  one  port,  the  capital.  /Egina  (pop. 
about  5.000),  at  the  northwest,  on  the  site  of  the 
old  Greek  town,  of  which  considerable  remains 
are  left,  the  ruins  of  solidly  built  walls  and  har- 
bor moles  still  attesting  its  ancient  size  and  im- 
portance. According  to  the  legend,  the  island 
was  named  after  the  nymph  .Egina,  brought 
thither  by  Zeus.  Historically,  its  first  inhab- 
itants were  Achxans,  and  were  expelled  by  a 
1  li  >rian  colony  from  Epidaurns,  under  whom  it 
was  one  of  the  foremost  commercial  cities  of 
Greece,  full  of  hardy,  energetic  people,  born 
seamen,  who  covered  themselves  with  glory  at 
Salamis.  They  were  later  forced  to  become  a 
tributary  part  of  the  Athenian  empire,  and  in 
431  B.C.  were  expelled  altogether.  Lysander 
afterward  restored  them,  but  the  city's  old  im- 
portance was  gone.  On  a  bill  in  the  northeast 
are  the  remains  of  a  splendid  temple  of  Zeus 
Panhellenius  (or,  as  others  maintain,  of  Athena), 
many  of  the  columns  of  which  are  still  stand- 
ing. Here  were  found  in  the  early  19th  cen- 
tury a  number  of  marble  statues  which  once 
adorned  the  east  and  west  fronts  of  the  temple ; 
they  were  purchased  by  the  king  of  Bavaria  in 
[812,  the  deficient  parts  restored  by  Thorwald- 
sen,  and  are  now  among  the  chief  ornaments  of 
the  Glyptothek  at  Munich. 

.ffig'inhard.     See  EciNHARD. 

.ffigir,  a'jir,  a  Norse  god  of  the  sea-storms, 
who  treats  the  other  gods  to  foaming  beer,  and 
has  a  wife  Ran  caring  for  those  lost  at  sea. 
Their  nine  daughters  are  sea-waves,  with  names 
representing  the  aspects  of  the  ocean. 

.ffigirite,  a  mineral  essentially  identical 
with  acmite  (q.v.).  Like  it,  atgirite  is  mono- 
clinic,  and  is  a  silicate  of  sodium  and  both  ferric 
and  ferrous  iron,  the  former  largely  predomi- 
nating. It  is  a  member  of  the  pyroxene  group 
and  is  regarded  by  Miers  as  an  alkali  diopside. 
It  is  distinguished  from  acmite  by  its  simple, 
prismatic  crystals,  usually  bluntly  terminated. 
its  dark  green  color,  and  its  characteristic  grass 
green,  pale  green  and  brown  pleochroism.  Its 
hardness  is  6  to  6.5  and   specific  gravity  about 


3.53.      It      occurs      in      long     prismatic      crystals 
■  ily   in   the   elxolite-syenites   of   Norway   and 
Arkansas. 

.ffigis,   c'jts     (•'storm"),    the    shield    of    Zeus, 

uMiecl     by     HcphaMus     (Vulcan).      From     a 

bably  mistaken  etymology  n  was  often  said 

to  have  been  the  skin  of  the  goat  Amalthea,  who 

-.tickled   Zeus,   ami    to   have    had   the   Gorgon's 

head    in   the  centre.      \\  hen   Zeus    was   angry   he 
waved  and  shook  the  ;egis.   making  a    -ound   like 

mpest,  by  winch  the  nations  were  overawed, 
It  was  the  symbol  of  divine  protection,  and  be- 
came in  course  of  time  the  exclusive  attribute 
of  Zeus  and  Athene. 

./Egis'thus,  e-jis'thus,  son  of  Thyestes,  and 
cousin  of  Agamemnon;  adopted  son  of  Atreus 
(q.v.).  He  did  not  accompany  the  Greeks  to 
Troy,  and  during  Agamemnon's  absence  lived  in 
adultery  with  his  wife  Clytcmncstra.  He  as- 
sisted  her  in  murdering  her  husband  on  his  re- 
turn, but  was  himself  put  to  death  seven  years 
later  by  Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon.  This  is 
the  account  given  by  Homer;  the  tragic  poets 
make  Clytemnestra  alone  murder  Agamemnon, 
her  motive  in  .Kschylus  being  her  jealousy  and 
wrath  at  the  death  of  Iphigenia  of  Cassandra; 
in  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  the  latter  alone 
Later  writers  also  describe  .Egi-thus  as  the  son 
of  Thyestes  by  unwitting  incest  with  his  daugh- 
ter Pelopia.     See  Agamemnon;  Atreus. 

.ffigium,  e'jt-um,  Greece,  modern  Vas- 
titza,  though  officially  restored  to  its  ancient 
name.     See  Achaia, 

iEgle,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Aurantiacea.  The  .UrIc  marmelos  is  the 
tree  which  produces  the  bhel  fruit.  This  fruit 
is  most  delicious  to  the  taste,  being  exquisitely 
fragrant  and  nutritious,  but  laxative.  When  a 
little  unripe  it  has  been  long  used  in  India  with 
great  effect  as  an  astringent  in  cases  of  diarrhoea 
and  dysentery. 

iEgospot'amos  or  .ffigospot'amoi  ("goat- 
river"),  the  Thracian  Chersonesus  1  now  penin- 
sula of  Gallipoli)  :  a  river  and  town  memorable 
for  the  battle,  or  rather  surprise,  in  which  the 
Spartan  general  Lysander  annihilated  the  Athen- 
ian fleet,  13  Dec.  B.C.  405,  and  ended  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war  by  the  temporary  ruin  of  Athens. 
The  latter  had  180  vessels,  with  a  number  of 
coequal  commanders,  only  one  of  whom  (Co- 
non)  had  common  military  sense,  and  perhaps 
treachery  was  at  work;  while  Lysander  was  an 
eminent  military  genius  and  had  no  one  to  con- 
sult but  himself.  Having  put  them  off  their 
guard  by  ostentatious  carelessness  and  absence 
for  several  days,  he  swooped  down  upon  them 
one  day  at  dinner-time  while  their  ships  were 
totally  unprepared  (despite  the  warnings  of 
Alcibiades,  whose  castle  was  close  by  and  who 
was  fully  a  match  for  Lysander),  and  destroyed 
or  captured  the  entire  fleet  except  Conon's  small 
squadron.  Athens  fell  under  the  rule  of  Sparta, 
which  set  up  an  aristocratic  government,  the 
outcome  of  which  is  infamous  in  history  as  the 
Thirty  Tyrants. 

.ffigyp'tus,  in  Greek  legend,  son  of  Beltts, 
king  of  Arabia;  conquered  the  land  called  Eevpt 
from  him.  lie  gave  his  fifty  sons  in  marriage 
to  the  fifty  daughters  of  his  brother  Danaus, 
who  had  established  himself  in  Argros  and  was 
jealous  of  his  brother,  and  who  obliged  all  his 
daughters  to  murder  their  husbands  on  the  night 


.ELFRIC  —  JENEID 


of  their  nuptials ;  Hypermnestra  alone  spared 
her  husband,  Lynceus.  Even  /Egyptus  was  killed 
by  his  niece  Polyxena.     See  Danaus  ;  Egypt. 

.ffilfric,  al'fric,  the  Grammarian,  Anglo- 
Saxon  author  and  translator;  fl.  1006.  In  his 
youth  he  was  taught  by  a  secular  priest  who 
could  scarcely  understand  Latin.  "There  was 
no  one,"  he  says,  "who  could  write  or  under- 
stand Latin  letters  until  Dunstan  and  /Ethel- 
wold  revived  learning."  This  may  account  for 
his  warm  interest  in  education  and  his  industry 
in  translation  and  compilation.  'A  Treatise  on 
the  Old  and  Xew  Testaments'  (printed  1623); 
the  'Heptateuchus,'  an  abridgment  and  trans- 
lation of  the  first  seven  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, with  the  Book  of  Job  (pr.  1699)  ;  a 
'Pastoral  Letter,'  written  for  Wulfstan,  arch- 
bishop of  York  (1003-23),  in  which  he  makes 
the  archbishop  declare  that  he  will  not  forcibly 
compel  his  clergy  to  chastity,  but  admonishes 
them  to  observe  it ;  a  'Latin  Grammar  and  Glos- 
sary'  (printed  by  Somner,  1659). 

iElia,  a  Roman  gens,  whose  members  in- 
cluded Sejanus.  Hadrian,  and  the  Antonines, 
as  also  the  families  of  Paetus  (q.v.),  Gallus,  etc. 

.ffilia  Capitolina,  the  new  name  given  to 
Jerusalem  by  Hadrian  when  he  colonized  it  with 
Romans  after  the  insurrection  of  132-5  ad.  ;  he 
built  a  temple  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus,  and  pre- 
fixed the  name  of  his  own  gens,  the  /Elian. 
The  Christian  emperors  after  Constantine  re- 
stored the  old  name. 

.ffilianus,  Claudius,  e-li-a'nus,  a  noted  Ro- 
man sophist  who  flourished  in  the  first  half  of 
the  2d  century:  b.  Praeneste,  Italy.  Of  his  many 
works,  written  in  Greek,  two  are  extant:  'Va- 
rious Histories,'  or  narratives,  in  14  books,  and 
'Of  the  Nature  of  Animals,'  anecdotes  of  ani- 
mals,—  most  entertaining  and  uncritical  com- 
pilations. The  'Peasants'  Letters'  accredited 
to  him  are  spurious.  Best  ed.,  Hercher,  1858 
and  1864. 

JEmilia'nus,  C.  Julius,  emperor  of  Rome : 
a  Moor  who  rose  from  the  lowest  stations ;  gov- 
ernor of  Pannonia  and  Mcesia,  whose  troops 
killed  the  Emperor  Gallus  and  gave  him  the 
crown.  He  reigned  only  four  months,  when 
he  was  killed  in  his  46th  year  by  his  own  sol- 
diers, who  then  offered  the  crown  to  Valerian. 

.ffimilian  Way,  a  Roman  state  road  about 
185  m.  long,  built  by  the  consul  Marcus  .Emil- 
ius  Lepidus,  187  B.C.,  primarily  as  a  military  road 
to  make  easy  communication  between  Rome  and 
her  new  possessions  in  Cisalpine  Gaul  (Lom- 
bardy).  Beginning  at  Ariminum  (Rimini-)  on 
the  Adriatic,  where  the  Flaminian  way  from 
Rome  ended,  it  traversed  Bononia  (Bologna), 
Mutina  (Modena).  and  Parma,  crossed  the  Pa- 
dus  (Po)  at  Placentia  (Piacenza),  and  ended  at 
Mediolanum    (Milan). 

.ffimil'ius  Paulus,  surnamed  Maccdonicus.  a 
noble  Roman  of  the  ancient  family  of  .Emilii : 
b.  230  B.C. :  d.  160.  He  conquered  Perseus,  king 
of  Macedon.  and  on  this  occasion  obtained  a 
triumph.  168  B.C.  During  the  triumph  two  of 
his  sons  died.  He  bore  the  loss  like  a  hero,  and 
thanked  the  gods  that  thev  had  chosen  them  for 
victims  to  avert  had  fortune  from  the  Roman 
people.  He  was  father  of  the  renowned  Scipio 
Africanus  the  Younger. 


.ffine'as,  in  the  Iliad,  a  Trojan  prince,  son 
of  Anchises  and  the  goddess  Venus;  second  only 
to  his  kinsman  Hector  among  the  Trojan  chiefs. 
Other  stories  tell  that  the  care  of  his  infancy  was 
entrusted  to  a  nymph ;  but  at  the  age  of  five  he 
was  recalled  to  Troy  and  placed  under  the  in- 
spection of  Alcathoiis,  his  father's  friend  and 
companion.  He  afterward  improved  himself  in 
Thessaly  under  Chiron  the  Centaur,  whose 
house  was  frequented  by  all  the  young  princes 
and  heroes  of  the  age.  Soon  after  his  return 
home  he  married  Creusa,  Priam's  daughter,  by 
whom  he  had  a  son  called  Ascanius.  Vergil, 
whose  object  is  to  connect  him  (according  to 
Latin  tradition  of  untraceable  source)  with  the 
origin  of  Rome,  tells  his  further  story  as  fol- 
lows in  the  /Eneid.  In  the  night  of  the  cap- 
ture of  Troy  by  the  Greeks,  Hector  warned  him 
in  a  dream  to  fly.  /Eneas  notwithstanding 
rushed  to  the  fight ;  but  after  Priam  was  slain 
returned  to  his  home  and  carried  off  his  father, 
his  child,  and  his  household  gods,  losing,  how- 
ever, his  wife,  Creusa,  in  the  confusion.  With 
twenty  vessels  he  sailed  for  Thrace,  where  he 
began  to  build  .Enos,  but  terrified  by  a  miracle 
abandoned  the  attempt.  Thence  he  went  to  De- 
los  to  consult  the  oracle.  Misunderstanding  its 
reply  he  went  to  Crete,  from  w-hich  he  was 
driven  by  a  pestilence ;  thence  to  the  promontory 
of  Actium,  and  in  Epirus  found  Helenus  and 
Andromache;  thence  past  Italy  and  through  the 
Straits  of  Messina,  and  circumnavigated  Sicily 
to  Cape  Drepanum  on  the  western  coast,  where 
Anchises  died.  A  tempest  drove  him  on  the 
shore  of  Africa,  where  Dido  received  him  kindly 
in  Carthage  and  wished  to  detain  and  marry 
him.  Jupiter,  however,  mindful  of  the  Fates, 
sent  Mercury  to  .Eneas  and  commanded  him  to 
sail  for  Italy.  While  the  deserted  Dido  ended 
her  life  on  the  funeral  pile.  .Eneas  set  sail  with 
his  companions  and  was  cast  by  a  storm  on  the 
shores  of  Sicily,  in  the  dominions  of  his  Trojan 
friend  Acestes,  where  the  wives  of  his  com- 
panions, wearied  of  a  seafaring  and  homeless 
life,  set  fire  to  the  ships.  Nevertheless,  after 
building  the  city  Acesta.  he  sailed  for  Italy, 
leaving  the  women  and  the  sick  behind.  He 
found  near  Cumae  a  sibyl  his  father's  ghost  had 
ordered  him  to  seek,  who  foretold  his  destiny 
and  aided  his  descent  into  the  lower  world; 
here  he  saw  his  father  and  had  a  prophetic  vi- 
sion of  the  glorious  destinies  of  his  race.  On 
his  return  he  embarked  again  and  reached  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  river  Tiber,  in  the  country 
of  Latinus,  king  of  the  Aborigines  (q.v.).  His 
daughter  Lavinia  was  destined  by  an  oracle  to 
a  stranger,  but  promised  by  her  mother  Amata 
to  Turnus,  king  of  the  Rutuli.  This  occasioned 
a  war.  after  the  termination  of  which.  Turnus 
having  fallen  by  his  hand,  .Eneas  married  La- 
vinia. His  son  by  Lavinia,  .Eneas  Sylvius.  was 
the  ancestor  of  the  kings  of  Alba  Longa.  and  of 
Romulus  and  Remus,  the  founders  of  the  city 
of  Rome.  From  Ascanius'  son  lulus  the  Ro- 
mans derive  the  Julian  family.  For  the  real 
origin  of  Rome,  see  that  title. 

.ffineas   Silvius.     See  Pius  II. 

.ffine'id,  one  of  the  great  epic  poems  of 
the  world ;  written  in  Latin  by  Vergil  and  pub- 
lished after  his  death,  which  took  place  about  10 
B.C.  Being  left  imperfect,  his  friends  Varius 
and  Tucca  edited  it  at  Augustus'  request.  For 
its  story,  see  .Eneas.     See  also  Vergil. 


.ffiNESIDEMUS  —  JEQUI 


.ffineside'mus,  Greek  philosopher,  fl.  80-60 
B.C. :  b.  Cnossus  in  Crete,  removed  to  Alex- 
andria. He  was  a  leader  of  the  Skeptical  school, 
and  is  famous  for  the  "Ten  Tropes"  attributed 
In  him, —  arguments  to  prove  the  impossibility  of 
absolute  knowledge,  and  reducible  in  essence  to 
two,  that  no  two  things  are  alike  and  every- 
thing is  relative.  They  are:  (  1  )  That  each  sen- 
tient being  must  have  a  different  perception  and 
conception  of  the  universe  from  every  other 
because  differently  constituted;  (2)  that  human 

igs  differ;  ( 3 )  that  sense  organs  differ;  (4) 
that  the  circumstances  of  perceptions  differ;  (5) 
that  objects  perceived  differ  in  location  and  dis- 
tance; (6)  that  different  objects  are  confounded  ; 
(71  that  different  combinations  make  the  same 
sensation  seem  different;  (8)  that  all  knowledge 
lative;  (9)  thai  degrees  of  familiarity  cause 
differences  in  perception;  (10)  that  the  intel- 
lectual speculations,  moral  theories,  laws,  man- 
ners and  customs,  civilizations,  etc.,  of  all  races 
differ  (Locke's  argument  against  intuitive 
ideas). 

.ffinianes,  e-ni'a-nes,  in  classic  Greek,  an 
Achaean  people  living  on  the  southern  border 
of  Thessaly,  in  the  mountains  west  of  Ther- 
mopylae; members  of  the  /Etolian  League 
and   the   Delphic    Amphictyony. 

.ffio'lian,  a  musical  instrument.  See  Musi- 
cal Instruments,   Mechanical. 

.ffiolian  Harp,  or  .ffiolus'  Harp,  is  generally 
a  simple  box  of  thin  fibrous  wood  to  which  are 
attached  a  number  (if  line  strings,  sometimes  as 
many  as  fifteen,  stretched  on  low  bridges  at  each 
end,  and  carefully  tuned  so  as  to  be  in  har- 
mony. Its  length  is  made  to  correspond  to  the 
size  of  the  window  or  other  aperture  in  which  it 
is  intended  to  be  placed.  Its  width  is  about  five 
or  six  inches,  its  depth  two  or  three.  It  must 
be  placed  with  the  strings  uppermost,  under 
which  is  a  circular  opening  in  the  centre,  as  in 
the  belly  of  the  guitar.  When  the  wind  blows 
athwart  the  strings  it  produces  the  effect  of  a 
choir  of  music  in  the  air,  sweetly  mingling  all 
the  harmonic  notes,  and  swelling  or  diminishing 
the  sounds  according  to  the  strength  or  weak- 
ness of  the  blast.  A  simpler  kind  of  -Eolian 
harp  has  no  sounding-board,  but  consists  merely 
of  a  number  of  strings  extended  between  two 
boards. 

iEolians  ("variegated,"  mixed  race),  an 
ancient  Greek  people,  perhaps  the  very  earliest 
Greek  stock  —  a  mixture  of  Hellenes  and  Pe- 
lasgi  —  before  the  special  races  like  Ionians  and 
Dorians  had  differentiated  from  it;  as  their  lan- 
guage was  not  a  distinct  dialect  like  those,  but  is 
a  mixture  of  elements  from  all  and  presents  the 
closest  link  of  any  between  Greek  and  Latin. 
The  Homeric  language  is  /Eolic.  The  race  ex- 
tended from  northeast  to  southwest  through 
Greece,  from  the  Pagasaic  Gulf  through  Thes 
saly  or  at  least  Phthiotis,  Bceotia.  Phocis, 
Locris,  and  rEtolia  north  of  the  Corinthian 
Gulf,  to  Elis  and  Messenia  south  of  it.  The 
sons  of  ^Esculapius  (q.v.),  Philoctetes,  Odys- 
seus, Nestor,  and  the  Oilean  Ajax,  were 
yEolians :.  and  legend  accredits  to  the  same 
Stock  Jason,  Melampus  the  healer  who  under- 
stood the  song  of  birds,  Sisyphus  the  founder 
of  Corinth,  and  Athamas  the  great  king  of  the 
Minyae,  son-in-law  of  Cadmus  and  father  of 
Phnxus  and  Helle.     The  Ach.-cans,  if  not  origi- 


nally part  of  the  same  stock,  became  blent  with 
them  and  are  classed  by  the  ancients  as  part 
of  them ;  and  there  is  no  separate  Achaean  dia- 
lect  or  art.  Probably  they  were  one,  and  the 
Peloponnesian  Achxi  were  certainly  part  of 
them  ;  and  the  great  emigration  commonly  called 
the  /Eolian  was  an  emigration  of  Achaean  peo- 
ple. It  seems  probable  that  the  emigration  from 
the  Peloponnesus  began  before  the  Dorian  in- 
vasion, or  return  of  the  Heraclidas,  as  it  is  often 
called,  which  caused  so  great  a  revolution  in  the 
peninsula.  Strabo  says  the  /Eolian  settlements 
in  Asia  were  four  generations  prior  to  the 
Ionian.  Their  colonies  on  the  Asiatic  mainland 
spread,  extending  at  least  from 
Cyzicus,  along  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont  and 
the  /Egean,  to  the  river  Caicus,  and  even  the 
Ilcrmus.  Many  positions  in  the  interior  were 
also  occupied  by  them,  as  well  as  the  fine  island 
of  Lesbos,  with  Tenedos,  and  others  of  smaller 
importance.  Homer  mentions  all  these  parts 
as  possessed  by  a  different  people;  which  would 
be  proof,  if  any  were  wanting,  that  the  race  of 
new  settlers  came  after  his  time.  There  were 
twelve  cities  or  states  included  in  the  older  set- 
tlments  in  that  tract  of  Asia  .Minor  on  the 
/Egean  which  was  known  in  Greek  geography 
by  the  name  of  .Eolis  and  formed  a  part  of  the 
subsequent  larger  division  of  Mysia.  Smyrna, 
one  of  them,  which  early  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Ionians.  the  neighbors  of  the  /Eolians,  still 
exists  nearly  on  the  old  spot,  with  exactly  the 
same  name;  thus  adding  one  to  the  many  in- 
stances of  the  durable  impression  made  by  Greek 
colonies  wherever  they  settled. 

iEolis.     See  /Eolians. 

/E'olus,  in  Greek  legend:  (1)  Ruler  of  the 
winds;  a  sort  of  sub-deity,  having  his  residence 
in  a  floating  island,  said  to  be  one  of  the 
/Eolian  Islands,  or  by  the  Latin  and  later  Greek 
poets  one  of  the  Lipari  Islands.  Here  he  kept  the 
winds  in  bags  (Virgil  says  in  caves),  restraining 
or  letting  them  loose  at  the  orders  of  Zeus.  In 
the  Odyssey  he  gives  them  to  Odysseus  to  take 
care  of  for  a  time.  (2)  The  eponymous  an- 
cestor of  the  /Eolians,  located  in  Thessaly;  Hel- 
len  was  his  father  and  Dorus  his  brother  (epo- 
nyms  of  the  Hellenes  and  Dorians),  and 
Sisyphus  his  son,  the  significance  of  which  is  not 
ascertainable.  (1)  and  (2)  may  have  been 
originally  the  same,  but  if  so  they  arose  as  in- 
dependent metaphors  or  eponyms. 

.ffiqui,  an  ancient  people  of  Italy,  conspic- 
uous in  the  early  wars  of  Rome.  They  inhab- 
ited the  mountain  district  between  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Anio  (Teverone)  and  Lake  Fuci- 
nus.  Their  origin  is  unknown  ;  but  they  were 
probably  akin  to  the  Volscians,  with  whom  they 
were  in  constant  alliance.  This  league  after  the 
fall  of  the  monarchy  made  great  headway  and 
captured  many  towns,  their  power  culminating 
in  the  5th  century  B.C.  At  length  they  were  se- 
verely defeated  by  Cincinnatus  in  458,  and  again 
by  the  dictator  Postumus  Tubertus  in  428. 
They  were  finally  subdued  about  304,  and  soon 
after  were  admitted  to  Roman  citizenship,  being 
included  in  the  new  tribes  Aniensis  and  Teren- 
tina.  Henceforth  their  name  disappears  from 
history:  but  the  inhabitants  of  the  upper  valleys 
began  to  be  called  /Equiculi.  by  which  name  they 
are  mentioned  by  Vergil  as  predatory  moun- 
taineers.   The  name  /Equiculani  occurs  in  Pliny. 


.ffiRARIUM  —  AERIAL  LOCOMOTION 


.ffirarium,  e-ra'ri-um  ("money-place"),  the 
public  treasury  of  ancient  Rome ;  containing  not 
only  the  state  moneys  and  accounts,  but  the 
legionary  standards,  the  public  laws  (on  brass 
plates),  senate  decrees,  and  other  important 
papers  and  registers.  It  was  located  in  the  tem- 
ple of  Saturn,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Capitoline  hill.  Besides  the  general  treasury, 
filled  from  general  taxes  and  drawn  on  for 
regular  expenses,  there  was  in  the  same  build- 
ing, a  "sacred  treasury,"  or  reserve  fund, 
replenished  chiefly  by  a  5  per  cent  tax  on 
the  value  of  manumitted  slaves,  which  was 
never  drawn  upon  except  on  occasions  of  ex- 
treme necessity.  The  senate  controlled  the 
serarium  nominally  even  under  the  early  em- 
perors, who  had  their  separate  imperial  treasury 
called  the  fiscus;  but  as  the  senate  became  a 
mere  name,  the  figment  of  two  treasuries  was 
gradually  abolished.  Augustus  established  also 
a  military  treasury  devoted  solely  to  army  ac- 
counts. The  later  emperors  had  likewise  a  pri- 
vate treasury,  aside  from  the  general  one  which 
they  administered  for  the  empire. 

Aerated  Bread.      See  Bread. 

Aerated  Waters.     See  Mineral  Waters. 

Aerial  Conveyer.     See  Conveyer. 

Aerial  Locomotion.  We  are  all  of  us  in- 
terested in  aerial  locomotion ;  and  I  am  sure  that 
no  one  who  has  observed  with  attention  the 
flight  of  birds  can  doubt  for  one  moment  the 
possibility  of  aerial  flight  by  bodies  specifically 
heavier  than  the  air.  In  the  words  of  an  old 
writer,  "We  cannot  consider  as  impossible  that 
which  has  already  been  accomplished." 

I  have  had  the  feeling  that  a  properly  con- 
structed flying-machine  should  be  capable  of 
being  flown  as  a  kite ;  and,  conversely,  that  a 
properly  constructed  kite  should  be  capable  of 
use  as  a  flying-machine  when  driven  by  its  own 
propellers.  I  am  not  so  sure,  however,  of  the 
truth  of  the  former  proposition  as  I  am  of  the 
latter.  Given  a  kite,  so  shaped  as  to  be  suitable 
for  the  body  of  a  flying-machine,  and  so  effi- 
cient that  it  will  fly  well  in  a  good  breeze  (say 
20  miles  an  hour)  when  loaded  with  a  weight 
equivalent  to  that  of  a  man  and  engine :  then 
it  seems  to  me  that  this  same  kite,  provided  with 
an  actual  engine  and  man  in  place  of  the  load, 
and  driven  by  its  own  propellers  at  the  rate  of 
20  miles  an  hour,  should  be  sustained  in  calm  air 
as  a  flying-machine.  So  far  as  the  pressure  of 
the  air  is  concerned,  it  is  surely  immaterial 
whether  the  air  moves  against  the  kite,  or  the 
kite  against  the  air. 

Of  course  in  other  respects  the  two  cases 
are  not  identical.  A  kite  sustained  by  a  20-mile 
breeze  possesses  no  momentum,  or  rather  its 
momentum  is  equal  to  zero,  because  it  is  sta- 
tionary in  the  air  and  has  no,  motion  proper 
of  its  own ;  but  the  momentum  of  a  heavy  body 
propelled  at  20  miles  an  hour  through  still  air 
is  very  considerable.  Momentum  certainly  aids 
flight,  and  it  may  even  be  a  source  of  support 
against  gravity  quite  independently  of  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air.  It  is  perfectly  possible,  there- 
fore, that  an  apparatus  may  prove  to  be  efficient 
as  a  flying-machine  which  cannot  be  flown  as 
a  kite  on  account  of  the  absence  of  vis  viva. 
However  this  may  be,  the  applicability  of  kite 
experiments  to  the  flying-machine  problem  has 


for  a  long  time  past  been  the  guiding  thought  in 
my  researches. 

I  have  not  cared  to  ascertain  how  high  a 
kite  may  be  flown  or  to  make  one  fly  at  any 
very  great  altitude.  The  point  I  have  had  spe- 
cially in  mind  is  this:  That  the  equilibrium  of 
the  structure  in  the  air  should  be  perfect ;  that 
the  kite  should  fly  steadily,  and  not  move  about 
from  side  to  side  or  dive  suddenly  when  struck 
by  a  squall,  and  that  when  released  it  should 
drop  slowly  and  gently  to  the  ground  without 
material  oscillation.  I  have  also  considered  it 
important  that  the  framework  should  possess 
great  strength  with  little  weight. 

I  believe  that  in  the  form  of  structure  now 
attained  the  properties  of  strength,  lightness,  and 
steady  flight  have  been  united  in  a  remarkable 
degree.  In  my  younger  days  the  word  "kite" 
suggested  a  structure  of  wood  in  the  form  of  a 
cross  covered  with  paper  forming  a  diamond- 
shaped  surface  longer  one  way  than  the  other, 
and  provided  with  a  long  tail  composed  of  a 
string  with  numerous  pieces  of  paper  tied  at  in- 
tervals upon  it.  Such  a  kite  is  simply  a  toy.  In 
Europe  and  America,  where  kites  of  this  type 
prevailed,  kite-flying  was  pursued  only  as  an 
amusement  for  children,  and  the  improvement 
of  the  form  of  structure  was  hardly  considered 
a  suitable  subject  of  thought  for  a  scientific 
man.  In  Asia  kite-flying  has  been  for  centuries 
the  amusement  of  adults,  and  the  Chinese.  Jap- 
anese, and  Malays  have  developed  tailless  kites 
very  much  superior  to  any  form  of  kite  known 
to  us  until  quite  recently.  It  is  only  within 
the  last  few  years  that  improvements  in  kite 
structure  have  been  seriously  considered,  and  the 
recent  developments  in  the  art  have  been  largely 
due  to  the  efforts  of  one  man  —  Laurence  Har- 
grave  of  Australia. 

Hargrave  realized  that  the  structure  best 
adapted  for  what  is  called  a  "good  kite"  would 
also  be  suitable  as  the  basis  for  the  structure 
of  a  flying-machine.  His  researches,  published 
by  the  Royal  Society  of  New  South  Wales, 
have  attracted  the  attention  of  the  world,  and 
form  the  starting  point  for  modern  researches 
upon  the  subject  in  Europe  and  America.  Any- 
thing relating  to  aerial  locomotion  has  an  interest 
to  very  many  minds,  and  scientific  kite-flying 
has  everywhere  been  stimulated  by  Hargraw's 
experiments. 

In  America,  however,  the  chief  stimulus  to 
scientific  kite-flying  has  been  the  fact  developed 
by  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau,  that  im- 
portant information  could  be  obtained  concern- 
ing weather  conditions  if  kites  could  be  con- 
structed capable  of  lifting  meteorological  instru- 
ments to  a  great  elevation  in  the  free  air.  Mr. 
Eddy  and  others  in  America  have  taken  the 
Malay  tailless  kite  as  a  basis  for  their  experi- 
ments, but  Prof.  Marvin,  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau;  Mr.  Rotch,  of  the  Blue  Hill 
Observatory,  and  many  others  have  adapted  Har- 
grove's box  kite  for  the  purpose.  Congress  has 
made  appropriations  to  the  Weather  Bureau  in 
aid-  of  its  kite  experiments,  and  a  number  of 
meteorological  stations  throughout  the  United 
States  were  established  a  few  years  ago  equipped 
with  the  Marvin  kite.  Continuous  meteorologi- 
cal observations  at  a  great  elevation  have  been 
made  at  the  Blue  Hill  Observatory  in  Massachu- 
setts, and  Mr.  Rotch  has  demonstrated  the  possi- 


AERIAL  LOCOMOTION 


bility  of  towing  kites  at  sea  by  means  of  steam 
vessels  so  as  to  secure  a  continuous  line  of 
observations  all  the  way  across  the  Atlantic. 
hargrave's  box  kite. 
Hargrave  introduced  what  is  known  as  the 
"cellular  construction  of  kites."  He  constructed 
kites  composed  of  many  cells,  but  found  no  sub- 
stantial improvement  in  many  cells  over  two 
alone ;  and  a  kite  composed  of  two  rectangular 


FlG.    I. — Hargrave    Box    Kite. 

cells  separated  by  a  considerable  space  is  now 
universally  known  as  "the  Hargrave  box  kite." 
This  represents,  in  my  opinion,  the  high-water 
mark  of  progress  in  the  19th  century;  and  this 
form  of  kite  forms  the  starting  point  for  my 
own  researches  (Fig.  1).  The  front  and  rear 
cells  are  connected  by  a  framework,  so  that 
a  considerable  space  is  left  between  them. 
This  space  is  an  essential  feature  of  the  kite: 
upon  it  depends  the  fore  and  aft  stability  of  the 
kite.  The  greater  the  space,  the  more  stable 
is  the  equilibrium  of  the  kite  in  a  fore  and 
aft  direction,  the  more  it  tends  to  assume  a 
horizontal  position  in  the  air,  and  the  less  it 
tends  to  dive  or  pitch  like  a  vessel  in  a  rough 
sea.  Pitching  motions  or  oscillations  are  almost 
entirely  suppressed  when  the  space  between  the 
cells  is  large.  Each  cell  is  provided  with  verti- 
cal sides ;  and  these  again  seem  to  be  essential 
elements  of  the  kite  contributing  to  lateral  sta- 
bility. The  greater  the  extent  of  the  vertical 
sides,  the  greater  is  the  stability  in  the  lateral 
direction,  and  the  less  tendency  has  the  kite 
to  roll,  or  move  from  side  to  side,  or  turn  over 
in  the  air. 

In  the  foregoing  drawing  I  have  shown  only 
necessary  details  of  construction,  with  just  suffi- 
cient framework  to  hold  the  cells  together.  It  is 
obvious  that  a  kite  constructed  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1  is  a  very  flimsy  affair.  It  requires  additions 
to  the  framework  of  various  sorts  to  give  it 
sufficient  strength  to  hold  the  aeroplane  surfaces 
in  their  proper  relative  positions  and  prevent  dis- 
tortion, or  bending  or  twisting  of  the  kite  frame 
under  the  action  of  the  wind.  Unfortunately 
the  additions  required  to  give  rigidity  to  the 
framework  all  detract  from  the  efficiency  of  the 
kite:  First,  by  rendering  the  kite  heavier,  so 
that  the  ratio  of  weight  to  surface  is  increased; 
and  secondly,  by  increasing  the  head  resistance 
of  the  kite.  The  interior  bracing  advisable  in 
order  to  preserve  the  cells  from  distortion  comes 
in  the  way  of  the  wind,  thus  adding  to  the  drift 
of  the  kite  without  contributing  to  the  lift. 


L 


^ 


ABC 

Fig.    2. 

A  rectangular  cell  like  A    (Fig.  2)   is  struc- 
turally weak,  as  can  readily  be  demonstrated  by 
the  little  force  required  to  distort  it  into  the  form 
1    at    B       In   order   to   remedy   this   weak- 


ness, internal  bracing  is  advisable  of  the  cha- 
racter shown  at  C.  This  internal  bracing,  even 
:  of  the  finest  wire,  so  as  to  be  insignificant 
in  weight,  all  comes  in  the  way  of  the  wind, 
increasing  the  head  resistance  without  counter- 
balancing advanta 

Triangular  Cells  in  Kite  Construction. —  In 
looking  back  over  the  line  of  experiments  in 
my  nun  laboratory,  I  recognize  that  the  adop- 
tion of  a  triangular  cell  was  a  step  in  advance, 
constituting  indeed  one  of  the  milestones  of 
progress,  one  of  the  points  that  stand  out  clearly 
against  the  hazy  background  of  multitudinous 
details.  The  following  (  Fig.  3)  is  a  drawing  of 
a  typical  triangular-celled  kite  made  upon  the 
same  general  model  as  the  Hargrave  box  kite 
shown  in  Fig.  I.  A  triangle  is  by  its  very  struc- 
ture perfectly  braced  in  its  own  plane,  and  in 
a  triangular-celled  kite  like  that  shown  in  Fig  3, 
internal  bracing  of  any  character  is  unnecessary 


Fie.  3. 

to  prevent  distortion  of  a  kind  analogous  to  that 
referred  to  above  in  the  case  of  the  Hargrave 
rectangular   cell    (Fig.   2). 

The  lifting  power  of  such  a  triangular  cell 
is  probably  less  than  that  of  a  rectangular  cell, 
but    the    1  gain    in    structural    strength, 

together  with  the  reduction  of  head  resistance 
and  weight  due  to  the  omission  of  internal 
bracing,  counterbalances  any  possible  deficiency 
in  this  respect. 

The  horizontal  surfaces  of  a  kite  are  those 
that  resist  descent  under  the  influence  of  grav- 
ity, and  the  vertical  surfaces  prevent  it  from 
turning  over  in  the  air.  Oblique  aeroplanes  may 
therefore  conveniently  be  resolved  into  horizon- 
tal and  vertical  equivalents,  that  is.  into  sup- 
porting surfaces  and  steadying  surfaces.  The 
oblique  aeroplane  A,  for  example  (  Fig.  4  I,  may 
be  considered  as  equivalent  in  function  to  the  two 
aeroplanes  B  and  C.  The  material  composing 
the  aeroplane  A,  however,  weighs  less  than  the 
material    required   to   form   the   two   aeroplanes 


Fie.  4. 

B  and  C,  and  the  framework  required  to  sup- 
port the  aeroplane  A  weighs  less  than  the  twe 
frameworks   required  to  support  B   and  C. 

In  the  triangular  cell  shown  in  Fig.  5,  the 
oblique  surfaces  ab,  be.  are  equivalent  in  func- 
tion to  the  three  surfaces  ad,  dc.  ee.  but  weigh 
less.  The  oblique  surfaces  arc  therefore  advan- 
tageous.    The  only  disadvantage  in  the  whole  ar 


AERONAUTICS^  MACHINES. 


M..M.U  Machine       '•  Balloon  with  Electric  Mob  r 

ling  of  Capttvi   Ball* '-  Outline  Diagram  o(  the  Ssntoi  Dumonl   Up 81 


1 


C 


AERIAL   LOCOMOTION 


rangement  is  that  the  air  has  not  as  free  access     strength.     In  this  case  the  weight  of  the  com 


to  the  upper  aeroplane  ac,  in  the  triangular 
form  of  cell  as  in  the  quadrangular  form,  so 
that  the  aeroplane  ac  is  not  as  efficient  in  the 
former  construction  as  in  the  latter. 

While  theoretically  the  triangular  cell  is  in- 
ferior in  lifting  power  to  Hargrave's  four-sided 


pound  kite  is  less  than  the  sum  of  the  weights 


9  longitudinal  sticks 


rectangular  cell,  practically  there  is  no  sub- 
stantial difference.  So  far  as  I  can  judge  from 
observation  in  the  field,  kites  constructed  on  the 
same  general  model  as  the  Hargrave  box  kite, 
but  with  triangular  cells  instead  of  quadrangular, 
seem  to  fly  as  well  as  the  ordinary  Hargrave 
form,  and  at  as  high  an  angle.  Such  kites  are 
therefore  superior,   for  they  fly  substantially   as 


6   longitudinal    sticks 


IS    longitudinal   sticks 


Fig.  7. 
well,   while  at  the  same  time  they  are  stronger     of  the  component  kites,  while  the  surface  remains 
in    construction,    lighter    in    weight,    and    offer     the   same.     If   kites  could   only  be  successfully 
less  head  resistance  to  the  wind.  compounded  in  this  way  indefinitely  we  would 


"Perspective    View. 


Fig.  6. — Compound   Triangular   Kite. 


End    View. 


Triangular  cells  also  are  admirably  adapted 
for  combination  into  a  compound  structure,  in 
which  the  aeroplane  surfaces  do  not  interfere 
with  one  another.  For  example,  three  triangu- 
lar-celled kites,  tied  together  at  the  corners, 
form  a  compound  cellular  kite  (Fig.  6)  which 
flies  perfectly  well.  The  weight  of  the  com- 
pound kite  is  the  sum  of  the  weights  of  the 
three  kites  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  the  total 
aeroplane  surface  is  the  sum  of  the  surfaces 
of  the  three  kites.  The  ration  of  weight  to  sur- 
face therefore  is  the  same  in  the  larger  com- 
pound kite  as  in  the  smaller  constituent  kites, 
considered  individually. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  compound  kites  of  this 
character  the  doubling  of  the  longitudinal  sticks 
where  the  corners  of  adjoining  kites  come 
together  is  an  unnecessary  feature  of  the  com- 
bination, for  it  is  easy  to  construct  the  com- 
pound kite  so  that  one  longitudinal  stick  shall 
be  substituted  for  the  duplicated  sticks.  For 
example:  The  compound  kites  A  and  B  (Fig.  7) 
may  be  constructed,  as  shown  at  C  and  D,  with 
advantage,  for  the  weight  of  the  compound  kite 
is    thus     reduced     without     loss     of     structural 


have  the  curious  result  that  the  ratio  of  weight 
to  surface  would  diminish  with  each  increase  in 
the  size  of  the  compound  kite.  Unfortunately, 
however,  the  conditions  of  stable  flight  demand 


a  considerable  space  between  the  front  and  rear 
sets  of  cells  (see  Fig.  6);  and  if  we  increase 
the  diameter   of  our  compound   structure   with- 


AERIAL  LOCOMOTION 


out  increasing  the  length  of  this  space  we 
injure  the  flying  qualities  of  our  kite.  But  every 
increase  of  this  space  in  the  fore  and  aft  direc- 
tion involves  a  corresponding  increase  in  the 
length  of  the  empty  framework  required  to 
span  it,  thus  adding  dead  load  to  the  kite  and 
increasing  the  ratio  of  weight  to  surface.  While 
kites  with  triangular  cells  are  strong  in  a  trans- 
\crse  direction  (from  side  to  side),  they  are 
structurally  weak  in  the  longitudinal  direction 
(fore  and  aft),  for  in  this  direction  the  kite 
frames  are  rectangular.  Each  side  of  the  kite 
A,  for  example  (Fig.  8),  requires  diagonal 
bracing  of  the  character  shown  at  B  to  pre- 
vent  ili-tortion  under  the  action  of  the  wind. 
The  necessary  bracing,  however,  not  being  in 
the  way  of  the  wind,  does  not  materially  affect 
the  head  resistance  of  the  kite,  and  is  only  dis- 
advantageous by  adding  dead  load,  thus  increas- 
ing the  ratio  of   weight    to   surface. 

THE    TETRAHEDRAL    CONSTRUCTION   OF   KITES. 

Passing  over  in  silence  multitudinous  ex- 
periments in  kite  construction  carried  on  in  my 
.Nova  Scotia  laboratory,  I  come  to  another  con- 


Fig.  9. 

A.— A  Triangular  Cell. 

B.— A    Winged    Tetrahedral    Cell 

spicuous  point  of  advance — another  milestone 
of  progress — the  adoption  of  the  triangular 
construction  in  every  direction  (longitudinally 
as  well  as  transversely):  and  the  clear  realiza- 
tion of  the  fundamental  importance  of  the  skele- 
ton of  a  tetrahedron,  especially  the  regular 
tetrahedron,  as  an  element  of  the  structure  of 
framework  of  a  kite  or  flying-machine. 


tip  to  tip  by  a  cross-bar  (see  B,  Fig.  9; 
also  drawings  of  winged  tetrahedral  cells  in 
Fig.  10). 

A  tetrahedron  is  a  form  of  solid  bounded  by 
four  triangular  surfaces.  In  the  regular  tetra- 
hedron the  boundaries  consist  of  four  equilateral 
triangles  and  six  equal  edges.  In  the  skeleton 
form  the  edges  alone  are  represented,  and  the 
skeleton  of  a  regular  tetrahedron  is  produced  by 
joining  together  six  equal  rods  end  to  end  so  as 


Fie.   12. — Four-celled    Tetrahedral    Frame. 

to  form  four  equilateral  triangles.  Most  of  us  no 
doubt  are  familiar  with  the  common  puzzli — • 
how  to  make  four  triangles  with  six  matches. 
Give  six  matches  to  a  friend  and  ask  him  to  ar- 
range them  so  as  to  form  four  complete  equilat- 
eral triangles.  The  difficulty  lies  in  the  uncon- 
scious assumption  of  the  experimenter  that  the 
four  triangles  should  all  be  in  the  same  plane. 
The  moment  he  realizes  that  they  need  not  be  in 
the  same  plane  the  solution  of  the  problem  be- 
comes easy.  Place  three  matches  on  the  table  so 
as  to  form  a  triangle,  and  stand  the  other  three 
up  over  this  like  the  three  legs  of  a  tripod  stand. 
The  matches  then  form  the  skeleton  of  a  regular 
tetrahedron.  (See  Fig.  II.)  A  framework 
formed  upon  this  model  of  six  equal  rods 
fastened  together  at  the  ends  constitutes  a  tetra- 
hedral cell  possessing  the  qualities  of  strength 
and  lightness  in  an  extraordinary  degree.  It  is 
not  simply  braced  in  two  directions  in  space 
like  a  triangle,  but  in  three  directions  like  a 
solid.  If  I  may  coin  a  word,  it  possesses 
"three-dimensional"    strength ;   not   "two-dimen- 


Regular 

tetrahedron 


Right-angled 
tetrahedron 


Obtuse-angled 
tetrahedron 


Fie.  10. — Winged    Tetrahedral    Cells. 


Consider  the  case  of  an  ordinary  triangular 
cell  A  (Fig.  9)  whose  cross-section  is  triangu- 
lar laterally,  but  quadrangular  longitudinally.  If 
now  we  make  the  longitudinal  as  well  as  trans- 
verse cross-sections  triangular,  we  arrive  at  the 


Fig.   11. — One-celled    Tetrahedral    Frame. 

form  of  cell  shown  at  B,  in  which  the  framework 
forms  the  outline  of  a  tetrahedron.  In  this  case 
the  aeroplanes  are  triangular,  and  the  whole  ar- 
rangement is  strongly  suggestive  of  a  pair  of 
birds'  wings  raised  at  an  angle  and  connected 


sional"  strength  like  a  triangle,  or  "one-dimen- 
sional" strength  like  a  rod.  It  is  the  skeleton  of 
a  solid,  not  of  a  surface  or  a  line.  It  is  aston- 
ishing how  solid  such  a  framework  appears 
even  when  composed  of  very  light  and  fragile 
material ;  and  compound  structures  formed  by 
fastening  these  tetrahedral  frames  together  at 
the  corners  so  as  to  form  the  skeleton  of  a  regu- 
lar tetrahedron  on  a  larger  scale  possess  equal 
solidity.  Fig.  12  shows  a  structure  composed  of 
four  frames  like  Fig.  II,  and  Fig.  13  a  structure 
of  four  frames  like  Fig.  12. 

When  a  tetrahedral  frame  is  provided  with 
aero-surfaces  of  silk  or  other  material  suitably 
arranged,  it  becomes  a  tetrahedral  kite,  or  kite 
having  the  form  of  a  tetrahedron.  The  kite 
show:n  in  Fig.   14  is  composed  of  four  winged 


AERIAL    LOCOMOTION 


cells  of  the  regular  tetrahedron  variety  (see  has  64  times  as  much  weight  and  64  times  as 
Fig.  10) ,  connected  at  the  corners.  Four  much  wing-surface.  The  ratio  of  weight  to 
kites  like  Fig.  14  are  combined  in  Fig.  15.  surface  therefore  is  the  same  for  the  larger 
Upon  this  mode  of  construction  an  empty  space     kites  as  for  the  smaller. 

of  octahedral  form  is  left  in  the  middle  of  the  This  at  first  sight  appears  to   be  somewhat 

inconsistent  with  certain  mathematical  conclu- 
sions announced  by  Prof.  Simon  Newcomb  in  an 
article  entitled  "Is  the  Air-Ship  Coming,"  pub- 
lished in  ( McClure's  Magazine'  for  September 
1901 — conclusions  which  led  him  to  believe  that 
"the  construction  of  an  aerial  vehicle  which 
could  carry  even  a  single  man  from  place  to 
place  at  pleasure  requires  the  discovery  of  some 
new  metal  or  some  new  force."    The  process  of 


Fig.   13. — Sixteen-celled     Tetrahedral    Frame. 

kite,  which  seems  to  have  the  same  function  as 
the  space  between  the  two  cells  of  the  Hargrave 
box  kite.  The  tetrahedral  kites  that  have  the 
largest  central  spaces  preserve  their  equilibrium 
best  in  the  air. 

The  most  convenient  place  for  the  attach- 
ment of  the  flying  cord  is  the  extreme  point  of 
the  bow.  If  the  cord  is  attached  to  points  suc- 
cessively farther  back  on  the  keel,  the  flying 
cord   makes   a   greater   and   greater   angle    with 


Fig.    14. — Four-celled    Tetrahedral    Kite. 

the  horizon,  and  the  kite  flies  more  nearly  over- 
head :  but  it  is  not  advisable  to  carry  the  point 
of  attachment  as  far  back  as  the  middle  of  the 
keel.  A  good  place  for  high  flights  is  a  point 
half  way  between  the  bow  and  the  middle  of  the 
keel. 

In  tetrahedral  kites  the  compound  structure 
has  itself  in  each  case  the  form  of  the  regular 
tetrahedron,  and  there  is  no  reason  why  this 
principle  of  combination  should  not  be  applied 
indefinitely  so  as  to  form  still  greater  combina- 
tions. 

The  weight  relatively  to  the  wing-surface 
remains  the  same,  however  large  the  compound 
kite  may  be.  The  four-celled  kite,  for  example, 
weighs  four  times  as  much  as  one  cell  and  has 
four  times  as  much  wine  surface,  the  16-celled 
kite  has  16  times  as  much  weight  and  16  times 
as    much    wing-surface,    and   the   64-celled    kite 


Fig.  15. — Sixteen-celled    Tetrahedral   Kite. 

reasoning  by  which  Prof.  Newcomb  arrived  at 
this  remarkable  result  is  undoubtedly  correct. 
His  conclusion,  however,  is  open  to  question, 
because  he  has  drawn  a  general  conclusion  from 
restricted  premises.  He  says :  "Let  us  make  two 
flying-machines  exactly  alike,  only  make  one  on 
double  the  scale  of  the  other  in  all  its  dimen- 
sions. We  all  know  that  the  volume,  and  there- 
fore the  weight,  of  two  similar  bodies  are  pro- 
portional to  the  cubes  of  their  dimensions.  The 
cube  of  two  is  eight ;  hence  the  large  machine 
will  have  eight  times  the  weight  of  the  other. 
But  surfaces  are  as  the  squares  of  the  dimen- 
sions. The  square  of  two  is  four.  The  heavier 
machine  will  therefore  expose  only  four  times 
the  wing  surface  to  the  air,  and  so  will  have  a 
distinct  disadvantage  in  the  ratio  of  efficiency  to 
weight."  Prof.  Newcomb  shows  that  where  two 
flying-machines  —  or  kites,  for  that  matter' — are 
exactly  alike,  only  differing  in  the  scale  of  their 
dimensions,  the  ratio  of  weight  to  supporting 
surface  is  greater  in  the  larger  than  the  smaller, 
increasing  with  each  increase  of  dimensions. 
From  which  he  concludes  that  if  we  make  our 
structure  large  enough  it  will  be  too  heavy  to 
fly.  This  is  certainly  true,  so  far  as  it  goes, 
and  it  accounts  for  my  failure  to  make  a  giant 
kite  that  should  lift  a  man  —  upon  the  model  of 
the  Hargrave  box  kite.  When  the  kite  was  con- 
structed with  two  cells,  each  about  the  size  of  a 
small  room,  it  was  found  that  it  would  take  a 
hurricane  to  raise  it  into  the  air.  The  kite 
proved  to  be  not  only  incompetent  to  earn-  a 
load  equivalent  to  the  weight  of  a  man.  but  it 
could  not  even  raise  itsrlf  in  an  ordinary  breeze 
in  which  smaller  kites  upon  the  same  model  flew 
perfectly  well.  I  have  no  doubt  that  other  inves- 
tigators also  have  fallen  into  the  error  of  sup- 


AERIAL  LOCOMOTION  —  aSrIANS 


posing  that  large  structures  would  necessarily 
be  capable  of  flight,  because  exact  models  of 
them,  made  upon  a  smaller  scale,  have  demon- 
strated their  ability  to  sustain  themselves  in  the 
air.  Prof.  Newcomb  has  certainly  conferred  a 
benefit  upon  investigators  by  SO  clearly  pointing 
out  the  fallacious  nature  of  this  assumption. 

But  Prof.  Newcomb's  results  are  probably 
only  true  when  restricted  to  his  premises.  For 
models  exactly  alike,  only  differing  in  the  scale 
of  their  dimensions,  his  conclusions  are  un- 
doubtedly sound;  but  where  large  kites  are 
formed  by  the  multiplication  of  smaller  kites 
into  a  cellular  structure  the  results  are  very 
different.  My  own  experiments  with  compound 
kites  composed  of  triangular  cells  connected  cor- 
ner to  corner  have  amply  demonstrated  the  fact 
that  the  dimensions  of  such  a  kite  may  be 
increased  to  a  very  considerable  extent  without 
materially  increasing  the  ratio  of  weight  to  sup- 
porting surface :  and  upon  the  tetrahedral  plan 
the  weight  relatively  to  the  wing-surface  re- 
mains the  same,  however  large  the  compound 
kite  may  be. 

The  indefinite  expansion  of  the  triangular 
construction  is  limited  by  the  fact  that  dead 
weight  in  the  form  of  empty  framework  is  neces- 
sary in  the  centra]  space  between  the  sets  of 
cells  (see  Fig.  b),  so  that  the  necessary  increase 
of  this  space  when  the  dimensions  of  the  com- 
pound kite  are  materially  increased  — in  order  to 
preserve  the  stability  of  the  kite  in  the  air  — 
adds  still  more  dead  weight  to  the  larger  struc- 
tures. Upon  the  tetrahedral  plan  no  necessity 
exists  for  empty  frameworks  in  the  central 
spaces,  for  the  mode  of  construction  gives  solid- 
ity without  it.  Tetrahedral  kites  combine  in  a 
marked  degree  the  qualities  of  strength,  light- 
ness, and  steady  flight ;  but  further  experiments 
are  required  before  deciding  that  this  form  is  the 
best  for  a  kite,  or  that  winged  cells  without  hori- 
zontal aeroplanes  constitute  the  best  arrange- 
ment of  aero-surfaces.  The  tetrahedral  principle 
enables  us  to  construct  out  of  light  materials 
solid  frameworks  of  almost  any  desired  form, 
and  the  resulting  structures  are  admirably 
adapted  for  the  support  of  aero-surfaces  of  any 
desired  kind,  size,  or  shape  (aeroplanes  or  aero- 
curves,  etc.,  large  or   small). 

In  further  illustration  of  the  tetrahedral 
principle  as  applied  to  kite  construction,  I  built 
a  kite  which  is  not  itself  tetrahedral  in  form, 
but  the  framework  of  which  is  built  up  of  tetra- 
hedral cells.  This  kite,  although  very  different 
in  construction  and  appearance  from  the  Aero- 
drome of  Prof.  Langley,  which  I  saw  in  suc- 
cessful flight  over  the  Potomac  a  few  years  ago, 
has  yet  a  suggestiveness  of  the  Aerodrome  about 
it,  and  it  was  indeed  Prof.  Langlcy's  apparatus 
that  led  me  to  the  conception  of  this  form.  The 
wing-surfaces  consist  of  horizontal  aeroplanes, 
with  oblique  steadying  surfaces  at  the  extremi- 
ties. The  body  of  the  machine  has  the  form  of 
a  boat,  and  the  superstructure  forming  the  sup- 
port for  the  aeroplanes  extends  across  the  boat 
on  either  side  at  two  points  near  the  bow  and 
stern.  The  aeroplane  surfaces  form  substan- 
tially two  pairs  of  wings,  arranged  dragon-fly 
fashion.  The  whole  framework  for  the  boat  and 
wings  is  formed  of  tetrahedral  cells  having  the 
form  of  the  regular  tetrahedron,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  diagonal  bracing  at  the  bottom  of 
the  superstructure ;  and  the  kite  turns  out  to 
be  strong,  light,  and  a  steady  flyer. 


I  have  flown  this  kite  in  a  calm  by  attaching 
the  cord  —  in  this  case  a  Manila  rope  —  to  a 
galloping  horse.  Upon  releasing  the  rope  the 
kite  descended  so  gently  that  no  damage  was 
done  to  the  apparatus  by  contact  with  the 
ground. 

An  attempt  which  almost  ended  disastrously, 
was  made  to  fly  a  modified  form  of  the  kite 
described  in  a  good  sailing  breeze,  hut  a  squall 
struck  it  before  it  was  let  go.  The  kite  went 
up,  lifting  the  two  men  who  held  it  off  their 
fnt.  Of  course  they  let  go  instantly,  and  the 
kite  rose  steadily  in  the  air  until  the  flying 
cord  (a  Manila  rope  three  eighths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter)  made  an  angle  with  the  horizon  of 
about  450  when  the  rope  snapped  under  the 
strain.  Tremendous  oscillations  of  a  pitching 
character  ensued;  but  the  kite  was  at  such  an 
elevation  when  the  accident  happened,  that  the 
oscillations  had  time  to  die  down  before  the 
kite  reached  the  ground,  when  it  landed  safely 
upon  even  keel  in  an  adjoining  field  and  was 
found  to  be  quite  uninjured  by  its  rough  experi- 
ence. Kites  of  this  type  have  a  much  greater  lifting 
power  than  one  would  at  first  sight  suppose.  The 
natural  assumption  is  that  the  winged  superstruc- 
ture alone  supports  the  kite  in  the  air,  and  that 
the  boat  body  and  floats  represent  mere  dead-load 
and  bead  resistance.  But  this  is  far  from  being 
the  case.  Boat-shaped  bodies  having  a  Y-shaped 
cross-section  are  themselves  capable  of  flight 
and  expose  considerable  surface  to  the  wind.  I 
have  successfully  flown  a  boat  of  this  kind  as  a 
kite  without  any  superstructure  whatever,  and 
although  it  did  not  fly  well,  it  certainly  supported 
itself  in  the  air,  thus  demonstrating  the  fact  that 
the  boat  surface  is  an  element  of  support  in 
compound  structures  like  those  described. 

Of  course  the  use  of  a  tetrahedral  cell  is  not 
limited  to  the  construction  of  a  framework  for 
kites  and  flying-machines.  It  is  applicable  to 
any  kind  of  structure  whatever  in  which  it  is 
desirable  to  combine  the  qualities  of  strength 
and  lightness.  Just  as  we  can  build  houses  of 
all  kinds  out  of  bricks,  so  we  can  build  struc- 
tures of  all  sorts  out  of  tetrahedral  frames,  and 
the  structures  can  be  so  formed  as  to  possess 
the  same  qualities  of  strength  and  lightness 
which  are  characteristic  of  the  individual  cells. 
I  have  already  built  a  house,  a  framework  for  a 
giant  wind-break,  three  or  four  boats,  as  well  as 
several  forms  of  kites,  out  of  these  elements. 
See  Aerodrome;  Balloon;  Flying  Machines. 
Alexander  Graham  Bell. 

Aerians,  a  religious  sect  who  arose  in  the 
4th  century  of  the  Christian  Church  and  present 
many  features  of  modern  religious  liberalism  in 
the  way  they  combatted  ecclesiastical  tradition 
and  the  institutionalism  professedly  derived 
from  the  Apostolic  age.  They  derive  their  name 
from  their  originator  and  leader,  Aerius,  a  pres- 
byter  of  Sebaste,  a  city  of  Pontus.  Aerius  flour- 
ished about  35S  A.D.  He  was  fired  with  a  spirit 
of  revolt  against  the  condition  of  the  Church  as 
he  found  it.  Although  an  ascetic  of  a  very 
stern  and  rigid  character,  he  was  shocked  at 
the  extravagant  lengths  to  which  some  of  his 
fellow  Christians  carried  the  practice  of  fasting, 
and  the  claims  which  they  made  to  merit  because 
of  this  rigorous  self-maceration.  Although  he 
found  fasting  a  settled  institution  of  the  Church 
be  opposed  the  practice  because  of  the  delusions 
it  seemed  to  lead  to.     He  was  also  an  opposer 


AERIDES  — AERODROME 


of  those  special  festivals  of  intercession  which 
were  held  in  behalf  of  the  faithful  departed. 
"Pray  for  the  living,  whose  needs  and  suffer- 
ings some  of  which  you  may  have  caused,"  he 
seems  to  say.  To  this  vigorous  and  uncompro- 
mising onslaught  on  the  common  and  ordinary 
practices  of  the  Church  he  recalls  such  earnest 
and  outspoken  fathers  of  the  Reformation  as 
Martin  Luther  and  John  Knox.  There  were  a 
great  many  people  who  sympathized  and  agreed 
with  him,  and  his  sect  at  one  time  was  very 
flourishing.  The  ascendancy  of  the  episcopal 
order  in  the  Church  was  a  natural  aristocratic 
movement,  although  Bishop  Lightfoot  in  com- 
mentary on  the  Philippians  does  not  seem  to 
think  that  it  was  sanctioned  either  by  divine 
command  or  apostolic  precedent.  Aerius  main- 
tained that  the  bishop  was  not  superior  to  the 
presbyter,  that  they  were  of  the  same  order, 
and  that  a  bishop  was  merely  a  chairman  elected 
for  convenience  sake  to  preside  among  equals. 
He  seems  also  to  have  been  opposed  to  holding 
of  any  such  set  festivals  in  the  Church  as  Easter. 
This  sect  seems  to  have  sown  the  earliest  seed 
of  modern   Presbyterianism. 

Aerides,  the  wind  flower,  one  of  the  Orclii- 
dacca,  of  which  there  are  15  species.  The  finest 
species,  Aerides  adoratum,  grows  wild  in  parts 
of  Asia,  but  in  cold  and  temperate  climates  is 
cultivated  under  glass,  though  flowering  at  rare 
intervals.  This  genus  of  plants  derives  its  name 
from  the  fact  that  the  species  appear  to  take 
their  principal  nourishment  from  the  air,  as 
they  can  exist  and  thrive  in  their  native  clime, 
sending  forth  blossom  after  blossom  while  sus- 
pended and  far  away  from  any  vegetable  soil. 
They  bear  distichous  leaves  and  their  flowers  are 
big  and  brilliant,  while  at  the  same  time  possess- 
ing a  rare  fragrance. 

Aerial  Telegraphy.  See  Semaphore;  Wire- 
less  Telegraphy. 

A'erinite,  a  bright  blue  earthy  substance 
found  in  the  Pyrenees.  It  has  no  definite 
composition,  and  its  blue  color  is  perhaps  of 
artificial  origin. 

Aerodrome  (from  two  Greek  words  sig- 
nifying "air  runner"'),  a  form  of  flying-ma- 
chine invented  by  Prof.  S.  P.  Langley,  now 
secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  This 
machine  has  never  yet  been  constructed  on  a 
scale  sufficiently  large  to  sustain  a  man,  but  mod- 
els weighing  30  pounds  or  so  have  been  built, 
which,  operated  by  a  small  steam  engine,  have 
worked  successfully,  and  have  given  fair  prom- 
ise of  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  aerial  navi- 
gation. The  aerodrome  has  no  gas  bag,  but 
relies  for  its  sustaining  power  wholly  upon  its 
wings  and  upon  the  machinery  which  propels 
it.  Prof.  Langley  has  approached  the  prob- 
lem of  aerial  navigation  with  greater  care  and 
more  elaborate  preparation  than  any  other  man. 
For  years  before  he  undertook  the  construction 
of  even  the  crudest  of  flying-machines  he  con- 
ducted an  elaborate  series  of  experiments  upon 
a  whirling  table  in  which  the  supporting  action 
of  the  air  upon  almost  every  conceivable  shape 
of  aeroplane,  and  at  all  possible  velocities,  was 
accurately  measured  and  recorded.  As  his  data, 
thus  obtained,  accumulated,  he  supplemented 
them  by  experiments  with  small  models  acting 
freely  in  the  air;  sometimes  these  were  mere 
planes  gliding  through  the  air,  and  sometimes 
they    we.r?    machines    driven    with    screws    pro- 


pelled by  rubber  bands  under  tension.     Having 
satisfied  himself  of  the  possibilities  of  mechani- 
cal  flight,   he   calculated   the   areas   of   the    sus- 
taining  surfaces   that    he   would   need,   and   the 
best  shape  to  give  them.     Then  came  a  long  and 
elaborate  series  of  investigations  as  to  the  motor 
best   suited   for  the   work,   accompanied   by   the 
construction  of  a  number  of  such  motors,  which 
were  tested,  weighed,  and  found  wanting.     His 
final  choice  was  the  steam  engine,  supplied  with 
steam    from    a   plain    copper   coil    for    a    boiler, 
through  which  a  circulation  was  artificially  main- 
tained, and  which  was  heated  by  a  gasolene  flame 
from     a     special     jet.       Prof.     Langley's     work 
on   the   supporting  power   of   aeroplanes   is   de- 
scribed in   his    'Experiments  in  Aerodynamics. } 
He  discovered  the  remarkable  fact  that  in  such 
aerial    navigation    as    was    there    shown    to    be 
possible    under    certain    definite    conditions    the 
power   required    would    in    theory    diminish    in- 
definitely as  the  speed  of  the  flying-machine  in- 
creased ;    and   that    it    would   actually   diminish, 
even  in  practice,  up  to  a  certain  limit.     This  ap- 
parently paradoxical   fact   is   known  as   "Lang- 
ley's  law."     In  the  completed  form  of  his  aero- 
drome there  are  two  pairs  of  wings,  which  do 
not  move  like  the  wings  of  a  bird,  but  are  fixed 
to    the    machine   and    serve   as   supporting    sur- 
faces.     These    wings    are    slightly    curved,    and 
each  is  attached  to  a  long  central  steel  rod  for 
support.     From  this  same  rod  the  body  of  the 
machine  depends,   together  with  the  boiler,  the 
engine,  the  machinery  and  the  propeller  wheels, 
these  latter  not  being  in  the  position  of  those  of 
an   ocean   steamer,   but   more   nearly   amidships. 
They  are  made  of  wood,  and  are  between  three 
and  four  feet  in  diameter.     The  boiler   supplies 
steam  for  an  engine  of  between  one  and  one-and- 
a-half    horsepower ;    and    weighs    a    little    over 
five  pounds,   including  the  fire   grate.     The  en- 
gine, with  all  its  moving  parts,  weighs  26  ounces, 
and  suffices  to  drive  the  propeller   wheels  at  a 
speed  of  from  800  to  1,200  revolutions  per  min- 
ute.    The   rudder  has  both  a   horizontal   and  a 
vertical  blade,  so  as  to  steer  in  both  directions. 
The   total    length    of   the    machine   is   about    16 
feet,  and  the  span  of  the  wings  from  tip  to  tip 
is  between   12  and   13  feet.     The  weight  of  the 
whole,    including    the    machinery,    is    nearly    30 
pounds.     On  the  day  when  the  aerodrome  made 
its   first   successful   flight   from  a   houseboat   on 
the  Potomac  River,  at  its  first  launching  it  made 
a  short,  sharp  dive   into  the  river.     No  change 
was  made  other  than  a  slight  adjustment  where- 
by the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole  machine 
was  moved  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch;  but 
this   was   sufficient  to  give  the  desired  balance, 
and  the  second  launching  was  entirely  success- 
ful. 

Prof.  Alexander  Graham  Bell,  in  'Nature1 
for  28  May  1896,  describes  the  famous  trial  on 
the  Potomac  River  as  follows :  "Through  the 
courtesy  of  Mr.  S.  P.  Langley,  secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  I  have  had  on  various 
occasions  the  privilege  of  witnessing  his  ex- 
periments with  aerodromes,  and  especially  the 
remarkable  success  attained  by  him  in  experi- 
ments made  on  the  Potomac  River  on  Wednes- 
day, 6  May.  which  led  me  to  urge  him  to  make 
public  some  of  these  results.  I  had  the  pleasure 
of  witnessing  the  successful  flight  of  some  of 
these  aerodromes  more  than  a  year  ago.  but 
Prof.  Langley's  reluctance  to  make  the  results 
public  at  that  time  prevented  me   from  asking 


AERODYNAMICS  —  ^ESCHINES 


him.  as  I  have  done  since,  to  let  me  give  an  ac- 
count of  what  I  saw. 

«  On  the  date  named  two  ascensions  were 
made  by  the  aerodrome,  or  so-called  <  flying- 
machine,'  which  I  will  not  describe  here  further 
th.i  11  in  say  that  it  appeared  to  me  to  be  built 
almost  entirely  of  metal  and  driven  by  a  steam 
engine,  which  1  have  understood  was  carrying 
fuel  and  a  water  supply  for  a  very  brief  period, 
and  which  was  of  extraordinary  lightness.  The 
absolute  weight  of  the  aerodrome,  including  that 
of  the  engine  and  all  appurtenances,  was,  as  I 
was  told,  about  25  pounds,  and  the  distance  from 
tip  to  tip  of  the  supporting  surfaces  was,  as  I 
observed,  about  12  or  14  feet.  The  method  of 
propulsion  was  by  aerial  screw  propellers,  and 
there  was  no  gas  or  other  aid  for  lifting  it  in  the 
air  except  its  own  internal  energy. 

«  On  the  occasion  referred  to  the  aerodrome 
at  a  given  signal  started  from  a  platform  about 
20  feet  above  the  water  and  rose  at  first  directly 
in  the  face  of  the  wind,  moving  at  all  times  with 
remarkable  steadiness,  and  subsequently  swing- 
ing around  in  large  curves  of  perhaps  a  hundred 
yards  in  diameter,  and  continually  ascending 
until  its  steam  was  exhausted,  when,  at  a  lapse 
of  about  a  minute  and  a  half,  and  at  a  height 
which  I  judged  to  be  between  80  and  100  feet  in 
the  air,  the  wheels  ceased  turning,  and  the  ma- 
chine, deprived  of  the  aid  of  its  propellers,  to  my 
surprise,  did  not  fall,  but  settled  down  so  softly 
and  gently  that  it  touched  the  water  without 
the  least  shock,  and  was  in  fact  immediately 
ready  for  another  trial. 

«  In  the  second  trial,  which  followed  directly, 
it  repeated  in  nearly  every  respect  the  actions 
of  the  first,  except  that  the  direction  of  its 
course  was  different.  It  ascended  again  in  the 
face  of  the  wind,  afterward  moving  steadily  and 
continually  in  large  curves  accompanied  with  a 
rising  motion  and  a  lateral  advance.  Its  motion 
was,  in  fact,  so  steady  that  I  think  a  glass  of 
water  on  its  surface  would  have  remained  un- 
spilled.  When  the  steam  gave  out  again  it  re- 
peated for  a  second  time  the  experience  of  the 
first  trial  when  the  steam  had  ceased,  and  set- 
tled gently  and  easily  down.  What  height  it 
reached  at  this  trial  I  cannot  say.  as  I  was  not 
so  favorably  placed  as  in  the  first,  but  I  had 
occasion  to  notice  that  this  time  its  course  took 
it  over  a  wooded  promontory,  and  I  was  relieved 
of  some  apprehension  in  seeing  that  it  was  al- 
ready so  high  as  to  pass  the  tree  tops  by  20  or 
30  feet.  It  reached  the  water  one  minute  and 
thirty-one  seconds  from  the  time  it  started,  at  a 
measured  distance  of  over  900  feet  from  the 
point  at  which  it  rose.  This,  however,  was  by 
no  means  the  length  of  its  flight.  I  estimated 
from  the  diameter  of  the  urve  described,  from 
the  number  of  turns  of  the  propellers  as  given 
by  the  automatic  counter,  after  due  allowance 
for  slip,  and  from  other  measures,  that  the  actual 
length  of  flight  on  each  occasion  was  slightly 
over  3.000  feet.  It  is  at  least  safe  to  say  that 
each  exceeded  half  an  English  mile. 

«  From  the  time  and  distance  it  will  be  no- 
ticed that  the  velocity  was  between  20  and  25 
miles  an  hour,  in  a  course  which  was  constantly 
taking  it  <  up  hill  >  I  may  add  that  on  a  pre- 
vious occasion  I  have  seen  a  far  higher  velocity 
attained  by  the  same  aerodrome  when  its  course 
was  horizontal. 


«  I  have  no  desire  to  enter  into  detail  further 
than  I  have  done,  but  I  cannot  but  add  that  it 
seems  to  me  that  no  one  who  was  present  on 
this  interesting  occasion  could  have  failed  to  rec- 
ognize that  the  practicability  of  mechanical  flight 
had  been  demonstrated. 

«  Alexander  Graham  Bell.» 

The  aerodrome  is  described,  with  illustra- 
tions, in  the  1  Scientific  American  Supplement,' 
Nos.  1404  and  1405  :  and  there  was  also  a  popu- 
lar account  in  <  McClure's  Magazine  >  for 
June  1897.  See  also  «  Story  of  Experiments  in 
Mechanical  Flight,"  by  S.  P.  Langley.  in  the 
Smithsonian  'Report*  for  1897.  For  further 
information  on  the  subject  of  aerial  navigation, 
see  Balloon;  Flying- .Machine. 

Aerodynamics,  that  branch  of  hydrody- 
namics (q.v.)  which  deals  with  the  properties, 
and  especially  the  motions,  of  air  and  other 
compressible  fluids.     See  Meteorology. 

Aerolite,  a  name  given  to  stones  falling 
from  the  sky.     See  METEORITE. 

Aerology,  that  branch  of  physics  that 
treats  of  the  air.  Sec  Atmosphere;  Meteor- 
ology. 

Aeronau'tics,  the  art  of  navigating  the  air 
by  means  of  balloons  (q.v.)  or  flying-machines 
(q.v.).  See  also  Aerodrome;  Aeroplane;  Bal- 
loon. 

A'eroplane.  This  word  is  used  in  the 
following  two  senses:  (1)  A  plane  or  nearly 
plane  material  surface  possessed  of  a  certain 
degree  of  rigidity,  and  used  in  connection  with 
flying-machines  to  oppose  great  resistance  to  the 
fall  of  the  machine,  while  allowing  it  to  travel 
ahead  without  much  resistance.  The  planes  are 
usually  set  parallel  with  the  horizontal  axis  of 
the  machine,  or  else  they  are  inclined  slightly 
upward  so  that  as  the  machine  is  driven  for- 
ward by  its  propellers  or  wings  the  aeroplane 
will  exert  a  lifting  or  sustaining  effect.  (2) 
Any  flying-machine,  but  especially  that  invented 
by  M.  Victor  Tatin,  and  tested  with  a  certain 
degree  of  success  in  1879  at  Chalais-Meudon. 
Tatin's  aeroplane  was  propelled  by  two  screws, 
which  were  driven  by  compressed  air.  The 
syllable  -plane,  in  the  word  in  its  second  sense, 
is  derived  from  the  Greek  word  pianos,  "wan- 
dering." See  Aerodrome;  Balloon;  Flying- 
Machine. 

Aerosi'derite,  a  meteorite  (q.v.)  consisting 
essentially  of  metallic  iron. 

Aerosid'erolite,  a  meteorite  (q.v.)  contain- 
ing both  stone  and  iron.  The  name  comes  from 
the  Greek  sideros,  iron,  and  litltos,  stone.  It 
was  first  given  by  N.  S.  Maskelyne. 

A'erostat.     See  Balloon  ;  Flying-Machine. 

Aerosta'tics,  that  branch  of  science  which 
treats  of  the  density,  pressure,  and  equilibrium 
of  air  and  other  ga-es.  See  Gases,  General 
Properties  of;  THERMODYNAMICS. 

Aerotherapeutics,  the  treatment  of  disease 
through  the  medium  of  air.     See  Therapeutics. 

.ffischines,  es'ki-nez,  the  greatest  of  Greek 
orators  except  his  rival  Demosthenes :  b.  Attica, 
389  B.C.;  d.  Samos,  314  B.C.  That  he  rose  to  im- 
mense influence  and  high  station  by  his  un- 
aided genius,  despite  family  poverty,  would  be 


1  Departure  of  Mr.  Santos  Dumont  from  the  Aerostatic  Park  on  his  successful  trip  on  which  he  won  the  Deutsch  Prize 

of  $20,000.        i  The  "  Santos-Dumont  No.  6  "  maneuvering  in  midair.        *  Ascent  of  the  Santos-Dumont 

Dirigible  Balloon  No.  5  at  Longchampa  on  July  1  2th. 


^SCHYLUS 


considered  his  best  title  to  honor  in  democra- 
tized modern  states:  it  was  charged  against  him 
as  a  foul  disgrace  in  Athens.  The  further 
«  campaign  »  accusations  of  Demosthenes  —  that 
his  father  was  a  schoolmaster's  freedman  and 
his  mother  a  public  dancer  and  courtesan,  and 
that  he  changed  the  family  name  to  a  more  gen- 
teel form  —  are  valuable  only  as  examples  of 
what  passed  then  for  fatal  obstacles  to  public 
trust  and  private  honor,  and  the  last-named 
reads  curiously  in  a  modern  atmosphere.  That 
his  father  was  a  poor  schoolmaster,  and  that  he 
worked  in  the  school  to  help,  is  probable ;  more 
than  probable  also  are  his  boasts  of  good  blood 
despite  it,  as  several  of  the  brothers  became 
leading  citizens,  one  of  them  being  on  the  board 
of  ten  strategoi  which  conducted  military  and 
foreign  affairs.  He  may  have  been,  as  alleged,  a 
professional  gymnast :  unpaid  athletics  were  too 
reverently  worshipped  there  to  make  paid  ones 
seem  unnatural.  He  certainly  served  a  long  term 
of  military  duty  (probably  not  all  at  once),  and 
with  distinction ;  for  he  was  in  the  battles  of 
Mantinea  (362)  and  Tamynse  (349),  and  for 
bravery  in  the  latter  was  deputed  to  carry  home 
the  news  and  accorded  a  crown.  Meantime  he 
had  become  a  magistrate's  clerk ;  a  petty  actor ; 
finally  secretary  to  the  important  political  lead- 
ers Aristophon  and  Eubulus,  who  helped  him 
twice  to  an  election  as  government  secretary. 
He  was  now  40  and  had  not  « found  him- 
self » ;  but  with  the  chance  of  addressing  the 
public  his  true  talent  soon  became  manifest.  He 
quickly  acquired  an  eminent  mastery  of  legal 
and  political  knowledge,  and  became  a  singu- 
larly graceful  and  effective  speaker,  with  re- 
markable finish,  harmony,  and  variety  of  ora- 
torical effect.  In  348  he  was  sent  to  the 
Peloponnesus  to  organize  a  union  of  the  Greeks 
against  Philip  of  Macedon,  but  failed  entirely, 
and  doubtless  became  convinced  at  that  time 
that  any  such  scheme  was  permanently  imprac- 
ticable. The  next  year  he  went  as  one  of  the 
embassy  to  negotiate  peace  with  Philip,  and  on 
their  report  (which  Grote  pronounces  «a  tissue 
of  impudent  and  monstrous  falsehoods,"  not 
necessarily  of  their  own  invention,  but  accept- 
ance of  Philip's  word),  the  Peace  of  Philocrates 
(another  envoy)  was  concluded  in  346.  Philip 
grew  more  and  more  powerful,  and  Demosthe- 
nes more  and  more  urgent  for  opposition  to  his 
plans,  which,  however  plausible, —  a  Graeco- 
Macedonian  union  against  the  barbarians  and 
the  East, —  could  in  practice  only  be  carried  out, 
as  they  at  last  were,  by  absorbing  Greece  in 
Macedonia.  .Eschines  as  steadily  supported  the 
Macedonian  alliance,  and  doubtless  as  honestly, 
from  conviction  that  for  disunited  Greece  the 
only  choice  was  between  league  and  conquest  — 
which  also  was  true.  In  345  Demosthenes 
charged  him  with  treason  and  bribery.  He  was 
acquitted  without  difficulty.  Three  years  later 
the  charge  was  renewed  in  Demosthenes'  great 
speech  «  On  the  False  Embassy  »  :  ^Eschines  re- 
butted it  with  success  in  his  speech  of  the  same 
title.  He  helped  on  the  Macedonian  cause  all 
through  the  reign  of  Philip  and  the  early  part 
of  Alexander's,  accused  by  the  opposing  party 
of  being  a  hired  emissary  of  Macedonia,  and 
returning  as  much  and  presumably  as  just  abuse 
as  he  received.  That  the  public  made  the  ne- 
cessary discount  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  he 
lost  no  credit   with  them.     At  last  he  assumed 


the  aggressive  with  disastrous  results.  One 
Ctesiphon  having  proposed  a  golden  crown  for 
Demosthenes  in  recognition  of  his  services  to 
the  commonwealth,  yEschines  impeached  him 
for  proposing  an  illegal  act,  and  made  his  great- 
est speech,  «  Against  Ctesiphon, »  an  indictment 
of  Demosthenes'  entire  public  life.  Demos- 
thenes replied  with  his  greatest,  « On  the 
Crown »  ;  so  crushing  that  though  the  pro- 
Macedonian  party  was  in  the  ascendant  /Es- 
chines  could  not  obtain  the  one-fifth  minority  of 
votes  legally  necessary  to  save  him  from  atimia, 
or  infamy,  and  a  fine  of  1.000  drachmas.  He 
left  Athens  at  once  without  paying  it,  and  there- 
after taught  rhetoric  or  schools  of  oratory  in 
foreign  parts ;  some  say  Ionia  and  Caria,  and 
finally  Rhodes  after  Alexander's  death.  He 
died  at  Samos,  aged  75.  Three  of  his  orations 
are  extant, —  against  Timarchus'  charge  of 
bribery  after  his  second  embassy  to  Philip,  one 
on  that  embassy,  and  the  one  against  Ctesiphon. 
There  is  a  storv  that  he  read  the  latter  to  his 
pupils  at  Rhodes,  and  on  their  professing  to  be 
astonished  that  despite  its  brilliancy  he  should 
have  been  defeated,  replied.  «  You  would  not 
be  if  you  had  heard  Demosthenes. »  A  variant 
is  that  he  read  Demosthenes'  speech  as  a  model 
of  rhetoric,  and  on  their  expressing  admiration, 
replied,  «  If  you  had  heard  him  roll  it  out  him- 
self!  »  (The  originals  are  in  countless  editions. 
See  for  text  and  best  comment.  Jebb's  <  Attic 
Orators,)  London  1876-80.  Translations  are 
also  plentiful.) 

/Eschylus,  es'ki-lus,  the  eldest  of  the  three 
great  tragic  poets  of  Greece:  b.  Eleusis,  Attica, 
525  B.C. ;  d.  456.  Euphorion,  his  father,  was  prob- 
ably connected  with  the  mysteries  of  Demeter, 
and  he  is  said  himself  to  have  been  initiated. 
In  499  b.c.  he  made  his  first  appearance  as  a 
competitor  for  the  prize  of  tragedy,  but  was  not 
successful.  Before  attaining  his  first  triumph 
he  had  to  appear  as  an  actor  on  a  grander  scene. 
He  was  present,  and  highly  distinguished  him- 
self, at  the  battles  of  Marathon,  Artemisium, 
Salamis,  and  Plataea.  He  must  have  gained  as 
a  poet  by  his  experience  in  this  momentous 
struggle,  and  probably  too  his  fame  as  a  warrior 
would  help  to  recommend  his  compositions  as 
a  poet  to  his  countrymen.  His  first  dramatic 
victory  was  achieved  in  484  B.C.  The  names  of 
the  pieces  which  composed  his  trilogy  at  this 
time  are  not  known.  The  <  Persae »  (<  Per- 
sians >),  the  earliest  of  his  extant  pieces,  formed 
part  of  a  trilogy  which  gained  the  prize  in  472 
B.C.  Altogether  he  is  reputed  to  have  composed 
70  tragedies  and  gained  13  triumphs.  In  the 
satirical  pieces  which  accompanied  the  trilogy 
of  tragedies  he  is  said  also  to  have  been  a  mas- 
ter. Only  seven  of  his  tragedies  are  extant. 
They  are:  <  The  Persians)  (remarkable  as  be- 
ing founded  on  contemporary  events),  (The 
Seven  against  Thebes.)  'The  Suppliants.) 
<  Prometheus  Bound.)  <  Agamemnon.)  <  The 
Choephori,)  and  <  The  Eumenides.)  The  last 
three  form  the  trilogy  of  the  »  Oresteia  >  (so 
named  as  being  based  on  the  story  of  Orestes), 
the  only  complete  Greek  trilogy  we  possess.  It 
was  represented  in  458  b.c,  between  which  date 
and  that  of  <  The  Persians  >  the  others  were 
brought  out ;  but,  according  to  a  suggestion  of 
Bockh,  the  representation  of  the  <  Oresteia  >  in 
458  b.c.  was  a  repetition  .in  the  absence  of  the 
poet. 


JESCH  YNITE  —  JESCULAPIUS 


In  468  b.c.  he  was  defeated  by  Sophocles,  and 
is  said  to  have  retired  through  mortification  at 

this  defeat  to  the  court  of  Iliero,  king  of  Syra- 
cuse. Of  the  fact  of  his  residence  at  Syracuse  at 
this  time  there  appears  to  be  no  doubt,  and  with- 
out ascribing  his  retirement  to  mere  jealousy, 
there  are  other  reasons  for  associating  it  with 
his  defeat.  .(Eschylus  belonged  to  the  old  aristo- 
cratic party,  which  had  long  been  on  the  decline. 
His  rival  Sophocles,  whose  first  appearance  as 
a  dramatist  had  thus  been  honored  with  a  tri- 
umph, was  favored  by  the  democratic  party, 
Cimon  himself  being  one  of  the  judges.  The 
decline  of  his  party  might  thus  render  Athens 
an  uncongenial  residence  to  .Eschylus,  and  in- 
dispose him  for  an  arduous  contest  in  which  he 
did  not  feel  that  justice  was  done  to  his  claims. 
During  his  residence  at  Syracuse  he  composed 
many  pieces,  in  which  he  not  only  selected  local 
subjects,  but  used  words  unintelligible  to  the 
Athenians.  Unless  Bockh's  theory  is  received 
it  must  be  supposed  that  /Eschylus  returned  to 
Athens  for  the  representation  of  his  <  Oresteia.i 
I  lure  is  a  story  that  be  was  accused  before  the 
Areopagus  for  impiety  either  in  representing 
the  «  Eumenides  »  on  the  stage  or  in  divulging 
the  mysteries  of  Demetcr ;  and  it  is  to  the  period 
of  this  representation  that  the  accusation  is 
usually  referred.  If  .Eschylus  came  to  Athens 
he  must  soon  have  returned  to  Sicily,  where  he 
died  in  Gela.  A  tomb  was  erected  to  him.  with 
an  epitaph  by  himself,  in  which  he  speaks  of 
himself  as  an  exile  from  Athens,  and  refers  to 
his  part  in  the  battle  of  Marathon,  but  not  to 
his  writings.  Of  the  manner  of  his  death  an 
improbable  story  is  told,  namely,  that  an  eagle, 
mistaking  his  bald  head  for  a  stone,  let  fall  a 
tortoise  on  it  to  break  the  shell,  and  thus  killed 
him. 

.(Eschylus  was  in  a  sense  the  creator  of  the 
Greek  tragedy,  the  stage  up  till  his  time  being 
occupied  with  comparatively  feeble  productions. 
His  style,  as  is  common  with  early  poets,  was 
grand,  sublime,  and  full  of  energy,  though  some- 
times erring  in  excessive  splendor  of  diction  and 
imagery.  Longinus.  the  celebrated  Greek  critic, 
complains  of  it  as  being  often  harsh  and  over- 
strained. His  plays  have  little  or  no  plot,  and  in 
personal  portraiture  he  does  not  represent  the 
subtle  complexities  of  human  character,  which 
belong  to  a  later  development  of  art,  but  the 
bold  outlines  of  strength  and  daring  which  per- 
tain to  the  conception  of  gods  and  heroes.  A 
fatalistic  tendency  dominates  bis  views  of  the 
unseen,  and  by  making  men  the  sport  of  su- 
perior beings  supplies  abundant  material  for 
tragedy.  An  ethical  principle  of  retribution  is 
not,  however,  wholly  lost  sight  of.  The  practice 
of  contending  for  the  prize  with  a  trilogy  of 
plays  was  established  before  his  time,  but  he 
was  the  first  to  reduce  the  trilogy  to  a  unity  by 
linking  together  three  distinct  but  associated 
subjects,  each  of  which  formed  the  theme  of 
a  play  complete  in  itself  yet  related  to  the 
others. 

^Eschylus  was  a  great  improver  of  the  stage 
as  well  as  of  the  drama.  He  introduced  a  sec- 
ond actor  upon  the  scene,  and  was  thus  the 
founder  of  true  dramatic  dialogue,  to  which  be 
subordinated  tin-  chorus,  which  had  formerly 
been  the  principal  part.  At  a  subsequent  period 
he  followed  the  example  of  Sophocles  in  intro- 
ducing a   third   actor.     The   dialogue   he   intro- 


duced  was  measured  and  formal,  and  without 
the  license  of  broken  lines.  This  gave  it  a  dis- 
tant and  stately  character  agreeable  to  the  kind 
of  superhuman  heroes  which  it  suited  the  genius 
of  (Eschylus  to  put  upon  the  stage.  To  make 
the  appearance  of  his  personages  suitable  to 
their  character,  he  introduced  the  thick-soled  co- 
thurnus or  buskins  to  raise  the  stature  of  the 
actors,  ami  he  gave  them  dresses  appropriate  to 
the  parts  they  had  to  play.  He  himself  some 
tunes  acted  111  bis  own  plays.  He  also  made  use 
of  the  scene-painter's  services,  and  Agatharchus 
is  said  |o  have  painted  for  him  the  fust  scenes 
drawn  according  to  the  laws  of  linear  per- 
spective. From  the  testimony  of  Aristotle,  how- 
ever, it  seems  to  be  doubtful  whether  scene- 
painting  was  actually  introduced  by  .Eschylus 
or  Sophocles.  After  its  introduction  it  would 
no  doubt  be  used  by  both.  He  carefully  trained 
the  dancers  to  represent  incidents  in  the  play 
by  appropriate  action,  and  he  removed  from  the 
stage  scenes  of  violence  and  blood.  By  a  special 
decree  of  the  Athenian  people  a  chorus  was 
provided  at  the  public  expense  for  any  one  who 
wished  to  produce  any  work  of  .Eschylus  a 
second  time.  After  his  death  his  sons  Eu- 
phorion  and  Bion,  and  his  nephew  Philocles, 
gained  triumphs  with  works  of  his  over  Sopho- 
cles and  Euripides,  and  thus  was  established  a 
tragic  school  of  ^Eschylus,  which  continued  to 
flourish  for  more  than  a  century. 

The  first  edition  of  /Eschylus  was  printed  in 
Venice  in  1518.  The  best  of  the  earlier  editions 
was  that  of  Stanley  (London,  1663).  The  best 
recent  editions  are  those  of  Alliens  <  Paris, 
1877),  Wecklein  (Berlin,  1884)  and  F.  A.  Paley 
(in  the  >  Bibliotheca  Classica  ').  There  are 
English  poetical  translations  by  Potter,  Blackie, 
Plumptre,  Morshead,  and  Swanwick,  and  a 
prose  translation  by  Paley.  Fitzgerald's  semi- 
translation  of  the  '  Agamemnon, 1  with  the 
widest  liberties  of  omission,  addition,  and  recast- 
ing, though  of  no  very  great  service  to  the 
scholar,  is  of  incomparable  poetic  brilliancy,  and 
far  the  best  introduction  to  make  the  general 
reader  feel  /Eschylus'  greatness  and  charm, 
Robert  Browning  also  has  one  of  the  same  play, 
and  Elizabeth  Barrett  Browning  one  of  the 
'Prometheus.1 

.ffis'chynite,  es'ki-ntt,  the  mineral  for 
which  Dana's  /Eschynite  group  was  named. 
It  is  essentially  a  niobate,  titanate  and  thorate 
of  the  cerium  metals,  containing  also  iron  and 
calcium  in  small  amounts.  It  occurs  in  black, 
prismatic,  vertically  striated  crystals  belonging 
to  the  orthorhombic  system.  Its  hardness  is 
about  5.5,  and  its  specific  gravity  about  5.  It 
is  rare,  and  occurs  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  in 
Norway,  and  in  Silesia.  It  was  named  by 
Berzelius  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  "shame," 
in  allusion  to  the  "shameful"  inability  of 
chemistry,  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  to  sepa- 
rate titanic  acid  and  zirconia  (two  of  its 
constituents). 

.ffiscula'pius  (Greek  Asclepios),  the  god  of 
medicine  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. In  Homer  he  is  merely  a  man.  the  Rod 
of  medicine  being  Paeeon  ;  the  deification  was 
probably  founded  on  the  Homeric  story,  and  at 
any  rate  was  subsequent.  The  notion  that  he- 
was  originally  a  god  of  light  or  the  underworld, 
tt  reduced »  to  the  tradition  of  a  human  being. 


.ffiSCULIN  —  -ESOPUS 


inverts  all  historic  processes  and  the  nature  of 
early  thought.  In  Homer  he  has  two  sons,  Ma- 
chaon  and  Podalirius,  famous  as  heroes  and 
physicians;  they  are  called  Asclepiadae,  a  name 
retained  by  their  descendants  or  at  least  a 
priestly  physician-caste.  His  daughters,  Hygeia 
(health),  Panacea  (all-healer),  Iaso  (healer), 
etc.,  are  later  inventions,  abstractions  of  relevant 
ideas.  The  later  myths  vary :  some  call  him 
son  of  Apollo  and  Arsinoe,  some  of  Apollo  and 
Coronis  daughter  of  Phlegyas.  In  Hesiod  the 
nymph  was  faithless,  and  with  her  bridegroom 
Ischys  (one  of  the  Lapitha:)  was  slain  by  the 
gods  (the  raven  who  brought  the  news  being 
changed  from  black  to  white  as  a  punishment)  ; 
but  Apollo  rescued  his  unborn  son  from  the 
mother's  body  on  the  funeral  pile,  and  put  him 
under  charge  of  Chiron,  where  he  grew  to  excel 
his  master,  able  not  only  to  prevent  death  but 
to  raise  the  dead.  At  Pluto's  complaint  Zeus  slew 
him  with  a  thunderbolt,  and  after  his  death  he 
received  divine  honors.  The  supposition  that 
his  worship  originated  in  the  Pencus  Valley  in 
Thessaly  is  perhaps  due  to  the  Homeric  tradi- 
tion being  our  earliest  record;  but  if  he  was 
originally  a  healer  wonderful  to  rude  bar- 
barians, it  is  likely  enough  that  the  tradition  was 
Thessalian.  Anyway,  Tricca  there  was  an  old 
focus  of  his  cult ;  but  it  flourished  also  to  the 
south,  perhaps  carried  there  by  the  Thessalians 
forced  southward  by  invaders.  It  had  noted 
seats  in  Phocis,  Breotia,  and  especially  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  where  Thelpusa  in  Arcadia  was 
one  familiar  seat ;  but  by  far  the  greatest  was 
Epidaurus  south  of  Corinth.  Here  was  a  temple 
in  a  grove,  where  the  sick  had  to  spend  a  night, 
and  the  proper  remedies  were  revealed  to  the 
priests  in  a  dream,  and  the  cured  made  sacrifice 
to  ^Esculapius,  commonly  a  cock.  The  sleep 
was  of  course  a  mere  part  of  the  priests'  mystifi- 
cation ;  but  from  their  accumulated  experience 
and  their  register  of  cases  they  must  have  be- 
came really  expert  physicians  for  the  times. 
From  thence  the  worship  spread  all  over  Greece 
and  the  islands  and  to  Rome, —  nearly  200  tem- 
ples in  all ;  there  were  celebrated  ones  at  Cos, 
Cnidus,  and  Pergamus ;  the  cult  was  introduced 
into  Athens  as  late  as  420  B.C.,  and  to  Rome 
293  B.C.,  in  consequence  of  a  plague.  (Walton, 
<  The  Cult  of  Asklepios,>  New  York,  i8g4 ; 
Wilamowitz-Mollendorff,  <  Isyllus  von  Epi- 
dauros,)   Berlin,  1886.) 

.ffis'culin,  es'cu-lin,  a  bitter  principle  found 
in  the  bark  of  the  horse-chestnut  tree  (jEsculus 
hil>[>ocastanum),  especially  in  the  spring,  before 
the  buds  open.  It  crystallizes  in  small  prisms 
having  the  formula  C15H10OB.2H2O.  /Esculin 
melts  at  4000  F.  It  dissolves  sparingly  in  cold 
water,  but  easily  in  boiling  water,  the  solution 
coagulating  upon  cooling.  It  is  soluble  in  gla- 
cial acetic  acid  and  in  24  parts  of  boiling  al- 
cohol. /Esculin  is  of  special  interest  to  the 
physicist  on  account  of  the  notable  bluish  fluor- 
escence (q.v.)  exhibited  by  its  solution  in  water. 
The  word  is  also  spelled  sesculine,  esculin,  and 
esculine. 

.ffi'sop,  the  fabulist.  As  early  as  the  mid- 
5th  century  B.C.  at  least,  fables  were  circulating 
in  Athens  attributed  to  a  certain  .Esopus.  and 
held  in  such  esteem  that  the  city  erected  to  him 
a  statue  by  the  great  sculptor  Lysippus;  Aris- 
tophanes makes  one  of  his  characters  learn  the 


fables,   Socrates  versified  such  as  he  could  re- 
member,   and    Plato    speaks   of   them   with    ap- 
proval ;  Herodotus,  born  c.  484  B.C.,  specifically 
tells  us,  as  referring  to  a  story  too  familiar  to 
repeat,   that   when   the   Delphians   offered   com- 
pensation for  his  murder  to  the  rightful  claim- 
ant, it  was  claimed  and  received  by  one  Iadmon, 
grandson    of    another    Iadmon,    a    Samian    and 
owner  of  Rhodopis  the  courtesan,  who  lived  un- 
der  Amasis,    king  of   Egypt    (c.    570-526   B.C.), 
and  was  redeemed  by  Charaxus,  the  brother  of 
Sappho.     That  all  this  mass  of  detail  concerning 
persons    living   less   than    a   century   before   his 
time,  with  easily  verifiable  dates,  and  about  one 
whose  fate  was  notorious,  was  in  fact  told  of  a 
myth  and  abstraction,  and  that  there  never  was 
an   /Esop,   is   exaggerating   skepticism    into   ab- 
surdity ;   and   the  later  accretion   of   fables  and 
confusion    of    persons    is    irrelevant.     Plutarch 
(late   1st  century  a.d.)   fills  out  the  story  from 
lost  authors,  possibly  with  authentic  traditions, 
perhaps  mixed  with  real  myth-making:  that  he 
was    captured    young    and    brought    a    slave    to 
Athens,  and  after  several  changes  of  ownership 
enfranchised  by  Iadmon   (which  is  inconsistent 
with      Herodotus)  ;     that     during     Pisistratus' 
usurpation  he  visited  Athens  and  composed  the 
fable    of    «  King    Log    and    King    Stork »    for 
the  edification  of  the  citizens ;  that,  going  to  the 
Lydian  court,  he  became  Creesus'  favorite,  was 
sent   by   him   as   envoy  to   Delphi   to   distribute 
money  to  the  people   (about  564  B.C.),  and,  re- 
fusing to  do  so  on  account  of  a  quarrel  among 
them,   was  thrown  from  a  cliff  by  them.     This 
at  least  coheres  with  Herodotus.     The  stories  of 
his  being  an  ugly  blackamoor,  and  others  beyond 
the  above,  are  derived  from  a  worthless  life  of 
him   published    (but  not  written)    by    Maximus 
Planudes   (q.v.),  a  14th-century  monk,  in  which 
he  is  apparently  confounded  with  the  mythical 
Oriental  sage  Lokman.     As  to  the  fables,  it  is 
probable  that  ^Esop   did  not  write  them  down, 
but  merely  told  them  to  audiences :  and  it  is  per- 
fectly certain  that  the  ones  we  have  under  his 
name  are  not  his  (though  they  may  incorporate 
the  same  incidents),  but  substantially  a  collec- 
tion   made    from   oral    memories   by    Demetrius 
Phalereus  of  Athens  about  320  B.C. ;  turned  into 
Latin  by  Phajdrus  of  the  1st  century  A.D.,  with 
additions    of   his   own    much    inferior   in    every 
way;  versified  by  Babrius,  a  Greek  poet  of  per- 
haps the  late  1st  century;   and  variously  trans- 
lated   and    re-edited    since.     The    usual    popular 
«  /Esop  »  is  Phxdrus.     The  origin  of  the  fables 
is  largely  Oriental ;  but  they  are  much  superior 
to  any  Oriental  prototypes  in  pith  and  concise- 
ness.    It   is  often   said  also  that  they   are  part 
of  the  stock  of  beast-apologues  common  to  the 
entire    Indo-European    races ;    but   this    is    true 
only  in  the  sense  that  animals  have  been  made 
to  talk  in  all  old  folk-lore.     The  special  quali- 
ties of  «  /Esop  » — the  immense  compression  of 
idea  almost  to  «  indecent  exposure,"   in  Sydney 
Smith's  phrase,  the  sweep  of  generalization,  the 
acute   analysis   of  typical   human   characteristics 
—  make    it    unique;    and    it    quite   probably    in- 
herits these  traits   from  the  genius  of  the  real 
/Esop.  a  Greek  of  the  mighty  age  of  Greece. 

.ffiso'pus,  Clodius,  a  celebrated  Roman 
actor  of  the  1st  century  B.C.,  a  contemporary  of 
Roscius.  When  acting  he  entered  into  his  part 
to  such  a  degree  as  sometimes  to  be  seized  with 
a  perfect  ecstasy.     Plutarch  mentions  a  report 


.ESTHETICS 


concerning  him  while  representing  Atreus,  that, 
deliberating  how  he  should  revenge  himself  on 
Thyestes,  he  was  so  transported  beyond  himself 
that  he  smote  one  of  the  servants  who  was 
ig  the  stage  and  killed  him  on  the  spot. 
He  was  a  dramatic  tutor  of  Cicero,  and  be- 
friended him  in  exile.      His  last  appearance  was 

,,i  the  d  die  ii  m  oi  I  'ompej  's  'Theatre  in  55 
B.r. ;  his  voice  thereafter  failed.  His  folly  in 
spending  money  on  expensive  dishes  made  him 
as  conspicuous  as  his  dramatic  talents.  He  is 
said,  at  one  entertainment,  to  have  had  a  dish 
filled  with  singing  and  speaking  birds,  which 
cost  $4,000.  His  son  /Esop  inherited  his  father's 
worst  traits:  it  was  he  who  drank  the  $40,000 
pearl  dissolved  in  vinegar,  to  be  noted  as  having 
drunk  the  most  expensive  known  beverage. 

.Esthetics,  the  science  of  beauty,  in  its 
emotions  or  attributes.  The  term  aesthetics 
first  received  this  application  from  Baumgarten, 
a  Germ  opher,  who  was  the  first  modern 

writer  to  treat  systematically  on  this  subject. 
Kant  uses  the  word  aesthetics  (aisthetikos,  per- 
ceivable by  the  senses)  in  a  broader  etymologi- 
cal sense,  treating  in  his  transcendental  aesthetic 
of  the  a  priori  principles  of  sensuous  knowledge. 
There  are,  as  indicated,  two  modes  of  treating 
aesthetics,  scientifically  or  empirically,  by  collec- 
tion and  collation  of  the  objects  or  associations 
by  which  the  aesthetical  emotions  are  excited, 
and  philosophically  by  analysis  and  determination 
of  the  cause  or  source  and  mode  of  the  emotions. 
Neither  of  these  modes  is  independent  of  the 
other;  but  the  scientific  mode,  from  the  multi- 
tude of  details  it  involves,  is  little  amenable  to 
summary  treatment,  and  in  form  at  least  we 
shall  be  compelled  to  limit  ourselves  to  the  other. 

.Esthetics,  like  every  other  branch  of  philoso- 
phy, has  suffered  from  the  conflict  of  first  prin- 
ciples which  has  continually  impeded  the  devel- 
opment of  details ;  but  it  has  also  profited  by  this 
conflict,  which  has  itself  brought  out  facts 
which  might  otherwise  have  been  hid.  Space 
will  not  permit  a  historical  summary,  and  we 
confine  ourselves  to  the  briefest  indications  of 
the  views  of  the  leading  thinkers. 

Socrates,  according  to  Xenophon,  regarded 
the  beautiful  as  coincident  with  the  good,  and 
both  as  resolvable  into  the  useful.  Plato,  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  idealistic  theory,  held  the  exist- 
ence of  an  absolute  beauty,  which  is  the  ground 
of  beauty  in  all  things.  He  also  asserted  the  inti- 
mate union  of  the  good,  the  beautiful,  and  the 
true.  Aristotle,  whose  contributions  to  aesthetics 
are  of  the  highest  value,  treated  of  them  in  much 
more  detail  than  Plato,  but  chiefly  from  the 
scientific  or  critical  point  of  view.  In  his  "Po- 
etics »  he  declares  poetry  to  be  a  more  serious 
and  philosophical  matter  than  philosophy  itself. 
In  his  treatises  on  «  Poetry  »  and  «  Rhetoric  » 
he  lays  down  a  theory  of  art  and  establishes 
principles  of  beauty.  His  philosophical  views 
were  in  many  respects  opposed  to  those  of  Plato. 
He  does  not  admit  an  absolute  conception  of  the 
beautiful ;  but  he  distinguishes  beauty  from  the 
good,  the  useful,  the  fit,  and  the  necessary.  He 
resolves  beauty  into  certain  elements,  as  order, 
symmetry,  definiteness.  and  a  certain  magnitude, 
which  appears  to  be  relative  to  the  perceptive  ca- 
pacity. A  distinction  of  beauty,  according  to 
him,  is  the  absence  of  lust  or  desire  in  the  pleas- 
ure it  excites.    Beauty  has  no  utilitarian  or  ethi- 


cal object;  the  aim  of  art  is  merely  to  give  im- 
mediate pleasure ;  its  essence  is  imitation ;  the 
chief  objects  of  imitation  in  poetry  and  music  are 
passions,  dispositions,  and  actions.  The  essence 
of  poetry  consists  in  this  imitation,  and  not  in 
form.  The  end  of  tragedy,  he  says,  is  to  effect 
a  purification  of  pity  and  fear  by  means  of  these 
passions  themselves.  He  also  speaks  of  a  purify- 
ing effect  of  music  in  quieting  wilder  forms  of 
excitement.  As  this  seems  a  contradiction  of  his 
negation  of  an  ethical  end  in  aesthetics  it  has 
been  disputed  whether  this  purification  is  ethi- 
cal or  aesthetical.  Plotinus  agrees  with  Plato 
and  disagrees  with  Aristotle  in  holding  that 
beauty  may  subsist  in  single  and  simple  objects, 
and  consequently  in  restoring  the  absolute  con- 
ception of  beauty.  He  differs  from  Plato  and 
Aristotle  in  raising  art  above  nature.  When  the 
artist  has  logoi  (the  equivalent  in  the  system 
of  Plotinus  of  the  ideas  in  that  of  Plato)  for 
his  models  his  creations  may  be  more  beautiful 
than  natural  objects.  Raumgarten's  treatment 
of  aesthetics  is  essentially  Platonic.  He  made  the 
division  of  philosophy  into  logic,  ethics,  and 
aesthetics;  the  first  dealing  with  knowledge,  the 
second  with  action  (will  and  desire),  the  third 
with  aesthetics. 

Where  Baumgarten  fails  of  a  Platonic  stan- 
dard is  in  limiting  aesthetics  to  the  conceptions 
derived  from  the  senses,  and  in  making  them 
consist  in  confused  or  obscure  conceptions,  in 
contradistinction  to  logical  knowledge,  which 
consists  in  clear  conceptions.  Kant  defines  beau- 
ty in  reference  to  his  four  categories,  quantity, 
quality,  relation,  and  modality.  In  accordance 
with  the  subjective  character  of  his  system  he 
denies  an  absolute  conception  of  beauty,  but  his 
detailed  treatment  of  the  subject  is  inconsistent 
with  the  denial.  Thus  he  attributes  a  beauty  to 
single  colors  and  tones,  not  on  any  plea  of 
complexity,  but  on  the  ground  of  purity.  He 
holds  also  that  the  highest  meaning  of  beauty  is 
to  symbolize  moral  good,  and  arbitrarily  attaches 
moral  characters  to  the  seven  primary  colors. 
The  value  of  art  is  mediate,  and  the  beautv  of 
art  is  inferior  to  that  of  nature.  He  classifies 
the  arts  according  as  they  express  the  (sub- 
jective?) aesthetic  idea.  The  treatment  of  beauty 
in  the  systems  of  Schelling  and  Hegel  can  with 
difficulty  be  made  comprehensible  without  a  de- 
tailed reference  to  the  principles  of  these  remark- 
able speculations.  Idealistic  systems,  which,  to 
say  the  least,  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish  from 
pantheism,  while  it  is  impossible  to  find  a  beauty 
and  even  sublimity  in  the  boldness  of  their  de- 
velopments, they  may  be  described  from  an 
outside  point  of  view  as  exaggerations  of  Platon- 
ism,  in  which  human  consciousness  is  made  the 
exhaustive  measure  of  universal  being.  The 
control  of  subject  and  object,  which  with  Schel- 
ling constitutes  the  absolute,  is  seen  in  artistic 
conception  within  the  limits  of  the  ego,  and  a 
feeling  of  infinite  satisfaction  accompanies  this 
perfect  perception  by  intelligence  of  its  real  self. 
Art  accordingly  is  higher  than  philosophy,  and 
the  beauty  of  art  is  superior  to  the  beauty  of 
nature.  Schclling's  views  of  art  are  not  clearly 
developed  into  particular  criticism.  In  tragedy 
he  finds  a  conflict  of  liberty  in  the  subject  with 
objective  necessity.  In  art,  according  to  Hegel, 
the  absolute  is  immediately  present  to  sensuous 
perception.  With  him,  as  with  Schlegel,  it  is  the 
highest    revelation    of   beauty   and    superior    to 


ESTHETICS 


nature.  The  beautiful  is  the  shining  of  the  idea 
(the  Hegelian  idea,  or  absolute  notion  into 
which  all  existence  is  resolvable)  through  a  sen- 
suous medium.  Its  essence  accordingly  is  in 
appearance,  and  in  this  it  differs  from  the  true. 
Its  complement  is  religion,  which  embodies 
the  certainty  of  the  idea. 

Hegel  classifies  the  arts  according  to  the  su- 
premacy of  form  and  matter,  a  classification 
which  appears  somewhat  superficial  and  is  very 
open  to  criticism.  He  treats  of  beauty  in  much 
detail,  and  where  he  is  not  Hegelian  he  is  es- 
sentially Platonic.  The  extravagance  of  Hege- 
lianism,  along  with  its  pantheistic  tendencies, 
become  more  pronounced  in  the  systems  of  the 
followers  of  Hegel,  into  which  we  have  not  space 
to  enter.  English  writers  on  beauty  are  nu- 
merous, but  they  rarely  ascend  to  the  heights  of 
German  speculation.  Shaftesbury  adopted  the 
notion  that  beauty  is  perceived  by  a  special  in- 
ternal sense ;  in  which  he  was  followed  by 
Hutcheson,  who  held  that  beauty  existed  only 
in  the  perceiving  mind,  and  not  in  the  object. 
Numerous  English  writers,  among  whom  the 
principal  are  Alison  and  Jeffrey,  have  supported 
the  theory  that  the  source  of  beauty  is  to  be 
found  in  association' — a  theory  analogous  to 
that  which  places  morality  in  sympathy.  The 
ability  of  its  supporters  gave  this  view  a  tem- 
porary popularity,  but  its  baselessness  has  been 
effectively  exposed  by  successive  critics.  Dugald 
Stewart  attempted  to  show  that  there  is  no  com- 
mon quality  in  the  beautiful  beyond  that  of  pro- 
ducing a  certain  refined  pleasure ;  and  Bain 
agrees  with  this  criticism,  but  endeavors  to  re- 
strict the  beautiful  within  a  group  of  emotions 
chiefly  excited  by  association  or  combination  of 
simpler  elementary  feelings.  Herbert  Spencer 
avails  himself  of  a  hint  supplied  by  Schiller, 
which  he  makes  subservient  to  the  theory  of  evo- 
lution. He  makes  beauty  consist  in  the  play 
(sport)  of  the  higher  powers  of  perception  and 
emotion,  defined  as  an  activity  not  directly  sub- 
servient to  any  processes  conducive  to  life,  but 
being  gratifications  sought  for  themselves  alone. 
He  classifies  aesthetic  pleasures  according  to  the 
complexity  of  the  emotions  excited,  or  the  num- 
ber of  powers  duly  exercised ;  and  he  attributes 
the  depth  and  apparent  vagueness  of  musical 
emotions  to  associations  with  vocal  tones  built 
up  during  vast  ages.  Among  numerous  writers 
who  have  made  valuable  contributions  to  the 
scientific  discussion  of  aesthetics  may  be  men- 
tioned Winckelmann,  Lessing,  Jean  Paul  Richter, 
the  Schlegels,  Gervinus,  Helmholtz,  and  Ruskin. 

The  theory  of  Plato  affords,  we  believe,  the 
true  basis  both  of  philosophical  apprehension 
and  of  scientific  investigation  of  the  beautiful. 
What  is  meant  when  it  is  said  there  is  no  com- 
mon quality  in  what  is  recognized  as  beauty 
beyond  the  excitement  of  a  pleasurable  emotion  ? 
It  is  not  pretended  that  all  pleasurable  emotions 
are  comprehended  in  the  notion  of  beauty:  the 
mere  excitement  of  pleasure  is  not  then  sufficient 
to  distinguish  the  notion.  Is  the  use  of  the 
term  then  a  mistake,  and  does  it  imply  nothing 
more  than  the  arbitrary  grouping  together  of 
some  pleasurable  emotions  to  the  exclusion  of 
others?  We  have  the  most  conclusive  psycho- 
logical evidence  in  the  structure  of  all  languages 
that  this  is  not  the  case,  and  that  there  is  some 
notion,  simple  or  complex,  subjective  or  objec- 
tive, requiring  this  term  to  express  it.     If   then 


we  attempt  to  distinguish  between  pleasurable 
emotions,  and  to  group  them  as  emotions  of 
beauty  or  emotions  not  of  beauty,  we  must  either 
suppose  our  emotions  to  be  self-excited,  or  we 
must  assume  a  corresponding  difference  in  the 
exciting  cause.  We  have  thus  got  both  an  ob- 
jective and  a  subjective  beauty  and  it  remains  to 
inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  object,  whether 
real  or  phenomenal,  simple  or  complex,  by 
which  the  notion  of  beauty  is  excited.  Associa- 
tion cannot  be  an  original  cause  of  the  emotion, 
for  association  as  such,  and  without  regard  to 
the  nature  of  the  association,  can  excite  no 
definite  emotion  such  as  that  of  pleasure.  If  the 
notion  of  beauty  then  is  actually  excited  by 
association,  as  it  undoubtedly  is,  it  remains  to 
be  inquired  by  what  association,  and  by  what 
elements  of  the  association?  Nor  can  the  ex- 
planation of  Aristotle  and  other  philosophers 
be  received,  that  beauty  is  merely  a  recognition 
of  harmony,  proportion,  symmetry,  and  such 
modes  in  complex  objects,  for  it  is  as  undoubted 
that  there  is  a  self-beauty,  the  beauty  of  a 
straight  line  in  being  straight,  of  a  circle  in 
being  round,  or  of  blueness  in  being  blue,  as 
that  there  is  a  beauty  of  harmony  and  propor- 
tion. Lastly,  we  cannot  limit  beauty  to  the  ob- 
jects of  the  senses;  all  that  is  perceived  by  intel- 
ligence, whether  in  the  forms  or  processes  of 
matter,  or  in  the  states  or  operations  of  mind,  is 
capable  of  exciting  the  emotion  of  beauty.  There 
is  then  no  common  category  in  which  the  beau- 
tiful can  be  included  except  the  beautiful.  It 
is  not  the  useful,  or  the  good,  or  the  true,  the 
great  or  small,  the  high  or  low,  but  the  beautiful. 
But  Plato  has  also  shown  that  our  ideas,  though 
not  resolvable  into  each  other,  are  mutually 
dependent  and  related.  They  are  united  in  con- 
crete thought  and  apprehension,  and  they  form  in 
their  totality  a  whole  which  constitutes  the  one- 
ness of  intelligence.  If  beauty  then  cannot  be 
resolved  into  other  notions,  its  relations  to 
and  combinations  with  these  notions  can  be 
traced,  and  this  constitutes  its  philosophical 
definition. 

Our  knowledge  is  indeed  too  limited  to  en- 
able us  to  trace  all  the  relations  of  ideas  which 
are  infinite,  but  a  just  use  of  psychology  enables 
us  to  apprehend  in  their  simplest  form  even 
the  highest  verities,  and  Plato,  in  associating 
in  one  triad  beauty,  goodness,  and  truth,  has 
expressed  the  highest  relation  and  evolved  the 
highest  knowledge  attainable  of  them.  The 
psychological  evidence  of  this  union  lies  within 
the  range  of  experience,  and  its  generalization 
is  the  legitimate  operation  of  reason.  To  a  lim- 
ited intelligence  goodness  and  truth  (or  reality) 
seem  often  wide  apart,  but  every  intelligence 
must  apprehend  the  desirableness  of  their  union, 
and  occasionally  witness  practical  exemplifica- 
tions more  or  less  perfect  of  it.  If  uniting  such 
partial  realizations  we  assume  that  to  a  perfect 
intelligence  truth  and  goodness  would  be  in  per- 
fect unity,  the  contemplation  of  this  union  will 
excite  in  us  the  highest  emotion  of  beautv. 
This,  then,  may  be  regarded  as  both  the  type 
and  the  exhaustive  realization  of  the  notion  of 
beauty.  This  trinity  has,  as  indicated  also  by 
Baumgarten,  a  relation  to  the  distribution  or 
natural  operation  of  our  faculties.  We  have 
reason  to  apprehend  truth,  imagination  to  per- 
ceive beauty,  and  conscience  to  recognize  good- 
ness.    Imagination  as  a  mental  faculty  must  not 


^ESTHETICS 


be  understood  as  a  more  power  of  reproducing 
objects  of  sense  in  the  form  of  pictorial  images. 
It  is  the  mental  power  by  which  we  apprehend 
and  combine  at  will  all  the  elements  directly 
presented  to  our  consciousness,  whether  from 
external  observation  or  internal  experience.  It, 
as  well  as  reason,  is  operative,  hut  it  differs  from 
reason  both  in  its  mode  of  operation  and  in  its 
end.  Instead  ni  tin  slowly  elaborate  process  by 
which  reason  searches  nut  the  true  relations  of 
its  objects,  it  seeks  by  the  readiest  process  ob- 
ject-. .>f  immediate  contemplation  on  which  it 
can  dwell  with  satisfaction,  and  accordingly 
selects  for  combination  those  elements  which 
present  to  it  the  most  immediate  affinities.  In 
its  constructive  data  it  is  as  comprehensive  as 
reason,  but  in  its  processes  it  is  less  sure.  It 
even  forms  hypotheses,  that  is,  semblances  of 
reason,  hut  it  haves  reason  to  verify  them. 
Hence  tin-  reason  why  the  perception  of  the 
beautiful  has  been  assigned  to  an  inner  sense. 
Hence  also  the  reason  why  the  apprehension  of 
beauty  separates  itself  from  the  apprehension 
of  truth  and  of  goodness. 

The  apprehension  of  beauty  is  always  the 
apprehension  of  some  perfection,  of  some  identi- 
fication of  the  good  in  the  real,  but  in  order 
to  produce  the  emotion  of  beauty  this  identifi- 
cation must  be  manifest.  This  it  is.  and  this 
alone  apparently,  which  associates  beauty  with 
the  work  of  imagination  rather  than  with  the 
work  of  reason,  and  makes  the  former  the 
special  faculty  of  beauty.  The  processes  of 
reason  are  slow  and  their  results  remain  long 
imperfect;  thus  there  is  no  immediate  realiza- 
tion of  the  perfection  of  truth  attained  by  them; 
but  when  some  final  discovery  completes  a  chain 
of  reasoning,  and  a  whole  truth  stands  revealed, 
there  is  an  immediate  perception  of  goodness  in 
the  completed  truth,  and  the  emotion  of  beauty  is 
at  once  evoked.  The  work  of  imagination  is 
subject  to  the  review  of  reason,  but  as  reason 
and  imagination  work  on  the  same  fundamental 
principles,  it  is  the  application  of  these  principles 
alone  which  reason  can  review.  Particular 
manifestations  of  beauty  are  thus  capable  of 
analysis,  and  we  may  resolve  the  elements  of  the 
most  complex  manifestations  into  two,  self- 
beauty  and  beauty  of  combination.  The  first 
exists  when  the  simple  type  or  idea  is  realized 
in  the  example,  when  a  straight  line  is  straight, 
a  circle  round,  a  color  or  a  sound  pure.  When 
a  type  is  suggested  by  simulation,  on  the  con- 
trary, but  so  imperfectly  realized  that  the  defect 
is  apparent,  the  result  is  ugliness.  It  thus  needs 
no  metaphysics  to  distinguish  beauty  from  its 
opposite.  In  combination  beauty  is  given  when 
perfect  types  are  combined  according  to  laws 
of  symmetry,  proportion,  and  design.  Every 
single  curve,  for  example,  has  a  particular  law, 
and  that  curve  is  beautiful  when  produced  ac- 
cording to  its  law  :  but  when  a  variety  of  curves 
are  combined  according  to  some  law  of  sym- 
metry in  one  outline,  there  is.  besides  the  self- 
beauty  of  the  several  curves,  a  beauty  in  the 
observance  of  the  law  of  combination,  and  in 
this  complex  beauty  of  outline,  besides  the  mani- 
fested beauty  of  form,  there  may  be  suggested 
beauties  of  suppressed  continuations.  So  with 
combinations  of  sound  and  color  and  more  com- 
plex combinations,  as  in  the  forms  of  animal 
nnd  vegetable  life. 

Two  related  laws  of  beauty  in  combination 


appear  to  be  the  production  of  the  greatest  va- 
riety with  the  least  expenditure  of  means,  and 
the  repetition  under  siight  modifications  of  sim- 
ilar  forms.  The  latin-  from  the  comparisons  it 
suggests  has  a  highly  educative  effect  on  the 
perceptive  faculties.  Thus  all  the  canons  of 
beauty  are  absolute,  but  as  these  canons  are 
applicable  only  to  the  elements,  whether  of  self- 
beauty  or  of  combination,  and  as  we  are  ig- 
norant of  the  laws  which  determine  the  number 
and  variety  of  the  more  complex  combinations, 
which  we  learn  to  know  only  by  observation 
and  comparison,  principles  of  criticism  only  can 
be  formed,  and  no  absolute  standard  of  taste  for 
common  empirical  observation.  Diversities  of 
opinion  are  thus  easily  accounted  for.  The  ex- 
istence of  beauty  in  the  object  is  distinct  from 
its  perception,  and  in  a  complex  object  each  ob- 
server will  perceive  only  those  beauties  which 
the  capacity  and  training  of  his  own  faculties 
enable  him  to  perceive.  Even  the  demonstration 
to  reason  of  the  observance  of  a  law  of  beauty 
will  not  help  a  defective  capacity.  The  instru- 
mentality of  our  senses  in  interpreting  to  us  the 
beauties  of  nature  demands  particular  attention. 
Beauty  in  an  object  implies  relation  of  the  object 
to  mind  in  which  the  canons  of  beauty  exist, 
but  not  surely  to  the  perceiving  mind  only,  but 
also  to  the  conceiving  or  creating  mind.  The 
perception  of  beauty  thus  establishes  a  com- 
munity between  the  perceiving  and  the  creating 
mind.  It  is  an  evidence  of  the  validity  of  the 
information  we  derive  from  those  operations  of 
our  senses  which  are  deemed  most  arbitrary. 
It  is  the  stamp  of  the  Creator  on  the  instruments 
of  our  faculties. 

It  is  easily  possible  for  art  within  a  narrow 
range  to  excel  nature,  for  while  nature  supplies 
our  types  she  rarely  carries  out  in  any  individ- 
ual example  all  the  details  of  typical  excellence 
variously  presented,  The  whole  causes  of  these 
deviations  of  nature  from  her  own  standards  it 
is  impossible  to  assign,  but  observation  shows 
that  ethical  causes  have  a  place  among  them,  and 
the  best  reason  of  men  has  always  inclined  to 
give-  them  a  larger  place  than  actually  appears. 
In  this  also  art  imitates  nature,  but  in  this  wider 
sphere  to  suppose  that  art  could  excel  nature 
would  be  to  assume  the  superiority  of  man  to 
the  Author  of  nature.  There  is  thus  no  ethical 
indifference  for  art.  To  limit  it  to  the  mechan- 
ical imitation  of  nature,  or  the  mere-  selection 
and  combination  of  sesthetical  types  without  an 
ethical  purpose,  would  be  to  place  it  below  the 
level  of  reason,  and  to  contradict  instead  of 
imitate  nature.  In  assigning  a  purifying  effect 
to  art  Aristotle  spoke  truly  as  a  critic  and  his- 
torian, and  to  denude  this  purification  of  an  ethi- 
cal significance  would  be  to  lower  his  authority 
as  a  witness,  but  not  to  alter  the  fact.  No  canon 
of  criticism  is  more  frequently  repeated  at  the 
present  day  than  that  •  > f  Aristotle,  that  art  is 
without  ethical  end.  This  criticism,  however, 
is  not  true  to  nature.  Art  cannot  cease  to  be 
aesthetical  in  order  to  be  ethical.  It  must  always 
deal  with  the  perceptive,  but  within  its  own 
province  it  is  subject  to  its  own  ethical  code, 
and  it  has  besides  affinities  with  the  general  ends 
of  ethics  which  cannot  be  ignored  with  impu- 
nity. The  pleasure  it  affords  must  always  be 
pure,  and  it  may  also  be  instructive.  Gayley  & 
Scott,  '  Guide  to  the  Literature  of  ^Esthetics  > ; 
B.  Bosanquet,  <  History  of  ^Esthetics.) 


AETA  —  JETOLIA 


Aeta.     See  Negritos. 

JEthel,  prefix  in  Anglo-Saxon  names.  See 
Ethel. 

.ffithelbold.    See  Ethelbold. 

.ffithelhard.     See  Adelard. 

iEtheling.     See  Atheling. 

.ffither.     See  Ether. 

iEthiopis,  Greek  epic  poem  in  five  books 
by  Arctinus  of  Miletus.  Its  heroine  is  Pen- 
thesilea,  the  Amazon  queen,  and  its  story  is 
that  of  the  events  of  the  Trojan  war  which 
occurred  after  those  narrated  in  the  'Iliad.' 

.ffi'thiops  Martial,  an  old  pharmaceutical 
name  for  black  oxid  of  iron. 

iE'thiops  Mineral,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  artificial  black  sulphide  of  mercury. 

.ffi'thogen,  a  compound  better  known  as 
nitride  of  boron.    See  Nitrides. 

.ffith  rioscope,  eth'ri-o-skop,  a  form  of 
differential  thermometer  devised  by  Sir  John 
Leslie.  Both  bulbs  of  the  thermometer  are  en- 
closed in  a  concave  mirror,  one  of  them  being 
in  its  focus.  The  instrument  is  so  sensitive  that 
when  directed  toward  the  sky  it  is  affected  by 
a  passing  cloud.  It  is  not  much  used  at  the 
present  time. 

Aetius,  a-e'shius,  the  last  great  Roman 
general  and  savior  of  western  Europe  from 
being  Hun :  b.  Durostorum  on  the  Danube  (now 
Silistria),  c.  390  a.d.  ;  murdered  toward  the  end 
of  454.  He  was  son  of  a  distinguished  com- 
mander Gaudentius  (probably  barbarian)  ;  in 
military  service  while  a  boy,  and  given  to  Alaric 
as  a  hostage  after  Pollentia  in  403,  remaining 
three  years;  later  a  hostage  to  the  Huns;  and 
gaining  close  intimacy  with  both  races,  of  mixed 
results.  After  Honorius'  death  he  supported  the 
secretary  Joannes  against  the  empress-regent 
Placidia,  and  brought  an  army  of  60,000  Huns 
to  his  aid  ;  but,  Joannes  having  just  been  defeated 
and  slain,  the  Huns  were  bribed  to  go  home,  and 
Aetius  was  made  count  of  Italy  and  commander 
of  the  army,  and  became  the  chief  adviser  and 
prop  of  Placidia  and  her  children.  His  main 
rival  was  Boniface,  Count  of  Africa,  at  Carthage: 
and  the  accepted  story  is  that  by  a  base  double 
intrigue  he  drove  him  into  revolt  and  calling  the 
Vandals  from  Spain  into  Africa ;  that  on  discov- 
ering the  fraud  Boniface  fought  in  Italy  first  a 
slight  battle  and  then  a  duel  with  Aetius,  was 
mortally  wounded,  and  in  dying  counseled  his 
wife  to  marry  no  one  but  his  rival.  It  is  very 
suspicious;  but  any  way  the  Vandals  overran 
North  Africa ;  Boniface  was  killed ;  Aetius  in 
432  had  to  flee  to  the  Huns,  came  back  the  next 
year  with  an  army  of  them,  was  reinstated,  and 
for  the  next  17  years  was  the  ruling  spirit  in 
the  Western  Empire,  battling  in  Gaul  with  Visi- 
goths. Burgundians,  and  Franks,  upholding  by 
combined  soldiership  and  policy  the  declining 
state,  with  a  vigor  and  genius  which  made  him 
the  one  great  man  of  the  Roman  world  in  for- 
eign eyes.  In  450  the  great  Hunnish  inva 
under  Attila  (q.v.)  came  rolling  down  into 
Gaul  with  a  volume  it  seemed  impossible  to  stay, 
and  the  success  of  which  might  have  blighted 
western  Europe  as  their  kinsmen  the  Turks  have 


blighted  the  eastern  portion.  Aetius  by  his  di- 
plomatic skill  and  knowledge  of  how  to  play  on 
the  barbarians  induced  Theodoric  the  Visigoth  to 
league  with  him.  followed  Attila  into  the  Seine 
valley,  and  on  20  Sept.  451  checked  his  progress 
in  the  mighty  battle  of  Chalons  (q.v.)  ;  the 
empire's  last  victory,  and  one  of  the  world's 
turning-points.  Attila's  death  not  long  after 
broke  up  the  Hunnish  coalition  and  delivered 
the  empire  from  it ;  but  it  was  also  Aetius'  death 
sentence,  and  with  his  the  empire's.  Valen- 
tinian  III..  Placidia's  son,  hated  Aetius'  power 
and  had  only  submitted  to  it  from  fear  of  Attila ; 
and,  feeling  now  secure,  seized  the  occasion  of  a 
visit  of  Aetius  to  Rome,  to  arrange  the  marriage 
of  his  son  with  Valentinian's  daughter,  and 
stabbed  him  with  his  own  hand.  The  sack  of 
Rome  by  the  Vandals  shortly  followed ;  and 
22  years  after  Aetius'  murder  the  last  of  a  suc- 
cession of  puppet  emperors  was  pulled  down  by 
the  barbarian   Odoacer. 

iEt'na.     See  Etna. 

iEtolia,  ancient  Greece,  a  district  lying 
along  the  N.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth  and 
having  Epirus  and  Thessaly  N.,  Acarnania  W. 
separated  by  the  Acheloiis,  and  Locris  and  Doris 
E.  separated  by  the  Daphnus.  The  only  other 
river  of  any  size  was  the  Evenus.  Between  it 
and  the  Acheloiis  lies  a  marshy  but  fertile  plain, 
separated  by  the  Aracynthus  range  on  the  north 
from  a  similar  plain,  of  which  two  large  com- 
municating lakes  —  Trichonis  (Apokuro)  and 
Hyria  (Zygos)  — take  up  a  great  part.  The 
rest  of  the  country  is  crossed  in  all  directions 
by  rugged  mountains,  covered  with  forests,  and 
intersected  by  ravines.  The  plains  produced 
plenty  of  corn  and  fine  pasture,  and  the  JEtolian 
horses  were  famous,  while  the  mountain  slopes 
gave  excellent  wine  and  oil ;  but  for  some  reason 
the  tribes  never  till  late  in  Greek  history  en- 
tered into  the  fellowship  of  Greek  civilization, 
and  then  but  imperfectly.  They  were  wild, 
backward,  anarchic,  and  untamable ;  a  race  of 
robbers  and  pirates,  and  the  best  recruiting- 
ground  in  Greece  for  mercenary  soldiers.  In 
the  Heroic  age,  when  most  other  Greeks  were 
like  them,  and  Odysseus'  grandfather  won  dis- 
tinction as  an  accomplished  klcpht,  they  were 
conspicuous ;  and  /Etolia  was  the  scene  of  the 
Calydonian  boar  hunt.  (See  Meleager.)  When 
they  reappear  in  Thucydides'  pages  on  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  they  are  a  congeries  of  un- 
federated  independent  tribes,  living  by  plunder 
and  the  chase,  with  few  and  poor  towns. — 
Thermon,  Calydon,  and  Pleuron  the  chief, —  and 
taking  tp  the  mountains  when  hard  pressed. 
They  had  a  sort  of  union  like  the  Iroquois 
League,  for  common  action  against  a  common 
enemy,  but  no  corporate  accountability  and  no- 
body to  make  a  treaty  with.  After  Alexander's 
death  Antipater  and  Craterus  invaded  the  coun- 
try ;  and  tin's,  with  the  great  new  wealth  their 
general  trade  of  soldiering  was  bringing  in  and 
consequent  increase  of  civilized  interests,  forced 
them  to  strengthen  the  bond  into  the  .Etolian 
League,  first  mentioned  in  314  B.C..  but  of  im- 
mense weight  in  later  times  and  chief  rival  to 
the  Achaian  League  and  Macedonia.  Unlike 
the  former,  it  was  a  league  of  tribes,  not  towns. 
But  like  that,  it  was  a  democracy  nominally, 
every  freeman  over  30  having  a  vote  if  be  could 
ccme  to  the  capital  and  cast  it,  but  an  aristocracy 


AFFECTION  —  AFFRE 


or  timocracy  in  practice,  only  the  wealthier  being 
able.    There  was  a  Great  Council,  or  Pansetoli- 

COn,  which  met  yearly  at  Thermon,  elected  all 
magistrates  afresh,  and  enacted  general  laws  and 
voted  on  foreign  policy ;  a  smaller  body  of 
Apocletae,  who  were  in  fact  a  cabinet,  who  pre- 
pared all  questions  to  put  before  the  Great  Coun- 
cil and  seem  to  have  been  permanent;  a  chief 
magistrate,  the  strategos  (general),  who  was 
not  only  military  commander  but  president  of 
the  assembly,  put  such  questions  as  he  chose 
(Speaker),  was  elected  annually,  and  was  not 
allowed  a  vote  on  the  question  of  peace  or  war; 
a  hipparchos  or  cavalry  commander;  and  a 
chief  secretary.  After  the  expulsion  of  the 
Gauls  from  Greece  in  279,  in  which  the  League 
did  good  service,  it  expanded  enormously,  not 
like  the  Achaian  League  because  of  the  advan- 
tages of  its  membership,  but  from  the  exceeding 
disadvantages  of  its  hostility  —  for  it  never  lost 
its  piratical  character  wholly  to  it-*  latest  day. 
It  took  in  Locris,  Phocis.  and  Bceotia.  Acarnania, 
southern  Thessaly,  and  Epirus,  many  cities  in 
the  Peloponnesus.  Thrace,  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  island  of  Cephallenia;  it  controlled  the  oracle 
at  Delphi  and  tlie  Amphictyonic  Council.  But 
its  wanton  invasion  of  Messenia  (S.W.  Pelopon- 
nesus) in  220  brought  the  Achaian  League  and 
Macedonia  both  against  it:  Philip  V.  in- 
vaded z92tolia  in  218,  sacked  Thermon  with  its 
vast  accumulated  national  treasures,  and  burnt 
the  sacred  buildings ;  and  the  next  year  they 
made  peace  In  211  they  again  provoked  a  war 
with  Macedonia,  and  again  Thermon  was  cap- 
tured, peace  being  made  in  205.  In  200  they 
joined  Rome  against  Macedonia,  and  helped 
to  win  the  battle  of  Cynosccphalae,  which 
crushed  Philip;  but  they  were  so  disgusted  with 
Flamininus'  settlement  of  the  country  without 
giving  them  the  advantages  they  expected,  that 
in  192  they  made  the  fatal  error  of  allying  them- 
selves with  Antiochus  of  Syria  against  the 
Romans.  Antiochus  was  crushed  in  189.  and 
the  independence  of  the  League  came  to  an  end. 
In  167  the  pro-Roman  party  murdered  550  of 
the  patriot  leaders,  and  the  League  was  dis- 
solved and  /Etolia  made  a  Roman  province. 

Affection,  in  psychology,  is  a  mental  ele- 
ment co-ordinate  with  "sensation."      See  Feeling. 

Affidavit,  a  statement  reduced  to  writing, 
and  sworn  or  affirmed  to  before  some  officer  who 
has  authority  to  administer  an  oath.  An  affi- 
davit should  refer  to  the  cause  in  which  it  is 
made.  The  common-law  rule  is  that  it  must 
contain  the  title  of  the  cause.  The  place  where 
the  affidavit  is  taken  must  be  stated,  to  show  that 
it  is  taken  within  the  officer's  jurisdiction.  The 
affiant  must  sign  the  affidavit  at  the  end.  It  is 
necessary  that  the  officer  signing  the  jurat  should 
append  his  official  title. 

An  affidavit  should  also  describe  the  affiant 
sufficiently  to  show  that  he  is  entitled  to  offer  it, 
for  instance  that  he  is  a  party,  or  agent  or  at- 
torney of  a  party  to  the  proceeding.  This 
matter  must  be  stated,  not  by  way  of  recital  or 
as  a  mere  description,  but  as  an  allegation  in  the 
affidavit. 

Affidavit  of  Defense. —  A  statement  made  in 
proper  form  that  the  defendant  has  a  good 
ground  of  defense  to  the  plaintiff's  action  upon 
the  merits. 

Affidavit  to  Hold  to  Bail. —  An  affidavit  which 


is   required  in  many  cases  before  a  person  can 
be  arrested. 

Affiliation  is  a  species  of  adoption  which 
-  in  some  portions  of  France  and  in  other 
1  opean  States.  The  person  affiliated  succeeds 
equally  with  other  heirs  to  the  property  ac- 
quired by  the  deceased  to  whom  lie  had  been 
affiliated,  but  not  to  that  which  he  inherited. 
See  Adoption. 

As  to  orders  of  affiliation  in  bastardy  pro- 
ceedings, see  Bastard. 

Affine  Transformation,  a-fin',  in  geom- 
etry, a  transformation  by  means  of  which  every 
point  in  a  plane  receives  a  displacement  whose 
direction  is  parallel  to  ;i  given  fixed  straight  line 
called  the  axis  of  affinity,  and  whose  magnitude 
is  proportional  to  the  distance  of  the  given 
point  from  that  axis.  The  affine  transforma- 
tion i-  projective;  that  is.  it  transforms  every 
straight  line  into  a   straight  line. 

Affinity.  In  law,  the  connection  existing 
in  consequence  of  marriage  between  each  of  the 
married  persons  and  the  kindred  of  the  other.  By 
the  marriage  one  party  thereto  holds  by  affinity 
the  same  relation  to  the  kindred  of  the  other 
that  the  latter  holds  by  consanguinity;  and  no 
rule  is  known  to  us  under  which  the  relation 
by  affinity  is  lost  on  a  dissolution  of  the  mar- 
riage more  than  that  by  blood  is  lost  by  the 
death  of  those  through   whom   it   is   derived. 

Affinity  is  distinguished  from  consanguinity, 
which  denotes  relationship  by  bl 1.  The  de- 
grees of  affinity  are  computed  in  the  same  way 
as  those  of  consanguinity. 

In  Chemistry. —  The  tendency  manifested  by 
certain  substances  to  unite  with  one  another  so 
as  to  produce  new  combinations,  chemically  dif- 
ferent from  the  primitive  ones.  The  word  was 
originally  applied  in  this  sense  in  the  belief  that 
some  obscure  and  undiscovered  «  affinity  »  or 
relationship  existed  between  the  combining  sub- 
stances ;  but  it  now  appears  probable  that  the 
contrary  is  more  nearly  true,  and  that  the 
tendency  toward  combination  is  strongest,  gen- 
erally speaking,  between  bodies  that  are  quite 
dissimilar;  though  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down 
any  fixed  rule  of  this  simple  kind.  The  modern 
theory  of  chemical  affinity  is  too  elaborate  to 
be  treated  adequately  under  a  single  heading. 
See  Chemical  Affinity;  Dissociation;  Elec- 
trolysis; Equilibrium  (Chemical);  Mo- 
lecular Theory;  Solution. 

Affirmation,  the  act  of  affirming,  in  the 
sense  of  solemnly  declaring  in  a  court  of  law 
that  certain  testimony  about  to  be  given  is  true. 
Also,  the  statement  made.  First  the  Quakers 
and  Moravians,  who  objected  on  conscientious 
grounds  to  take  oaths,  were  allowed  to  make 
solemn  affirmations  instead ;  now  everyone  ob- 
jecting to  take  an  oath  has  the  same  privilege; 
but.  as  is  just,  false  affirmations,  no  less  than 
false  oaths,  are  liable  to  the  penalties  of  per- 
jury. 

Affre,  Denis  Auguste,  afr',  de-ne  6-giist, 
French  ecclesiastic:  b.  27  Sept.  1793;  d.  27  June 
1848.  From  his  prudent  and  temperate  charac- 
ter he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Paris  by  Louis 
Philippe's  government  in  1840.  Though  not 
yielding  blind  submission  to  all  its  measures,  he 
abstained  from  offensive  opposition ;  and  when 
a  republic  was  proclaimed  in  1848  he  kept 
aloof  from  political  strife,  but  displayed  earnest 


AFGHANISTAN 


zeal  for  the  public  welfare.  During  the  June 
insurrection  he  climbed  on  a  barricade  in  the 
Place  de  la  Bastille,  carrying  a  green  bough  in 
his  hand,  as  a  messenger  of  peace ;  but  he  had 
scarcely  uttered  a  few  words  when  the  firing 
recommenced,  and  he  fell  mortally  wounded,  to 
die  next  day.  He  wrote  several  theological 
works  and  one  on  Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 

Afghanistan,  « Afghan-land, »  Asia,  a 
country  lying  between  Persia  W.  and  India 
and  its  N.W.  frontier  tribes  E.,  with  the  latter 
and  Baluchistan  S.,  and  Russia,  Bokhara,  and 
the  Pamir  region  N. ;  extending  from  lat.  20°  to 
38°  30'  N.  and  Ion.  6i°  to  75°  E.  Area,  as  de- 
fined N.  1885  and  S.  1893,  about  215.000  sq.  m. ; 
length  E.  to  W.  about  560  m.,  breadth  about  450. 
Pop.  estimated  toward  5.000.000.  The  chief 
political  divisions  are  Afghan  Turkestan,  Kafiri- 
stan,  and  Badakhshan,  with  part  of  the  Pamirs 
turned  over  to  it  by  the  other  powers :  Kabuli- 
stan.  of  which  Kabul  is  the  heart,  and  including 
Ghazni  and  Jalalabad;  and  Herat.  There  are 
also  independent  khanates,  and  wild  tribes 
which  belong  to  nothing  but  the  semi-enforceable 
sway  of  the  amir. 

Topography. —  Afghanistan  consists  chiefly  of 
lofty,  bare,  uninhabited  table-lands,  ranges  of 
snow-covered  mountains,  and  deep  ravines  and 
valleys.  Many  of  the  last  are  well  watered  and 
very  fertile,  but  about  four  fifths  of  the  whole 
surface  is  rocky,  mountainous,  and  unproductive. 
The  surface  on  the  N.E.  is  covered  with  the 
lofty  ranges  of  the  Hindu-Kush,  often  18,000 
and  sometimes  exceeding  20,000  ft.  high ;  the 
loftiest  passes  are  above  12.000  ft. ;  and  the 
road  often  passes  along  the  base  of  mural  preci- 
pices rising  from  2.000  to  3.000  ft.  It  is  an  off- 
shoot of  the  Himalaya,  parting  the  Oxus  basin 
from  the  Afghan  basins  of  the  Kabul  and  He!- 
mand  ;  and  sweeping  S.W.,  at  about  Ion.  68°  (the 
Irak  and  Shibar  passes)  is  prolonged  by  the 
Koh-i-Baba,  which  breaks  into  several  almost 
parallel  branches  inclosing  the  valleys  of  the 
Heri-Rud  (Herat  River)  and  Murghab  (Merv 
River),  the  two  main  ones  known  as  Safed-Koh 
('(white  mountain»;  there  is  another  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Kabul  basin)  and  Siah-Koh. 
The  E.  is  traversed  by  the  Suleiman  Mts.,  which 
extend  to  the  Indus,  and  are  united  by  a  range 
called  the  Paghman  Mts.  with  the  Hindu-Kush 
above  the  Sirak  Pass.  The  principal  avenues  of 
communication  between  Afghanistan  and  India 
are  the  famous  Khyber  (Khaibar)  Pass,  by 
which  the  Kabul  River  enters  the  Punjab;  the 
Gumul  Pass,  also  leading  to  the  Punjab;  and 
the  Bolan  Pass  to  the  S.,  through  which  the 
route  passes  to  Sind.  Of  the  rivers,  mostly  in 
the  centre  of  the  country,  the  largest  is  the 
Helmand  (old  Etymander),  which  rises  in  the 
Koh-i-Baba  and  Paghman  Mts.  between  Kabul 
and  Bamian,  flows  S.W.  more  than  400  m.,  till 
it  enters  the  great  Hamuli  or  Seistan  swamp ; 
previous  to  which,  however,  its  water  is  almost 
all  drawn  off  for  irrigation  canals.  About  45  m. 
below  Girishk  it  receives  the  Arghand-ab,  of 
about  235  m.,  rising  in  the  Ghilzai  country  N.W. 
of  Ghazni,  and  flowing  past  Kandahar.  Next  in 
importance  are  the  Kabul  in  the  N.E.,  an  af- 
fluent of  the  Indus;  and  the  Heri-Rud  or  Hari- 
Rud  in  the  N.W.,  draining  the  Herat  valley. 
The  Amu-Daria  or  Oxus  separates  Afghanistan 
from  Bokhara.  The  only  lake  worth  mentioning 
(the   Hamun   being   almost   entirely   in   Persia) 


is  the  Ab-i-Stada,  a  shallow  sheet  about  12  m. 
in  diameter,  about  100  m.  S.W.  of  Ghazni,  at  an 
elevation  of  some  7,000  ft. 

Climate  and  Natural  Products. —  The  climate 
is  intensely  hot  in  the  lower  regions  and  ex- 
tremely cold  in  the  upper,  but  fairly  salubrious. 
The  rainfall  even  in  the  rainy  season  is  slight, 
and  agriculture  is  maintained  by  irrigation 
canals,  including  a  system  called  karcs, —  under- 
ground channels  connecting  the  springs.  The 
N.  mountains  are  forested  to  about  10,000  feet; 
the  others  are  bare.  The  commonest  trees  are 
pine,  oak,  wild  olive,  cypress,  birch,  walnut, 
and  holly.  Many  indigo-yielding  plants  grow 
spontaneously  on  offsets  of  the  Hindu-Kush, 
and  asafcetida,  a  resinous  gum.  is  an  important 
product.  In  the  plains  the  mulberry,  tamarisk, 
acacia,  willow,  plane,  poplar,  and  date  palm, 
are  found ;  and  fine  fruits  in  the  greatest  va- 
riety and  abundance  —  especially  apples,  pome- 
granates, and  peaches  —  grow  wild.  Wild  ani- 
mals are  tigers,  bears,  leopards,  wolves,  jackals, 
hyenas,  foxes,  gazelles,  wild  asses,  etc. 

Agriculture,  Manufactures,  and  Trade. —  The 
cultivable  soil  in  the  valleys,  a  very  small  propor- 
tion of  the  whole  area,  is  highly  fertile  under 
irrigation,  but  it  is  ill  managed.  In  many  parts 
two  harvests  are  reaped  annually:  rice,  corn,  and 
millet  occupying  the  land  from  spring  to  fall, 
wheat  and  barley,  beans  and  peas  thence  to 
spring.  The  staple  food  of  the  people  is  wheat, 
that  of  cattle,  barley.  Other  crops  are  grapes,  to- 
bacco, madder,  and  cotton,  with  some  sugar-cane. 
Domestic  animals  are  extensively  bred  :  the  chief 
are  the  horse,  ass,  and  mule,  the  ox,  sheep  with 
large  fine  fleeces  and  enormous  fat  tails  (famous 
in  the  «  cinnamon  stew  »),  the  camel  and  drome- 
dary. Manufactures  are  very  scant,  though 
some  rugs,  silks,  sheepskins,  camel-  and  goat- 
hair  fabrics,  etc.,  are  sold ;  but  the  export  of 
raw  material  is  large,  and  forms  a  great  trade 
with  India  and  a  considerable  one  with  Bokhara, 
employing  some  25.000  camels  and  many  ponies, 
the  use  of  wheeled  vehicles  being  mostly  im- 
possible. The  chief  articles  are  wool  (mostly 
sent  to  Karachi),  raw  silk,  horses,  dried  fruits, 
madder,  and  asafcetida :  rugs,  silk  goods,  and 
rosaries  also  go  out.  The  mineral  deposits  in- 
clude all  the  great  valuable  kinds,  but  political 
conditions  forbid  their  exploitation ;  some  iron, 
lead,  and  sulphur  are  worked,  however.  Precious 
stones  are  found  in  the  mountain  country  around 
Badakhshan. 

Chief  Towns. —  The  four  leading  places  of 
Afghanistan  are  Kabul  the  capital,  in  the  east, 
not  far  from  the  Indian  border  at  the  famous 
Khyber  Pass,  with  some  70,000  people ;  Kanda- 
har southwest  of  it,  with  25,000.  and  Ghazni  of 
10.000  between  them,  all  three  on  a  great  high- 
road that  runs  to  Baluchistan,  and  forming  a 
southeastern  line  of  trade;  and  Herat  of  30.000, 
in  the  extreme  northwest,  close  to  Persia.  In 
Afghan  Turkestan  the  chief  place  is  Balkh  ; 
others  are  Andkhui,  Akcha,  Kunduz,  Maimene, 
Tashkurgan,  etc. 

Peoples. —  The  Afghans  proper,  or  Pathans, 
as  the  English  call  them,  are  the  dominant 
race,  forming  perhaps  three  fifths  of  the  whole. 
«  Afghans  »  is  the  Persian  name,  their  own  being 
Pushtaneh  or  Pukhtaneh,  and  their  language 
Pushtu  or  Pukhtu.  The  latter  is  Indo-Euro- 
pean, and  they  are  at  bottom  of  that  stock, 
though    heavily    mixed    with    the    natives    they 


AFGHANISTAN 


found  there  on  invading  the  country  (certainly 
centuries  before  Christ,  as  the  Greeks  found 
them    there    in     the    4th)  ;    they    claim    Jewish 

descent,  but  this  results  from  their  Moham- 
medan religion  (they  are  Sunnites),  and  occa- 
sional resemblances  of  feature,  as  they  are  not 
Semites.  I  hey  are  a  finely  built  race,  hardy, 
fierce,  and  turbulent,  whose  preference  is  plun- 
der to  live  and  righting  to  enjoy.  They  force 
the  inferior  races  to  do  the  labor,  and  the  land 
is  cankered  with  hlood-fettds.  They  are  divided 
into  many  tribes,  of  whom  the  strongest  are  the 
Ghilzais  of  the  cast,  and  next  the  Duranis  of 
the  west  and  south  (including  the  present  amir 
and  his  predecessors  of  Dost  Mohammed's 
family  1  ;  strong  also  arc  the  Yusufzais  and  Afri- 
dis  on  the  borders  of  India.  Among  the  others 
are  the  Swatis,  Waziris,  Kakars,  and  Kostis. 
There  are  also  races  of  non-Afghan  hlood  in 
Afghanistan:  the  Hazaras,  a  Mongol  race  living 
chiefly  in  the  northwest :  the  Jats  and  Aimaks, 
Mongol;  the  Tajiks,  believed  to  he  a  remnant  of 
the  aboriginal  population  and  akin  to  the  Dra- 
vidians  of  India  ;  the  I  [indkis,  an  Indian  race 
living  in  the  southwest ;  the  Kizilbashes,  Per- 
sianized  Turks ;  etc. 

Government   and   Society. —  There   is   a   fair 
code  of  laws:  from  the  nature  of  Afghan  society 
the  real  law   is  that  of  the  strongest,  tempered 
by  the  responsibility  of  governors  not  to  let  so- 
ciety dissolve  altogether  from  absence  of  justice. 
The    ruler    is    a    hereditary    absolute    monarch 
called  the  Amir,   whose  power  among  so  fierce 
a    feudal    Oriental    aristocracy   is    what    he   can 
enforce,  which  is  very  little  unless  he  is  a  man 
of  great  abilities  and  firmness  like  the  late  Abd- 
ur-Rahman.     Says  a  recent  writer.   «  Like  most 
monarchs,  he  rules  not  as  he  will  but  as  he  can, 
and  the  mantle  of  his  authority  covers  the  most 
turbulent  race  under  the  sun.»     This  is  so  even 
among  the   accessible  peoples   with   a   relatively 
civilized    development    of    society ;    while    there 
are  many  outlying  tribes  and  chiefs  who  do  not 
acknowledge  his  power,  and  can  only  be  coerced 
into   an   appearance    of   submission    by   military 
force,  as  those  of  Kafiristan  which  Abd-ur-Rah- 
man  had  but  lately  cowed  at  his  death.     These 
tribes  furthermore  arc  fanatical   Mohammedans, 
which  is  always  a  fighting  religion.      Those  which 
border  on  India,  as  the  Afridis   1  whose  position 
at   the  Khyber   Pass,  which  must  be  kept  open 
for  a  clear  road  to  Kabul,  makes  it  needful  to 
hold  them  in  with  a  strong  hand),  are  counted 
as  under  Britisli  control  rather  than  that  of  the 
amir,   who   besides    receives   an   annual   subsidy 
of     1,800,000    rupees     (formerly    1,200.000),    or 
about  $630,000,  from  the  Indian  government,  to 
enable   him   to  111311113111   an   efficient   army  and 
good    order.     Every    eighth    man    is    nominally 
subject    to   draft   for   military    service;    but   the 
actual   army    is    about   60,000,   the   detachments 
around    Kabul,    Kandahar,    and    Herat,    and    in 
Afghan   Turkestan,   numbering  37.000   foot  and 
7,000  horse,  with  360  guns.     At  Kabul  is  an  ar- 
senal, also   an  ammunition   factory  and  a  mint 
having  English  machinery  and  supervision.     The 
revenue  is  from  tithes  on  produce,  and  naturally 
varies    with    the    harvests.     The    money   of   ac- 
count  is   the   rupee    (about   35   cents).     Educa- 
tion is  conducted  by  Mohammedan  schools :  of 
its  nature  a  not  unfair  description  may  be  found 
in  Count  Gobincau's   '  History  of  Gamber-Ali,' 


in    his     '  Xouvelles    Asiatiqucs '     (Englished    as 
'  Romances  of  the  East  'J. 

History. —  The    first    invasion   of   Indo-Euro- 
peans   is  before  history.     The  country   was  sub- 
jugated after  a   fashion  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
who     founded     Herat     (as    Alexandria    Arion), 
most    likely    Kandahar,   and    either    Kabul   or   a 
colony   near    it.     The    Seleucid    empire    had   no 
actual   hold  over   it ;   the   Romans   lost  even   its 
nominal  control  to  tin-  Parthians  and  the  later 
Persian  empire;  and  the  Saracens  took  it  after 
their  conquest  of  Persia.     With  the  break-up  of 
the     Bagdad   caliphate     the     Samanide     dynasty 
possessed    it,    till    overthrown    in    turn    by    the 
Ghaznevide,   who  held   it   till   their   downfall   in 
1183.     Jenghiz  Khan  conquered  it  in  the  middle 
of  the  12th  century,  and  Timtir  late  in  the  14th; 
in    1504    Baber    or    Bahar.    the    founder    of    the 
n  Mogul  »   dynasty   in    India,   had   Kabul    for   his 
first  capital,  and  Afghanistan  became  part  of  the 
great    Afghan-Hindu    empire,    and    remained    a 
part    of    it    while    the    Mogul    dynasty    kept    its 
strength.     In    1722   the    Afghans    raided    Persia 
under  one   Mahmud,  and   permanently   crippled 
Ispahan,  which  liny  captured;  but  in  1738  Nadir 
Kuli    of    Persia,    later    Nadir    Shah    (q.v.),    re- 
taliated   and    conquered    Afghanistan.     In    1747 
he    was    murdered;    Ahmed    Shah,    one    of   his 
generals,    obtained    the    sovereignty    of    Afghan- 
istan,  and   became   the    founder    of   the    Durani, 
the    first  .Afghan    dynasty,    which    lasted    about 
80  years.    At  the  end  of  that  time  Herat  was 
all  that  remained  in  the  hands  of  a  Durani  sover- 
eign,   while    Dost    Mohammed    Khan,   the    ruler 
of  Kabul,  had  acquired  a  preponderating  influ- 
ence in  the  country.     He  was  desirous  of  gain- 
ing the  assistance  of  the  British  against  Persia; 
but  believing  that  he   was  meditating  treachery 
against    them    they    resolved    to    dethrone    him 
and    restore    Shah    Sliuja,    a    former    ruler.     In 
April    1839    a    British    army    under    Sir    Jobn 
Keane  entered  Afghanistan,  and  after  overcom- 
ing  some    slight    resistance   entered    Kabul   and 
placed  Shah   Shuja  on  the  throne.     A   force  of 
8,000  was  left  to  support  the  new  sovereign,  and 
the  rest  of  the  army  returned  to  India.     Sir  \V. 
Macnaghtcn   remained  as  envoy  at  Kabul,  with 
Sir  Alexander  Burnes  as  assistant  envoy.     The 
Afghans    were   by   no   means   content   with    the 
new    state    of    affairs,   however.     A    widespread 
conspiracy  was  organized,  which  came  to  a  head 
on  2  Nov.  1X41,  when  Burnes,  Macnaghten,  and 
a  number  of  British  officers,  besides  women  and 
children,    were    murdered.     The    other    British 
leaders  were  disheartened  and  paralyzed,  and  a 
treaty  was  made  with  the  .Afghans, —  at  wdiose 
head  was  Akbar,  son  of  Dost  Mohammed, —  by 
which  the  former  agreed  to  withdraw  the  forces 
from  the  country,  while  the  latter  were  to  fur- 
nish them  with  provisions  and  escort  them  on 
their   way   to   Jalalabad.     On   6   Jan.  .1842,    the 
British   left    Kabul   and   began   their   disastrous 
retreat.     The  cold  was  intense,  they  had  almost 
no  food  —  for  the  treacherous  Afghans  did  not 
fulfil   their  promises — and   day  after   day  they 
were  assailed  by  bodies  of  the  enemy.     By  the 
13th,   26.000  persons,  among  whom   were  many 
camp-followers,  women  and  children,  were  de- 
stroyed.    Some     were    preserved    as    prisoners, 
but   only   one   man,   Dr.   Brydon,   reached  Jala- 
labad with  the  dismal  news. 

Jalalabad,   in  which  Gen.  Sale  was  stationed 
with  a  small  force,  was  soon  after  besieged  by 


. 


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°™>  I  t  >»»  cm.  ESSS 

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AND    BALUCHISTAN 


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Population  of  pUu'cn  Is  indicated 
jjj  bj  different  leiiorliiv,  thus: 

100,000  «nd  oven TEHKKAX 

W,0»  to  100,000 KuutUUar 

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3 


A  FORTIORI  — AFRICA 


Akbar;  but  on  the  approach  of  Gen.  Pollock, 
who  had  forced  his  way  through  the  Khyber 
Pass  with  a  fresh  army  from  India,  the  Afghan 
forces  withdrew.  After  joining  his  forces  with 
those  of  Gen.  Nott,  who  had  meanwhile  main- 
tained himself  in  Kandahar  and  had  taken  Ghaz- 
ni,  Gen.  Pollock  entered  Kabul  and  soon  finished 
the  war,  though  not  without  some  hard  fighting. 
Dost  Mohammed  again  obtained  the  throne  of 
Kabul  and  acquired  extensive  power  in  Afghan- 
istan. He  joined  with  the  Sikhs  against  the 
British ;  but  in  1855  he  made  an  offensive  and 
defensive  alliance  with  the  latter,  which  he  re- 
newed in  1857.  He  died  in  1863,  having  nomi- 
nated his  son  Shere  AH  his  successor.  He  en- 
tered into  friendly  relations  with  the  British, 
and  this  state  of  matters  continued  till  1878 ; 
when,  the  amir  having  repulsed  a  British  envoy 
and  refused  to  receive  a  British  mission  (a  Rus- 
sian mission  being  meantime  at  his  court)  war 
was  declared  against  him,  and  the  British  troops 
entered  Afghanistan  (November  1878).  They 
met  with  comparatively  little  resistance ;  the 
amir  fled  to  Turkestan,  where  he  soon  after 
died;  and  his  son  Yakub  Khan,  having  suc- 
ceeded him,  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  British 
(at  Gandamak,  May  1879),  in  which  a  certain 
extension  of  the  British  frontier,  the  control  by 
Great  Britain  of  the  foreign  policy  of  Afghan- 
istan, and  the  residence  of  a  British  envoy  in 
Kabul,  were  the  chief  stipulations. 

Not  long  after  this  settlement,  however,  the 
British  resident  at  Kabul,  Sir  Louis  P.  Cavag- 
nari,  and  the  other  members  of  the  mission, 
were  treacherously  attacked  and  slain  by 
the  Afghans,  and  troops  had  again  to  be  sent 
into  the  country.  Kabul  was  again  occupied, 
and  Kandahar  and  Ghazni  were  also  taken ; 
while  Yakub  Khan  was  sent  to  imprisonment  in 
India.  In  1880  Abd-ur-Rahman,  a  grandson  of 
Dost  Mohammed,  was  recognized  by  Great  Brit- 
ain as  amir  of  the  country.  The  occupation 
of  Merv  by  Russia  in  1881,  and  the  subsequent 
continuous  pushing  forward  of  the  Cossack  out- 
posts toward  Herat  and  the  south,  now  began 
to  be  seriously  considered  by  the  British  as 
menacing  India.  After  some  negotiations  be- 
tween the  two  governments  it  was  arranged 
that  an  Anglo-Russian  commission  should  be 
constituted  to  settle  the  frontier  between  Afghan- 
istan and  Russian  territory.  In  the  meantime, 
however,  the  Russian  troops  were  advancing; 
and  in  1885  they  reached  Penjdeh,  where  they 
came  into  conflict  with  a  body  of  Afghans.  For 
a  time  war  seemed  imminent  between  Great 
Britain  and  Russia ;  but  it  was  at  last  settled 
that_  the  boundary  line  extending  from  the 
Heri  Rud  to  the  Oxus  should  run  so  as  to  ex- 
clude Penjdeh,  but  include  Meruchak  in  Afghan- 
istan, following  the  Oxus  east  from  about  Khojah 
Saleh  to  Lake  Victoria,  north  of  Chitral.  The 
boundary  between  Afghanistan  and  British  In- 
dia was  long  uncertain ;  but  in  1893  an  arrange- 
ment was  come  to  between  the  amir  and  Sir 
Mortimer  Durand.  The  boundary  then  agreed 
on  was  demarcated  shortly  afterward  and  is  so 
drawn  as  to  leave  Chitral.  Bajaur,  Swat,  Chilas, 
and  Waziristan  to  Great  Britain,  while  Afghan- 
istan is  given  the  territories  of.Asmar,  Birmal, 
and  Kafiristan.  The  Amir's  annual  subsidy  was 
also  increased  from  12  to  18  lacs  of  rupees,  and 
restrictions  on  the  import  of  arms,  etc..  were 
removed.     Abd-ur-Rahman     proved     himself    a 


vigorous  ruler  and  the  steady  friend  of  Great 
Britain,  and  did  much  under  the  guidance  of 
Englishmen  to  civilize  his  subjects  and  develop 
the  resources  of  his  country.  He  was  for  a 
time  suspected  of  secretly  assisting  the  frontier 
tribes  in  their  revolt  in  1897 ;  but  he  later  gave 
unmistakable  proof  of  his  loyalty.  He  died  in 
Kabul,  3  Oct.  1901,  and  his  eldest  son  Habib- 
ullah-Khan  succeeded  him. 

A  Fortiori,  an  argument  derived  from 
what  is  stronger ;  an  argument  more  potent  than 
that  which  has  just  before  been  employed. 
When  in  Euclid  it  is  reasoned,  for  example,  that 
much  more  then  is  the  angle  B  D  C  greater  than 
the  angle  BCD,  the  use  of  the  words  much 
more  implies  that  the  a  fortiori  argument  is 
used. 

Africa,  third  in  size  of  the  five  continents, 
with  a  continental  area  of  11,500,000  sq.  m.  and 
islands  of  239,000  more,  has  the  Mediterranean 
N.,  the  Atlantic  W.,  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian 
Ocean  E.,  the  Antarctic  Ocean  S. ;  and  lies 
nearly  due  S.  of  Europe  and  S.W.  of  Asia.  It 
extends  from  lat.  37°  20'  N.  to  340  51'  S.,  and 
Ion.  170  32'  W.  to  510  16'  E.,  being  nearly 
equal  in  length  and  breadth  from  its  extreme 
points :  from  Cape  Blanco  in  Tunis  to  Cape 
Agulhas  in  Cape  Colony  is  nearly  5,000  m. ;  from 
Cape  Verde  in  Senegal  to  Cape  Guardafui  in 
Somaliland  about  4,600.  The  N.  section,  how- 
ever, has  an  average  breadth  nearly  double  that 
of  the  S.,  owing  to  the  great  N.  projection  of  the 
upper  part,  the  W.  coast  taking  a  sudden  inward 
turn  and  facing  S.  for  nearly  20°  of  longitude, 
forming  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  its  greatest  inden- 
tation. 

General  Topography. —  From  its  junction 
with  Asia  at  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  the  N.  coast 
runs  W.  by  a  little  N.  to  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar; 
its  nearest  approach  to  Europe,  whose  Mediter- 
ranean shore  it  faces,  and  whence  for  many 
centuries  it  derived  its  principal  civilization. 
The  chief  indentation  is  that  forming  the  Gulfs 
of  Cabes  and  Sidra.  From  the  Isthmus  S.  the 
coast  runs  somewhat  S.E.  parallel  to  Arabia, 
separated  by  the  long  narrow  expanse  of  the 
Red  Sea;  further  S.  it  projects  well  to  the  E., 
overlapping  the  S.  coast  of  Arabia  and  again 
running  nearly  parallel  to  it,  the  two  forming 
the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  and  the  Gulf  of 
Aden.  From  the  terminus  of  this  projection  at 
Cape  Guardafui,  the  coast  trends  S.W.  with 
slight  undulations  to  the  S.  extremity  of  the 
continent.  About  midway,  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  the  Mozambique  Channel,  250  m. 
wide,  lies  the  great  island  of  Madagascar.  Save 
those  named,  Africa  has  no  great  indentations, 
and  the  coast  line  is  very  small  relatively  to  its 
size:  about  16.000  m.,  a  fifth  less  than  that  of 
Europe  absolutely,  and  between  one  fourth  and 
one  fifth  as  great  relatively.  The  S.  extremity 
presents  to  the  Southern  Ocean  a  coast  line  of 
nearly  400  m.  excluding  indentations,  com- 
pendiously known  as  « the  Cape,»  first  doubled 
by  Bartholomew  Diaz  and  Vasco  da  Gama.  Its 
principal  indentations  are  Algoa  Bay  and  False 
Bay.  The  islands  belonging  to  Africa  are  not 
numerous,  and  except  Madagascar  none  of  them 
large.  In  the  Atlantic  Ocean  there  are  Ma- 
deira, the  Canaries,  the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  the 
Bissagos,  the  islands  off  the  coast  of  Guinea, 
Fernando  Po,  St.  Thomas,  Annobon,  etc.,  Ascen-' 


AFRICA 


sion  Island,  St.  Helena,  and  Tristan  d'Acunha ; 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  Sokotra,  Zanzibar,  Comoro 
Isles,  Madagascar,  Mauritius,  Reunion,  with 
their  dependencies ;  and  some  small  islands  in 
the  Southern  Ocean. 

Northern  Africa. —  The  interior  of  Africa 
forms  two  great  divisions  nearly  corresponding 
with  the  external  diversity  of  form  already  in- 
dicated. The  N.  section  has  its  greatest  exten- 
sion from  E.  to  \V.,  the  S.  from  N.  to  S.  The 
N.  division  lies  for  the  most  part  above  the  sixth 
degree  of  N.  latitude,  extending  from  the  Atlan- 
tic on  the  W.  to  the  Somali  coast  and  the  Red 
Sea  on  the  E.  Its  principal  feature  is  the  Sa- 
hara or  Great  Desert,  which  is  inclosed  on  the 
X.  by  the  elevated  plateau  of  Barbary  and  that 
of  Barca,  on  the  E.  by  the  Nile  valley,  on  the 
W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  S.  by  the 
Niger  and  the  countries  of  the  Sudan.  The  N. 
coast  region  (plateau  of  Barbary)  is  traversed 
by  the  Atlas  system  and  its  continuations,  rising 
to  the  height  of  13,000  ft.  or  even  more.  Ex- 
clusive of  the  mountains  it  has  an  elevation  of 
from  1,500  to  3.000  ft.  From  Barca,  where 
the  former  level  prevails,  it  descends  gradually 
toward  Egypt.  The  character  of  the  desert, 
though  sufficiently  inhospitable,  is  much  less 
uniformly  monotonous  than  till  recent  researches 
it  was  commonly  reputed  to  be.  Instead  of  an 
undeviating  sandy  plain  irregularly  interspersed 
with  speck-like  oases  it  contains  elevated  pla- 
teaux and  even  mountains  with  more  or  less 
permanent  streams,  and  habitable  valleys  which 
lose  themselves  in  the  vast  low-lying  tracts  of 
sand  with  which  the  more  elevated  regions  al- 
ternate. The  desert  itself  is  furrowed  with 
wadis  (dry  river-beds)  radiating  in  all  direc- 
tions; while  under  the  sand  collections  of  water 
have  been  found,  which  by  means  of  artesian 
wells  have  been  turned  to  account  by  the  French 
in  their  dependency  Algeria.  A  considerable 
nomadic  population  is  thinly  scattered  over  the 
habitable  parts  of  the  desert,  and  in  the  more 
favored  regions  there  are  settled  communities. 
(See  Sahara.)  To  the  S.  of  the  Sahara,  and 
separating  it  from  the  plateau  of  southern 
Africa,  a  belt  of  pastoral  or  steppe  country  ex- 
tends across  Africa.  This  region  has  received 
the  general  name  of  the  Sudan,  and  includes 
the  countries  on  the  Niger,  around  Lake  Tchad, 
and  E.  to  the  elevated  region  of  Abyssinia. 

Southern  Africa. —  From  Lake  Tchad  the 
country  begins  to  rise  till  below  the  10th  degree 
of  N.  latitude,  where  the  edge  of  the  ele- 
vated plateau  of  high  or  southern  Africa  begins. 
This  division  of  the  continent  is,  as  far  as 
known,  completely  surrounded,  at  a  distance  of 
50  to  300  miles  from  the  coast  (which  is 
usually  low  but  rising  inland),  by  what  look  like 
ranges  of  mountains  varying  in  breadth  and 
height;  but  which  are  really  the  escarpment  of 
a  table-land,  or  series  of  table-lands,  of  consid- 
erable elevation  and  great  diversity  of  surface 
and  direction,  having  hollows  filled  with  great 
lakes  rivaling  those  of  America  in  extent,  and 
terraces  over  which  the  rivers  break  themselves 
in  falls  and  rapids.  The  S.  division  has,  like 
the  N.,  a  desert  region  —  the  Kalahari  desert  — 
but  it  is  of  small  extent  compared  to  the 
Sahara.  In  some  respects  it  resembles  the  Sa- 
hara, but  possesses  more  vegetation.  The  moun- 
tains which  inclose  the  S.  table-land  are  mostly 
much  higher  on  the  E.  than  on  the  W. ;  and  the 


slope  of  tin-  land  and  the  flow  of  the  principal 
rivers,  with  the  exception  <>f  the  Zambesi,  is 
from  E.  to  \Y.  The  E.  edge  of  the  plateau 
reaches  it^  highest  elevation  ami  greatest  ex- 
tent in  the  mountainous  country  of  Abyssinia, 
with  heights  of  10,000  to  14.000  or  16,000  ft. 
From  this  the  system  extends  X.  in  detached 
ranges  or  occasional  elevation  between  the  val- 
ley of  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  with  gradually 
diminishing  height  to  the  very  delta  of  the  Nile. 
The  E.  edge  of  the  Abyssinian  plateau  presents 
3  Steep  unbroken  line  of  7,000  ft.  in  height  for 
several  hundred  miles.  This  line  of  elevation 
extends  S.  toward  Lakes  Rudolf  and  Stefanie, 
and  thence  in  a  narrow  belt  and  at  a  lower 
average  level  to  the  N.E.  of  the  Victoria  Ny- 
anza ;  it  then  proceeds  in  a  S.  direction  to 
Kilima-Njaro,  beyond  which  the  plateau  merges 
into  the  Pare  .Sits,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Pangani  River.  Immediately  to  the  S.  of 
Lake  Rudolf,  Mount  Nyiro  rises  to  a  height  of 
10,000  ft.;  Mount  Elgon,  to  the  N.E.  of  Victoria 
Nyanza,  14,100  ft.;  Mount  Kenia,  18,370  ft.; 
Kilima-Njaro,  19,600  ft.;  Mount  Mcru,  to  the 
W.  of  Kilima-Njaro,  14,000  ft.  The  general 
level  of  the  plateau  between  Mount  Kenia  and 
the  lake  is  from  5.000  to  7,000  ft.  To  the  W.  of 
Victoria  Nyanza,  between  Lakes  Albert  and  Al- 
bert Edward,  Mount  Ruwenzori  rises  to  a  height 
of  18,000  ft.,  and  the  active  volcanic  Kirunga 
Mts.,  S.  of  Lake  Albert  Edward,  to  13.000  ft. 
All  these  mountains  are  volcanic  in  origin,  and 
between  Kilima-Njaro  and  the  lake  signs  of 
volcanic  activity  are  still  visible.  The  central 
plateau  reaches  its  greatest  average  height,  over 
4.000  ft.,  in  the  region  embracing  the  Lakes 
Victoria,  Tanganyika,  and  Nyassa;  it  forms 
a  broad  belt  reaching  close  to  the  E.  coast,  and 
in  an  equally  broad  belt  extends  from  Lake 
Nyassa  to  the  W.  coast.  Above  this  are  numer- 
ous detached  heights,  like  the  Rubeho  Mts., 
W.  of  Zanzibar,  the  Livingstone  Mts.  around 
the  N.  of  Lake  Nyassa,  and  the  Mlanje  heights 
S.  of  that  lake:  Mount  Mlanje  being  9.680  ft. 
S.  of  the  Zambesi  occur  the  Mashona  and 
Matoppo  highlands,  rising  in  places  to  from  5,000 
to  7.000  ft.  Immediately  to  the  S.  of  the  Middle 
Limpopo  a  series  of  mountains  begins  which, 
under  various  names  —  Zoutpansberg,  Libombo, 
Drakensberg,  Compassberg,  Schneeberg,  etc. — 
extends  along  the  E.  and  S.  coast,  and  N.  to 
some  distance  beyond  Cape  Town.  In  Natal 
these  rise  to  10,000  and  12.000  ft.,  and  in  Cape 
Colony  to  7,000  and  8,000  ft.;  the  interior  pla- 
teau averaging  about  4.000  ft.,  but  falling  to  a 
lower  level  in  the  Kalahari  desert.  Between  the 
Orange  River  and  the  Kunene,  and  the  latter 
river  and  the  Kongo,  the  escarpment  continues, 
rising  in  places  to  6,000  and  8.000  ft.  The  gen- 
eral level  lowers  considerably  as  the  Kongo  is 
reached.  _  The  low  coast  region  extends  some 
distance  into  the  interior  along  this  part  of  the 
W.  coast,  the  descent  from  the  interior  plateau 
giving  rise  to  the  cataracts  which  so  seriously 
interrupt  navigation  on  the  lower  Kongo.  On 
both  sides  of  the  middle  Kongo  extends  a  con- 
siderable area  which  sinks  from  the  generally 
high  level  of  the  interior  to  an  average  of  only 
about  1.000  ft.  From  the  Kongo  and  Kameruns 
the  general  level  of  the  coast  plateau  is  broken 
by  the  Crystal  and  other  mountains  rising  to 
3.000  and  4.000  ft.,  culminating  in  the  Kameruns 
Peak,   a  volcanic  mountain  rising  to  13,000  ft 


•■"> 


AFRICA 


On  the  S.  of  the  Benue,  in  the  Atlantika  group, 
and  between  the  Benue  and  the  Niger,  we  find 
a  broken  mountain  group  with  heights  of  from 
6,000  to  10,000  ft. ;  while  in  the  interior  N.  of  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea  there  is  a  broad  plateau,  begin- 
ning at  various  distances  from  the  coast,  ex- 
tending across  the  upper  Niger,  and  rising  to 
2,000  and  3,000  ft.,  with  irregular  ranges  rising 
at  places  to  from  5,000  to  7,000  ft.  The  Kong 
Mts.,  in  the  region  where  the  Niger  has  its 
sources,  as  a  range  do  not  exist.  As  the  middle 
Niger  is  approached  the  general  level  lowers  to 
that  of  the  Sahara,  while  N.  the  low  coast  region 
extends  far  into  the  interior  till  the  Atlas  is 
reached. 

Rivers. —  The  Nile  is  the  only  great  river  of 
Africa  which  flows  to  the  Mediterranean.  It  is 
now  known  to  receive  its  waters  primarily  from 
the  country  drained  by  the  great  lakes,  the  Vic- 
toria Nyanza,  the  Albert  Nyanza,  and  the  Albert 
Edward  Nyanza,  and  especially  from  the  Vic- 
toria Nyanza,  which  itself  receives  numerous 
streams.  The  Victoria  Nile  connects  the  Vic- 
toria and  the  Albert  Nyanza ;  and  on  leaving 
the  latter  the  river  flows  in  a  winding  course, 
of  which  the  direction  is  almost  due  N.,  without 
further  lake  expansion,  to  the  Mediterranean. 
In  descending  from  the  lake  elevations  (of  the 
Victoria  3,900,  of  the  Albert  Edward  3,200  ft., 
the  latter  connected  by  the  Semliki  River  with 
the  Albert  2,300  ft.)  it  makes,  both  between  the 
lakes  and  in  its  subsequent  course,  numerous 
falls.  Those  in  upper  Egypt  are  known  as  the 
Cataracts.  Between  lat.  5°  and  10°  N.,  under 
the  name  of  Bahr-el-Jebel,  it  receives  numerous 
tributaries,  mostly  from  the  country  to  the  S. 
and  VV. ;  the  principal  on  the  left  bank  being  the 
Bahr-el-Ghazal,  on  the  right  the  Sobat.  After 
this  it  takes  the  name  of  the  White  Nile,  and 
receives  through  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  and  Atbara, 
or  Blue  Nile  and  Black  River,  the  drainage  of 
Abyssinia.  The  Atbara  brings  the  mud  which 
forms  so  precious  a  deposit  in  Egypt.  After 
this  the  Nile  flows  for  1,200  m.  to  the  sea  with- 
out receiving  a  tributary.  Altogether  it  drains 
an  area  of  more  than  1,000,000  sq.  m.  The 
Indian  Ocean  receives  numerous  African  riv- 
ers, most  of  which  are  short,  being  the  drainage 
merely  of  the  external  slopes  of  the  escarpment 
of  the  interior  plateau.  Among  the  most 
considerable  rivers  on  this  coast  are  the  Jub, 
which  is  formed  by  several  streams  rising  in  the 
border  slopes  near  Abyssinia,  is  navigable  with 
difficulty  to  Bardera,  and  enters  the  ocean  at  the 
equator;  the  Webi  Shebeli,  formed  by  streams 
rising  on  the  S.E.  slopes  of  Abyssinia,  and  los- 
ing itself  in  the  sands  on  the  coast  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Jub ;  the  Tana  from  Mount  Kenia 
discharging  at  Witu ;  the  Sabaki  S.  of  the  Tana ; 
the  Rufiji  or  Lufiji;  the  Rovuma,  which  flows 
from  the  mountains  E.  of  Lake  Nyassa ;  the 
Beira ;  and  the  Limpopo  or  Crocodile,  which 
enters  the  ocean  N.  of  Delagoa  Bay.  The  only 
great  river  flowing  from  a  distant  point  of  the 
interior  which  breaks  the  mountain  barrier  of 
the  E.  is  the  Zambezi,  which  has  its  embouchure 
between  the  Beira  and  Rovuma.  It  is  the  fourth 
in  size  of  the  continent.  It  drains  a  large  part 
of  the  great  tract  of  pastoral  country  S.  of  the 
equatorial  region.  Several  streams  coming  from 
the  swampy  plateau  on  the  borders  of  Lunda 
and  the  Garenganze  country  unite  to  form  the 
Zambezi,  the  principal  being  the  Liba  from  the 


S.W.  edge  of  the  Garenganze  country.  In  its 
middle  course  it  is  joined  by  the  Kafue  and 
Loangwe  from  the  N.  and  the  Shire  from  Lake 
Nyassa,  and  by  the  Chobe  and  some  smaller 
streams  from  the  S.  Below  the  Chobe  are  the 
Victoria  Falls,  one  of  the  greatest  cataracts  in 
the  world ;  from  which  the  river  flows  in  a  semi- 
circular course  to  the  ocean,  breaking  through 
the  Lupata  Mts.,  and  discharging  by  several 
mouths,  the  most  navigable  of  which  is  the 
Chinde.  The  river  is  navigable  by  vessels  of 
some  size  to  the  Karoabassa  Rapids  beyond  the 
Shire,  but  above  that  only  by  boats  and  canoes. 
The  drainage  area  of  the  Zambezi  is  514,000 
sq.  m. 

Of  the  Atlantic  rivers,  the  Senegal,  Gambia, 
and  Niger  have  their  origin  in  the  mountains 
near  the  coast  of  Senegambia.  The  Senegal 
flows  in  a  N.  and  W.  direction,  its  volume  vary- 
ing much  according  to  the  season.  In  the  rainy 
season  it  is  navigable  for  500  to  700  m.,  in 
the  dry  season  for  about  a  fourth  of  that  dis- 
tance. The  Gambia  takes  a  winding  course  to 
the  W.,  and  is  navigable  for  about  400  m.,  nearly 
its  whole  extent.  The  greatest  of  these  rivers, 
the  Niger,  rising  in  the  inner  slope  of  the  same 
mountains,  flows  N.E.  to  Timbuktu,  whence 
it  turns  first  E.  and  afterward  S.E.,  receiving 
the  Sokoto,  to  its  junction  with  the  Benue,  which 
comes  from  the  mountains  S.  of  Lake  Tchad. 
The  upper  part  of  the  Niger  is  called  the  Joliba, 
and  is  flanked  by  several  great  swampy  lakes ; 
it  afterward  acquires  the  name  of  Quorra  or 
Kawarra.  In  the  N.  part  of  its  course  it 
touches  on  the  great  desert.  It  is  navigable  for 
light  vessels  above  Timbuktu.  Between  the 
Sokoto  and  the  Benue  it  is  interrupted  by  shoals 
and  rocks  to  below  Boussa.  From  the  junction 
it  flows  due  S.  to  the  ocean,  where  it  forms 
a  wide  alluvial  delta,  and  enters  by  a 
number  of  mouths,  the  most  distant  of  which 
are  200  m.  apart.  The  main  channel  is  called 
the  Nun.  The  drainage  area  of  the  Niger  is 
810.000  sq.  m.  The  Kongo,  the  second  in  extent 
of  basin  and  the  greatest  in  volume  of  the  Afri- 
can rivers,  flows  from  different  slopes  of  the 
same  watersheds  as  the  Zambezi.  Its  identifica- 
tion with  the  Lualaba,  the  great  stream  discov- 
ered by  Livingstone  in  the  centre  of  the  con- 
tinent, was  established  by  Stanley  in  1876-7,  this 
enterprising  traveler  having  descended  the  river 
to  the  Atlantic  from  a  point  in  the  interior  W.  of 
Tanganyika.  The  Lukuga,  the  outlet  of  Lake 
Tanganyika,  discovered  by  Cameron,  is  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Lualaba.  The  Chambeze,  which  rises 
in  the  mountains  between  Lakes  Nyassa  and 
Tanganyika,  is  the  remotest  source  of  the  Kongo 
system.  It  falls  into  Lake  Bangweolo,  from 
which  it  issues  under  the  name  Luapula,  and 
flows  N.  to  Lake  Mweru;  from  the  N.  side  of 
this  lake  issues  the  Lualaba,  which  passes 
through  a  magnificent  series  of  lake-like  expan- 
sions and  receives  numerous  tributaries.  Below 
Stanley  Falls  it  receives  the  Lomami,  and  above 
Stanley  Pool  the  Kwa,  which  is  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Kasai-Sankuru  system  with  the 
Lukuallu  or  Kwango.  Other  tributaries  come 
from  the  S.,  and  in  the  N.  it  is  fed  by  the  Uban- 
gi,  which,  under  the  name  of  the  Welle-Makua, 
ccmesfrom  the  water-parting  between  the  Nile 
and  Kongo  systems.  The  total  length  of  the 
Kongo  is  about  3,000  m.,  and  its  drainage  area 
1,450,000   sq.   m.     Unlike   most   of  the   African 


AFRICA 


rivers,  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo  forms  an  estuary. 
It  is  estimated  to  pour  into  the  ocean  a  larger 
body  of  water  than  the  Mississippi.    The  Kwan- 

za  rises  in  the  Mossamba  MtS.,  and  curves 
X.W.  to  the  ocean.  Like  most  African  rivers, 
its  upper  course  is  interrupted  by  cataracts,  and 
its  mouth  closed  by  a  bar.  The  Kunene  rises  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  same  watershed,  and 
flows  S.W.  to  the  Atlantic.  From  it  S.  to  the 
Orange  River  follows  a  dry  belt,  through  which 
no  considerable  river  flows  to  the  sea.  1  he 
Orange,  though  it  rises  near  the  E.  coast,  and 
flows  nearly  across  the  S.  part  of  the  continent, 
passes  for  the  greater  part  of  its  course  through 
a  desert  region,  receiving  no  tributaries,  and  is 
a  shallow  stream.  Its  headwaters,  the  Vaa!  and 
the  Nu  Gariep,  rise  on  opposite  slopes  of  the 
Drakenberg  Mts.,  and  flow  to  their  junction 
round  opposite  .-ides  of  the  Orange  River 
Colony.  The  Great  Fish  River,  which  drains 
Great  Namaqualand,  enters  the  Orange  River 
near  the  terminal  ion  of  its  course. 

The  rivers  which  reach  the  ocean  do  not  ac- 
count for  the  whole  drainage  of  Africa.  There 
are  two  great  and  numerous  smaller  tracts  from 
which  no  large  river  reaches  the  sea.  The  two 
great  areas  of  internal  drainage  correspond  with 
the  two  great  deserts.  That  of  the  X.  desert 
timated  at  4,000,000  sq.  m.  As  already  in- 
dicated, it  is  furrowed  with  water-courses  in 
every  direction,  which  lose  themselves  in  the 
sand.  The  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  which  is  usually 
dry,  but  intermittently  times  out  of  Lake  Tchad, 
terminates  in  a  salt  lagoon  on  the  border  of  the 
desert  to  the  N.  of  the  lake.  In  the  S.  the 
Zuga  or  Botlctle,  which  forms  the  outlet  of 
Lake  Ngami,  in  the  Kalahari  desert,  loses  itself 
in  salt  lagoons  at  greater  or  less  distance,  ac- 
ting to  the  supply  of  water.  A  region  of 
inland  drainage,  with  salt  lagoons,  also  exists 
between  the  Victoria  Nyanza  and  the  coast  range 
of  mountains.  In  the  low  coast  land  E.  of 
Abyssinia  the  Hawash  River  loses  itself  in  the 
sands  before  reaching  the  sea ;  and  the  Webi, 
as  already  stated,  which  flows  S.  from  the  So- 
mali Peninsula  to  near  the  equator,  likewise 
terminates  in  a  salt  lagoon  on  the  border  of  the 
ocean.  The  Omo  flows  into  the  N.  end  of  Lake 
Rudolf. 

Lakes. —  The  only  lake  of  considerable  ex- 
tent N.  of  lat.  50  N.  is  Lake  Tchad,  an  enormous 
flooded  swamp.  Lake  Tana  in  Central  Abys- 
sinia, the  salt  Lake  Asal  in  the  E.,  and  Lakes 
Dembel  and  Abayo  in  Gallaland,  are  compara- 
tively small.  Between  5°  N.  and  15°  S.  is  a 
series  of  lakes  funning  one  of  the  most  striking 
features  of  the  continent.  Almost  in  a  line,  be- 
ginning in  the  S.,  are  Lakes  Xyassa,  Tan- 
ganyika, Lifu,  Albert  Edward,  Albert,  all  lying 
in  more  or  less  elongated  rifts  or  gorges.  The 
series  is  continued  by  Lakes  Rudolf  (salt)  and 
Mnie  in  the  N.E.,  and,  according  to  some 
authorities,  by  the  ancient  lake  now  the  Red 
and  by  the  Dead  Sea  in  Palestine.  The 
great  Victoria  Nyanza,  which  touches  the  equa- 
tor on  the  north,  1-  of  a  different  type,  as  are 
Lake  Bangweolo  (another  flooded  swamp)  on 
tlie  S.  of  Tanganyika,  and  Lake  Mweru  in  the 
N.  of  Bangweolo.  Lake  Rikwa  or  Leopold,  be- 
tween Nyassa  and  Tanganyika,  is  partly  of  the 
rift  type,  while  Lake  Ngami  in  the  Kalahari  re- 
gion is  a  swamp  which  sometimes  dries  up.  Lake 
Leopold  II.  and  Lake  Malumba  are  attached  to 


the  lower  Kongo.  Lake  Dilolo  is  in  the  swampy 
region  forming  part  of  the  watershed  between 
the  Kongo  and  the  Zambezi.  There  are  nu- 
merous alt  lagoons  in  the  X.  portion  of  the 
Sahara. 

Climate. —  The  climate  of  Africa  is  mainly 
influenced  by  the  fact  that,  except  the  countries 
on  the  X.  and  S.  coasts,  it  lies  almost  entirely 
within  the  tropics.  The  equator,  as  already  ob- 
served, cuts  11  nearly  through  the  middle,  so 
that  it  belong-  in  latitudinal,  though  unequally  in 
longitudinal  exten  ion,  to  the  X.  and  S.  tropics. 
It  is  the  only  continent  which  extends  unbroken 
from  the  X.  to  the  S.  tropics,  ami  is  consequent- 
ly the  hottest  of  all.  The  two  sections  N.  and 
S.  of  the  equator  have,  as  has  already  been  ob- 
served, in  some  respects  a  very  considerable 
mblance  in  their  general  features,  the  chief 
modifying  circumstances  being  the  greater  ele- 
vation and  the  smaller  longitudinal  extension  of 
the  southern  division,  which,  by  bringing  it  more 
within  the  influences  of  the  ocean,  tends  to  mod- 
ify its  climate. 

In  the  belt  immediately  under  the  equator, 
both  N.  and  S.,  vegetation  is  intense  and  rain 
abundant.  For  about  10°  N.  and  S.  we  find 
true  tropical  forests,  mainly  to  the  VV.  of  the 
great  lakes,  on  the  middle  and  upper  Kongo  and 
its  affluents,  and  along  a  belt  of  the  W.  coast  in 
the  Niger  region.  To  the  E.  of  the  great  lakes, 
where  the  rainfall  is  not  so  abundant,  are  con- 
siderable areas  of  poor  steppe  and  scrub  country, 
and  generally  over  the  tropical  region  the  trees 
are  scattered  and  the  country  more  park-like 
than  forestal.  Animal  life,  from  herds  of 
elephants  to  innumerable  swarms  of  insects, 
abounds  in  these  luxuriant  regions.  To  the 
N.  and  S.  of  the  equatorial  belt,  as  the  rainfall 
diminishes,  the  forest  region  is  succeeded  by 
open  pastoral  and  agricultural  country.  This 
pastoral  licit  extends,  in  the  N.,  across  the 
Sudan,  from  Senegambia  to  Abyssinia;  on  the 
S.,  from  Angola  and  Benguela  to  the  Zambezi. 
This  is  followed  by  the  rainless  regions  of  the 
Sahara  on  the  N.  and  the  Kalahari  desert  on 
the  S..  extending  beyond  the  tropics,  and  border- 
ing on  the  agricultural  and  pastoral  countries 
of  the  N.  and  S.  coasts,  which  lie  entirely  in  the 
temperate  zone. 

The  w-inds  and  rains  in  Africa  are  chiefly 
produced  by  the  successive  exposure  of  the  va- 
rious intertropical  belts  to  the  vertical  rays  of 
the  sun.  The  monsoons  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
exercise  the  principal  modifying  influence.  From 
March  to  September  the  S.W.  monsoon  blows 
from  Africa  to  \-ia,  and  during  the  remaining 
months  the  N.E.  monsoon  blows  toward  the 
African  coast.  The  indraught  of  air  charged 
with  moisture,  at  the  seasons  when  the  sun  is 
over]  'duces  the  rainy  seasons  within  the 

lies,  and  as  the  incessant  rarefaction  of  the 
air  by  heat  continually  draws  in  fresh  supplies, 
the  rainfall  is  on  the  whole  abundant,  varying 
from  50  to  100  inches  in  the  region  between  10° 
X.  and  the  Tn  1  apricorn.     In  a  patch  on 

the  Gulf  of  Guinea  the  100  inches  is  exceeded, 
though  in  Somaliland  there  are  almost  rainless 
patches.  Xear  the  tropics,  to  which  the  sun 
comes  only  once  a  year,  there  is  only  a  single 
rainy  season,  while  in  the  central  part  of  the 
zone,  which  the  sun  traverses  twice  in  his  pas- 
sage between  the  tropics,  there  are  two  distinct 
rainy  seasons,  a  greater  and  a  less,  according  as 


Longitudt    West  20* from    Greenwich 


Longitude    East  front  20'  Greenwich 


Copyright,  /qoj  ty  Rand 


Cofyright,  iqaQ,  by  Hand,  McXatly  &  Company 


AFRICA 


the  wind  is  in  a  direction  which  brings  more  or 
less  moisture,  except  in  some  places  in  the  in- 
terior, where  the  two  rainy  seasons  are  so  pro- 
tracted as  to  blend  into  one,  lasting,  as  in  the 
Manyuema  country,  from  September  to  July,  or 
In  some  other  parts  even  longer.  The  rainy 
season  usually  begins  soon  after  the  sun  has 
reached  his  zenith,  but  on  the  E.  coast  the  mon- 
soon charged  with  the  moisture  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  brings  it  earlier.  In  the  deserts,  as  al- 
ready observed,  there  is  hardly  any  rain ;  and 
this  applies  also  to  Egypt,  which  but  for  the 
Nile  would  be  no  better  than  the  Sahara.  The 
chief  cause  of  the  rainlessness  of  the  deserts  is 
the  direction  of  the  winds,  which  causes  the 
chief  moisture-bearing  currents  to  pass,  before 
reaching  them,  over  hot  and  thirsty  regions 
which  deprive  them  of  their  moisture;  and  espe- 
cially the  mountain  screens  which  intercept  the 
moisture  of  the  winds  both  from  N.E.  and  S.W. 
Another  cause  is  the  want  of  elevated  regions  to 
attract  the  moisture  actually  contained  in  the 
atmosphere,  as  in  the  higher  regions  of  the 
desert  periodical  rains  do  occur.  The  high 
mountains  of  the  E  plateau  and  the  intervening 
tropical  regions  deprive  the  N.E.  monsoon  of  all 
its  moisture  before  it  reaches  the  Kalahari  Des- 
ert. Hence  the  apparently  anomalous  circum- 
stance that  the  greatest  heat  is  found  after  the 
equatorial  region  is  passed.  The  rapid  radiation 
of  heat  in  the  desert  causes  a  very  great  fall  of 
temperature  after  the  sun  is  down,  so  that  some- 
times frosts  are  generated,  and  this  in  some  mea- 
sure supplies  the  want  of  rain  by  condensing  the 
moisture  in  dew.  In  the  desert,  too,  scorching 
winds  are  generated,  those  of  the  N.  afflicting 
Egypt  and  the  countries  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast.  The  hottest  part  of  the  Sahara  is  in 
Nubia,  where  the  Arabs  say  the  soil  is  like  a 
fire  and  the  wind  like  a  flame.  The  coasts  of 
tropical  Africa,  especially  the  W.  coast,  where 
colonial  settlements  have  been  formed,  have 
been  found  to  have  a  deadly  climate  for  for- 
eigners. 

Geology,  Minerals. —  The  geology  of  Africa 
is  still  very  little  known.  Very  ancient  crystal- 
line rocks  are  found  rising  into  mountain  ranges 
and  sometimes  spread  over  large  areas.  Most 
of  the  rocks  that  overlie  them  belong  to  the 
older  formations,  so  that  the  continent  as  a 
whole  is  supposed  to  be  of  very  ancient  date. 
The  sands  which  cover  so  large  an  area  are  be- 
lieved to  be  mainly  of  xolian  origin,  and  not  to 
have  been  formed  by  the  action  of  water.  The 
porous  clay  found  so  abundantly  in  west  Africa 
is  of  comparatively  recent  date.  The  region 
around  Tanganyika  is  of  Jurassic  origin. 
Around  the  great  lakes  are  abundant  evidences 
of  enormous  volcanic  activity  at  no  very  remote 
date;  and,  as  already  mentioned,  active  volcanoes 
are  not  unknown.  Tanganyika,  according  to  re- 
cent views,  may  at  one  period  have  been  con- 
nected with  the  sea.  Salt  is  abundant,  though 
often  scarce  from  want  of  communication  and 
working  organization.  Gold  is  found  in  abun- 
dance in  southern  Africa  from  the  Transvaal 
region  to  the  Zambezi,  and  a  number  of  very 
productive  mines  have  been  opened  in  the  Trans- 
vaal. Diamonds  have  been  found  in  large  num- 
bers, and  in  apparently  inexhaustible  supply,  on 
the  Vaal  River  and  its  tributaries.  In  the  south- 
ern central  district,  particularly  the  country  of 
Katanga,  iron  and  copper  are   found,  and  arc 


worked  in  some  districts  in  the  countries  bor- 
dering on  the  Lualaba.  Copper  is  also  found  in 
Loanda,  iron  in  Angola,  and  lead,  tin,  iron,  and 
copper  in  Great  Namaqualand ;  iron,  copper,  and 
coal  are  found  in  Natal. 

Vegetation. —  The  centre  of  Africa  possesses, 
as  already  mentioned,  an  exuberant  tropical 
vegetation.  The  open  pastoral  belt  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  tropics  is  distinguished  by  a 
rich  and  varied  flora.  A  special  characteristic  of 
the  vegetation  of  the  southern  extremity  of  Afri- 
ca is  the  remarkable  variety,  size,  and  beauty  of 
the  heaths,  some  of  which  grow  to  12  or  15  feet 
and  form  miniature  forests.  Cycadacea?  and 
bulbous  and  orchidaceous  plants,  aloes,  and  other 
succulent  plants,  also  abound.  The  baobab  or 
monkey-bread  tree,  first  discovered  by  Adanson 
in  Senegal,  is  found  from  the  Sudan  to  Lake 
Ngami,  and  palms  of  one  variety  or  another  are 
diffused  over  almost  every  part  of  Africa.  The 
date  palm  is  the  special  characteristic  of  the  des- 
ert, to  which  it  is  peculiarly  adapted,  and  there 
it  forms  the  principal  means  of  subsistence. 
It  is  also  cultivated  as  a  garden  plant  in  the 
northern  coast  regions.  This  district  as  well 
as  Egypt  has  an  ancient  celebrity  for  its  fertility 
in  grain.  Wheat  and  maize  are  cultivated,  fruit 
trees  also  abound,  and  groves  of  oranges  and 
olives  distinguish  the  landscape.  The  castor  oil 
plant,  the  fig  tree,  the  dwarf  palm,  and  the  lotus, 
formerly  an  important  article  of  food,  are  here 
characteristic  forms.  The  common  oak,  the 
cork  oak,  and  the  pine  form  the  staple,  and  the 
cypress,  myrtle,  arbutus,  and  fragrant  tree 
heaths  the  ornaments  of  the  woods.  The  pas- 
toral tropical  belt  presents  a  different  order  of 
vegetation.  Besides  the  baobab,  the  cabbage 
palm,  the  oil  palm,  the  wax  palm,  the  shea  butter 
tree,  the  cotton  tree,  the  African  oak,  and  the 
mangrove  here  prevail ;  rice  and  maize  are  culti- 
vated ;  the  principal  fruits  are  the  banana,  papaw, 
custard  apple,  lemon,  orange,  and  tamarind. 
India-rubber  plants  are  found  in  various  forms, 
as  trees  and  as  _  climbing  plants,  in  abundance 
both  in  east  and  west  tropical  Africa.  The  preva- 
lent plants  of  this  district  are  also  found  in  the 
fertile  parts  of  Nubia.  To  the  northeast  of  this 
region  frankincense,  myrrh,  cinnamon,  and  cassia 
abound.  The  coffee  plant  is  a  native  of  the 
southern  Abyssinian  region,  and  also  of  western 
tropical  Africa,  where  it  forms  thick  woods. 
This  plant  is  supposed  to  have  been  transported 
from  Africa  to  Arabia.  Abyssinia,  though  coffee 
and  spices  are  native  products,  possesses  gener- 
ally, from  its  elevation,  the  vegetation  of  a  tem- 
perate region.  The  swamps  of  the  tropical  re- 
gion abound  with  papyrus.  The  cassava,  yam, 
pigeon-pea,  and  ground-nut  are  cultivated  as 
bread  plants. 

Animals. —  The  fauna  of  Africa  is  extensive 
and  varied,  and  numerous  species  of  mammals 
are  peculiar  to  the  continent.  According  to  a 
scientific  view  of  the  geographical  distribution  of 
animals,  the  north  of  Africa  belongs  to  the  Medi- 
terranean sub-region,  while  the  rest  of  the  con- 
tinent, forms  the  Ethiopian  region.  Africa 
possesses  numerous  species  of  the  order  Quad- 
rutnana  (apes  and  monkeys),  all  of  which 
are  peculiar  to  it.  They  abound  especially  in 
the  tropics.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  chim- 
panzee and  the  gorilla.  The  lion  is  the  typical 
carnivore  of  Africa.  Latterly  he  has  been  driven 
from  the  coast  .settlements  to  the  interior,  where 


AFRICA 


he  still  reigns  king  of  the  forest.  There  are 
three  varieties,  the  Barbary,  Senegal,  and  Cape 
lions.  The  leopard  and  panther  rank  next  to 
the  lion  among  the  carnivora.  Hyenas  of  more 
than  one  species,  and  jackals,  are  found  all  over 
Africa.  Elephants  in  lar^c  herds  abound  in  the 
forests  of  the  tropical  regions,  and  their  tusks 
form  a  leading  article  of  commerce.  These  are 
larger  and  heavier  than  those  of  Asiatic  ele- 
phants. The  elephant  is  not  a  domestic  animal 
in  Africa  as  it  is  in  Asia.  The  rhinoceros  is 
found,  like  the  elephant,  in  Middle  and  Southern 
Africa.  Hippopotami  abound  in  many  of  the 
large  rivers  and  the  lakes.  The  zebra  and 
quagga  were  numerous  in  central  and  south- 
ern Africa,  but  the  latter  is  said  to  be  now  en- 
tirely extinct.  Of  antelopes,  the  most  numerous 
and  characteristic  of  the  ruminating  animals  of 
Africa,  at  least  50  species  are  considered  pecu- 
liar to  this  continent,  of  which  23  used  to  occur 
in  Cape  Colony.  The  giraffe  is  found  in  the  in- 
terior and  is  exclusively  an  African  animal. 
Several  species  of  wild  buffaloes  roam  in  the 
interior,  and  the  Asiatic  buffalo  has  been  natu- 
ralized in  the  north.  The  camel,  common  in  the 
north  as  a  beast  of  burden,  has  no  doubt  been 
introduced  from  Asia.  The  horse  and  the  ass 
are  highly  developed  in  the  Barbary  States.  The 
cattle  of  Abyssinia  and  Bornu  have  horns  of  im- 
mense size  but  extremely  light.  In  Barbary  and 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  the  sheep  are  broad- 
tailed  ;  in  Egypt  and  Nubia  they  are  long-legged 
and  short-tailed.  Goats  are  in  some  parts  more 
numerous  than  sheep,  especially  in  the  Sudan 
and  in  Abyssinia.  Dogs  are  numerous,  but  cats 
rare,  in  Egypt  and  Barbary.  The  former  in  the 
northern  towns  serve  as  scavengers.  Bears  and 
foxes  are  found  only  in  the  north.  The  birds  of 
northern  Africa  are  almost  identical  with  those 
of  the  south  of  Europe  and  the  Asiatic  countries 
bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  Many  of  the 
African  birds  are  famed  for  the  brilliancy  of 
their  plumage,  such  as  the  sun-birds,  bee-eaters, 
rollers,  plaintain-eatcrs,  parrots,  and  kingfishers. 
The  ostrich  is  found  nearly  all'over  Africa,  but 
especially  in  the  desert.  A  remarkable  bird  of 
southern  Africa  is  the  secretary-bird  or  serpent- 
eater,  which  renders  great  service  to  the  inhabit- 
ants by  killing  serpents.  Another  peculiar  bird 
of  South  Africa  is  the  little  honey-guide  (q.v.), 
which  points  out  the  nests  of  bees.  The  whale- 
headed  stork,  remarkable  for  its  enormous  beak, 
may  also  be  mentioned.  Owls,  falcons,  eagles, 
and  vultures  are  numerous.  Water-fowl  are 
abundant  on  the  lakes  and  rivers,  and  there  are 
many  species  of  quails  and  partridges.  One 
species  of  gallinaceous  bird,  the  guinea-fowl, 
has  been  domesticated  in  other  countries.  Rep- 
tiles, owing  to  the  dryness  of  the  climate,  are 
comparatively  few.  The  largest  is  the  crocodile, 
which  abounds  in  the  great  rivers  and  tropical 
lakes.  There  are  several  species  of  venomous 
serpents,  including  the  horned  viper  and  the 
African  cobra.  The  chameleon  is  common. 
The  rivers  and  coasts  abound  with  fish  of 
numerous  species,  and  some  of  them  of  the 
most  brilliant  coloring.  Insects  are  numerous. 
Among  the  more  troublesome  species  are  the 
locust,  tsetse,  and  white  ant. 

Inhabitants.  Civilization,  etc. —  There  is  a 
marked  distinction  between  the  races  in  the  north 
and  east  of  the  great  desert  and  those  in 
central   Sudan  and   the  rest  of  Africa  and  the 


south.  The  main  elements  of  the  population  of 
north  Africa,  including  Egypt  and  Abyssinia, 
are  Hamitic  and  Semitic,  but  in  the  north  the 
llamite  Berbers  are  mingled  with  peoples  of  the 
same  race  as  those  of  prehistoric  southern  Eu- 
rope, and  other  types  of  various  origins,  and  in 
the  east  and  southeast  with  peoples  of  the  negro 
type.  The  Semitic  Arabs  are  found  all  over  the 
northern  region,  and  even  in  the  western  Sahara 
and  central  Sudan,  and  far  down  the  east  coast 
as  traders.  The  Somalis  and  Gallas  are  mainly 
Hamitic.  In  central  Sudan  and  the  whole  of 
the  country  between  the  desert  and  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  the  population  is  pure  negro  —  people  of 
the  black.  Hat-  or  broad-nosed,  thick-lipped  type, 
with  narrow  heads,  woolly  hair,  high  cheek- 
bones, and  prognathous  jaws.  Scattered  among 
them  are  peoples  of  a  probably  Hamitic  stock-. 
Nearly  the  whole  of  the  narrow  southern  section 
of  Africa  is  inhabited  by  what  arc  known  as  tin- 
Bantu  races,  of  which  the  Zulu  or  Kaffir  may  be 
taken  as  the  type.  The  languages  of  the  Bantu 
peoples  are  all  of  the  same  structure,  even 
though  the  physical  type  vary,  some  resembling 
the  true  negro,  and  others  having  prominent 
noses  and  comparatively  thin  lips.  The  Bush- 
men of  southern  Africa  are  of  a  different  type 
from  the  Bantu,  probably  the  remains  of  an  abo- 
riginal population,  while  the  Hottentots  are  ap- 
parently a  mixture  of  Bushmen  and  Kaffirs. 
Scattered  over  central  Africa,  mainly  in  the  for- 
est regions,  are  pygmy  tribes,  who  are  generally 
supposed  to  he  the  remains  of  an  aboriginal 
population.  The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Madagascar  arc  of  Malay  affinities.  The  total 
population  is  estimated  nt  about   150.000,000. 

As  regards  religion,  a  great  proportion  of  the 
inhabitants  are  heathens  of  the  lowest  type. 
Mohammedanism  possesses  a  large  number  of 
adherents  in  northern  Africa  and  is  rapidly 
spreading  in  the  Sudan.  Christianity  prevails 
chiefly  among  the  Copts  of  Egypt,  the  Abys- 
sinians,  and  the  natives  of  Madagascar,  the  lat- 
ter having  been  converted  in  recent  times.  Else- 
where the  labors  of  the  missionaries  have 
been  attended  with  promising  success.  Over 
a  great  part  of  the  continent,  however,  civiliza- 
tion is  at  a  low  ebb,  and  in  the  Kongo  region 
cannibalism  is  extensively  prevalent.  Yet  in 
various  regions  the  natives  who  have  not  come 
in  contact  with  a  higher  civilization  show  con- 
siderable skill  in  agriculture  and  various  me- 
chanical arts,  as  in  weaving  and  metal-working. 
Among  articles  exported  from  Africa  are  gold 
and  diamonds,  palm  oil,  ivory,  wool,  ostrich 
feathers,  esparto,  cotton,  caoutchouc,  etc.  Sec 
paragraph  Commercial  Conditions  at  end  of  this 
article. 

Languages. —  The  languages  spoken  on  the 
continent  may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes, 
those  native  to  Africa  and  those  brought  in 
from  outside:  the  former  including  the  three 
great  divisions  of  Negroid,  Hottentot-Bushman, 
and  Hamitic,  the  latter  Aryan,  Malay,  and  Se- 
mitic ;  and  the  latter  again  into  the  pure  lan- 
guages or  patois  of  recent  immigrants  or  trad- 
ers, and  those  which  have  become  naturalized 
by  time  and  change  into  virtually  native  tongues 
themselves. 

The  first  division  of  the  extra-African 
tongues  comprises:  (1)  Pure  English  in  South 
Africa  and  Liberia,  pure  French  in  Algeria  and 
the  scattered  trading  settlements  elsewhere.     (2) 


MARIBOU  STORK 


AN   TABIRI 


AFRICA 


Four  « Creole »  dialects:  the  Mediterranean 
«  lingua  franca  »  or  trade  jareon  ;  the  English 
Creole  or  West  African  Kru-English ;  the  Cape 
Verde  Islands  Portuguese  Creole;  and  the  Boer 
and  Hottentot  Dutch  Creole.  The  last  three  are 
European  in  stock,  but  with  much  African 
phonic,  inflectional,  and  syntactical  mixture  and 
influence.  The  second  division  includes  the 
Malay  or  Malagasy  of  Madagascar,  and  the  Se- 
mitic tongues  of  the  northeast.  These  last  are 
(i)  Pure  Arabic  (tht  Latin  of  Africa,  the  uni- 
versal language  of  social  intercourse  and  trade 
wherever  Mohammedanism  prevails),  including 
the  Egyptian,  Sudani,  Maghreb,  and  Muscat  dia- 
lects ;  (2)  mixed,  as  the  Abyssinian  dialects, 
derived  from  the  ancient  Geez  (q.v.),  Tigre  and 
Tigrina,  Amharic  (originally  of  southern  Abyssi- 
nia, but  now  the  chief  tongue  of  the  country), 
Harari  of  the  Galla  country,  Gurague,  etc.  All 
these  were  brought  in  by  Semitic  invaders. 

The  native  African  stocks  are  classed  in  Eng- 
lish books  mainly  according  to  the  system 
adopted  from  Friedrich  Muller  by  R.  N.  Cust 
in  his  'Modern  Languages  of  Africa'.;  later 
German  Africanists  prefer  that  of  Lepsius,  the 
chief  difference  being  on  the  relations  of  Bantu 
and  Negro  or  Nigritic. 

I.  Negroid.  This  has  three  main  divisions: 
(1)  Bantu,  a  pure  language.  This  immense 
group  occupies,  with  enclaves  of  Hottentot- 
Bushman  and  Pygmy,  the  whole  vast  triangle 
from  the  Kamerun  west  and  Zanzibar  east  down 
to  the  Cape,  or  pretty  much  all  Africa  south  of 
the  equator.  All  its  components  (for  which  see 
Bantu)  have  one  grammar  though  different 
vocabularies ;  the  greatest  and  perhaps  purest 
representatives  of  it  are  the  Zulus  or  Kaffirs, 
and  their  neighbors  the  Se-chuana.  (2)  Ni- 
gritic, Negro,  or  Sudan-Negro,  between  the  Sa- 
hara and  the  equator.  Ethnologically,  the  races 
speaking  this  group  of  tongues  are  the  purest 
types  of  the  Negro  stock ;  but  linguistically, 
they  are  only  classed  together  from  the  utter  im- 
possibility of  grouping  them  with  any  others, 
though  Lepsius  thinks  them  degenerated  Bantu, 
—  a  conclusion  scouted  by  others,  the  affinities 
being  very  faint.  They  are  many  and  to  all 
appearance  totally  unrelated,  so  diverse  and  pe- 
culiar are  the  idioms ;  some,  however,  think  they 
show  marked  characteristics  in  common.  They 
doubtless  represent  the  oldest  races  on  the  con- 
tinent, wandering  in  small  hostile  bands  and 
changing  their  dialects  almost  from  generation 
to  generation,  like  all  such  petty  camps  with  un- 
fixed traditions  and  no  general  intercourse ;  and 
may  well  have  scores  or  hundreds  of  « lan- 
guages »  among  them  with  no  traceable  con- 
nection. (3)  The  Nuba-Fulah  or  Ful ;  some- 
times called  the  Nilotic,  frorp  its  main  seat  in 
the  Nile  valley  from  Nubia  to  the  Albert 
Nyanza,  and  with  isolated  tribes  farther  out,  as 
the  Barea  and  Kunama  on  the  northern  border  of 
Abyssinia,  and  the  Masai  and  Oigob  southwest. 
Others  dispute  the  inclusion  of  the  Fulah,  con- 
sidering it  a  tongue  by  itself ;  perhaps  a  mon- 
grel, more  likely  a  family  as  above,  which  has 
picked  up  some  Hamitic  words.  The  Dinka. 
Bari,  and  Shilluk  are  its  chief  families  along 
the  Nile,  the  Lur  or  Shuli  and  Madi  being  the 
last  to  the  south;  west  of  the  valley  it  shades 
into  the  Nigritic  chaos. 

2.  The  Hottentot-Bushman.  This  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  dwarf  tribes,  and  its  relations  to 


others  or  itself  are  vigorously  debated.  Muller 
thought  it  represented  two  ethnological  and  lin- 
guistic divisions.  Lepsius  thinks  it  one,  Bantu 
in  race  and  Hamitic  in  language ;  but  his  con- 
clusions are  not  accepted.  Besides  the  main 
stock  in  southern  Africa,  this  group  includes  the 
Pygmy  dialects  in  central  Africa:  it  is  denied 
that  they  have  kept  their  original  languages,  but 
this  is  true  of  many  others,  and  the  ethnological 
and  linguistic  problems  have  no  necessary  rela- 
tion. 

3.  Hamitic.  This  includes  (1)  the  Libyan 
or  Berber  dialects  spoken  across  north  Africa 
from  the  Canaries  to  Egypt  —  probably  changed 
scores  of  times  from  top  to  bottom ;  (2)  the 
ancient  Egyptian,  with  the  four  dialects  of  its 
descendant  Coptic  (extinct  save  as  the  ritual 
language  of  the  Coptic  Church)  ;  (3)  the  non- 
Semitic  or  Kushite  Abyssinian  dialects  (for- 
merly called  Punic,  sometimes  Ethiopic,  which 
was  more  generally  applied  to  Geez)  :  as  Bi- 
shari  (see  Bisharin),  the  ancient  Bedja,  be- 
tween Egypt  and  Abyssinia;  Danakil  (q.v.)  or 
Dankali,  native  name  Afar,  between  Abyssinia, 
Massowa,  and  Obok ;  Somali  and  Galla,  in  their 
countries ;  Agau  (through  Abyssinia,  the  users 
believed  to  be  its  aborigines,  with  dialects  as 
Chamir,  Quara,  etc.)  ;  Saho.  between  Abyssinia 
and  Adulis  Bay ;  Kaffa,  Kullo.  etc.,  in  the  high- 
lands south  of  Abyssinia.  The  Fulah  group  (see 
above)  and  the  Haussas  in  Sokoto  have 
some  Hamitic  admixture.  These  Hamite  tribes 
are  much  mixed,  geographically  or  more  in- 
timately, with  Semitic  and  Negro  tribes  or  ele- 
ments. 

«  Equatorial »  is  a  name  given  in  1889  by 
Muller  to  a  group  of  Negro  tribes  S.  of  Darfur, 
of  which  he  wished  to  make  a  new  family :  the 
Nyam-Nyam  and  Monbuttu  were  the  chief.  All 
are  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  typical  Negro, 
and  their  languages  are  more  distinctive  still. 
As  above  said,  it  is  probable  that  many  such 
groups  can  be  segregated  on  the  best  of  grounds. 

Systems  of  Writing. —  Africa  has  four  liv- 
ing systems  (not  counting  the  fossil  Coptic 
or  the  European  used  by  those  races),  and  has 
had  four  now  represented  only  by  inscriptions 
or  papyri.  The  latter  are:  (1)  Ancient  Egyp- 
tian, passing  from  hieroglyphics  (a  mixture  of 
ideograms  and  syllables)  through  the  cursive 
hieratic  to  the  more  cursive  demotic,  the  or- 
dinary script  of  business  life.  A  few  of  the 
demotic  characters  are  preserved  in  the  ritual 
Coptic.  (2)  Ancient  Phoenician,  the  ancestor  of 
all  Western  alphabets.  (3)  Ancient  Ethiopian, 
used  for  the  native  tongue  around  Napata  and 
Meroe.  It  was  cursive  and  borrowed,  but  it  is 
not  known  from  whence,  nor  what  language  it 
represents.  (4)  Ancient  Libyan  or  Numidian, 
borrowed  from  southern  Arabia  and  read  from 
the  bottom  up.  There  are  many  inscriptions 
in  it  in  Algeria  and  Tunis,  some  of  which  have 
been  deciphered ;  the  first  was  the  celebrated 
bilingual  inscription  of  Takka.  The  living  sys- 
tems are  practically  those  of  the  Hamites  and 
Semites,  the  others  being  mostly  below  the  grade 
of  civilization  which  uses  such  things;  and  both 
the  former  use  Semitic  systems.     The  four  are : 

I.  The  only  one  developed  in  a  Negro  tribe, 
and  with  one  exception  the  only  one  actually  in- 
vented and  popularly  used  within  historic  times : 
that  of  the  Vei,  on  the  west  coast  near  Cape  Mt., 
devised  about  1834  by  Dcalu   Bukere,  a  native 


AFRICA 


with  a  rough  knowledge  of  European  printing. 
It  was  not  an  alphabetic  system,  but  a  syl- 
labary, with  complicated  characters  like  hiero- 
glyphics. It  was  later  used  for  Mohammedan 
missionary  work,  but  is  being  supplanted  by  the 
European  system,  the  Christian  missionaries  re- 
fusing to  employ  it. 

j.  That  of  the  Touaregs  or  Saharan  Ber- 
bers, called  Hfinaghen,  It  seems  to  be  a  de- 
scendant of  the  ancient  Libyan,  to  which  it  is 
similar  in  reading  from  the  bottom  up. 

3.  The  Arabic,  used  by  all  who  wish  to 
write  the  great  language  of  Mohammedan 
Africa,  the  general  medium  of  social  and  busi- 
ness communication.  It  is  also  widely  used  to 
v.  rile  other  African  languages:  by  the  Berbers 
and  Suahelis  for  Libyan  ;  by  the  people  of  Shoa 
for  Amharic,  and  those  of  Harar  for  Harari ;  by 
the  Malays  of  Madagascar ;  and  by  the  Kaffirs. 

4.  The  Amharic,  used  largely  in  and  around 
Abyssinia;  it  is  an  extension  and  modification 
of  the  ancient  Gcez  or  Ethiopic,  which  there- 
fore we  have  not  classed  as  dead,  any  more  than 
the  Greek  and  Roman  alphabets  can  be  so  called. 
It  is  written  from  left  to  right  like  the  Euro- 
pean languages,  the  other  Semitic  systems  being 
the  reverse;  and  the  vowels  are  indicated  by 
modifications  of  the  consonants  or  marks  added 
to  them,  making  it  a  semi-syllabic  rather  than 
pure  alphabetic  system.  It  was  borrowed  from 
southern  Arabia,  and  can  be  traced  back  to  the 
4th  century  on  the  monuments  at  Axum,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Abyssinia. 

Political  Divisions. —  By  recent  arrangements, 
mainly  since  1884,  great  areas  in  Africa  have 
been  allotted  to  Great  Britain,  France,  Germany, 
Portugal,  Belgium,  and  Italy,  as  coming  within 
their  respective  spheres  of  influence,  in  addition 
to  colonial  possessions  proper.  The  areas 
claimed  by  the  various  European  powers  in 
Africa  may  be  roughly  estimated  as  follows: 
France,  3,500,000  square  miles ;  Great  Britain, 
2,600,000  square  miles;  Germany,  1. 000.000 
square  miles;  Portugal,  825.000  square  miles; 
Kongo  Free  State,  900,000  square  miles ;  Italy, 
180,000  square  miles;  Spain,  154,000  square 
miles.  See  paragraph  on  Colonics  under  th 
various  countries,  Egypt,  like  Tripoli,  is  nom- 
inally under  Turkey,  but  it  is  actually  under 
British  suzerainty.  The  Kongo  Free  State  is 
under  the  king  of  Belgium.  Abyssinia  and 
Morocco  are  the  chief  native  African  and  inde- 
pendent states.  The  former  independent  Boer 
republics,  the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  South 
African  Republic,  since  the  Transvaal  war  1899- 
1902,  have  been  incorporated  with  the  British 
empire  under  the  name  of  the  Orange  River  and 
Transvaal  Colonies.  In  1903  Great  Britain 
also  annexed  Kano  and  Sokoto. 

History  of  Discovery. —  Although  in  Egypt 
and  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  (see  Car- 
thage and  Egypt)  Africa  was  the  seat  of  re- 
mote and  comparatively  high  states  of  civiliza- 
tion, up  to  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  the 
whole  of  central  Africa  was  a  blank;  it  is  now 
at  least  as  well  known  as  South  America.  The 
civilized  nations  of  the  ancient  world  aproached 
Africa  from  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Red 
Sea ;  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  till  the  in- 
troduction of  the  camel  in  the  "th  century  A.D. 
the  desert  was  an  insuperable  barrier  between 
the  Mediterranean  countries  and  central   Sudan. 

The  name  Africa  is  mythologically  associated 


with  Afer,  a  son  of  the  Libyan  Hercules;  but 
this  is  only  an  eponym.  It  is  certainly  Phoe- 
nician, and  probably  meant  "nomadic,"  a  term 
applied  by  the  Carthaginians  to  the  tribes  around. 
It  was  the  name  given  by  the  Romans  at  first 
only  to  a  small  district  of  Africa  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  Carthage,  and  nearly  corre- 
sponding with  the  Roman  province  formed  on 
the  destruction  of  Carthage.  The  Greeks  called 
Africa  Libya,  and  the  Romans  often  used  the 
same  name.  The  first  African  exploring  expe- 
dition on  record  is  that  mentioned  by  Herodotus 
as  having  been  sent  by  Pharaoh  Necho  about 
of  the  7th  century  B.C.  to  circumnavigate 
the  continent.  The  navigators,  who  were  Phoe- 
nicians, were  absent  three  years,  and  according 
to  report  they  accomplished  their  object.  The 
story  has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy, 
and  was  for  long  generally  discredited,  but  re- 
cent authorities  of  weight  have  pronounced  in 
its  favor.  The  next  important  voyage  recorded 
is  that  of  Hanno,  a  Carthaginian,  down  the  west 
coast,  probably  50  or  100  years  later.  He  passed 
a  river  with  crocodiles  and  river-horses,  and 
probably  reached  the  coast  of  Upper  Guinea. 
Herodotus  also  mentions  some  young  men  of 
the  tribe  of  the  Nasamones  (living  near  the  Gulf 
of  Sidra)  crossing  the  desert  in  a  westerly  direc- 
tion, and  coming  to  a  great  river  where  they  saw 
crocodiles  and  black  men.  but  it  is  doubtful  if 
this  could  have  been  the  Niger.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  the  Egyptians  knew  the  Nile  be- 
yond the  site  of  Khartum,  though  they  may  have 
sent  ships  as  far  as  the  coast  of  Somaliland  by 
the  Red  Sea.  Nero  sent  an  expedition  up  the 
Nile  which  seems  to  have  penetrated  up  the 
White  Nile ;  and  remains  of  Roman  origin  have 
been  found  some  distance  into  the  Sahara. 
From  the  navigators  and  traders  that  frequented 
the  east  coast  of  Africa,  Ptolemy  may  have 
learned  that  the  Nile  issued  from  two  great  lakes 
about  the  equator.  Mohammedanism  was  car- 
ried into  north  Africa  in  the  7th  century  and 
very  rapidly  spread  to  the  Atlantic.  By  the  10th 
century  the  Arabs  had  crossed  the  desert,  and 
bit  ween  this  and  the  14th  century  Arab  travelers 
visited  central  Sudan,  the  Niger,  and  other 
regions,  and  till  comparatively  recently  they 
were  the  great  authorities  on  much  of  central 
Africa. 

The  first  impulse  to  a  more  complete  ex- 
ploration of  Africa  was  given  by  the  Portuguese 
prince  known  as  Henry  the  Navigator,  who  in 
the  early  part  of  the  15th  century  sent  out  a 
series  of  expeditions  along  the  west  coast.  These 
were  continued  after  his  death,  so  that  in  i486 
Bartolomeu  Diaz  doubled  the  Cape  and  in 
1497  Vasco  da  Gama  sailed  up  the  east  coast  as 
far  as  Mombasa,  and  thence  to  India.  Thus  for 
the  first  time  the  main  outline  of  the  African 
coast  was  laid  down.  Settlements  were  planted 
on  the  east  and  west  coasts  by  Portuguese, 
French,  English,  Dutch,  and  Brandenburg!  rs, 
but  there  is  no  authentic  information  that  any 
European  penetrated  into  the  interior.  Maps  of 
the  16th  to  the  18th  century  were  covered  with 
lakes  and  rivers,  but  these  were  swept  away  as 
unauthentic  by  D'Anville  in  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century,  and  the  interior  left  a  blank.  An 
association  for  the  exploration  of  inner  Africa 
was  formed  in  London  in  1788.  Additions  were 
made  to  geography  under  its  auspices  by  Mungo 
Park,  Hornemann.  Burckhardt,  and  others. 


AFRICAN  ART. 


i.      Horn  Comb. 
.*.     I  Little  Axe. 

W    'man's  Girdle. 


4.  Club  and 

5.  Head  Ornament. 
6-7.     Fei         1 


3.     Woman's  Sandal. 

VV  >man's  Head-Dress, 
iketry. 


AFRICA 


Modern  African  exploration  may  be  said  to 
begin  with  Mungo  Park,  who  reached  the  upper 
course  of  the  Niger  or  Joliba,  and  whose  efforts 
to  explore  the  river  to  its  mouth  cost  him  his 
life  (1795-1805).  Dr.  Lacerda,  a  Portuguese, 
about  the  same  time  reached  the  capital  of  Ca- 
zembe,  west  of  Lake  Bangweolo,  where  he  died. 
Hornemann,  who  traveled  for  the  same  society 
as  Park,  perished  in  the  desert  after  sending 
home  accounts  of  Bornu  and  the  neighboring 
state";.  In  1802-6  two  Portuguese  traders 
crossed  the  continent  from  Angola,  through  Ca- 
zembe's  dominions,  to  the  Portuguese  posses- 
sions on  the  Zambezi. 

In  1816  Captain  Tuckey,  in  command  of  a 
British  expedition,  sailed  up  the  Kongo,  which 
he  took  to  be  the  mouth  of  the  Niger,  for  280 
miles.  About  the  same  time  Major  Peddie, 
and  after  his  death  Captain  Campbell,  led  a 
party  up  the  Senegal  through  the  Fula  or  Fella- 
tah  territory,  returning  to  Kakundy  on  the 
Nunez.  In  1817  Mr.  Bowditch  explored  the 
country  of  the  Ashantis.  In  1818  a  French 
traveler,  Gaspard  Theodore  Mollien,  discovered 
the  sources  of  the  Senegal,  Gambia,  and  Rio 
Grande.  In  1819  Ritchie  and  Lyon  traveled 
from  Tripoli  to  Murzuk,  and  in  1821  Major 
Laing  made  some  important  journeys  in  the 
Mandingo  district  of  western  Africa.  In  1822-4 
extensive  explorations  were  made  in  north- 
ern and  western  Africa  by  Major  Denham,  Capt. 
Clapperton,  and  Dr.  Oudney,  the  last  of  whom 
died  on  the  way.  The  travelers  proceeded  from 
Tripoli  by  Murzuk  to  Lake  Tchad.  While 
Denham  examined  the  south  and  west  coasts  of 
the  lake,  Clapperton  proceeded  west  through 
Bornu  to  Sokoto,  the  capital  of  the  Fellahtah 
country,  on  the  Sokoto,  an  affluent  of  the  Niger. 
Impressed  with  the  importance  of  establishing 
political  and  commercial  intercourse  with  this 
district,  Clapperton  organized  another  expedi- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  reaching  Sokoto  from 
the  west  coast.  Setting  out  from  Badagry,  on 
the  east  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  7  Dec.  1825,  and 
passing  through  the  kingdom  of  Yoruba  he 
reached  the  Niger  at  Bussa.  Here  he  crossed 
the  river  and  traversed  the  kingdom  of  Nupe 
to  Kano,  capital  of  the  Haussa  country,  which 
he  had  previously  visited,  and  from  thence  pro- 
ceeded to  Sokoto,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which, 
after  a  short  residence,  he  died.  His  servant, 
Richard  Lander,  returned  to  Kano  and  at- 
tempted to  proceed  south  through  the  kingdom 
of  Zegzeg,  but  was  compelled  by  the  natives  to 
return  to  Darroro,  from  which  he  reached  the 
coast. 

W.  Allen,  a  naval  officer,  about  this  time 
accompanied  a  mercantile  expedition  up  the 
Niger,  which  he  surveyed  for  a  certain  distance, 
and  in  another  expedition  in  1848  the  same  of- 
ficer revised  and  corrected  his  survey.  Maj. 
Laing  in  1826  crossed  the  desert  from  Tripoli 
to  Timbuctoo.  but  he  was  killed  on  his  return, 
and  his  papers  lost.  Rene  Caillie,  after  living 
for  some  years  on  the  Senegal  coast  learning  the 
language  and  initiating  himself  into  the  re- 
ligion and  manners  of  the  Arabs,  made  in  1827-8 
a  journey  to  Timbuctoo,  and  thence  through 
the  great  desert  to  Morocco.  Richard  Lander, 
accompanied  by  his  brother,  leaving  Badagry 
for  Bussa  in  March  1830,  ascended  the  river 
Niger  to  Yauri,  and  descending  from  thence 
reached  the  mouth  called  the  Nun  in  November. 


In  1832  he  traced  other  mouths  of  the  river  up 
to  the  main  stream ;  and  the  identity  of  the  great 
river  which  passes  under  various  names  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  its  course  was  thus  established. 

In  the  south,  Livingstone,  who  was  stationed 
as  a  missionary  at  Kolobeng  in  1849,  passed 
through  the  desert  of  Kalahari,  reached  the  Zuga 
or  Botletle,  and  after  a  circuitous  route  discov- 
ered its  source  in  Lake  Ngami.  In  1851  he  went 
north  again,  proceeding  from  the  Zuga  in  a  more 
easterly  direction.  In  lat.  iy°  25'  S.,  and  between 
Ion.  24°  30'  and  26°  50'  E.,  he  came  upon  nu- 
merous rivers  flowing  north,  which  were  re- 
ported to  be  affluents  of  a  larger  river,  the 
Zambezi. 

In  1848  and  1849  Krapf  and  Rebmann,  mis- 
sionaries stationed  near  Mombasa,  saw  the 
Kilima-Njaro  and  the  Kenia  Mountains.  In 
1851  Francis  Galton,  starting  from  Walfisch 
Bay,  made  an  extensive  survey  of  the  Damara 
and  Ovampo  countries,  in  which  he  found  high 
pastoral  and  agricultural  table-lands.  An  expe- 
dition under  the  patronage  of  the  British  gov- 
ernment started  from  Tripoli  in  1850  to  visit 
the  Sahara  and  the  regions  around  Lake  Tchad. 
Richardson,  the  originator  of  the  expedition, 
was  joined  by  two  Germans,  Drs.  Overweg  and 
Barth.  In  crossing  the  desert  from  Murzuk  to 
Ghat  they  found  some  interesting  sculptures. 
From  Ghat  to  Air  they  found  the  country 
wholly  desert  and  uninhabited.  On  reaching 
Lake  Tchad  Richardson  went  to  Kuka,  capital 
of  Bornu,  Barth  to  Kano,  Overweg  to  the  na- 
tive states  of  Mariadi  and  Guber.  Barth  and 
Overweg  met  again  at  Kuka  in  April  1851,  but 
in  the  meantime  Richardson  had  died.  Over- 
weg explored  the  lake,  and  Barth  proceeded  on 
another  journey  south  to  Massena,  in  the  king- 
dom of  Bagirmi.  On  his  return  the  death  of 
Overweg  left  him  to  prosecute  the  enterprise 
alone.  He  proceeded  to  Timbuctoo  via  Kano, 
and  after  collecting  much  information  about  the 
Niger  and  its  tributaries,  over  a  great  part  of 
the  course  of  which  he  traveled  on  his  return 
to  Kuka,  he  reached  Tripoli  in  August  1855. 
Dr.  Vogel,  who  was  sent  to  join  Barth.  was  put 
to  death  at  Wadai,  and  his  papers  were  lost. 

Dr.  Livingstone  began  another  journey  from 
Kolobeng  on  15  Jan.  1853.  After  staying  a 
month  at  Linyante,  capital  of  the  Makololo.  he 
proceeded  down  the  Chobe  to  Sesheke.  and 
thence  ascended  the  Leambye  (Zambezi)  to  the 
junction  of  the  Liba.  After  returning  to  Lin- 
yante, and  taking  with  him  a  party  of  Makololo, 
he  again  set  out  II  Nov.  1853,  reached  the  Liba 
27  December,  and  proceeded  to  Lake  Dilolo, 
where  he  found  the  watershed  of  the  streams 
which  flow  north  and  south  (feeders  of  the  Kon- 
go or  the  Zambezi)  at  a  level  of  4.000  feet  above 
the  sea.  On  his  return  journey  he  was  con- 
firmed in  the  belief  that  an  elevated  plateau  here 
crosses  the  country  and  forms  the  watershed 
of  the  whole  continent.  He  next  crossed  the 
Cassabi  river,  and  on  4  April  he  reached  the 
banks  of  the  Kwango.  both  these  rivers  being 
affluents  of  the  Kongo.  Crossing  the  Kwanza, 
he  reached  Loanda  on  3]  May.  On  20  September 
he  set  out  on  his  return  journey,  and  following 
pretty  nearly  the  route  by  which  be  had  gone 
arrived  at  Linyante.  Starting  from  this  place 
on  3  Nov.  1855,  he  reached  the  Zambezi,  and 
proceeding  down  the  river,  and  visiting  its  falls, 
called    by    him   the   Victoria    Falls,    arrived   at 


AFRICA 


Kilimanc  at  its  month  on  20  May  1856,  and 
sailed  for  England.  Thus  was  accomplished  by 
Dr.  Livingstone  the  remarkable  feat  of  crossing 
the  entire  continent  from  sea  to  sea  —  the  first 
time,  so  far  as  is  known,  thai  this  was  done  by 
any  European.  In  1858  Livingstone  returned 
to  resume  Ins  exploration  of  the  Zambezi  re- 
gions. Entering  the  Congone  mouth  of  the 
river  in  .May,  he  ascended  its  tributary,  the 
Shire,  to  Murchison  Cataracts,  visited  Lake 
Shirwa  and  Lake  Nyassa,  traveled  on  or  near 
the  Zambezi  to  Victoria  Falls,  established  the 
identity  of  the  Leambye  and  the  Zambezi,  sailed 
up  the  Shire  to  Lake  Nyassa,  also  sailed  156 
miles  up  the  Rovuma  River,  and  returned  to 
England  in  1864. 

Betwi  1  n  1856  and  1865  Paul  du  Chaillu  trav- 
eled extensively  on  the  west  coast,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  river  Ogowe  (or  Ogohai).  In 
1861-2  Major  (afterward  Sir)  R.  F.  Burton  also 
traveled  on  the  west  coast.  He  ascended  the 
Kamerun  Mountains  and  confirmed  some  of 
the  observations  of  Du  Chaillu.  A  French  ex- 
pedition visited  the  delta  of  the  Ogowe  in  1864. 
Since  then  that  river  has  been  very  fully  ex- 
plored, the  principal  expeditions  having  been 
those  of  Walker,  18(16,  1873;  Lieut.  Aymes, 
1867-8;  the  Frenchmen  Compiegne  and  Marche, 
1872-4;  Dr.  O.  Lenz,  1876;  and  another  French 
expedition  under  Savorgnan  de  Brazza.  1876, 
who  took  possess!,,,,  of  a  large  stretch  of  terri- 
tory for  France.  This  territory  now  forms 
part  of  French  Kongo,  which  had  been  traversed 
by  various  Frenchmen,  including  Brazza,  Mizon, 
I.e  Maistre,  Monteil,  and  others. 

In  1866  Livingstone  entered  on  his  last  great 
series  of  explorations,  the  main  object  of  which 
was  to  settle  the  position  of  the  watersheds  in 
the  interior  of  the  continent  south  of  the  equator, 
and  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Kile.  Landing 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Rovuma  he  proceeded  south- 
west round  the  south  end  of  Lake  Nyassa,  and 
then  traveling  north  reached  the  south  end  of 
Lake  Tanganyika  (discovered  by  Speke  and 
Burton  in  1858).  He  afterward  visited  Lakes 
Mweru  and  Bangweolo  in  the  basin  of  the 
Chambeze,  the  name  given  to  a  headwater  of  the 
Kongo.  In  1869  he  reached  Ujiji,  on  the  Tan- 
ganyika, and  crossed  the  lake,  making  extensive 
journeys  in  the  Manyuema  country,  and  reached 
the  Lualaba  or  upper  Kongo,  but  could  not  ex- 
plore it  for  want  of  boats.  Henry  M.  Stanley, 
who  had  been  specially  sent  by  the  proprietor  of 
the  New  York  Herald  to  search  for  Livingstone, 
met  him  at  Ujiji  on  his  return  from  the  Man- 
yuema country,  relieved  his  necessities,  and  ex- 
amined along  with  him  the  northern  end  of  Lake 
Tanganyika.  Livingston,,  afterward  started  on 
a  fresh  journey  (in  1872)  to  determine  the 
course  of  tlie  Lualaba,  intending  to  travel  round 
the  south  side  of  Lake  Bangweolo;  but  after  suf- 
fering much  from  illness  he  died  on  the  shore  of 
this  lake  on  1  May  1873. 

In  1S72  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  or- 
ganized two  expeditions  to  go  in  search  of  Liv- 
ingstone. The  one.  tinder  Lieut.  Grandy,  sailed 
some  distance  up  the  Kongo;  the  other,  under 
Lieut.  Cameron,  started  from  Zanzibar  for  Tan- 
ganyika. On  ascertaining  the  death  of  Living- 
stone he  proceeded  to  Lake  Tanganyika,  where 
he  secured  Livingstone's  map  and  sent  it  to 
Zanzibar.  He  ascertained  the  height  of  the 
'ake;  found  an  outlet,  the  Lukuga,  on  the  west 


ide;  traversed  the  Manyuema  country;  reached 
Nyangwe,  Livingstone's  farthest  point  on  the 
Lualaba  :  proceeded  south  up  the  east  side  of  the 

valley  of  Lomane  to  Kilemba  in  the  Urua  coun- 
try; and  reached  Benguela,  on  the  Atlantic 
Coast,  .)    N'ov.    1875.      The  identity  of  the   Kongo 

and  Lualaba  was  at  last  settled  by  Stanley,  who, 
between  Oetobei  1S70  and  August  1X77,  de- 
scended from  Nyangwe  on  the  latter  river  to 
the  mouth  of  the  former.  After  helping  to  es- 
tablish  the   Kongo   Free  Slate    (1879-85)    Stanley 

proceeded  in  [887  with  an  expedition  to  relieve 
Emin    Pasha,    governor    of    Egypt's   equatorial 

province,  hollowing  the  Kongo  and  its  tribu- 
tary the  Aruwimi.  Stanley  hewed  his  way 
through  a  vast  forest,  arrived  at  the  Albeit 
Nyanza,  met  Emin  there,  returned  for  his  rear- 
guard ami  stores,  and  at  last  brought  Emin  and 
his  followers  to  Bagatnoyo,  on  the  east  coast,  in 
1889.  He  also  discovered  Lake  Albert  Edward 
and  the  lofty  mountain  of  Ruwenzori,  on  the 
Semliki,  between  that  lake  and  Lake  Albert. 
The  Portuguese  Maj.  Serpa  1'into  journeyed 
from  Benguela  to  Natal  in  [878  o;  the  Germans 
Wissmann  and  Pogge  crossed  from  St.  Paul 
de  Loanda  to  Zanzibar  in  1881-2;  in  1870-80 
(after  the  death  of  his  leader,  Keith  Johnston), 
Joseph  Thomson  crossed  from  the  east  coast 
by  the  north  of  Lake  Nyassa  to  the  east  of  Tan- 
ganyika, and  back  to  Zanzibar ;  again  in  1883-4 
he  explored  the  Masai  country  between  the 
coast  and  Lake  Victoria;  Capello  and  Ivens 
went  from  Angola  to  Mozambique  by  way  of 
Bangweolo  in  1884-5. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  problems  con- 
nected with  African  geography  was  the  tracing 
of  the  source  of  the  Nile.  Among  the  first  of 
the  famous  explorers  in  this  direction  was 
James  Bruce,  who  in  1770  reached  the  source  of 
the  Blue  Nile  or  Bahr-el-Azrek,  and  imagined 
himself  to  have  solved  the  great  problem.  But 
the  real  source  of  the  Nile  remained  long  un- 
known, the  great  lakes  connected  with  its  ori- 
gin being  hardly  dreamed  of  till  comparatively 
recent  times.  In  1858  Burton  and  Speke.  cross- 
ing from  Zanzibar,  discovered  Lake  Tangan- 
yika, and  the  same  year  Speke  also  reached  the 
Victoria  Nyanza.  but  did  not  ascertain  that  it 
gave  rise  to  the  Nile.  Speke  and  Grant  in  1862 
reached  the  place  where  the  Nile  leaves  the  lake 
and  followed  part  of  its  course  to  Karuma  Falls. 
At  Gondokoro  they  met  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  who 
proceeded  to  investigate  the  unexplored  part, 
but  did  not  fully  succeed  in  his  object.  Baker 
in  1871-3  returned  to  the  scene  of  his  explora- 
tions as  the  commander  of  an  Egyptian  force, 
and  took  possession  of  the  country  in  the  name 
of  the  Khedive,  but  added  little  to  his  previous 
geographical  discoveries.  He  was  succeeded  in 
his  command  by  Col.  Gordon,  one  of  whose 
officers,  Col.  Long,  more  fully  traced  the  Nile 
between  Karuma  Falls  and  the  Victoria  Lake; 
while  another.  M.  Gessi,  first  actually  traced  the 
Nile  up  to  its  outflow  from  the  Albert  Nyanza 
(1876). 

Since  1883  the  exploration  of  Africa  has  been 
carried  out  by  a  multitude  of  explorers.  In  the 
north  the  French  have  pushed  south  from  Al- 
geria, and  French  explorers,  among  whom  M. 
Foureau  is  prominent,  have  added  greatly  to 
our  knowledge  of  the  Sahara.  Dr.  Junker  de- 
voted several  years  to  exploring  the  country  be- 
tween the  basin  of  the  Nile  and  the  Kongo.     Mr. 


AFRICA 


Stanley  in  his  great  journey  across  Africa  in 
1876  added  largely  to  our  knowledge  of  Lake 
Victoria,  and  of  Uganda,  the  country  between 
Victoria  and  Lake  Albert.  Since  the  British  oc- 
cupation of  Uganda,  Col.  Lugard  and  many 
other  officers  have  mapped  the  country  be- 
tween the  coast  and  the  lakes,  Uganda  it- 
self, and  the  country  to  the  west.  Italian 
and  British  explorers  have  added  to  our 
knowledge  of  Abyssinia  and  of  the  desert 
between  the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea.  Lakes  Ru- 
dolf and  Stefanie  have  been  discovered  and  ex- 
plored by  Count  Teleki  and  Lieut.  Von  Hohnel 
from  the  south,  while  James,  Donaldson  Smith, 
Cavendish,  Robecchi,  Bottego,  and  others  have 
explored  Somaliland  and  ascertained  that  the 
Omo  flows  into  Lake  Rudolf.  Gregory  has  in- 
vestigated Mount  Kenia ;  Meyer  has  ascended 
Kilima-Njaro ;  Baumann  and  other  German  ex- 
plorers have  visited  the  region  to  the  west 
and  south  of  that  mountain,  round  by  the 
south  of  Lake  Victoria,  and  on  to  Lake 
Albert  Edward.  In  1894  Count  Gotzen  crossed 
from  east  to  west,  discovered  Lake  Kivu 
to  the  south  of  Lake  Albert  Edward,  and 
a  lofty  active  volcano  near  its  shores,  com- 
ing out  by  the  Kongo.  Many  other  Germans 
have  been  busy  in  German  East  Africa,  while 
in  British  Central  Africa,  Johnston,  Sharpe, 
Joseph  Thomson,  and  others  have  filled  in  many 
blanks,  and  British  naval  officers  have  charted 
Lake  Nyassa. 

The  unique  distinction  of  being  the  first 
white  man  to  traverse  Africa  from  south  to  north 
on  foot  fell  to  the  lot  of  an  undergraduate  of  Cam- 
bridge University,  Ewart  Scott  Grogan,  who  in 
February,  1898,  started  from  Cape  Town  with 
one  white  companion  and  a  few  servants,  and 
eighteen  months  later  reached  Cairo,  having 
traveled  the  greater  part  of  the  distance  with 
only  the  servants,  as  his  white  friend  left  him 
before  the  journey  was  half  done.  Mr.  Grogan 
brought  back  a  mass  of  ethnological  informa- 
tion, haying  carefully  investigated  and  described 
the  various  tribes  with  which  he  came  in  con- 
tact, and  cleared  up  a  number  of  disputed  geo- 
graphical points.  See  'From  Cape  to  Cairo.' 
London,  1900. 

Several  German  explorers  have  also  trav- 
ersed and  mapped  Damaraland  and  Namaqua- 
Iand  ;  Lugard  has  explored  the  Uganda  region : 
Gibbons  and  others  have  traversed  the  Barotse 
country.  The  officials  of  the  Kongo  Free  State 
have  laid  open  the  courses  of  the  numerous  riv- 
ers that  feed  the  main  stream ;  Hinde  found  the 
Lukuga  flowing  into  the  Lualaba ;  Grenfell  and 
others  established  the  connection  of  the  Ubangi 
or  Mobangi  tributary  on  the  north,  with  tlie 
Makua-Welle  higher  up.  which  had  been  ex- 
plored by  Junker  and  others.  Under  the 
auspices  of  the  Royal  Niger  Company  Joseph 
Thomson  and  others  further  explored  the  Ni- 
ger; while  the  Benue  and  its  tributaries  and  the 
German  sphere  in  the  south  have  been  actively 
explored  by  British,  French,  and  German  trav- 
elers. 

All  these  three  nationalities,  moreover,  have 
been  busy  in  the  vast  area  between  the  Guinea 
coast  and  the  great  bend  of  the  Niger.  Prom- 
inent among  them  was  Binger,  who  contributed 
more  than  any  single  individual  to  our  know- 
ledge of  this  region.  The  French  occupation  of 
Timbuctoo   has   led   to   the   navigation    and   ex- 


ploration of  the  upper  and  middle  river  by  gun- 
boats ;  while  a  French  expedition  followed  the 
river  from  Timbuctoo  to  its  mouth.  Monteil 
crossed  from  Senegal  to  Lake  Tchad  and 
traversed  the  desert  to  Tripoli.  French  expedi- 
tions have  crossed  from  the  Kongo  to  the  Nile, 
and  all  the  river  systems  are  now  mapped  in  their 
main  features.  It  may  indeed  be  said  that  the 
pioneer  exploration  of  Africa  has  been  com- 
pleted, the  most  important  blank  being  the  re- 
gion lying  between  Somaliland  and  the  upper 
Nile.  What  remains  to  be  done  is  the  filling 
up  of  the  meshes  between  the  vast  network  of 
explorers'  routes,  and  this  is  a  task  which  can- 
not be  completed  for  many  years. 

Commercial  Conditions. — Necessarily  in  so 
large  an  area  with  so  many  tribes  and  peoples 
who  keep  no  accounts  of  their  transactions,  a 
considerable  amount  of  commerce  must  pass 
without  being  recorded  in  any  way,  yet  the 
annual  commerce  of  Africa,  of  which  statistics 
are  available,  amounts  to  over  $700,000,000.  The 
total  imports  at  the  ports  where  records  are  kept 
amounted  in  the  latest  year  for  which  figures 
are  at  hand  to  $429,461,000,  and  the  exports  to 
$263,907,000.  The  principal  imports  were  dis- 
tributed as  follows  :  Into  British  territory.  $157,- 
575,000;  French  territory,  $92,004,000;  Turkish 
territory,  $77,787,000 ;  Portuguese  territory,  $20,- 
795,000;  German  territory,  $8,336,000,  and  into 
the  Kongo  Free  State,  $4,722,000.  Of  the  ex- 
ports a  large  share,  especially  those  from  the 
south,  is  gold  and  diamonds ;  in  the  tropical 
region  ivory,  rubber,  palm  nuts,  and  gums, 
and  in  the  north  a  fair  share  of  the  ex- 
ports are  products  of  agriculture,  cotton,  coffee, 
cacao,  spices,  dates,  etc.  The  export  figures  of 
recent  years  are  less  than  those  of  former  years, 
owing  to  the  hostilities  in  South  Africa,  which 
have  both  reduced  production  and  increased 
local  consumption. 

Railroad  development  in  Africa  has  been 
rapid  in  the  past  few  years  and  seems  but  the 
beginning  of  a  great  system  which  must  con- 
tribute to  the  rapid  development,  civilization,  and 
enlightenment  of  the  <(  Dark  Continent."  Already 
railroads  run  north  from  Cape  Colony  about 
1,500  miles,  and  south  from  Cairo  about  1,200 
miles,  thus  completing  2.700  miles  of  the  pro- 
posed «  Cape  to  Cairo »  railroad,  while  the  in- 
termediate distance  is  about  3,000  miles.  At  the 
north  numerous  lines  skirt  the  Mediterranean 
coast,  especially  in  the  French  territory  of  Al- 
geria and  in  Tunis,  aggregating  about  2,500 
miles;  while  the  Egyptian  railroads  are,  includ- 
ing those  under  construction,  about  1,500  miles  in 
length.  Those  of  Cape  Colony  are  over  3,000 
miles  in  length,  and  those  of  Portuguese  East 
Africa  and  the  Transvaal  are  another  1,000  miles 
in  length. 

Including  all  of  the  railroads  now  con- 
structed or  under  actual  construction,  the  total 
length  of  African  railways  is  nearly  12,500  miles, 
or  half  the  distance  around  the  earth.  In  1003 
the  construction  of  a  railroad  from  Khartum  to 
Suakin  was  begun.  A  large  proportion  of  the 
railways  thus  far  constructed  are  owned  by  the 
several  colonies  or  states  which  they  traverse, 
about  2.000  miles  of  the  Cape  Colony  system 
and  nearly  all  of  that  of  Egypt  belonging  to  the 
state. 

That  the  gold  and  diamond  mines  of  South 
Africa    have    been    and    are    still    wonderfully 


AFRICAN   INTERNATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  —  AFTER-DAMP 


profitable  is  beyond  question.  The  ECimberley 
diamond  mines,  about  too  miles  from  I 
Town,  now  supply  98  per  cent  of  the  diamonds 
of  commerce,  though  their  existence  was  un- 
known prior  to  1867,  and  the  mines  have  thus 
been  in  operation  but  about  30  years.  It  is  es- 
timated  that  $350,000,000  worth  of  rough  dia- 
monds,   worth    double    that    sum   after    cutting, 

have  been  produced  from  the  Kimberley  mines 
since  their  opening  in  1868-9,  and  tins  enormous 
production  would  have  been  greatly  increased 
but  for  the  fact  that  the  owners  of  the  various 
mines  there  formed  an  agreement  to  limit  the 
output  so  as  not  to  materially  exceed  the  world's 
annual  consumpl  ii  in. 

Equally  wonderful  and  promising  are  the 
great   Wit  water-rand  gold  fields  of- South  Africa, 

better  known  as  the  Johannesburg  mines.  Gold 
was  discovered  there  in  1883,  and  in  1884  the 
value  of  the  gold  product  was  about  $50,000.  It 
increased  with  startling  rapidity,  the  product  of 
1888  being  about  $5,000,000;  that  of  iSgo,  $10,- 
000,000;  1892,  over  $J0,0O0.O00;  18115.  over  $40,- 
000.000;  and  1897  and  1898.  about  $55,000,000. 
Work  in  these  mine',  was  practically  suspended 
during  the   Boer  war. 

The  gold  production  of  the  "  Rand  "  since 
1884  has  I  urn  over  $300,000,000.  and  careful  sur- 
veys of  the  field  by  experts  show  beyond  ques- 
tion that  the  "gold  in  sight  0  probably  amounts 
to  $3,500,000,000,  while  the  large  number  of 
mines  in  adjacent  territory,  particularly  those  of 
Rhodesia,  whose  output  was  valued  at  over  $4,- 
500.000  in  1901,  gives  promise  of  additional  sup- 
plies, so  that  it  seems  probable  that  South 
Africa  will  for  many  years  continue  to  be  as  it 
is  now,  the  largest  gold-producing  field  of  the 
world. 

Bibliography:  Archeology  and  Ethnology. 
—  Deniker,  '  Races  of  Man';  South  African 
Native  Races  Committee,  '  Natives  of  South 
Africa,  Their   Economic  and  Social  Condition.' 

Fauna. —  Smith,  'Illustrations  of  the  Zool- 
ogy 1  if  Si  nub  Africa.' 

Geology. —  Thomson,  *  Notes  on  the  Geology 
of  East  Central  Africa.1 

Historical. —  British  Empire  Series,  'British 
Africa  '  ;  Brown,  '  The  Story  of  Africa  and  Its 
Explorers';  Greswell,  'Geography  of  Africa 
South  of  the  Zambesi  >  ;  Johnston,  '  History  of 
the  Colonization  of  Africa  by  Alien  Races  '  ; 
Stanford,  '  Compendium  of  Geography  and 
I  1  .i\  el  '  ;   \\  lute,   '  The   I  ><".  1  li  ipmcnt  of  Africa.' 

Languages. —  Blcek,  'Comparative  Grammar 
of  South  African  Languages  '  ;  Cust,  (  Sketch  of 
the  Modern  Languages  of  Africa.' 

Travels. —  Burton,  '  First  Footsteps  in  East 
Africa  '  ;  Cameron,  <  Across  Africa  '  ;  Grogan, 
'  From  the  Cape  to  Cairo';  Hohtb,  'Seven 
Years  in  South  Africa »;  Livingston,  <  Mission- 
ary Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Africa  '  ; 
Loyd,  '  In  Dwarf  Land  and  Cannibal  Country  '  ; 
Peters,  '  New  Light  on  Dark  Africa';  Stanley, 
'  In  Darkest  Africa.' 

African  International  Association,  an  as- 
sociation formed  in  1876  at  Brussels  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  scientific  stations  in 
east  Africa;  the  outcome  of  King  Leopold's 
first  Brussels  conference  of  explorers  and  geog- 
raphers to  devise  means  for  opening  up  Africa 
to  civilization  \t  a  second  one  the  next  year, 
after  Stanley's  discoveries  of  the  immensity  and 


prospective  commercial  importance  of  the  Kon- 
go basin,  the  Association  planned' to  extend  its 

operations  there.  But  the  territory  was  too  vast 
and  rich  for  any  great  nation  to  forego  its  share 
or  let  others  lock  up;  finally  all  (the  United 
States  being  a  party)  agreed  to  leave  it  to  an 
international  conference  at  Berlin.  Ibis  opened 
17  Nov.  1884  (Prince  Bismarck  chairman)  and 
closed  26  Feb.  1885.  The  result  was  the  crea- 
tion of  the  Kongo  Free  State  (q.v.),  comprising 
the  basins  of  the  Kongo  and  its  affluents,  with 
the  king  of  Belgium  as  sovereign:  to  be  forever 
neutral,  with  perfectly  free  trade  and  transpor- 
tation for  citizens  of  any  country  whatever,  no 
monopolies  or  concessions  of  any  kind  for  its 
trade  to  be  granted  by  powers  adjoining,  all 
of  whom  bound  themselves  to  suppress  sla- 
very. 

African  Slave  Trade,  see  Negro,  The. 

African  War,  The,  in  Roman  history, 
Caesar's  campaign  against  the  Pompeians  who 
after  Pharsalia  kept  up  the  war  in  Africa,  and 
u  re  crushed  at  Thapstis,  40  n.c  The  history  of 
it  printed  as  Caesar's  is  not  his,  and  the  author  is 
unknown. 

Afridis,  af  re'dez,  a  tribe  of  Afghans  or 
Pathans  on  the  northwest  Indian  border  near 
the  Khyber  Pass,  who  after  many  years  of  the 
customary  border  raids  were  dignified  into  al- 
most a  great  power  by  the  ill-advised  policy  of 
the  Indian  government  in  sending  out  an  im- 
posing army  against  them  in  place  of  the  usual 
small  punitive  expeditions.  The  tribe  sent  their 
women  into  the  English  camp  to  be  cared  for 
and  protected,  fought  for  some  months  in  their 
mountains  till  the  planting  season  was  come, 
then  submitted  and  promised  an  indemnity,  hav- 
ing enjoyed  the  highest  glory  and  felicity  their 
natures  could  appreciate.  Holdich  (  1  Anthro- 
pological Institute  '  for  1899)  thinks  they  repre- 
sent the  early  Aryan  type,  wild  but  shrewd  and 
civilizable. 

Afrikander  («  Taal  »  Dutch  for  African), 
a  native  South  African  ;  commonly  used  for  the 
Dutch  stock  alone. 

Afrikander  Bond  or  Bund,  an  association 
of  wdiite  natives  of  South  Africa  to  make  na- 
tive influence  paramount  there  and  ultimately 
secure  its  independence;  formed  in  1870.  but 
thus  named  in  1880.  The  Cape  Colony  wing 
supported  Cecil  Rhodes  till  after  the  Jamison 
Raid  in  1895,  which  it  considered  as  fostered  by 
him  with  objects  exactly  contrary  to  its  own. 
It  carried  the  elections  in  1898.  and  while  ad- 
vising Krugcr  to  grant  concessions  to  the  Out- 
landers  for  safety's  sake,  its  sympathies  were 
hostile  to  them ;  in  the  ensuing  war  it  was  a 
heavy  handicap  to  the  English,  seeming  likely 
at  one  time  to  add  Cape  Colony  to  the  revolt; 
indeed,  it  held  a  convention,  6  Dec.  1900,  at 
Worcester,  C.  C,  condemning  the  war  and  Eng. 
lisb  policy,  insisting  on  the  recognition  of  the 
South  African  Republic,  and  censuring  the  pol- 
icy of  the  High  Commissioner.  The  success  of 
the  British  and  the  annexation  of  the  territory 
to  the  empire  of  Great  Britain  brought  about 
a  dissolution  of  the  organization. 

After-damp,  the  gaseous  product  formed 
by  an  explosion  of  fire-damp  (q.v.)  in  a  coal 
niine.     It  consists  largely  of  nitrogen  from  the 


AFTERGLOW  —  AFTER-IMAGE 


air,  and  carbon  dioxide  formed  by  the  explosive 
combustion  of  the  hydrocarbon  gas  given  off  by 
the  coal.  It  seldom  contains  sufficient  free  oxy- 
gen to  support  respiration.  Hence  its  danger  to 
the  miners. 

Afterglow,  a  display  of  brilliant  colors 
in  the  western  sky  after  sunset.  The  colors  are 
usually  various  shades  of  red,  although  yellows 
and  grays  are  sometimes  visible.  Afterglows 
follow  volcanic  eruptions  of  explosive  character 
and  are  generally  ascribed  to  the  presence  of  mi- 
nute dust  particles  in  the  air.  The  eruption  of 
Krakatoa  in  1883  was  accompanied  by  most  gor- 
geous afterglows  which  were  observed  through- 
out the  world  and  persisted  for  several  years. 
Similar  effects  were  seen  over  a  much  smaller 
area  after  the  outbursts  of  Mont  Pelee  and  La 
Soufriere  in  May  1902.  The  name  foreglow  is 
given  to  such  displays  in  the  eastern  sky  before 
sunrise. 

After-image,  After-sensation,  and  After- 
percept  are  the  terms  used  to  denote  the  di- 
rect after-effects  of  the  stimulation  of  a  sense 
organ.  These  after-effects  occur  in  almost  all 
of  the  sense  departments.  A  brief  stimulation  of 
the  sense  organ  gives  a  primary  sensation,  then 
a  pause  of  a  fraction  of  a  second,  followed 
by  a  secondary  sensation  of  the  same  quality  as 
the  primary  sensation.  After-images  of  touch 
follow  after  brief  contact.  They  do  not  appear 
under  ordinary  circumstances,  but  may  be  ob- 
served if  special  conditions  are  produced ;  for 
example,  a  gentle  tap  of  a  point  of  a  needle 
will  be  followed  by  a  pause,  then  an  after-sen- 
sation which  differs  from  the  primary  sensation 
in  that  it  seems  to  be  produced  from  within  the 
body,  not  from  without.  The  effects  of  a  tem- 
perature stimulus  may  persist  for  a  time  in  the 
same  quality  as  the  primary  sensation.  After- 
taste and  after-smell  have  been  observed,  but 
have  not  been  studied.  Auditory  after-sensa- 
tions, analogous  to  after-sensations  of  touch,  are 
very  weak  and  of  brief  duration. 

After-images  of  vision  are  stronger  and  more 
permanent,  consequently  have  been  given  much 
more  attention  by  experimentalists.  It  has  been 
found  that  after  the  retina  has  been  stimulated 
by  light  for  one  second,  or  less,  the  primary 
image  disappears  quickly ;  an  interval  of  less 
than  two  seconds  is  then  followed  by  a  posi- 
tive after-image,  that  is,  an  after-image  of  the 
same  quality  as  the  primary  image. 

A  stimulus  of  longer  duration  is  followed  im- 
mediately by  the  positive  after-image,  and  this 
image  may  itself  be  followed  by  a  negative 
after-image,  that  is,  an  image  which  differs  very 
much  in  brightness  from  the  primary  image,  or 
is  of  a  different  color.  With  some  observers  a 
brief  stimulus  is  followed  immediately  by  a  nega- 
tive after-image,  which  fades  away  quickly  to 
be  followed  after  an  interval  by  a  more  perma- 
nent positive  after-image.  Several  images  may 
succeed  each  other  immediately  or  be  separated 
by  an  interval  of  time.  A  stimulus  of  still 
greater  duration  is  followed  directly  by  a  nega- 
tive after-image.  In  such  cases  the  after-image 
is  usually  of  a  color  that  is  complementary  to 
the  color  of  the  primary  image,  especially  if  ob- 
served with  closed  eyes  or  if  projected  upon  — 
that  is.  seen  while  looking  at  —  a  gray  back- 
ground. The  duration  of  the  after-image  varies 
with   the    intensity,    duration,   and   area   of   the 


stimulus.  The  results  of  experiments,  under  con- 
ditions such  that  the  intensity  of  the  light  does 
not  vary,  have  not  as  yet  shown  that  any  one  color 
has  more  power  to  produce  after-images  than 
any  other  color.  The  greater  the  angular  dis- 
tance of  the  portion  of  the  retina  stimulated, 
from  the  fovea,  the  less  distinct  and  the  less 
durable  is  the  after-image.  There  seems  to  be 
no  after-image  at  an  angular  distance  of  45°  or 
more  from  the  fovea.  The  explanation  for  this 
fact  may  be  physiological,  or  psychological,  or 
both ;  that  is,  it  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
periphery  of  the  retina  is  more  easily  fatigued 
than  the  fovea,  or  it  may  be  due  to  lack  of  abil- 
ity to  attend  to  those  portions  of  the  retina 
which  are  not  customarily  attended  to.  When 
an  object  occupies  the  attention,  the  eye  is  so 
directed  toward  it  that  the  image  falls  over  the 
fovea ;  the  mind  does  not  ordinarily  attend  to 
images  that  are  not  over  or  very  near  the 
fovea. 

A  blow  on  the  head  may  cause  the  after- 
image to  become  less  intense  or  to  cease  en- 
tirely. Electrical  stimulation  of  the  eye  and 
optic  nerve  will  change  the  character  of  the 
after-image  and  shorten  the  time  of  its  duration. 
General  fatigue  will  shorten  the  duration  of  the 
after-image ;  for  example,  it  has  been  found 
that  an  after-image  lasts  about  30  per  cent 
longer  in  the  morning  than  in  the  evening.  The 
distraction  of  attention  in  any  manner  has  its 
effect  on  the  course  of  the  after-image ;  when 
the  attention  is  directed  wholly  upon  the  after- 
image the  duration  is  one  third  longer  than 
when  the  attention  is  not  concentrated  upon  it. 

If  one  eye  only  be  stimulated,  an  after-image 
may  appear  in  the  unstimulated  eye.  Four  hy- 
potheses have  been  offered  to  explain  this  trans- 
fer of  the  image  from  one  eye  to  the  other:  (1) 
The  appearance  is  a  phenomenon  of  binocular 
contrast.  When  one  eye  is  stimulated  by  a 
bright  colored  light,  and  the  other  eye  is  stimu- 
lated by  a  very  little  gray  light  or  is  protected 
from  all  light,  the  contrasted  color  may  be  seen 
in  the  unstimulated  eye  during  the  time  of 
stimulation,  and  this  may  leave  an  after-image 
in  that  eye.  (2)  A  second  hypothesis  is  that  the 
eyes  are  accustomed  to  function  together,  and 
whatever  affects  one  retina  affects  the  other 
also.  This  may  be  considered  as  a  modified 
form  of  the  first  hypothesis.  (3)  Another  hy- 
pothesis is  that  the  after-image  has  its  seat  in 
the  centres  in  the  brain,  not  in  the  end  organ 
or  retina,  and  that  it  may  lie  seen  in  whichever 
eye  is  open.  This  hypothesis  seems  to  be  over- 
thrown by  the  fact  that  an  electrical  stimulation 
of  the  optic  nerve  produces  a  sensation  like  that 
produced  by  a  flash  of  light,  but  no  after- 
image follows.  Another  fact  difficult  for  this 
hypothesis  to  explain  is  that  if  one  eye  be 
stimulated  the  after-image  appears  in  the  other 
eye  only  in  case  that  eye  be  well  darkened.  (4  )  A 
fourth  hypothesis  is  that  the  transfer  of  the  after- 
image is  not  real  but  only  apparent.  In  support 
of  this  hypothesis  it  lias  been  found  that  when 
«  that  portion  of  the  right  eye  which  corresponds 
to  the  blind  spot  of  the  left  eye  was  stimulated. » 
(Franz)  there  was  an  apparent  transfer  of  the 
image  to  the  left  eye:  ul~<>  if  tin-  unstimulated 
eye  be  disturbed  or  interfered  with  during  the 
course  of  the  after-image  no  change  in  the 
image  may  be  observed,  whereas  if  the  stimulat- 
ed eye  be  interfered  with  the  image  disappears. 


AFZELIUS  — AGAMEMNON 


(Fechncr,  <  Elemente  dcr  Psycho-physik  >  ; 
S.  I.  Fran/,  ( After-images,)  Psych.'  Rev., 
Monograph  Supplement,  Vol.  III.,  No.  2,  1899; 
E.  B.  ritchener,  'Ueber  binocular  Wirkungen 
monocular  Reize.'     See  Eye;  Vision. 

Afzelius,  Arvid  August,  af-tsa'li-oos,  ar'- 
ved  o\v-goost',  Swedish  scholar  and  author:  b. 
1785;  d.  1871;  pastor  at  Enkoping  1821-71 ; 
specially  esteemed  for  his  researches  in  Old 
Norse  history  and  literature.  He  wrote  poetical 
<  Romances  >  ;  translated  the  Elder  Edda,  and 
with  Geijer  edited  a  fain.. 11s  collection  of  Swed- 
ish folk-songs  <  ,t  vols.  1814-17). 

Ag,  the  chemical  symbol  for  the  clement 
silver.  It  is  an  abbreviation  of  argcntum,  the 
Latin  name  for  silver. 

Agades,  a'ga-dez,  a  town  of  Africa,  near 
the  middle  of  the  Sahara,  capital  of  the  oasis 
kingdom  of  Air  or  Ashen;  at  one  time  a  seat 
of  great  traffic,  probably  containing  60.000  in- 
habitants. In  igoj  it  had  a  population  of  about 
6,000. 

Agag,  a-gag,  (1)  in  Jewish  history,  a  king 
of  the  Amalekites  saved  by  Saul  out  of  the 
slaughter  of  his  people,  and  hewn  in  pieces  by 
Samuel  before  Yahue's  altar:  evidently  a  sur- 
vival of  human  sacrifice.  (2)  A  character  in 
Uryden's  'Absalom  and  Arhitophel,>  represent- 
ing Sir  Edmund  Berry  Godfrey,  the  London 
magistrate  found  murdered  shortly  after  taking 
Titus  Oatcs'  deposition  concerning  the  imagi- 
nary «  Popish  Plot.» 

A'gai,  Adolf,  a-goy,  a  Hungarian  hu- 
morist: b.  1836.  He  edited  the  chief  Hungarian 
COmic  paper.  Borssem  Junkn  (John  Peppercorn;, 
and  wrote  for  it  brilliant  sketches  of  society, 
character  drawings  of  national  types,  etc.,  of  a 
high  order  of  wit  and  humor. 

Agalmatolite,  ag-al-mat'6-!it  (from  the 
Greek  words  agalma,  image,  and  litluis,  stone), 
a  soft,  massive  stone,  grayish  or  greenish  in 
general  hue,  and  often  yellow,  brown,  and  red, 
or  streaked  with  those  colors.  It  is  soft  enough 
to  be  cut  with  a  knife,  and  it  takes  a  good  polish. 
The  Chinese  use  it  for  carving  images,  notably 
small  pagodas  and  grotesque  figures  of  animals 
and  men ;  ingenious  advantage  often  being 
taken  of  its  varied  colors  for  the  production  of 
odd  effects.  The  hardness  of  the  Chinese  va- 
riety is  mostly  from  2.0  to  2.5,  and  its  specific 
gravity  about  2.8.  It  is  not  a  definite  mineral, 
some  specimens  being  silicious  pinite,  while 
others  are  referable  to  pyrophyllite  and  stea- 
tite. 

Agama  (Caribbean  name),  a  genus  of 
lizards,  typical  of  the  large  and  important  family 
Aganiidcr,  which  is  distributed  over  all  Africa 
(except  Madagascar),  Arabia,  Asia  south  of  the 
Caucasus  and  Himalayan  mountains,  the  Ma- 
layan Islands,  and  Australia.  None  are  found 
in  the  New  World.  They  are  closely  related  to 
the  iguanas,  and  are  characterized  by  acrodont 
dentition  (that  is.  the  teeth  surmount  ridges  of 
the  jaw),  a  broad  and  short  tongue,  and  the  ab- 
sence of  bony  tubercles  (osteoderms)  in  the 
skin,  but  large  and  numerous  spines  are  often 
present.  They  may  have  brilliant  colors,  but 
many  are  dull,  desert -inhabiting  species.  Some 
have  parachutes,  as  the  flying  dragon,  and  others 
defensive  appendages,  as  the  frilled  lizard. 
Prominent  examples  are  the  dragons,  bloodsuck- 
ers, false  chameleons,  frilled  lizards,  spiny-tailed 


desert  lizards,  dabs,  molochs,  and  related  forms 
elsewhere  described  under  their  own  names. 
The  family  contains  about  200  species  arranged 
in  about  30  genera,  and  is  most  numerous  in  the 
region  from  India  to  Australia. 

Agamemnon,  in  the  Iliad,  is  the  Greek 
«  great  king"  or  "king  of  kings,"  the  overlord 
of  Greece  both  north  and  south  of  the  Gulf 
of  Corinth;  the  royal  scat  is  at  Mycenae  in  the 
Peloponnesus.  He  is  represented  as  a  rather 
weak  man,  presiding  over  a  turbulent  assembly 
of  practically  independent  feudal  chiefs,  who 
will  not  openly  defy  him  because  he  is  conse- 
crated  to  bis  position  by  Zeus,  but  who  are 
entirely  independent  as  regards  their  individual 
districts,  though  bound  to  follow  him  to  war 
when  ordered.  His  character  is  of  course  purely 
the  invention  of  the  poet,  and  its  relation  to  that 
of  Achilles  and  other  chiefs  is  curiously  like 
that  of  Charlemagne  to  Roland  and  the  peers  in 
the  chansons;  the  dashing  noble  being  the  real 
hero,  and  the  monarch  slurred  as  rather  petty, 
unjust,  and  capricious,  king  by  grace  rather  than 
special  merit.  But  the  position  is  not  fictitious: 
archaeology  has  proved  that  Mycenae  was  really 
the  seat  of  a  wealthy  and  powerful  monarchy, 
probably  about  1500  n.r.  and  somewhat  after,  as 
well  as  that  several  Troys  flourished  and  per- 
ished; and  these  proofs  that  the  basis  of  the 
story  was  traditional  and  not  mythical  naturally 
tempt  the  sanguine  to  hope  for  further  points  of 
truth,  which  research  tends  steadily  to  justify. 
As  to  the  character  of  the  monarchy,  later  theo- 
rists take  the  reverse  view  from  the  earlier. 
Grote  held  that  the  account  in  Homer  showed 
tRe  germ  of  a  developing  constitutionalism,  the 
criticising  commons  who  were  becoming  a  thorn 
in  the  monarch's  flesh  being  satirized  and  cari- 
catured in  Thersites,  and  the  king  only  an  Aryan 
chief  elected  by  his  equals;  Mahaffy  thinks 
it  the  decay  of  a  monarchy  of  the  Oriental  type, 
the  feudal  anarchy  indicating  break-down  in- 
stead of  growth.  In  the  legend  he  is  the  son  of 
Atreus  (q.v.),  and  brother  of  Menelaus,  king 
of  Sparta,  whose  wrong  in  the  seduction  and 
carrying  away  of  his  wife  Helen  (q.v.)  by  Paris, 
son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  he  avenges  by  a 
levy  of  all  the  Greeks  to  make  war  on  Troy, 
when  its  king  Priam  will  not  give  up  Paris  or 
make  him  give  up  Helen.  (See  Helen  ;  Iliad; 
Troy.)  The  sacrifice  of  his  daughter  Iphigcnia 
(q.v.),  to  secure  a  passage  from  Aulis,  is  a  later 
fiction,  and  recalls  Jephthah  and  his  daughter 
curiously.  His  quarrel  with  Achilles  is  the 
theme  of  the  Iliad.  When  Troy  was  sacked,  he 
received  Priam's  prophetess-daughter  Cassandra 
(q.v.)  among  his  share  of  the  spoils.  Returning 
home  after  10  years'  absence,  be  was  murdered 
by  his  cousin  .Egisthus,  son  of  Thyestes  (see 
Atreus),  aided  by  Agamemnon's  wife  Clytem- 
nestra  (q.v.)  with  whom  he  had  been  living 
in  adultery  for  a  short  time  previously;  and  his 
son  Orestes  on  growing  up  avenges  him  by  kill- 
ing his  mother,  his  sifter  Electra  abetting.  In 
Homer,  the  motive  for  Agamemnon's  murder  is 
simply  that  of  any  adulterous  pair  in  ridding 
themselves  of  an  inconvenient  husband;  in  ^Es- 
chylus'  <  Agamemnon,"  Clytemnestra  slays  him 
with  her  own  hand,  professedly  in  revenge  for 
his  sacrifice  of  Iphigenia,  obviously  sharpened 
by  jealousy  of  Cassandra,  and  throwing  the  ulti- 
mate responsibility  on  Nemesis,  who  is  pursuing 
the  house  of  Atreus. 


Lizard   Agama  co'.onorum).       Beetle  (Ateuchus  sacer).        Horned  Viher  rnusus). 


AGAMENTICUS  —  AGASSIZ 


Agamenticus,  Mount,  a  noted  landmark 
in  York  co.,  Maine,  near  which  one  of  the  earli- 
est settlements  in  this  territory  was  made  in 
1631.  It  is  a  few  miles  back  from  the  shore 
and  rises  to  the  height  of  673  feet. 

Agamogenesis.  See  Parthenogenesis. 
Agana,  ag-an'ya,  the  principal  town  of 
Guam,  the  largest  of  the  Ladrone  Islands,  1,500 
m.  E.  of  Luzon,  Philippines,  and  1,300  m.  S. 
of  Yokohama.  The  Ladrone,  or  Marianne, 
group  belonged  to  Spain  ;  but,  as  a  result  of  the 
war  between  the  United  States  and  Spain  in 
1898,  the  former  took  possession  of  the  island 
of  Guam,  and  in  1899  established  a  naval  station 
and  seat  of  administration  at  Agana.  with  Capt. 
Richard  P.  Leary,  U.  S.  N.,  as  first  governor. 
The  town  contains  the  usual  public  buildings  of 
a  military  station,  and  a  college. 

Aganippe,  -nip'e,  a  fountain  on  Mount 
Helicon,  in  Greece,  sacred  to  the  Muses,  which 
had  the  property  of  inspiring  with  poetic  fire 
whoever  drank  of  it. 

Agape,  ag'a-pe  (Gr.  agape,  love),  in  eccle- 
siastical history,  the  love-feast  or  feast  of  charity, 
in  use  among  the  primitive  Christians,  when  a 
liberal  contribution  was  made  by  the  rich  to  feed 
the  poor.  During  the  first  three  centuries  love- 
feasts  were  held  in  the  churches  without  scandal, 
but  in  after-times  the  heathen  began  to  tax 
them  with  impurity,  and  they  were  condemned 
at  the  Council  of  Carthage  in  397.  Some  modern 
sects,  as  the  Wesleyans,  Sandemanians,  Mora- 
vians, etc.,  have  attempted  to  revive  this  feast. 

Agapemone,  ag-a-pem'o-ne  (lit.  «  the  abode 
of  love"),  the  name  of  a  singular  conven- 
tual establishment  which  has  existed  at  Spaxton, 
near  Bridgewater,  Somersetshire,  since  1859,  the 
originator  of  it  being  a  certain  Henry  James 
Prince,  at  one  time  a  clergyman  of  the  Giurch 
of  England,  who  called  himself  the  Witness  of 
the  First  Resurrection.  The  life  spent  by  the 
inmates  appears  to  be  a  sort  of  religious  epicure- 
anism. Some  of  the  proceedings  of  the  inmates 
of  the  «  Abode  of  Love  »  have  resulted  in  apoli- 
cations  to  the  courts  of  law,  where  parties  for- 
merly members  of  the  society  have  returned  to 
the  world  and  sought  to  regain  their  rights  from 
Prince  and  his  followers,  and  such  cases  have 
caused  some  scandal ;  but  the  sect  has  been 
scarcely  heard  of  for  some  years. 

Ag'aphite,  a  name  given  to  the  turquois 
(q.v.)  by  Fischer,  in  1806,  in  compliment  to  the 
naturalist  Agaphi.  It  is  no  longer  in  general 
use. 

Agar-agar,  a'gar-a'gar,  also  known  as 
Bengal  isinglass.  A  dried  seaweed  or  vegetable 
gum  obtained  from  Singapore.  It  is  almost 
completely  soluble  in  water,  dissolving  to  a 
tasteless  and  odorless  mass.  It  is  much  used  as 
a  culture  medium  in  bacteriology. 

Agar'ic  (Agarlcus),  a  genus  of  fungi,  char- 
acterized by  having  a  fleshy  cap  or  pileus  and  a 
number  of  radiating  plates  or  gills  on  which  are 
produced  the  naked  spores.  The  majority  of  this 
species  are  furnished  with  stems,  but  some  are 
attached  to  the  objects  on  which  they  grow  by 
their  pileus.  Over  a  thousand  species  are  known, 
and  are  arranged  in  five  sections  according  as  the 
color  of  their  spores  is  white,  pink,  brown,  pur- 
ple, or  black.  Many  of  the  species  are  edible, 
like   the    common   mushroom    {A.   campestris), 


and  supply  a  delicious  article  of  food,  while 
others  are  deleterious  and  even  poisonous.  See 
Fungi;  Mushrooms. 

Agaricic  Acid,  ag-ar-is'ik,  a  substance 
having  the  formula  G0H30O;,  which  is  obtained 
from  certain  species  of  mushrooms  by  extraction 
with  ether  or  strong  alcohol.  It  is  also  soluble 
in  hot  glacial  acetic  acid  and  oil  of  turpentine. 
It  crystallizes  in  flat,  four-sided  plates,  and  also 
in  prisms,  according  to  the  solvent  from  which 
it  is  deposited,  and  melts  at  about  2900  F.  It 
dissolves  in  boiling  water,  but  crystallizes  out 
again  upon  cooling.  A  similar  substance,  known 
as  agaricin,  is  obtained  from  the  fly-agaric  by 
extraction  with  alcohol,  and  Jahns  states  that 
it  is  identical  with  agaricic  acid.  Several  salts 
of  agaricic  acid  are  known.    See  Agaric  Resin. 

Agaric  Mineral,  ag'a-rik,  or  a-gar'ik.  (1) 
A  soft,  white  variety  of  calcite,  breaking  easily 
in  the  fingers,  and  occurring  in  caverns  and  in 
the  clefts  of  rocks,  in  regions  where  the  ground 
water  contains  much  lime.  (2)  A  variety  of 
silicate  of  magnesium,  found  in  Tuscany,  and 
also  known  as  mountain-milk  or  rock-milk. 
Bricks  made  from  it  will  float  in  water;  hence 
it  is  supposed  that  this  is  the  material  from 
which  the  ancknts  made  their  floating  bricks. 

Agaric  Resin,  a  red  resinous  substance, 
obtained  from  certain  mushrooms,  together  with 
agaricic  acid  (q.v.)  by  extraction  with  alcohol 
or  ether.  It  melts  at  194°  F.  It  is  insoluble  in 
water,  but  dissolves  in  absolute  alcohol,  ether, 
wood  alcohol,  chloroform,  and  alkalies. 

Agassiz,  Alexander,  ag'as-sT  (1835),  son  of 
Louis :  b.  Neuchatel,  Switzerland,  but  taken  to 
America  in  1848  and  educated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege, from  which  he  was  graduated  in  1855.  In 
1859-60  he  made  biological  studies  along  the 
coast  of  California  and  Mexico  with  the  United 
States  coast  survey.  Later  he  became  wealthy 
through  investment  in  coal  and  copper  mines,  to 
which  he  w^is  led  by  scientific  knowledge  and  ex- 
perience. On  his  father's  death  he  was  appointed 
curator  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 
at  Harvard,  but  resigned  in  1885  on  account  of 
ill  health.  In  1896  he  was  made  an  officer  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor.  He  belongs  to  many  scientific 
associations,  has  done  much  important  work  in 
marine  dredging  and  the  zoology  of  the  deep  sea, 
as  well  as  on  other  subjects.  His  most  important 
publications  are  <  North  American  Acalephae  > 
(1865);  (Marine  Animals  of  Massachusetts 
Bay)  (with  Elizabeth  Agassiz,  1871)  ;  (Revi- 
sion of  the  Echini)  (1872);  (North  American 
Starfishes)  (1877);  and  (Report  on  the  Echini 
of  the  Challenger  Expedition)   (1881). 

Agassiz,  Louis  (1807-73),  a  naturalist:  b. 
28  May  at  Motier.  Canton  Fribourg,  Switzerland, 
but  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life  identified 
with  the  advancement  of  science  in  the  United 
States.  From  childhood  he  showed  a  strong 
bent  toward  zoology,  and,  after  a  preparatory 
training  at  Lausanne,  studied  medicine  and 
natural  history  at  Zurich,  Heidelberg,  and  Mu- 
nich, taking  a  degree  in  philosophv  at  Heidelberg 
and  graduating  in  medicine  at"  Munich,  1830. 
After  this  he  went  to  Paris  and  worked  under 
Cuvier  until  1832,  when  he  was  called  to  Neu- 
chatel as  professor  of  natural  history,  and  re- 
mained there  until  1846,  when  invited  to  give  a 
scries  of  lectures  in  the  Lowell  Institute  course 
at   Boston.     The   success  of  these  lectures  and 


AGASSIZ  —  AGATHARCHIDES 


his  desire  to  study  tlic  natural  history  and  geol- 
ogy of  America  determined  his  permanent  re- 
moval to  the  United  States;  in  [848  he  wax  given 
the  chair  of  natural  history  in  the  Laurence 
Scientific  School  of  Harvard  University.  With 
the  interval  of  three  years  (1851-54)  as  profes- 
sor  in  the  medical  college  at  Charleston,  S.  C, 
In  continued  his  connection  with  Harvard  until 
his  death',    His  enthusiasm,  el  and  clear- 

ness of  thought  made  him  .1  lire-eminent  teacher. 
but  111  his  later  years  lie  was  relieved  from  the 
regular  duties  of  the  mIiooI. 

His  first  great  work.  1  Recherches  stir  les 
Poissons  Fossiles*  (5  vols.,  311  plates,  1833-42), 
was  accomplished  during  his  professorship  at 
Neuchatel.  This  was  followed  by  <  Fossil  Fishes 
of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  the  British  I  li 
written  after  making  several  visits  to  England, 
and  by  the  '  Nomenclatoris  Zoologicus  Index) 
(Soliduri,  1842-46),  which,  revised  and  brought 
up  to  date  by  Scudder.  was  re-issued  in  [882  as 
Bulletin  No.  19  of  the  U.  S.  National  Museum. 
During  this  same  period  he  had  studied  both 
living  and  fossil  echinoderms,  and  had  spent 
.  summers  in  observing  glacial  action.  The 
most  eminent  European  biologists,  botanists,  and 
geol  re  among  his  friends,  and  he  came 

to  America  with  the  hope  not  only  of  advancing 

rice  by  his  own  researches,  but  of  waking  a 
deeper  interest  than  American  students  had  yet 
shown  m  the  natural  sciences.  Ilis  first  wife 
had  died  in  Europe;  he  remarried  in  America, 
and  became  so  engrossed  with  the  work  he  had 
undertaken  as  to  refuse  the  most  flattering 
offers  of  positions  in  Europe.  In  constant  de- 
mand, and  traveling  widely  as  a  lecturer  as 
Icngas  his  health  permitted,  he  was  nevertheless 
tantly  forwarding  his  original  work.  In 
1N4S  he  made  a  geological  and  biological  survey 
of  the  northern  and  eastern  shores  of  Lake 
Superior;  in  1850-51  he  studied  the  coral  reefs 
of  Florida  ;  later  he  visited  Brazil  and  the  coasts 
of  California. 

His  zeal  was  untiring,  even  after  his  health 
failed  ;  besides  working  through  all  his  later 
life  on  his  great  series.  '  Contributions  to  the 
Natural  History  of  the  United  States.)  which  he 
had  planned  on  so  large  a  scale  that  the  four 
quarto  volumes  completed  were  but  a  beginning, 
he  directed  constant  efforts  toward  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 
at  Harvard,  giving  more  attention  to  it  than  to 
any  other  of  his  later  interests.  The  plans  for 
it  were  perfected  in  1858,  and  through  his  in- 
fluence the  original  endowment  was  supplement- 
ed by  generous  appropriations;  he  gave  his  own 
valuable  collections  to  it,  and  his  time  and 
money  as  well  ;  before  his  death  the  opportunities 
which  he  had  created  there  had  attracted  a 
group  of  young  men  who  were  to  become  the 
foremost  American  biologists.  The  founding 
of  a  summer  school  where  zoology  could  be 
studied  out  of  doors  was  another  of  his  projects, 
and  this  he  accomplished  on  the  island  of  Peni- 
kese.  Buzzard's  Bay,  in  1873,  Just  before  his 
death. 

Among  his  more  important  American  publi- 
cations arc  '  Methods  of  Study  in  Natural  His- 
tory);  'Geological  Sketches);  <  The  Structure 
of  Animal  Life>:<A  Journey  to  Brazil1;  and 
<  An  Essay  in  Classification  >  (the  first  volume 
of  his  unfinished  '  Contributions)).  The  amount 
and  scope  of  his  work,  together  with  his  great 


gift  of  awakening  interest  in  the  natural  sciences 
and  advancing  new  views  without  rousing  the 
opposition  of  1I1.  dogmatic,  gave  him  rank  as  the 
influential  of  American  naturalists,  al- 
though many  of  Ins  opinions  ami  theories  have 
been  superseded  by  the  Darwinian  idea  of  evo- 
lution, which  he  opposed.  He  dud  14  Dec.  1873, 
and  was  buried  in  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery, 
where  his  monument  is  a  boulder  from  the  Aar 
glacier  in  Switzerland.  (  <Life  and  Correspond- 
ence of  Agassiz,)   Boston,  1886.) 

Agassiz,  Mount,  a  remarkable  extinct 
volcano  situated  in  Arizona  about  70  m.  north- 
east of  Prescott.  It  has  an  altitude  of  more  than 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  belongs  to  the 
ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  As  a  place  of 
resort  it  has  numerous  attractions, —  grand 
scenery,  elevation,  and  proximity  to  the  Colo- 
rado Canon. 

Agassiz  Association,  an  organization  for 
the  promotion  of  nature  study  among  youth. 
The  society  was  established  in  1875,  and  in 
1902  had  a  membership  of  more  than  12,000. 
The  headquarters  are  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.  The 
official  publication  is  "The  American  Boy,'  and 
the  badge  is  a  Swiss  cross. 

Agate,  a  variety  of  chalcedony,  or  crypto- 
c-ystalline  quartz,  distinguished  by  its  banded  or 
clouded  appearance  or  by  the  presence  of  visible 
impurities.  "Achates"  was  the  Creek  name  of  a 
river  in  Sicily  near  which,  according  to  Pliny, 
agates  were  first  found ;  but  the  name  was 
earlier  used  by  Theophrastus  in  his  treatise  'On 
Stones,'  published  about  315  B.  C,  while  agate  is 
mentioned  in  Exodus  xxviii.  17  as  one  of  the 
precious  stones  in  the  breastplate  of  the  high 
priest.  Its  history,  therefore,  extends  over  a 
period  of  at  least  3.400  years. 

The  method  of  formation  of  banded  agates 
has  been  carefully  studied  by  numerous  in- 
vestigators. M.  F.  Heddle  (see  'Nature,'  Vol. 
29,  p.  419)  assumes  the  existence  of  a  cavity  in 
a  trap  rock,  wdiich  is  lined  during  its  solidifica- 
tion with  a  thin  layer  of  green  celadonite  or 
delessite.  The  rock  subsequently  rots,  and  its 
feldspar  is  decomposed  by  water  containing  car- 
bonic acid,  which  thus  becomes  highly  charged 
with  silica.  This  is  transfused  into  the  cavity, 
coagulates  and  is  deposited  on  its  walls.  The 
banded  structure  is  due  to  the  intermittent  depo- 
sition of  successive  layers  of  silica  from  the 
highly  siliceous  solution.  It  was  long  supposed 
that  after  the  earlier  layers  were  deposited  fresh 
supplies  of  the  solution  passed  inward  through  a 
hole  called  the  "inlet  of  infiltration."  This  canal 
is  often  distinctly  seen  in  agates,  but  the  weight 
of  evidence  now  seems  to  favor  the  hypothesis 
that  the  external  solution  supplies  the  silica  by 
osmosis  (q.v.).  The  internal  solution  becomes 
less  dense  as  it  is  relieved  of  silica  by  its  depo- 
sition on  the  walls  of  the  cavity,  and  it  is  then 
replaced  by  the  denser  external  solution  which 
passes  through  the  layers  of  agate  already 
formed.  If  the  conditions  remain  unchanged 
the  process  continues  until  the  entire  cavity  is 
filled,  but  agates  are  not  infrequently  found  with 
a  cavity  in  the  centre,  or  with  crystallized  quartz 
(often  amethystine)  lining  the  interior.  Such 
distinctly  crystallized  portions  may  be  succeeded 
by  further  deposits  of  the  cryptocrystalline  chal- 
cedony.    The     successive     layers     often     differ 


LOUIS    AGASSIZ. 


AGATES 

1.  4,  5.     Carnelian  Agate  or  Sard  Agate 

3.     Onyx  Agate  6.     Bull's  Eye  Agate 

2      Moss  Agate 


AGATE-SHELL  —  AGATHARCHIDES 


much  in  density,  hardness,  color,  and  transpar- 
ency. Sir  D.  Brewster  has  shown  that  some  of 
the  layers  are  so  exceedingly  thin  that  it  would 
take  55./60  to  measure  an  inch.  (Philos.  Mag. 
(3)  XXII.,  p.  212).  These  layers  are  deposited 
all  around  the  cavities,  following  all  of  their 
irregularities.  The  beauty  of  agates  is  thus 
greatly  enhanced  by  the  extreme  delicacy  of 
their  banding.  Sometimes  these  bands  concen- 
trically encircle  a  dark  spot,  forming  a  "bull's 
eye  agate,"  or  again  they  parallel  a  cavity  with 
sharp  angles,  as  in  the  "fortification  agate." 
Other  agates  show  horizontal  layers,  suggesting 
the  query  as  to  whether  the  silica  had  settled 
upon  the  floor  of  the  cavity  from  a  solution  at 
rest.  Such  agates  are  known  as  onyx  (q.v.), 
or  if  the  colors  are  red  and  white,  as  sardonyx 
(q.v.).  In  clouded  agates  there  is  no  distinct 
banded  structure,  but  the  colors  shade  gradually 
from  one  into  another. 

The  natural  colors  of  agates  vary  greatly, 
being  usually  gray  or  either  red  or  brown.  The 
colors  are  due  to  the  presence  of  organic  im- 
purities or  to  the  oxides  of  iron,  manganese,  or 
titanium.  Nearly  all  the  agates  now  offered  for 
sale  are,  however,  artificially  colored.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  process  is  due  to  the  varying  degrees 
of  porosity  of  the  different  layers  of  agate,  some 
of  which  readily  absorb  the  fluid  in  which  the 
stones  are  immersed,  while  others  are  impervi- 
ous to  it.  The  black  and  white  agates  are  pre- 
pared by  soaking  the  stones  for  several  days  in 
a  warm  syrup  of  honey  and  water,  then  immers- 
ing them  in  sulphuric  acid,  which  carbonizes  the 
honey  absorbed  by  certain  of  the  layers,  making 
them  dark  brown  or  black.  The  red,  or  car- 
nelian  agates  are  produced  by  a  process  of 
"burning."  A  grayish  stone  is  heated  in  an  oven 
for  several  weeks,  at  first  gently,  then  it  is 
moistened  with  sulphuric  acid  and  the  tempera- 
ture is  gradually  raised  to  redness.  Blue,  or 
"sapphire"  agates  are  produced  by  steeping  the 
stones  first  in  a  solution  of  a  ferric  salt  and  then 
jn  postassium  ferrocyanide,  thus  depositing 
Prussian  blue  in  the  more  porous  layers.  A 
green  agate  is  secured  by  the  aid  of  chromic 
acid  or  a  nickel  salt,  while  hydrochloric  acid 
yields  a  yellow  agate.  The  red  and  the  black 
are  much  the  most  popular. 

For  over  four  centuries  the  headquarters  of 
the  agate  industry  has  been  in  the  valley  between 
Idar  and  Oberstein,  some  forty  miles  from 
Bingen  on  the  Rhine.  There  are  probably  150 
agate  mills  working  an  average  of  three  to  five 
stones  each  in  this  little  valley.  These  are 
chiefly  operated  by  water-wheels  10  to  18  feet  in 
diameter,  abundant  power  being  secured  from 
the  rapid  mountain  streams  of  the  neighborhood. 
The  millstones  are  of  red  sandstone,  each  about 
five  feet  in  diameter,  and  rotate  in  a  vertical 
plane,  making  about  three  revolutions  per  sec- 
ond. The  workmen  lie  stretched  in  an  almost 
horizontal  position  upon  a  low  wooden  grinding 
stool  fitted  to  the  chest  and  abdomen,  leaving 
the  limbs  free.  The  hands  are  engaged  in  hold- 
ing and  grinding  the  agate,  while  the  feet  are 
firmly  pressed  against  short  stakes  screwed  into 
the  floor,  the  reaction  enabling  the  grinder  to 
press-  the  agate  with  much  force  against  the 
moving  millstone.  During  the  process  the  agates 
glow  most  beautifully  with  a  bright  red  phos- 
phorescence. After  having  been  ground  the 
agates  are  polished  with  tripoli  on  cylinders  of 


wood  or  a  metal  disc  (see  Pop.  Sci.  Rev.,  New 
Series,  Vol.  I.,  p.  23). 

Moss-agate  or  "Mocha-stone"  is  a  variety  of 
chalcedony  through  which  are  scattered  black  or 
brown  masses,  more  or  less  resembling  moss. 
These  impurities  are  usually  one  of  the  man- 
ganese oxides.  In  the  Chinese  moss-agate  they 
appear  as  thin  matted  filaments  of  a  green  color, 
which  are  often  artificially  colored.  Beautiful 
dendrites  are  sometimes  found  in  chalcedony. 
The  name  dendritic-agate  or  tree-agate  is  given 
to  these  highly  prized  forms  (see  illustration 
under  Mineralogy).  Moss-agates  abound  at 
niany  localities  in  the  United  States,  especially 
in  Wyoming. 

In  the  "melaphyre"  of  the  hills  around  Idar, 
agates  of  considerable  beauty  are  found.  For- 
merly they  were  extensively  quarried  there,  but 
since  1827  the  lapidaries  of  Idar  have  secured 
their  supplies  largely  from  Uruguay  and  Brazil, 
which  countries  have  long  furnished  nearly  the 
entire  commercial  supply,  though  Scotch  agates 
are  marketed  to  some  extent.  Small  banded 
agates  of  much  beauty  abound  on  the  shores  of 
Lake  Superior ;  large  and  fine  specimens  occur 
plentifully  in  western  Texas.  Agates  abound  in 
many  other  regions,  while  very  many  localities 
yield  choice  agates  sparingly.  Most  of  the  pol- 
ished agate  specimens  and  novelties  of  the  tour- 
ist resorts,  though  often  purporting  to  be  of 
local  origin,  come  from  Brazil  or  Uruguay  and 
are  polished  in  Germany. 

Agate  is  used  in  making  burnishers  and  agate 
mortars  and  pestles,  and,  owing  to  its  hardness, 
for  the  knife  edges  of  balances.  It  is  worked 
up  as  a  decorative  stone  into  vases,  dishes,  ash 
trays,  paper  weights,  paper  cutters,  etc.,  and  is 
mounted  as  a  semi-precious  stone  in  a  great 
variety  of  objects,  such  as  jewel  boxes,  glove  or 
shoe  buttoners,  watch  charms,  letter  openers,  and 
scarf  pins.  Every  boy  is  familiar  with  agate 
marbles,  but  the  cheaper  grades  of  these  are 
only  glass.  From  the  earliest  times  the  black 
and  white  banded  agate  (see  Onyx)  and  the 
red  and  white  (see  Sardonyx)  have  been  used 
for  seal  rings  and  for  carving  cameos.  The 
ancients  also  regarded  agate  as  a  charm  against 
the   intoxication   of   love. 

See  also  Ruskin.  'On  Banded  and  Brecciated 
Concretions'  in  Geological  Magazine,  1867  to 
1870;  <Ethics  of  Dust,'  p.  190;  'The  Vale  of 
Idar,'  by  S.  Weisse  in  Blackwood's  Magazine, 
Vol.  148,  pp.  75  and  208. 

George  Letchworth  English, 
Mineralogist,  New  York  City. 

Agate-shell,  or  Agate-snail,  a  land-snail 
of  the  carnivorous  genus  Achalina  of  the  fam- 
ily Helicidw.  They  are  abundant  in  tropical 
Africa ;  the  largest  of  all  land-snails  are  found 
among  them,  and  many  species  have  brightly 
colored  shells. 

Agatha,  St.,  a  lady  of  Palermo,  martyr- 
ed by  Quintilian,  the  pro-consul  of  Sicily,  in 
the  persecution  of  Decius,  because  she  would 
not  perform  idolatrous  worship  or  submit  to 
his  impure  desires. 

Agatharchides,  ag-a-thar'kT-dez,  or  Aga- 
tharcides,  ag-a-thar'sT-dez,  a  Greek  writer  on 
geography:  b.  at  Cnidos  in  Asia  Minor:  lived 
250  b.c.  and  wrote  numerous  works;  among 
them,  one  on  the  Erythraean  Sea,  of  which  some 
extracts  have  been  preserved.  He  is  the  ear' 
extant  writer  who  attributes  the  annual  rise  of 


AGATHIAS  — AGE 


the    Nile   to   the   periodical   rains   in   the   upper 
regions  of   that   river. 

Agathias,  a-ga'thi-as,  a  Greek  poet  and 
historian,  about  536-581.  He  collected  a  <  Cycle) 
of  contemporary  poems,  in  which  were  a  few  of 
his  own  compositions.  We  have  still  101  of  his 
'  Epigrams,'  and  the  whole  of  his  l  History  '  of 
the    years   553-558. 

Agathocles,  ag-ath'6-klez,  a  Syracusan  of 
lew  extraction,  who  became  ruler  of  a  great  part 
of  Sicily.  lie  was  remarkable  for  beauty, 
strength,  ami  capacity  fur  enduring  labor.  In 
*he  outset  of  life  he  belonged  to  a  band  of 
robbers;  afterward  he  served  as  a  private  sol- 
dier,  rose  to  the  greatest  honors,  and  made  him- 
seli  master  of  Syracuse.  IK-  conquered  the 
greater  part  of  Sicily,  317  n.c.  Being  defeated 
at  Himera  by  the  Carthaginians,  he  carried  the 
war  into  Africa,  where  for  four  years  he  ex- 
tended his  conquests  over  his  enemy.  He  after- 
ward passed  into  Italy  ami  made  himself  master 
of  Crotona.  In  his  ~2<\  year  he  was  poisoned 
by  his  grandson  Archagathus,  289  B.C.,  after  a 
reign  of  28  years  of  great  prosperity  mingled 
with  the  deepest  adversity.  His  son-in-law, 
Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  inherited  his  influence 
in   Sicily  and  southern  Italy. 

Agathon,  ag'a-thon,  a  Greek  tragic  poet 
(448-402  B.C.).  He  was  a  close  friend  of  Eurip- 
ides and  of  Plato ;  and  the  famous  <  Symposium  > 
of  Plato  immortalizes  the  banquet  given  on  the 
occasion  of  Agathon's  dramatic  triumph,  416  B.C. 

Agave,  ag-a've,  daughter  of  Cadmus  and 
Hermione,  married  Echion,  by  whom  she  had 
Pentheus,  who  was  torn  to  pieces  by  the  Baccha- 
nals. She  is  said  to  have  killed  her  husband 
while  celebrating  the  orgies  of  Bacchus.  She 
received  divine  honors  after  death. 

Agave,  a  genus  of  remarkable  and  beau- 
tiful herbaceous  plants,  of  the  natural  order 
Amaryllidaceee,  having  a  tubular  perianth  with 
6-partite  limb,  and  triangular  many-seeded  cap- 
sule. They  resemble  aloes  in  their  growth  and 
general  appearance,  and  the  best-known  species, 
Agave  americana,  is  properly  known  as  the 
American  aloe.  This  is  a  large  plant,  the  leaves 
of  which  are  thick,  fleshy,  and  spinous  at  the 
edge,  and  the  stem  branched  and  of  great  height. 
The  flowers  have  the  tube  of  the  corolla  nar- 
rowed in  the  middle,  the  stamens  longer  than  the 
corolla,  and  the  style  longer  than  the  stamens. 
This  magnificent  native  of  North  America  is 
by  no  means  an  uncommon  plant  in  English  gar- 
dens, hut  is  seldom  seen  there  in  flower.  There 
is  indeed  a  notion,  but  an  erroneous  one.  that 
the  American  aloe  does  not  bloom  until  it  is 
100  years  o'd.  The  fact  is  that  the  time  of 
flowering  depends  almost  wholly  on  the  rapidity 
of  its  growth.  In  hot  countries  it  will  flower 
in  a  few  years,  hut  in  colder  climates,  the  growth 
being  slower,  it  is  necessarily  longer  in  arriving 
at  maturity.  The  stem,  which  bears  the  blos- 
soms, rises  from  the  centre  of  the  leaves,  and 
when  the  plant  is  in  a  vigorous  state  it  frequent- 
ly exceeds  the  height  of  20  feet.  Branches  issue 
from  every  side,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
form  a  kind  of  pyramid,  composed  of  greenish- 
yellow  flowers,  which  stand  erect  and  are  seen 
in  thick  clusters  at  every  joint.  When  in  full 
flower  its  appearance  is  extremely  splendid:  and 
if  the  season  be  favorable,  and  the  plant  be 
sheltered  from  the  cold  in  autumn,  a  succession 


Of  blossoms  will  sometimes  he  produced  for 
nearly  three  months,  in  the  warmer  parts  of 
Europe  the  American  aloe  is  cultivated  as  an 
Object  of  considerable  utility.  They  are  frequent- 
ly set  out  in  rows  as  fences  for  inclosures,  par- 
ticularly in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy.  In  some 
parts  the  haves  are  employed  for  scouring  pew- 
ter, kitchen  utensils,  and  floors.  The  juice  of 
these  leaves  is  made  into  cakes,  which  are  used 
for  washing,  and  will  make  lather  with  salt 
water  as  well  as  with  fresh.  I  lie  sap  when  fer- 
mented yields  a  beverage  resembling  cider,  called 
by  the  Mexicans  pulque.  The  leaves  are  used  for 
feeding  cattle;  the  fibres  of  the  leaves  (called 
pita,  sisal  hemp,  or  henequen)  an-  formed  into 
thread,  cord,  and  ropes;  slices  of  the  withered 
flower-stem  are  used  as  razor-strops. 

Agde,  ag-da,  a  seaport  of  southern  France, 
dept.  Her. mil.  It  possesses  a  remarkable 
cathedral  dating  from  the  Middle  Ages,  since 
when  the  town  has  been  tlu-  seat  of  a  bishopric. 
Pop.    (1902)   about  8,000. 

Age,  any  period  of  time  attributed  to 
something  as  the  whole,  or  part,  of  its  duration; 
as  the  age  of  man,  the  several  ages  of  the  world, 
the  golden  aye 

In  Low,  the  time  of  competence  to  do  cer- 
tain acts.  In  the  male  sex  14  is  the  age  when 
partial  discretion  is  supposed  to  he  reached,  while 
21  is  the  period  of  full  age-.  Under  7  no  boy  can 
Ik-  capitally  punished;  from  7  to  14  it  is  doubtful 
if  he  can;  at  14  In-  may.  At  12  a  girl  can  con- 
tract a  binding  marriage;  at  21  she  is  of  full 
age.  In  mediaeval  times,  when  a  girl  reached  7, 
by  feudal  custom  or  law  a  lord  might  distrain 
his  tenants  for  aid  to  marry,  or,  rather,  betroth 
her;  at  9  she  was  dowahle ;  at  12  she  could 
confirm  any  consent  to  marriage  which  she  had 
previously  given;  at  14  she  could  take  the  man- 
agement of  her  lands  into  her  own  hands;  at  16 
she  ceased,  as  is  still  the  law  ill  Kngland,  to  he 
under  the  control  of  her  guardian;  and  at  21  she 
might  alienate  lands  and  tenements  belonging  to 
her  in  her  own  right.  In  the  United  States  at 
25  years  of  aye  a  man  may  be  a  representative  in 
Congress;  at  ,?o  a  senator;  and  at  35  he  may  be 
chosen  President.  The  age  of  serving  in  the 
militia  is  from  18  to  45  inclusive. 

In  England  no  one  can  be  chosen  a  member 
of  Parliament  under  21  years  of  age,  nor  be 
ordained  a  priest  under  the  age  of  24,  nor  made  a 
bishop  until  he  has  Income  ,?o  years  of  age. 
The  age  of  serving  in  the  militia  is  from  16  to 
45  years.  The  sovereignty  of  the  realm  is  as- 
sumed at  18;  though  the  law  recognizes  no  mi- 
nority in  the  heir  to  the  throne. 

In  French  Law,  a  person  must  have  attained 
the  age  of  40  to  he  a  member  of  the  legislative 
body;  25  to  be  a  judge  of  a  tribunal  de  premiere 
instance;  27  to  be  its  president,  or  to  be  judge 
or  clerk  of  a  cour  royale;  25  to  he  a  justice  of 
the  peace;  30  to  he  judge  of  a  tribunal  of  com- 
merce, and  35  to  lie  its  president ;  25  to  be  a 
notary  public:  30  to  be  a  juror.  At  21  both 
males  and  females  are  capable  of  performing  all 
the  acts  of  civil   life. 

Ages  of  the  H'orld. — We  find  the  ages  of 
the  world  mentioned  by  the  earliest  of  the  Greek 
poets.  Hesiod  speaks  of  five  distinct  ages:  (1) 
The  Golden  or  Saturnian  Age,  when  Saturn 
ruled  the  earth.  The  people  were  free  from  the 
restraint  of  laws;  they   had   neither   ships   nor 


AGEN  — AGE  OF  CHIVALRY 


weapons,  wars  nor  soldiers ;  the  fertile  fields 
needed  no  cultivation,  and  perpetual  spring 
blessed  the  earth.  (2)  The  Silver  Age,  which 
he  describes  as  licentious  and  wicked.  (3)  The 
Brazen  Age,  violent,  savage,  and  warlike.  (4) 
The  Heroic  Age,  which  seemed  an  approxima- 
tion to  a  better  state  of  things.  (5)  The  Iron 
Age,  when  justice  and  honor  had  left  the  earth. 
The  poet  supposed  this  to  be  the  age  in  which 
he  himself  lived.  The  idea  of  ages  of  the  world 
is  interwoven  with  the  religious  sentiments  of 
various  nations.  We  find  examples  of  it  in  the 
thousand  years  of  the  Millenarians,  and  in  the 
four  yugas  or  ages  of  the  Hindus.  The  first, 
or  Krita  Yuga,  a  kind  of  Golden  Age,  lasted, 
according  to  their  tradition,  4,000  divine  years, 
each  equal  to  360  solar  years,  and,  adding  its 
fore  and  after  « twilight,"  1,728,000  solar  years 
in  all ;  men  then  lived  400  years,  and  were  all 
giants ;  then  the  god  Brahma  was  born.  In  the 
second  period,  the  Treta  Yuga,  which  lasted 
3,000  divine  and  1,296,000  solar  years  in  all,  men 
lived  only  300  years,  and  vice  began  to  creep  into 
the  world.  During  the  third  age,  or  Dwapara 
Yuga,  which  lasted  2,000  divine  and  864.000 
solar  years,  men  lived  only  200  years,  owing  to 
the  increase  of  vice.  The  last  age,  the  Kali 
Yuga,  that  in  which  we  now  live,  is  to  last  for 
1,000  divine  or  432.000  solar  years,  and  the  life 
of  man  is  sunk  to  one  fourth  of  its  original 
duration. 

Age  of  Animals. — The  duration  of  life  in 
animals  is  generally  between  seven  and  eight 
times  the  period  which  elapses  from  birth  till 
they  become  adult ;  but  this  rule,  besides  being 
vague  and  indefinite,  is  quite  useless  in  practice, 
because  it  affords  no  scale  of  gradation  which 
would  enable  us  to  ascertain  the  precise  age  of 
individuals,  the  only  inquiry  of  real  importance 
or  of  practical  application  to  the  interests  of  so- 
ciety. More  certain  and  scientific  principles  are 
derived  from  observing  the  growth  and  decay 
of  the  teeth.     See  Cattle;  Horse. 

In  Archaology. — The  Danish  and  Swedish 
antiquaries  and  naturalists,  MM,  Nilson,  Steen- 
strup,  Forchamber,  Thomsen,  Worsaae,  and 
others,  have  divided  the  period  during  which 
man  has  existed  on  the  earth  into  three  —  the 
Age  of  Stone,  the  Age  of  Bronze,  and  the  Age 
of  Iron.  During  the  first-mentioned  of  these  he 
is  supposed  to  have  had  only  stone  for  weapons, 
etc.  Sir  John  Lubbock  divides  this  into  two  — 
the  palaeolithic,  or  older,  and  the  neolithic,  or 
newer  stone  period.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  age  of  bronze  that  composite  metal  became 
known  and  began  to  be  manufactured  into 
weapons  and  other  instruments ;  while,  when  the 
age  of  iron  came  in,  bronze  began  gradually  to 
be  superseded  by  iron.  See  Lyell's  <  Antiquity 
of  Man,'   and  Lubbock's  <  Prehistoric  Times.' 

In  Physiology. —  If  the  word  age  be  used  to 
denote  one  of  the  stages  of  human  life,  then 
physiology  clearly  distinguishes  six  of  these : 
viz..  the  periods  of  infancy,  of  childhood,  of 
boyhood  or  girlhood,  of  adolescence,  of  man- 
hood or  womanhood,  and  of  old  age.  The  pe- 
riod of  infancy  terminates  at  2,  when  the  first 
dentition  is  completed ;  that  of  childhood  at  7 
or  8.  when  the  second  dentition  is  finished ;  that 
of  boyhood  or  girlhood  at  the  commencement  of 
puberty,  in  temperate  climates  from  the  14th  to 
the  16th  year  in  the  male,  and  from  the  12th 
to  the  14th  in  the  female ;  that  of  adolescence 
Vol.  1— u 


extends  to  the  24th  year  in  the  male  and  the 
20th  in  the  female ;  that  of  manhood  or  woman- 
hood stretches  on  till  the  advent  of  old  age, 
which  comes  sooner  or  later,  according  to  the 
original  strength  of  the  constitution  in  each 
individual  case  and  the  habits  which  have  been 
acquired  during  life.  The  precise  time  of  hu- 
man existence  similarly  varies.  See  Longevity. 
In  Geology. —  See  Geology. 

Agen,  a-zhan,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in 
France,  capital  of  dept.  Lot-et-Garonne,  on  the 
Garonne,  74  m.  S.E.  of  Bordeaux.  A  fine  stone 
bridge  of  eleven  arches  spans  the  river  here,  and 
the  aqueduct  bridge  of  the  Canal  Lateral  is  an- 
other striking  structure.  The  town  has  been  an 
episcopal  see  with  a  cathedral  since  the  reign  of 
Clovis,  prior  to  which  it  was  a  Roman  station.  It 
commands  an  extensive  agricultural  trade,  ow- 
ing to  its  position  between  Bordeaux  and  Tou- 
louse.    Pop.  1903,  23,000. 

Agent,  in  law,  one  person  who  acts  for 
another,  called  the  principal.  If  a  person  acts 
as  agent  without  authority,  the  subsequent  rati- 
fication of  the  act  will  make  it  binding  on  the 
principal  just  as  if  he  had  originally  directed  it. 
When  an  agent  acts  within  the  scope  of  his 
employment  he  may  bind  his  principal,  and  the 
principal  is  liable  for  any  fraudulent  acts  or 
wrong-doings  of  the  agent  so  acting.  If  the 
agent,  having  power  to  bind  his  principal,  does 
so  expressly,  he  is  not  liable ;  but  if  he  exceeds 
his  authority  he  becomes  personally  responsible. 
The  agent  is  bound  to  obey  the  instructions  of 
the  principal,  and  if,  in  violating  them,  he  binds 
his  principal  to  a  third  person,  he  is  personally 
liable  to  make  compensation.  He  cannot  deal 
in  his  principal's  affairs  to  his  own  profit.  The 
right  on  the  part  of  an  agent  to  act  is  called  his 
authority  or  power.  The  authority  or  power 
must  in  some  instances  be  exercised  in  the  name 
of  the  principal,  and  the  act  done  is  for  his  bene- 
fit alone.  As  a  general  rule,  an  agent  cannot 
delegate  his  authority  without  special  authority 
from  his  principal,  consequently  an  agent  cannot 
create  a  sub-agent  without  special  permission. 
Any  person  may  act  as  agent  whom  the  principal 
wishes  to  appoint.  So  broad  is  this  rule  that 
married  women  and  infants,  who  are  incapable 
of  acting  in  their  own  behalf,  may  act  as  agents, 
for  the  appointment  takes  away  the  legal  insuf- 
ficiency and  permits  them  to  bind  their  princi- 
pals when  they  could  not  bind  themselves.  The 
mode  of  appointment  depends  upon  the  nature 
of  the  agency.  By  a  rule  of  law  the  evidence  of 
appointment  must  be  of  as  high  a  nature  as 
the  thing  to  be  done.  Thus,  to  execute  a  writing 
under  seal,  the  appointment  must  be  under  seal. 
When  the  authority  or  power  is  coupled  with 
an  interest,  or  when  it  is  given  for  a  valuable 
consideration,  or  when  it  is  a  part  of  a  security, 
then,  unless  there  is  a  special  agreement  that 
it  shall  be  revocable,  it  cannot  be  revoked. 
Death,  insanity,  bankruptcy,  the  extinction  of 
the  subject-matter  of  the  agency,  or  the  execu- 
tion of  the  trust,  will  usually  terminate  the 
agency  unless  the  authority  is  coupled  with  an 
interest.  Upon  the  law  of  agency  is  based  to 
a  large  degree  the  law  of  partnership. 

Age  of  Chivalry,  The,  or  The  Legends  of 
King  Arthur,  by  Thomas  Bultinch.  was  pub- 
lished in  1858.  Store  than  20  years  after,  an  en- 
larged edition  appeared  under  the  editorship  of 


AGE  OF  FABLE  — AGINCOURT 


Edward  Everett  Hale.  In  Part  First  the  legends 
of  King  Arthur  and  his  knights  are  considered. 
Part  Second  deals  with  the  Mabinogion,  or  an- 
cient prose  tales  of  the  Welsh;  Pari  third  with 
the  knights  of  English  history.  King  Richard, 
Robin  Hood,  and  the  Black  Prince.  From  the 
time  of  its  first  publication  the  popularity  of  the 
book  has  been  gnat.  No  more  sympathetic  and 
fitting  introduction  could  he  found  to  the  legends 
of  chivalry. 

Age  of  Fable,  The,  or  The  Beauties  of 
Mythology,  by  Thomas  Bulfinch,  was  pub- 
lished in  1855,  and  republished  in  1882  under 
the  editorship  of  Edward  Everett  Hale.  It 
has  become  a  standard  work  upon  mythology, 
by  reason  of  its  full  and  extensive  treatment  of 
the  Greek  and  Roman  myths. 

Age  of  Reason,  The,  by  Thomas  Paine, 
vas  first  published  in  a  complete  edition  25  Oct. 
1795.  In  1703  the  First  Part  appeared,  but  no 
copy  bearing  that  date  can  he  found.  Part  First 
coiisisis  of  an  inquiry  into  the  bases  of  Chris- 
tianity, its  theology,  its  miracles,  its  claims  of 
revelation.  The  process  is  destructive  and  revo- 
lutionary. In  Part  Second  the  author  makes 
critical  examination  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, to  support  the  conclusions  and  inferences 
of  Part  First.  Yet  the  work  is  not  wholly 
negative.  «  The  Word  of  God  is  the  creation 
we  behold." 

Ageratum,  a-ger'a-tum,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Composite!:  (belonging  to 
the  Eupatorium  tribe  of  the  order),  natives  of  the 
warmer  parts  of  America.  One  species,  A. 
mexicanum,  is  an  annual  plant  of  flower  borders 
and  has  densely  clustered  capitula  of  lavender- 
blue  flowers.  Several  others  are  also  grown  in 
gardens,  some  of  them  with  purple,  white,  or 
pale  blue  flowers.  One  of  these,  A.  conycoides, 
has  sky-blue  or  gray-blue  flowers  and  flower- 
heads  almost  conical  in  form.  This  species,  with 
A.  littorale,  grows  wild  in  southern  Georgia, 
and  in  Florida. 

Agesila'us,  a  king  of  Sparta:  b.  442 
B.C.,  and  elevated  to  the  throne  after  the  death 
of  his  brother  Agis  II..  in  398.  Called  by  the 
Ionians  to  their  assistance  against  Artaxerxes, 
he  commenced  his  glorious  career  by  defeating 
the  Persians  and  defending  Sparta  against  the 
united  attack  of  Thebes,  Corinth,  etc.  In  a  sub- 
sequent war  with  Thebes  he  had  to  contend 
against  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas.  the  great- 
est generals  of  those  times.  His  prudence,  how- 
ever, saved  Sparta  without  the  hazard  of  a 
battle.  He  delivered  it  anew  at  the  age  of  80 
years,  though  it  was  actually  in  the  hands  of 
Epaminondas.  In  the  spring  of  361  he  crossed 
over  to  Egypt  with  a  body  of  Lacedaemonian 
mercenaries,  and  there,  after  displaying  much  of 
his  former  ability,  he  died  while  preparing  for 
his  voyage  home,  in  the  winter  of  361-360. 
Though  small  and  insignificant  in  person  he 
was  a  noble  prince  and  almost  adored  by  his 
soldiers. 

Agglomerate,  in  geology,  a  name  applied 
to  a  rock  consisting  of  angular  fragments  of 
other  rocks,  united  or  bound  together  by  a 
matrix  of  similar  materials  but  of  finer  texture. 
The  rock  is  of  volcanic  origin,  but  the  fragments 
may  be  either  volcanic  or  sedimentary,  having 
been  ejected  from  some  volcano. 


Agglutinate  Languages,  languages  in 
which  the  modifying  suffixes  are  as  it  were  glued 
on  to  the  root,  both  it  and  the  suffixes  retaining 
a  kind  of  distinctive  independence  and  individ- 
uality, as  in  the  Turkish  and  other  Turanian 
tongues.  (Sec  Max  Midler's  <  Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Language.'  ) 

Agglutination.     See  Immunity. 

Aggregation,  States  of,  an  expression 
sometimes  used  to  signify,  collectively,  the  va- 
rious physical  states  in  which  matter  can  exist. 
For  ordinary  purposes  it  is  sufficient  to  distin- 
guish two  fundamentally  different  states  of  ag- 
gregation,  the  solid  and  fluid;  fluids  being  fur- 
ther subdivided  into  liquids  and  gases.  A  solid 
body  may  be  defined  as  one  that  is  callable  of 
resisting  a  considerable  shearing-stress.  It  is 
important  to  note,  however,  that  a  true  solid 
does  not  yield  continuously  to  a  small  deforming 
force;  it  resists  deformation,  and  its  resistance 
increases  as  the  di  Formation  increases.  A  fluid, 
on  the  contrary,  is  a  body  having  almost  no 
shearing-strength,  and  offering  very  little  re- 
sistance to  forces  that  tend  to  change  its  shape. 
A  fluid  yields  continuously  to  a  deforming  force, 
and  a  force  that  will  deform  it  at  all  will  deform 
it  indefinitely,  so  long  as  it  is  allowed  to  act. 
Considering  the  subdivision  of  fluids  into  gases 
and  liquids,  it  may  lie  said  that  a  gas  is  a  fluid 
that  presses  continuously  and  in  every  direction 
on  the  walls  of  the  vessel  containing  it.  and 
which  follows  them  indefinitely  if  they  retreat. 
A  gas,  if  left  to  itself,  lends  to  expand  infinitely 
in  every  direction.  A  liquid  may  be  defined  as 
a  fluid  which  does  not  follow  the  walls  of  the 
containing  vessel  if  they  retreat,  and  which  has 
no  tendency  to  sudden  and  indefinite  expansion 
when   freed  from  all  restraint. 

These  distinctions  between  the  various  states 
of  aggregation  in  which  matter  occurs  are  to  a 
certain  extent  arbitrary,  clastic,  indefinite,  and 
inexact.  For  example,  certain  kinds  of  pitch 
resist  the  action  of  deforming  forces  that  are 
applied  for  a  short  time  only,  and  are  brittle 
enough  to  fracture,  like  glass,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  sudden  stress ;  yet  they  yield  slowdy 
but  continuously  to  very  small  deforming  forces, 
when  those  forces  act  for  a  long  lime.  A  body 
of  this  sort,  strictly  speaking,  is  neither  a  solid 
nor  a  liquid,  and  to  include  it  in  a  general  classi- 
fication we  should  have  to  have  a  «  semi-solid  » 
division.  The  distinction  between  liquids  and 
gases  is  even  more  artificial  than  that  between 
solids  and  liquids;  for  a  liquid  may  be  made 
to  pass  into  its  vapor  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
is  impossible  to  state  at  what  moment  it  ceases 
to  be  a  liquid.  Thus,  if  water  is  heated  under 
a  sufficiently  great  pressure  up  to  700°  F..  and 
is  then  allowed  to  expand  by  a  sufficient  amount 
at  this  temperature,  and  is  finally  cooled  at  con- 
stant volume,  we  shall  find,  at  the  end  of  this 
operation,  that  it  has  been  entirely  transformed 
into  steam,  although  we  cannot  say  at  what  stage 
the  transformation  took  place.  See  Critical 
Point;  Equilibrium  (Chemical);  Molecular 
Theory;   THERMODYNAMICS;    .MATTER. 

Agincourt,  aj'in-kort,  or  Azincourt, 
a-zhati-koor,  France,  a  village,  dept.  Pas-de-Ca- 
lais, famous  for  a  battle  fought  there  25  Oct. 
1415.  Henry  V.,  king  of  England,  eager  to  con- 
quer France,  landed  at  Ilarfleur.  took  the  place 
by  storm,  and  wished  to  march  through  Picardy 


AGIS  — AGNEW 


to  Calais,  in  order  to  fix  his  winter  quarters  in 
its  neighborhood.  With  a  powerful  force  the 
Dauphin  advanced  against  him.  Henry  V.  re- 
treated to  the  Somme.  The  French  followed  to 
harass  his  retreat  and  to  defend  the  passage 
from  Abbeville  to  St.  Quentin,  which  he  gained 
only  through  the  inattention  of  the  enemy.  The 
English,  however,  being  destitute  of  everything 
and  reduced  by  sickness,  Henry  asked  for  peace 
on  disadvantageous  terms.  The  French  refused 
his  proposals,  and  succeeded  in  throwing  them- 
selves between  Calais  and  the  English.  These 
latter  consisted  of  2,000  men-at-arms  and  12,000 
archers,  and  were  arranged  in  order  of  battle 
between  two  hills,  with  the  archers  on  the  wings. 
Stakes,  of  which  every  man  carried  one,  were 
fixed  in  front  of  them.  The  French,  command- 
ed by  the  Constable  d'Albret,  numbered  50,000 
troops,  of  whom  8,000  were  men-at-arms ;  but 
other  estimates  make  the  French  strength  much 
greater.  They  arranged  themselves  in  two  divi- 
sions, with  the  men-at-arms,  of  whom  2,000 
were  mounted,  in  front.  The  English  first  put 
themselves  in  motion.  The  French  horse  in- 
stantly hastened  to  meet  them,  but  were  received 
with  such  a  shower  of  arrows  by  the  archers 
that  they  fell  back  on  the  first  division,  and 
threw  it  into  confusion.  The  light-armed  Eng- 
lish archers  seized  their  clubs  and  battle-axes 
and  broke  through  the  ranks  of  the  French 
knights,  who  could  hardly  move  on  account  of 
their  heavy  coats  of  mail  and  the  closeness  of 
their  array.  The  English  horse  rushed  to  assist 
the  archers;  the  first  French  division  retreated; 
the  second  could  not  sustain  the  charge  of  the 
victors ;  and  the  whole  French  army  was  soon 
entirely  routed.  The  victorious  army,  in  the 
pursuit  of  the  flying  enemy,  took  14.000  prison- 
ers in  addition  to  those  previously  captured ; 
10,000  Frenchmen  lay  dead  on  the  battle-field. 
Among  them  was  the  Constable  of  France,  with 
six  dukes  and  princes.  Five  princes,  among 
whom  were  the  Dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon, 
were  taken  prisoners.  The  English  lost  1,600 
men  killed ;  among  them  the  Duke  of  York, 
Henry's  uncle,  whom  the  Duke  d'Alencon  slew 
at  his  side  while  pressing  toward  the  king. 
D'Alengon  had  dashed  the  crown  from  Henry's 
head,  and  lifted  his  hand  for  a  more  effectual 
blow,  when  the  king's  attendants  surrounded 
him  and  he  fell  covered  with  wounds. 

Agis,  a'jis,  the  name  of  four  Spartan  kings. 
Agis  I.,  son  of  Eurysthenes,  founder  of  the 
family  Agidae,  and  reputed  conqueror  of  Helos. 
Agis  II.,  son  of  Archidamus  II.,  and  reigned 
either  in  427  or  426  B.C.  to  400  or  399  B.C.  He 
was  active  in  the  Peloponnesian  war;  invaded 
Attica  several  times ;  and  conquered  the  Atheni- 
ans at  Mantinea  in  418  b.c.  Agis  III.,  son  of 
Archidamus  III.,  reigned  in  338-1  b.c.  He  en- 
deavored t<>  overthrow  the  Macedonian  power  in 
Europe,  but  was  routed  and  killed  in  a  battle 
with  Antipater  in  331  b.c.  The  most  important 
of  the  four  kings  was  Acts  IV..  who  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  244  B.C.,  and  reigned  four  years 
He  attempted  a  reform  of  the  abuses  which  had 
crept  into  the  state  — his  plan  comprehending 
a  redistribution  of  the  land,  a  division  of  wealth, 
and  the  cancelling  of  all  debts.  Opposed  bj  his 
colleague,  Leonidas.  advantage  was  taken  of  his 
absence  in  an  expedition  against  the  /Etolians 
to  depose  him.     Agis  at  first  took  sanctuary  in  a 


temple,    but    he    was    entrapped    and    hurriedlj 
executed  by  his  rivals. 

Aglossa,  a-glos'sa  (Gr.  a,  priv. ;  glossa, 
tongue),  a  group  of  the  order  Anura  (toads  and 
frogs)  containing  only  two  living  families,  the 
South  American  Pifidcc  and  the  African  Xeno- 
pida,  and  characterized  by  the  lack  of  any 
tongue  and  the  union  of  the  eustachian  tubes 
into  one  opening  far  back  in  the  palate.  The 
pipa  toads  and  South  African  plathandlers  are 
typical  examples.  The  group  is  interesting  for 
its    antiquity    and    primitive    relationships. 

Agnadello,  an-ya-del'lo,  Worth  Italy,  a 
village  10  in.  E.  of  Lodi,  near  which  Louis  XII. 
of  France  completely  defeated  the  Venetians, 
on  14  May  1509,  and  the  Duke  of  Vendome 
gained  a  victory  over  Prince  Eugene  in  1705. 

Agnano,  an-ya'no.  till  1870,  a  small  lake, 
3  m.  W.  of  Naples,  about  60  ft.  in  depth,  and 
without  visible  outlet.  As  it  was  supposed  to 
cause  malaria  it  has  been  drained.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  volcanic  and  mountainous. 
On  the  right  lies  the  Grotta  del  Cane,  where  the 
carbonic  acid  is  dense  enough  to  kill  dogs,  and 
on  the  left  are  found  the  sulphurous  vapor  baths 
of  San  Germano,  which  are  valuable  for  gout 
and  blood  disorders. 

Agnes,  Saint,  a  saint  who,  according  to  the 
received  account,  because  she  steadfastly  refused 
to  marry  the  son  of  the  prefect  of  Rome  and 
adhered  to  her  religion  in  spite  of  repeated 
temptations  and  threats,  suffered  martyrdom 
during  the  persecution  of  the  Christians  in  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian,  303  a.d.  She 
was  first  led  to  the  stake,  but  as  the  flames  did 
not  injure  her  she  was  beheaded.  Her  festival 
is  celebrated  on  the  21st  of  January.  Domen- 
ichino  painted  a  picture  representing  her  at  the 
moment  of  her  execution. 

Agnesi,  a-nya'se,  Maria  Gaetana,  a  learn- 
ed Italian  lady:  b.  in  Milan  in  1718.  In  her 
9th  year  she  was  able  to  speak  Latin,  in  her 
nth  Greek;  she  then  studied  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages, and  next  geometry  and  philosophy, 
mathematics  having  latterly  engaged  her  chief 
attention.  She  was  appointed,  in  1750,  professor 
of  mathematics  in  the  University  of  Bologna, 
ultimately  took  the  veil,  and  died  in  1799.  Her 
sister,  Maria  Theresa,  composed  several  canta- 
tas and  three  operas. 

Agnes  of  Sorrento,  a  romance  by  Har- 
riet Beecher  Stowe.  The  scene  is  laid  in  central 
Italy  during  the  papacy  of  Alexander  VI.  1  1492- 
1503).  Agnes  is  the  daughter  of  a  Roman 
prince  wdio  secretly  marries  and  then  deserts 
a  girl  of  humble  parentage.  The  young  mother 
dies  of  grief,  and  Elsie,  the  grandmother,  takes 
Agnes  to  Sorrento,  where  she  lives  by  selling 
oranges  in  the  streets.  Her  beauty  and  her 
purity  attract  to  her  many  lovers,  worthy  and 
unworthy,  and  involve  her  in  many  romantic 
and  dramatic   incidents. 

Agnew,  Cornelius  Rea,  an  American  phy- 
sician:  b.  New  York  8  Aug.  1830;  d.  8  April 
1888:  Professor  of  diseases  of  the  eye  and  ear 
in  New  York  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, lie  was  a  graduate  of  Columbia  College. 
and  later  studied  in  Europe:  was  surgeon-gen- 
eral of  the  State  of  .Yew  Ynrk  at  the  beginning 
of  the  Civil  War.  when  he  became  medical  di- 
rector of  the  New  York  State  Volunteer  Hospi- 


AGNEW  — AGRARIAN  LAWS 


tal.  As  member  of  the  United  States  Sanitary 
Commission  he  contributed  largely  to  its  suc- 
cess.   In  186S  he  Founded  the  Brooklyn  Eye  and 

Kar  Hospital,  lit-  was  interested  in  the  public 
schools  of  New  York;  became  Founder  of  the 
Columbia  College  School  of  Mines,  and  in  1S74 
one  of  the  trustees  of  the  college.  His  writings 
are  chiefly  monographs  on  diseases  of  the  eye 
and    ear. 

Agnew,  David  Hayes,  an  American  sur- 
geon and  medical  writer:  b.  24  Nov.  iSiS;  d.  22 
.March  1892;  for  many  years  professor  of  sur- 
gery at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  lie  was 
also  the  operator  in  several  important  eases, 
notably  that  of  President  Garfield,  lie  pub- 
lished 'Practical  Anatomy'  (1867);  'Anatomy 
and  Its  Relation  to  Medicine  and  Surgery'  ; 
'Principles  and  Practice  of  Surgery'  (1878); 
etc. 

Agno,  ag'no,  an  important  river  in  the 
N.W.  part  of  Luzon.  Philippine  Islands.  It  is 
about  cw  m.  in  length,  describing  a  circuitous 
course,  parallel  with  a  range  of  coast  mountains, 
and  emptying  into  Lingayen  Gulf.  The  town 
of  Lingayen  is  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  which 
is  accessible  by  railway  from  Manila. 

Agnosticism  (Gr.  "unknowing"'),  a  school 
of  thought  which  holds  that  man  can  know  noth- 
ing of  ultimate  realities,  or  whether  they  exist  ; 
since,  his  only  means  of  knowledge  being 
through  comparison  of  phenomena,  the  absolute 
could  only  be  cognized  by  his  senses  on  assum- 
ing phenomenal  traits,  and  would  then  be 
grasped  as  a  phenomenon  and  not  as  absolute, 
the  knowledge  of  which  is  therefore  a  contradic- 
tion in  terms.  \\'e  cannot  know  anything  out- 
side our  own  mental  processes  and  the  existence 
of  other  minds;  in  popular  phrase,  we  cannot 
get  behind  the  looking-glass.  This  does  not, 
however,  deny  the  absolute  any  more  than  af- 
firm it;  and  most  agnostics  (as  Clifford,  one  of 
the  greatest)  consider  the  diversity  of  phenom- 
ena as  probably  indicating  a  diversity  in  their 
causes.  The  agnostic  position  involves  refusal 
to  accept  "evidences"  of  the  origins  of  the  uni- 
verse, of  unseen  powers,  of  a  future  life,  or  in 
general  the  metaphysical  bases  of  religion,  save 
as  more  or  less  probable  inferences.  The  cur- 
rent idea  that  it  involves  rejection  of  these  be- 
liefs, however,  is  entirely  wrong:  the  agnostic 
does  not  admit  that  either  the  affirmative  or  the 
negative  of  them  can  be  a  subject  of  knowledge, 
.Hid  regards  the  atheist  as  less  intellectually  re- 
table  than  the  devotee.  In  point  of  fact, 
Prof.  Huxley,  the  inventor  of  the  term,  thought 
the  existence  of  beings  higher  than  man  rather 
probable  than  otherwise,  and  the  government  of 
the  universe  by  a  "divine  syndicate"  of  great 
spiritual  essences  quite  logical.  The  greatest  of 
modern  agnostics  was  Herbert  Spencer.  The 
theory  is  practically  that  of  the  Pyrrhonist  or 
Skeptical   school   of  Greek  philosophers. 

Agnus  Dei.    See  Sacraventai.s. 

Agosta,  or  Augusta,  a  seaport  on  the 
S.E.  coast  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Syracuse, 
and  12  m.  N.N.W.  of  the  city  of  that  name.  It 
was  a  place  of  some  importance  before  the  earth- 
quake of  1693,  which  buried  a  third  of  the  in- 
habitants in  its  ruins,  and  at  the  same  time  by 
supposed  sulphurous  vapors  which  issued  from 
the  ground,  ignited  the  powder  magazine,  and 
blew  up  the  citadel.     It  was  off  this  port  that 


Dc  Ruyter,  the  famous  Dutch  admiral,  in  com- 
mand of  the  united   Dutch  and   Spanish   fleet,  22 

April  if>7(>,  was  defeated  by  the  French  under 
I  (uquesne,  and  received  his  death  wound.  Pop. 
about  12,500. 

Agra,  a'gra,  India,  a  city  in  the  Northwest 
Provinces,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  841 
miles  by  rail  from  Calcutta.  It  is  a  well-built 
and  handsome  town  and  has  various  interesting 
structures,  among  which  are  the  imperial  palai  I  . 
a  mass  of  buildings  erected  by  several  emperors  ; 
the  Moti  Masjid  or  Pearl  Mosque  (both  within 
the  old  and  extensive  fort):  the  mosque  called 
the  Jama  Masjid  (a  cenotaph  of  white  marble)  ; 
and  above  all,  the  Taj  Mahal,  a  mausoleum  of 
the  17th  century,  built  by  the  Emperor  Shah 
Jchan  to  his  favorite  queen,  of  white  marble, 
adorned  throughout  with  exquisite  mosaics. 
There  are  several  Protestant  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic churches,  a  government  college,  and  three 
oilier  colleges  or  high  schools,  besides  a  med- 
ical college.  Agra  has  a  trade  in  grain,  sugar, 
etc.,  and  some  manufactures,  including  beautiful 
inlaid  mosaics.  It  was  founded  in  1566  by  the 
Emperor  Akbar,  and  was  a  residence  of  the  fol- 
lowing emperors  for  over  a  century.  Pop. 
168,662.  The  Agra  division  has  an  area  of 
10,139  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  4.767,759. 

Agrarian  Laws,  enactments  framed  at  dif- 
ferent times  by  the  Romans  to  regulate  the  pub- 
lic domain.  In  the  first  epoch  of  the  growth  of 
Rome,  before  the  city  had  extended  beyond  the 
Palatine  Hill,  the  whole  soil  of  the  state  was 
undivided  public  property,  and  from  the  state, 
consisting  exclusively  of  citizens,  every  citizen 
received  a  share  for  his  private  use.  In  prin- 
ciple all  the  land  was  therefore  undivided  public 
property,  and  the  citizen  could  only  acquire  pos- 
session as  tenant  at  will  of  the  state.  In  course 
of  time,  however,  the  descendants  of  the  original 
founders,  or  the  patricians,  transformed  these 
primitive  concessions  into  an  absolute  right 
called  in  the  Roman  law  de  jure  quiritio.  1  lur- 
ing the  entire  existence  of  the  republic  the 
principle  was  recognized  that  all  lands  and  per- 
sonal property  acquired  by  conquest  were  ac- 
quired for  the  state,  and  could  only  become  the 
property  of  individuals  through  the  cession  to 
them  of  the  rights  of  the  state.  As  conquest  in- 
creased the  public  property,  and  the  class  of  ple- 
beians was  formed,  the  Roman  government  gave 
them  an  interest  in  the  public  domain  as  private 
property  on  condition  of  their  paving  a  tribute 
and  undertaking  other  public  services.  The  pa- 
tricians, however,  always  preserved  their  an- 
cient right  of  receiving  in  possession  and  using 
portions  of  the  public  property  on  paying  to  the 
public  treasury  a  tithe  of  its  product.  From  the 
earliest  period  of  Roman  history  lands  thus  held 
could  pass  as  an  inheritance  to  children,  and 
were  even  sold  under  this  uncertain  tenure, 
while  the  state  always  reserved  the  power  to  re- 
sume possession.  Spurius  Cassius,  a  patrician, 
on  becoming  consul  in  the  early  period  of  the 
republic,  caused  a  law  to  be  enacted  that  some 
portion  of  the  public  lands,  long  before  con- 
quered, but  occupied  by  the  Roman  nobles, 
should  be  surrendered  to  the  state  and  assigned 
to  the  needy  citizens.  The  law  remained  a  dead 
letter  because  of  the  resistance  of  the  patricians, 
who  not  only  prevented  any  new  divisions  of  the 
public  lands,  but  by  violence  or  usury  acquired 


AGRARIAN  PARTY  —  AGRICOLA 


those  of  the  plebeians.  The  keeping  of  large 
flocks  of  cattle  practically  ruined  the  common 
pasture  lands,  and  in  fact  excluded  the  small 
farmers  from  them.  This  caused  the  publica- 
tion, in  367  B.C.,  of  the  Licinian  law,  so  called 
from  Licinius  Stoto,  its  originator.  For  a  brief 
period  this  law  was  put  in  force,  after  which 
it  was  neglected  for  nearly  200  years,  when 
it  was  renewed  by  Tiberius  Gracchus  with  some 
additions  and  modifications  in  favor  of  the 
patricians.  The  attempt  to  execute  these  laws 
caused  the  death  of  the  two  Gracchi  (133  and 
121  B.C.).  Not  one  of  the  Agrarian  laws  was 
ever  executed,  and  it  is  said  by  the  ablest  writers 
that  they  had  none  of  that  leveling  and  con- 
fiscatory character  which  has  been  so  often  at- 
tributed to  them.  It  is  believed  by  able  writers 
that  none  of  the  laws  aimed  at  the  equal  divi- 
sion of  real  estate  owned  by  individuals  in  their 
own  absolute  right,  or  intended  any  limitation 
upon  the  ownership  of  land.  The  most  promi- 
nent advocates  of  the  Agrarian  laws,  Cassius, 
Licinius,  and  the  Gracchi,  all  belonged  to  the 
class  which  would  have  been  injured  by  their 
operation  had  they  led  to  an  undue  interference 
with  the  right  of  private  property. 

Agrarian  Party,  a  political  organization 
in  Germany,  representing  the  interests  of  the 
landlords  (in  political  life).  The  first  steps  to- 
ward the  formation  of  the  party  were  taken  by 
an  assembly  called  together  at  Breslau,  in  May 
1869,  by  M.  A.  Niendorf  (d.  1878),  and  Eisner 
von  Gronow,  but  the  theory  on  which  the  party 
was  based  had  already  been  formulated  by 
Johann  Karl  Rodbertus.  The  organ  of  the  party 
was  Die  Deutsche  Landeszeitung,  edited  by 
Niendorf.  In  February  1876  a  constitutional  as- 
sembly of  agrarian  reformers  was  opened,  and 
adopted  the  official  name  of  "Steuer  und  Wirt- 
schaftreformer."  Their  programme  was  espe- 
cially devoted  to  the  abolition  of  taxes  on  land, 
buildings,  and  trades.  At  first  especial  emphasis 
was  laid  on  free  trade,  but  this  object  fell  more 
and  more  into  the  background  after  1879.  Since 
that  date  they  have  sought  to  limit  the  importa- 
tion of  food  stuffs,  and  have  opposed  several 
commercial  treaties  supported  by  the  govern- 
ment ;  they  have  also  opposed  the  emperor's 
project  for  a  canal  system,  and  have  been  hostile 
to  his  navy  policy.  As  the  Agrarians  dominate 
the  Conservatives  in  the  Reichstag  they  have 
frequently  obtained  important  concessions  in 
commercial  matters  and  forced  the  government 
to  turn  to  the  Radicals  for  support  for  its 
measures. 

Agreement,  a  mutual  bargain,  contract,  or 
covenant.  Agreements  may  be  either  express  or 
implied.  Express  agreements  are  those  openly 
stated  and  avowed  by  the  parties  at  the  time 
of  their  making.  Implied  agreements  are  those 
which  the  law  supposes  the  parties  to  have 
made  although  the  terms  were  not  openly  ex- 
pressed. 

There  must  be  an  agreement  by  the  parties. 
a  definite  offer  made  by  one  party  and  accepted 
by  the  other,  and  they  must  assent  to  the  same 
thing  in  the  same  sense.  The  assent  must  be 
mutual  and  obligatory,  and  there  must  be  a 
request  on  one  side  and  an  assent  on  the  other. 
The  assent  must  be  broad  enough  to  cover  the 
whole  proposition.  It  must  be  exactly  equal  to 
its  extent  and  provision,  and  it  must  not  qualify 


them  by  any  new  matter,  and  even  a  slight  quali- 
fication destroys  the  assent.  The  agreement 
must  be  based  upon  a  sufficient  consideration 
(q.v.),  and  as  against  third  persons  this  consid- 
eration must  be  good  or  valuable.  It  need  not 
be  adequate  provided  it  has  some  real  value.  If 
the  consideration  is  impossible,  or  illegal  either 
in  whole  or  in  part,  the  agreement  will  be  void. 
The  agreement  may  be  to  do  anything  permitted 
by  the  law,  as  to  sell  and  buy  real  estate  or 
personal  property.  The  evidence  of  the  sale  of 
real  estate,  however,  must  be  by  deed,  and 
sealed.  In  many  instances  agreements  in  regard 
to  personal  property  must  be  reduced  to  writing. 
See  Contracts. 

Agric'ola,  Cneius  Julius,  lived  from  a.d.  37 
to  93,  and  was  a  Roman  general  and  governor 
in  Britain,  the  greater  part  of  which  he  brought 
under  the  dominion  of  Rome.  His  life  (which 
extended  through  the  reigns  of  the  nine  em- 
perors from  Caligula  to  Domitian)  has  been  ex- 
cellently written  by  his  son-in-law,  Tacitus,  who 
holds  him  up  as  an  example  of  virtue.  Agricola 
was  born  at  Forum  Julii  (now  Frejus  in 
Provence),  and  was  the  son  of  Julius  Grae- 
cinus,  a  senator  put  to  death  under  Calig- 
ula. He  served  his  first  campaign  in  Brit- 
ain in  60,  and  after  serving  in  Asia  Minor 
and  again  in  Britain,  and  governing  Aqui- 
tania  as  praetor  for  three  years,  he  was  raised 
to  the  consulship  in  77,  and  the  next  year 
went  to  Britain  as  governor.  Agricola  wras  the 
twelfth  Roman  general  who  had  been  in  Britain, 
but  was  the  only  one  who  effectually  subdued  it ; 
partly  by  his  consummate  military  skill,  partly 
by  his  policy  in  reconciling  the  Britons  to  the 
Roman  yoke,  and  by  teaching  them  the  arts  and 
luxuries  of  civilization.  In  his  fourth  campaign 
he  built  a  chain  of  forts  between  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  to  help  to  keep  in  check  the  peoples  to  the 
north  of  this.  His  seventh  and  last  campaign 
(a.d.  84)  was  marked  by  the  total  defeat  of  the 
Caledonians  under  Galgacus,  at  some  place 
called  by  Tacitus  Mons  Grampius  or  Graupius. 
In  this  campaign  his  fleet  sailed  northward  from 
the  coast  of  Fife  round  Britain  to  the  Trutu- 
lensian  harbor  (supposed  to  be  Sandwich),  thus 
for  the  first  time  proving  that  the  country  was 
an  island.  His  death  was  either  caused  or  has- 
tened by  the  minions  of  the  jealous  tyrant  Domi- 
tian. 

Agricola,  Johann,  German  reformer:  b. 
1492;  d.  1526.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active 
among  those  who  propagated  the  doctrines  of 
Luther.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg  and  Leipsic : 
was  afterward  rector  and  preacher  in  Eisleben, 
his  native  city,  and  in  1526.  at  the  Diet  of  Spires, 
was  chaplain  of  the  Elector  John  of  Saxony. 
He  subsequently  became  chaplain  to  Count  Al- 
bert of  Mansfield,  and  took  a  part  in  the  de- 
livery of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and  in 
the  signing  of  the  articles  of  Schmalkalden. 
When  professor  at  Wittenberg,  whither  he  went 
in  1537.  he  Stirred  up  the  Antinomian  contro- 
versv  with  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  He  after- 
ward lived  at  Berlin,  where  he  died  after  a  life 
of  controversy.  Besides  his  theological  works 
he  composed  a  work  explaining  the  common 
German  proverbs.  Its  patriotic  spirit,  strict 
morality,  and  pithy  style,  place  it  among  the 
first  German  prose  compositions  of  the  time,  bj 
the  side  of  Luther's  translations  of  the  Bible. 


AGRICOLA  — AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 


Agricola,  Rudolphus,  the  foremost  scholar 
of  the  «  New  Learning,1  in  Germany :  b.  23 
Aug,  144.?.  near  Groningcn,  in  Friesland ;  d. 
28  Oct.  1485.  His  real  name,  Roelof  Hi 
mann  (husbandman),  he  Latinized  into  Agric- 
ola; and  from  his  native  place  he  was  also 
called  Frisius,  or  Rudolf  of  Groningen.  From 
Groningen  he  passed  to  Louvain,  then  to  Paris, 
and  then  to  Italy!  where,  during  the  years  1473- 
80,  he  attended  the  lectures  of  the  most  cele- 
brated men  of  his  age,  and  where  he  enured  into 
a  close  friendship  with  Dalherg,  afterward  Bishop 
of  Worms.  On  his  return  home  he  endeavored, 
in  connection  with  several  of  his  former  co- 
disciples  and  friends,  to  promote  a  taste  for  lit- 
erature and  eloquence.  Several  cities  of  Hol- 
land vainly  strove  with  each  other  to  obtain  his 
presence,  but  not  even  the  brilliant  overtures 
made  to  him  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  to 
whose  court  lie  had  repaired  in  connection  with 
affairs  of  the  town  of  Groningen,  could  induce 
him  to  renounce  his  independence.  At  length 
yielding  (1483)  to  the  solicitations  of  Dalberg, 
he  established  himself  in  the  Palatinate,  where 
he  sojourned  alternately  at  Heidelberg  and 
Worms,  dividing  his  time  between  private  stud- 
ii  and  public  lectures,  and  enjoying  high  popu- 
larity. He  distinguished  himself  also  as  a  mu- 
sician and  painter.  With  Dalberg  he  revisited 
Italy  (14S41,  and  shortly  after  his  return  died 
at  Heidelberg.  Most  of  his  works  were  col- 
lected by  Alard  of  Amsterdam  (2  vols.  Cologne, 
1539)- 

Agric'olite,  a  mineral  having  the  same 
composition  as  eulytite,  but  crystallizing  in  the 
monoclinic  system.  It  also  occurs  in  globular 
forms,  with  a  radiated  structure,  and  the 
crystals,  when  they  occur,  are  indistinct.  The 
species  needs  further  examination. 

Agricultural  Ant,  a  remarkable  species  of 
ant  (Myrmica  molefaciens)  that  cultivates 
fields  of  grass  around  its  hill,  allowing  only  one 
kind  of  grass  (Aristida)  to  grow  in  a  field;  it 
harvests  the-  seeds  and  stores  them  away  as 
food.  The  fields  may  be  as  large  as  15  feet 
across;  roads  are  laid  out  from  the  hill  to  the 
outer  margin  of  the  plantation,  so  that  the  crop 
may  not  be  trampled,  and  any  weeds  which  ap- 
pear among  the  grass  blades  are  at  once  cut  off. 
These  colonies  are  often  found  in  large  grain 
fields,  which  they  injure  in  proportion  to  their 
numbers. 

Agricultural  Chemistry  is  the  science 
upon  which  scientific  agriculture  is  built ;  the 
chemistry  of  the  atmosphere,  of  the  soil,  of  ma- 
nures, of  plants,  and  of  animals,  describe  and 
explain  in  large  part  the  phenomena  of  plant 
growth  and  of  the  transformation  of  plants  into 
animal  products.  The  basic  facts  which  the 
investigations  of  agricultural  chemists  have  re- 
vealed, and  which  serve  as  the  foundation  upon 
which  the  facts  derived  from  further  investiga- 
tion must  rest,  may  be  stated  as  follows : 

Sources  of  Plant  Food. — The  atmosphere 
and  the  soil  are  the  two  sources  from  which 
plants  obtain  their  food.  The  atmosphere  sup- 
plies the  plant,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  with 
carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen ;  the 
carbon  mainly  directly  in  the  form  of  carbon- 
dioxid,  the  hydrogen  and  oxygen  indirectly  in 
the  form  of  water  in  the  soil,  which  is  ab- 
sorbed   by    the    roots    of    plants,    and    nitrogen 


mainly  indirectly  in  the  form  of  nitrates  in  the 
soil,  which  is  also  taken  up  by  the  roots  of 
plants.  The  soil  is  the  only  source  of  the  min- 
eral elements  used  by  the  plant,  and  those  es- 
sential for  its  growth  are  potassium,  magnesium, 
calcium,  iron,  chlorine,  sodium,  phosphorus,  and 
sulphur,  though  others  may  be  present  in  the 
plant  as  accidental  salts;  as,  for  example,  silicon, 
manganese,  boron,  etc.  These  mineral  elements 
are  obtained  from  the  soil  by  means  of  the 
plant   roots. 

Constituents  of  Manures. — While  plants  re- 
quire and  use  a  relatively  large  number  of 
chemical  elements  for  their  perfect  development, 
those  essential  in  manures  are  limited  to  four. 
namely,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  potassium,  and 
calcium,  for  the  reason  that  these  are  contained 
in  the  soil  in  relatively  small  amounts,  and  are 
required  by  plants  in  relatively  large  amounts. 
Exhaustion  of  soil  means  the  exhaustion  of  one 
or  more  of  these  four  constituents,  which  mea- 
sure the  potential  fertility,  and  a  direct  manure 
is  a  substance  which  contains  one  or  two,  or  all 
of  these. 

The  Composition  of  Plants. —  In  all  normal 
plant  growths  there  are  four  distinct  classes  of 
substances,  namely,  albuminoids,  fats,  carbohy- 
drates and  mineral  salts,  each  of  which  as  a  class 
exercises  a  special  function  in  the  nutrition  of 
animals.  The  varying  proportions  of  these  sub- 
stances in  the  different  plants  also  determine  the 
value  of  any  plant  as  a  source  of  any  specific 
substance  for  commercial  purposes ;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, sugar  or  oil. 

The  Composition  of  Animals. — The  annual 
body  consists  of  three  classes  of  substances, 
namely,  nitrogenous  matter,  fatty  matter,  and 
mineral  salts ;  these  are  derived  from,  and  are 
similar  in  character  to,  the  same  classes  of  sub- 
stances in  plants.  These  statements  of  the  basic- 
principles  of  plant  growth  and  use  clearly  indi- 
cate the  important  role  that  agricultural  chemis- 
try may  exercise  in  the  many  directions  in  which 
it  may  be  applied  in  the  development  of  scientific 
farm  practice  It  indicates  the  broad  field  of 
agricultural  chemistry;  and  agricultural  chem- 
ists, because  of  the  many  important  special  lines 
of  inquiry,  arc  classified  as  soil  chemists,  fer- 
tilizer chemists,  food  chemists,  sugar  chemists, 
agricultural  industrial  chemists,  etc..  according 
as  they  give  special  attention  to  any  one  of  these 
particular   branches. 

Methods  of  Analysis. — The  application  of 
chemistry  in  these  various  directions,  has  in 
recent  years  been  accompanied  by  a  development 
in  analytical  and  research  methods,  both  in  the 
devising  of  new  apparatus  and  new  met  hods  for 
the  analyses  of  new  materials,  and  in  the  im- 
provement of  the  apparatus  and  the  methods  al- 
ready in  use. 

The  Association  of  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists,  organized  in  1880.  whjch  at  first  in- 
cluded only  the  American  chemists  engaged  in 
the  official  analytical  control  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizers, gave  the  initial  impetus  to  a  movement 
which  has  been  largely  responsible  for  the  pro- 
gress of  agricultural  chemistry  in  this  country. 
This  organization  has  gradually  broadened  its 
work,  and  now  includes,  as  members,  analysts 
and  specialists  in  all  the  various  lines  of  agricul- 
tural chemical  work.  To  this  association  is  re- 
ported annually  the  investigations  that  have 
been  made  by  its  members   in  the  testing  of  new 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 


and  in  the  improvement  of  old  analytical  meth- 
ods. The  good  results  of  such  work  are  particu- 
larly noticeable  in  the  adoption  of  uniform  meth- 
ods in  the  different  laboratories,  either  new,  or 
modifications  of  those  standard  methods  devised 
by  the  earlier  investigators.  The  crude  appara- 
tus and  the  tedious  methods  of  25  years  ago, 
which  are  still  in  use  in  many  foreign  labora- 
tories, have  in  this  country  been  supplanted  by 
those  which  ensure  not  only  greater  accuracy, 
but  greater  rapidity  of  execution.  These  im- 
provements have  made  it  possible  for  the  chem- 
ists to  perform  the  large  number  of  analyses 
now  required  in  the  official  control  of  commercial 
fertilizers,  of  commercial  foodstuffs,  and  of 
dairy  products. 

The  Study  of  the  Sources  of  Nitrogen  to 
Plants. —  The  most  important  contribution  made 
to  science  by  agricultural  chemists  in  recent 
years  has  been  in  the  study  of  the  sources  of 
nitrogen  to  plants.  The  experiments  of  Berthe- 
lot,  Helriegel,  Wilfarth,  and  others  in  Europe, 
and  of  Atwater  in  America,  have  modified  the 
views  originally  held  in  reference  to  this  subject. 
That  the  chief  source  of  nitrogen  to  plants  is 
mainly  directly  from  the  soil  in  the  form  of 
nitrates  is  not  disputed,  but  the  experiments 
referred  to  have  shown  that  the  leguminous 
plants,  such  as  peas  and  beans,  have  the  power 
of  obtaining  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  air,  and 
thus  both  soil  and  air  contribute  to  their  supply 
of  this  element.  It  has  been  shown  that  this 
absorption  of  free  nitrogen  is  not  performed 
directly,  but  the  fixation  is  the  result  of  the  joint 
action  of  certain  micro-organisms  present  in  the 
soil  and  in  the  plant  itself;  that  this  fixation  is 
connected  with  the  formation  of  tubercles  on  the 
roots  of  this  class  of  plants,  and  that  these  may 
be  the  home  of  the  fixing  organisms,  which  are 
not  present  in  all  soils.  In  other  words,  the  fact 
has  been  established  that  these  plants  do  obtain 
their  nitrogen  from  the  air,  a  source  inaccessible 
to  other  classes  of  plants,  though  the  exact  meth- 
od and  the  complete  phenomena  involved  in  its 
appropriation  are  not  yet  understood ;  these 
points  are  matters  under  investigation  at  the 
present  time. 

De nitrification. —  Denitrification,  or  loss  of 
nitrogen  from  soils  and  manures  by  the  reduc- 
tion of  the  nitrates  and  the  setting  free  of  the 
nitrogen,  is  another  rather  new  though  closely 
related  phase  of  the  nitrogen  question  which  is 
receiving  the  attention  of  agricultural  chemists. 
Denitrification  is  also  due  to  organisms  contained 
in  manures  and  in  soils,  and  the  question  in- 
volves the  study  not  only  of  the  organisms 
themselves,  but  of  their  food  and  the  conditions 
which  favor  or  retard  their  growth.  The  experi- 
ments conducted  thus  far  both  in  Europe  and  in 
America  indicate  that  good  conditions  of  soil 
management  do  not  favor  the  activity  of  these 
organisms,  and  that  losses  due  to  denitrification 
are  greatest  where  drainage,  cultivation,  and 
management  are  neglected. 

Chemical  Investigation  of  Soils. —  Chemical 
investigations  have  shown  that  the  active  fer- 
tility of  soils  depends  both  upon  the  amount 
of  the  essential  constituents  present,  and  the 
mutual  reactions  of  the  various  classes  of 
substances  which  constitute  their  bulk.  Chem- 
ical studies  have  been  directed  toward  separating 
these  substances,  and  to  the  discovery  of  their 
relations  to  each  other.     The  combined  study  of 


the  influence  of  the  chemical  and  physical  prop- 
erties of  soils  in  encouraging  changes  in  the 
chemical  form  of  the  constituents,  and  in  their 
absorptive  and  retentive  power  for  both  water 
and  plant-food,  has  resulted  in  showing  the 
adaptation  of  certain  classes  of  soils  to  specific 
crops,  and  has  made  it  possible  to  indicate 
clearly  the  line  of  profitable  culture. 

Further  important  results  of  studies  in  recent 
years  have  had  their  origin  in  the  discovery  that 
micro-organisms  living  in  the  soil  exert  a  de- 
cided influence  in  changing  its  chemical  charac- 
ter, and  in  contributing  to  active  fertility.  It 
has  been  established  that,  other  things  being 
equal,  soils  are  fertile  in  proportion  as  the  physi- 
cal and  chemical  conditions  are  favorable  for  the 
growth  and  development  of  those  living  forces. 
This  fact  has  encouraged  the  chemical  study  of 
the  various  classes  of  soil  substances  as  sources 
of  supply  of  food  for  these  lower  organisms, 
and  the  knowledge  gained  has  contributed  ma- 
terially to  the  development  of  methods  of  soil 
improvement. 

Farm  Manures. — The  question  of  the  func- 
tion of  natural  agencies  in  promoting  fertility  is 
closely  related  to  that  of  manures,  fertilizers,  and 
soil  amendments.  Chemical  studies  of  the  char- 
acter and  value  of  farm  manures  as  sources  of 
plant  food,  of  the  source  of  loss  of  the  valuable 
constituents,  especially  nitrogen,  contained  in 
them,  and  the  methods  of  preservation  and  use 
of  the  various  materials,  have  established  the 
important  facts  that  practically  80  per  cent  of  the 
fertility  elements  contained  in  food  are  found  in 
the  manure,  and  that  more  than  one  half  of  the 
nitrogen  and  practically  all  of  the  potash  con- 
tained are  in  soluble  forms.  These  constituents 
are  readily  available  as  food  to  plants,  com- 
paring favorably  with  best  artificial  supplies, 
but  are  liable  to  suffer  great  loss,  the  former  by 
fermentation  and  leaching,  and  the  latter  by 
leaching.  This  may  be  prevented  by  proper 
care  and  the  use  of  preservatives. 

Fertilizers. —  As  to  the  artificial  supplies  of 
plant-food,  chemical  studies  have  been  mainly 
directed  toward  the  determination  of  the  avail- 
ability of  the  different  constituent  elements  con- 
tained in  the  various  sources  of  supply.  Nitro- 
gen, for  example,  shows  varying  degrees  of 
availability :  with  nitrate  at  100  per  cent  as  a 
basis,  the  range  is  from  80  per  cent  in  dried 
blood  to  as  low  as  2  per  cent  for  leather.  These 
wide  variations  in  agricultural  value  are  not 
accompanied  by  variations  in  commercial  value, 
hence  studies  have  been  made  of  chemical  meth- 
ods for  the  determination  of  the  availability  of 
nitrogenous  substances  in  mixed  fertilizers,  in 
which  it  is  otherwise  impossible  to  detect  their 
source,  and  such  progress  has  been  made  as  to 
enable  chemists  by  the  use  of  these  methods  to 
indicate  the  relative  value  of  the  materials  used. 
Much  study  has  also  been  given  to  the  question 
of  the  relative  availability  of  the  phosphoric  acid 
as  found  in  the  various  raw  and  manufactured 
supplies,  and  positive  information  can  now  be 
given  as  to  the  best  sources  of  supply  for  specific 
crops   and  for  special  kinds  of  soil. 

lAme,  Marl,  and  Other  S»il  Amendments.— 
The  purpose  of  the  use  of  these  materials  is 
mainly  to  supply  the  plant  indirectly  with  its 
needed  constituents,  and  careful  investigations 
have  "shown  that  lime,  for  example,  while  not 
usually    a    deficient    constituent,    performs    very 


AGRICULTURAL  CHEMISTRY 


important  functions  in  tlie  improvement  of  soil: 
first,  in  correcting  acidity,  and  thus  making  the 
soil  a  bettei  medium  for  the  growth  and  dev<  lop 
mint  of  sod  organisms;  second,  in  acting  chem- 
ically on  organic  matter  and  on  phosphatic  and 
potash  compounds  in  the  Soil,  and  setting  free 
their  constituent  elements;  and  third,  in  chan- 
ging and  improving  the  physical  character  of 
soils.  Notable  studies  along  this  line  have 
trried  out  in  this  country,  particularly  by 
Wheeler  in  Rhode  Island,  and  the  results  of 
such  investigations  have  done  much  to  promote 
the  growth  of  leguminous  crops,  which  add  to 
the  soil  humus- forming  material  containing 
nitrogen  ;  the  humus  exerting  an  important  func- 
tion in  increasing  the  absorptive  and  retentive 
pi  v,  ers  of  soils. 

The  Composition  and  Nutritive  Value  of 
Plants. —  Recent  chemical  investigations  have 
also  resulted  in  securing  more  detinue  informa- 
tion concerning  the  approximate  composition  of 
plains.  It  is  now  possible  to  classify  clearly 
the  nutritive  substances  contained  in  any  speci- 
fic crop,  and  to  determine  the  composition  of  the 
various  chemical  substances  in  the  same  group. 
In  the  group  albuminoids,  for  example,  methods 
of  analysis  have  been  developed  which  enable 
a  separation  of  the  various  nitrogenous  bodies 
contained  in  it.  and  which  show  their  relative 
nutritive  value.  Very  important  studies  of 
this  group  have  been  carried  out  by  Osborne  in 
Connecticut :  those  in  the  use  of  the  respira- 
tion apparatus,  in  tin-  studies  of  human  nutrition, 
by  Alwatcr,  and  of  animal  nutrition,  by  Armsby, 
have  already  contributed  materially  to  our  sum 
of  knowledge  concerning  the  energy  value  of 
various  nutritious  bodies.  These  results  have 
their  application  in  the  utilization  of  wastes  and 
in  the  selection  and  preparation  of  rations  and 
of  dietaries,  furnishing  a  rational  basis  for  the 
selection,      combination,      and      preparation      of 

fc    oils 

The  Chemical  Improvement  of  Plants. — The 
improvement  of  plants,  not  only  for  use  directly 
as  food,  but  as  sources  of  supply  of  specific  com- 
pounds for  special  manufacture,  has  been  very 
marked  in  recent  years.  The  chemical  study  of 
the  sugar-beet,  "f  sugar-cane,  and  of  sorghum, 
has  resulted  in  the  development  of  varieties 
which  are  much  richer  in  sugar  than  formerly, 
and  poorer  in  non-sugars,  the  substances  which 
interfere  with  the  extraction  and  crystallization 
of  the  sugar.  So  also  the  chemical  study  of 
maize,  combined  with  the  selection  of  seed,  has 
enabled  the  building  up  of  varieties  which  pos- 
sess a  larger  than  normal  proportion  of  either 
carbohydrates,  the  fats,  or  the  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter, thus  improving  this  most  useful  plant  for 
the  purpose  of  the  manufacture  of  starch  or  as 
a  source  of  oil,  or  for  use  as  food  for  live  stock. 
The  increase  in  the  gluten  content  of  wheat  for 
the  flour  manufacturer,  the  improvement  of  bar- 
lev  for  live  brewer,  are  also  the  direct  result  of 
chemical  supervision  in  the  growth  of  these 
plants. 

The  Chemistry  of  Dairy  Products. —  The 
agricultural  chemist  has  also  been  active  in  the 
study  of  the  composition  and  character  of  the 
milk  of  different  dairy  breeds  as  sources  of 
f(  od  supply,  as  well  as  the  processes  involved 
in  the  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese.  Quick 
and  accurate  methods  for  determining  the  per- 
centage  of   the    •"— srt.Tt   constituent    fat    have 


b<  en  developed,  and  valuable  results  have  been 
secured  m  the  study  of  the  changes  that  take 
place  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  The  most 
important  recent  discovery  is  that  of  Russcil 
and  Babcock  of  Wisconsin,  that  enzymes  cause 
the  breaking  down  of  the  nitrogenous  bodies  of 
the  milk,  and  that  they,  together  with  bacteria, 
are  factors  to  be  considered  in  the  curing  of 
ilu  ese. 

History. —  As  a  science  it  was  born  only  a 
century  and  a  quarter  ago.  The  composition  of 
the  sod  was  then  unknown,  and  its  relation  to 
plant-growth,  with  the  true  function  of  fertil- 
izers, a  matter  of  crude  and  blundering  empirics. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Lavoisier,  wdio 
did  so  much  to  create  the  general  science,  for- 
mulated also  its  agricultural  application  with 
striking  accuracy,  saying  thai  the  components  of 
plains  "  in  the  last  analysis  are  drawn  from  the 
air  and  the  mineral  kingdom.  On  the  other 
hand,  fermentation,  putrefaction,  and  combus- 
tion continually  restore  to  these  the  principles 
borrowed  from  them  by  plants  and  animals." 
Sir  Humphry  Davy,  following  Lavoisier's  indi- 
cations with  zeal,  was  the  first  great  chemist  to 
make  agricultural  chemistry  a  special  study  and 
write  upon  it.  delivering  a  course  of  lectures 
before  the  British  Hoard  of  Agriculture  about 
1800.  and  embodying  them  in  a  volume.  Many 
of  his  hypotheses  were  erroneous,  but  he  greatly 
advanced  the  science. 

As  early  as  1807  Count  Rumford  observed 
that  plants  deprived  of  carbonic  acid  die;  and 
soon  afterward  Ingenhousz  proved  that  they 
absorb  it  only  under  the  influence  of  sunlight. 
These  facts  led  to  the  great  generalization,  the 
basis  of  scientific  agricultural  chemistry,  that 
plants  live  mainly  on  inorganic  matter. 

During  the  second  quarter  of  the  century 
the  distinguished  French  chemist  Boussingault 
devoted  himself  almost  wholly  to  agriculture. 
publishing  many  papers  on  it,  his  <  Rural 
Economy  >  ( 1844)  giving  him  a  European 
reputation;  and  the  second  De  Saussure  ( d. 
1845)  wrote  36  valuable  papers  on  vegetable 
physiology,  collected  as  <  Chemical  Researches 
on  Vegetation.'  But  the  great  era  in  the  sci- 
ence was  made  by  Justus  von  Liebig,  who  pub- 
lished in  1840a  famous  work  entitled  'Organic 
Chemistry  in  its  Relation  to  Agriculture,) 
translated  into  several  languages  and  of  enor- 
mous influence.  He  had  great  gifts  of  exposi- 
tion; and  he  established  in  the  popular  mind  the 
theory  of  the  plants'  almost  entire  dependence 
on  mineral  food,  hitherto  held  only  by  a  few 
men  of  science.  Further,  bis  researches  found- 
ed artificial  fertilization  —  that  is,  the  use  of 
chemically-prepared  fertilizers;  and  showed  how 
to  make  the  phosphoric  acid  in  mineral  phos- 
phates available  by  treatment  with  sulphuric 
acid.  He  also  demonstrated  the  value  of  potash 
as  plant  food.  He  taught  that  the  nitrogen 
was  absorbed  solely  as  ammonia:  a  view  much 
modified  by  later  researches. 

The  publication  of  his  experiments  made  a 
profound  impression,  and  paved  the  way  for 
the  establishment  of  experiment  stations  (q.v.), 
and  in  the  United  States  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  Agricultural  Division  of  the  Patent  Office, 
since  developed  into  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 

The  work  of  Pasteur  showed  that  fermen- 
tation was  due  to  living  organisms,  thus  revo- 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


Unionizing  the  whole  theory  of  organic  decay. 
One  important  practical  application  of  this  dis- 
covery was  the  possibility  of  preserving  food  by 
heat  sterilization. 

Liebig's  theory  of  nitrogen  assimilation  by 
plants  was  fully  demolished  only  by  the  dis- 
coveries of  a  few  years  ago,  consequent  on 
Pasteur's,  that  the  proteid  matter  furnishing  the 
bulk  of  nitrogenous  plant  foods  is  changed  by 
ferments  successively  into  ammonia,  nitrous 
acid,  and  nitric  acid,  in  which  form  it  is  directly 
assimilated. 

As  the  nitrogenous  foods  are  far  the  most 
expensive  of  all  essential  manures  this  discovery 
is  vital  to  agricultural  progress.  The  Chilean 
and  other  South  American  stores  of  nitrates 
are  not  inexhaustible,  and  hence  every  means 
of  increasing  the  nitrates  in  the  soil  is  of  the 
first  importance.  A  promising  method  is  to 
convert  atmospheric  nitrogen  into  nitric  acid 
by  electricity;  electric  storms  do  this  in  trivial 
quantities,  as  detectible  in  rain-water,  but  the 
marvelous  recent  growth  of  electrical  inven- 
tion now  accomplishes  it  by  dynamos. 

In  the  development  of  agricultural  colleges 
and  experiment  stations  chemistry  has  always 
been  the  leading  science:  of  the  present  di- 
rectors of  United  States  stations  21  were  pro- 
fessional chemists  when  appointed;  in  Europe 
the  proportion  is  even  greater. 

In  the  valuable  feature  of  scientific  bulletins 
from  the  experiment  stations,  Prof.  F.  H.  Storer 
of  Bussey  Institute  led  the  way.  But  perhaps 
the  most  successful  popularizer  of  the  science 
since  Liebig  was  Samuel  William  Johnson, 
appointed  agricultural  and  analytical  chemist 
at  Yale  in  1857,  whose  books,  <  How  Plants 
Grow  >  and  <  How  Plants  Feed,'  have  been 
more  universally  read  in  this  country  than  any 
other  agricultural  works.  Another  powerful 
early  worker  was  E.  W.  Hilgard  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  whose  work  on  soils  is  a 
classic.  At  Cornell,  from  its  opening  to  the 
present,  George  C.  Caldwell  has  held  the  chair 
of  agricultural  chemistry  with  distinction. 
Others  of  note  are  C.  A.  Gocssmann  of  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  and  the 
late  R.  C.  Kedzie  of  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan. These  pioneers  are  worthy  of  remem- 
brance for  laying  broad  and  deep  the  founda- 
tions of  future  agricultural  progress. 

The  Association  of  Official  Agricultural 
Chemists  is  by  act  of  1902  the  adviser  of  the 
secretary  of  agriculture  in  fixing  United  States 
food  standards. 

This  science  has  been  important  in  develop- 
ing the  great  manufacturing  industries  de- 
pendent on  agricultural  products,  as  of  cane 
and  beet  sugar,  starch,  beer,  wine,  and  distilled 
liquors.  The  fertilizer  industry,  opening  up 
vast  new  stores  of  plant  food, —  as  the  vast 
phosphate  deposits  of  the  United  States,  the 
deposits  of  Stassfurt,  Germany,  and  the  nitrate 
beds  of  Chile, —  is  wholly  created  by  agricul- 
tural chemistry.  It  also  labors  to  increase  the 
value  of  crops  for  given  purposes  without  in- 
creasing their  draft  on  the  soil  by  studying  the 
environing  conditions  which  modify  its  chemical 
composition,  and  investigates  the  nutritive  value 
of  the  plant  foods  so  as  to  produce  the  most 
economical  results  from  the  raw  material.  It 
teaches  the  best  methods  of  utilizing  such  foods 


and  of  conserving  them  for  the  future,  develops 
new  staple  crops,  and  opens  up  new  avenues  of 
prosperity. 

Bibliograpliy. —  Armsby,  (Manual  of  Cattle 
Feeding  > ;  Blyth,  <  Foods,  Composition  and 
Analysis  > ;  Greiner,  <  Practical  Farm  Chemis- 
try';  S.  W.  Johnson,  <  How  Crops  Feed,' 
and  <How  Crops  Grow>;  Lloyd,  (Science 
of  Agriculture  '  ;  H.  Richmond,  '  Dairy  Chem- 
istry > ;  S.  Riedeal,  <  Sewage •>  ;  Storer,  <  Ag- 
riculture in  Some  of  Its  Relations  with 
Chemistry  >  (3  vols.)  ;  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  publications  of  the 
Bureaus  of  Soils,  Chemistry,  and  Plant  Indus- 
try ;  The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  '  Food 
and  Nutrition  of  Man,>  and  the  publications  of 
the  American  Experiment  Stations ;  Voorhees, 
'  Fertilizers  >  ;  Wahnschaffe,  <  Scientific  Exam- 
ination of  Soils  )  ;  Warrington,  <  Chemistry  of 
the  Farm  •  ;  Wiley,  <  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Agricultural  Analysis'  (3  vols.). 

E.  B.  Voorhees, 
Director  New  Jersey  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station. 

Agricultural  Colleges.  As  a  result  of 
national  and  State  co-operation,  which  enables 
the  ordinary  farmer  to  profit  from  the  experi- 
ments of  widely  separated  individuals  interested 
in  scientific  farming,  the  United  States  stands 
foremost  in  the  matter  of  agricultural  develop- 
ment. Our  Department  of  Agriculture  renders 
the  greatest  service  imaginable  to  the  country; 
but  its  facilities  are  greatly  improved  by  the 
co-operation  of  the  different  State  agricultural 
institutions,  while  the  farmers  of  each  section 
can  rely  upon  their  special  State  colleges  to  sup- 
plement the  work  of  the  national  institution. 

The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  College  is 
one  of  the  foremost  representatives  of  the  typ- 
ical institution  devoted  to  practical  agricultural 
education,  and  its  work  and  studies  are  devoted 
chiefly  to  the  training  of  students  in  modern 
scientific  farming.  The  work  is  conducted  both 
in  the  class-room  and  on  an  experimental  farm. 
The  institution  is  located  on  a  farm  of  400 
acres  at  Amherst,  and  its  buildings  and  land 
are  valued  at  $315,000.  Its  annual  income  from 
the  State  and  United  States  amounts  to 
$45,000,  and  it  is  provided  with  a  permanent  en- 
dowment fund  of  over  $350,000.  There  are 
buildings  for  nearly  every  imaginable  specialty 
pertaining  to  agriculture  —  a  chemical  labora- 
tory, botanical  laboratory,  plant-house,  cream- 
ery and  dairy  laboratory,  veterinary  buildings, 
barns,  museum,  library,  and  entomological  lab- 
oratory and  insectary. 

Instruction  is  given  by  a  corps  of  18  profes- 
sors and  assistants  in  chemistry,  botany,  agri- 
culture, horticulture,  zoology,  veterinary  science, 
mathematics,  civil  engineering,  and  similar  stud- 
ies. Practical  work  on  the  farm  is  a  part  of 
the  course,  and  the  students  cultivate  the  whole 
farm,  experimental  orchard,  and  nursery.  There 
are  100  acres  devoted  to  orchards,  vineyards,  and 
the  cultivation  of  small  fruits;  150  acres  under 
cultivation  with  field  crops,  and  nearly  as  many 
more  allotted  to  grass  and  hay  for  the  100  head 
of  cattle  which  are  kept  on  the  farm.  Consid- 
erably over  1. 000  men  have  been  educated  at  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College.  A  recent 
census    of    them    showed    that    nearly   400   are 


AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGES 


to-day  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits;  more 
than  a  score  are  instructors  in  other  similar 
institutions;  and  others  have  drifted  into  a 
varnty  of  callings.  The  effect  of  the  college 
on  the  agriculture  of  the  country  must  prove 
of  immeasurable  value  if  a  similar  propor- 
tion of  its  graduates  adopt  farming  for  their 
life's  work,  and  perform  their  labors  in  a 
scientific  manner,  as  they  were  taught  to  do 
at  the  institutii m. 

The  State  agricultural  and  mechanical  col- 
leges which  have  sprung  up  in  most  of  the 
leading  agricultural  States  of  the  East  and  West, 
and  in  many  parts  of  the  South,  in  recent  years, 
have  in  view  the  training  of  young  men  for 
scientific  and  practical  agriculture,  and  also  for 
mechanical  and  manufacturing  arts  and  sciences. 
They  are  endowed  by  the  State,  and  also  by 
private  individuals.  They  are  for  the  most  part 
under  the  control  of  the  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture, tin  governor,  and  other  State  officers; 
but  the  president  and  faculty  of  each  institu- 
tion practically  have  all  the  liberty  they  de- 
mand in  carrying  out  the  work  according  to 
well-defined  policies.  Some  of  these  State  agri- 
cultural colleges  arc  remarkably  well  equipped 
and  endowed  for  the  work  they  have  in  hand. 
Thus,  the  Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  has 
15  buildings,  which  have  been  erected  by  the 
State  at  a  total  cost  of  $500,000.  There  are 
nearly  1,000  acres  of  land  attached  to  the  insti- 
tution. A  corps  of  55  professors  and  nearly 
600  students  is  engaged  in  study  and  work.  All 
kinds  of  crops  raised  in  Iowa  are  cultivated 
on  tin-  farm,  and  cattle,  horses,  and  poultry  are 
kept  by  the  students.  Experiments  are  con- 
stantly being  carried  on  by  the  professors  and 
students  in  agriculture,  horticulture,  chemistry, 
ami  general  fanning,  apd  '.he  results  of  these 
experiments  are  published  in  bulletins  and  pa- 
pers for  the  lieu,  lit  .if  tin-  world. 

The  Pennsylvania  State  college,  called  the 
Agricultural  College  of  Pennsylvania,  is  even 
broader  in  its  educational  aims  than  the  Iowa 
college.  Almost  all  studies  from  agriculture, 
chemistry,  physics,  engineering,  mining,  and 
mathematics  up  to  philosophy,  general  literature, 
and  languages  are  taught  there.  In  recent  years 
this  coll, -ye  has  steadily  broadened  as  a  high- 
grade  technical,  scientific,  and  classical  institu- 
tion. Nevertheless  agriculture,  in  all  its  wide 
fields  of  application,  is  one  of  the  chief  studies 
emphasized  at  the  college.  A  correspondence 
course  has  in  late  years  been  organized  for  the 
purpose  of  instructing  students  on  farms  who 
attend  the  college,  but  who  wish  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  researches  and  facts  obtained 
at  it.  Forestry  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
branches  of  work  carried  on  at  this  college;  and 
it  not  only  trains  young  men  to  appreciate  the 
value  of  cultivating  orchards  and  woods,  but  also 
turns  out  practical  foresters,  capable  of  taking 
charge  of  large  forests  and  converting  them 
into  profitable  possessions,  without  destroying 
and  denuding  them  of  tn 

The  Michigan  State  Agricultural  College  is 
another  institution  which,  for  more  than  40 
years,  has  endeavored  to  help  the  fanners  in 
their  struggle  to  wrest  from  the  soil  a  fair 
compensation  for  their  labors.  The  original 
idea  of  this  college  was  to  perfect  in  their 
studies  all  graduates  of  the  common  schools  who 
wished  to  possess  a  complete  practical  and  theo- 
retic knowledge  of  the  arts  and  sciences  which 


bore  directly  upon  agricultural  and  kindred  pur- 
suits. I  1  inline  zoology,  meteorology,  physics, 
veterinary  science,  entomology.  bacteriology. 
chemistry,  geology,  and  agriculture  and  horticul- 
ture are  a  few  of  the  studies  pursued.  Post- 
graduates can  pursue  advanced  studies  in  the 
sciences,  and  in  the  library  of  20,000  volumes 
they  can  rind  nearly  all  the  literature  of  value 
pertaining  to  their  particular  studies.  There 
are  some  6/6  acres  of  land  attached  to  the  col- 
lege. 230  acres  of  which  are  devoted  to  field 
s,  45  to  woodland.  114  to  orchards  and 
garden,  47  to  experimental  fields,  and  J40  to  for- 
est. There  is  a  fine  arboretum,  a  botanic  gar- 
den, a  grass-garden,  and  a  weed-garden,  where 
100  or  more  noxious  weeds  are  groun  to  show 
their  destructive  possibilities  to  the  students. 
There  are  some  450  students  at  the  college,  ami 
more  than  half  of  them  take  the  full  agricul- 
tural  course. 

The  South  has  a  good  institution  of  this  class 
in  the'  Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College,  with  a  faculty  of  some  24  members,  and 
a  student  membership  of  nearly  400.  The  col- 
lege is  under  the  management  of  a  board  of 
trustees,  with  the  governor  of  the  State  an 
c.r  officio  member.  The  students  who  attend 
this  college  are  paid  eight  cents  per  hour  for 
their  work  in  the  fields  or  orchards,  which 
enables  them  to  pay  for  a  part  of  their  living 
while   studying. 

The  Kansas  State  College,  with  its  300  acres 
of  land,  buildings  valued  tit  $350,000,  and  a  fac- 
ulty of  45  professors  and  assistants,  lias  become 
an  important  factor  in  the  middle  West  in 
developing  the  agricultural  possibilities.  Agri- 
culture, engineering,  and  general  and  household 
economics  are  taught  to  the  students.  There  is 
a  dairy,  blacksmith-shop,  foundry,  machine-shop, 
printing-office,  and  woodwork  and  painting  shop 
connected  with  the  college,  wdiere  practical  work 
can  be  followed  by  the  students. 

With  agriculture  as  our  leading  industry, 
many  of  the  large  universities  have  in  recent 
years  established  an  agricultural  course  and 
•  cperimental  farms  for  work  in  the  regular  col- 
lege course.  When  this  subject  is  mentioned, 
one  turns  instinctively  toward  Cornell  Univer- 
sity, with  its  admirable  agricultural  and  forestry 
departments;  toward  the  Ohio  State  University, 
with  its  buildings  and  equipments  aggregating 
nearly  $3,000,000  and  with  an  income  of  $350,000; 
or  toward  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  or  the 
University  of  California.  These  typical  univer- 
sities, which  have  given  agriculture  and  horti- 
culture a  prominent  place  in  their  curriculums, 
send  forth  annually  hundreds  of  students  to 
teach  practical  farming  to  new  communities 
which  may  still  labor  under  the  disadvantage  of 
old  methods  and  ideas  of  agricultural  produc- 
tion. The  Ohio  State  University  at  Columbus 
has  over  i.ooq  students,  and  a  corps  of  78  pro- 
fessors and  assistants;  but  it  aims  to  give  a  sci- 
entific and  classical  education  to  both  young 
men  and  women.  It  is  divided  into  six  colleges, 
with  one  devoted  to  agriculture  and  domestic 
science,  and  another  to  veterinary  science.  Stu- 
dents pursuing  other  studies  can  take  courses  in 
these  departments,  and  there  are  also  oppor- 
tunities for  graduate  studies  in  the  science  of 
agriculture.  There  is  a  well-stocked  farm  of 
200  acres  connected  with  the  university,  a  dairy 
department,  a  large  laboratory  for  student  work 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


in  soils  and  crops,  and  a  veterinary  laboratory 
and  operating  building. 

In  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  with  its 
membership  rapidly  approaching  2,000,  and  a 
corps  of  over  130  professors  and  assistants, 
there  is  a  college  of  agriculture,  which  gives  ex- 
cellent courses  in  dairying,  veterinary  science, 
experimental  farm  work,  entomology,  scientific 
plant  investigation,  and  general  horticulture  and 
agriculture.  There  are  cheese  factories,  cream- 
eries, and  dairies  on  the  farm,  with  large  green- 
houses for  raising  plants,  extensive  barns  for 
cattle,  and  bacteriological  laboratories.  The  col- 
lege co-operates  with  the  60  or  more  State  insti- 
tutes of  the  farmers  in  supplying  literature  and 
lecturers,  and  thus  becomes  an  essential  part 
of  the  State's  chief  industry. 

Like  the  two  former,  the  agricultural  college 
of  Cornell  University,  in  New  York,  has  become 
one  of  the  greatest  factors  in  stimulating  and 
broadening  the  farming  interests  of  the  State 
and  indirectly  of  the  whole  country,  while  it  has 
contributed  largely  to  the  establishment  of  agri- 
culture on  a  firmer  and  higher  scientific  basis 
than  ever  before  in  its  history. 

Agricultural  Education.  The  earliest  farm- 
ers in  America  had  to  contend  with  innumerable 
and  great  obstacles :  with  the  wildness  of  nature, 
the  attacks  of  Indians  and  wild  beasts  upon 
their  stock,  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  farming 
implements  and  seeds,  and  with  conditions  of 
climate  and  soil,  very  different  from  those  of 
the  old  countries  whence  they  derived  all  their 
methods.  The  colonial  farmer  was  compelled  to 
use  the  crudest  methods.  He  cut  down,  heaped 
and  burned  the  small  trees  and  undergrowth, 
and  belted  the  large  ones.  He  scratched  the  sur- 
face a  little  with  a  home-made  plow,  and  culti- 
vated his  corn  and  tobacco  with  a  wooden  hoe. 
He  harvested  the  crop  that  nature  gave  him  in 
a  careless  manner  and  used  it  wastefully.  He 
cultivated  the  same  field  until  it  was  worn  out, 
when  he  cleared  another  and  moved  his  family 
near  to  it.  So  long  as  land  was  so  abundant, 
no  attention  was  paid  to  the  conservation  of 
fertility  of  the  soil.  America  was  such  a  vast 
and  fertile  country  that  it  took  the  people  over 
a  century  to  find  out  that  there  was  any  limit 
to  its  productiveness.  These  conditions  were 
quite  sufficient  to  explain  the  slow  progress 
made  in  agriculture  during  the  1st  century  or 
more  after  the  settlement  of  America. 

It  was  not  until  the  close  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury that  the  attention  of  practical  men  com- 
menced to  be  directed  to  the  discoveries  of  sci- 
ence, and  hopes  were  excited  that  immediate 
benefits  would  accrue  from  them  to  agriculture 
as  they  had  to  the  other  arts.  Lavoisier's  dis- 
coveries and  teachings  had  aroused  the  hope 
that  chemistry  could  do  a  great  deal  to  promote 
the  advancement  of  farming.  Americans  com- 
menced to  appreciate  their  disadvantages  as 
compared  with  British  and  continental  farmers, 
and  to  seek  better  implements  and  methods  for 
their  work.  The  newly  awakened  interest  in 
agriculture  was  marked  first  by  the  formation 
of  agricultural  societies.  George  Washington 
was  one  of  the  best  technically  educated  men  in 
America  in  his  day,  and  was  especially  interested 
in  everything  pertaining  to  agriculture.  His 
various  State  papers  show  that  he  not  only 
knew  the  needs  of  the  country,  but  that  he  fully 
realized   that   schools   for   the   education   of  the 


people  and  societies  for  the  distribution  of  know- 
ledge were  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the  re- 
public. A  few  extracts  will  recall  his  strong 
opinions  on  this  subject.  In  his  first  annual 
message  to  Congress  (8  Jan.  1790)  he  expressed 
the  hope  that  the  "advancement  of  agriculture, 
commerce,  and  manufactures,  by  all  proper 
means,  will  not,  I  trust,  need  recommendation." 
and  adds,  "Xor  am  I  less  persuaded  that  you 
will  agree  with  me  in  the  opinion  that  there  is 
nothing  which  can  better  deserve  your  patronage 
than  the  promotion  of  science  and  literature. 
.  .  .  Whether  this  desirable  object  will  be 
best  promoted  by  affording  aids  to  seminaries 
already  established,  or  by  the  institution  of  a 
national  university,  or  by  any  other  expedients, 
will  be  well  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  deliberations 
of  the  legislature."  Notice  how  agriculture  and  a 
national  university  for  the  promotion  of  sci- 
ence and  arts  were  always  associated  in  Wash- 
ington's mind.  He  mentions  the  advancement 
of  agriculture  and  the  establishment  of  a 
national  university  in  the  same  connection  in 
his  first  message.  He  discusses  them  together 
in  many  of  his  writings  during  eight  years,  and 
finally  in  his  eighth  annual  message,  he  says, 
"It  will  not  be  doubted  that  with  reference 
either  to  individual  or  national  welfare  agricul- 
ture is  of  primary  importance.  In  proportion 
as  nations  advance  in  population  and  other  cir- 
cumstances of  maturity,  this  truth  becomes  more 
apparent,  and  renders  the  cultivation  of  the  soil 
more  and  more  an  object  of  public  patronage. 
Institutions  for  promoting  it  grow  up,  supported 
by  the  public  purse;  and  to  what  object  can  it 
be  dedicated  with  greater  propriety  ?  .  .  .  I 
have  heretofore  proposed  to  the  consideration  of 
Congress  the  expediency  of  establishing  a 
national  university  and  also  a  military  acad- 
emy. The  desirableness  of  both  these  institu- 
tions has  so  constantly  increased  with  every 
new  view  I  have  taken  of  the  subject  that  I 
cannot  omit  the  opportunity  of  once  for  all  call- 
ing your  attention  to  them."  With  marvelous 
foresight  Washington  urged  the  necessity  for 
scientific  research  and  education  in  America, 
and  he  planned  at  the  same  time  for  institutions 
to  discover  and  collect  knowledge,  and  societies 
to  disseminate  it.  He  saw  also  that  agriculture 
was  to  be  the  chief  industry  in  the  country,  and 
that  it  would  need  the  assistance  of  science. 
Thus  he  appears  to  have  associated  plans  for 
the  advancement  of  agriculture  with  those  for 
a  national  university.  Congress  promptly  estab- 
lished the  military  academy,  and  some  years 
later  the  naval  academy  and  the  department  of 
agriculture.  But  it  has  not  yet  established  the 
national  university,  which  was  the  chief  agency 
in  Washington's  mind  for  the  development  of 
all  the  sciences  and  arts  of  peace. 

Agricultural  Societies  and  Fairs. —  The  first 
society  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture  in  the 
United  States  was  organized  at  Philadelphia  on 
1  March  1  r^5  :  and  on  the  4th  of  July  following 
George  Washington  and  Benjamin  Franklin 
were  elected  members.  A  similar  society  was 
incorporated  in  South  Carolina  in  the  same  year, 
which  proposed,  among  other  things,  to  estab- 
lish an  experimental  farm  —  the  first  sugge-- 
of  the  kind  in  our  history.  The  New  York 
society  for  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  arts, 
and  manufactures,  which  had  been  organized  on 
26  Feb.  1791,  published  its  first  small  volume  of 
transactions    in    1792.     The    Massachusetts    So- 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


ciety  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture  was 
established  7  March  1792,  and  commenced,  in 
1797,  the  publication  of  bulletins.  The  Soci- 
iety  for  Promoting  Agriculture  in  the  State  of 
Connecticut  was  organized  in  1704,  and  pub- 
lished its  first  volume  of  proceedings  in  1802. 
Washington  was  evidently  familiar  with  the 
work  of  these  agricultural  societies;  but  his 
knowledge  of  such  agencies  was  not  limited  to 
his  own  country.  In  Great  Britain,  the  Bath 
and  the  West  of  England  Agricultural  socie- 
ties had  been  established.  Sir  John  Sinclair, 
the  "inventor  of  Statistics*  and  president  of  the 
Highland  Society,  had  established,  in  1791.  the 
British  Wool  Society  and  the  Sheep  Pair  at  New- 
halls  Inn.  After  agitating  the  subject  for  a 
number  of  years,  Sinclair  secured  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Royal  Board  of  Agriculture,  and  was 
appointed  its  first  president  in  1793.  Washing- 
ton's correspondence  with  Sir  John  Sinclair 
shows  that  he  had  the  benefit  of  all  the  infor- 
mation to  be  obtained  from  the  father  of  the 
British  board  of  agriculture.  Agricultural  socie- 
ties naturally  led  to  the  establishment  of  fairs 
and  exhibitions.  A  member  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Society  suggested  first  in  1801  that  agri- 
cultural fairs  should  be  held  regularly  at  Cam- 
bridge spring  and  fall,  and  premiums  be  given 
for  farm  products.  No  action  appears,  how- 
ever, to  have  been  taken  with  regard  to  this 
suggestion.  Dr.  Thornton,  the  first  commis- 
sioner of  patents  at  Washington,  suggested  in 
1804  that  the  sale  of  agricultural  products  and 
of  cattle  would  be  promoted  by  the  holding  of 
fairs  on  market  days,  as  in  England.  As  a  re- 
sult of  this  suggestion  we  learn  from  the  'Na- 
tional Intelligencer'  of  that  year  that  fairs  were 
hclil  "in  the  mall  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Tiber."  The  first  fair  proved  such  a  success 
that  the  citizens  raised  an  appropriation  of  $;o 
for  premiums  for  the  next  one.  which  was  held 
in  April  1805.  The  third  fair,  held  in  Novem- 
ber 1S05,  appears  to  have  been  the  last.  Gov. 
Edward  Winslow,  of  Massachusetts,  is  said  to 
have  brought  to  Plymouth,  iii  the  ship  Charity, 
in  1694,  "the  first  neat  cattle  that  came  into 
New  England."  It  was  appropriate  that  his 
descendant,  Elkanah  Watson,  of  Plymouth, 
should  import  the  first  pair  of  Spanish  Merino 
sheep  into  Massachusetts,  and  should  then  give 
notice  of  an  exhibition  of  them  at  Pittsfield.  This 
small  exhibit  led  to  a  larger  enterprise  and  the 
establishment  of  stock  shows  in  America.  An 
invitation  was  published  by  Watson  and  some 
20  other  persons  calling  an  exhibition  of  stock  at 
the  same  place  on  I  October.  This  cattle  show- 
was  so  successful  that  it  became  a  permanent 
institution  in  Massachusetts.  A  number  of  pub- 
lic-spirited citizens  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  and 
the  District  of  Columbia  had  in  the  meantime 
formed,  in  [809,  the  Columbian  Agricultural  So- 
ciety, which  was  for  many  years  actively 
engaged  in  the  work  of  educating  the  farmer 
through  the  agency  of  fairs.  From  these  begin- 
nings agricultural  societies  have  spread  all 
over  our  country,  and  agricultural  fairs  have 
become  a  potent  agency  for  the  dissemination 
of  valuable  information  with  regard  to  new 
crops,  implements,  stock,  and  improvement  in 
agriculture  generally.  Nearly  all  of  the  States 
have  now  either  boards  of  agriculture  or  com- 
missioners or  secretaries  of  agriculture  in 
charge  of  the  farming  interests.  Their  work 
varies,    but    usually    includes    the    collection    of 


agricultural  statistics,  the  preparation  of  weather 
and  crop  reports  and  the  oversight  of  the  Stock 
interests,  and  frequently  also  the  inspection  and 
analysis  of  fertilizers  and  mixed  cattle  feeds, 
the  testing  and  examination  of  dairy  and  other 
food  products.  Some  of  the  State  boards  con- 
duct the  agricultural  colleges,  hold  fairs,  give 
premiums  for  fine  stock,  and  hold  farmers'  insti- 
tutes.  The  boards,  commissioners,  and  socie- 
ties all  publish  reports  and  bulletins  and  many 
of  them  accomplish  a  great  deal  of  admirable 
educational  work.  The  Patrons  of  Husbandry 
(Grange)  and  National  Farmers'  Alliance,  or- 
ganizations with  many  subordinate  branches  and 
local  societies,  have  exerted  great  influence  espe- 
cially in  educating  the  farmers  and  their  families 
The  Farmers'  National  Congress  meets  once  a 
year  for  the  discussion  of  questions  of  general  in- 
terest. For  the  stock  interests,  we  have  in  this 
country  a  national  live  stock  association,  5 
national  dairy  unions,  and  56  State  dairy  asso- 
ciations. There  are  14  cattle  breeders  asso- 
ciations representing  the  interests  of  as  many 
different  important  breeds.  18  horse  breeders 
associations,  29  sheep  breeders  associations,  17 
associations  of  swine  breeders,  etc.  Nearly  all 
of  the  States  protect  their  stock  from  diseases 
through  the  agency  of  sanitary  boards  or  veter- 
inarians under  the  direction  of  the  State  boards 
or  commissioners.  There  is  a  national  league 
for  good  roads  that  is  doing  much  to  educate 
public  opinion.  Ten  States  have  forestry  com- 
missions or  provide  for  forest  protection  and 
improvement  in  some  way.  There  are  besides 
18  forestry  associations  which  are  doing  much 
educational  work.  Eleven  national  or  inter- 
state, and  54  State  horticultural  and  kindred 
societies  are  at  work.  (For  the  names  of  these 
societies  and  the  addresses  of  their  officers,  see 
the  Year-book  of  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  for  1898.) 

Agricultural  Schools. —  The  origin  and  de- 
velopment of  agricultural  schools  in  America 
was  a  part  of  a  general  educational  movement 
against  the  old  classical  college  and  in  favor  of 
scientific  and  technical  education.  Perhaps  the 
demand  for  agricultural  education  was  the  first 
one  to  be  heard ;  but  it  had  its  origin  in  the 
same  causes  which  gave  rise  to  the  demand  for 
the  application  of  science  to  all  the  arts  and 
professions  in  life. 

As  the  great  universities  of  Europe  grew  out 
of  monastic  and  cathedral  schools,  so  our  first 
American  colleges  were  all  the  children  of  the 
churches.  The  preachers  were  in  the  early  days 
almost  the  only  learned  men,  and  therefore  the 
only  teachers.  In  the  case  of  the  rural  schools 
the  preacher  was  both  school  director  and  teacher. 
The  institutions  for  higher  education  were  also 
founded  and  controlled  by  the  associations  and 
presbyteries  of  the  different  denominations,  and 
the  most  learned  of  their  clergy  became  the 
instructors.  Naturally  enough,  as  their  founders 
and  teachers  were  all  preachers,  these  early  col- 
leges were  devoted  almost  exclusively  to  the 
cultivation  of  theology,  classics,  and  philosophy. 
Their  parson-teachers  taught  what  they  held  to 
be  the  only  thing  worth  learning,  and  they  were 
right  in  putting  character  and  culture  above 
everything  else.  Their  methods  produced  a  race 
of  preachers,  teachers,  lawyers,  statesmen,  and 
soldiers  scarcely  equaled  and  never  surpassed 
in  any  country.  But  a  new  and  rapidly  growing 
country   like   America   needed   engineers,   chern- 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


ists,  miners,  and  manufacturers,  and  an  ambi- 
tious and  intelligent  people  were  not  slow  to 
make  their  wants  heard.  Some  of  the  physical 
sciences,  notably  chemistry  and  geology,  had 
already  made  great  progress,  and  had  revolu- 
tionized some  of  the  arts.  The  popular  writ- 
ings of  great  scientific  men,  notably  Liebig's 
'Letters'  on  chemistry,  were  eagerly  read,  and 
people  everywhere  cherished  bright  hopes  of 
the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  application 
of  science  to  the  industries  of  life,  and  espe- 
cially to  agriculture.  Discovery  and  invention 
were  already  doing  much  to  develop  the 
material  resources  of  the  world  and  to  change 
the  occupations  of  men.  Steam  was  beginning 
to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  transportation, 
chemistry  was  being  applied  in  working  iron, 
in  dyeing  fabrics,  and  in  many  other  arts.  Great 
railroads  were  to  be  built,  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  military  academy  at  West  Point, 
there  was  no  school  to  train  the  engineers  to 
survey  them.  Mines  of  coal  and  iron  were  to 
be  opened,  but  miners  had  to  be  imported  to  open 
them.  Factories  needed  to  be  built,  but  engi- 
neers had  to  be  brought  over  from  England  or 
Holland  to  build  them.  Iron  works  and  many 
other  important  industries  were  calling  loudly 
for  chemists,  who  had  to  be  obtained  from 
Germany  or  France.  These  influences,  but  more 
especially  the  need  of  scientific  knowledge  in  a 
rapidly  developing  country,  produced  a  profound 
effect  on  the  theories  and  practice  of  education ; 
and  thus  a  vigorous  demand  arose  for  the  sci- 
ences and  their  applications  to  the  arts  of  life. 
The  old  college  was  not  meeting  the  new  de- 
mands :  but  what  the  new  college  was  to  be.  and 
what  its  methods,  no  one  knew  for  a  long  time. 
Columbia  College,  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
appointed,  in  1792.  Samuel  L.  Mitchell  "pro- 
fessor of  natural  history,  chemistry,  and  agricul- 
ture." The  records  of  the  college  do  not  show 
what  instruction  he  gave  in  agricultural  science, 
if  any.  but  Prof.  Mitchell,  so  far  as  we  know, 
was,  by  title  at  least,  the  first  professor  of  agri- 
culture in  America.  The  Philadelphia  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture,  of  which 
Washington  was  an  honorary  member,  appointed 
a  committee  on  21  Jan.  1-94  to  "prepare  a  plan 
for  establishing  the  State  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Agriculture,  connecting  with  it  the 
education  of  youth  in  the  knowledge  of  that 
most  important  art."  This  committee  made  a 
report  offering  several  alternative  propositions 
for  promoting  agricultural  education.  One  sug- 
gestion made  was  "the  endowment  of  professor- 
ships to  be  annexed  to  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  the  College  of  Carlisle,  and  other 
seminaries  of  learning,  for  the  purpose  of  teach- 
ing the  chemical,  philosophical,  and  elementary 
arts  of  the  theory  of  agriculture."  Another 
suggestion  was  to  use  the  common  school  sys- 
tem of  the  State  to  educate  the  farmer  in  his 
business,  "the  county  schoolmasters  being  made 
secretaries  of  the  county  societies,  and  the 
school-houses  the  places  of  meeting  and  the 
repositories  of  their  transactions,  models,  etc. 
The  legislature  may  enjoin  on  these  school- 
masters the  combination  of  the  subject  of  agri- 
culture with  other  parts  of  education."  This  is, 
so  far  as  we  know,  the  first  formal  effort  made 
in  the  United  States  to  present  the  claims  of 
agricultural  education  to  a  legislature  and  to 
incorporate  instruction  in  agriculture  in  the  com- 
mon schools. 


United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. — 
The  war  with  England,  the  expansion  of  terri- 
tory, the  rapid  development  of  manufacturing, 
and  many  other  causes,  contributed  to  retard 
the  progress  of  agricultural  education  for  sev- 
eral decades  after  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury. The  agitation  continued,  but  little  was 
accomplished  until  after  1840. 

Upon  the  motion  of  Elkanah  Watson,  the 
Berkshire  Agricultural  Society  of  Massachu- 
setts presented  in  1817  a  memorial  to  Congress 
praying  for  "the  establishment  of  a  national 
board  of  agriculture  in  accordance  with  the 
original  suggestion  of  President  Washington.9 
The  bill  reported  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives was  promptly  defeated  by  a  large  vote.  It 
was  well  known  that  President  Madison  was 
opposed  to  it  on  constitutional  grounds.  Others 
based  their  opposition  on  the  indifference  of 
the  farmers  of  the  country  and  the  idea  that 
such  a  board  was  not  needed.  The  only  strik- 
ing event  in  the  agricultural  history  of  the  coun- 
try during  the  next  decade  was  the  agitation  of 
silk  culture,  commonly  called  the  "Morus  multi- 
caulis"  craze  from  the  variety  of  the  mulberry 
tree  which  was  introduced  everywhere  to  supply 
food  for  the  silk  worm.  Congress  responded  to 
the  popular  demand  for  information  on  this  sub- 
ject by  ordering  the  preparation  and  publication 
of  a  manual  of  silk  culture,  which  was  done. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture grew  finally  out  of  the  recommendation  of 
President  Washington  for  a  national  board  of 
agriculture,  but  more  immediately  out  of  the 
seed  distribution  originated  in  the  Department 
of  State  during  the  presidency  of  John  Quincy 
Adams.  The  patent  office  was  first  in  the  hands 
of  the  Department  of  State,  and  the  seeds  col- 
lected by  consuls  in  various  parts  of  the  world 
were  turned  over  to  it.  as  the  scientific  branch 
of  the  government  for  distribution.  So  it  came 
about  that  when  on  4  July  1836,  the  patent  office 
was  made  a  separate  bureau  and  Henry  L. 
Ellsworth,  a  practical  farmer  of  Connecticut, 
was  appointed  commissioner,  he  found  it  one  of 
his  duties  to  distribute  seeds  and  plants.  It 
was  a  congenial  duty  and  one  for  which  he  was 
well  qualified  both  by  education  and  experience. 
During  his  travels  over  the  country  as  Indian 
commissioner,  Mr.  Ellsworth  had  been  deeply 
impressed  with  the  agricultural  possibilities  of 
the  western  prairies  and  also  with  the  great 
ignorance  and  destitution  of  the  settlers  upon 
them.  He  believed  that  what  they  needed  was 
better  implements  and  seeds  adapted  to  the  cli- 
mate and  soils.  So  deeply  impressed  was  he 
with  the  necessities  of  these  people  that,  without 
the  authority  of  Congress  and  outside  of  busi- 
ness hours,  he  collected  seeds  and  plants,  which 
he  distributed  to  farmers  in  all  sections  of  the 
country,  but  especially  to  those  in  the  far  West, 
using  the  postal  franks  of  members  of  Con- 
gress for  this  purpose.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  seed  distribution  by  the  United  States 
government,  which  has  since  grown  to  such 
colossal  proportions.  Thus  alsfl  was  born  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In 
his  first  annual  report  Mr.  Ellsworth  begged 
earnestly  for  an  appropriation  to  continue  and 
enlarge  this  distribution  of  seeds  and  one  was 
made  during  the  last  days  of  the  Twenty -fifth 
Congress  which  provided  S1.000  from  the  patent 
office  fund  "for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and 
distributing    seeds,   prosecuting   agricultural    in- 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


vestigations.  and  procuring  agricultural  statis- 
tics." With  the  exception  of  the  years  [840, 
1841,  and  [846  Congress  made  a  small  appro- 
priation for  this  purpose  each  year  from  the 
patent  office  fund.  The  first  separate  app  0 
priation  for  agriculture,  made  in  the  year  1854, 
was  $35,000,  and  it  has  never  been  less  than 
that  sum.  An  agent  was  authorized  also  at 
tins  time  to  "investigate  and  report  upon  the 
habits  of  in  ects,  injurious  and  beneficial  to 
vegetation,"  and  a  botanical  garden  was  estab- 
lished. The  same  year  arrangements  were  made 
with  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  collecting 
meteorological  statistics.  The  present  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  was  established 
by  an  act  of  Congress,  approved  by  President 
Lincoln  on  15  May  1862.  This  act  was  chiefly 
due  to  the  strong  plea  made  by  Commissioner 
of  Patents  David  P.  I  loll,, way,  of  Indiana.  It 
is  remarkable  that  the  other  great  act  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture  in  America,  known  as 
the  land-grant  act  establishing  colleges  of  agri- 
culture and  mechanic  arts,  was  passed  by  the 
same  Congress  and  approved  by  President  Lin- 
coln on  2  July  of  the  same  year,  both  in  the 
midst  of  tin-  terrors  of  the  Civil  War.  The  art 
of  15  May  1862  did  nol  establish  an  independ- 
ent department  of  the  government.  Its  chief 
officer  was  styled  simply  "commissioner  of 
agriculture."  He  did  not  become  a  member  of 
the  Cabinet  until  II  Feb.  iSSg,  when  President 
Cleveland  approved  another  act  of  Congress 
making  the  Department  of  Agriculture  an  execu- 
tive department. 

Agricultural  Colleges. —  The  demand  for  sci- 
entific and  technical  education  did  not  cease  as 
the  years  passed  by,  but  grew  louder  and  louder 
with  the  development  of  the  country.  The  his- 
tory of  the  agitation  in  New  York  may  be  taken 
as  an  illustration.  In  1819  there  was  published 
anonymously  at  Albany  a  pamphlet  on  "the 
necessity  of  establishing  an  agricultural  college," 
which  has  been  commonly  attributed  to  that 
active  and  intelligent  man,  Simeon  De  Witt, 
Surveyor-general  of  New  York.  He  proposed 
the  establishment  of  an  institution  to  be  called 
the  agricultural  college  of  the  State  of  New 
York,  to  be  endowed  by  the  State  and  conducted 
under  State  authority.  The  'Transactions1  of  the 
New  York  Agricultural  Society  for  1822  contain 
allusions  to  the  same  subjects,  and  the  matter 
was  never  allowed  to  drop  entirely  out  of  sight. 
About  1S25  a  private  agricultural  college  or 
school  was  undertaken  in  Columbia  County. 
This  was  the  period  (1830  to  1850)  of  the  agita- 
tion for  the  so-called  "manual  labor  schools," 
and  many  of  the  schools  of  the  time  took  that 
form.  The  Oneida  Institute  was  one  of  the 
first  of  these  schools,  and  it  is  said  to  have  had 
a  course  of  instruction  in  practical  agriculture. 
These  were  not  manual  training  schools  or  tech- 
nical schools  in  tin'  modern  sense,  but  schools 
having  farms  attached  where  the  students  could 
support  themselves  by  manual  labor  while  pur- 
suing their  studies.  This  plan,  which  was  re- 
ceived with  niucTi  popular  favor  for  a  time  and 
led  to  the  establishment  of  numerous  schools, 
was  soon  found  to  be  impracticable  and  aban- 
doned. The  demand  in  New  York  for  agricul- 
tural education  grew  steadily,  and  by  1838  peti- 
tions bearing  6.000  signatures  were  presented  to 
the  legislature  demanding  State  aid  in  behalf  of 
agricultural  schools.  The  committee  to  whom 
the  petitions   were   referred   deplored   in   strong 


language  "that  there  is  no  school,  no  seminary, 
no  department  of  any  school  in  which  the  sci- 
ence of  agriculture  is  taught,"  and  recom- 
mended very  strongly  the  establishment  of  a 
school  of  agriculture.  No  action  was  taken  at 
this  time,  but  the  matter  came  up  in  a  different 
form  at  each  succeeding  session  of  the  legisla- 
ture, and  appears  to  have  grown  steadily  in 
favor.  The  State  Agricultural  Society  helped 
greatly  to  advance  the  interests  of  the  cause,  ami 
in  1844  appointed  a  committee  of  which  Gov. 
Seward,  Lieut. -Gov.  Dickinson,  and  James  S. 
Wadsworth,  were  members,  to  promote  "the 
introduction  of  agricultural  studies  in  the  schools 
of  the  State,"  and  also  "for  the  purpose  of 
selecting  books  for  family  and  school  libraries." 
It  was  resolved  at  the  same  time.  "That  this 
society  regards  the  establishment  of  an  agricul- 
tural institute  and  pattern  farm  in  this  State, 
where  shall  be  taught  thoroughly  and  alike  the 
science,  the  practice,  and  the  profits  of  good 
husbandry,  as  an  object  of  great  importance." 
This  committee  co-operated  with  the  associa- 
tion of  school  superintendents,  with  the  result 
that  that  body  adopted,  in  June  1844,  a  resolution 
drawn  by  Prof.  Potter,  of  Union  College,  set- 
ting forth  the  opinion  that  "the  time  has  arrived 
when  the  elements  and  scientific  principles  of 
agriculture  should  be  taught  in  all  schools.11 
Still  the  Slate  look  no  action.  However, 
numerous  private  agricultural  schools  were 
established. 

Gov.  Hamilton  Fish  first  recommended,  in 
January  1849,  in  his  annual  message  to  the  legis- 
lature, the  establishment  of  a  State  agricultural 
college.  During  the  following  session  of  the 
legislature  Prof.  Johnson,  the  great  agricultural 
chemist  of  Scotland,  was  invited  to  Albany  and 
delivered  a  course  of  lectures  under  the  aus- 
pices 6i  the  New  York  Agricultural  Society. 
The  same  year  this  society  established  a  chemical 
laboratory  at  Albany  for  the  analysis  of  manures, 
fertilizers,  etc.  Still  nothing  was  done  about 
the  school.  Prof.  William  II.  Brewer  writes: 
"In  1850  Mr.  John  Dclaficld,  a  graduate  of 
Columbia  College,  where  he  may  have  received 
instruction  from  Prof.  Mitchell,  was  living  on 
one  of  the  best  farms  of  the  State,  in  the  town 
of  Fayette,  Seneca  County.  He  was  at  one 
time  president  of  the  New  York  State  Agricul- 
tural Society,  and  originated  and  carried  out  an 
agricultural  survey  of  Seneca  County.  He  took 
a  deep  interest  in  the  cause  of  agricultural  edu- 
cation, and  owing  to  his  action  and  energy  on 
15  April  1853.  the  State  passed  an  act  estab- 
lishing an  agricultural  college.  This  act  cre- 
ated a  board  of  10  trustees,  of  which  Mr.  Dela- 

I  was  president,  but  appropriated  no  money. 
The  college  was  to  he  located  on  Mr.  Delafield's 
farm  in  the  town  of  Fayette,  but  as  he  died  22 
October  of  the  same  year  nothing  more  was  done 
about  building  a  college  there"  The  Rev. 
Amos  Rrown,  principal  of  Ovid  Academy,  who 
was  to  become  later  the  chief  assistant  of  Sen- 
ator Morrill  in  securing  the  passage  of  the  land- 
grant  act  establishing  agricultural  colleges, 
appears  to  have  gotten  his  inspiration  and  in- 
formation from  Air.  Delafield.  He  afterward 
became  president  of  the  People's  College  near 
Havana,  N.  Y..  and  after  the  passage  of  the 
Morrill  Act  in  1862  secured  an  act  from  the 
legislature  of  New  York,  giving  the  whole  of 
its  share  of  the  land-grant  to  this  college.  But 
that  institution  failed  to  comply  with  the  condi- 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


tions  of  the  law,  and  the  land-grant  of  the  State 
of  New  York  was  turned  over  to  Cornell  Uni- 
versity, which  thus  became  the  agricultural  col- 
lege of  the  State.  This  narrative  has  been  intro- 
duced to  show  the  growth  of  the  idea  which  led 
to  the  establishment  of  Cornell  University,  prob- 
ably our  greatest  agricultural  institution.  See 
Cornell  University. 

The  first  agricultural  college  to  be  actually 
established  and  put  in  operation  was  that  of  the 
State  of  Michigan.  Article  13,  section  11  of  the 
constitution  of  the  State  of  Michigan  adopted  in 
1850,  says :  "The  legislature  shall  encourage  the 
promotion  of  intellectual,  scientific,  and  agri- 
cultural improvement ;  and  shall  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable, provide  for  the  establishment  of  an  agri- 
cultural school."  This  was  the  first  State 
constitution  to  provide  for  the  establishment  of 
an  agricultural  school.  It  is  noteworthy,  also,  that 
it  was  the  first  one  to  provide  that  all  instruc- 
tion in  the  district  schools  should  be  conducted 
in  the  English  language.  The  act  establishing 
the  State  Agricultural  College  of  Michigan  was 
passed  on  12  Feb.  1855.  The  college  was 
located  upon  a  farm  of  some  500  acres,  situated 
about  four  miles  east  of  the  city  of  Lansing; 
buildings  were  erected,  and  the  college  was 
formally   opened  in    May   1847. 

The  legislature  of  Maryland  incorporated  the 
next  agricultural  college  in  1856,  which  was, 
however,  in  part  a  private  institution.  Some 
500  citizens  of  Maryland,  and  of  the  District  of 
Columbia,  together  with  a  few  from  adjacent 
States,  subscribed  to  a  certain  amount  of  stock, 
which  the  legislature  required  should  be  pro- 
vided. The  stockholders  elected  a  board  of  trus- 
tees, and  this  body  located  the  college  upon  the 
estate  of  Charles  B.  Calvert,  situated  in  Prince 
George  County,  about  nine  miles  east  of  the  city 
of  Washington.  The  institution  was  opened  for 
students  in  September  1859,  when  Prof.  Joseph 
Henry  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  delivered 
the  oration. 

Marshall  P.  Wilder  first  urged  the  impor- 
tance of  establishing  an  agricultural  college  in 
Massachusetts,  in  an  address  before  the  Norfolk 
Agricultural  Society  made  in  1849.  The  State 
Senate  of  Massachusetts  passed  a  bill  in  1850 
establishing  such  a  school,  but  it  failed  in  the 
House.  A  committee  was  appointed  to  investi- 
gate the  matter,  and  they  sent  Prof.  Hitchcock 
to  the  continent  of  Europe  to  visit  agricultural 
schools.  His  report  was  transmitted  to  the  legis- 
lature by  the  governor  in  the  following  year, 
with  the  result  that  the  Massachusetts  Board  of 
Agriculture  was  established  in  1852.  Mr.  Wilder 
kept  up  the  agitation,  however,  and  finally  in 
1856  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  the  legislature 
a  charter  of  the  Massachusetts  School  of  Agri- 
culture. The  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege was  not  regularly  opened,  however,  until 
1867.  The  general  assembly  of  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania  incorporated  the  Farmers'  High 
School,  now  the  State  College,  in  1854.  The  act 
provided  that  people  of  different  sections  of  the 
State  might  offer  land  and  property  and  thereby 
secure  its  location  in  their  midst.  Funds  for 
building  and  equipment  were  provided  from  the 
State  treasury.  The  State  Agricultural  Society 
made  certain  donations,  and  the  college  was 
opened  for  students  in  the  winter  of  1859.  These 
were  the  leading  agricultural  schools  established 
before  the  passage  of  the  Land-grant  Act  in 
1862. 


Closely  related  to  these  agricultural  schools 
were  the  scientific  schools  established  at  Yale 
and  Harvard  between  1840  and  1850,  in  response 
to  the  same  demand  for  a  new  education.  John 
P.  Norton  was  appointed  professor  of  agricul- 
tural chemistry,  vegetable  and  animal  physiology 
at  Yale  College,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1846. 
Thus  was  begun  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School, 
which  was  more  of  an  agricultural  institution 
than  any  of  the  other  schools  of  that  time.  Prof. 
Norton  began  his  lectures  in  1847,  and  for  some 
years  wrote  voluminously  for  agricultural  jour- 
nals. He  also  prepared  and  published  his  first 
work,  (The  Elements  of  Agriculture.'  Among 
his  first  students  in  the  course  in  agricultural 
chemistry  was  the  distinguished  Prof.  W.  H. 
Brewer,  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  at 
Yale.  The  Lawrence  Scientific  School  at  Har- 
vard, established  about  the  same  time,  was 
founded  upon  an  endowment  of  $40,000,  given 
by  the  Lawrences,  who,  being  interested  in  fac- 
tories, caused  this  school  to  direct  its  attention 
more  to  the  applications  of  chemistry  to  man- 
factures.  Francis  Wayland,  president  of  Brown 
University,  became  greatly  interested  at  this 
time  in  scientific  and  technical  education,  and 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  discussion  of  the 
reforms  needed  to  adapt  the  institutions  of 
America  to  the  requirements  of  the  time.  In 
his  little  book  on  the  'Present  Collegiate  Sys- 
tem of  the  United  States,'  he  argued  earnestly 
in  favor  of  the  introduction  of  scientific  sub- 
jects into  the  college  curriculum  and  the  adop- 
tion of  a  system  of  electives.  A  science  hall 
and  a  museum  of  geology  were  erected  at  Brown 
in  1840;  but  means  failed  to  support  the  scien- 
tific work,  and  Dr.  Wayland  was  constrained  to 
resign  in  1855,  when  the  old  classical  course  was 
re-established.  These  changes  were  all  parts 
of  a  general  movement  for  the  modification  of 
the  classical  curriculum,  and  the  introduction  of 
scientific  and  technical  study.  Wherever  this 
was  done  the  sciences  pertaining  to  agriculture 
were  sure  to  be  introduced.  The  next  great 
movement  in  agricultural  education  began  with 
the  Land-grant  Colleges.  See  Colleges,  Land- 
grant. 

Requirements  for  Admission. —  The  require- 
ments for  admission  to  the  agricultural  col- 
leges vary  in  the  different  States  in  accord- 
ance with  the  school  systems  and  the  other 
opportunities  for  preparation.  The  Western  and 
Southern  agricultural  colleges  usually  take  the 
students  from  what  is  known  in  this  country  as 
the  eighth  or  ninth  grade  of  the  public  school 
course.  A  majority  of  the  institutions  require  for 
admission  either  certificates  from  the  preparatory 
schools  or  examinations  in  the  more  important 
subjects.  The  average  standard  of  admission 
to  the  agricultural  colleges  is  presented  in  the 
report  of  the  Committee  on  Entrance  Require- 
ments made  to  the  association  of  colleges  at 
the  meeting  in  November  1896.  They  recom- 
mended the  following  (Rep.  of  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation,  1S96-7,  p.  429)  : 

"The  committee  holds  that  it  is  advisable,  as 
a  beginning,  to  determine  the  requirements  in  a 
few  subjects  upon  which  it  is  possible  for  all 
the  colleges  to  agree,  and  to  recommend  others, 
which  although  too  high  at  present  for  adoption 
by  some  of  these  institutions,  may  yet  serve 
as  a  standard  or  goal  toward  which  effort  may 
be  directed. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


"As  a  standard  series  of  entrance  require- 
ments, to  be  adopted  as  soon  as  possible,  we 
recommend  the  following:  (i)  Physical  geogra- 
phy; (2)  United  States  history;  (,.})  arithmetic, 
including  the  metric  system;  (4)  algebra  to 
quadratics;  (5)  English  grammar  and  composi- 
te hi,  together  with  English  requirements  of  the 
New  England  Association;  (6)  plane  geometry ; 
(7)  one  foreign  language;  (8)  one  of  the  natural 
sciences;  (9)  ancient,  general,  or  English  his- 
tory." 

Many  nf  the  universities  have  a  much  higher 
standard  of  admission,  some  of  them  requiring  a 
preparation  fairly  comparable  with  that  for 
students  entering  the  literary  and  scientific 
courses.  Candidates  for  admission  at  Cornell, 
for  example,  must  be  at  least  16  years  of  age 
and  pass  an  examination  in  English,  geography, 
physiology,  and  hygiene,  history  of  the  United 
States  and  England,  Greece  or  Rome,  plane 
geometry,  elementary'  algebra,  and  at  least  two 
of  the  following  subjects:  Greek.  Latin,  French, 
German,  and  advanced  mathematics. 

Courses  of  Study. —  The  courses  of  study  in 
the  separate  colleges  for  agriculture  and 
mechanic  arts  are  not  essentially  different  from 
those  of  the  agricultural  departments  of  the 
State  universities,  with  the  exception  that  in 
most  cases  the  work  of  the  separate  colleges 
begins  a  little  earlier  and  is  not  so  much  differ- 
entiated as  that  in  the  universities.  Many  of 
the  separate  agricultural  colleges  have,  however, 
quite  as  high  requirements  for  admission  as  any 
of  the  State  universities,  and  do  as  high  a  grade 
of  work  as  the  best  of  them.  On  the  whole,  it 
appears  that  practical  agriculture  occupies  the 
highest  place  in  the  separate  colleges,  though 
more  research  in  the  sciences  pertaining  to  agri- 
culture is  being  carried  on  in  the  universities. 
In  universities  in  which  departments  of  agricul- 
ture arc  maintained,  it  may  be  said  in  general 
that  the  tendency  is  to  make  the  four  years' 
course  in  agriculture  correspond  in  scope  and 
thoroughness  with  those  in  philosophy,  sciences, 
and  engineering.  As  more  means  are  obtained, 
instruction  in  agriculture  is  divided  among  an 
increasing  number  of  specialists,  who  are  pro- 
vided with  separate  buildings,  laboratories,  and 
shops.  It  is  characteristic  of  American  State 
universities  that  they  are  seeing  more  clearly 
that  agriculture  and  manufacturing  are  impor- 
tant human  interests  which  may  rightfully 
claim  the  best  efforts  of  the  greatest  scientific 
intellects  for  their  advancement,  and  that  on 
the  basis  of  agricultural  sciences  may  be  built 
a  system  of  instruction  in  literature,  mathe- 
matics, and  technology  which  is  as  well  or  bet- 
ter adapted  to  produce  scholars,  investigators, 
and  leaders  in  civilization  as  was  the  old  philo- 
sophical or  the  pure  science  course.  The  courses 
of  study  in  agriculture  are  variously  arranged. 
Nearly  all  these  institutions  maintain  a  four 
years'  course,  which  is  made  up  usually  of  two 
years  of  preparatory  sciences  and  general  cul- 
ture studies,  followed  by  two  years  of  more 
advanced  scientific  and  technical  agricultural 
work,  largely  elective.  At  present  there  is  little 
demand  in  our  country  for  the  all-around  agri- 
cultural expert,  and  few  colleges  attempt  to  edu- 
cate them.  Such  an  expert  cannot  be  trained  in 
four  years,  if  at  all.  At  present  the  agricul- 
tural colleges  content  themselves  with  giv- 
ing their  students  a  fair  general  knowledge 
of    the    sciences    underlying    agriculture,    horti- 


culture, and  the  animal  industry,  with  opportuni- 
ties to  acquire  experience  in  some  one  line  of 
practical  work.  The  arrangement  of  this  four 
years'  course  differs  a  good  deal  in  different 
institutions,  but  the  standard  for  it  is  laid  in  the 
reports  adopted  by  the  association  of  American 
agricultural  colleges  at  its  meetings  in   1X1X1-7. 

The  course  of  study  presents  the  largest 
problem  now  before  the  faculties  of  our  col- 
leges. The  present  courses  and  methods  have 
been  criticised  for  their  lack  of  "pedagogical 
form,"  for  the  "confusion  of  studies."  and  espe- 
cially for  lack  of  "orderly  sequence  in  the 
progress  of  instruction"  which  has  made  the 
classical  education  and  to  a  certain  degree 
the  scientific  and  engineering  courses  of  our  in- 
stitutes of  technology  processes  commanding  the 
respect  of  scholars  the  world  over.  These  critics 
are  in  error  when  they  speak  of  agriculture  as 
an  independent  science,  and  propose  to  formu- 
late the  instruction  in  it  as  they  would  that  in 
chemistry  or  in  biology.  The  fact  is,  agricul- 
ture is  not  a  science  but  an  art,  and  what  we 
are  attempting  to  do  in  these  colleges  is  to  carry 
out  the  injunction  of  the  Act  of  Congress  of 
1862  and  "teach  the  sciences  (chemistry,  physics, 
geology,  biology,  vegetable  physiology,  etc.,  each 
including  numerous  branches),  related  thereto." 
For  this  reason  the  course  of  study  in  agricul- 
ture with  good  "pedagogical  form"  must  be 
made  up  of  a  course  in  chemistry  and  agricul- 
tural chemistry,  a  course  in  vegetable  physiology, 
a  course  in  the  physiology  of  animals,  a  course 
in  soil  physics,  etc. —  many  distinct  courses. 
When  the  student  has  mastered  all  these  it 
would  seem  to  be  possible,  if  he  stays  at  the 
college  long  enough,  to  teach  him  in  good  "peda- 
gogical form."  some  of  their  applications  in  agri- 
culture. As  Prof.  Jordan,  director  of  the  Maine 
agricultural  experiment  station,  has  well  said: 
"The  real  and  important  need  of  which  the 
farmer  is  conscious  is  for  a  knowledge  of  con- 
ditions and  not  for  methods  or  for  skill  in 
manipulation.  When  he  clearly  understands  the 
reasons  for  that  which  goes  on  about  him.  the 
right  method  will  appear.  The  difficulties  lie 
with  explanations,  not  with  mechanical  pro- 
cesses. And  besides,  agriculture  is  not  a  busi- 
ness involving  such  delicate  and  intricate 
mechanical  operations  that  attendance  upon  a 
college  would  be  justified  in  order  to  learn 
them,  although  the  modern  dairy,  the  forcing 
house,  and  the  fruit  garden  do  require  skill. 
The  spraying  of  fruit  with  fungicides  and  insec- 
ticides illustrates  how  readily  the  necessary 
manipulation  was  acquired  when  the  reasons  for 
these  operations  became  evident.  It  is  the  ex- 
planation of  phenomena,  then,  which  the  ex- 
tended course  of  study  should  give  in  order 
that  the  farmer  may  know  how  to  adapt  him- 
self to  the  varying  and  complex  conditions  which 
he  meets  in  his  work." 

This  is  the  real  problem  and  one  which  the 
colleges  and  universities  are  working  out  with 
marked  success.  Perhaps  the  colleges  and  uni- 
versities having  departments  of  agriculture  are 
doing  more  immediate  good  to  the  largest  num- 
ber of  persons  through  their  short  courses  and 
their  special  schools  for  dairying,  horticulture, 
etc.,  than  through  the  long  course.  These  short 
courses  are  designed  to  meet  the  wants  of  young 
farmers  who  desire  practical,  helpful  instruction 
in  agriculture  after  leaving  the  high  schools 
and   before    taking   up    their    chosen    vocations. 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


A  number  of  the  colleges  maintain  courses  in 
agriculture  of  12  weeks  beginning  the  first  of 
January  of  each  year.  They  usually  include 
lectures  on  feeds  and  feeding,  breeds  of  live 
stock,  elementary  agricultural  chemistry,  physics 
of  soils,  meteorology,  elements  of  vegetable 
physiology,  the  chief  facts  of  veterinary  science, 
dairying,  horticulture,  and  some  of  the  leading 
facts  of  bacteriology.  Courses  are  selected  from 
these  to  meet  the  needs  of  special  classes  of 
students  from  different  districts.  Laboratory 
practice  is  usually  given  in  soil  physics,  stock 
judging,  dairying,  vegetable  physiology,  and  prac- 
tical horticulture.  Other  short  courses  are  limited 
to  the  chemistry  and  bacteriology  of  milk  and 
practical  dairying,  or  to  plant  propagation,  graft- 
ing, pruning,  and  practical  horticulture.  These 
courses  are  more  largely  attended  than  the  four 
years'  course.  The  tendency  at  present  seems 
to  be  to  split  up  the  four  years'  course  into 
special  courses  or  to  distribute  among  the  dif- 
ferent short  courses  students  who  cannot  attend 
the  institution  more  than  a  few  months  at  a 
time.  It  is  encouraging  to  note  that  such  stu- 
dents frequently  return  winter  after  winter  for 
additional  training. 

Ex f eases  of  Students. —  The  expenses  of 
students  in  the  agricultural  colleges  of  the 
United  States  vary  with  the  location  and 
advantages  offered.  The  tuition  is  uniformly 
free  to  all  students  pursuing  the  agricultural 
courses.  It  is  customary  to  charge  small  fees 
to  cover  the  actual  expenses  of  material  used  in 
the  laboratories  and  shops.  Students  pay  their 
own  board  and  personal  expenses.  Some  insti- 
tutions give  free  lodgings,  though  a  majority 
charge  only  the  actual  cost  of  the  maintenance 
of  the  buildings,  fuel,  lights,  etc.  Many  institu- 
tions have  special  funds  with  which  to  pay  for 
student  labor,  which  usually  takes  the  form  of 
a  fixed  allowance  for  work  regularly  performed. 
The  total  college  expenses  of  a  student  will  vary 
from  $150  for  a  session  of  nine  months  at  a 
Western  or  Southern  college,  located  in  the 
country,  to  $400  or  $500  at  a  university  in  one 
of  the  Eastern  States.  More  assistance  and 
more  opportunities  for  self-support  are  offered 
agricultural  students  than  any  others  in  our 
institutions.  The  tendency  everywhere  is  to  in- 
crease these  opportunities  and  to  reduce  the  ex- 
pense of  the  students  of  agriculture,  while  all 
the  facilities  provided  them  are  constantly 
improved. 

Extension  Work  in  Agriculture. — -The  farm- 
ers' institute  is  to  the  adult  farmer  what  the 
agricultural  school  is  to  his  son.  They  were 
the  outgrowth  in  part  of  the  public  meetings  of 
agricultural  societies  and  State  boards  of  agri- 
culture, and  in  part  of  the  extension  work  of 
colleges  and  universities.  The  object  of  these 
institutes  is  to  bring  the  workers  in  the  agricul- 
tural science:  and  the  practical  agriculturists 
together  for  the  discussion  of  questions  of 
mutual  interest.  Through  such  discussion  the 
farmer  gets  the  benefit  of  the  information  which 
the  scientist  has  obtained  in  the  course  of  his 
investigations,  and  the  scientist  learns  what  the 
farmer's  needs  and  difficulties  are.  The  results 
of  the  practical  tests  made  by  the  farmer  of  the 
scientist's  theories  are  also  brought  out.  By 
such  conferences  both  classes  of  workers  have 
their  opinions  and  experiences  broadened.  Insti- 
tutes in  the  United  States  are  carried  on  tinder 
all  conceivable  auspices ;  most  commonly,  how- 
Vol.   »  —  12 


ever,  by  the  State  commissioners,  the  State 
boards  of  agriculture,  or  the  agricultural  col- 
leges. In  some  States  there  is  an  independent 
organization  with  a  secretary  of  institutes  in 
charge.  Some  States  make  special  appropria- 
tions for  institutes,  others  merely  allow  a  limited 
amount  of  the  funds  appropriated  for  the  board 
of  agriculture  or  college  to  be  used  for  this 
purpose.  Subjects  connected  with  good  roads, 
public  education,  and  the  interests  of  the  home 
and  farm  are  also  discussed  frequently.  Those 
connected  with  sectarian  religion  or  partisan 
politics  should  be  carefully  excluded,  but  almost 
any  other  topic  of  interest  to  the  local  community 
may  properly  find  its  place  on  the  programme  of 
a  farmers'  institute.  In  States  where  institutes 
have  beeen  carefully  planned  and  systematically 
conducted  by  competent  persons  they  have  be- 
come exceedingly  popular,  with  the  result  that 
large  appropriations  are  being  made  for  them 
each  year.  Something  like  the  farmers'  institute 
is  now  held  in  almost  all  the  States  in  the  Union. 

Closely  related  to  the  farmers'  institute  are 
the  various  other  methods  of  agricultural  college 
extension  work,  such  as  co-operative  field  experi- 
ments, correspondence  courses  in  agricultural 
sciences,  reading  circles  for  farmers,  and  itiner- 
ant agricultural  schools.  Co-operative  field 
experiments  were  inaugurated  soon  after  the 
establishment  of  the  colleges  for  agriculture. 
The  college  or  station  makes  plans  and  supplies 
the  fertilizers  or  gives  prescriptions  for  the 
same,  with  full  directions  as  to  methods  of 
carrying  out  the  experiments.  The  farmers  re- 
port upon  blanks  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and 
the  different  results  are  compared  and  pub- 
lished. A  great  deal  of  good  has  been  accom- 
plished in  this  way,  especially  in  educating 
farmers  as  to  the  proper  method  of  vsing 
chemical  manures.  Similar  methods  have  been 
used  in  testing  seeds  of  field  and  garden  crops, 
and  in  testing  insecticide  and  fungicide  materials 
and  methods.  Such  co-operative  experiments 
have  done  much  to  promote  the  study  of  scien- 
tific agriculture  in  the  States,  and  especially  to 
develop  habits  of  observation  among  the  younger 
farmers,  who  are  always  the  ones  to  take  hold 
of  this  work. 

Instruction  by  correspondence  and  by  courses 
of  home  reading  in  agriculture  have  been  well 
developed  under  the  direction  of  the  State 
College  of  Pennsylvania.  The  main  features 
of  the  plan  are,  "first,  a  carefully  prepared 
course  of  reading  designed  to  cover  the  most 
important  branches  of  agricultural  science  and 
practice ;  second,  a  reduction  of  the  price  upon 
the  books  needed ;  third,  personal  advice  and 
assistance  through  correspondence;  fourth,  ex- 
aminations upon  the  subjects  read,  with  certifi- 
cates and  diplomas  for  those  attaining  a  certain 
grade  of  excellence."  "This  course  has  attracted 
great  attention  at  home  and  received  numerous 
applications  from  farmer  students,  many  ol 
whom  have  done  excellent  work,  completed  the 
prescribed  courses,  and  received  certificates." 
The  courses  have  now  been  extended  to  include 
five,  subjects,  with  five  books  in  each  one; 
namely,  crop  production,  animal  production,  hor- 
ticulture, dairying,  and  domestic  economy.  A 
supplemental  list  of  15  books  is  suggested  from 
which  students  may  select  reading  matter  to 
form  additional  courses  if  they  desire.  The  full 
course  consists  of  the  thorough  study  of  10 
books,  followed  by  an  examination.     Lessons  are 


AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION 


provided  from  the  various  books,  and  sent  the 
students  free  of  cost,  in  the  form  of  printed  slips. 
Tiny  give  suggestions  for  study,  observation, 
and  experiment,  with  references  to  the  books 
recommended.  Each  lesson  is  accompanied  by 
an  examination  paper  covering  the  particular 
subject.  The  students  are  expected  to  rile 
answers  to  all  these  questions  and  discuss  them 
before    they    receive    the    second    lesson. 

Tin'  itinerant  agricultural  school,  a  still  later 
scheme,  has  been  best  developed  in  the  State 
of  New  York,  under  the  so-called  Nixon  Bill, 
"for  the  purpose  of  horticultural  experiments, 
investigation,  instruction,  and  information  in  New 
York."  This  bill  placed  the  sum  of  $35,000 
under  the  control  of  the  college  of  agriculture 
at  Cornell  University  for  the  two  years 
1899-1900,  and  has  enabled  it  to  inaugurate  a 
number  of  most  interesting  and  promising  ex- 
periments in  promotion  of  agricultural  know- 
ledge, especially  of  nature  study  in  the  com- 
mon schools.  The  itinerant  agricultural  school 
is  one  only  of  the  plans  now  being  tested  by 
this  institution.  The  meetings  of  these  schools 
last  two  or  more  days. 

Agriculture  in  the  Common  Schools. —  From 
the  earliest  time  it  has  been  the  idea  of  the 
friends  of  agricultural  education  that  instruction 
in  this  subject  should  be  given  in  the  common 
schools.  The  subject  has  been  presented  to  the 
legislatures  of  many  of  the  States,  and  by  some 
it  has  been  required  to  be  taught.  Any  real 
instruction  in  agriculture  must  be  based  upon 
a  knowledge  of  chemistry,  geology,  and  the 
physiology  of  plants  and  animals.  Such  a  know- 
ledge cannot  be  given  to  young  children,  and  the 
old-fashioned  school  teacher,  trained  to  study 
books,  and  not  things,  could  give  no  instruction 
in  nature  or  science.  The  whole  system  of  edu- 
cation had  to  be  revolutionized  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  study  of  agriculture  in  the  schools. 
Since  the  introduction  of  the  natural  method 
great  progress  has  been  made.  Agricultural 
colleges  have  trained  the  professors,  who,  in 
normal  schools  have  taught  the  teachers,  who 
in  turn  have  introduced  the  new  methods  in  the 
common  schools.  The  following  extract  relating 
to  the  Cornell  attempt  to  introduce  nature  teach- 
ing into  the  rural  schools  is  from  'Popular  Edu- 
cation for  the  Farmer,'  by  A.  C.  True,  Ph.D. 

There  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  planof 
"  nature  teaching,"  as  proposed  by  Cornell  University, 
may  prove  a  grand  success  and  lie  a  very  great  bencht 
to  farmers'  children.  The  element  of  education  winch 
is  at  present  most  lacking  in  our  common  .schools  is 
the  training  of  the  powers  of  observation.  The  chil- 
dreo  need  above  all  things  else  to  be  taught  to  ob- 
serve carefully  and  correctly  and  to  state  their  ob- 
servations in  clear  terse  language.  The  ordinary 
child,  whether  on  the  farm  or  in  town,  actually  sees 
comparatively  little  in  the  world  about  him.  The 
wonders  of  the  trees  and  plants  in  park  or  meadow, 
of  birds  and  insects  flying  about  the  house,  float  like 
shadowy  visions  before  his  eyes.  "  Seeing,  he  sees 
not."_  He  needs  a  teacher  who  can  open  his  eyes  and 
fix  his  mind  on  the  realities  among  which  his  daily 
life  is  passed.  This  accurate  observation  of  natural 
objects  and  facts  is  the  only  foundation  on  which  sci- 
entific attainments  can  rest.  The  scientist  is  chiefly 
a  man  who  sees  better  than  his  fellow  men.  But  it 
is  also  a  great  help  in  practical  life.  Many  farmers 
acquire  much  of  this  power  by  their  own  unaided 
efforts.  And  these  are  the  very  men  who  most  regret 
that  they  did  not  have  in  early  life  the  help  of  a 
trained  teacher.  The  farmer's  child  lives  where  he 
has  the  best  opportunity  for  sucb  training.  It  would 
benefit  him  in  the  practice  of  his  art,  and  it  would 
add  an  interest  to  his  life  which  would  do  much  to 
wean  him  from  a  desire  to  leave  the  farm  for  the 
turmoil  and  uncertain  struggles  of  the  town.  With 
proper  provision   for  the  training  of  teachers  in  normal 


and  other  schools,  it  would  tie  entirely  feasible  to 
have  tins  nature  teaching  in  all  our  common  scbools 
within  a  few  years.  It  is  such  teaching  that  the 
child  mind  craves.  With  it  the  school  becomes  a  de- 
lightful   place   and    the    teacht  r   an    angel    of    light. 

Thus  far  only  a  few  attempts  have  been  made  in 
this  country  to  provide  agricultural  instruction  of  the 
high  school  grade.  It  is  true  that  some  of  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  receive  students  directly  from  the 
common  schools,  but   the   constant   tendency   is   to   raise 

the  grade  of  instruction  in  these  institutions  to  a  col- 
lege basis  and.  Under  any  conditions,  they  very  im- 
perfectly perform  the  duties  of  secondary  schools  of 
agriculture.  The  University  of  Minnesota  has  in  re- 
el nt  years  maintained  a  school  of  agriculture  in  which 
instruction    in  agriculture   of_  a   lower   grade   than    that 

fiven  in  the  college  of  agriculture  has  been  success- 
ully  imparted.  This  school  has  proved  quite  popular. 
Some  300  students  were  in  attendance  last  year,  and 
it  has  been  found  desirable  to  offer  courses  for  girls 
as  well  as  boys.  The  State  of  Alabama  has  re- 
cently provided  for  the  maintenance  of  a  school  of 
agriculture  of  secondary  grade  in  each  of  the  nine  con- 
gressional    districts    of     tile     State. 

The  establishment  of  such  sjiecial  schools  of  agri- 
culture of  high  school  grade  is  greatly  to  be  com- 
mended. One  of  the  best  effects  of  such  schools  at 
the  present  time  is  to  show  the  people  what  distinc- 
tions should  be  drawn  between  colleges  and  high  schools 
for  agricultural  education.  By  the  separation  of  these 
grades  of  instruction  the  colleges  will  lie  enabled  to  do 
their  work  more  efficiently,  and  better  opportunities 
will  be  secured  for  those  students  whose  previous 
training  only  fits  them  for  high-school  work  in  agri- 
culture. Ilut  it  is  nut  believed  that  these  special  agri- 
cultural high  schools  will  fully  meet  the  needs  of  our 
farmers  for  agricultural  instruction  of  this  grade. 
Any  school  so  distant  from  the  fanner's  home  as  to 
necessitate  long  journeys  and  residence  at  the  school 
for  .  two  or  more  years  must  necessarily  be  too  ex- 
pensive for  most  of  the  farmers'  children,  especially 
after  they  have  reached  an  age  when  their  services 
may  be  more  or  less  utilized  on  the  farm.  What  is 
needed  is  courses  in  agriculture  in  numerous  schools 
to  which  farmers'  children  resort,  near  their  homes, 
to  "  finish  "  their  education  after  they  are  through 
with   the  common   schools. 

Research  in  the  sciences  related  to  agricul- 
ture was  always  prominent  in  the  minds  of  the 
advocates  of  agricultural  education.  After  the 
agricultural  colleges  were  firmly  established,  and 
the  work  of  instruction  was  well  under  way,  it 
became  evident  that  the  department  of  research 
in  these  institutions  needed  a  special  endowment 
and  to  be  placed  under  a  somewhat  separate 
management.  The  funds  provided  were  not  suf- 
ficient for  the  purposes  of  instruction,  and  re- 
search and  experiment  were  in  danger  of  being 
neglected  at  the  colleges  so  thronged  were  they 
with  the  young  people  who  came  to  secure  the 
benefits  of  this  free  tuition. 

Several  of  the  land-grant  colleges  early  at- 
tempted to  establish  separate  departments  for 
scientific  research  and  practical  experiments  on 
the  plan  of  the  German  experiment  stations.  The 
act  establishing  the  agricultural  college  of 
Maryland,  passed  in  1856,  contained  a  section 
requiring  the  college  to  establish  a  model  farm 
and  conduct  "a  series  of  experiments  upon  the 
cultivation  of  cereals  and  other  plants  adapted 
to  the  latitude  and  climate  of  the  State  of  Mary- 
land, and  keep  a  careful  record  of  the  kind  of 
soil  upon  which  they  were  undertaken,  the  sys- 
tem of  cultivation  adopted,  the  state  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  all  other  particulars  wdiich  may 
be  necessary  to  a  fair  and  complete  understand- 
ing of  the  results  of  said  experiments."  This 
work  was  commenced  in  1858  and  continued  two 
or  three  years  only,  when  the  Civil  War  stopped 
all  the  operations  of  the  college.  When  Connec- 
ticut established  her  agricultural  school  in  con- 
nection with  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of 
Yale  College,  Samuel  W.  Johnson  was  appointed 
professor  of  agricultural  chemistry,  and  experi- 
mental work  was  commenced.  "To  the  influence  of 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


the  professors  and  pupils  trained  in  this  school, 
more  than  to  any  other  single  cause,  is  due  the 
recognition  of  the  importance  of  the  establishment 
of  agricultural  experiment  stations."  In  1870 
the  trustees  for  the  Massachusetts  society  for 
promoting  agriculture  granted  to  Harvard  Col- 
lege a  sum  of  money  "for  the  support  of  a  labora- 
tory and  for  experiments  in  agricultural  chemis- 
try to  be  conducted  upon  the  Bussey  estate." 
A  school  of  agriculture  and  horticulture  had  been 
founded  upon  the  bequest  of  Benjamin  Bussey. 
The  work  of  the  new  institution  commenced  in 
1871.  The  experiments  consisted  of  field  tests 
of  fertilizers  and  chemical  analysis  of  commer- 
cial manures.  The  first  report  was  published  in 
December  1871.  Other  interesting  and  valuable 
work  was  done  the  next  few  years,  but  the 
commercial  crisis  of  1873  crippled  the  institution 
financially,  and  it  has  since  been  able  to  make 
comparatively  few  original  investigations. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  State  Board  of  Agri- 
culture of  Connecticut  on  17  Dec.  1873  Prof. 
S  W.  Johnson  of  New  Haven,  and  Prof. 
W.  O.  Atwater  of  Wesleyan  University,  urged 
the  establishment  of  an  agricultural  experiment 
station  "after  the  European  pattern."  The  result 
of  this  movement  was  that  the  Stati  of  Con- 
necticut made,  in  1877,  an  appropriation  of  $5,000 
"to  promote  agriculture  by  scientific  investiga- 
tion and  experiment."  This  station  was  first 
connected  with  the  chemical  laboratory  of  Wes- 
leyan University,  at  Middletown,  which  had  been 
established  by  Orange  Judd  and  was  in  charge  of 
Prof.  Atwater,  but  after  two  years  it  was  reor- 
ganized under  the  direct  control  of  the  State 
and  permanently  located  in  the  neighborhood 
of  New  Haven.  The  State  of  North  Carolina 
established  an  agricultural  experiment  and  fer- 
tilizer control  station  in  connection  with  the 
State  University  at  Chapel  Hill,  on  12  March 
1877.  The  Cornell  University  experiment  sta- 
tion was  organized  by  the  faculty  of  that  insti- 
tution in  February  1879  without  any  special 
appropriation.  The  New  Jersey  station  was 
organized  in  1880.  The  Tennessee  experiment 
station  in  1882.  From  these  beginnings  the 
experiment  stations  multiplied  in  the  States 
until  1887,  when  Congress  passed  the  Experi- 
ment Station  Act,  known  as  the  "Hatch  Act," 
there  were   17  stations  already  in  existence. 

The  stations  were  also  authorized  to  publish 
annual  reports  of  their  operations,  and  "bulletins 
or  reports  of  progress"  at  least  once  in  three 
months,  which  should  be  sent  to  "each  news- 
paper in  the  State,  and  such  individuals  actively 
engaged  in  farming  as  may  request  the  same." 
The  franking  privilege  was  given  for  station 
publications.  In  the  annual  appropriation  bill 
for  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1889.  Congress  estab- 
lished the  office  of  experiment  stations  as  a 
branch  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.  It 
compiles  and  publishes  the  results  of  their 
work,  and  aids  them  in  many  ways. 

The  work  of  the  American  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station  supplements  that  of  the  col- 
leges in  many  most  important  ways.  It  is  fully 
described  in  the  admirable  publications  issued  by 
the  office  of  experiment  stations  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  to  which  the 
reader   is   referred   for   fuller   information.     See 

AGRICULTURAL    EXPERIMENT    STATION. 


Consult:    'Reports    and    Year    Book    of   the 
United   States   Department  of  Agriculture.' 
Charles  W.  Dabney. 
President  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio. 

Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  An  in- 
stitution for  scientific  research  in  agriculture. 
The  modern  agricultural  experiment  station 
owes  its  origin  chiefly  to  the  work  of  Boussin- 
gault  and  Liebig,  born  respectively  in  1802  and 
1803,  although  the  earlier  work  of  Sir  Hum- 
phrey Davy,  De  Saussure  and  others  had  pre- 
pared the  way  for  that  of  these  great  chemists. 
During  the  third  decade  of  the  century  Bous- 
singault established  and  for  a  few  years  main- 
tained a  chemical  laboratory  on  his  farm,  and 
there  began  the  combination  of  field  experiment 
with  laboratory  investigation  which  character- 
izes the  experiment  station  of  to-day. 

In  1837  a  young  Englishman,  John  Bennett 
Lawes  (q.v.),  began  making  experiments  in 
the  use  of  bone  superphosphate  on  his  ancestral 
estate  at  Rothamsted,  near  St.  Albans,  Hert- 
fordshire, about  25  miles  northeast  from  Lon- 
don. The  success  of  these  experiments  led 
him  to  engage  in  the  manufacture  of  super- 
phosphate and  also  stimulated  a  desire  for  fur- 
ther investigation,  and  after  some  years  of 
preliminary  work,  in  1843  he  associated  with 
himself  Dr.  Joseph  Henry  Gilbert,  a  young 
chemist  and  a  recent  pupil  of  Liebig,  and  the 
two  entered  upon  a  systematic  line  of  research 
which  has  been  continued  without  material 
change  of  original  plan  until  the  present  day. 
For  more  than  half  a  century  these  two  men 
worked  together;  both  received  the  well  earned 
honor  of  knighthood,  and  before  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  1900,  Sir  John  Lawes  made 
provision  for  the  permanent  continuance  of  the 
work,  under  what  is  now  known  as  the  "Lawes 
Agricultural  Trust." 

The  feature  of  the  work  of  Lawes  and  Gil- 
bert which  distinguished  it  from  anything  that 
had  previously  been  undertaken,  except  the 
work  of  Boussingault,  was  the  combination  of 
systematic  and  long  continued  field  and  feeding 
experiments  with  parallel  investigations  con- 
ducted in  the  chemical  laboratory,  in  which  the 
principal  agricultural  plants  adapted  to  the 
English  climate  are  grown  both  continuously  on 
the  same  land  and  in  various  rotations,  the 
composition  of  the  crops  and  of  the  soils  upon 
which  they  are  grown  being  determined  from 
time  to  time,  and  in  which  large  numbers  of 
animals  have  been  fed  over  long  periods  and 
under  such  conditions  that  it  was  possible  to 
determine  the  chemical  elements  consumed  in 
the  food  and  the  proportion  of  each  utilized  by 
the  animal.  Extensive  detours  have  also  been 
made  into  other  fields  of  chemical  research, 
especially  that  of  the  assimilation  of  nitrogen 
by  plants.  For  many  years  several  general  as- 
sistants have  been  employed,  including  chem- 
ists, botanists,  computers  and  other  help.  The 
entire  expense  of  this  work  has  been  met  by 
the  originator,  except  that  a  chemical  labora- 
tory' was  presented  to  him  some  years  ago  in 
recognition  of  the  vtdue  of  his  work. 

In   1851  a  small  company  of  Saxon   farmers, 
organized  as  the  Agricultural   Society  of   1 
sic.    incited    by    the    revelations    of    Liebig   and 
Boussingault     (q.v.),     who     were    then    in     the 
full    zenith    of   their   work,   employed   a   young 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

chemist,   Emil    von    Wolff,   and    started    him    in  has  established  stations  in  Alaska,  Hawaii  and 

the    experimental    study    of    agricultural    prob-  Porto   Kico. 

lems,  especially  those  related  to  the   feeding  of  In  1004  the  stations  organized  under  the  act 

animals.     In   a    few    years  the   government    was  of   1887,  commonly   known  as  the  "Hatch   Act." 

induced   to  assume   tin-   cost   of    this    work,   and  had   a   total    income   of   $1,508,820.25,    of   winch 

thus  was  established  at  Moeckern,  near  Leipsic,  $7191999.67    was    received     from    the    National 

the   first   public    agricultural    experiment   station  Government,  the  remainder,  $788,820.58,  coming 

in   the   world  from    State    appropriations,    fees,   sales    of    pro- 

In  the  United  States  attempts  at  experimental  duce  and  other  sources.  The  stations  em- 
re  earch  in  agriculture  were  undertaken  at  the  ployed  that  year  7(»5  persons  in  the  work  of 
Agricultural  High  School,  afterwards  State  administration  and  research,  and  published  393 
College,  of  Pennsylvania;  at  the  Michigan  Agri-  annual  reports  and  bulletins,  which  were  sent  to 
cultural    College,   and   at   the    Maryland   Agricul-  nearly   700,000  addresses. 

tural   College,   all   established   between    1854  and  The    following   are   among  the   principal    sub- 

1858,  and  later  several  of  the  institutions  organ-  jects   under   investigation   by  the  American   sta- 

ized    under    the    National    Agricultural    College  tions:     (II  The  soil:  its  physic-,  chemistry,  and 

act   of  2   July    1862.   undertook   some   investiga-  biology;    including    tillage,    drainage,    irrigation 

tions   of   this    character.  and    the    maintenance    of    fertility   by    crop   rota- 

The     first     regularly    organized     agricultural  tion    and    the    use    of   manures    and    fertilizers, 

experiment   station    in    America   was   established  (2)   The  plant:  its  physiology,  chemistry,  nutri- 

at   Wesleyan   University,   Middletown,  Conn.,  in  tion    and    pathology;    the    introduction    of   new 

1875.    under    the    directorship    of     Dr.    W.    O.  varieties;     improvement     in     productiveness    by 

Atwater,   a  young  chemist  who  had  become  en-  selection   and   breeding;   the  control  of  fungous 

thused    with    the    idea    while    studying    in    Ger-  and    bacterial    diseases    and    injurious    insects; 

many.     For     the     inauguration     of     this     work  the   various   phases   of   forestry.     (3)    Animals: 

private    initiative    was    necessary:    Mr.    Orange  the    special    adaptations    of    the    various    breed    . 

Judd,  then  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  "Amcr-  the  chemistry  of  animal   food-  and  the  econom- 

ican    Agriculturist, '    contributed   $1,000  on   con-  ics  of  feeding;  dairying  and   it-  manifold  prob- 

dition   thai    the   State   should   appropriate  $2,800  lems :    the   control    of   animal   diseases. 

for    the    support    of    the    station    for    two    years.  In     addition     to     the     work     above    outlined, 

This    offer    was    accepted    and    work     was    be-  several   States   have   laid   upon   the   stations  cer- 

gun    in    October   of   that    year.      In    1877    at    the  tain  lines  of  police   work,  such  as  the  inspection 

expiration  of  this  period  the  State  assumed  the  of    fertilizers,    seeds,    drugs,    foods    and    animal 

entire    support    of    the    station,    and    it    \va      re-  feeding    stuffs    for    the    prevention    of    adultera- 

moveil  to  New  Haven  tion;   that  of  live   stock  to  prevent  communica- 

Similar    stations    were    established    by    North  tion   of   animal    diseases,   and    that    of    orchards 

Carolina   in    1877;    by    New   Jersey   in    1880:   by  and    nurseries    for    the    control    of    insect    pests 

New    York   and   Ohio    in    1882:   and   by   Massa-  and    fungous    diseases:    but    such    work    is    not 

chusetts    in    [883.     During  this   period    also   sev-  scientific    research;    it    frequently   interferes    111:1- 

cral     of     the     agricultural     colleges     organized  terially  with  the  conduct  of  such   research,  and 

their    research    work    on   a    more   definite   basis,  is   more   properly   an   executive   function   of   the 

and  by  1887  there  were  17  stations  in  operation  state  government.     In  some   States  it  is  so  rec- 

in   14  States  ognized. 

In  1883  a  bill  was  introduced  in  the  House  Under  the  provisions  of  the  Hatch  Act  the 
of  Representatives  of  the  National  Congress  stations  are  governed  under  the  laws  of  their 
by  C.  C.  Carpenter,  of  Iowa,  providing  for  respective  States,  the  National  Government  ex- 
the  establishment  of  experiment  stations  in  ercising  no  control  except  to  make  sure, 
connection  with  the  colleges  of  agriculture,  but  through  annual  financial  reports  from  the  sta- 
it  was  not  voted  upon.  In  the  next  Congress  tions  and  through  personal  visits  by  officers  of 
Mr.  Cullcn,  of  Illinois,  introduced  a  bill  pro-  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  De- 
viding  for  a  grant  of  $15,000  annually  to  each  partment  of  Agriculture,  that  the  money  appro- 
State  and  Territory  for  this  purpose.  This  bill  priated  by  Congress  is  being  expended  for  the 
was  re-introduced  in  the  following  Congress  purpose  designated  in  the  national  law 
by  William  H.  Hatch,  of  Missouri,  and  after  The  stations,  in  connection  with  the  colleges 
being  so  amended  as  to  authorize  States,  in  of  agriculture,  have  organized  an  "Association 
which  experiment  stations  independent  of  the  of  American  Agricultural  Colleg<-s  and  Experi- 
agricultural  colleges  bad  been  previously  es-  ment  Stations,"  which  meets  annually  at  some 
tablishcd,  to  use  the  grant  in  support  of  such  point  in  the  United  States  for  the  discussion  of 
independent  stations  —  a  proviso  applying  to  matters  pertaining  to  their  work,  and  the  Office 
the  five  stations  above  mentioned  —  the  bill  of  Experiment  Stations  publishes  a  monthly 
became   a  law  on  2   March    1S87  journal,    the    'Experiment    Station    Record.'    in 

Under  this  law  experiment  stations  have  been  which  notices  or  summaries  are  given,  not  only 

established   in  every  State  and  Territory  in   the  of    the    publications    of    the    American    stati 

United    States.   50  such   stations   being   enumer-  but    also   of   the    scientific    agricultural    publica- 

ated   in    1904  —  the   fund   being   divided    between  tions   of   the    world 

two  stations  each  in  Connecticut  and  New  While  this  work  ha-  been  thus  extending  in 
York:  while  additional  stati.ins  have  been  es-  the  United  State-  it  has  also  spread  over  most 
tablisbed  under  State  or  territorial  support  in  of  the  civilized  world,  728  such  institutions 
Alabama,  Hawaii.  I^ouisiana  and  Missouri,  and  being  enumerated  in  other  countries  in  a  bul- 
in  several  of  the  States  substations  or  test  letin  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  pub- 
farms  have  been  e-tablished  under  State  sup-  lished  in  1904.  The  only  countries  in  which 
port,  but  as  adjuncts  to  the  regular  stations,  experiment  stations  were  not  found  in  that  year 
In   addition   to   these   the   National   Government  were  Greece,  China,   Turkey,  Russia,  Afghanis- 


AGRICULTURE 


tan,  Beluchistan,  Mexico,  Central  America,  Bo- 
livia, Colombia,  Ecuador,  Patagonia,  Peru,  Uru- 
guay,  and   Venezuela. 

The  European  stations  as  a  rule  are  con- 
fined to  single  lines  of  investigation,  and  very 
often  to  inspection  work  merely,  whereas  the 
American  station  generally  embraces  several 
co-ordinate  departments,  each  with  a  chief  and 
one  or  more  assistants  and  helpers,  all  working 
under  the  general  supervision  of  a  single  di- 
rector. Many  of  the  European  stations  would 
be  classed  as  substations  in  America.  Another 
point  of  difference  is  that  in  Europe  the  sta- 
tions are  very  generally  limited  to  laboratory 
work,  whereas  in  America,  England  and  the 
English  colonies  the  laboratories  are  generally 
used  as   adjuncts  to  field   investigation. 

The  rapid  extension  of  this  work  through- 
out the  world  and  the  large  and  constantly 
increasing  sums  of  money  devoted  to  it  are 
sufficient  evidence  that  it  has  obtained  and  holds 
the  confidence  of  the  people ;  but  this  position 
has  been  attained  rather  through  the  gradual 
substitution  by  the  stations'  investigations  of 
demonstrated  facts  for  the  theories  which  had 
previously  held  sway  in  agriculture  than  by 
epoch-making  discoveries,  although  a  few  of 
these  also  are  to  be  placed  to  the  credit  of 
these  institutions. 

It  was  the  Rothamsted  Station  which  dem- 
onstrated that  leguminous  plants  do  not  absorb 
and  fix  the  free  air  nitrogen  of  the  air  through 
their  foliage,  a  demonstration  which  cleared  the 
way  for  the  solution  of  a  mystery  which  had 
puzzled  the  student  of  plant  growth  for  many 
years,  and  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock,  of  the  Wisconsin 
Station,  perfected  a  method  of  determining  the 
fat  in  milk,  which  has  been  adopted  throughout 
the  world,  and  for  which  a  medal  was  voted  to 
him  by  the  legislature  of  his  State:  but  it  is 
the  patient,  plodding  work,  by  which  a  body  of 
exact  knowledge  in  agriculture  is  being  slowly 
accumulated,  which  has  been  the  chief  factor 
in   winning  confidence   and   support. 

On  15  Feb.  1906  a  bill,  introduced  by  H. 
C.  Adams  of  Wisconsin,  passed  the  House  of 
Representatives  by  a  unanimous  vote,  increas- 
ing the  national  allotment  to  the  experiment 
stations  by  $5,000  for  each  State  for  1906,  this 
amount  to  be  increased  by  $2,000  annually  until 
the  total  shall  reach  $15,000,  at  which  amount 
it  is  to  remain,  thus  making  the  total  appro- 
priations for  this  purpose  from  the  general 
government  $30,000  annually  for  each   station. 

Charles  E.  Thorne, 
Director      Agricultural      Experiment      Station, 
Wooster,  Ohio. 

Agricultural  Machinery.  See  American 
Farm    Implements. 

Agriculture,  in  its  strict  signification,  is 
the  art  of  cultivating  the  earth  for  the  purpose 
of  causing  it  to  produce  more  abundant! v  roots. 
plants,  and  seeds  suitable  for  the  sustenance  or 
service  of  man,  and  for  the  support  of  the  ani- 
mals domesticated  in  his  service.  It  was  the 
first  and  has  always  been  the  most  extensively 
practised  of  the  arts. 

In  its  accepted  meaning,  however,  agriculture 
not  only  includes  the  tillage  of  the  soil  and  the 
cultivation  of  crops,  but  also  the  rearing  and 
feeding  of  all  kinds  of  farm  live  stock,  ami  in 
some  instances  the  manufacture  of  the  products 


of  the  farm  into  such  forms  as  may  be  more  con- 
venient or  more  valuable  for  use  or  for  sale. 
The  manufacture  of  butter  and  that  of  cheese 
constitute  recognized  branches  of  the  art  of 
agriculture.  The  distinction  between  arable  agri- 
culture, which  includes  the  cultivation  of  the 
ground  and  the  growth  of  crops,  and  pastoral 
agriculture,  which  comprises  merely  the  feed- 
ing and  management  of  the  flocks  and  herds  of 
the  farm,  has  been  observed  since  the  earliest 
times :  "Abel  was  a  keeper  of  sheep,  but  Cain 
was  a  tiller  of  the  ground."  In  modern  times, 
and  probably  in  some  degree  at  all  times  within 
the  historical  period,  the  practice  of  arable  agri- 
culture has  been  commonly  associated  in  greater 
or  less  degree  with  the  keeping  and  tending  of 
live  stock;  but  over  immense  tracts  of  the 
world's  surface  that  are  unfitted  for  arable  cul- 
tivation the  practice  of  pastoral  agriculture  still 
prevails,  as  the  ancient  days,  wholly  unmixed 
with  the  plodding  labors  of  the  husbandman 

All  the  great  nations  of  antiquity  which  had 
attained  to  any  degree  of  civilization,  the  Chi- 
nese, the  Assyrians  and  Babylonians,  the  Phoeni- 
cians, and  the  Egyptians,  appear  to  have  held  the 
art  of  husbandry  in  high  esteem,  and  numerous 
references  to  agriculture  and  its  practices  are 
found  scattered  throughout  all  ancient  literature. 

The  agricultural  practices  of  Palestine  are 
the  subject  of  repeated  allusions  in  the  books 
of  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and 
among  the  Greeks  agriculture  was  described  by 
such  authors  as  Hesiod  and  Xenophon.  The 
Romans  attained  very  high  perfection  in  agri- 
culture, and  the  Latin  literature  devoted  to 
this  subject  alone  appears  to  have  been  extensive. 
Its  authors  include,  among  others,  the  names  of 
Columella,  who  wrote  a  complete  treatise  on 
agriculture  in  12  books,  Vergil,  whose  'Geor- 
gics'  constitute  the  most  famous  of  the  classical 
poems  on  agriculture,  as  well  as  Varro,  Pliny, 
and  others. 

It  was  in  all  probability  during  the  Roman 
occupation  that  agriculture  in  Britain  first  at- 
tained the  position  of  an  art,  but  during  the 
disturbed  period  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  conquest 
its  practice  fell  into  inevitable  neglect,  and  the 
Roman  principles  of  culture  were  forgotten 
through  disuse.  When  society  became  more  set- 
tled, agriculture  again  revived,  especially  after 
the  introduction  of  Christianity  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons.  Under  the  feudal  system  intro- 
duced by  the  Normans,  agriculture  was  long 
neglected  in  favor  of  war  and  the  chase,  crops 
were  sacrificed  to  game,  and  laborers  were 
starved  that  nobles  might  have  sport.  For  sev- 
eral centuries  agriculture  made  no  progress,  and 
its  English  literature  did  not  commence  till 
nearly  500  years  after  the  battle  of  Senlac.  This 
literature  began  with  Sir  Anthony  Fltzherbert's 
'Book  of  Husbandry.'  published  in  1525.  which 
was  followed  half  a  century  later  by  Tusser's 
metrical  '  Five  Hundred  Points  of  Good  Hus- 
bandry ' 

Ujout  the  middle  of  the  17th  century  the 
field  cultivation  of  clover  and  of  turnips  was 
introduced  into  England  by  Sir  Richard  Weston 
and  gradually  extended.  Blith's  'English  Im- 
prover' was  published  in  1640.  and  the  'Legacy 
or  Discourse  on  Husbandry.'  by  Hartlib,  a  fol- 
lower of  Cromwell,  and  a  friend  of  Milton,  in 
[650.  By  the  end  of  the  century  a  number  of 
Other  works  on   agriculture   had  been   produced. 


AGRICULTURE 


In  the  succeeding  century  still  greater  pro- 
gress was  made,  of  which  the  first  steps  were 
due  tn  Jethro  Tull,  a  gentleman  of  Berkshire, 
and  to  Lord  Townshend.  In  Tull's  'Horse- 
Hoeing  Husbandry,'  published  in  i/.tl,  was  first 
advocated  the  system  of  sowing  crops  in  drills 
nr  rOWS  so  wide  that  cultivation  could  he  car- 
ried nit  between  them.  To  Townshend  belongs 
the  credit  of  the  introduction  of  the  Norfolk 
or  four-course  rotation,  which  is  still  widely 
practised,  and  which  has  formed  the  basis  of  all 
the  rotations  of  crops  since  adopted  on  light 
and  medium  land.  The  next  great  name  is  that 
of  Robert  Bakewell  i  i7_'5-g4) .  who  discovered 
the  method  of  improving  live  stock  by  judicious 
mating  and  selection.  He  formed  the  new 
Leicester  sheep,  which  surpassed  all  pre-existing 
breeds  in  early  maturity  and  fattening  pro- 
pensity, and  thus  exemplified  the  principles  by 
which  till  breeds  of  farm  live  stock  have  since 
been  improved.  His  methods  were  soon  after 
applied  with  like  success  to  the  Southdown,  the 
Cheviot,  and  other  breeds.  Bakewell's  Lcices- 
ters  were  also  extensively  used  to  improve  other 
sheep  breeds  by  crossing.  The  same  principles, 
applied  in  the  end  of  the  century  to  cattle  by  the 
brothers  Colling,  produced  from  the  native  Tees- 
water  or  Durham  the  Shorthorn,  which  has  be- 
come celebrated  as  one  of  the  valuable  breeds. 
The  improved  Shorthorn  has  been  even  more 
extensively  used  in  the  improvement  of  other 
breeds  of  cattle  than  the  Leicester  in  sheep. 
Herefords  were  subjected  to  similar  selective 
treatment  by  Tomkins. 

Other  notable  events  of  the  18th  century  were 
the  rapid  extension  of  the  cultivation  of  the  po- 
tato, which  only  attained  a  position  of  im- 
portance among  field  crops  in  England  about 
the  middle,  and  in  Scotland  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  century.  In  this  period  were  also  founded 
the  leading  agricultural  societies,  which  have  ex- 
ercised such  a  powerful  influence  in  the  educa- 
tion of  farmers  and  the  advancement  of  agri- 
culture. These  included  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  founded  in 
1774;  the  Bath  and  West  of  England  Agricul- 
tural Society,  founded  three  years  later ;  and 
the  Smithfield  Club,  founded  in  1703.  In  the 
same  year  there  was  established,  chiefly  through 
the  exertions  of  the  celebrated  Sir  John  Sinclair, 
the  first  Board  of  Agriculture,  which  continued 
till  1816.  Sir  John  Sinclair  was  its  first  presi- 
dent, and  its  first  secretary  was  the  famous 
Arthur  Young,  whose  graphic  descriptions  of 
agricultural  practices  at  home  and  abroad  con- 
tributed in  no  slight  degree  to  .the  general  im- 
provement of  agriculture. 

The  history  of  American  agriculture  is  a 
continuation  of  that  of  Europe  so  far  as  the 
methods  and  implements  of  the  home-land  were 
introduced  by  colonists  in  the  New  World,  and 
with  the  exception  of  the  raising  of  cotton  and 
tobacco  by  the  people  of  the  Southern  seaboard 
the  early  agriculture  of  the  country  was  nothing 
more  than  the  production  of  food  for  home  or 
near-by  consumption.  Even  so  late  as  the  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  century'  very  little  progress  had 
been  made,  the  old  ways  still  holding  their  own. 
The  development  of  agriculture  in  Great  Britain 
and  Europe,  as  outlined  above,  had  its  echo  in 
America,  but  really  substantial  advance  was  not 
made  until  the  wonderful  achievements  of  the 
next  century  accomplished  more  for  the  world's 


benefit  in  decades  than  had  been  gained  before 
in  centuries.  In  considering  the  causes  that 
produced  this  astonishing  advancement  and 
turned  an  industry  into  a  science  we  will  find 
in  the  last  analysis  that  the  prime  agency  was 
the  improvement  in  the  means  and  methods  of 
transportation.  The  general  adoption  of  power 
propulsion  made  it  possible  to  market  crops  from 
lands  that  were  otherwise  outside  the  pale  of 
cultivation,  so  the  great  fertile  plains  of  the 
Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  and  the  vast  arias 
of  Australia,  Russia,  and  South  America  were 
added  to  the  food-producing  regions  of  the 
world.  The  possibility  of  marketing  the  prod- 
ucts of  these  remote  lands  created  a  demand  for 
machinery  to  make  good  the  lack  of  laborers; 
then  as  the  good  soils  became  exhausted,  or  the 
pressure  of  demand  necessitated  additional 
supplies  from  cultivated  land,  the  problems  pre- 
sented were  solved  by  the  labors  of  scientists, 
wdio  brought  chemistry  to  the  aid  of  the  tiller, 
and  agriculture  ceased  to  be  a  haphazard  means 
of  livelihood,  becoming,  even,  almost  independ- 
ent of  the  vagaries  of  the  seasons.  The  impor- 
tance to  the  farmer  of  the  application  of  power 
to  the  labors  of  the  farm  is  shown  by  the  state- 
ment of  an  official  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, wdio  states  that  the  amount  of  human 
labor  necessary  to  produce  a  bushel  of  wheat 
was  reduced  in  66  years  from  three  hours  and 
three  minutes  to  an  average  of  about  ten  min- 
utes, while  the  cost  of  that  labor  fell  from  17)4 
cents  to  iYi  cents  a  bushel. 

The  improvement  in  every  line  of  human  en- 
deavor that  conies  through  competition  has  not 
failed  in  agriculture,  and  it  is  no  longer  an  ac- 
ceptable reason  for  raising  certain  crops  on  a 
farm  that  they  always  have  been  raised  there. 
The  successful  agriculturist  looks  upon  his  farm 
as  a  business  plant,  and  strives  in  every  possible 
way  to  get  from  that  plant  the  maximum  of 
product,  fitting  his  crops  to  the  peculiarities  of 
the  soil,  or,  if  need  be.  fitting  the  soil  to  the 
requirements  of  the  crops  his  market  demands. 
Even  the  smallest  farmer  has  the  world  for  his 
market,  for  the  apples  raised  on  the  hillsides  of 
Vermont  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  New  Or- 
leans, London,  and  Paris,  and  the  small  fruits 
and  vegetables  of  the  southern  States  are  found 
in  the  far  north  at  midwinter.  The  farmer  has 
come  to  realize  the  value  of  such  modern  aids 
to  business  as  the  advertising  pages  of  the  news- 
papers, and  it  is  no  rare  thing  to  find  an  up- 
country  producer  offering  his  products  through 
the  medium  of  the  great  metropolitan  dailies. 
So  agriculture  has  awakened  with  a  start,  and 
in  great  leaps  and  bounds  placed  herself  in  the 
front  ranks  of  the  century's  progress. 

The  division  of  labor  in  agriculture  has,  as 
in  other  productive  occupations,  become  a  fea- 
ture of  the  age.  Although  the  farmer  should 
still  be  somewhat  of  an  «  all-around  man,"  he  no 
longer  requires  to  be  a  plow-wright,  farm-imple- 
ment maker,  harness-maker,  woodman,  etc.,  but 
may  devote  his  entire  attention  to  the  more  im- 
mediate demands  of  his  vocation. 

But  farming  itself  has  come  very  extensively 
under  the  influence  of  this  division  of  labor,  and 
each  successful  husbandman  devotes  his  atten- 
tion to  a  particular  branch  rather  than  attempt 
the  cultivation  of  every  farm  product  needed  for 
home  consumption.  One  is  a  wool-grower,  an- 
other breeds  horses    or  raises  beef,  or   devotes 


AGRICULTURE 


his  attention  to  dairying,  or  market  gardening, 
or  fruit  growing,  or  some  other  specialty.  Often 
a  single  crop,  as  tobacco,  onions,  potatoes,  or 
wheat,  receives  his  principal  efforts. 

Among  a  great  variety  of  new  and  improved 
methods  in  tillage  and  soil  improvements  belong- 
ing to  the  century,  tile  drainage  and  sub-surface 
irrigation  by  means  of  pipes  are  instances  of 
marked  advance  over  old  practices. 

Ensilage  for  forage  has  been  a  long  stride  in 
the  economical  preparation  and  conservation  of 
cattle  food.  By  its  means  not  only  is  it  possible 
to  furnish  farm  animals  with  a  palatable  and 
succulent  food  at  all  seasons,  but  an  important 
saving  of  forage,  and  of  labor  in  securing  it, 
is  effected.  The  introduction  of  silage  as  a  cat- 
tle food  marks  the  dawn  of  an  intensive  hus- 
bandry hitherto  unknown,  making  it  possible  to 
increase  greatly  the  number  of  animals  kept  on 
a  given  area,  and  correspondingly  to  increase 
the  food  supply  for  the  human  family. 

The  winter  feeding  of  farm  animals  is  no 
longer  the  task  of  a  century  ago,  but  has  be- 
come a  simple  problem.  Indeed,  so  easy  has 
winter  feeding  become,  that  pasturage,  the  bless- 
ing of  our  fathers,  has  by  comparison  become 
difficult,  and  feeders  are  becoming  keenly  alive 
to  the  needs  of  a  better  system  of  summer  feed- 
ing than  pasturage  alone  affords. 

Ever  since  the  patriarch  Jacob  outwitted  his 
father-in-law  in  the  division  of  their  flocks  and 
herds  by  the  use  of  «  peeled  rods,»  the  art  of 
breeding  has  been  more  or  less  faithfully  pur- 
sued. If  we  may  judge  of  the  results,  however, 
this  century  has  witnessed  more  progress  in 
many  directions  than  the  3,000  years  preceding. 

Practically  all  the  improved  breeds  of  swine 
belong  to  the  more  recent  period.  Sheep  have 
undergone  a  marked  transition  in  fleshing  prop- 
erties, and  certain  breeds  have  made  no  less  con- 
spicuous gains  in  the  quality  of  their  fleece.  A 
sheep  producing  52  pounds  of  wool  in  13 
months  was  unheard  of  a  generation  ago. 

The  beef  breeds  of  cattle  would  hardly  rec- 
ognize their  ancestors  of  a  century  ago  as  of 
the  same  race,  while  dairy  cows  of  that  time 
would  forget  their  cud  in  contemplation  of  a 
Picterje  II.,  with  a  record  of  over  30,000  pounds 
of  milk  in  a  single  year. 

As  instances  of  remarkable  development  in 
horses  within  the  century  may  be  mentioned  the 
American  trotter  and  the  Kentucky  gaited  sad- 
dler. In  the  former  instance  the  unnatural  trot 
and  pace,  by  selection,  breeding,  development, 
and  training,  have  acquired  the  speed  of  a  mile 
in  2  minutes  2l/\  seconds  and  I  minute  5914 
seconds,  respectively,  with  a  long  list  of  per- 
formers of  miles  faster  than  2:10.  The  per- 
fection of  a  breed  of  horses  taking  each  of  five 
different  gaits  at  a  word  from  their  riders, 
which  every  Kentucky  gaited  saddler  must  do, 
is  another  monument  to  the  agricultural  skill  of 
the  age. 

In  the  diversity  of  talents  used  by  husband- 
men, those  of  the  chemist  play  an  important 
role.  Evidence  of  this  is  found  in  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  and  other  feeding  standards.  By  pa- 
tient study  extending  over  a  long  period  of  time 
and  a  large  number  of  animals,  tables  have  been 
arranged  showing  the  food  requirements  of  all 
common  domestic  animals  in  all  ordinary  condi- 
tions of  use.  The  chemical  composition  of  feed- 
ing stuffs  has  been  accurately  determined.     The 


percentages  of  nutrients  —  albuminoids,  fat,  and 
carbohydrates  (starch,  sugar,  fibre,  etc.)  —  di- 
gested by  animals  have  been  worked  out  and  re- 
corded. Numerous  tests  have  been  made  to 
determine  the  most  advantageous  amounts  and 
proportions  of  these  nutrients  for  each  of  the 
various  purposes  for  which  animals  are  kept. 

These  results,  compiled,  arranged,  and  pub- 
lished, give  the  feeder  information  of  inesti- 
mable value  in  the  profitable  pursuit  of  his  voca- 
tion. These  studies  and  investigations  have  not 
only  proved  of  great  advantage  in  feeding 
animals,  but  have  resulted  at  the  same  time  in 
the  discovery  of  principles  of  human  nutrition 
having  an  important  bearing  on  man's  subsist- 
ence. 

Great  strides  have  been  made  in  methods  of 
preventing  and  overcoming  animal  diseases,  de- 
serving of  far  more  extended  mention  than  it  is 
possible  here  to  make.  The  discoveries  of  Dr. 
Koch,  resulting  in  the  preparation  of  tuberculin 
as  a  diagnostic  for  consumption  in  cattle;  the 
inoculation  of  cattle,  rendering  them  immune 
from  Texas  fever  heretofore  considered  fatal  to 
all  improved  breeds ;  the  successful  potassium 
iodide  treatment  for  milk  fever ;  and  a  host  of 
other  discoveries, —  have  marked  the  century  in 
veterinary  achievements. 

The  occupation  of  the  drover  has  passed 
away  with  the  advent  of  railroad  transportation 
of  farm  animals.  While  this  belongs  to  the  sub- 
ject of  commerce,  it  is  of  incalculable  impor- 
tance to  agriculture  as  well.  A  very  large  share 
of  the  developments'  of  husbandry  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  opening  up  of  the  country  by  the 
grand  facilities  for  transportation  that  now  an- 
nihilate both  time  and  space.  Interstate  and 
transoceanic  traffic  in  live  stock  have  recently 
been  greatly  improved  by  mechanical  and  scien- 
tific efforts  until  our  cattle  travel  with  a  degree 
of  safety  and  comfort  not  experienced  by  our 
human  ancestors  of  a  century  gone. 

It  is  said  that  among  the  early  town  records 
of  Hadley.  Mass..  is  an  entry  to  the  effect  that 
the  cows  gave  so  little  milk  through  the  winter 
that  the  babies  had  to  take  cider  as  a  substitute. 
Could  the  mothers  of  those  babies  go  to  Had- 
ley now  and  observe  the  methods  whereby  win- 
ter has  become  the  principal  dairy  season  in  the 
region,  would  they  not  feel  that  their  lives  were 
lived  too  soon? 

Contrast  the  tedious  and  laborious  setting  of 
milk  in  shallow  crocks  for  two  days,  then  re- 
moving the  cream  with  a  piece  of  perforated 
tin,  allowing  it  to  sour  in  the  kitchen,  acquiring 
the  aroma  of  boiled  dinners  in  transit,  churning 
with  a  dash  churn  and  kneading  by  hand,  with 
the  new  process  of  converting  fresh  milk  into 
«  butter  for  breakfast  in  a  minute  and  a  half." 

Co-operative  butter-  and  cheese-making  has 
transferred  this  work  from  the  kitchen  of  the 
busy  housewife  to  the  factory  of  the  expert,  to 
the  great  advantage  of  the  product  and  satisfac- 
tion of  the  wearied  housewife. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  achievement  of 
all  is  the  discovery  of  organic  ferments  which 
ripen  or  sour  cream  in  butter-making,  and  the 
study  of  the  specific  effects  of  each  of  more 
than  a  hundred  different  species  of  these  organ- 
isms upon  the  quality  of  butter.  A  practical 
side  of  this  study  is  found  in  the  present  prac- 
tice of  selecting  pure  cultures  of  bacteria  for 
cream-ripening,  thus  avoiding  those  forms  pre- 


AGRICULTURE 


during  bad  flavors  and  other  undesirable  quali- 
ties. 

In  several  large  establishments  milk  is  now 
being  modified  by  changing  the  proportions  of 
its  constituents  to  make  it  closely  resemble 
human  milk,  and  for  other  specific  purposes  in 
the  feeding  of  infants,  and  it  lias  even  been 
made  without  the  intervention  of  the  cow. 

During  the  past  40  years  agricultural  col- 
leges have  sprung  up  in  each  of  the  United 
States,  doing  work  calculated  to  make  the  20th- 
century  agriculture  far  superior  to  that  of  the 
past. 

Hand  in  hand  with  this  educational  work, 
investigations  have  been  extended  into  all  the 
varied  fields  of  husbandry.  Inlets  are  yielding 
Up  their  life's  history,  revealing  facts  suggestive 
of  methods  of  protecting  our  interests  against 
their  ravages.  .Microscopic  organisms  reveal  a 
power  in  nature  till  now  undreamed  of,  disclos- 
ing among  their  numbers  our  warm  friends  and 
our  nio^t  deadly  foes.  It  has  become  possible  to 
measure  in  heat  and  motion  the  energy  in  every 
pound  of  food  fed  to  our  animals.  The  calori- 
meter faithfully  measures  every  gram  of  gas 
exhaled  from  balance  between  the  intake  and 
outgo,  and  notes  the  expenditure  of  energy  in 
every  movement  of  body  or  limb.  Even  the  ec- 
centricities of  the  weather  are  not  allowed  to 
pass  unnoted.  Forecasts  of  storm  advise  the 
haymaker  to  be  on  his  guard,  and  frosts  are  not 
allowed  to  spring  upon  the  ungathercd  crop  un- 
announced. 

Under  their  specific  names  the  reader  will 
find  statistics  for  each  crop,  and  further  informa- 
tion «>n  the  general  subject  may  he  found  under 
the  titles  Agricultural  Chemistry;  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Stations;  Drainage;  Irri- 
gation, etc. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. —  From  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  century  interest  in  agriculture  has  called 
forth  a  very  large  number  of  works,  both  gen- 
eral and  special,  and  also  a  long  list  of  period- 
icals, some  of  which  are  devoted  to  individual 
products  of  the   farm. 

The  following  list  of  mainly  American  and 
British  writings  has  been  selected  as  representa- 
tives of  the  general  subject  and  its  main 
branches.  Important  specific  works  are  men- 
tioned under  the  particular  subjects  of  which 
they  treat  : 

General. —  Allen,  <  New  American  Farm 
Book);  Bailey,  'Principles  of  Agriculture); 
Brooks,  <  Agriculture  > ;  Emerson  and  Flint, 
'  Manual  of  Agriculture  >  ;  Fairchild,  '  Rural 
Wealth  and  Welfare);  King,  <  Physics  of  Agri- 
culture 1  ;  Loudon,  <  Encyclopaedia  of  Agri- 
culture); Mortimer,  'The  Whole  Art  of 
Husbandry*;  Morton's  <  A  Cyclopaedia  of  Agri- 
culture >  and  1  Handbook  of  the  Farm  > ;  Periam, 
■  I  lie  American  Encyclopaedia  of  Agriculture); 
Roberts,  <  The  Farmstead';  Tull,  <  Horse- 
Hoeing  Hushandry  > ;  Voorhees,  <  First  Princi- 
ples of  Agriculture);  Wilcox  and  Smith, 
'Farmers'  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture';  Young, 
'Annals  of  Agriculture.) 

<  A  History  of  Agriculture  and  Prices  in  Eng- 
land from  1259  to  1793.)  by  James  E.  Thorold 
Rogers  (8  vols.,  1866-98),  is  a  work  of  immense 
research  and  monumental  significance,  undertak- 
ing to  recover  aspects  of  the  history  of  the  people 
of  England  which  contemporary  records  of  prices 
give  the  means  of  knowing.     It  sheds  light  not 


merely  on  agriculture,  hut  on  politics,  political 
economy,  etc..  even  education,  and  revolutionizes 
some  accepted  views. 

Crops. —  Flint,  1  (Irasses  and  Forage);  Shaw, 
'  Forage  Crops  Other  Than  Grasses,)  and 
'Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo."  For  bibliography 
on  individual  crops  see  specific  titles. 

Drainage  and  Irrigation. —  King,  'Irriga- 
tion and  Drainage1;  Miles.  'Land  Drainage); 
Waring's  '  Drainage  for  Profit  and  Drainage 
for  Health  > ;  <  Report  of  the  Massachusetts 
Drainage  Commission  > :  and  <  Sewerage  and 
Drainage';  Wilcox,    'Irrigation  Farming.) 

Flowers,  Fruits,  Vegetables,  etc. —  Bailey's 
'Evolution  of  Our  Native  Fruits';  'Principles 
of  Fruit  Growing';  and  Principles  of  Vegetable 
Growing);  Bailey  and  Miller,  'Cyclopedia  of 
American  Horticulture);  'Barry's  Fruit  Gar- 
den); Cara,  'Bush  Fruits);  Fuller's  'The 
Nut  Culturist.)  and  <  The  Small  Fruit  Cul- 
turist) ;  Harcourt,  'Florida  Fruits  and  How  to 
Raise  Them);  Henderson's  'Gardening  for 
Profit,)  and  '  Practical  Floriculture  > ;  Lode- 
man,  'The  Spraying  of  Plants  >:  Nicholls,  <A 
Text-Book  of  Tropical  Gardening);  Oemler, 
'  Truck  Farming  in  the  South  '  ;  Thomas, 
'American  Fruit  Culturist);  Waugh's  'Fruit 
Harvesting,  Storing,  Marketing,  etc.,)  and  '  Sys- 
tematic Pomology);  Wickson,  'California 
Fruits.) 

Historical. — Daubeny,  <  Lectures  on  Roman 
Husbandry);  Flint,  'One  Hundred  Years'  Pro- 
gress); Hoskyns,  'Short  Inquiry  into  the  His- 
tory of  Agriculture  ' ;  Prothen,  <  The  Pioneers 
and  Progress  of  English  Farming);  Kawlinson, 
'  Ancient  Egypt  '  ;  Rogers,  '  History  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Prices  in  England  > ;  Stephens,  <  Book 
of  the  Farm.) 

Live-Stock  and  Dairy. —  Aikman,  'Milk,  Its 
Nature  and  Composition);  Craig,  'Judging 
Live-Stock  > ;  Curtis,  'Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep, 
and  Swine>;  Decker,  'Cheese-Making);  Felch, 
'Poultry  Culture);  Henry,  'Feeds  and  Feed- 
ing); Jordan,  'Feeding  of  Animals);  Miles, 
'Stock-Breeding);  Robinson,  'Poultry  Craft  >; 
Shaw's  "Animal  Breeding.'  and  "Study  of 
Breeds);  Stewart's  'Feeding  Animals.)  and 
'Shepherd's  Manual);  Wallace's  'Farming  In- 
dustries of  Cape  Colony);  'Farm  Live-Stock 
of  Great  Britain);  'India  in  1887);  and  'The 
Rural  Economy  and  Agriculture  of  Australia 
and  West  Zealand';  Wing.  'Milk.  Its  Prod- 
ucts); Wright's  'New  Poultry  Book,)  and 
'  Practical   Poultry  Keeper.) 

Manures. —  Aikman,  'Manures  and  the 
Principles  of  Manuring);  Griffith,  'Treatise  on 
Manures  >:  Harlan,  'Farming  with  Green  Ma- 
nures'; Harris,  'Talks  on  Manures';  Sempers, 
'Manures:  How  to  Make  and  How  to  Use 
Them.) 

Soil.—  King,  'The  Soil);  Roberts,  'The 
Fertility  of  the  Land.' 

Periodicals. —  <  American  Gardening.'  New 
York;  'Farm  and  Fireside.'  Springfield.  Ohio; 
'Farm  and  Home.)  Springfield,  Mass.;  'Farm- 
er's Advocate,)  London,  Ont. ;  <  Farmers'  Re- 
view.) Chicago;  <  Farm  Journal.)  Philadelphia; 
'Florists'  Exchange,)  New  York;  'Michigan 
Farmer,)  Detroit ;  <  Practical  Farmer,)  Phila- 
delphia. 

Agriculture,  Department  of,  an  executive 
department  of  the  United  States,  whose  head 
is  a  member  of  the  Cabinet  with  the  title  sec- 


AGRICULTURE 


retary  of  agriculture.  It  was  formed  early  in 
1889  under  President  Cleveland,  the  first  sec- 
retary being  Norman  J.  Colman,  of  Missouri ; 
he  was  succeeded  in  the  same  year,  under  Presi- 
dent Harrison,  by  Jeremiah  M.  Rusk,  of  Wis- 
consin ;  in  1893  President  Cleveland  in  his  sec- 
ond term  appointed  J.  Sterling  Morton,  of  Ne- 
braska ;  in  1897  President  McKinley  appointed 
James  Wilson,  of  Iowa,  who  still  holds  it 
(1902).  Its  germ  was  a  distribution  of  seeds  to 
farmers  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  in 
1836,  enlarged  by  Congress  in  1839  to  include 
the  prosecution  of  agricultural  investigations 
and  collection  of  agricultural  statistics ;  in  1854 
a  special  appropriation  was  made  and  an  ento- 
mologist employed  ;  in  1855  a  chemist  and  bota- 
nist were  added  and  a  propagating  garden  be- 
gun. In  1862  the  Agricultural  Bureau  was  es- 
tablished separate  from  the  Patent  Office,  and 
President  Lincoln  appointed  Isaac  Newton,  of 
Pennsylvania,  Commissioner  of  Agriculture;  the 
last  Commissioner  was  Mr.  Colman,  the  first 
Secretary.  The  Department's  quarters  in 
Washington  are  in  a  large  park  near  the 
Washington  Monument.  Its  functions  are  ex- 
pressed by  statute  as:  « To  acquire  and  dif- 
fuse among  the  people  of  the  United  States 
useful  information  on  subjects  connected  with 
agriculture  in  the  most  genera!  and  compre- 
hensive sense  of  that  word,  and  to  procure, 
propagate,  and  distribute  among  the  people 
new  and  valuable  seeds  and  plants  B ;  but  sci- 
entific and  administrative  duties  have  been 
heaped  upon  it  till  it  has  become  not  only  an 
enormous  workshop  and  museum  of  every  class 
of  scientific  research  relating  to  plant  and  ani- 
mal life  and  that  of  agricultural  animals,  but  an 
establishment  of  practical  services  in  trade  and 
commerce,  quarantine,  statistics,  tree-planting, 
road-making,  irrigation,  insecticides,  and  almost 
everything  that  can  affect  the  interests  of  those 
engaged  in  raising  and  marketing  all  articles 
that  grow  from  the  ground  or  living  things  that 
feed  on  them.  Even  the  Weather  Bureau  was 
transferred  to  it,  in  1891,  from  the  War  De- 
partment. Its  publication  department  is  im- 
mense, and  includes  a  <  Year-Book,>  regular 
•  Farmers'  Bulletins,'  and  a  monthly  list  of  pub- 
lications, all  sent  free  to  applicants  or  obtainable 
through  members  of  Congress.  The  periodicals, 
<  Experiment  Station  Record,)  <  Monthly 
Weather  Review,'  and  <  Crop  Reporter,'  also 
works  of  more  special  character,  are  given  free 
to  scientific  institutions  and  collaborators  of  the 
department,  libraries,  colleges,  and  experiment 
stations,  and  sold  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Documents.  Its  cost  is  about  $4,500,000  a  year, 
of  which  about  $700,000  goes  to  the  agricultural 
experiment  stations.  The  detailed  statement  be- 
low will  give  a  full  conspectus  of  its  activities. 
Organization,  Subdivisions,  and  Functions  of 
the  Department,  1902. 
Office  of  the  Secretary. —  Supervision  of  pub- 
lic business  relating  to  the  agricultural  industry 
and  management  of  department  subdivisions ; 
advisory  supervision  over  government  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations ;  control  of  quaran- 
tine stations  for  imported  cattle  and  of  interstate 
cattle  quarantine,  including  inspection  of  cattle 
ships ;  also  carrying  into  effect  the  interstate 
game  laws  and  those  on  importation  of  noxious 
animals,  with  authority  to  control  that  of  other 
animals. 


The  Weather  Bureau. —  Records  daily  exist- 
ing atmospheric  conditions  and  formulates  there- 
from—  for  distribution  —  forecasts  of  probable 
weather  during  the  succeeding  48  hours.  It 
maintains  a  central  office  in  Washington,  and 
about  180  subordinate  stations  in  the  United 
States  and  West  Indies.  It  also  receives  daily 
telegraphic  reports  of  observations  in  Canada, 
Mexico,  the  Azores,  and  the  western  coast  of 
Europe. 

The  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. —  Investi- 
gates the  nature  and  prevention  of  communicable 
diseases  dangerous  to  live  stock,  and  takes  mea- 
sures for  their  extirpation ;  inspects  live  stock 
and  their  food  products  in  interstate  and  foreign 
commerce,  also  the  transport  vessels  for  export- 
ed and  quarantine  stations  for  imported  animals; 
disseminates  information  on  our  dairy  interests 
and  their  foreign  markets ;  and  reports  on  our 
animal  industries  and  means  of  improving  them. 

Tlie  Bureau  of  Chemistry. —  Studies  the 
chemical  problems  of  agriculture :  soils,  fertiliz- 
ers, and  irrigation  waters ;  agricultural  products 
and  industries;  insecticides  and  fungicides;  foods 
of  man  and  beast;  raw  materials,  products,  and 
processes  of  agricultural-chemical  industries ; 
chemical  relations  which  modify  the  results  of 
environment  —  as  soil,  latitude,  altitude,  and  me- 
teorological conditions  —  on  agricultural  prod- 
ucts ;  inspects  food  products  imported  or  for 
export ;  and  examines  quality  of  materials  used 
in  road  construction.  The  chemical  problems  of 
other  departments  are  turned  over  to  it. 

The  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.—  Studies 
plant  life  in  relation  to  agriculture,  including 
vegetable,  pathological  and  physiological,  bo- 
tanical, pomological,  grass  and  forage  plant  in- 
vestigations and  experiments ;  has  charge  of 
experimental  gardens  and  grounds,  the  Arling- 
ton experimental  farm,  Congressional  seed  dis- 
tribution, seed  and  plant  introduction,  and  tea- 
culture  experiments. 

The  Office  of  Experiment  Stations. —  Super- 
vises the  expenditures  of  those  in  the  United 
States,  manages  those  in  Alaska,  Hawaii,  and 
Porto  Rico,  and  prepares  publications  chiefly 
based  on  their  results,  including  the  monthly 
<  Experiment  Station  Record  ' ;  conducts  rela- 
tions with  American  and  foreign  institutions  for 
agricultural  education  and  research  ;  and  super- 
vises special  investigations  ordered  by  Congress, 
in  co-operation  with  the  agricultural  colleges 
and   experiment   stations. 

The  Bureau  of  Forestry. —  Prepares  and  ex- 
ecutes plans  for  conservative  lumbering  of  wood- 
lands, public  or  private;  investigates  trees  and 
methods  for  planting,  and  gives  practical  assist- 
ance to  tree-planters ;  studies  commercially  val- 
uable trees  for  their  special  uses  in  forestry,  and 
the  relations  between  forests  and  fire,  grazing, 
lumbering,  stream  flow,  and  irrigation ;  main- 
tains a  photographic  laboratory  and  collection 
and  a  library. 

The  Bureau  of  Soils. —  Studies  physical  and 
chemical  properties  of  soils,  and  materials  and 
methods  of  artificial  fertilization,  with  their  in- 
fluence on  the  original  soils ;  classifies  and  maps 
soils  in  agricultural  districts  to  show  the  dis- 
tribution of  soil  types  for  adaptability  to  certain 
crops  and  their  management ;  investigates  alkali 
problems  and  their  relations  to  irrigation  and 
seepage  waters  :  reclamation  of  abandoned  lands  ; 
studies  tobacco  soils  and  methods  of  cultivation 


AGRIGENTUM  —  AGRIMONY 


and  curing-,  introduction  of  improved  varieties, 
and  methods  of  exporting  tobacco. 

The  Division  of  Statistics. —  Collects  and  di- 
gests statistics  <>f  agricultural  production;  area 
annually  sown  1  the  leading  crops,  their 

condition  on  the  first  day  of  each  month,  the 
quantitative  results  at  close  of  the  crop  year,  and 
estimated  farm  value  t  December.  Supplemen- 
tary it  collects  periodical  information  on  minor 
crops  of  importance,  meadows  and  pastures, 
and  the  principal  foreign  crops.  The  stock  of 
corn,  wheat,  and  oats  on  United  States  farms 
at  certain  regular  fixed  dates  is  estimated,  with 
the  proportion  shipped  OUl  of  the  county  where 
grown;  the  number  and  value,  by  species,  of 
animals  on  United  States  farms  at  the  beginning 
of  each  year,  and  the  annual  losses  from  disease 
and  exposure;  also  the  annual  clip  of  wool  and 
average  weight  of  tlecces.  by  States  and  Terri- 
tories. It  computes  the  world's  production  of 
the  chief  crops,  by  countries,  and  prices  of  prin- 
cipal agricultural  products  in  various  United 
States  markets. 

The  Division  of  Publications.- — This  is  the 
publishing  house  of  the  Department.  It  has  gen- 
eral charge  and  assignment  of  expenditures  un- 
der the  appropriation  for  printing  and  distribut- 
ing agricultural  documents,  preparation  and 
distribution  of  the  l  Year-Book, >  <  Farmers' 
Bulletins,1  and  other  bulletins,  reports,  and  cir- 
culars; supervises  the  Department's  printing  and 
binding  in  the  Government  Printing  Office;  pre- 
pares the  drawings  for  illustrations;  and  pre- 
pares and  distributes  official  information  and 
advance  notices  to  agricultural  writers. 

The  Division  of  Entomology. —  Studies  the 
entire  field  of  insect  life  in  it  ^  relation  to  hu- 
manity; primarily,  insects  injurious  directly  to 
man,  to  agriculture  and  horticulture,  and  to 
stored  products;  the  geographic  distribution  of 
stab  insects,  and  their  relations  to  climate.  It 
conducts  field  and  laboratory  experiments  with 
different  classes  of  remedies,  and  reports  there- 
on.    It    also    studies    beneficial    insects  —  both 

those  which  are  the  source  of  industries,  like  the 
honey-bee.  the  silkworm,  and  the  fig-fertilizing 
insect  and  those  indirectly  beneficial  by  preying 
on  injurious  ones.  It  makes  large  collections 
of  insects  and  of  insecticidal  machinery  and 
chemicals. 

The  Division  of  Biological  Survey. —  Studies 
the  geographic  distribution  of  animals  and 
plants,  and   maps  the  natural  life  zones  of  the 

ntry;  also  investigates  the  economic  rela- 
tions of  birds  and  mammals,  recommends  mea- 
sures for  the  preservation  of  beneficial  and  the 
distinction  of  injurious  species,  and  carries  into 
effect  the  Federal  laws  concerning  the  importa- 
tion of  wild  birds  and  other  wild  animals,  and 
the  interstate  game  laws. 

The  Office  of  Public  Road  Inquiries. —  Inves- 
tigates the  United  States  system  of  road  manage- 
ment, and  the  best  methods  of  road-making  and 
maintenance;  experiments  on  best  methods  of 
road-building,  and  analyzes  chemical  and  phys- 
ical qualities  of  road  materials;  co  operates  w'ith 
agricultural  colleges,  experiment  stations,  and 
local  authorities,  in  building  short  sections  of 
road  a-  -sons.  etc. 

The  Section  of  Foreign  Markets.—  Has  for 
object  the  extension  of  our  agricultural  export 
trade.    It  studies  foreign  conditions  of  demand 


and  supply  (  using  chiefly  foreign  official  Statis- 
tics   ot    production),    and    imports    and    exports, 

supplemented  by  details  obtained  from  consular 
reports,  trade  journals,  and  other  sources.  In 
eases  of  special  importance  a  representative  of 
the  office  is  sent  to  obtain  b)  personal  investiga- 
tion the  information  needed. 

The  Division  of  Accounts  and  Disbursements. 

—  Audits  and  pays  all  accounts  and  adjusts 
claims  against  the  Department;  decides  questions 
involving  the  expenditure  of  public  funds;  pre- 
pares advertisements,  schedules,  and  contracts 
for  annual  supplies,  leases,  agreements,  letters  of 
authority,  and  all  letters  to  the  Treasury  Depart- 
ment and  Department  of  Justice;  issues  requisi- 
tions for  the  purchase  of  supplies,  and  requests 
for  transportation  ;  prepares  the  annual  estimates 
of  appropriations;  etc. 

7  lie  Library. —  The  librarian  purchases  books 
and  periodicals,  supervises  their  arrangement 
and  cataloguing,  and  has  charge  of  the  prepa- 
ration of  catalogues,  indexes,  bibliographies, 
and    similar    publications. 

Agrigentum,  ag-ri-jen'tum,  a  town  in  Sicily, 
of  which  tins  was  the  Roman  name,  the  Greek 
name  having  been  AkragaS  and  the  modem 
Italian  name  being  Girgenti.  It  is  thought  to 
have  been  founded  by  Dorian  colonists  about 
582  B.C.  Its  situation  on  the  southern  shore 
of  the  island  was  peculiarly  strong  and  impos- 
ing, standing  as  it  did  on  a  bare  and  precipitous 
rock  about  [,ooo  feet  above  the  level  of  thi  ea. 
During  the  Greek  period  Agragas  rose  to  a 
position  of  great  wealth  and  importance,  and 
was  adorned  with  splendid  temples  and  public 
buildings.  Among  Sicilian  towns  it  was  second 
onlj  to  Syracuse.  In  406  b.C.  the  city  received 
a  blow  front  which  its  dignity  and  power  never 
recovered,  in  its  capture  by  the  Carthaginians. 
Under  the  Roman  dominion  we  do  not  hear 
much  of  the  town,  which,  however,  seems  to 
have  I"  en  always  prosperous,  having  mines  as 
well  as  the  most  fertile  territory.  The  town 
is  celebrated  in  Greek  history  as  the  birthplace 
of  the  famous  philosopher  Hmpedoclcs,  and  the 
celebrated  and  almost  legendary  tyrant  I'halans 
was  ruler  there. —  in  what  capacity  is  not  clearly 
«  d.  In  the  history  of  fine  art  Akragas 
was  famous  as  the  centre  of  a  school  of  sculp- 
ture and  refined  architecture.  We  still  have 
vestiges  of  this  in  the  extraordinary  group  of 
temples,  that  dedicated  to  llera  Lacinia;  that 
called  "Temple  of  Concord,"  a  remarkably  well- 
preserved  monument  of  the  Doric  style;  that 
called  "Temple  of  Hercules,"  much  ruined; 
and.  finally,  the  gigantic  Temple  of  Zeus,  a 
building  wholly  unique  in  Grecian  art  as  hav- 
ing columns  engaged  in  the  walls  of  the  cellar 
and  a  great  interior  evidently  treated  as  a  pub- 
lic hall,  and  differing  in  this  way  from  all  oilier 
Hellenic  temples. 

Ag'rimony  (Agrimonia),  a  genus  of  plants 

belonging  to  the  natural  order  Rosacea!,  distin- 
guished from  the  other  genera  of  the  same  tribe 
(Rosea)  by  having  but  two  carpels  enclosed  in 
the  deep  tube  of  the  calyx,  from  7  to  20  stamens, 
and  small  notched  petals.  A.  eupatoria,  or  com- 
mon agrimony,  is  an  erect,  hairy,  herbaceous 
plant  found  on  the  borders  of  fields  and  woods, 
by  the  wayside,  etc.,  probably  escaped  from 
gardens,  as  it  is  not  a  native  of  the  United 
States. 


AGRIPPA  —  AGUSTITE 


Agrippa,  Herod.      See    Herod   Acrippa. 

Ague.      See   Malaria. 

Aguilar,  a-ge-lar'.  Grace,  an  English 
writer:  1j.  in  Hackney,  _>  June  1816;  d.  in  Frank- 
fort, 16  Sept.  1847.  Of  Jewish  parentage,  she 
at  first  devoted  herself  to  Jewish  subjects,  but 
her  fame  rests  on  her  novels,  <  Home  Influence,) 
<  A  Mother's  Recompense,'  'Home  Scenes,') 
and  <  Heart  Studies,)  etc.,  most  of  which  were 
published  posthumously  under  the  editorship  of 
her  mother. 

Aguilar  de  la  Frontera,  fron-ta'ra,  Spain, 
a  town  of  Cordova  province,  Andalusia ;  26  m. 
S.  by  E.  from  Cordova.  It  has  three  good  squares 
and  several  handsome  public  buildings,  and  in 
the  time  of  the  Moors  was  defended  by  a  strong 
castle.  The  inhabitants  are  employed  in  agricul- 
ture, stock-raising,  manufacturing,  and  in  quar- 
rying lime,  gypsum,  and  freestone.  Pop.  about 
14.000. 

Aguil'arite,  a  native  sulpho-selenide  of 
silver,  having  the  formula  Ag2S.Ag:Se.  It  is 
found  at  Guanajuato,  Mex. 

Aguilas,  a-ge'las,  Spain,  a  flourishing  sea- 
port in  Murcia  province,  about  37  m.  to  the  S.W. 
of  Cartagena,  with  copper  and  lead  smelting 
works.  It  carries  on  considerable  trade  in  ores, 
etc.     Pop.   15,000. 

Aguilera,  Ventura  Ruiz,  ii-ge-la'ra,  ven- 
too'ra  roo'eth,  lyric  poet,  «  the  Spanish  Beran- 
ger » :  b.  Salamanca,  2  Nov.  1829 ;  d.  Madrid, 
1  July  1881.  After  a  medical  course  at  home  he 
became  a  Madrid  journalist  (1843)  and  an  im- 
portant official  under  Liberal  governments  ;  later 
a  director  of  the  Madrid  Archaeological  Mu- 
seum. His  bold  incisive  editorials  endeavored 
to  instil  fervid  national  patriotism  into  the 
masses,  an  aim  also  of  his  poems  like  «  National 
Echoes')  and  «  Satires.))  His  «  Elegies  »  (1862) 
were  masterpieces  translated  into  nearly  all  Eu- 
ropean languages.  He  wrote  also  <  The  Book  of 
the  Fatherland)  (1869);  <A  Christmas  Leg- 
end) (1872)  :  'The  Modern  Arcadia)  ;  collec- 
tions of  novelettes,  etc.  Complete  Works,  Ma- 
drid. 1873. 

Aguinaldo,  a'ge-nal-do,  Emilio,  the  leader 
of  the  insurgents  in  the  Philippine  insurrection 
of  1896,  and  their  chief  in  the  Spanish-American 
war  of  1898:  b.  in  Imus,  1870.  A  Chinese 
mestizo,  of  Chinese  and  Tagalog  parentage.  His 
father  was  a  planter  and  he  received  his  early 
education  at  the  College  of  St.  Jean  de  Lateran 
and  the  University  of  St.  Tomas  in  Manila. 
Later  he  became  the  protege  of  a  Jesuit  priest, 
and  was  for  a  time  a  student  in  the  medical  de- 
partment of  the  Pontifical  University  of  Manila. 
In  1888  he  had  some  trouble  with  the  authorities 
and  went  to  Hong-kong.  Young  Aguinaldo 
there  became  interested  in  military  affairs  and 
gained  a  knowledge  of  warfare.  He  learned 
something  of  the  English,  French,  and  Chinese 
languages,  together  with  various  native  tongues. 
He  achieved  a  reputation  for  intelligence,  ability, 
shrewdness,  and  diplomacy,  and  had  a  personal 
magnetism  which  gave  him  influence  anions  his 
countrymen.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion 
against  Spanish  authority  in  1896  Aguinaldo 
became  a  commanding  figure  with  the  insurgents. 
He   was   at   the   head   of   the   diplomatic   party, 


which  succeeded  in  making  terms  with  the  Span- 
ish government,  the  latter  paying  a  large  sum 
to  the  Philippine  leaders  to  lay  down  their  arms. 
Aguinaldo  quarreled  with  his  associates  in  Hong- 
kong over  the  division  of  this  money,  and  went 
to  Singapore,  where  he  came  in  contact  with  the 
United  States  consul  shortly  before  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  war  between  the  United  States 
and  Spain.  On  the  representations  of  the  consul 
Commodore  Dewey  telegraphed  to  have  Agui- 
naldo sent  to  him.  The  insurgent  leader  ar- 
rived at  Cavite  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Manila 
Bay.  Aguinaldo  was  given  opportunity  to  or- 
ganize the  Filipinos  against  the  Spanish  author- 
ity; but  no  promises  were  made  to  him  and  the 
insurgents  were  never  officially  recognized  by 
the  Americans.'  Friction  early  arose  and  the 
Americans  protested  against  the  cruel  treatment 
of  Spanish  prisoners  by  the  Filipinos.  The 
strain  became  serious  at  the  capture  of  Manila, 
the  insurgents  claiming  the  right  to  sack  the  city, 
which  the  Americans  denied.  On  12  June  1898 
Aguinaldo  organized  a  so-called  Filipino  Repub- 
lic, with  himself  as  president,  but  very  soon 
proclaimed  himself  dictator.  He  protested 
against  the  Spanish-American  treaty  of  peace, 
which  ceded  the  Philippine  Islands  to  the  United 
States,  and  claimed  the  independence  of  the 
islands.  He  organized  an  extensive  conspiracy 
among  the  native  population  of  Manila,  and  or- 
dered the  complete  massacre  of  the  Americans, 
together  with  the  entire  European  population  of 
the  city,  while  yet  at  peace  with  them.  The 
plot  w-as  discovered  in  time  and  failed.  The  in- 
tention of  Aguinaldo  to  oppose  by  force  the 
American  occupation  had  been  growing  increas- 
ingly evident,  and  on  the  evening  of  4  Feb.  1899 
his  forces  attacked  the  American  lines  in  the 
suburbs  of  Manila.  The  news  of  this  overt  ac- 
tion caused  the  prompt  ratification  of  the  Span- 
ish-American treaty  by  the  United  States  Senate. 
Aguinaldo  made  a  determined  resistance  to  the 
Americans,  and  the  rainy  season  soon  prevented 
the  latter  from  following  up  their  uniform  suc- 
cesses in  the  open  field ;  but  early  in  1900  the 
organized  insurrection,  which  was  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  Tagalog  nationality,  was  broken  up. 
Aguinaldo  driven  into  hiding,  and  his  corre- 
spondence, order  books,  etc.,  were  captured  by 
Gen.  Funston,  who  captured  Aguinaldo  himself 
at  Palawan.  Luzon.  23  March  1901.  On  2  April 
he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United 
States.  In  January  1903  he  sent  a  petition  to 
Congress  on  the  terrible  conditions  of  famine 
and  pestilence  in  the  island. 

Agulhas,  a-gool'yas.  Cape,  the  most  S. 
point  of  Africa,  lies  about  100  m.  E.S.E  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  lat.  340  49'  S. ;  Ion.  200 
o'  40"  E.  The  point  is  very  dangerous  for 
ships;  fogs  are  frequent,  the  currents  are  uncer- 
tain, and  there  are  many  rocks  to  seaward.  In 
1849  a  lighthouse  was  erected  on  the  point.  The 
Agulhas  bank  extends  along  the  whole  southern 
coast  of  Africa,  from  near  Natal  to  Saldanha 
Bay.  It  has  an  average  breadth  of  40  miles, 
but  •  is  difficult  of  navigation.  The  waters 
abound  in  fish.  Agulhas  (Portuguese)  means 
needles. 

Agustite,  a  name  given  by  Trommsdorf 
to  a  variety  of  apatite  occurring  in  Saxony,  and 
supposed  by  him  to  contain  a  new  earth,  named 
in  German  augusterde. 


AGUTI  — AIKEN 


Aguti,  a-goo'ti  (Fr.  through  Sp.  from  the 
native  name),  a  gregarious  South  American  and 
West  Indian  rodent. —  any  .specie;,  of  the  genus 
Dasyproctidcc.  Agutis  are  destructive  to  crops, 
particularly  to  sugar-cane ;  they  are  forest- 
dwellers,  living  in  holes,  but  they  come  out  into 
the  GeldS,  usually  at  night,  to  feed.  In  SOUte 
regions  they  are  considered  edible;  in  Brazil  a 
species,  the  n pampas  hare."  is  hunted  as  game, 
and  the  others  are  bunted  with  a  view  to  saving 
the  crops.  About  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  they  more 
resemble  squirrels,  for  their  legs  are  long  and 
thin,  their  ears  short  and  round,  their  claws 
hoof-like,  and  tail  stumpy.  The  tail  and  the 
hinder  part  of  the  body  are  covered  with  the 
long  stiff  hairs  from  which  the  genus  is  named. 
The  spelling  of  the  name  is  varied  to  acouchi, 
acouchy.  agouti,  agouty,  and  aguchi  ;  in  Guiana 
and  the  West  Indies  a  species  is  called  « achou- 
chy  »  or  «  achuchi.'1  The  same  name  has  been 
applied  to  a  species  of  cavy  (q.v.). 

Ahab,  king  of  Israel  875-853  (?)  B.C.,  son 
and  successor  of  Omri  (I  Kings  xvi.-xxii.).  He 
found  his  kingdom  in  extreme  peril :  whole 
districts  in  the  north  had  been  swallowed  up 
by  the  growing  Syrian  kingdom  with  capital  at 
Damascus,  which  menaced  its  very  life;  and 
Moab  and  Edom  were  possessions  only  to  be 
held  down  by  force,  with  Syria  constantly  incit- 
ing them  to  revolt.  He  proved  a  prince  of  great 
energy  and  ability:  twice  he  drove  back  Ben- 
hadad  of  Damascus,  and  he  held  down  Moab 
with  a  strong  hand,  crushing  a  wholesale  insur- 
rection, as  proved  by  the  inscription  on  the 
Moabite  Stone  (q.v.)  ;  he  made  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  an  ally  and  perhaps  a  vassal,  and 
gained  at  least  the  neutrality  and  perhaps 
some  of  the  resources  of  the  kingdom  of  Tyre 
by  marrying  the  Princess  Jezebel.  Unfortu- 
nately this  involved  letting  her  establish  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Tyrian  Baal,  called  Melkart,  and 
made  the  extremists  of  the  Yahwe  priesthood 
his  irreconcilable  enemies  and  detainers.  Yet 
he  was  no  deserter  of  Yahwe,  but  merely  a  cool 
politician,  who  felt  that  his  first  duty  to  his 
country  and  even  to  its  national  religion  was 
to  save  it  from  absorption  in  Syria,  which  would 
end  Israel  and  the  Yahwe  cult  at  once  ;  and  400 
priests  of  Yahwe  prophesied  before  him  previous 
to  his  last  campaign.  His  entire  internal  policy 
has  been  blackened  by  the  affair  of  Nabotb's 
vineyard,  and  Jezebel  is  a  name  of  execration. 
Certainly  the  judicial  murder  was  a  great  crime, 
but  it  shows  at  least  that  even  an  Oriental 
monarch  2,750  years  ago  could  not  expropriate 
an  obstinate  holder  by  sheer  violence ;  defiance 
of  royal  orders  was  not  as  safe  to  let  go  for  a 
precedent  then  as  now ;  and  more  than  one  king 
has  had  his  hand  forced  by  his  queen.  Nor  in 
fact  did  these  things  prejudice  the  larger  in- 
terests of  bis  reign.  In  854  we  find  him  strange- 
ly allied  with  his  old  enemy  Ben-badad  against 
Shalmaneser  (q.v.)  of  Assyria,  though  one  would 
suppose  he  would  gladly  have  seen  Ben-hadad 
crushed,  and  Assyria  was  no  immediate  danger: 
possibly  he  was  menaced  from  other  quarters  and 
dared  not  refuse.  At  any  rate,  Shalmaneser  in- 
flicted a  crushing  defeat  on  the  allies  at  Karkar 
near  the  Orontes  in  854,  and  Ahab  recovered 
liberty  of  action  if  be  had  lost  it:  for  the  next 
year  he  engaged  in  a  new  campaign  against 
Ben-hadad.  in  alliance  with  Jehoshaphat,  king  of 
Judah,   and   was   killed   in   battle.     The   Biblical 


narrative  is  taken  from  two  opposed  sources: 
one  embodying  the  popular  tradition  of  Ahab  as 
a  brave,  capable,  and  popular  king,  tb.-  oilier 
the  priestly  view  of  him  as  a  bad  man  and 
monarch'.  His  contest  with  Elijah  (1  Kings 
xvii.-xix.)  is  a  picturesque  rendering  of  the 
latter. 

Ahasue'rus,  Scripture  history,  a  king  of 
Persia,    the    husband    of    Esther,    to    whom     the 

Scriptures  ascribe  a  singular  deliverance  of  the 
Jews  from  extirpation,  which  they  commemorate 

to  this  day  by  an  annual  feast,  that  of  Purim, 
preceded  by  what  is  called  the  fast  of  Esther. 
Different  opinions  have  been  entertained  as  to 
which  of  the  kings  of  Persia  mentioned  in  other 
historical  books  may  be  the  AhasueruS  of  the 
Bible.  He  is  probably  the  same  as  Xerxes. 
Ahasuerus  is  also  a  Scripture  name  for  Cam- 
bvses.  the  son  of  Cyrus  (Ezra  iv.  01.  and  for 
Astyages,  king  of  the  MnUs  (Dan.  ix.  11.  The 
word  Ahasuerus  is  merely  the  Latin  form  of  the 
Hebrew  Ashashverosh,  and  is  believed  by  some 
to  be  a  transcription  of  the  Persian  Khshayar- 
sha  ("venerable  king"),  and  this  name  may  be 
reasonably  supposed  t,,  have  been  originally  an 
appellative,  so  that  its  application  by  foreigners, 
like  the  Jews,  to  different  royal  personages  is 
explained. 

Ahaz,  the  12th  king  of  Judah,  succeeded 
his  father  Jotham,  742  B.C.  Forsaking  his  fa- 
ther's religion,  be  gave  himself  up  so  completely 
to  idolatry  that  he  is  said  to  have  caused  his 
own  son  to  pass  through  the  fire  to  Moloch,  and 
plundered  the  temple  to  obtain  presents  for 
Tiglatb-pileser.  king  of  Assyria,  whose  assist- 
ance be  desired  to  obtain.  His  powerful  ally 
freed  him  from  his  most  formidable  foes  by  in- 
vading Syria,  taking  Damascus,  killing  Rein, 
the  king,  transporting  the  inhabitants  to  Kir. 
thus  putting  an  end  to  the  Syrian  kingdom  of 
Damascus,  and  by  stripping  Israel  of  the  whole 
country  east  of  the  Jordan. 

Aiken,  S.  C,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Aiken  co.,  on  the  Southern  Railroad,  17  m. 
N.E.  of  Augusta,  Ga.,  and  120  m.  N.W.  of 
Charleston.  It  is  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
and  attractive  towns  in  the  United  State-,  be 
ing  located  at  an  elevation  of  600  feet  above 
the  sea,  in  the  midst  of  numerous  pine  forests. 
The  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  com- 
parative mildness  of  the  climate  have  combined 
to  make  Aiken  the  most  noted  health  resort 
in  the  South.  The  town  is  the  centre  of  a 
large  and  important  agricultural  district.  There 
is  located  here  the  Aiken  Institute  for  white 
students ;  the  Schofield  Normal  and  Instruct- 
ive School  and  Immanuel  Training  School  for 
colored  youth,  and  several  private  schools,  and 
academies  for  both  sexes.  Many  Northern 
families  of  wealth  and  culture  have  winter 
homes  here.  Aiken  was  first'  incorporated  in 
1835,  and  is  governed  by  charter,  secured  in 
1890  and  revised  in  1897,  which  provides  for  a 
mayor  elected  every  two  years,  and  a  city  coun- 
cil composed  of  the  mayor  and  six  aldermen. 
The  town  officials  are  elected  annually  at  town 
meetings.  The  water  supply  and  sewerage  sys- 
tem are  controlled  by  the  town.  There  are  two 
national  banks  here,  numerous  large  hotels,  a 
number  of  manufactories,  and  several  news- 
papers.    Pop.   (1890)  2,362;   (1900)  3,414. 

Aikinite.     See  Needle  Ore. 


AINSWORTH  — AIR 


Ainsworth,  Frederick  Grayton,  American 
soldier:  b.  Woodstock,  Vt.,  n  Sept.  1852.  He 
was  appointed  first  lieutenant  and  assistant  sur- 
geon, U.  S.  A.,  in  1874;  major  and  surgeon 
1891 ;  colonel  and  chief  of  Record  and  Pension 
Office  in  1892,  where  he  introduced  the  index- 
record  card  system  by  which  50,000,000  cards 
made  the  military  and  medical  record  of  any 
soldier  at  once  accessible.  In  1899  he  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general,  and  made  editor  of 
the   "Official   War   Records." 

Ainsworth,  William  Harrison,  an  Eng- 
lish novelist:  b.  4  Feb.  1805;  d.  3  Jan.  1882.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  Manchester  solicitor.  He 
wrote  'Rookwood*  (1834);  'Jack  Sheppard* 
(1839)  ;  and  about  40  other  novels,  including 
'Guy  Fawkes,*  'Tower  of  London,*  'Windsor 
Castle,'  'Lancashire  Witches,*  'Flitch  of 
Bacon,*  etc. 

Ainus.    See  Japan. 

Air,  the  gaseous  substance  that  envelops 
the  earth  and  forms  its  atmosphere.  (See  At- 
mosphere.) It  consists  almost  entirely  of  the 
gases  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  which  are  merely 
mixed  and  not  chemically  combined ;  but  in 
addition  it  contains  many  other  substances  in 
small  amounts,  among  which  are  water-vapor, 
carbon-dioxid,  nitric  acid,  ammonia,  ozone, 
argon,  neon,  and  organic  matter,  as  well  as  dust, 
germs,  and  other  solid  particles  held  in  suspen- 
sion. In  certain  localities  other  components  may 
occur.  Near  the  sea,  for  example,  salt  can  al- 
ways be  detected  in  it,  and  over  the  land  it  con- 
tains sulphates  in  small  amounts.  The  quantity 
of  water-vapor  present  in  air  varies  greatly  with 
time  and  place,  and  in  all  analyses  and  state- 
ments of  its  composition  the  water-vapor  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  removed  first.  The  quantity 
of  carbon-dioxid  is  subject  to  considerable  va- 
riation also.  It  is  very  constant  in  the  open 
country,  where  it  constitutes  about  0.043  per 
cent  (by  weight)  of  the  air;  in  cities  the  per- 
centage is  higher,  rising  to  0.07  and  occasionally 
to  0.10.  In  crowded  rooms,  especially  where 
artificial  lights  are  burning,  the  quantity  of 
carbon-dioxid  present  may  be  even  greater  than 
this.  In  country  air  the  percentage  of  carbon- 
dioxid  is  subject  to  a  diurnal  change  amounting 
to  about  one-eighth  of  its  total  amount,  more 
being  present  at  night  than  in  the  daytime. 
This  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  fact  that  plants 
absorb  the  gas  by  day  and  exhale  it  during  the 
night.  The  proportion  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen 
in  air  is  subject  to  variation  also,  though  within 
much  narrower  limits.  In  general,  100  volumes 
of  air  contain  about  21  volumes  of  oxygen  and 
79  of  nitrogen.  Regnault  analyzed  air  collected 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and  found  that 
the  volume-percentage  of  oxygen  in  the  air  of 
Europe  varied  from  20.903  to  21.0  per  cent.  The 
average  of  17  samples  collected  from  over  the 
arctic  seas  gave  20.91  per  cent.  Regnault  was 
of  the  opinion  that  sea  air  contains  slightly 
less  oxygen  than  land  air ;  but  Lewy  considered 
that  no  distinct  difference  could  be  proved  ex- 
cept in  the  tropics,  where  sea  air  exhibited  a 
slight  diurnal  variation.  Argon  constitutes  about 
1  per  cent  of  air,  and  neon  about  0.001  per  cent. 
The  nitric  acid  present  in  the  air  is  so  small  in 
amount  that  it  can  be  detected  only  in  rainwater, 
by  which  it  is  dissolved  and  brought  down.     It 


is  very  likely  formed  partly  by  the  direct  com- 
bination of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  under  the  in- 
fluence of  electric  discharges,  and  partly  by  the 
action  of  ozone  upon  ammonia.  The  quantity 
present  is  greatest  in  summer  and  least  in  winter. 
The  ammonia  of  the  air  occurs  partly  as  car- 
bonate and  partly  as  nitrate.  Its  amount  is 
exceedingly  variable,  ranging  from  0.1  to  135.0 
parts  (calculated  as  carbonate)  in  1 ,000,000  parts 
of  air,  the  average  amount  being  perhaps  6. 
The  amount  present  decreases  during  a  heavy 
rain,  but  within  a  few  hours  it  returns  to  the 
normal  amount  again.  No  ozone  can  be  de- 
tected in  city  air,  and  air  over  marshes  and  in 
malarial  regions  contains  very  little  of  it.  Nor- 
mal country  air  contains  not  more  than  one 
volume  of  this  gas  to  700,000  of  air.  It  is  more 
abundant  in  summer  than  in  winter,  and  is  most 
noticeable  during  thunderstorms  and  heavy 
winds.  In  the  laboratory  ozone  is  produced  by 
the  action  of  electric  discharges  upon  oxygen, 
and  it  is  probably  produced  in  the  air  in  the 
same  way.  Hydrogen  peroxid  has  been  de- 
tected in  the  air,  and  some  authorities  consider 
that  it  may  be  present  in  greater  abundance  than 
ozone,  and  that  it  may  sometimes  be  mistaken 
for  ozone.  (For  further  information  on  the 
composition  of  the  air,  see  Angus  Smith's  <  Air 
and  Rain.*)  According  to  Regnault,  one  cubic 
centimeter  of  air  that  has  been  freed  from 
water-vapor,  carbon-dioxid,  and  ammonia,  weighs 
0.0012932  gramme  when  the  air  is  at  the  tem- 
perature 0°  C,  and  under  a  barometric  pressure 
of  760  millimeters  of  mercury  at  Paris  (lat.  480 
50'  N.),  and  at  a  height  of  60  metres  above  the 
sea.  In  English  equivalents  this  means  that  at  or- 
dinary atmospheric  pressure  and  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  melting  ice  (32°  F.)  a  cubic  foot  of  air 
weighs  0.080681  pound  ;  «  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure,"  signifying  the  pressure  that  would 
be  exerted  by  a  weight  of  14.7  pounds,  rest- 
ing upon  a  base  one  inch  square  at  sea  level 
in  the  latitude  of  Washington.  When  a  mass  of 
air,  originally  at  atmospheric  pressure  and  at 
the  freezing-point  (320  F.),  is  heated  to  the 
boiling-point  (2120  F. )  without  changing  its 
volume,  its  pressure  becomes  1.36728  atmo- 
spheres according  to  Balfour  Stewart,  or 
1.36706  according  to  Wiebe  and  Bottcher.  The 
average  of  these  is  1.36717,  which  agrees  well 
with  the  value  1.36719  as  given  independently 
by  Morley  and  Miller.  The  older  estimates  of 
Regnault  and  Magnus  are  probably  too  small. 
The  specific  heat  of  air  (the  pressure  being  kept 
constant)  is  0.2375  according  to  Regnault,  and 
0.2389  according  to  Wiedemann.  The  specific 
heat  (the  volume  being  kept  constant)  is  0.1715 
according  to  Joly's  direct  measurement  with  the 
steam  calorimeter.  Air  cannot  be  liquefied  by 
any  pressure  whatever  so  long  as  its  temperature 
is  higher  than  about  2200  F.  below  zero 
(-I40°C.)  ;  but  if  it  be  first  cooled  to  a  tem- 
perature slightly  below  this  it  condenses  to  a 
liquid  upon  the  application  of  a  pressure  of  39 
atmospheres.  (See  Critical  Point.)  If  it  be 
cooled  to  a  temperature  materially  lower  than 
2200  F.  below  zero,  it  can  be  liquefied  by  a 
correspondingly  smaller  pressure.  Liquid  air  is 
opalescent  at  first,  probably  from  particles  of 
solid  carbon-dioxid  held  in  suspension.  These 
can  be  separated  by  filtration,  or  they  will  rise 
to  the  surface  in  a  short  time,  leaving  the  clear, 
transparent  air  beneath.    When  liquid  air  is  ex- 


AIR  — AIR-BRAKE 


posed  in  a  glass  vessel  it  absorbs  heat  rapidly 
from  surrounding  objects,  and  bods  actively 
until  it  lias  entirely  evaporated.  The  nitrogen 
that     it     contains  faster    than    the 

oxygen,  however,  and  the  liquid  remaining  in 
the  vessel  becomes  increasingly  rich  in  oxygen 
until  toward  the  last  it  consists  almost  entirely 
of  that  gas.  Liquid  air  may  be  frozen  to  a 
clear,  transparent  solid  by  surrounding  it  with 
liquid  oxygen  and  then  forcing  the  evaporation 
by  means  oi  an  air-pump.  Liquid  air  is  of  great 
interest  to  the  physicist  for  many  reasons;  but 
its  importance  in  the  arts  has  been  grossly  ex- 
aggerated. In  particular,  the  project  that  is  put 
forth  from  time  to  time,  to  utilize  liquid  air  for 
running  a  motor  that  shall  condense  more  liquid 
air  than  it  consumes,  is  impossible  of  realiza- 
tion, because  although  such  an  action  would 
not  necessarily  imply  perpetual  motion  it  would 
violate  the  second  law  of  thermodynamics.  (See 
Tin  km  on  v\  \Mirs. )  If  liquid  air  is  confined  and 
allowed  to  become  warm  through  the  absorption 
of  heat  from  its  surroundings  its  expansion 
gradually  generates  an  enormous  pressure. 
This  fact,  together  with  the  safety  with  which 
liquid  air  can  he  handled,  has  led  to  its  use  to  a 
limited  degree  for  blasting  in  tunnels  and  mines, 
where  the  presence  of  the  irrcspirablc  products 
of  combustion  of  ordinary  explosives  is  objec- 
tionable: but  even  this  application  has  been 
discontinued,  owing  to  certain  grave  and  ap- 
parently insuperable  practical  difficulties  that 
were  encountered.     See  Liquid  Air. 

The  scientific  study  of  the  air  has  been 
much  stimulated  in  recent  years  by  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Hodgkins  Fund.  In  October  i8gi 
Mr.  Thomas  George  Hodgkins  of  Setauket, 
N.  V..  made  a  donation  to  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitution, the  income  from  a  part  of  which  was 
to  be  devoted  to  the  "increase  ami  diffusion  of 
more  exact  knowledge  in  regard  to  the  nature 
and  properties  of  atmospheric  air  in  connection 
with  the  welfare  of  man."  The  first  prize  of 
$10,000  from  thjs  fund  was  awarded  on  6  Aug. 
189s  to  Lord  Rayleigh  of  London,  and  Prof. 
William  Ramsay  of  University  College,  London, 
for  their  discovery  of  the  previously  unknown 
element  argon  in  the  atmosphere.  (  See  Argon. 1 
A  prize  of  $1,000  was  also  awarded  at  the  same 
time  to  Dr.  Ilcnrv  de  Varigny  of  Paris,  for  bis 
'L'Air  et  la  Vie'  ("Air  ami  Life"!,  which 
considered  to  be  the  best  treatise  upon 
atmospheric  air,  its  properties,  and  relation- 
ships. Further  information  concerning  the 
Hodgkins  Fund  may  he  had  from  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  Washington,  D.  C.  (For 
information  concerning  dust  and  germs,  see 
Tyndall's  'Fragments  of  Science,*  and  Dr.  T. 
Mitchell  Prudden's  'Dust  and  Its  Dangers.') 

Dephlogisticated  Air,  in  the  old  chemistry, 
was  air  that  bad  hecn  deprived  of  phlogiston 
(q.v.)  ;  in  modern  terminology  it  is  called  oxy- 
gen.  Fixed  air  was  Dr.  Black's  name  for 
carbon  dii  ixid,  1  '1    by    the    fact    that   cer- 

tain alkaline  substances  can  "fix"  this  gas,  or 
combine  with   it  to  produce  a  solid   substance. 

The  word  "air"  also  occurs  as  an  element 
in  a  host  of  compound  words.  The  significance 
of  many  of  these  is  evident,  but  some  few  call 
for  special  mention,  and  they  will  be  found  below 
in   their  respective   order. 

A.  D.  Risteen'.  Ph.D., 

Editorial  Staff,  'Encyclopedia  Americana? 


Air,  in  music  (in  Italian,  aria),  means  a  con- 
tinuous melody  in  which  some  lyric  subject  or 

passion  is  expressed.  The  lyric  melody  of  a 
single  voice,  accompanied  by  instruments,  is  its 
proper  form  of  composition.  Many  of  the  Italian 
airs  of  the  present,  together  with  too  great  a 
proportion  of  the  popular  music  of  the  day,  are 
destitute  of  meaning  and  character.  The  song- 
writers of  Germany  strive  to  construct  their 
airs  in  direct  conformity  to  the  meaning  of  the 
words.  Air  is  also  the  name  often  given  to 
the  upper  or  most  prominent  part  in  a  concerted 
piece,  and  is  thus  equivalent  to  treble,  soprano, 
ilc.  Arietta  signifies  a  short,  less  elaborate  air 
than  aria,  and  is  designed  to  express  a  more 
simple  and  transient   emotion. 

Air-bath,  an  apparatus  designed  for  dry- 
ing substances  by  exposing  them  to  air  of  any 
desired  temperature. 

Air  Beds  and  Cushions,  often  used  by  the 
sick  and  invalids,  are  composed  of  india-rubber, 
or  of  cloth  made  air-tight  by  a  solution  of  india- 
rubber,  and  when  required  for  use  filled  with 
air,  which  thus  supplies  the  place  of  the  usual 
stuffing  materials.  They  tend  to  prevent  bed- 
from  continuous  lying  in  one  position. 
They  are  also  cheap  and  easily  transported,  as 
the  bed  or  cushion  when  not  in  use  can  be 
packed  in  small  compass  to  be  again  inflated 
w  ith  air  when  wanted. 

Air-bladder.     See  FlSH. 

Air-blast,  a  stream  of  air.  issuing  from  a 
nozzle  or  other  aperture  under  pressure.  Such 
blasts  are  used  for  throwing  sand  or  other  ab- 
rasive material  against  a  body  that  is  to  be 
eroded  or  polished;  for  forcing  the  fires  of 
forges  or  furnaces,  and  for  burning  out  the  im- 
purities in  pig  iron  in  the  manufacture  of  Besse- 
mer steel;  for  removing  dust  from  grinding- 
machines  and  saws;  for  cleansing  woven  fabrics; 
and  for  multitudes  of  other  purposes. 

Air-box,  a  Hue  or  other  form  of  conduit 
conveying  air  to  or  from  a  furnace  or  into  a 
mine   for   ventilation. 

Air  Brake,  a  mechanical  apparatus,  by  which 
the  expansive  force  of  compressed  air  is  em- 
ployed to  stop  or  control  the  speed  of  railroad 
trains.  The  air  brake,  in  its  present  perfected 
and  efficient  form,  not  only  represents  the  result 
of  the  remarkable  progress  of  railroad  opera- 
tion during  the  last  quarter  of  the  loth  century, 
but  has  also  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to 
the  character  of  the  development  of  railroad 
practice.  The  air  brake  has  developed  into  its 
present  form  through  a  series  of  stages,  each  of 
which  was  dictated  by  the  occurrence  of  new 
conditions;  and  the  modification  of  the  air  brake 
to  meet  such  conditions  has,  in  each  case,  etdarged 
the  field  of  progress  in  railroad  transportation. 
The  original  conception,  and  practically  every 
succeeding  improvement,  of  the  air  brake  has 
bei  n  due  to  the  quick  perception  and  ingenuity  of 
George  Westingbouse,  so  that  a  review  of  the 
development  of  the  Westingbouse  air  brake 
forms  practically  the  history  of  the  art.  In  the 
course  of  its  development,  the  air  brake  has  be- 
come known  in  four  different  forms  —  the 
straight  air  brake,  the  automatic  air  brake,  the 
quick-action  automatic  air  brake,  and  the  high- 
speed air  brake  —  each  fulfilling  the  require- 
ments of  its  day  and  forming  the  foundation  of 
the  structure  of  the  next  succeeding  form. 


AIR  BRAKE 


The  Straight  Air  Brake. —  The  straight  air 
brake  was  the  earliest  and  simplest  form  and 
was  introduced  by  Mr.  Westinghouse  about  the 
year  1869.  An  air  compressor  was  attached  to 
and  operated  by  steam  from  the  locomotive,  and 
compressed  atmospheric  air  into  a  storage  reser- 
voir, also  located  upon  the  locomotive.  A  line 
of  ordinary  gas  or  water  pipe,  commonly  called 
the  train  pipe,  extended  from  the  reservoir 
through  the  engineer's  cab  and  back  underneath 
the  tender  and  each  of  the  cars  of  the  train. 
Between  the  cars,  the  train  pipe  was  connected, 
by  means  of  rubber  hose  and  suitable  couplings, 
so  as  to  form  a  continuous  line  throughout  the 
length  of  the  train.  Near  the  centre  of  each 
car  was  placed  an  air  cylinder,  called  the  brake 
cylinder,  which  was  connected  by  means  of  a 
short  branch  pipe  with  the  train  pipe.  The 
brake  cylinder  contained  a  piston  with  a  stem 
which  was  connected,  through  a  system  of  levers 
and  rods,  with  the  brake  shoes  which  were  to 
be  applied  to  the  car  wheels  to  check  the  mo- 
tion of  the  train.  In  the  cab,  and  within  reach 
of  the  engineer,  an  operating  valve,  consisting 
of  a  three-way  cock,  was  placed  in  the  line  of 
the  train  pipe.  By  means  of  this  valve,  the  engi- 
neer could  permit  air  to  flow  from  the  reser- 
voir into  the  train  pipe  and  connected  brake 
cylinders,  thereby  forcing  out  the  pistons  and 
applying  the  brake  shoes  to  the  wheels.  When 
sufficient  air  pressure  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  the  occasion  had  thus  been  admitted  to  the 
brake  cylinders,  the  engineer  could  move  the 
handle  of  his  operating  valve  into  such  a  posi- 
tion as  to  cut  off  further  flow  of  air  from  the 
reservoir  and  to  retain  within  the  brake  cylin- 
ders so  much  air  pressure  as  had  already  been 
applied.  By  moving  the  handle  of  the  operat- 
ing valve  into  still  another  position,  the  engi- 
neer could  cause  the  air  already  accumulated  in 
the  train  pipe  and  brake  cylinders  to  be  dis- 
charged, through  the  operating  valve,  into  the 
atmosphere,  thereby  releasing  the  pressure  of  the 
brake  shoes  upon  the  car  wheels. 

Control  of  the  Air  Pressure. —  By  means  of 
this  apparatus,  the  degree  of  air  pressure  in  the 
brake  cylinders,  and,  consequently,  the  pressure 
of  the  brake  shoes  upon  the  wheels,  could  be 
varied  by  the  engineer  from  such  a  moderate 
application  as  would  be  required  for  checking  the 
speed  of  the  train  upon  descending  grades  or  in 
bringing  the  train  gently  to  a  stop  at  stations,  to 
the  most  powerful  application  required  when 
an  immediate  stop  of  the  train  is  demanded. 
This  form  of  air  brake  came  into  quite  exten- 
sive use  upon  the  comparatively  short  passenger 
trains  of  that  period.  As  the  length  of  the 
trains  became  increased,  however,  it  was  found 
that  a  serious  loss  of  time  occurred  in  the  oper- 
ation of  applying  the  brakes,  because  of  the  fact 
that  all  the  compressed  air  for  operating  the 
brake  cylinders  of  the  different  cars  must  travel 
back  throughout  the  length  of  the  train  pipe 
from  the  storage  reservoir  to  the  brake  cylin- 
ders, which  operation  was  seriously  retarded 
through  the  frictional  resistance  presented  by 
the  walls  of  the  train  pipe  to  the  rapid  passage 
of  such  a  considerable  quantity  of  compressed 
air.  Also,  in  the  case  of  the  accidental  detach- 
ment of  a  portion  of  the  train  while  in  motion, 
the  brakes  upon  the  detached  cars  were  no  longer 
capable  of  being  applied  by  the  engineer.  Again, 
if  the   rubber   coupling   hose   burst,   or   if    any 


other  portion  of  the  apparatus  became  ruptured, 
the  escape  of  the  compressed  air  at  such  a 
point  prevented  the  effective  application  of  the 
brakes,  and  the  control  of  the  train  was  thereby 
lost. 

The  Automatic  Air  Brake. —  The  automatic 
air  brake,  introduced  by  Mr.  Westinghouse  in 
1876,  was  designed  to  remedy  the  defects  of  the 
earlier  system  and  to  meet  the  advancing  re- 
quirements of  the  time.  The  apparatus  con- 
sisted of  that  already  employed  in  the  straight 
air-brake  system,  with  the  addition  upon  each 
vehicle  of  a  storage  reservoir,  of  sufficient  capa- 
city to  supply  the  brake  cylinder  upon  that  vehi- 
cle, and  a  valve  mechanism,  called  a  triple  valve, 
operated  by  variations  in  the  air  pressure  in  the 
train  pipe,  to  control  the  operation  of  the  brake 
cylinder.  This  triple  valve  was  placed  in  the 
branch  pipe  leading  from  the  train  pipe  to  the 
brake  cylinder,  and  was  also  supplied  with  a 
pipe  leading  to  the  new  storage  reservoir.  It 
was  called  a  triple  valve  because  it  performed 
the  three  functions  of  (1)  permitting  air  to  flow 
from  the  train  pipe  into  the  storage  reservoir, 
for  the  purpose  of  charging  the  latter  with  air 
pressure;  (2)  causing  the  compressed  air  to 
flow  from  the  reservoir  into  the  brake  cylinder, 
for  the  purpose  of  applying  the  brakes,  and  (3) 
permitting  the  compressed  air  to  escape  from 
the  brake  cylinder  to  the  atmosphere,  to  remove 
the  pressure  from  the  brake  cylinders  and 
thereby  release  the  brakes.  The  storage  reser- 
voir upon  the  locomotive  became  thereafter 
known  as  the  main  reservoir,  and  those  upon  the 
individual  cars  became  known  as  auxiliary  reser- 
voirs. The  characteristic  feature  of  the  auto- 
matic air  brake  is  the  triple  valve,  under  the 
immediate  control  of  which  are  all  the  opera- 
tions of  the  brakes  upon  individual  cars. 

The  triple  valve,  with  the  parts  in  their  nor- 
mal positions  when  the  brakes  are  not  applied,  is 
illustrated,  in  section,  in  Fig.  I.  The  location  of 
the  several  connections  for  the  branch  pipes  to 
the  train  pipe,  the  auxiliary  reservoir  and  the 
brake  cylinder  are  indicated.  A  piston  a  is 
adapted  to  move  backward  and  forward  in  a 
piston  chamber,  from  which  the  piston  stem  b 
extends  forward  into  a  somewhat  smaller  valve 
chamber,  containing  a  slide  valve  c,  which  is 
loosely  confined  between  two  shoulders  upon 
the  piston  stem.  Within  the  slide  valve  c.  there 
is  a  small  poppet  valve  d,  called  the  graduating 
valve,  which  is  secured  by  a  pin  to  the  piston 
stem  b.  When  compressed  air  is  admitted  into 
the  train   pipe   from  the  main  reservoir  by  the 


Fig.    1. — Triple  Valve.     TIrake    Released. 

engineer,  it  enters  the  triple-valve  structure 
through  the  passageways  leading  to  the  left  of 
the  piston  a,  where  its  pressure  forces  the  pis- 
ton and  its  accompanying  parts  into  the  posi- 
tions shown  in  Fig.  1,  if  they  were  not  already 


AIR  BRAKE 


in  those  positions.  In  this  position  of  the  piston, 
the  small  feed  grooves  h  and  i  permit  the  com- 
pressed air  to  gradually  pass  from  the  train 
pipe,  around  the  piston,  into  the  valve  chamber, 
and  thence  into  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  which 
thus  becomes  ultimately  charged  with  the  same 
pressure  <it'  air  that  exists  in  the  train  pipe    The 

brake  apparatus  is  now  in  operating  condition. 

To  apply  the  brakes,  the  engineer  discharges 
a  portion  of  the  air  contained  in  the  train  pipe, 
through  his  operating  valve,  whereby  the  air 
pressure  i.:  the  train  pipe  and  the  chamber  at  the 
left  of  the  piston  a  is  more  or  less  reduced. 
Owing  to  the  inability  of  the  compressed  air  in 
the  auxiliary  reservoir  to  pass  rapidly  out 
through  the  small  feed  grooves  i  and  h,  the 
superior  pressure  remaining  in  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  and  valve  chamber  forces  the  piston  o 
to  the  left,  thereby  first  cutting  off  communica- 
tion between  the  auxiliary  reservoir  and  the 
train  pipe  through  the  feed  groove  h,  and  simul- 
taneously withdrawing  the  graduating  valve  d 
from  its  seat  in  the  slide  valve.  The  shoulder 
at  the  end  of  the  piston  stem  b  then  comes  into 
contact  with  the  end  of  the  slide  valve  c.  which 
subsequently  accompanies  the  piston  in  its  pro- 
gress toward  the  left,  until  the  latter  is  finally 
arrested  by  coming  into  contact  with  the  stem  /, 
which  is  supported  in  the  position  shown  by  a 
spring  called  the  graduating  spring.  The  posi- 
tions of  the  parts  are  then  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

Compressed  air  from  the  auxiliary  reservoir 
now  passes  through  a  transverse  port  c  in  the 
slide  valve,  the  passageway  uncovered  by 
the  removal  of  the  graduating  valve  d  and  the 
passageway  /  and  connecting  pipe  to  the  brake 
cylinder,  where  it  forces  out  the  brake-cylinder 
piston  and  causes  the  brake  shoes  to  be  applied 
to  the  wheels.  The  discharge  of  air  from  the 
auxiliary  reservoir  into  the  brake  cylinder  neces- 
sarily results  in  reducing  the  air  pressure  in  the 
auxiliary  reservoir  and  valve  chamber  of  the 
triple  valve,  and  such  discharge  and  reduction  of 
air  pressure  continues  until  the  pressure  has 
become  slightly  below  that  of  the  air  remaining 
in  the  train  pipe  and  the  connecting  chamber  at 
the  left  of  the  triple-valve  piston.  The  slight 
preponderance  of  pressure  then  existing  upon 
the  left  face  of  the  piston  a  causes  it  to  move 
to   the   right    until   the   graduating   valve   d   be- 


Fig.   a.— Triple   Valve.     P.rak,-  Applied. 

comes  seated  in  the  slide  valve  and  thereby  pre- 
vents further  discharge  of  air  into  the  brake 
cylinder.  The  air  pressure  then  existing  in  the 
brake  cylinder  causes  the  brake  shoes  to  remain 
applied  to  the  wheels,  with  a  corresponding  re- 
tarding effect   upon  the  car. 

Graduating  the  Pressure. —  Should  it  appear 
to  the  engineer  that  an  increased  retarding  force 
of  the  brakes  is  desirable,  he  discharges  a  fur- 
ther portion  of  the  air  remaining  in  the  train 
Dipe,  through  his  operating  valve.     This  results 


in  a  further  reduction  of  the  air  pressure  in  the 
train  pipe  and  the  connecting  chamber  at  the 
left  of  the  piston  a,  whereupon  the  preponderat- 
ing pressure  in  the  auxiliary  reservoir  and  cham- 
ber at  the  right  of  the  piston  causes  it  to  again 
move  to  the  left,  until  stopped  by  the  stem  /, 
thereby  moving  the  graduating  valve  d  and  re- 
opening the  passage  through  the  slide  valve  for 
the  further  discharge  of  air  from  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  into  the  brake  cylinder.  This  discharge 
continues  until  the  air  pressure  in  the  reservoir 
and  chamber  at  the  right  of  the  piston  a  has 
become  again  reduced  to  a  point  slightly  below 
the  pressure  yet  remaining  in  the  train  pipe, 
when  the  preponderance  of  the  latter  upon  the 
left  face  of  the  piston  moves  it  inwardly  and 
once  more  cuts  off  further  discharge  of  air  to 
the  brake  cylinder,  by  reseating  the  graduating 
valve'd.  This  process,  customarily  called  grad- 
uating, may  be  again  repeated  by  the  engineer,  if 
the  air  pressure  in  the  brake  cylinder  is  still 
found  by  him  to  be  insufficient  to  meet  the  de- 
mands of  the  occasion.  In  this  manner,  the  en- 
gineer is  enabled  to  apply  the  brakes  with  any 
of  the  various  degrees  of  force  required  under 
the  variable  conditions  calling  for  checking  the 
speed  of  the  train  or  for  bringing  it  to  a  smooth 
and  gentle  slop  at  stations. 

To  discharge  the  air  from  the  brake  cylinder 
and  release  the  brakes,  the  engineer  moves  the 
handle  of  his  operating  valve  into  the  position. 
for  restoring  communication  between  the  main 
reservoir  and  the  train  pipe.  The  air  pressure 
in  tin-  train  pipe  is  thereby  elevated,  and.  acting 
upon  the  left  face  of  the  triple-valve  pi -I  on, 
moves  it,  with  its  connected  valves,  to  the  right, 
until  it  again  readies  the  position  shown  in  Fig. 
I.  In  this  position  of  the  slide  valve,  the 
passageway  f,  connected  with  the  brake  cylinder, 
is  brought  into  communication,  through  a  cavity 
in  the  lower  face  of  the  slide  valve,  with  a  port 
and  passageway  g  leading  directly  to  the  atmo- 
sphere. The  air  in  the  brake  cylinder  thereby 
discharges  to  the  atmosphere  and  the  brakes 
become  released.  At  the  same  time,  the  feed 
groove  It  again  establishes  communication  be- 
tween the  train  pipe  and  the  auxiliary  reser- 
voir, so  that  compressed  air  from  the  main  reser- 
voir upon  the  locomotive  passes  into  and 
recharges  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  so  that  it  is 
restored  to  a  condition  of  readiness  for  again 
applying  the  brakes. 

.In  Emergency  Discharge. —  Should  an  emer- 
gency arise,  in  which  it  is  important  to  stop  the 
train  quickly,  the  engineer  discharges  at  once  a 
considerable  quantity  of  air  from  the  train  pipe, 
through  his  operating  valve,  thereby  rapidly  re- 
ducing the  pressure  UPOn  the  outer  face  of  the 
triple-valve  piston.  This  results  in  such  a  con- 
siderable  preponderance  of  pressure  upon  the 
right  face  of  the  piston  that  the  movement  of 
the  latter  toward  the  left  cannot  be  resisted  by 
the  spring  supporting  the  stem  /.  The  spring 
becomes  compressed  and  permits  the  piston  to 
continue  its  movement  to  the  left  until  stopped 
by  reaching  the  end  of  the  chamber  in  which  it 
operates.  Under  such  conditions,  the  slide  valve 
c  moves  so  far  to  the  left  as  to  completely 
uncover  the  passageway  /  leading  to  the  brake 
cylinder.  A  less  obstructed  discharge  of  air 
from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  to  the  brake  cylin- 
der results,  and  the  maximum  air  pressure  which 
can  be  supplied  in  the  cylinder  by  the  air  in  the 
auxiliary  reservoir  is  more  quickly  attained. 


AIR  BRAKE 


As  the  automatic  air  brake  is  applied  by  an 
operation  of  the  triple  valve  which  results  from 
the  discharge  of  air  from  the  train  pipe  to  the 
■itmosphere,  it  is  evident  that  the  application  of 
the  brakes  need  not  be  confined  to  the  manipula- 
tion of  the  operating  valve  by  the  engineer,  but 
will  result  from  any  cause  by  which  the  train- 
pipe  air  pressure  may  become  sufficiently  re- 
duced. It  was  this  feature  of  the  apparatus 
which  gave  it  the  designation  "automatic." 
Should  any  portion  of  the  train  become  detached, 
or  should  the  train  pipe  or  hose  become  rup- 
tured, a  reduction  of  air  pressure  in  the  train 
pipe  immediately  follows,  and  the  brakes  become 
automatically  applied  upon  all  the  cars  of  the 
train.  The  importance  of  this  feature  of 
the  automatic  brake  is  very  marked.  Of  all  the 
operations  of  the  air-brake  apparatus,  the  neces- 
sity of  prompt  and  reliable  action,  when  the  full 
retarding  effect  of  the  brakes  is  needed,  stands 
pre-eminent.  Of  all  the  various  manipulations 
of  the  air  pressure,  that  of  permitting  the  air 
pressure  in  the  train  pipe  to  be  discharged  to 
the  atmosphere  is  the  simplest  and  most  surely 
attainable.  In  this  way,  the  prompt  response  of 
the  brake  apparatus,  when  emergency  calls  for 
its  operation,  is  most  fully  assured,  and  the 
automatic  air  brake  has  therefore  taken  a  most 
conspicuous  place  in  the  front  rank  of  railroad 
safety  appliances.  No  accidental  disorder  of  the 
apparatus  can  prevent  the  application  of  the 
brakes  in  emergencies.  By  means  of  the  engi- 
neer's operating  valve,  or  of  a  valve  called  the 
conductor's  valve,  connected  with  the  train  pipe 
in  each  passenger  car,  or  by  the  occurrence  of 
any  disorder  which  dissipates  the  air  pressure 
in  the  train  pipe,  the  apparatus  automatically 
causes  the  train  to  come  to  a  stop  —  in  the  lat- 
ter case  calling  attention  to  the  disorder  and 
giving  opportunity  for  such  repair  as  shall  again 
insure  safety  before  the  train  proceeds. 

Power  Brakes  for  Freight  Trains. —  The 
automatic  air  brake  was  very  generally  adopted 
for  the  passenger  trains  of  all  important  rail- 
roads, and  fully  met  all  the  requirements  of  its 
day.  When,  however,  in  the  development  of 
railroad  transportation,  the  necessity  for  the  use 
of  an  automatic  power  brake  upon  freight  trains 
became  apparent,  new  conditions  were  discov- 
ered which  the  automatic  air  brake  was  not  qual- 
ified to  meet.  During  the  year  1886,  a  series  of 
brake  trials  was  conducted  at  Burlington,  Iowa, 
by  a  committee  of  the  Master  Car  Builders' 
Association,  and  it  was  then  demonstrated  that 
the  operating  requirements  of  power  brakes  upon 
long  freight  trains  could  not  be  fulfilled  by  any 
power  brake  in  existence.  Prompt  and  efficient 
as  had  been  the  operation  of  the  automatic  air 
brake  upon  passenger  trains,  it  was  discovered 
that,  upon  long  freight  trains,  the  required  re- 
duction of  air  pressure  in  the  train  pipe  to 
actuate  the  triple  valves  at  the  rear  end  of  the 
train,  occupied  too  long  a  period  of  time,  when 
that  reduction  was  effected  only  by  the  dis- 
charge of  the  train-pipe  air  through  the  engi- 
neer's operating  valve.  The  length  of  the  train 
pipe  upon  a  freight  train  of  50  cars  is  about 
2,000  feet,  or  two  fifths  of  a  mile.  When,  in  an 
emergency,  the  engineer  turned  the  handle  of  his 
operating  valve  so  as  to  permit  the  compressed 
air  to  discharge  from  the  train  pipe  to  the  atmo- 
sphere as  freely  as  possible,  the  movement  of  the 
air  in  the  train  pipe  toward  the  engineer's  valve 
was  so  resisted  and  retarded  by   friction   upon 

Vol.  I— 13 


the  walls  of  the  train  pipe  that  fully  17  seconds 
elapsed  from  the  time  that  the  discharge  began 
at  the  engineer's  brake  valve  until  the  pressure 
in  the  train  pipe  upon  the  rear  cars  became  suffi- 
ciently reduced  to  cause  the  triple  valve  to 
operate.  The  brakes  upon  the  forward  cars 
were  promptly  applied  with  full  force,  so  that 
the  speed  of  the  forward  portion  of  the  train 
became  materially  reduced  before  the  brakes 
began  to  apply  upon  the  rear  portion  of  the 
train.  In  consequence,  the  cars  of  the  rear  por- 
tion of  the  train  plunged  forward  unresisted 
into  those  which  were  retarded  by  the  brakes  at 
the  forward  end,  with  a  force  that  almost 
equaled  that  of  collision.  The  shocks  produced 
by  such  collision  were  sufficient  to  seriously 
damage  the  cars  and  their  lading. 

It  was  clearly  evident  that  the  usefulness  of 
the  automatic  air  brake  upon  freight  trains  be- 
came contingent  upon  the  discovery  of  some 
means  whereby  the  interval  of  time  elapsing 
between  the  application  of  the  brakes  upon  the 
cars  of  the  forward  end  and  those  at  the  rear 
end  of  the  train,  could  be  so  diminished  that  no 
damaging  shocks  should  result  from  any  opera- 
tion of  the  brakes.  An  examination  of  the  con- 
ditions of  operation  made  it  equally  evident  that 
but  two  methods  could  be  utilized  for  securing 
a  more  nearly  simultaneous  application  of  the 
brakes  to  all  the  cars,  one  of  which  is  to  reduce 
the  air  pressure  in  the  train  pipe  so  gradually 
that  such  reduction  is  nearly  uniform  throughout 
the  train,  and  the  other  is  to  provide  a  series  of 
openings  in  the  train  pipe,  in  addition  to  that 
through  the  engineer's  brake  valve,  so  that  the 
train-pipe  air  may  be  discharged  at  different 
points  throughout  the  train,  at  approximately  the 
same  time.  While  the  first  of  these  two  methods 
proves  entirely  satisfactory  for  ordinary  applica- 
tions of  the  brakes  in  regular  service,  so  much 
time  is  occupied  by  it  that  it  is  wholly  unsuit- 
able for  applying  the  brakes  when  emergencies 
require  prompt  and  efficient  action.  The  second 
method,  therefore,  became  the  only  practical 
solution  of  the  use  of  the  compressed  air  brake 
as  an  effective  safety  appliance  upon  freight 
trains. 

The  Quick-Action  Air  Brake. —  This  inven- 
tion, introduced  by  Mr.  Westinghouse  about 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1888,  was  the  result  of 


10  DViC  0»\»««» 


Fig.    3. — Quick-Action    Triple    Valve. 

tin-  development  of  the  principle  of  venting  the 
train  pipe  at  each  car,  for  quickly  applying  the 
brakes.    The  train  pipe  is  provided  with  a  vent 


AIR  BRAKE 


valve  upon  cacli  car,  which  is  operated  by  the 
mechanism  of  the  triple  valve,  when,  and  only 
when,  an  emergency  application  of  the  brakes 
is  desired.  By  discharging  the  air.  vented  from 
the  train  pipe  in  emergency  applications,  into 
the  brake  cylinder,  instead  of  into  the  atmo- 
sphere, Mr.  Westinghouse  also  discovered  thai 
a  considerably  more  powerful  and  effective  appli- 
cation of  the  brakes  could  be  secured  in  emer- 
gencies than  is  found  to  be  necessary  or  desira- 
ble for  use  in  the  ordinary  operations  of  the 
brakes  in  customary  service.  The  mechanism 
of  the  quick-action  automatic  air  brake  consists 
of  the  apparatus  hitherto  employed  in  the  auto- 
matic air-brake  system,  with  the  simple  addi- 
tion of  the  train-pipe  vent  valve  and  the  means 
for  causing  it  to  operate  in  emergency  applica- 
tions. A  sectional  view  of  the  quick-action 
triple  valve  is   illustrated   in   Fig,   3. 

All  of  the  upper  portion  of  this  triple  valve  is 
of  the  same  construction  as  that  already  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  the  automatic  air 
brake,  with  the  single  exception  that  the  main 
slide  valve  c  is  lengthened  at  the  forward  end, 
and  this  added  portion  is  supplied  with  a  some- 
what restricted  port  k.  In  all  applications  of 
the  brakes  which  result  from  such  moderate 
reductions  of  train-pipe  air  pressure  as  occur  in 
all  ordinary  service,  this  portion  of  the  triple 
valve  is  alone  operative.  The  additional  quick- 
action  mechanism  consists  of  the  supplemental 
piston  hi,  situated  in  the  cylindrical  chamber  be- 
low the  slide  valve,  an  emergency  valve  ».  with 
a  stem  extending  upward  to  the  piston,  and  a 
check  valve  o  directly  below  the  emergency  valve. 
A  light  spring,  situated  between  the  cheek  valve 
and  the  emergency  valve,  serves  to  support  the 
emergency  valve  and  supplementary  piston  in 
the  positions  shown,  under  all  ordinary  circum- 
stances. The  port  or  passageway  /\  indicated  by 
dotted  lines,  connects  the  main  valve  chamber 
with  the  chamber  above  the  supplementary  pis- 
ton m.  This  port  is  normally  covered  and 
closed  by  the  slide  valve  c,  and  is  only  uncovered 
when  the  triple-valve  piston  a  moves  to  the  left 
with  sufficient  force  to  compress  the  supporting 
spring  of  the  stem  /,  and  thereby  completes  its 
full  traverse  to  the  end  of  its  chamber.  When 
the  complete  movement  of  the  triple-valve  piston 
thus  occurs,  the  port  p  is  uncovered  through  a 
notched  opening  in  the  lower  face  of  the  slide 
valve  c.  which,  however,  could  not  well  be  illus- 
trated, because  of  the  fact  that  both  it  and  the 
dotted  port  />  are  situated  behind  the  plane  of  the 
section  shown. 

Uiik'mg  a  Sudden  Stop. —  When  an  emer- 
gency occurs,  in  which  the  engineer  finds  it 
necessary  to  bring  the  train  to  a  sudden  stop,  he 
moves  the  handle  of  the  brake  valve  into  a  posi- 
tion for  quickly  discharging  the  air  from  the 
train  pipe,  whereby  a  sudden  and  material  re- 
duction of  the  air  pressure  is  effected  in  the 
train  pipe  upon  the  first  car  and  in  the  connected 
chamber  at  the  left  of  the  triple-valve  piston  a. 
This  results  in  such  a  preponderance  of  air 
pressure  from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  upon  the 
right  face  of  the  triple-valve  piston  that  the  pis- 
ton is  quickly  moved  to  the  left,  compressing  the 
supporting  spring  of  the  stem  ;,  until  it  reaches 
the  end  of  its  chamber.  The  passageway  />  being 
thereby  uncovered,  air  pressure  from  the  aux- 
iliary reservoir  instantly  acts  upon  the  upper 
face  of  the  supplemental  piston    »:,  to   force   it 


downward  and  open  the  emergency  valve  n,  as 
illustrated   in   Fig.  4. 

To  clearly  comprehend  what  then  takes 
place,  it  is  important  to  fully  realize  the  condi- 
tions which  exisi  .it  this  instant:  they  are  (1) 
that  no  compressed  air  has  as  yet,  during  the 
practically  instantaneous  operation  above  de- 
scribed, entered  the  brake  cylinder  from  any 
source:  (2)  that  the  compressed  air  can  be  dis- 
charged from  the  auxiliary  reservoir  into  the 
brake  cylinder  only  comparatively  slowly,  be- 
cause of  the  restricted  character  of  the  port  k 
in  the  slide  valve;  and  ( .? )  that  the  air  pres- 
sure in  the  train  pipe,  while  having  been  sud- 
denly and  materially  reduced  below  the  pres- 
sure in  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  to  the  extent  of 
5  or  10  pounds,  or  possibly  more,  is  still  very 
considerable  (60  or  65  pounds),  and  it  has.  by 
merely  lifting  the  check  valve  o,  a  capacious 
and  unobstructed  passageway,  past  the  open 
emergency  valve  n.  into  the  as  yet  empty  brake 
cylinder.  Tn  consequence  of  the  existence  of 
these  conditions,  the  check  valve  0  is  lifted 
from  its  seat,  against  the  light  resistance  of  its 
spring   (as  indicated  in  Fig.  4.),  and  the  train- 


0  aiua,   cn<HCU 


Fic.   4. — Quick-Action    Triple    Valve,    Emergency 
Valve  Open. 

pipe  air  rushes  into  the  brake  cylinder,  thereby 
greatly  reducing  the  train-pipe  air  pressure  in 
the  vicinity.  When  the  brake  cylinder  has  be- 
come filled  with  air  at  the  reduced  pressure  in 
the  train  pipe,  the  spring  above  the  check  valve 
o  immediately  causes  it  to  be  closed,  cutting  off 
a  return  of  any  air  from  the  brake  cylinder  to 
the  train  pipe,  as  the  pressure  in  the  latter  be- 
comes further  reduced.  The  air  in  the  auxiliary 
reservoir,  which  also  has  been  comparatively 
slowly  discharging  into  the  brake  cylinder  during 
the  operation  just  described,  now  continues  to 
discharge  through  the  port  k  and  the  passageway 
f,  and  to  add  to  the  contents  of  the  brake  cylin- 
der, until  equilibrium  of  pressure  exists  in  the 
reservoir  and  brake  cylinder. 

The  sudden  discharge  of  a  large  quantity  of 
air  from  the  train  pipe  into  the  brake  cylinder 
of  the  first  car,  not  only  thus  causes  a  quick 
and  powerful  application  of  the  brakes  upon  that 
car,  but  also  produces  a  sudden  and  material  re- 
duction of  the  air  pressure  upon  the  left  face 
of  the  triple-valve  piston  a  upon  the  second  car, 
thereby  reproducing  the  conditions  necessary  for 
the  complete  movement  to  the  left  of  the  triple- 
valve  piston  and  a  repetition  of  the  operation 
which  occurred  in  the  triple  valve  of  the  first 
car.  This  operation  of  the  triple  valve  of  the 
second    car    similarly   actuates    the   quick-action 


AIR  BRAKE 


triple  valve  upon  the  third  car,  and  so  on,  from 
car  to  car,  throughout  the  train.  The  accom- 
plishment of  these  successive  or  serial  operations 
of  the  triple  valves  throughout  the  train  occurs 
with  such  astonishing  rapidity  that,  whereas  17 
seconds  elapsed  between  the  application  of  the 
old  automatic  brake  upon  the  first  car  and  the 
application  upon  the  fiftieth,  this  interval  is  but 
about  two  and  a  half  seconds  in  the  operation 
of  the  quick-action  air  brake  —  but  little  longer 
than  is  required  for  sound  to  travel  through  a 
distance  equal  to  the  length  of  train  pipe  upon  a 
freight  train  of  50  cars. 

The  quick-action  automatic  air-brake  system 
thus  virtually  consists  of  two  distinct  brake 
systems  —  one  of  moderate  power  and  smooth 
and  gentle  application  for  all  the  customary  oper- 
ations of  every  day  train  service,  and  the  other 
of  high  power  and  violent  application  for  use 
only  when  emergencies  require  most  energetic 
means  to  avert  destruction  of  life  and  property. 
It  has  practically  succeeded  all  other  forms  of 
power  brake  upon  railroad  trains,  and  is  now  in 
almost  universal  use  upon  the  passenger  and 
freight  trains  in  America. 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  condition 
which  determines  whether  a  service  or  an  emer- 
gency application  of  the  brakes  will  result  from 
a  reduction  of  the  air  pressure  in  the  train  pipe, 
is  the  rate  of  rapidity,  or  the  suddenness,  with 
which  the  reduction  of  the  air  pressure  in  the 
train  pipe  takes  place.  When  the  air  pressure  in 
the  train  pipe  is  reduced  comparatively  slowly, 
the  leftward  movement  of  the  triple-valve  piston 
is  terminated,  by  the  resistance  of  the  spring 
supporting  the  stem  /,  in  such  a  position  that 
the  compressed  air  of  the  auxiliary  reservoir  be- 
comes discharged  into  the  brake  cylinder, 
thereby  reducing  the  air  pressure  of  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  (which  acts  upon  the  right  face  of  the 
triple- valve  piston)  co-ordinately  with  the  con- 
tinued reduction  of  the  air  pressure  in  the  train 
pipe  (acting  upon  the  left  face  of  the  piston), 
so  that  such  a  preponderance  of  air  pressure 
upon  the  right  face  of  the  piston,  as  is  neces- 
sary to  compress  the  spring  of  the  stem  /,  does 
not  occur.  It  is  only  when  the  air  pressure  act- 
ing upon  the  left  face  of  the  triple-valve  piston 
is  reduced  much  more  rapidly  than  the  discharge 
of  auxiliary  reservoir  air  to  the  brake  cylinder 
will  permit  the  air  pressure  upon  the  right  face 
of  the  piston  to  be  reduced,  that  the  piston  makes 
its  complete  movement  to  the  left  and  causes  a 
quick  application  of  the  brakes  throughout  the 
train.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  the  engi- 
neer's brake-operating  valve  shall  be  provided 
with  such  means  as  shall  readily  enable  the  engi- 
neer to  discharge  air  from  the  train  pipe  with 
only  such  rapidity  as  shall  result  in  a  service 
application,  or  to  discharge  the  air  with  such 
greater  rapidity  as  shall  cause  the  emergency 
application  of  the  brakes. 

It  is  found  also  that,  inasmuch  as  it  is  neces- 
sary to  elevate  the  air  pressure  in  the  train  pipe, 
as  rapidly  as  possible,  to  a  point  somewhat  above 
the  pressure  of  the  air  remaining  in  the  auxiliary 
reservoirs  after  an  application  of  the  brakes,  in 
order  to  force  the  triple-valve  piston  to  the  right 
and  release  the  brakes,  the  provision  of  a  stored 
pressure  in  the  main  reservoir  upon  the  loco- 
motive, higher  than  that  ordinarily  charged  into 
the  train  pipe  and  brake  apparatus,  is  very  de- 
sirable for  temporary  use  in  effecting  a  prompt 
release  of  the  brakes.    It  has  thus  occurred  that 


the  primitive  three-way  cock,  used  for  an  engi- 
neer's brake-operating  valve  in  the  earlier  forms 
of  the  air  brake,  has  given  place  to  a  more  com- 
plicated device,  now  employed  for  effecting  the 
various  operations  of  the  quick-action  air  brake. 

Engineer's  Brake  Valve. —  The  functions  of 
the  modern  engineer's  brake  valve  may  be  enu- 
merated as  follows :  To  supply  air  to  the  train 
pipe  and  the  auxiliary'  reservoirs  throughout  the 
train,  at  a  certain  definitely  determined  pressure, 
for  the  proper  operation  of  the  brakes  —  the 
standard  pressure  adopted  for  this  purpose 
by  the  railroads  being  70  pounds ;  to  discharge 
air  from  the  train  pipe  to  the  atmosphere  at  such 
a  rate  of  rapidity  that  all  the  applications  of 
the  brakes  in  customary  service  may  be  effected 
without  the  operation  of  the  quick-action  mech- 
anism of  the  triple  valves ;  to  maintain  any  re- 
duced train-pipe  air  pressure,  resulting  from  an 
application  of  the  brakes,  so  that  the  brakes  may 
be  kept  applied  with  the  force  corresponding  to 
such  reduced  train-pipe  pressure;  to  discharge 
air  from  the  train  pipe  to  the  atmosphere  with 
such  rapidity,  in  emergency  applications  of  the 
brakes,  as  shall  cause  the  quick-action  mechan- 
ism of  the  triple  valves  to  operate  with  certainty; 
and  to  temporarily  supply  the  train  pipe  with  an 
unusually  high  air  pressure,  whenever  the  brakes 


Fig.   5. — Engineer's   Brake   Valve. 

are  to  be  released.  These  various  operations  are 
in  practice  controlled  by  different  positions  of 
a  rotary  disk  valve,  the  various  positions  of 
which  are  defined  and  secured  by  the  movement 
of  a  handle  operated  by  the  engineer. 

In  order  to  avoid  confusion,  and  to  more 
clearly  illustrate  the  construction  and  operation 
of  the  engineer's  brake  valve,  it  is  somewhat 
diagrammatically  shown,  with  its  ports  and 
passageways  so  arranged  in  one  plane  that  a 
single  sectional  view  of  the  structure  will  show 
them  all,  except  those  in  the  rotary  disk  valve. 

Fig.  5  illustrates  a  plan  view  of  the  valve, 
showing  the  handle  in  the  position  for  releasing 
the  brakes.  The  other  various  axial  positions 
of  the  handle  are  indicated  by  dotted  lines. 
Within  the  handle,  there  is  a  latch  or  pawl,  held 
in  position  by  a  coil  spring  (indicated  by  dotted 
lines,  and  also  shown  in  Fig.  10),  which,  by 
engaging  with  various  projections  upon  a  disk, 
against  which  the  pawl  presses,  readily  indicates 
to  the  engineer's  sense  of  touch  the  various  posi- 
tions of  the  handle  for  causing  corresponding 
operations  of  the  brake  apparatus. 

Fig.  6  illustrates  a  sectional  view  of  the  en- 


AIR  BRAKE 


ginecr's  valve,  with  the  handle  in  the  running 
position,  in  which  air  from  the  main  reservoir  is 
admitted  into  the  train  pipe  for  the  purpose  of 
charging  the  brake  apparatus  upon  the  cars  with 
the  proper  degree  of  air  pressure.  The  handle 
1/  is  connected,  by  means  of  a  spindle,  with  the 
rotary  disk  valve  r.  In  the  seat  upon  which  the 
valve  r  rotates,  there  are  shown  four  passage- 
ways. The  passageway  c  leads  directly  to  the 
train  pipe;  the  passageway  z  leads  directly  to 
the  atmosphere;  the  passageway  x  leads  to  the 


Fig.    6. — Engineer's    Crake    Valve,    Handle   in    Running 
Position. 

chamber  y  above  the  piston  u  and  the  passage- 
way g  leads  to  the  chamber  containing  the  valve 
v,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  structure,  called  the 
feed  valve.  In  this  feed  valve,  the  small  sup- 
ply valve  u  controls  communication  between 
the  passageway  g  and  a  chamber  above  the  pis- 
ton /,  which  chamber  is  connected  by  a  passage- 
way /  with  the  passageway  e  leading  directly  to 
the  train  pipe.  In  Fig.  6,  the  piston  t  and  valve  v 
are  shown  in  their  uppermost  positions,  being 
sustained  in  those  positions  by  the  upward  pres- 
sure of  the  spring  ,f,  which  upward  pressure  is 
properly  adjusted  by  means  of  the  screw  plug 
which  supports  the  lower  end  of  the  spring.  It 
is  a  standard  practice  upon  railroads  to  charge 
the  train  pipe  and  auxiliary  reservoirs  upon  the 
cars  with  air  at  70  pounds  pressure,  and  the 
adjustment  of  the  spring  j  is,  therefore,  so  regu- 
lated by  the  screw  plug  that  an  air  pressure  of 
70  pounds  per  square  inch  upon  the  upper  face 
of  the  piston  t  is  necessary  to  force  the  piston 
downward  and  compress  the  spring,  thereby  per- 
mitting the  valve  v  to  be  forced  to  its  seat  by 
the  light  spring  pressing  upon  its  upper  face. 

Extending  downward  from  the  piston  «,  is  a 
stem  which  terminates  in  the  poppet  valve  to. 
The  valve  w  normally  closes  a  passageway  lead- 
ing from  the  train-pipe  passageway  c  to  the 
atmosphere.  The  lower  face  of  the  piston  u  is 
always  subject  to  the  air  pressure  existing  in 
the  train  pipe,  while  the  upper  face  is  subjected 
to  the  variable  air  pressure  in  the  chamber  jr. 
Because  of  the  necessarily  small  volume  of  the 
chamber  y,  owing  to  its  position  in  the  midst  of 


a  structure  which  must  occupy  as  small  a  space 
as  practicable,  a  passageway  leads  from  it  to  a 
small  reservoir,  which  is  connected  with  the 
structure  of  the  engineer's  valve  by  means  of  a 
pipe.  In  this  manner,  the  chamber  y  becomes 
a  portion  of  a  reservoir  or  chamber  of  sufficient 
volume  to  permit  an  accurate  reduction  of  air 
pressure  therein,  through  the  discharge  of  a 
portion  of  the  compressed  air  therefrom  to  the 
atmosphere.  This  small  reservoir,  which  is 
located  in  any  convenient  place,  out  of  the  way 
of  the  engineer,  has,  therefore,  no  other  function 
than  to  virtually  provide  such  a  volume  for  the 
chamber  y  as  could  not  otherwise  be  acquired, 
without  greatly  increasing  the  bulk  of  the  engi- 
neer's valve  structure,  and  so  rendering  it  cum- 
bersome and  an  obstruction  in  the  engineer's 
cab. 

With  the  handle  in  the  running  position,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  6,  the  rotary  valve  r  is  shown  in 
the  position  in  which  a  passageway  through  the 
valve  conducts  air  from  the  main  reservoir  to 
the  passageway  g,  leading  to  the  feed  valve.  The 
air  passes  beneath  the  supply  valve  v  into 
the  chamber  above  the  piston  t  and  thence  by  the 
passageways  I  and  c,  into  the  train  pipe  and  the 
auxiliary  reservoirs  upon  the  cars.  This  flow  of 
air  from  the  main  reservoir  into  the  train  pipe 
and  auxiliary  reservoirs  continues  until  they  are 
charged  with  a  pressure  of  "0  pounds  per  square 
inch,  whereupon  the  piston  t  is  forced  down- 
ward, compressing  the  spring  s  and  permitting 
the  supply  valve  v  to  become  seated  and  cut  off 
further  communication  between  the  main  reser- 
voir and  the  train  pipe. 

The  apparatus  upon  the  cars  is  now  charged 
and  ready  to  apply  the  brakes,  whenever  de- 
sirable ;  but  the  air  pump  upon  the  locomotive 


°«1  '  f     \V    s— ___J       . 


Fig.   7. — Engineer's  Brake  Valve,  Under  Service 
Application. 

continues  to  compress  air  into  the  main  reser- 
voir, until  the  latter  is  charged  with  an  air  pres- 
sure of  about  90  pounds  per  square  inch,  at 
which  pressure  a  pump  controlling  device,  called 


AIR  BRAKE 


the  pump  governor,  connected  by  pipe  with  the 
main  reservoir,  is  so  caused  to  operate  as  to  cut 
off  the  steam  supply  to  the  pump  and  stop  its 
operation. 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  that,  in  this  position  of 
the  rotary  valve  r,  a  passageway  is  provided 
which  connects  the  passageways  e  and  x,  so  that 
the  chamber  y  and  the  small  reservoir  connected 
therewith  are  in  direct  communication  with  the 
train  pipe  and  charged  with  the  same  air  pres- 
sure as  exists  in  the  train  pipe. 


the  air  pressure  upon  the  upper  face  of  piston 
u,  while  the  train-pipe  air  pressure  below  the 
piston  remains  unchanged,  is  to  cause  the  pis- 
ton M  to  be  forced  upward,  thereby  unseating 
the  valve  w  and  permitting  air  to  be  discharged 
from  the  train  pipe  directly  to  the  atmosphere, 
through  the  train-pipe  discharge  passage.  The 
pipe  connecting  the  chamber  ji  with  the  small 
reservoir  is  also  connected  by  a  branch  pipe  with 
an  air-pressure  gauge,  by  means  of  which  the 
engineer  is  enabled  to  see  how  much  the  air  pres- 
sure in  chamber  31  is  reduced  by  so  discharging 
the  air  therefrom.  When  the  air  pressure  in 
chamber  y  has  been  reduced  to  the  extent  that 
it  is  desired  to  reduce  the  train-pipe  air  pres- 
sure, the  engineer  moves  his  handle  into  the 
lap  position,  thereby  bringing  the  rotary  valve 
into  the  position  illustrated  in  Fig.  8. 

In  this  position  of  the  rotary-  valve,  all  com- 
munication between  the  respective  passageways 
is  cut  off.  The  air  continues  to  discharge  from 
the  train  pipe,  through  the  train-pipe  discharge 
passage,  until  the  air  pressure  in  the  train  pipe 
has  been  reduced  to  a  point  slightly  below  that 
to  which  the  pressure  in  the  chamber  y  was  re- 
duced by  discharge  of  air  from  the  latter  cham- 
ber to  the  atmosphere.  Thereupon,  the  prepon- 
derance of  pressure  upon  the  upper  face  of  piston 
u  causes  the  piston  to  move  downward  and 
reseat  the  valve  w,  thereby  cutting  off  further 
discharge  of  air  from  the  train  pipe  to  the  at- 
mosphere. Should  the  engineer  subsequently 
wish  to  apply  the  brakes  with  a  greater  force, 
he  again  moves  the  handle  of  his  valve  to  the 
position  for  making  service  applications  and  dis- 
charges an  additional  quantity  of  air  from  the 
chamber  y,  to  further  reduce  the  air  pressure 
therein.    This  results  in  the  piston  u  being  again 


Fig.  8. — Engineer's  Brake  Valve,  Communication 
Cut    Off. 

If,  while  the  air-brake  apparatus  throughout 
the  train  is  thus  charged  with  the  proper  air 
pressure,  any  reduction  of  the  air  pressure 
should  occur  through  leakage  at  any  part  of  the 
apparatus,  the  effect  is  to  diminish  the  pressure 
upon  the  upper  face  of  piston  /  of  the  feed  valve, 
thereby  permitting  the  spring  j  to  force  the  pis- 
ton upward,  unseating  the  supply  valve  v,  and  so 
to  permit  air  from  the  main  reservoir  to  flow 
into  the  train  pipe  and  restore  the  pressure 
therein,  and  in  the  connected  auxiliary  reser- 
voirs, to  70  pounds.  In  like  manner,  a  reduction 
of  pressure  in  the  main  reservoir,  from  any 
cause,  acts  upon  the  pump  governor  to  restore 
the  steam  supply  to  the  air  pump,  which  re- 
plenishes the  pressure  in  the  main  reservoir  and 
restores  it  to  90  pounds. 

In  making  a  service  application  of  the  brakes, 
the  engineer  brings  his  handle  into  the  proper 
position,  thereby  moving  the  rotary  valve  r  into 
a  position  where  the  conditions  are  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  7.  In  this  position  of  the  rotary  valve, 
all  communication  between  the  main  reservoir 
and  other  parts  of  the  apparatus  is  cut  off.  and 
communication  between  the  chamber  y,  above 
piston  u.  and  the  train  pipe  is  similarly  broken. 
At  the  same  time,  by  means  of  a  small  cavity 
in  the  rotary  valve  r,  the  passageway  x  is  placed 
in  communication  with  the  passageway  z,  so 
that  air  from  the  chamber  y  and  the  small  reser- 
voir connected  to  it  may  be  discharged  into  the 
atmosphere.     The   immediate   effect  of  reducing 


Fig.  9. 


-Engineer's   Brake  Valve,   Emergency 
Application. 


forced  upward,  again  unseating  the  valve  a;  and 
further  discharging  air  from  the  train  pipe. 

There  an-  two   reasons   for  the  interposition 
of  the  piston  u  and  valve  w,  in  this  process  of 


AIR  BRAKE 


discharging  air  from  the  train  pipe,  instead  of 
discharging  it  directly  to  the  atmosphere, 
through  a  port  in  the  rotary  valve  r,  which  would 

appear  to  he  the  most  natural  and  simple 
course.  One  reason  is  that,  as  the  number  of 
cars  composing  a  train  varies  greatly,  the  length 
of  train  pipe  of  a  train  of  cars  likewise  varies 
between  wide  limits.  Upon  a  short  train,  the 
volume  of  air  which  must  be  discharged  from 
the  train  pipe,  to  effect  a  given  reduction  of 
air  pressure  therein,  is  very  much  less  than  the 
volume  which  must  be  discharged  from  the  train 
pipe  of  a  long  train,  to  produce  the  same  reduc- 
tion  of  air  pressure.  It'  the  air  were  directly 
discharged  from  the  train  pipe  into  the  atmo- 
sphere, therefore,  it  would  be  necessary  for  the 
engineer  to  hold  the  handle  of  the  brake  valve 


Fig.     io. — Engineer's    Brake    Valve.     Release    Position. 

in  the  position  for  making  a  service  application 
a  different  length  of  time  for  each  different 
length  of  train,  to  cause  the  same  reduction  of 
air  pressure:  while,  with  the  use  of  the  cham- 
ber y  and  connected  reservoir,  the  engineer  dis- 
charges the  same  quantity  of  air  therefrom  to 
the  atmosphere,  upon  any  length  of  train,  to 
cause  a  given  reduction  of  train-pipe  air  pres- 
sure, and  the  piston  u  remains  in  its  upward 
position  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  depending 
upon  the  length  of  the  train.  By  this  means, 
the  engineer  becomes  readily  accustomed  to  hold 
the  handle  of  his  brake  valve  in  the  service  ap- 
plication position  the  proper  length  of  time  to 
produce  any  given  reduction  of  train-pipe  air 
pressure,  and  thus,  with  experience,  he  is  en- 
abled, with  reasonable  accuracy,  to  apply  the 
brakes  with  the  desired  force,  without  the  neces- 
sity of  consulting  the  pressure  gauge. 

The  other  reason  fir  the  use  of  piston  « 
and  valve  hi  is  that  it  is  desirable  that  the  dis- 
charge of  air  from  tbe  train  pipe  to  the  atmo- 
sphere shall  be  gradually  and  not  suddenly  ter- 
minated. The  body  of  air  in  the  train  pipe 
acquires  considerable  velocity  of  movement 
toward  the  engineer's  brake  valve,  during  the 
period  that  the  discharge  continues,  and  the 
sudden  termination  of  such  discharge  usually 
results  in  a  temporary  increase  of  pressure  at 
the  forward  end  of  the  train  pipe,  sufficient  to 
cause  the  release  of  the  brakes  that  have  most 


quickly  applied  at  the  forward  end  of  the  train. 
By  means  of  the  conical  teat  below  the  valve 
wa  the  downward  motion  of  the  piston  u,  which 
i-  gradual,  is  accompanied  by  a  gradual  closure 

of  the  tram  pipe  discharge  passage,  thereby  pre- 
venting such  an  increase  of  air  pressure  in  the 
forward  end  of  the  train  pipe,  after  closure,  as 
would  result  in  causing  the  release  of  any  of 
the    brakes. 

In  an  emergency  application  of  the  brakes, 
the  rotary  valve  r  is  turned  to  a  position  for 
establishing  the  conditions  illustrated  in  Fig.  g. 
By  means  of  a  cavity  in  the  rotary  valve,  the 
train-pipe  passageway  .'  i<  brought  into  direct 
communication  with  the  passageway  z,  leading 
to  the  atmosphere.  The  air  in  the  train  pipe 
is  thus  provided  with  an  unobstructed  avenue 
for  discharge  to  the  atmosphere,  whereby  the 
train-pipe  air  pressure  is  SO  rapidly  reduced  as 
to  cause  an  emergency  application  of  the  brakes 
thn  lUghout  the  train. 

To  release  the  brakes,  after  any  kind  of  an 
application,  the  handle  of  the  engineer's  brake 
valve  i-  placed  in  the  release  position,  in  which 
the  rotary  valve  r  is  brought  to  a  position  for 
effecting  the  conditions  illustrated  in  big.  io. 
In  this  position  <>f  the  rotary  valve,  communica- 
tion is  established  from  the  main  reservoir  to 
the  train  pipe,  through  a  port  leading  to  the 
passageway  c,  ami  to  the  chamber  y,  by  a  port 
leading  to  the  passageway  .r.  By  this  means, 
the  main  reservoir  air  is  furnished  with  an  un- 
obstructed passageway  to  the  train  pipe,  for 
quickly  replenishing  the  air  pressure  therein. 
and  the  air  pressure  in  the  chamber  31  and  con- 
nected reservoir  is  simultaneously  replenished 
so  as  to  prevent  the  increasing  train-pipe  pres- 
sure from  lifting  the  piston  u.  The  handle 
of  the  engineer's  brake  valve  is  customarily  left 
in  the  release  position  only  long  enough  to  as- 
sure the  release  of  all  the  brakes  upon  the  train 
when  it  is  turned  into  the  running  position, 
which  restores  the  conditions  illustrated  in  Fig. 
6,  whereby  the  train  pipe  and  auxiliary  reser- 
voirs are  again  charged  with  an  air  pressure  of 
70  pounds  and  are  so  placed  in  a  condition  of 
readiness  for  the  next  application  of  the  brakes. 

About  the  year  1891,  the  high-speed  brake 
was  devised.  As  long  ago  as  1876,  during  some 
extensive  brake  trials  in  England,  with  apparatus 
designed  and  constructed  by  Mr.  Westinghouse 
and  conducted  by  Capt.  Douglas  Galton,  in  be- 
half of  the  Institute  of  Mechanical  Engineers  of 
London,  it  was  discovered  that  the  friction  be- 
tween brake  shoes  and  wheels  varies  greatly  at 
different  speeds.  The  friction  of  the  brake  shoes 
upon  the  wheels  produces  a  tendency  to  stop 
their  rotation,  while  the  friction  between  the 
rails  and  the  wheels  causes  the  wheels  to  con- 
tinue to  rotate  in  spite  of  the  resistance  to  rota- 
tion produced  by  the  brake-shoe  friction,  and 
thus  the  rail  friction  upon  the  wheels  is  what 
finally  and  actually  retards  the  motion  of  the 
train.  In  the  Westinghouse-Galton  brake  trials, 
it  was  discovered  that  the  rail  friction  upon  the 
wheels  (which  is  really  the  friction  of  rest)  is 
practically  the  same  at  all  speeds,  and  the  same 
brake-shoe  friction  ought  therefore  to  be  util- 
ized at  all  speeds,  to  produce  the  best  results  in 
stopping.  Rut.  as  already  stated,  it  was  discov- 
ered that  the  friction  of  the  brake  shoes  con- 
tinually decreases  as  higher  speeds  are  attained, 
and  it  is  therefore  very  desirable  that  the  brake 
shoes    should    be    applied    to    the    wheels    with 


AIR  BRAKE 


greater  pressure  at  high  speed  than  at  low  speed, 
to  compensate  for  the  reduced  coefficient  of 
friction  at  the  high  speeds. 

The  high-speed  brake  is  designed  for  the 
purpose  of  realizing  a  greater  brake-shoe  pres- 
sure at  high  speed,  which  is  subsequently  re- 
duced, as  the  speed  of  the  train  declines  during 
the  stop,  until  the  pressure  has  become  only  such 
as  may  be  safely  maintained  until  the  final  stop, 


without  sliding  the  wheels  upon  the  rails,  it 
being  a  well-known  fact  that  the  sliding  of 
wheels  upon  the  rails  not  only  seriously  dam- 
ages the  wheels  but  also  very  materially  in- 
creases the  distance  in  which  the  train  can  be 
stopped.  The  apparatus  consists  of  the  ordi- 
nary quick-action  automatic  brake  apparatus, 
with    the    addition    of    an    automatic    pressure- 


Tt>   BPakb 


Position  of  ports 

Servce  Stop 

fnessuiE  Exceeding.  60  Pounds 

in  enAKi  Cylinder. 


reducing  valve  connected  to  each  brake  cylinder. 
The  air  pressure  ordinarily  employed  in  charg- 
ing the  train  pipe  and  auxiliary  reservoirs  of 
the  quick-action  automatic  brake  is  70  pounds 
per  square  inch :  but,  in  using  the  high-speed 
brake,  the  train-pipe  and  auxiliary-reservoir  pres- 


sure is  increased  to  no  pounds.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  increased  train-pipe  and  auxiliary- 
reservoir  pressure,  the  emergency  application  of 
the  high-speed  brake  occurs  with  a  much  in- 
creased brake-cylinder  pressure,  which,  by  means 
of  the  automatic  reducing  valve,  is  gradually 
reduced  until  it  becomes  only  about  that  which 
would  occur  in  an  emergency  application  of  the 
ordinary  quick-action  brake. 

It  is  very  important  that,  in  ordinary  ser- 
vice applications  of  the  high-speed  brake,  the 
brake-cylinder  pressure  shall  not  materially  ex- 
ceed that  which  occurs  with  the  use  of  the  quick- 
action  brake,  and  it  is  therefore  essential  that 
the  automatic  reducing  valve  shall  provide  such 
a  large  release  passage  for  the  brake-cylinder  air 
in  service  applications  that  the  brake-cylinder 
pressure  shall  not  materially  exceed  the  limit 
attained  with  the  use  of  the  quick-action  brake; 
but  the  discharge  passage  must  also  be  suffi- 
ciently small  in  emergency  applications  to  cause 
the  higher  air  pressure  to  accumulate  in  the 
brake  cylinder  and  to  be  discharged  only  slowly. 

These  functions  of  the  automatic  reducing- 
valve  are  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  triangular 
port  opening,  the  broad  base  of  which  exposes 


Fig.  IJ. 
Position  or  PORTS. 

EMERGENCY  STOP. 


a  comparatively  large  opening  for  releasing  any 
excess  pressure  in  the  brake  cylinder  in  service 
applications,  while  in  emergency  applications  the 
valve  moves  so  as  to  expose  the  portion  near  the 
apex  of  the  triangular  port  for  discharging 
the  air.  The  arrangement  of  this  port  in  the  re- 
ducing valve  is  illustrated  in  Figs,  n,  12,  and  13, 
which  show  the  upper  portion  of  the  reducing- 
valve  structure.  At  Z,  a  pipe  connects  the 
reducing  valve  to  the  brake  cylinder.  The  pis- 
ton 4  is  thus  subjected,  upon  its  upper  face, 
to  the  air  pres<ure  from  the  brake  cylinder, 
while  it  is  supported  at  its  lower  face  by  a 
spring,  adjusted  to  hold  the  piston  4,  and  the 
valve  8  attached  to  it,  in  the  positions  shown  in 
Fig.  .11.  when  the  brake-cylinder  pressure  does 
not  exceed  that  desired  in  service  applications. 
The  slide  valve  8  is  supplied  with  the  triangu- 
lar port  b  which,  when  the  pressure  in  the 
brake  cylinder  is  less  than  that  for  which  the 
spring  is  adjusted,  is  in  the  position  shown  in 
Fig.  11.  the  discharge  port  a  in  the  casing  be- 
ing covered  by  the  slide  valve,  so  that  no  air 


AIR-CELLS  —  AIR-COMPRESSORS 


can  escape   from  the  brake  cylinder.     In  a  ser-    the  required  supply  of  air  with  proper  pressure 

vice  application  of  the  brakes,  the  brake-cylinder    and  ec my,   numerous  types  of  compressors, 

pressure   can  only  comparatively   slowly   exceed     each    having    Us    peculiar   and   appropriate   field, 


the  limit  for  which  the  reducing  valve  is 
adjusted,  and  the  piston  4  is  thereby  slowly 
sed  until  the  base  of  the  triangular  port 
b  registers  with  the  discharge  port  a,  as  shown 
in    Fig   12.     In  this  position   of  the  slide  valve, 


have  been  designed.  These  arc.  in  the  Mider  of 
the  pressure  produced:  the  disc  fan,  the  centrif- 
ugal blower,  the  positive  blower,  the  blowing 
engine,  the  direct-acting  compressor,  and  the 
compressor    with    crank    and    flywheel.     By    the 


the  excess  of  air  in  the  brake  cylinder  is  rap-  operation  of  all  these,  the  same  result  is  pro- 
idly  discharged,  and  the  air  pressure  is  thus  duced  —  the  delivery  of  a  quantity  of  air  under 
permitted  to  but  very  slightly  exceed  the  limit  an  increased  pressure  and  correspondingly  in- 
fnr  which  the  reducing  valve  is  adjusted.  creased   temperature,  and  the  subsequent   rapid 

In  an  emergency  application  of  the  brakes,  loss  by  the  air  of  its  excess  of  temperature, 
however,  the  air  pressure  in  the  brake  cylinder  with  a  proportionate  decrease  in  volume.  Most 
increases  with  much  greater  rapidity  than  in  ser-  of  the  problems  in  the  design  of  compressors 
vice  applications,  and  the  accumulation  of  pres-  are  created  by  the  heating  of  the  air  during 
sure  upon  the  piston  4  causes  it  to  move  down  compression  and  by  the  effects  so  produced 
more  rapidly,  bringing  the  triangular  port  b  of  upon  the  apparatus, 
the  slide  valve  to  register  near  its  apex  with  the 
release  port  a,  as  shown  in  Fig.  13.  In  this 
position  of  the  slide  valve  8,  the  air  discharges 
from  the  brake  cylinder  comparatively  slowly 
and  the  pressure  is  thus  gradually  reduced,  the 
piston  4  gradually  rising  with  the  reduced  pres- 
sure, until  the  pressure  has  finally  become  re- 
duced to  the  limit  for  which  the  device  is 
adjusted,  when  the  port  a  is  closed  and  the  air 
pressure  then  remaining  in  the  brake  cylinder 
continues  effective  until  the  train  is  stopped  or 
the  brakes  have  been  released  in  the  customary 
way  by  the  engineer. 

The  high-speed  brake  is  now  quite  generally 
employed  upon  the  fast  passenger  trains  through- 
out the  United  States,  and  stops  trains  from 
speeds  of  about  60  miles  an  hour  in  about  30 
per  cent  shorter  distance  than  the  ordinary 
quick-action  air  brake. 

R.  A.  Parke, 
Expert  for  ll'estinglwiise  Company. 

Air-cells,  cavities  in  the  cellular  tissue  of 
the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants  which  contain 
air  only,  the  juices  of  the  plants  being  contained 
in  separate  vessels.  They  are  largest  and  most 
numerous  in  aquatic  plants,  as  in  the  I  'allisneria 
spiralis  and  the  Victoria  rcgia,  the  gigantic 
leaves  of  which  latter  are  buoyed  up  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  by  their  means.  There  are  also  for  producing  a  flow  of  air  of  considerable  vol- 
air-cells  in  the  bodies  of  birds.  They  are  ume  but  with  almost  inappreciable  increase  of 
connected  with  the  respiratory  system,  and  are    pressure.     It    is   thus    suitable    for   purposes    of 


Disc  Wheel. 

The  Disc  /'Hi!.— The  disc  fan,  corresponding 
to  the  marine  screw  propeller  in  action,  is  useful 


situated  in  the  cavity  of  the  thorax  and  abdo- 
men, and  sometimes  extend  into  the  bones. 
They  are  most  fully  developed  in  birds  of  pow- 
erful and  rapid  flight,  such  as  the  albatross. 

Air-chamber,  a  reservoir  in  a  hydraulic 
apparatus,  in  free  communication  with  the 
water.     The  chamber  or  reservoir  is  filled  with 


ventilation  in  expelling  foul  air,  gases,  or  smoke, 
or  for  removing  dust,  fine  shavings,  and  waste 
particles  from  woodworking  and  grinding  ma- 
chines. The  power  expended  in  revolving  the 
fan  goes  in  great  part  toward  whirling  the  air 
current  around  in  the  fan  casing  and  pipe — 
a  waste  of  effort  which  limits  the  application 
of  this  device  to  conditions  of  moderate  speed 


the  pipes  is  momentarily  greater  than  the  normal 
pressure,  water  enters  the  air-chamber  and  com- 
5  the  air  it  contains;  and  when  the  pres- 
sure is  momentarily  less  than  the  normal,  the 
reverse  action  takes  place,  and  the  elasticity  of 
the  air  forces  water  back  into  the  pipes 


y  at  a  tangent, 
efficiency  and  a  wider  field  of  usefulness  is 
afforded.  Particles  of  air  whirled  around  by 
the  blades  of  the  disc  fan  merely  fly  out  and 
press  against  the  casing:  but  the  centrifugal 
blower  converts  this  action  into  useful  compres- 
sion   through    the   provision    of   a   spiral    casing 


Air-cock,  a  cock  placed  upon  a  water-  or  arounci  the  fan.  in  which  the  air  whirled  off  by 

steam-pipe   (notably  upon  a  steam   radiator)   to  t|,e  blades  of  the  fan  is  deflected  and  conducted 

allow  of  the  escape  of  air  from  the  piping.  jnt0  a  discharge  pipe  leading  off  from  the  cas- 

Air-compressors.     The     various     practical  ing.     The    blower    therefore    consists    of   a    fan 

applications  of  compressed  air  cover  a  range  of  with   radial   or  sometimes   curved   blades   which 

pressure  from  a  fraction  of  an  ounce  to  several  stand   parallel   to  the  axis    instead   of  obliquely 

thousand  pounds  per  square   inch.     To  produce  as  in  the  case  of  the  disc  fan,  and  which  n  volve 


AIR-COMPRESSORS 


in  a  circular  or  spiral  casing  surrounding  the 
fan  and  opening  into  a  large  discharge  pipe 
that  leads  off  at  a  tangent  in  any  desired  direc- 
tion —  up,  down,  or  sideways.  Air  enters 
around  the  shaft  of  the  fan  through  openings 
in  the  centre  of  the  casing,  and,  being  received 
by  the  blades,  is  whirled  around  and  thrown 
outward  into  the  surrounding  chamber  with  a 
pressure  proportional  to  the  square  of  the 
speed  of  the  fan.  The  pressure  thus  produced 
is  sufficient  for  blowing  fires  of  all  kinds,  for 
removing  small  fragments  of  wood  as  well  as 
finer  particles  from  wood-cutting  machines,  for 
delivering  illuminating  gas  to  holders,  and  for 
other  purposes  requiring  a  pressure  of  not  much 
over  one  pound  per  square  inch.  The  centrifu- 
gal blower  is  the  most  efficient  contrivance 
known  for  producing  pressures  of  a  few  ounces, 
but  its  economy  falls  off  very  fast  if  the  speed 
is  increased  so  as  to  produce  pressure  as  high 
as  one  pound  per  square  inch. 


Cross-section    of    Positive    Pressure    Blower. 

This  machine  seems  peculiar  in,  its  behavior 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  requires  less  power 
to  maintain  a  certain  speed  when  the  discharge 
passage  is  partly  closed  than  when  it  is  fully 
open.  It  is  evident  that  when  there  is  no  dis- 
charge opening,  the  fan,  together  with  the  air 
between  its  blades,  will  spin  around  freely  like 
any  wheel.  If  the  discharge  gate  be  opened, 
air  will  flow  about  the  fan  blades  to  their  outer 
ends,  and  so  into  the  casing  and  thence  to  the 
pipe  system  ;  while  air  from  the  centre  of  the  fan 
follows  out  into  the  space  between  the  blades, 
its  speed  increasing  as  it  approaches  the  ends 
of  the  blades,  where  it  is  hurled  into  the 
casing.  It  is  the  work  done  in  accelerating 
the  motion  of  these  particles  of  air.  which  ex- 
plains the  resistance  to  the  movement  of  the 
fan ;  and  this  work  is  evidently  in  proportion 
to  the  quantity  of  air  that  passes  along  the  fan 
blades,  being  zero  when,  by  reason  of  the  clos- 
ing of  either  suction  or  discharge  opening,  no 


air  is  discharged,  and  being  greatest  when,  with 
full  opening,  the  volume  of  air  passing  is  the 
maximum.  The  blades  of  the  blower  would 
fly  in  pieces  before  the  speed  could  be  increased 
sufficiently  to  produce  an  air  pressure  much 
over  one  pound  per  square  inch. 

An  apparatus  identical  in  principle  is  the 
centrifugal  pump,  which,  handling  far  heavier 
fluids,  produces  by  centrifugal  action  pressures 
measured  by  pounds  instead  of  ounces. 

The  Positive  Blower. — In  direct  competition 
with  the  centrifugal  fan  is  the  positive  blower. 
Consider  a  fan  having  opposite  blades,  revolv- 
ing in  a  closed  casing,  and  carrying  around  with 
it  the  air  confined  between  the  blades.  If  a 
radial  partition  could  be  slipped  in  just  after 
one  of  the  blades  had  passed,  the  following 
blade  would  compress  the  air  between  it  and 
the  partition,  and  would  force  it  out  through  a 
discharge  pipe  if  one  were  provided  near  the 
supposed  partition.  This  partition  might  be 
imagined  to  be  momentarily  withdrawn  as  each 
blade  passed,  so  that  successive  portions  of  air 
would  be  trapped  and  compressed.  The  positive 
blower  consists  of  a  fan  of  this  sort,  with  one 
or  more  blades,  revolving  in  connection  with 
an  "abutment"  performing  the  office  of  the  par- 
tition just  alluded  to.  A  well-known  form  con- 
sists of  a  cylinder  carrying  two  radial  blades, 
and  revolving  in  contact  with  a  cylinder  of  half 
the  diameter  which  is  provided  with  a  gap  of 
proper  form  to  receive  the  passing  blades.  As 
each  blade  travels  around  the  casing,  it  drives 
the  air  before  it  up  to  the  smaller  cylinder, 
whose  gap  comes  around  at  the  proper  instant 
to  allow  the  blade  to  pass,  while  intercepting 
the  air  continuously.  Another  type  consists  of 
two  similar  two-leaved  cams  meshing  together 
like  gears,  as  shown  in  the  sectional  illustra- 
tion. 

The  positive  blower  is  necessarily  made  of 
cast-iron  on  account  of  the  peculiar  shapes  re- 
quired, and  its  parts  are  therefore  unduly 
heavy  in  comparison  with  their  work  of  com- 
pressing air  to  low  pressures.  The  limit  of 
pressure  is  not  far  above  that  of  the  centrifu- 
gal blower;  but  as  the  quantity  of  air  delivered 
per  revolution  is  practically  constant  (except 
for  slight  leakage),  this  machine  possesses,  for 
certain  purposes,  some  advantages.  It  is  much 
used  for  blowing  foundry  cupolas,  moving  il- 
luminating gas  in  gas-works,  and  for  pneumatic- 
tube  transportation. 

The  Air-compressing  Engine. — The  air-com- 
pressor proper  is  a  cylinder-and-piston  machine 
like  the  common  steam  engine.  It  comprises 
two  sets  of  valves,  usually  designed  to  be 
opened  automatically  by  excess  of  pressure  un- 
der them  and  to  be  closed  by  gravity  or  by  the 
actions  of  springs  when  the  pressures  become 
equal.  The  inlet  valves  open  just  after  the 
piston  commences  its  stroke,  when  the  expan- 
sion of  the  compressed  air  remaining  in  the 
cylinder  behind  the  piston  has  lowered  the  pres- 
sure above  the  valves.  They  close  at  the  end  of 
the  intake  stroke,  just  as  the  piston  comes  to 
rest.  The  outlet  valves  lift  during  the  com- 
pression stroke,  at  about  the  time  the  ri 
pressure  in  the  cylinder  becomes  equal  to  that 
in  the  outlet  passage  above  the  valves :  and 
they  close  when  the  flow  of  air  ceases  as  the 
piston  completes  its  stroke. 

Perfectly  correct  action  of  automatic  valves 
is    not    realized    in    practice.     The    valve    must 


AIR-COMPRESSORS 


evidently  be  larger  than  die  opening  in  its  seat, 
sci  that  the  upper  surface  is  larger  than  the  area 
underneath  reached  by  the  lower  pressure;  con 
sequently  the  valve  will  not  open  until  the 
pressure  below  is  greater  than  that  above.  To 
prevent  destructive  slamming  of  the  valves, 
springs  must  be  provided  to  force  them  to  their 

i  just  as  the  Mow  ceases  and  before  the 
reverse  stroke  of  the  piston  can  cause  much 
backward  flow  of  air.  The  pressure  of  the 
spring  acts  to  choke  the  How  through  the 
valves,  increasing  the  resistance  they  offer  to 
tin-  passage  of  air.  Large  compressors  are  there- 
fore often  provided  with  mechanically-actuated 
valves  which  are  opened  and  closed  smoothly 
at  the  proper  moment  by  eccentrics  and  valve 
rods.  Any  of  the  steam-engine  valve  gears 
may  be  used  for  compressors,  and  designed  by 
the  same  methods,  observing  only  that  the  com- 
pressor  is  in  every  way  a  reversed  steam  engine, 
so  that  its  discharge  port  and  valves  are  dupli- 
cates of  the  inlet  details  of  the  engine,  while  the 
engine  exhaust  and  the  compressor  inlet  valves 
are  also  similarly  related. 

Varying  initial   (or  boiler)   pressure  is  com- 


bination  the  effect  of  valves  automatic  as  re- 
gards their  opening,  but  positively  closed  by  the 
mechanism  at  the  proper  instant.  Such  lift- 
valves,  being  shut  off  entirely  at  the  proper 
closing  instant,  seat  themselves  without  noise 
or  shock,  and  may  therefore  have  very  light 
springs,  causing  less  resistance  to  the  air  pass- 
ing through. 

Where  the  expense  of  full  mechanical  action 
is  warranted  on  account  of  the  superior  effi- 
ciency obtainable,  poppet  or  rotary  valves  may 
be  arranged  to  open  by  means  of  springs  ..r 
air  dashpots.  The  opening  device  is  released 
either  through  the  rising  pressure  in  the  cylin- 
der easing  the  valve  on  its  seat,  and  reducing 
the  friction  until  the  valve,  when  balanced,  slips 
freely  open;  or  through  the  same  pressure  act- 
ing on  a  piston  attached  to  a  pusher,  the 
operation  of  which  results  either  in  starting 
the  valve  in  spite  of  friction  or  in  lifting  a  catch 
and  thereby  freeing  the  spring  or  dashpot 
mechanism  of  the  compressor. 

Compound  Compressors. — While  low  com- 
pression pressures  are  accompanied  by  only 
moderate  heating  of  the  air  during  compression, 


Sectional  View  of  Steam   Cylinder  of  a  Typical  Air-compressor. 


pensatcd,  except  in  throttling  engines,  by  vary- 
ing time  of  inlet-valve  closure  or  "cut-off"  ;  and 
varying  discharge  pressure  in  a  compressor  calls 
fur  variation  in  time  of  opening  of  the  dis- 
charge valves.  In  both  cases,  the  means  of 
variation   constitute    the   chief   problem    for   the 

gner. 

Mechanically-moved  inlet  valves  of  compress- 
ors act  always  at  the  same  points.  Opening  a 
trille  after  the  piston  starts  on  the  intake  stroke, 
and  closing  exactly  at  the  end  of  the  same 
stroke;  but  the  discharge  valves  must  open  at 
the  instant  the  piston  has  compressed  the  air  in 
front  of  it  to  a  pressure  equaling  that  above 
the  valves  in  the  discharge  pipe,  and  must  close 
always  at  the  same  instant,  at  the  end  of  the 
sin  ike.  As  the  compressor  may  be  working 
against  a  pressure  greater  <  >r  less  than  that  reg- 
ularly carried,  the  discharge  valves  must  be  so 
controlled  as  to  open  at  wdiatever  point  is  re- 
quired by  the  pressure  then  being  carried.  The 
requirements  are  sometimes  met  by  putting  auto- 
matic lift-valves  above,  or  even  directly  upon, 
the  mechanical  discharge  valves,  giving  the  com- 


the  production  of  high  pressures  is  attended 
with  excessive  heat  and  considerable  increase  in 
the  volume  of  the  compressed  air.  As  the  air 
leaving  the  cylinder  soon  resumes  the  normal 
temperature,  and  decreases  in  volume  accord- 
ingly, the  extra  work  done  in  compressing  the 
increased  volume  is  wasted.  Compressing  cyl- 
inders in  operation  are  always  cooled  by  water 
or  otherwise;  but  it  is  impossible,  even  by 
spraying  water  into  the  cylinder,  to  keep  the  air 
from  rising  considerably  in  temperature.  For 
high  pressures,  resort  is  therefore  had  to  com- 
pound compression,  the  air  being  passed  suc- 
cessively through  larger  low-pressure  to  smaller 
high-pressure  cylinders,  between  which  are  lo- 
cated inter-coolers  whose  function  is  to  restore 
the  air  to  its  original  temperature  before  it 
enters  on  the  next  stage.  The  volume  of  the 
air  is  thus  kept  as  small  as  possible;  and  the 
successive  stages  of  compression  result  in  pro- 
ducing the  required  pressure  with  a  minimum 
of  loss  from  heating  during  the  process.  Two- 
stage  machines  are  preferred  to  single-stage 
where  air  must  be  compressed  to  one   sixth  or 


AIR-COMPRESSORS 


a  smaller  fraction  of  its  volume  at  atmospheric 
pressure  (measuring  pressures  from  absolute 
vacuum)  ;  and  three  or  more  stages  are  required 
in  compressing  to  one  sixteenth  or  less.  Cylin- 
der diameters  are  selected  which  will  provide 
for  about  the  same  amount  of  work  being  done 
in  each  cylinder. 

Most  compressor  problems  deal  with  air 
taken  directly  from  the  atmosphere  at  its  sea- 
level  pressure ;  but,  as  at  moderate  elevation 
there  is  a  marked  decrease  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  compressors  for  high  locations  must 
deal  with  air  at  pressures  below  15  pounds 
absolute.  Under  such  conditions  the  volume 
of  air  taken  into  the  compressor  at  each  stroke 
weighs  less,  and  therefore  less  air  is  delivered 
by  the  compressor,  while  there  is  a  correspond- 
ing decrease  in  the  power  to  run  the  machine. 
The  ratio  of  compression,  and  the  rise  in  tem- 
perature, are  proportionately  increased,  so  that 
a  two-stage  compressor  may  be  desirable  for 
pressures  that  would  call  for  only  single  cylin- 
ders at  sea-level.  Thus,  at  many  of  the  mines 
in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  the  atmospheric 
pressure  is  as  low  as  11  pounds  per  square  inch, 


supplies  against  the  piston  a  force  decreasing 
toward  the  end  of  the  stroke,  while  air  during 
compression  opposes  a  force  increasing  toward 
the  end  of  the  stroke ;  thus  the  power  rapidly 
falls  off  as  the  resistance  increases,  causing  a 
perceptible  reduction  in  speed  at  the  end  of 
each  stroke.  If  such  a  machine  could  be  run 
at  high  speed,  the  weight  (or  more  correctly, 
the  mass)  of  the  pistons  and  connections  would, 
by  inertia,  help  out  the  decreasing  steam  pres- 
sure when  slowing  to  pass  the  centres,  and  thus 
produce  a  more  even  effort  on  the  crank ;  but 
sufficiently  high  speeds  are  not  possible  for  the 
automatic-lift  valves  generally  used  on  small 
compressors.  The  varying  power  and  resistance 
can  be  very  satisfactorily  balanced  by  connecting 
steam  and  compressing  pistons  to  separate 
cranks  set  at  right  angles.  Having  provided 
two  frames  and  cranks,  a  slight  additional  out- 
lay will  supply  an  extra  pair  of  cylinders  tan- 
dem to  the  first  pair,  making  a  full  duplex  com- 
pressor. The  excess  steam  pressure  at  the 
commencement  of  the  stroke  of  one  side  is  here 
transmitted  by  the  crank  shaft  to  the  other  side 
of  the  machine,  to  help  out  the  deficient  pres- 


Sectional  View  of  Air  Cylinders  and  Inter-cooler. 


so  that  90  pounds'  air  pressure  by  gauge  re- 
quires a  compression  ratio  of  9  to  1,  which  is 
considerably  beyond  that  proper  for  a  single- 
stage  compressor.  In  general,  high-level  com- 
pressors should  be  specially  proportioned  for 
their  work. 

Methods  of  Driving. — Like  pumps  and  other 
machinery,  compressors  are  direct-connected  to 
engines  or  are  driven  through  gears  or  belts 
from  separate  sources  of  power.  The  recip- 
rocating piston  compressor  requires  a  varying 
effort  to  balance  the  cylinder  pressure,  since, 
during  the  stroke,  the  piston  moves  against  an 
increasing  air  pressure,  and  finally  against  the 
full  discharge  pressure,  in  pushing  out  the  con- 
tents of  the  cylinder.  Direct-connected  com- 
pressors are  either  "straight-line"  (tandem), 
having  steam  and  air  pistons  on  the  same  piston 
rod,  or  they  are  connected  to  cranks  set  at  an 
angle  on  a  common  shaft.  The  first  method 
reduces  floor  space  and  cost,  but  requires  very 
heavy  fly  wheels,  and  makes  the  machine  liable 
to  stop  on  a  centre  if  run  much  below  full 
speed  and  capacity. 

It    is    evident    that    steam    used    expansively 


sure  of  the  expanded  steam  when  the  stroke  is 
nearly  finished.  Such  a  machine  has  no  "dead 
centres,"  and  can  be  run  at  very  low  speed 
when  necessary. 

As  it  is  generally  desirable  to  maintain  a 
constant  air  pressure,  and  to  vary  the  speed  of 
the  machine  according  to  the  quantity  of  air 
required,  speed  governors  for  the  steam  cylin- 
ders are  not  needed  except  to  prevent  racing 
in  case  of  a  bursting  pipe  or  other  excessive 
discharge  of  air.  Some  form  of  adjustable  cut- 
off valves  is  very  desirable  in  order  to  allow  of 
suiting  the  work  of  the  steam  cylinder  to  the 
load.  The  pressure  is  controlled  by  automatic 
devices  actuated  by  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  air 
pressure,  either  shutting  off  the  air  intake, 
opening  a  by-pass  around  the  compressor  piston, 
or  .(in  case  of  duplex  machines  which  can  start 
from  rest  without  attention)  shutting  off  steam 
and  stopping  the  machine. 

A  description  of  the  standard  types  of  com- 
mercial compressors  would  be  incomplete  with- 
out reference  to  the  most  remarkably  wasteful 
"-team  eater"  known  to  the  compressor  trade 
—  a  machine  using  ten  times  as  much  steam  as 


AIR  COMPRESSORS 


would  be  necessary  for  pumping  the  same 
amount  of  air  by  means  of  a  fairly  economical 
compressor,  and  yet  a  device  most  ingenious 
and  entirely  satisfactory  for  its  work.  This  is 
the  air-brake  pump,  which,  foi  actual  conditions 
of  train  service  —  where  it  Stands  idle  until  the 
closing  of  the  throttle,  and  the  application  of 
brakes  leave  a  large  and  heavily  fired  steam 
i  to  blow  off  at  the  safety  valve  until  the 
fire  can  be  checked  —  is  seen  to  be  well  adapted. 
Indicator  cards  show  that  the  entering,  steam 
i-  throttled  through  about  half  the  stroke, 
while  the  exhaust  is  similarly  choked  at  first 
and  only  let  out  freely  about  the  time  of  full 
opening  of  the  valve.  The  result  is  a  "straight- 
line"  compressor  having  no  crank  or  flywheel, 
with  nothing  moving  but  its  two  pistons  and  one 
rod,  and  yet  so  perfectly  balanced  between  effort 
and  resistance  that  its  strokes  are  smoothly 
made  at  any  speed  from  slowest  to  fastest,  and 
all  with  maximum  simplicity  and  minimum 
weight.  These  machines  are  also  built  with 
compound  steam  and  two-stage  air  cylinders, 
and  in  these  cases  have  pressures  in  the  cylin- 
ders so  nearly  uniform  that  the  steam  distribu- 
tion may  be  considerably  more  economical  than 
it  is  possible  to  obtain  in  the  single-stage  com- 
pressor.   Sec  Compressed  Air. 

S.  H.  Bunnell, 
Works  Manager,  Watertown  Engine  Company. 
Watertown,  A'.  )'. 

Air  Compressors.  An  air  compressor  is  a 
device  used  for  compressing  air.  In  itself  air 
lacks  the  power  to  do  work  and  serves  only  as  a 
Storer  and  transmitter  of  energy.  Coal,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  a  hydro-carbon  compound,  each 
element  possessing  the  power  to  do  work  when 
burning.  To  free  the  coal  of  its  potential  en- 
ergy it  is  necessary  to  apply  sufficient  heat  to 
begin  the  operation  ,,f  burning,  and  when  once 
started  it  will  continue  to  give  off  beat  as  long 
as  sufficient  coal  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
oxygen  are  supplied.  The  burning  of  coal  and 
the  giving  up  of  energy  in  the  form  of  heat 
are  attended  by  chemical  changes,  or  changes 
in  the  state  of  matter  itself.  When  air  is  com- 
pressed it  has  the  power  to  do  work  by  expan- 
sion, and  as  air  is  expanded  the  changes  in  tin- 
condition  of  the  air  are  purely  mechanical. 
Any  device  which  reduces  the  volume  of  air 
with  a  pressure  increase  is  an  air  compressor. 
Air  compressors  are  of  two  distinct  kinds,  dry 
and  wet.  In  the  former  type  a  solid  piston 
serves  to  reduce  the  volume  of  air,  and  in  the 
latter  a  liquid,  usually  water,  is  employed. 

Dry  or  Piston  Type. —  This  is  the  common 
form  of  compressor  employed  to-day  and  is 
widely  and  extensively  used.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  solid  shell  or  cylinder  furnished  with 
suitable  valves  for  the  admission  and  discharge 
of  air,  and  a  piston  to  effect  the  desired  com- 
pression. On  one  stroke  of  the  piston,  air  is 
sucked  into  the  cylinder  through  the  inlet  valves 
and  wdien  the  piston  reaches  the  end  of  its 
stroke  these  valves  close  just  before  the  piston 
begins  the  return  stroke.  On  the  return  stroke 
the  entrapped  air  is  diminished  more  and  more 
in  volume,  with  an  increase  in  pressure  (and 
temperature,  if  compression  is  not  isothermal). 
At  a  certain  point  in  the  stroke,  when  a  pre- 
determined pressure  is  reached,  the  discharge 
valves  open  and  the  compressed  air  for  the  re- 
mainder of   the   travel   of  the  piston   is   forced 


through  the  valves  into  a  receiver.  When  all 
the  air  is  discharged  from  the  cylinder  and  the 
piston  begins  the  return  stroke,  the  discharge 
valves  close  and  the  intake  valves  again  open. 
Such  is,  in  brief,  the  operation  of  an  air  com- 
pressor. 

The  commercial  compressor,  however,  in- 
cludes many  schemes  and  modifications  to  effect 
the  greatest  compression  with  a  minimum  ex- 
penditure of  work  and  trouble.  In  the  practical 
compressor,  the  details  which  receive  special 
attention  are  main  frame,  main  hearings,  air 
cylinders,  air  heads,  air  valves,  flywheel,  main 
shaft,  crank  pins,  connecting  rod,  crosshead,  pis- 
tons, piston  rod.  oiling  system,  bearings,  foun- 
dation, accessibility,  intcrcooler,  governing  de- 
vices, method  of  drive,  etc.  For  discussions  on 
these  various  items,  reference  should  be  made 
to  text-books  on  the  subject. 

The  type  of  compressor,  whether  straight 
line  or  duplex,  single  or  compound,  steam  or 
power  driven,  depends  upon  the  requirements 
and  natural  resources.  Following,  these  points 
are  considered  in  brief: 

Straight  Line  Compressor. —  The  straight 
line  compressor  is  designed  to  take  stresses  and 
strains  in  direct  lines.  These  machines  were 
originally  evolved  to  meet  the  demands  for 
compressors  which  may  be  easily  transported  in 
mountainous  countries  for  distant  prospect  work, 
shaft  sinking  and  tunneling  operations.  Obvi- 
ously, such  service  is,  almost  without  exception, 
hard  and  continuous.  This  suggests  the  ques- 
tion of  accessibility  and  ease  in  making  repairs 
when  no  shop  facilities  are  available.  The 
straight  line  design  provides  well  for  all  these 
requirements.  Every  part  of  the  machine  is 
accessible  and  an  occasional  oiling  is  usually 
the  only  attention  that  such  a  machine  demands. 
The  machine  has  also  been  commonly  installed 
in  railroad  shops  for  signal  work  and  the  like, 
wdiere  absolute  reliability  in  the  delivery  of 
compressed  air  is  imperative.  For  quarrying 
and  also  for  general  contract  work  this  type 
finds  favor.  The  best  straight  line  machines 
are  built  on  the  lines  which  a  long  experience 
has  proved  to  be  the  best,  that  is,  power  and 
resistance  in  straight  lines,  positive  movement 
of  air  valves,  cold  intake  air.  cooling  by  a  com- 
plete surface  jacketing,  resulting  in  dry  air  and 
effective  cylinder  lubrication,  adjustable  steam 
cut-off  for  the  economical  use  of  steam,  small 
clearance  space,  automatic  speed  and  air  pres- 
sure regulation,  medium  stroke,  high  rotative 
speed,  extra  heavy  bearing  surfaces  for  crank 
pins,  shaft  and  slides,  and  automatic  lubrication. 
This  type  of  compressor  is  self-contained  and 
does   not   require   an   expensive    foundation. 

Duplex  Air  Compressors. —  The  peculiar  re- 
quirements of  air  compressing  work  are  met 
with  in  the  duplex  machine  in  a  manner  differ- 
ent from  that  in  the  other  type  just  described. 
In  compressing  air  by  means  of  a  reciprocating 
steam  engine  the  resistance  throughout  the 
stroke,  due  to  compression,  is  inversely  pro- 
portional to  the  power  in  the  steam  end,  that 
is,  at  the  beginning  of  compression  the  pressure 
is  greatest  in  the  steam  cylinder  and  diminishes 
as  the  stroke  advances,  due  to  expansion  of  the 
steam ;  while  the  air  pressure  starts  at  atmos- 
phere and   increases,  due  to  compression. 

To  equalize  resistance  and  power,  no  design 
offers   a   better    solution   than    the   duplex    type. 


AIR  COMPRESSORS 


The  respective  pistons  on  one  side  are  so  adapt- 
ed, relative  to  the  pistons  on  the  other  side, 
that  when  one  piston  is  at  the  beginning-  of  its 
stroke  the  other  is  at  the  middle  of  its  stroke, 
whereby  the  resistance  of  the  air  on  both  pis- 
tons is  practically  equalized  throughout  the 
entire   stroke. 

When  steam  is  the  driving  fluid,  the  range 
of  adaptability  of  the  duplex  compressor  admits 
of  any  combinations  of  duplex  or  compound 
steam  and  air  cylinders.  The  duplex  form  of 
construction  admits  also  of  installing  one  side, 
or  the  first  half,  as  a  compressor  complete  in 
itself  at  a  time  when  the  free-air  requirement 
is  only  one-half  of  the  ultimate  demand;  the 
other  half  may  follow  later. 

Sectional  Compressors. —  In  mountainous  re- 
gions and  in  places  inaccessible  by  good  roads, 
where  mule-back  transportation  is  the  only 
available  means  of  conveyance,  the  sectional 
compressor  is  employed.  Such  a  machine  is  so 
designed  that  no  one  section  exceeds  a  given 
weight  limit  or  proper  mule  load. 

Portable  Compressors. —  In  structural  opera- 
tions where  the  only  air  power  needed  is  for 
driving  small  machines  for  operations  of  a  light 
character  and  of  a  shifting  nature,  the  portable 
compressor  outfit  possesess  many  decided  ad- 
vantages. Drilling,  chipping  and  riveting  in 
bridge,  railroad,  trestle  and  allied  undertakings 
call  for  a  moderate  air  supply.  It  is  apparent 
that  the  seat  of  operation  is  ever  changing  and 
that  much  territory  must  be  covered  as  the  work 
progresses.  The  portable  compressor  is  espe- 
cially adapted  for  such  work.  A  portable  outfit 
is  a  complete  plant  in  itself,  having  boiler,  en- 
gine, compressor,  receiver  and  the  necessary 
appurtenances  mounted  on  one  truck.  The  plant 
may  be  drawn  by  two  or  more  horses. 

Single  and  Multiple  Stage  Compression. — 
Air  is  compressed  in  single,  two  or  more  stages, 
depending  upon  the  degrees  of  compression  re- 
quired. The  practical  limiting  pressure  to 
which  to  compress  air  economically  in  a  single 
stage  is  about  70  pounds  per  square  inch  gauge. 
Above  this  point  two,  three  or  more  stages  are 
employed.  Single  stage  compressors  were  the 
earlier  forms  of  machines  designed,  and  are 
still  extensively  used  for  purposes  not  demand- 
ing more  than  about  70  to  80  pounds  pressure. 
Such  machines  are  used  for  supplying  air  to 
drills,  pneumatic  tools  and  the  like. 

Compound  compressors  have  many  advan- 
tages over  single  stage  machines.  The  efficien- 
cy, owing  to  the  heat  of  compression,  decreases 
as  the  terminal  pressure  increases,  and  for  pres- 
sures above  70  pounds  the  water  jacket  of  the 
simple  compressor  is  not  sufficiently  effective 
for  producing  the  most  economical  results ;  and 
stage  or  compound  compression  is  resorted  to 
as  the  most  practical  and  efficient  method  for 
reducing  the  loss  due  to  the  heat  of  compres- 
sion. In  the  compound  compressor  the  cylinder 
diameters  are  so  proportioned  as  to  divide  the 
work  of  compression  equally  between  a  given 
number  of  cylinders.  All  air  cylinders  are  pro- 
vided with  water  jackets  and  are  connected  by 
intercoolcrs.  Free  air  is  admitted  to  the  low 
pressure  cylinder,  where  it  is  partially  com- 
pressed and  then  forced  into  the  intercooler. 
The  intercooler  acts  as  a  receiver  and  at  the 
same  time  removes  the  heat  of  compression  of 
the   intake   cylinder   before   the   air   is   admitted 


to  the  second  stage  cylinder.  In  the  high  pres- 
sure cylinder  (in  a  two  sta.ge  machine)  the 
process  of  compression  is  completed  and  the  air 
is  delivered  to  the  receiver  at  the  required 
terminal  pressure.  The  final  temperature  in 
each  cylinder  would  be  the  same  if  the  work 
was  divided  equally  and  the  intercooler  properly 
designed,  but  it  will  be  very  much  lower  than 
if  the  compression  were  done  in  one  cylinder. 

To  illustrate  the  difference  in  effect  between 
single,  two  or  three  stage  compression,  let  us 
take  a  specific  case.  Let  it  be  required  to  com- 
press one  cubic  foot  of  free  sea  level  air  to  200 
pounds  gauge  pressure,  assuming  the  intake  air 
to  be  60°  F.,  and  the  intercooler  process  per- 
fect ;  the  ideal  or  isothermal  compression  re- 
quires 0.1719  horse-power  to  do  the  work.  The 
actual  or  adiabatic  work  demanded  is  0.26  horse- 
power for  '  single,  0.21  horse-power  for  two 
stage,  and  0.196  horse-power  for  three  stage 
compression.  Compressing  the  air  adiabatically 
to  200  pounds  gauge  pressure  in  a  single  stage 
necessitates  a  loss  of  51.2  per  cent.  Two  and 
three  stage  compression  occasion  losses  of  22.2 
per  cent  and  14.0  per  cent  respectively.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  in  one  stage  and  at  200 
pounds  pressure  reaches  673°  F.,  while  for  two 
and  three  stage  operations  3080  F.  and  213°  F. 
are  the  maximum  temperatures.  The  excessive 
loss  in  work  and  the  extreme  temperature 
reached  in  single  compression  for  so  high  a  ter- 
minal pressure  demand  the  employment  of  a 
compound  two  or  three  stage  compressor.  As 
mentioned  above,  for  single  stage  compression 
70  pounds  gauge  is  about  the  limiting  econom- 
ical pressure.  The  temperature  reached  in  com- 
pressing in  a  single  stage  to  70  pounds  gauge 
is  about  404°  F. 

The  principal  advantage  of  compound  com- 
pression over  simple  compression  lies  in  the 
reduction  of  the  loss  due  to  the  heat  of  com- 
pression, which  represents,  therefore,  a  saving 
in  power,  since  the  resistance  due  to  compres- 
sion is  directly  proportional  to  changes  in  tem- 
perature. 

Intercoolcrs. —  An  intercooler  is  a  device 
used  for  cooling  the  air  between  stages  in  a 
compound  compressor.  It  consists  essentially 
of  a  shell  or  casing  filled  with  nests  of  galvan- 
ized iron  or  brass  tubes  through  which  cool- 
ing water  circulates.  Baffle  plates  arc  pm- 
vided  so  that  the  air  passing  through  the  tubes 
is  so  distributed  with  reference  to  the  cooling 
surface  of  the  pipes  that  it  readily  parts  with 
its  heat  to  the  cooling  water. 

The  great  advantage  of  compounding  is 
due  very  largely  to  the  use  of  intercoolers,  and 
this  advantage  depends  upon  the  fact  that 
more  time  is  taken  to  compress  a  certain  vol- 
ume of  air,  and  that  this  air  during  the  stages 
of  compression  is  brought  in  contact  with  an 
efficient  cooler.  A  properly  designed  inter- 
cooler should  reduce  the  temperature  of  tin- 
air  back  to  the  original  point,  that  is.  to  the 
temperature  of  the  intake  air.  and  even  lower 
if  the  water  is  cold  enough.  The  tubes  of  the 
intercooler  should  be  placed  close  enough  to- 
gether that  the  air  when  passing  through  must 
be  split  up  into  thin  sheets.  These  devices 
are  naturally  expensive,  but  first  cost  is  of 
small  moment  when  compared  with  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  compressor  and  its  effect  upon 
the  coal   and   water   consumed. 


AIR  COMPRESSORS 

Steam  Driven  Compressors. —  The  air  com-  tween   the  cylinders   and   counterbalancing   im- 

pn  tsors  in  operation  to-day  are  largely  of  the  pulses.    These   machines   arc  made  with   either 

steam   driven   variety,   1'i'tli   cf   the   straight   line  simple   or   compound   air   cylinders,   the    former 

and    duplex    types.     The    duplex    steam    driven  being   used    for    sand   blast    work    and    the   like, 

machine   represents    probably    the   best    form   of  where  the  pressure  in  no  case  exceeds  the  eco- 

compressor  for  plants  of  large  size  and  perma-  nomical   limit  of  70  pounds.     Above  this  press- 

nent    character.     As    the    economy    of    a    com-  tire    compound   cylinders  are   employed   and   are 

pressor   is    to   a    large    extent    dependent    upon  provided   with   a  suitable  intercooler  to  remove 

the    efficiency    and    economy    of    the    engine    to  the  beat  of  compression  as  the  air  passes  from 

which    it    is    attached,    this    part   of   the    machine  the  low  to  the  high   pressure  cylinder.     The  air 

has    received     special     attention    and    has    been  cylinders    are    water    jacketed,    that    the    valves 

developed  to  the  highest   point.     Three  methods  and    moving   parts   may   be    kept   cool   to  assist 

of    controlling    steam    admission    to    the    steam  the  machine  in  its  proper  performance, 
cylinders   are   through    slide    valves,    Meyer   ad-  The      modern      power      driven      compressor 

justable     cut-off     valves,     and     Corliss     valves,  driven    by    gears,   by   a    silent   chain,   or   direct 

The  slide  valves  arc  used  only  on  machines  of  connected    to   an   electric   motor   or   gas   engine, 

comparatively     small     capacity     and     moderate  operates    with    efficiency     and     reliability.     The 

cost,    the     Meyer    on    larger    and    more    costly  belt  driven  compressor  may  be  run  from  a  coun- 

compressors,    and    the    Corliss    valves    on    the  tcrshaft    or     from     an     electric     motor,     oil     or 

largest  ami  most   economical   machines.  gasoline    engine.     The   gear    driven    compressor 

Simple  and  Compound  Strum  Cylinders. —  is  especially  convenient  for  connecting  to  an 
Simple  steam  cylinders  are  used  in  installa-  electric  motor.  The  chain  driven  compressor 
tions  where  the  matter  of  economy  in  steam  is  built  for  connection  with  any  kind  of  motor, 
consumption  is  not  paramount.  Such  cylin-  Its  construction  admits  of  a  minimum  dis- 
ders  are  used  for  steam  not  over  a  pressure  tance  between  motor  and  compressor  shaft,  so 
of  about  75  or  80  pounds.  In  machines  dc-  that  the  least  possible  space  is  taken  up  by  the 
manding  the  greatest  economy  and  where  the  complete  machine.  The  power  used  for  run- 
steam  pressure  is  high,  compound  machines  are  ning  the  belt  machine,  of  course,  depends  upon 
resorted  to.  Steam  is  admitted  first  into  the  conditions.  Where  there  is  an  existing  line 
high  pressure  cylinder  where  it  expands  and  shaft  driven  by  a  shop  engine  with  surplus 
dries  work ;  it  is  then  exhausted  into  a  steam  power,  the  best  method  of  drive  would  prob- 
receivcr  and  thence  into  the  second  cylinder  ably  be  a  belt,  or  if  the  cramped  floor  space 
for   further  work.  prevents  adequate  belt  centres  a  rope  drive  may 

Power  Driven  Compressors. —  The  usual  be  preferable,  the  driving  wheel  of  the  corn- 
conditions  under  which  an  air  compressor  is  pressor  being  grooved  instead  of  crowned, 
installed  are  such  as  to  favor  one  that  is  driven  Again  where  water  power  is  available  a  water 
independently  of  any  other  machinery.  Still  motor  may  be  used,  the  conditions  of  head  and 
there  are  many  cases  where  the  independent  quantity  of  water  determining  the  speed  and 
steam  actuated  compressor  is  replaced  to  ad-  thus  regulating  the  use  of  a  belt,  chain  or  di- 
vantage  with  a  machine  driven  from  some  out-  rect  connection.  Where  the  line  shafts  are  not 
si.lr  source  of  power.  For  instance,  from  a  available,  the  compressor  may  be  operated  to 
line  shaft  by  gearing,  belt,  chain  or  ropes,  from  advantage  from  either  a  gas  engine  or  an  elec- 
an  electric  motor,  from  a  gas  or  oil  engine  or  trie  motor.  The  selection  of  either  one  or  the 
from  an  impulse,  turbine  or  other  water  wheel,  other  of  these  types  of  machines  depends  upon 
In  some  of  these  compressors  the  driving  pul-  the  availability  of  either  gas  or  electrical 
ley   or   water   wheel    is  on   the  main    shaft   and  energy. 

in  others  a  countershaft  is  used  to  advantage,  Wei  or  Hydraulic  Types  of  Compressors. — 
the  ratio  given  frequently  being  two  to  one.  There  are  three  distinct  varieties  of  wet  com- 
but  generally  decided  by  the  peculiarities  of  pressors:  First,  where  power  is  generated  by 
each  separate  case.  When  sufficient  water  the  falling  of  water;  second,  where  the  power 
power  is  available  within  several  miles  of  the  is  mechanical,  ultimately  driving  a  water  pis- 
plant  where  power  is  used,  this  energy  may  be  ton;  third,  the  type  in  which  cooling  water  is 
utilized  for  compressing  air  to  be  piped  to  the  injected  directly  into  the  cylinder. 
works  and  there  used  with  great  success  and  The  first  is  used  where  there  is  an  abun- 
economy  for  pumping,  hoisting,  drilling  and  dant  water  fall  and  where  a  high  efficiency  is 
many  other  purposes.  In  some  few  cases  power  not  required.  The  second  has  the  advantage 
may  be  converted  into  electrical  energy  to  ad-  of  eliminating  entirely  the  undesirable  clear- 
vantage,  the  current  so  generated  being  used  ance,  as  the  water  used  in  this  instance  fills  all 
for  driving  a  number  of  compressors  located  the  dead  space  not  reached  by  a  solid  piston, 
close  to  the  seat  of  operations  for  driving  pneu-  Piston  speed  is  of  necessity  limited  to  a  low 
matic   machinery.  rate  due  to  the  mass  of  water  to  be  moved.     As 

Pow-er-driven  compressors  may  be  of  the  a  result,  if  a  large  quantity  of  compressed  air 
simple  straight  line  type  or  of  duplex  construe-  is  required  a  multiplicity  of  compressors  must 
tion,  furnished  with  single  or  double  acting  cyl-  be  used.  The  third  is  desirable  from  the  point 
inders.  The  simple  straight  line  form  may  be  of  excellent  cooling,  but  as  the  fluid  used  is  a 
used  where  the  demand  for  air  is  light.  This  poor  lubricant,  proper  lubrication  is  interfered 
machine  has  the  same  advantage  as  the  steam-  with  which  results  in  a  loss  of  power  and  in- 
driven  straight  line  machine,  in  that  it  takes  creased  wear.  This  variety  also  has  the  de- 
up  stresses  and  strains  in  direct  lines.  Duplex  cided  disadvantage  of  causing  compressed  air 
machines  are  largely  for  service  where  the  de-  to  become  very  moist,  and  unless  reheating  is 
mrnd  for  air  is  considerable.  Such  machines  resorted  to  before  the  air  is  applied  to  useful 
have  the  advantage  of  relieving  many  of  the  purposes  it  will  cause  difficulty  in  cold  weather 
excessive  strains  to  which  the  compressor  may  due  to  freezing.  For  a  more  detailed  descrip- 
be  subjected  by  dividing  the  work  equally  be-  tion    of   hydraulic    compressors,    reference    will 


AIRD  — AIR-PUMP 


be  made  to  literature  on  the  subject.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  hydraulic  compressor  is 
rarely  used,  as  it  is  largely  impracticable  due  to 
lack  of  efficiency  and  mainly  on  account  of  its 
cumberousness. 

Air  Distribution  or  Transmission. —  After 
the  air  is  compressed  it  must  be  properly  stored 
and  conveyed  and  applied  to  secure  all  the  bene- 
fits. For  this  purpose  the  aftercooler  is  im- 
portant as  it  serves  to  reduce  the  temperature 
of  the  air  after  the  final  compression,  and  in 
doing  this  it  serves  as  a  drier,  reducing  the 
temperature  to  the  dew  point,  thus  precipitat- 
ing moisture  before  the  air  is  started  on  its 
journey.  Other  important  appliances  in  distri- 
bution are  receivers,  which  serve  the  purpose 
of  reservoir,  watertrap  and  rectifier;  pipe  lines, 
for  transmitting  compressed  air  from  the  com- 
pressor to  the  points  of  application,  and  re- 
heaters,  for  heating  the  air  close  to  the  point 
of  admission  to  the  motor. 

Application  of  Compressed  Air. —  At  the 
present  time  compressed  air  is  used  in  almost 
every  art  known  to  man.  Its  safety,  the  ease 
with  which  it  is  transported,  its  simplicity,  its 
applicability  to  common  engines  and  its  use  for 
many  different  purposes,  its  economy  and  the 
great  service  it  renders  in  ventilation  and  cool- 
ing are  reasons  why  compressed  air  is  used  so 
extensively.  Some  of  the  more  important  ap- 
plications of  compressed  air  are  for  ventilation 
and  heating,  air  motors,  rock  drills,  quarrying 
machines,  pumps,  pneumatic  haulage,  pneumatic 
dispatch  tubes,  pneumatic  tools,  air  jacks,  air 
hoists,  air  cleaning,  etc.  See  Compressed  Air; 
Pumps,  Compressed  Air. 

Edward  F.   Schaefer,  M.M.E., 
Ingersoll-Rand   Company,  New   York. 

Aird,  Thomas,  a  Scotch  poet  who  has 
won  praise  from  high  critics,  but  little  popular 
acceptance:  b.  Roxburghshire,  1802;  d.  25  April 
1876.  He  studied  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  formed  a  lifelong  intimacy  with 
Carlyle;  contributed  to  'Blackwood's,'  and  won 
the  warm  good  will  of  Wilson ;  edited  the 
Weekly  Journal  18.32-5,  and  the  Dumfriesshire 
and  Galloway  Herald  (Dumfries)  1835-64.  He 
published  'Religious  Characteristics.'  prose  es- 
says (1827)  ;  'The  Captive  of  Fez,'  narrative 
poem  (1830);  a  character  story,  'The  Old 
Bachelor  in  the  Scottish  Village'  (1845),  verv 
popular  at  the  time;  etc.  But  he  is  best  (or  at 
all)    remembered  now   for  his   'Devil's   Dream.' 

Airdrie,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
burgh,  Scotland,  in  Lanarkshire,  11  m.  E.  of 
Glasgow.  It  depends  chiefly  on  the  collieries 
and  iron-works  in  its  vicinity,  but  has  also  a 
large  cotton-mill  and  factory,  several  extensive 
foundries  and  machine-shops,  tube-works,  and 
a  number  of  hand-loom  weavers.  Pop.  (1901) 
22,288. 

Air-drill,  a  rock  drill  or  other  form  of 
drill  actuated  by  compressed  air. 

Airedale  Dog.     See  Terrier. 

Air-engine,  an  engine  in  which  air  is  the 
working  body.  Such  an  engine  may  be  operated 
by  air  previously  raised  to  a  high  pressure  by  a 
compressor,  as  in  the  storage  and  transmission 
of  power  by  compressed  air;  or  it  may  derive  its 
power  directly  from  the  burning  of  fuel.  In  the 
latter  case   it   is   often   called   a   hot-air   engine. 


( For  the  elementary  theory  of  the  hot-air  en- 
gine, see  Thermodynamics.) 

Aire-sur-la-Lys,  ar -sur-la-le,  a  town  of 
France,  dept.  Pas-de-Calais,  10  m.  S.E.  of  St. 
Omer.  It  stands  at  the  junction  of  the  Lys  with 
the  Laquette,  on  a  low  marshy  site,  but  is  well 
built,  and  possesses  several  beautiful  fountains, 
a  handsome  Gothic  church,  and  barracks  for 
6,000  men.  Its  trade  is  chiefly  in  linens,  fus- 
tians, hats,  thread,  starch,  soap,  Dutch  tiles, 
osier  work,  and  grain.     Top.    (1902)   8,500. 

Air-gas,  an  inflammable  gas  produced  by 
charging  air  with  the  vapors  of  naphtha,  gas- 
oline, or  some  similar  volatile  hydrocarbon. 

Air-gate,  in  foundry  work,  an  opening  left 
in  the  mold  for  the  escape  of  air  and  other 
gases  as  the  molten  metal  enters. 

Air-gun,  an  instrument  for  the  projection 
of  bullets  by  means  of  condensed  air,  generally 
either  in  the  form  of  an  ordinary  gun  or  of  a 
pretty  stout  walking-stick,  and  about  the  same 
length.     See   Ordnance;   Zalinski. 

Air-hole  (or  blow-hole),  a  fault  in  a  cast- 
ing, due  to  the  presence  of  a  bubble  of  air  or 
other  gas. 

Air-lock,  an  air-tight  chamber  used  in 
tunneling,  when  the  tunnel  has  to  be  kept 
filled  with  compressed  air  to  prevent  the  en- 
trance of  water.  The  air-lock  communicates 
with  the  tunnel  by  one  door,  and  with  the  out- 
side air  by  another.  It  serves  the  double  pur- 
pose of  permitting  the  workmen  to  enter  and 
leave  the  tunnel  without  undue  loss  of  air,  and 
of  partially  mitigating  the  physiological  effects 
of  a  too  sudden  transition  from  the  high  pres- 
sure in  the  tunnel  to  the  lower  pressure  out- 
side. 

Air-plant,  a  popular  name  for  plants  that 
live  upon  the  trunks  of  trees  and  obtain  their 
nourishment  from  air  and  rain  but  not  from  the 
plants    upon  which   they   grow.     See   Epiphyte. 

Air-pump,  a  machine  invented  by  Otto 
von  Guericke  about  1652,  by  means  of  which  air 
or  other  gas  may  be  removed  from  an  enclosed 
space ;  or  a  machine  for  compressing  air  within 
an  enclosed  space :  the  latter  type  is  usually 
known,  however,  as  an  air-compressor  (q.v.). 
An  ordinary  suction-pump  for  water  is  a  rough 
kind  of  air-pump;  indeed,  before  water  reaches 
the  top  of  the  pipe  the  air  has  been  pumped  out 
by  the  same  machinery  which  pumps  the  water. 
An  ordinary  suction-pump  consists  essentially 
of  a  cylinder  or  barrel  having  a  valve  opening 
from  the  pipe  through  winch  water  is  to 
rise,  and  a  valve  opening  into  the  out- 
let pipe,  and  a  piston  fitted  to  work 
in  the  cylinder  (the  outlet  valve  may  be  in  the 
piston).  (See  Pump.  )  The  arrangement  of 
parts  in  an  air-pump  is  quite  similar.  The  bar- 
rel of  an  air-pump  fills  with  the  air  which  ex- 
pands from  the  receiver  (that  i>-  the  vessel  from 
which  the  air  is  being  pumped),  and  consequent- 
ly the  quantity  of  air  expelled  at  each  stroke  i- 
lcss  as  the  exhaustion  proceeds.  Suppose  that 
the  receiver  or  vessel  to  be  exhausted  is  exactly 
as  large  as  the  barrel ;  by  the  first  stroke  there 
is  just  half  the  air  removed,  by  the  second  there 
is  one  fourth,  by  the  third  there  is  an  eighth, 
and  so  on.  Suppose  the  barrel  is  one  third 
of  the   receiver   as   to   volume.     On   raising  the 


AIRSHIP  — AIVALI 


piston  the  air  which  filled  the  receiver  now  fills 
both  barrel  and  receiver,  so  that  one  fourth  is 
removed  at  the  first  stroke,  one  fourth  of  the 
remaining  three  fourths  is  removed  at  the  sec- 
ond stroke  —  that  is,  three  sixteenths,  and  one 
fourth  of  nine  sixteenths  at  the  third  stroke; 
the  quantity  removed  at  each  stroke  forming  a 
series  of  $,  ft,  A,  Jjs,  etc.;  that  is,  the  total 
quantity  removed  is  \  (l  +  H-(i)2+(|)3  + 
etc).  At  each  stroke  we  add  a  term  to 
this  series,  and  consequently  the  quantity 
removed  by  each  stroke  becomes  smaller  and 
smaller.  There  are  also  air-pumps  for  compress- 
ing air  —  the  reverse  operation  from  exhausting 
air  —  and  a  compressing  pump  may  be  consid- 
ered as  one  of  the  cylinder  pumps  above  de- 
scribed, hut  having  the  receiver  connected  with 
the  escape  valve.  There  is  not  so  much  nicety 
required  in  compressing  pumps  as  with  exhaust- 
ing pumps.  It  may  be  observed  that  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  stroke  the  effective  pressure 
against  the  piston  is,  we  may  say,  o.  and  when  it 
has  got  to  that  position  where  the  valve  opens 
toward  the  receiver  the  effective  pressure  is  that 
of  the  air  in  the  receiver.  It  will  be  seen  that 
when  the  pressure  in  the  receiver  is  considerable 
the  variation  of  pressure  during  the  stroke  is 
very  great.  It  is  on  this  account  that  compres- 
sion-pumps are  sometimes  used  in  which  a  set 
of  cylinders  have  their  pistons  worked  by  a  num- 
ber of  cranks  differently  set  on  the  same  shaft, 
which  shaft  also  carries  a  fly-wheel.  There  is 
seme  difficulty  in  compressing  air  considerably, 
from  the  heating  of  the  pistons  and  cylinders, 
when  the  operation  is  rapidly  proceeded  with. 
Air  may  be  compressed  by  sending  water  at 
pressure  into  an  air-tight  chamber  containing  air. 
Many  interesting  experiments  may  be  made 
with  the  air-pump.  If  an  animal  is  placed  be- 
neath the  receiver,  and  the  air  exhausted,  it  dies 
almost  immediately ;  a  lighted  candle  under  the 
exhausted  receiver  immediately  goes  out.  Air  is 
thus  shown  to  be  necessary  to  animal  life  and  to 
combustion.  A  bell,  suspended  from  a  silken 
thread  beneath  the  exhausted  receiver,  on  being 
struck  cannot  be  heard.  If  the  bell  be  in  one 
receiver  from  which  the  air  is  not  exhausted, 
but  which  is  within  an  exhausted  receiver, 
it  still  cannot  be  heard.  Air  is  there- 
fore necessary  to  the  production  and  to  the 
propagation  of  sound.  For  the  mercury  pumps 
that  are  used  in  exhausting  incandescent  electric 
lamp  bulbs,  see  Vacuum. 

Airship.     See    Aerial    Locomotion;    Bal- 
;  Flying  Machine. 

Air-thermometer,  a  thermometer  in  which 
temperature  is  measured  by  determining  the 
change  of  volume  of  a  mass  of  air  that  is 
kept  at  constant  pressure,  or  the  change  of 
pressure  of  a  mass  that  is  kept  at  constant  vol- 
ume.   See  Thermometry. 

Air-trap,  in  steam  and  hydraulic  engi- 
neering, a  place  where  air  can  accumulate  in  a 
line  of  piping;  as  at  the  highest  point  of  a  line 
of  water  pipe.  Air-cocks  are  placed  at  these 
points  to  permit  of  the  removal  of  the  accumu- 
lated air.     (Also  called  air-bond.) 

Airy,  Sir  George  Biddell,  an  English  as- 
tronomer-nival :  b.  Alnwick  z~  July  1801  ;  d.  2  Jan. 
1892,  in  Greenwich.  He  was  graduated  at 
Trinity    College    in    1823.     In    1826   he   was   ap- 


pointed Lucasian  professor  of  mathematics  at 
Cambridge,  a  chair  once  held  by  Newton,  and  he 
was  the  first  actual  director  of  the  Cambridge 
Observatory,  holding  in  connection  with  this 
post  the  Plumian  professorship  of  astronomy. 
In  1835  he  succeeded  Fond  as  director  of  the 
Greenwich  Observatory,  and  retained  this  office 
till  1881,  when  he  retired  on  a  pension.  He  in- 
itiated at  Greenwich  the  plan  of  immediately  and 
completely  reducing  observations;  introduced  the 
regular  observation  of  magnetic  phenomena,  and 
of  sun-spots  by  photography  ;  invented  new  in- 
struments for  lunar  observations;  and  arranged 
the  British  observations  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
of  the  transit  of  Venus  in  [874.  I  lis  chief  works 
were  '  Mathematical  Tracts  >  (1826);  (Ipswich 
Lectures  on  Astronomy)  (1849);  <  Undulatory 
Theory  of  Optics'  (1866)  ;  (Treatise  of  Sound') 
(1869);  and  <  Treatise  on  Magnetism  >    (1870;. 

Aisle,  in  architecture,  one  of  the  lateral  and 
usually  lower  divisions  of  a  building  which  is 
divided  lengthwise,  as  bj  rows  of  columns  or 
piers,  so  that  the  roof  is  supported  while  still 
the  interior  is  one  large  hall  broken  only  by  the 
uprights.  The  basilicas  of  the  Romans  were 
built  in  that  way,  as  had  been  the  small  inte- 
riors of  many  Grecian  temples;  and  when  the 
first  Christian  churches  were  built  in  Italy  and 
in  the  East,  this  "ha.-ihean"  form  rivaled  the 
round  or  polygonal  plan  and  the  plan  of  the 
Greek  cross  in  popularity.  At  a  later  time 
Christian  churches  were  nearly  always  built 
with  aisles  and  a  higher  central  part  called 
usually  the  Nave.  Most  churches  have  an  aisle 
on  either  side  of  the  nave,  and  are  called  "three- 
aisled"  churches,  but  there  are  a  few  with  five, 
and  the  famous  Cathedral  of  Antwerp  in  Bel- 
gium has  seven  aisles,  being  almost  alone  in  this 
respect.  It  is  a  mistake  to  count  an  outer  row 
of  chapels  as  another  aisle. 

By  extension  the  term  covers  such  a  long 
and  narrow  compartment  of  a  building  as  is 
found  in  one  of  the  great  mo  ipies  of  Cairo, 
Cordova,  and  Damascus.  These  buildings  have 
generally  fiat  roofs  intended  always  to  be  of 
masonry,  and  that  structure  is  carried  by  a 
great  number  of  parallel  rows  of  columns.  The 
resulting  "aisles"  are,  of  course,  of  the  same 
height.  In  the  mosque  of  Cordova  there  are 
17  such  aisles  left  open,  besides  two  outer  ones 
which  are  largely  enclosed  for  chapels :  all  the 
aisles  opening  by  doors  or  windows  upon  a  large 
court. 

Aitkin,  Robert,  printer  and  publisher:  b. 
Dalkeith,  Scotland,  1734;  d.  Philadelphia,  July 
1802.  Emigrated  to  America,  1769;  settled  in 
Philadelphia  as  a  bookseller,  becoming  later  a 
bookbinder  and  publisher  as  well.  He  pub- 
lished the  'Pennsylvania  Magazine'  (1775- 
6),  and  printed  numerous  documents  and  state 
papers  for  the  Continental  Congress,  among 
them  the  <  Journals  of  Congress  >  from  5  Sept. 
1774  to  1  Jan.  1776  (Phila.  1777-80).  At  his 
own  expense  he  published  in  1782  the  first  Eng- 
lish Bible  printed  in  America.  This  is  now  the 
rarest  of  all  early  Bibles  printed  in  America, 
not  more  than  25  copies  being  known  to  exist 
In  1777  Aitkin  was  imprisoned  for  his  attach- 
ment to  the  cause  of  independence. 

Aivali,  .\i-va'li,  or  Kidonia,  ki-do-ni'a 
Cthe  ancient  Heracleid),  a  town  of  Asiatic  Tur- 
key, on  the  western  promontory  of  the  Gulf  of 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  —  AJALON 


Adramyti,  66  miles  northwest  of  Smyrna.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century  it  was  a 
place  of  considerable  note,  but  in  June  1821, 
during  a  contest  between  the  Greeks  and  Turks, 
it  was  set  on  fire  by  the  latter  and  reduced  to 
ashes.  It  has  again  revived,  however,  and 
(1902)  possesses  a  population  of  35,000.  The 
olive  is  extensively  cultivated  in  the  district, 
and  much  oil  and  soap  manufactured. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  ass,  or  ax-la-sha-peT  (Ger- 
man, Aachen;  Latin,  Chntas  Aquensis,  Aquis- 
granum),  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name 
in  the  Prussian  province  of  the  Rhine,  38  miles 
W.  by  S.  of  Cologne.  It  is  a  well-built  town, 
pleasantly  situated  in  a  fine  vale  watered  by  the 
Wurm,  and  surrounded  by  the  Venn  Hills.  It 
was  formerly  surrounded  by  ramparts,  but  these 
have  been  converted  into  pleasant  promenades. 
The  town-house  (built  in  1353  on  the  ruins  of 
Charlemagne's  palace)  contains  the  coronation 
room  with  portraits  of  the  German  emperors, 
half-sized  portraits  of  Napoleon  and  the  Em- 
press Josephine,  painted  by  David,  and  many 
relics  of  old  German  art.  The  nave  of  the  cathe- 
dral, erected  by  Charlemagne  as  a  palace  chapel 
between  796  and  804,  was  rebuilt  on  the  old 
model  by  Otho  III.  in  983,  after  having  been  al- 
most destroyed  by  the  Normans.  It  consists  of 
an  octagon,  surrounded  by  a  16-sided  gallery, 
and  terminating  in  a  cupola.  The  Gothic  choir 
was  begun  in  1353  and  finished  in  1413 ;  it  is  of 
prodigious  height  (114  feet)  and  lightness,  and 
the  large  windows  are  filled  with  stained  glass. 
Besides  the  tomb  of  Charlemagne,  the  cathedral 
contains  many  relics,  the  most  sacred  of  which 
—  such  as  the  robes  worn  by  the  Virgin  at  the 
Nativity,  the  swaddling-clothes  of  the  infant 
Jesus,  the  scarf  he  wore  at  the  crucifixion,  etc. — 
are  shown  only  once  in  seven  years,  and  attract 
many  thousands  of  pilgrims  from  all  countries. 
As  the  chief  station  of  the  Belgo-Rhenish  Rail- 
way, which  connects  it  with  Antwerp,  Ostend, 
and  Cologne,  Aix-la-Chapelle  affords  an  exten- 
sive mart  to  the  commerce  of  Prussia ;  it  is  also 
a  grain  market  for  Belgium,  and  the  seat  of  com- 
mercial and  other  courts.  It  was  eminent  as  a 
manufacturing  city,  especially  of  cloth  and 
needles,  as  early  as  the  12th  century ;  and  its 
prosperity  in  this  respect  still  continues.  Its 
woolen  cloths  are  highly  esteemed  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  and  are  also  exported  to  Amer- 
ica, China,  etc.  All  trading  countries,  including 
the  United  States,  have  consulates  in  the  city. 
It  is  estimated  that  over  30  per  cent  of  the  in- 
habitants are  employed  in  the  manufactures  of 
the  city.  Although  Aix-la-Chapelle  is  an  exten- 
sive seat  of  manufactures  and  has  considerable 
commercial  relations,  it  derives  its  celebrity 
chiefly  from  its  historical  associations,  and  a 
considerable  portion  of  its  importance  and  pros- 
perity from  the  influx  of  visitors  to  its  baths. 
There  are  in  all  eight  mineral  springs  here,  six 
of  them  warm.  The  most  famous  is  the  Im- 
perial Spring  or  Kaiser -quelle ;  which  has  a  tem- 
perature of  1430  F.,  and  the  vapor  of  which, 
when  confined,  deposits  sulphur.  For  the  ac- 
commodation of  strangers  there  are  a  number 
of  bathing-houses.  The  rooms  for  bathing  are 
excellently  fitted  up.  with  baths  from  4  to  5  feet 
deep,  built  in  massive  stone  and  in  the  old  Ro- 
man style.  _  About  a  half  mile  north  of  the  city 
is  the  Louisberg  or  Lousberg,  rising  nearly  300 
feet  higher  than  the  city.  It  is  a  favorite  sum- 
mer evening  resort  of  the  citizens. 

Vol.  1— 14 


Aix-la-Chapelle  was  known  to  the  Romans 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Caesar,  and  is  mentioned 
by  Pliny  under  the  name  of  Vetera.  It  was, 
after  768,  the  favorite  residence  of  Charle- 
magne, who  made  it  the  capital  of  all  his  do- 
minions north  of  the  Alps  and  spared  no 
expense  in  beautifying  it.  Here  he  died  in  814, 
and  in  the  cathedral  his  tomb  is  marked  by  a 
large  flat  slab  with  the  inscription  Carolo 
Magno.  During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  a  free 
imperial  city,  and  its  citizens  throughout  the 
empire  were  exempt  from  feudal  service,  from 
attachment  of  their  goods  and  persons,  and  from 
all  tolls  and  taxes.  Thirty-seven  German  em- 
perors and  eleven  empresses  have  been  crowned 
in  this  city,  and  the  imperial  insignia  were  pre- 
served here  till  1795,  when  they  were  carried  to 
Vienna,  and  are  now  in  the  imperial  treasury. 
By  the  peace  of  Luneville  (9  Feb.  1801),  which 
separated  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine  from  Ger- 
many, the  city  was  transferred  to  France,  in 
whose  possession  it  remained  till  1S14,  when  it 
was  restored  to  Prussia.    Pop.  (1900)  135,221. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  Congress  of,  an  impor- 
tant congress  held  in  October  and  November 
1818.  By  this  congress  the  army  of  the  allies, 
consisting  of  150,000  British,  Russian,  Austrian, 
Prussian,  and  other  troops,  which,  since  the 
second  peace  at  Paris,  had  remained  in  France 
to  watch  over  its  tranquillity,  was  withdrawn 
after  France  had  paid  the  contribution  imposed 
at  the  peace  of  1815.  Thus  the  Congress  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  restored  independence  to  France. 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  Treaties  of  Peace  con- 
cluded at.  The  first,  2  May  1668,  put  an 
end  to  the  war  carried  on  against  Spain  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1667,  after  the  death  of  his  father- 
in-law,  Philip  IV.,  in  support  of  his  claims  to  a 
great  part  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  which 
he  urged  in  the  name  of  his  queen,  the  Infanta 
Maria  Theresa,  pleading  the  jus  devolutionis 
prevailing  among  private  persons  in  Brabant 
and  Namur.  The  second  peace  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, 18  Oct.  1748,  terminated  the  Austrian  War 
of  Succession  in  which  the  parties  were  at  first 
Louis  XV.  of  France  and  the  Empress  Maria 
Theresa,  and,  in  the  sequel,  Spain  on  the  one 
side,  and  Great  Britain,  Maria  Theresa,  and 
Charles  Emmanuel,  king  of  Sardinia,  on  the  other. 

Ajaccio,  a-ya'cho,  or  Ajazzo,  ii-yat'zo, 
France,  capital  of  the  department  and  island 
of  Corsica,  on  its  southwest  coast,  on  a 
tongue  of  land  projecting  into  the  Gulf  of  Ajac- 
cio. It  is  sheltered  by  mountains  from  the 
north  and  east  winds ;  and  the  town  and  bay  are 
defended  by  a  citadel.  The  entrance  into  the 
harbor  is  rendered  unsafe  by  projecting  rocks. 
Ajaccio  :  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon; the  house 
in  which  he  was  born  is  still  in  a  state  of  good 
preservation,  and  has  become  the  property  of  the 
nation.  It  is  the  handsomest  city  of  Corsica 
and  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  It  contains  a  cathe- 
dral, a  communal  college,  a  public  library,  a 
botanical  garden,  etc.  In  the  commercial  world 
it  is  famous  for  its  coral  and  sardine  fisheries, 
and  it  has  also  a  trade  in  wine,  grain,  olive-oil, 
and   fruits.     Pop.    (1902)    20,200. 

Ajalon,  said  to  be  the  modern  Yalo.  a 
village  14  miles  west-northwesf  of  Jerusalem, 
was  the  town  rendered  memorable  by  Joshua's 
victory  over  the  five  Canaanitish  kings,  and  still 
more  so  by  the  extraordinary  circumstance  of 
the  miraculously  lengthened  day. 


AJ  AX  — ALABAMA 


A'jax  (Greek,  Aias),  the  name  of  two  of  the 
Grecian  chiefs  who  fought  against  Troy,  distin- 
guished as  Ajax  Oileus  and  Ajax  Telamonius. 
The  former,  the  son  of  Oileus  and  Etiopas, 
a  Locrian,  was  called  the  Less.  When  the 
Greeks  had  entered  Troy,  Cassandra  lied  to 
the  temple  of  Pallas,  whence  she  was 
forced  and  dragged  along,  hound  as  a  cap- 
tive. Some  accounts  add  that  he  violated  the 
prophetess  in  the  temple  of  the  goddess. 
Ulysses  accused  him  of  this  crime,  when 
he  exculpated  himself  with  an  oath.  But 
tlu-  anger  of  the  goddess  at  last  overtook  him, 
and  he  perished  in  the  waves  of  the  sea.  The 
other  Ajax  was  the  son  of  Telamon,  from  Sa- 
lamis,  and  a  grandson  of  rEacus.  He  understood 
not  how  to  speak,  but  how  to  act.  After  the 
death  of  Achilles,  when  his  arms,  which  Ajax 
claimed  on  account  of  his  courage  and  relation- 
ship, were  awarded  to  Ulysses,  he  was  filled 
with  rage,  and,  driven  to  frenzy,  threw  himself 
on  his  sword,  after  having  slaughtered  the  sheep 
of  the  Greek  army,  which  he  fancied  were  his 
enemies. 

Akron,  Ohio,  city  and  county-seat  of  Sum- 
mit County,  is  situated  in  a  range  of  hills  over- 
looking the   Little   Cuyahoga   River.     The  Ohio 
Canal    here    mounts   to   the   watershed    between 
Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  River  by  a  series  of  21 
locks.     It  is  31  miles  southeast  of  Cleveland  and 
98  miles  northeast  of  Columbus.     Railroads  cen- 
tring here  are  the  Baltimore  &  O.,  Pennsylvania, 
Erie,  Cleveland,  A.  &  C,  Pittsburg  &  W.,  North- 
ern O.,  and  Valley.    The  town  was  settled  about 
1818,  but  its  growth  dates  from  the  location  of 
the  Ohio  Canal  in  1825,  the  surplus  water  used 
in  lockage,  furnished  by  a  system  of  reservoirs 
on  the  Summit  level,  making  the  power  for  large 
flouring  mills  then  located  here.     It  was  incor- 
porated as  a  village  in   1836,  and  as  a  city  in 
1871.     Its  location  is  advantageous  for  a  diver- 
sified   industry,   being   in   the   northern   edge   of 
the  grain  belt,  and  on  the  southern  border  of  the 
dairy  section  of  the  State,  and  beds  of  fire-clay 
and  coal   fields  being  close  by.     It  is  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  rubber  manufactories  for  the  Mid- 
dle West,  the  yearly  output  of  these  industries 
alone  being  $10,500,000,  of  which  the  B.  F.  Good- 
rich  company   furnishes   about   $6,000,000.     The 
number   of   rubber   workers    employed   is   about 
S,ooo,  and  the  amount  paid  to  them  in  wages  is 
over  $2,300,000  in  the  year.     The  printing  works 
of  the   Werner  Company,  employing   1,200  per- 
sons, are  located  here.     The  city  is  also  the  seat 
of  a   large  number  of  other  manufactories,   in- 
cluding the  American  Cereal  Company,  the  Ault- 
man,    Miller    &    Company,    makers    of    Buckeye 
mowers   and   reapers,   the  American  Twine  and 
.  Cordage  Company,  the  American  Clay  Company, 
the  Akron  plant  of  the  Wellman,  Seavers-Mor- 
gan  Company,  where  is  made  hoisting  and  min- 
ing   machinery,    The    McNeil    Boiler    Company, 
and   lesser  manufactories  of  various  kinds.     At 
Barberton,   the    southern   suburb   of   Akron,   are 
the  works  of  the  Diamond  Match  Company,  the 
largest  in  the  world,  O.  C.   Barber,  one  of  the 
pioneers  in  this  particular  industry  and  founder 
of    Barberton,   being   a    native   and    resident   of 
Akron.     (See    Barberton.)     In    addition   to   its 
proximity  to  the  coal  fields,  Akron  has  facilities 
for  manufacturing  in  the  way  of  fuel,  in  natural 
gas  piped  from  West  Virginia.     Under  the  mu- 
nicipal code  of  Ohio,   Akron   is   governed  by  a 
mayor,   council,   board   of  public   service,   board 


of  public  safety,  board  of  education,  and  sub- 
ordinate officers.  The  school  system  alone  in- 
volves the  annual  expenditure  of  upwards  of 
$160,000,  and  is  of  a  high  and  efficient  grade. 
Here  is  the  seat  of  Buchtel  College  (Univer- 
salist),  founded  by  John  R.  Buchtel,  the  corner- 
stone of  which  was  laid  by  Horace  Greeley  in 
1872.  The  other  principal  public  buildings  are 
Carnegie  Free  Library,  United  States  Govern- 
ment building,  Colonial  Theatre,  Grand  Opera 
House,  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  High 
School  building,  etc.  The  annual  revenue  of  the 
city  is  over  $1,000,000.  Akron  was  once  the 
home  of  John  Brown,  and  his  former  dwelling 
is  still  standing  here,  where  the  councils  of  his 
associates  in  the  abolition  cause  were  held.  It 
was  also  the  residence  of  Sidney  Edgerton,  first 
chief  justice  of  Idaho  Territory,  and  first  terri- 
torial governor  of  Montana.  Pop.  (1900)  42,- 
728,  being  a  gain  of  54.8  per  cent  since  i8go.  Tn 
1903  the  estimated  population  was  61,000. 

C.  R.  Grant, 
Attorney  at  Law,  Akron,  O. 
Alabama,  Gulf  State  of  United  States  (No. 
9  in  order  of  admission),  hounded  N.  by  Tennes- 
see, S.  by  Florida  and  Gulf  of  Mexico,  E.  by 
Georgia,  W.  by  Mississippi ;  extreme  length 
336  m.,  greatest  breadth  200  m.,  about  150  at  N. 
border;  area  (No.  27  in  U.  S.),  52,250  sq.  m., 
710  water;  pop.  1900  (No.  18  in  U.  S.),  1,828,697, 
or  35.5  to  sq.  m.  (No.  26  in  density).  Whites, 
1,001,152;   colored,  827,545. 

Topography. —  The  great  Tennessee  Valley, 
which  sweeps  into  and  out  of  the  State  across 
the  extreme  N.,  is  bordered  in  its  western  part 
by  a  region  of  fertile  terraces  ;  in  its  eastern  it 
separates  the  picturesque  Cumberland  Plateau 
on  the  N.,  a  continuation  of  Middle  Tennessee, 
from  the  declining  flat-topped  parallel  ranges  of 
the  Blue  Ridge  on  the  S.,  which  enter  the  State 
from  N.  Georgia  some  I,Coo  feet  high,  and  of 
which  the  Raccoon  Mountains  sink  to  low  hills 
called  the  Sand  Mountains  extending  to  the 
centre  of  the  State,  while  the  Lookout  Moun- 
tains end  sharply  about  60  miles  within  it.  To 
the  southwest  they  are  succeeded  by  a  low  pla- 
teau where  the  great  coal  and  iron  deposits  lie, 
to  the  southeast  by  the  same  "Piedmont"  region 
of  rolling  upland  as  in  all  the  southern  States ; 
and  both  decline  to  the  great  belt  of  level  coast- 
land  which  extends  all  around  those  States 
and  comprises  three  fifths  of  Alabama's  terri- 
tory. The  sea  line  is  short,  three  fourths  of  its 
natural  extent  being  taken  up  by  Florida  ;  and 
its  only  valuable  part  is  Mobile  Bay,  an  inlet 
36  miles  long  by  8  to  18  broad,  which  receives 
the  great  river  systems  of  the  State.  Other 
bays  are  the  Perdido,  which  with  the  rerdido 
River  divides  Alabama  from  Florida,  20  miles 
long  by  6  to  10  wide,  once  a  nesting-place  for 
pirates  and  filibusters;  the  Grand;  and  the  Bon 
Secours. 

River  Systems  (see  also  Commerce  and  Nav- 
igation, below). —  The  Mobile  system  drains  the 
greater  part  of  the  State.  The  Mobile  River, 
45  m.  long,  as  such,  and  emptying  into  the 
Mobile  Bay,  is  formed  from  the  Alabama  E. 
and  the  Tombigbee  W.,  very  crooked  alluvial 
streams.  The  Alabama  is  a  powerful  stream 
800  m.  long  from  its  farthest  sources,  but  only 
so  named  for  the  320  m.  from  the  junction  of 
the  Coosa  N.  and  Tallapoosa  E.,  just  above 
Montgomery,  the  State  capital;  the.  Coosa,  350 


ALABAMA 


m.  long  as  such,  is  formed  by  the  junction  at 
Rome,  Ga.,  of  the  Etowah  and  Oostenaula,  and 
receives  N.  the  Cahaba  or  Cahawba,  rising  in 
the  mountains  N.E.  of  Birmingham.  The  Tom- 
bigbee  is  about  500  m.  long;  it  rises  in  Missis- 
sippi, and  just  above  Demopolis,  Ala.,  receives 
a  large  tributary,  the  Black  Warrior,  some  300 
m.  long,  wholly  in  Alabama,  rising  near  the 
great  south  bend  of  the  Tennessee  at  Gunters- 
ville.  The  Tennessee,  the  Ohio's  chief  affluent, 
has  about  180  m.  of  its  course  in  Alabama,  with 
a  wholly  unrelated  drainage  system.  The  S.E. 
portion  of  the  State  is  drained  by  the  Choctaw- 
hatchie,  the  Escambia  with  the  Conecuh,  and  the 
Chattahoochee  which  divides  the  southern  half 
from  Georgia,  all  emptying  in  Florida. 

Climate. —  Alabama  ranges  in  climate  and 
products  from  the  temperate  to  the  semitropic 
regions, —  extending  from  350  to  30°  10'  N.,  or 
within  62/j  degrees  of  the  Tropic,  and  from 
mountain  to  seacoast ;  and  still  more,  from 
northern  mountain  to  southern  coast.  Parts  of 
its  cool  northeastern  section  are  noted  as  sana- 
toriums ;  the  Piedmont  region  is  entirely  salu- 
brious, and  near  the  Gulf  the  sea  winds  temper 
the  heat ;  along  the  river  bottoms  it  is  malarious. 
There  is  little  snow  or  sharp  cold  in  the  north, 
nor  extreme  heat  in  the  south ;  the  mean  tem- 
perature for  winter  is  42.9,  for  summer  83.9;  for 
the  year,  in  the  north  59.70,  in  the  south  66.60. 
The  frost  limits  at  Montgomery  are  10  October 
and  25  April.  Average  rainfall,  54  inches  in  the 
north,  63  inches  in  the  south ;  most  of  the  rain 
is  in  early  spring,  especially  in  February. 

Geology. —  All  the  Appalachian  formations 
are  found  here,  in  three  geological  divisions : 
(1)  Northern,  above  a  line  running  southeast 
from  the  northeast  corner  to  Tuscaloosa,  show- 
ing Subcarboniferous  rock  masses  and  coal 
measures;  (2)  Middle,  a  triangle  bounded  by 
above  line  and  one  from  Tuscaloosa  to  Colum- 
bus, Ga.,  having  metamorphic  and  calcareous 
rocks,  Silurian  sediments,  and  coal  measures; 
(3)  Southern,  all  below  this,  having  drift  beds 
over  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  rocks.  The  angle 
between  the  Alabama  and  Tombigbee  is  rich  in 
fossils. 

Soils,  Agriculture,  and  Forests. —  Four  terri- 
torial belts  divide  the  State  latitudinally.  Each 
belt  is  distinguished  by  a  variety  of  soils,  but  all 
soils  are  productive  of  forest  trees  and  other 
wild  growths.  Each  belt  is  watered  in  its  own 
degree.  Certain  staple  crops,  cotton,  corn,  the 
cereals,  the  legumes,  also  garden  vegetables,  or- 
chard fruits  and  berries,  flourish  in  degree  in  all 
the  belts.  The  first  is  chiefly  the  Tennessee 
Valley,  with  a  red  chalky  soil  excellent  for 
grain,  and  a  sheltered  situation  making  fruit  cul- 
ture profitable,  even  delicate  fruit  like  peaches. 
The  mountainous  districts  around  have  much 
waste  land,  compensated  by  water-power,  min- 
eral springs,  and  healing  climate;  the  low  foot- 
hills, however,  are  unsurpassed  grazing  grounds, 
and  the  long  valleys  between  the  spurs  are 
highly  fertile.  The  mineral  lands  have  generally 
a  sandy  soil,  often  with  clay  subsoil.  The  Pied- 
mont region  is  a  rolling  prairie  of  great  fertility, 
the_  metamorphic  rocks  having  crumbled  into 
varicolored  loams  with  clay  subsoil :  around  it  is 
a  forested  girdle  of  similar  loam  with  gravel  or 
sedimentary  rock  beneath:  the  cotton  belt  is  part 
of  the  famous  Southern  «  Black  Belt."  and  is  a 
slender  strip  of  black  loam  sometimes  many 
feet  deep,  of  enormous  productiveness,  extend- 


ing across  the  centre  of  the  State.  The  south- 
ern coast  land  is  sandy,  but  yields  fair  returns 
to  labor ;  much  of  it  is  occupied  by  vast 
stretches  of  yellow  pine  and  other  woods,  af- 
fording not  only  lumber,  tar,  turpentine,  resins, 
etc.,  but  much  wax  and  honey,  and  the  "  pine 
barrens B  are  broken  by  alluvial  bottoms  in 
which  rice  is  grown. 

The  chief  crop  of  the  State  is  cotton,  in 
which  Alabama  ranks  fourth  in  the  Union, — 
after  Georgia,  Mississippi,  and  Texas ;  in  1899, 
out  of  223,220  farms,  192,388  raised  cotton ;  and 
out  of  a  total  value  of  all  crops  of  $70,696,268, 
that  of  cotton  was  $42,069,677.  The  number  of 
bales  in  that  year  was  1.106,840;  in  1901,  1,103,- 
000,  from  3,447.751  acres  estimated  to  be  under 
cultivation.  Strong  efforts  have  been  made  to 
diversify  the  State's  agriculture  more,  and  not 
without  success;  but  the  system  of  renting 
farms  by  merchants  to  small  occupiers,  largely 
negroes,  who  are  supplied  with  necessaries  by 
the  merchant  on  a  crop  mortgage,  makes  it  diffi- 
cult to  effect  the  change,  as  the  cotton  is  a  less 
experimental  crop  than  new  ones,  and  the  mer- 
chant wishes  to  sell  the  occupier  other  products 
himself.  The  partial  exhaustion  of  even  the 
fertile  cotton  land,  however,  by  continuous 
planting  for  many  years,  has  awakened  much 
anxiety  for  the  agricultural  future ;  and  the 
planting  of  cow-pease,  alfalfa,  etc.,  to  enrich  the 
soil  and  feed  greater  quantities  of  stock,  has 
shown  a  considerable  advance.  Next  in  produc- 
tion to  cotton  is  Indian  corn,  which  is  raised  on 
nearly  all  farms  to  some  extent,  and  in  1899 
amounted  to  35,053,047  bushels,  with  a  value  of 
$17,082,271,  or  nearly  one  fourth  the  total  of  ->H 
crops ;  corn  and  cotton  thus  making  up  nearly 
six  sevenths  of  the  State's  crop  products.  In 
1900,  a  bad  year  for  corn,  that  crop  had  fallen 
to  some  29,300,000  bushels.  Oats  are  the  next 
heaviest  cereal  crops,  having  of  late  years 
crowded  out  wheat ;  in  1900  the  total  output  was 
4.300,000  bushels  against  916,000  bushels  of 
wheat.  A  more  valuable  crop  is  sweet  potatoes, 
of  which  in  1899  the  State  harvested  3,467.386 
bushels  valued  at  $1,687,039;  and  little  behind 
it  was  the  production  of  syrup  from  sugar  cane 
and  sorghum,  of  which  4,395,235  gallons  were 
made  in  1899,  bearing  a  market  value  of  $1,405.- 
278.  Peanuts  are  raised  in  the  southeast. 
Peaches  and  melons  are  important  staples.  In 
farm  animals  the  State  is  not  rich,  the  num- 
ber of  swine  being  greatest  of  any,  1,866.000  in 
1900. 

Minerals  and  Mining  Industries. —  The  min- 
eral wealth  of  the  State  is  enormous,  practically 
all  of  it  lying  in  the  northern  and  middle  geo- 
logical sections.  The  advantage  of  vast  coal, 
iron,  limestone,  and  dolomite  (magnesian  lime- 
stone) deposits  lying  close  together  has  within 
the  past  20  years  raised  the  State  from  an  al- 
most purely  agricultural  section  to  one  of  the 
chief  manufacturing  districts  of  the  Union ;  its 
centre  being  Birmingham.  It  is  said  that  iron 
products  can  be  manufactured  more  cheaply 
there  than  anywhere  else  on  the  globe.  The 
coal  fields  —  all  bituminous,  but  comprising  all 
the  highest  grades,  cannel.  coking,  gas,  etc. — 
occupy  8,660  square  miles ;  they  are  named  from 
their  rivers,  the  Warrior,  Cahaba,  and  Coosa. 
The  value  of  coal  mined  in  Alabama  has  more 
than  quadrupled  in  18  years,  rising  from  less 
than  $2,500,000  in  1886  to  over  $14,000,000  in 
7904,   ranking  the  State  No.  5  in  quantity  and 


ALABAMA 


No.  6  in  value  in  the  United  States.  Besides  its 
direct  use  and  sale,  a  large  part  is  manufac- 
tured into  coke,  in  which  Alabama  ranks  No.  3. 
The  iron  deposits  so  far  mined  are  72  per  cent 
red  and  28  per  cent  brown  hematite,  the  State 
ranking  second  in  the  latter ;  magnetic,  specular, 
limonite,  and  other  valuable  varieties  are  also 
present.  The  mining  of  this  is  almost  entirely 
the  development  of  the  past  two  decades;  in 
1880  the  product  was  but  171,000  tons;  in  1889 
it  had  risen  to  over  1.500,000  tons,  and  in  1899  to 
nearly  2,300,000  tons,  making  the  State  third 
in  the  Union,  next  after  Michigan  and  Minne- 
sota—  really  second,  the  great  Lake  Superior 
beds  constituting  but  one  deposit  In  export  of 
pig  iron  it  ranks  first  in  the  Union.  The  lime- 
stone, used  as  a  flux,  and  also  burned  into 
quicklime,  is  quarried  to  the  value  of  above 
$300,000  a  year.  Natural  gas  has  been  found. 
Clays  are  another  valuable  mineral  asset:  nota- 
bly bauxite, —  an  alumina  with  some  silica  and 
iron,  used  for  making  aluminum,  alum,  and 
crucibles, —  porcelain,  fire,  and  building  clays. 
Building-stone  is  largely  quarried,  including  a 
fine  sandstone.  Among  the  other  of  the  won- 
derful mineral  riches  of  Alabama  are  soapstone 
and  lithographic  stone,  emery  and  corundum, 
asbestos  and  graphite,  slate  and  asphalt,  phos- 
phates and  marl,  manganese  and  ochre,  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  tin.  There  arc  mineral 
springs  of  note  in  the  north.  The  marble  fields 
of  Talladega  County  bordering  the  Coosa  River 
and  of  Bibb  County  bordering  the  Cahaba  River 
are  unsurpassed  both  in  abundance  of  the  stone 
and  in  its  quality.  The  Italian  sculptor.  Morctti, 
whose  iron  statue,  'Vulcan,*  54  feet  high,  was 
selected  to  represent  Alabama  at  the  Louisiana 
Purchase  Exposition  (1004)  published  his  judg- 
ment upon  practical  test  that  no  white  marble 
known  to  his  profession  is  as  valuable  to  it  in 
the  finer  grades  of  work  as  that  which  the  Talla- 
dega quarries  afford.  These  marbles  are  of 
many  colors. 

It  has  been  only  of  recent  years  that  cement 
beds  have  been  discovered  in  the  black  belt. 
There  is  a  flourishing  manufactory  at  Demopolis 
on  the  Tomhigbee  and  preparations  are  well 
advanced  (1904)  to  construct  larger  plants  near 
Selma  on  the  Alabama.  The  entire  area,  20 
miles  deep,  from  Selma  to  Demopolis,  50  miles, 
is  underlaid  with  cement  rock  capable  of  pro- 
ducing at  a  cost  nowhere  else  so  low,  an  in- 
calculable supply  of  Portland  cement  of  the 
highest  classification.  Gold  mining  has  (1004) 
received  fresh  impetus  in  the  northeastern  coun- 
ties,  where  the  supply  is  present  but  the  mining 
yet  problematical.  The  State  geologist  has  pub- 
lished over  his  signature  that  the  value  of  the 
phosphates  of  the  central  and  southern  counties 
of  Alabama  to  agriculture  surpasses  the  value 
of  the  entire  coal  field  to  commerce. 

Manufactures. —  The  manufacturing  industry 
of  the  State  as  a  whole  has  nearly  doubled  with- 
in the  past  ten  years.  By  far  the  greatest  in- 
crease has  taken  place  in  cotton  goods,  which 
have  nearly  quadrupled  :  an  advance  due  partly 
to  the  development  of  iron  industries,  the  cotton 
manufacture  needing  constant  facilities  for  the 
making  and  repair  of  machinery  to  be  profitable. 
In  volume  the  iron  trades  far  exceed  every 
other.  The  steel  industry  is  a  creation  of  the 
past  five  years  mainly ;  the  Alabama  ores,  from 
their  phosphorus  and  silica,  are  unsuited  to 
the  acid  Bessemer  process,  but  in   1896  manu- 


facturers began  to  show  a  preference  for  the 
open-hearth  steel  for  which  they  are  titled.  The 
following  table  from  the  census  of  1900  shows 
at  a  glance  the  condition  and  gain  of  the  lead- 
ing industries: 

Value,  Value, 

1 900  1 890 

Iron    and   steel $17,392,483  $12,544,227 

Lumber  ami  timber  products 
(including    turpentine    and 

in,    value    $2,033,705).  ..      12,867,551  8,507.971 

Cotton     goods 8,153,136  2,190,771 

Foundry  and  machine  shop 
products  (iron  pipe  first, 
then  stoves,  car  wheels,  en- 
gines, bailers,  etc.) 5,482.441  2,195.913 

Railroad  cars  and  car-shop 
work    4,172,192  1,581,207 

,•■■: •       3.7-'6,433  2,474.377 

r louring  and  grist-null  prod- 
"cts    ; 3,310,757  3,060,452 

Oil,  cottonseed,  and  cake....      2,985,890  1,203,989 

Fertilizers  (cottonseed  meal 
mixed  with  Florida  phos- 
phates)           2,068,162  765,000 

Cotton,    ginning 1,218,283  213,529 

Leather,  tanned,  curried,  and 

finished     1,005,358  77,066 

The  total  number  of  hands  employed  in 
these  manufactories  in  1900  was  37,347,  against 
20,657  >n  1890.  It  is  significant  of  the  trend 
for  consolidation  that  the  number  of  ironworks 
was  only  25  in  1900  against  35  in  1800;  that 
the  coking-works  had  diminished  by  4,  and  the 
leather-dressing  works  by  3.  As  an  instance  of 
the  economizing  of  labor,  the  flour  and  grist 
were  turned  out  by  540  hands  against  1,043  in 
1890,  though  there  was  a  considerable  increase 
in  value.  There  were  5,062  establishments  al- 
together in  the  State,  employing  $70,370,081 
capital  and  55,432  hands,  and  paying  $17,299,000 
for  wfages  and  $46,151,026  for  materials:  output, 
$82,793,804.  The  liberality  of  the  State  and  of 
municipalities  in  exempting  cotton  mills  from 
taxation  for  10  years  has  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  upon  the  growth  of  that  institution. 
Iron  manufactories  planted  in  the  suburbs  of 
Birmingham,  20  years  ago,  with  the  view  of 
escape  from  municipal  taxes  by  reason  of  dis- 
tance from  the  corporate  lines,  are  permitted  to 
enjoy  their  original  exemption  notwithstanding 
the  city  now  encloses  them  by  a  dense  popula- 
tion. The  policy  of  the  State  Penitentiary  in 
mining  coal  on  its  own  account  with  the  labor 
of  many  hundreds  of  long  term  negro  convicts, 
encourages  not  only  manufactures  dependent 
upon  steam  power,  but  railroads  that  transport 
the  products  of  the  mills,  to  anticipate  a  steady 
supply  of  the  fuel.  The  great  saw-mills  also 
receive  from  the  penitentiary  a  quota  of  steady 
and  efficient  labor. 

Commerce  and  Navigation. —  The  great 
streams  of  the  State,  never  closed  by  ice,  afford 
fully  1.500  miles  regular  steam  navigation,  be- 
sides smaller  boats  in  reaches :  and  improve- 
ments under  way  will  increase  this.  The  Mo- 
bile River  and  its  two  great  constituents  are 
navigable  to  Montgomery  on  the  Alabama.  320 
miles  from  the  Mobile  (the  Coosa  has  also  small 
steamers  on  it),  and  to  Columbus,  Miss.,  on  the 
Tombigbee.  300  miles ;  and  the  Black  Warrior 
is  to  be  improved  and  connected  with  Birming- 
ham by  a  canal,  which  will  enable  products  to 
be  carried  to  Mobile  at  about  one  fifth  the  pres- 
ent cost.  The  Chattahoochee  is  navigable  to 
Columbus,  Ga.,  about  300  miles  up.  The  Ten- 
nessee's navigation  is  unfortunately  broken  by 
the  Mussel  Shoals  near  its  western  end  in  the 
State.    On  the  Gulf  the  one  seaport,  Mobile,  is  a 


ALABAMA. 


2 

O 

s 


u 


ALABAMA 


port  of  great  importance,  the  outlet  of  the  great 
river  systems  of  the  State ;  with  a  heavy  trade 
in  cotton,  coal,  and  lumber,  and  soon  to  have  a 
vast  iron  trade  also.  The  bay  of  Mobile,  in 
1850-60,  with  a  channel  less  than  10  feet  deep, 
carried  an  export  trade  of  $45,000,000,  mostly 
cotton  in  compressed  bales.  Lighters  were  used 
to  receive  the  cotton  at  the  city  wharves,  to  be 
towed  down  the  shallow  channel  to  sailing  ves- 
sels waiting  in  the  lower  bay.  In  1859  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  passed  a  law  requiring  the  county 
of  Mobile  to  issue  $800,000  bonds,  the  proceeds 
to  deepen  the  channel.  The  outbreak  of  war  de- 
feated the  plan,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
Congress.  Under  large  appropriations  of  Con- 
gress, a  channel  more  than  30  feet  deep  and 
with  a  top  width  of  280  feet  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  to  the  mouth  of  Chickasaw  Creek, 
above  the  city  of  Mobile,  has  been  successfully 
opened.  The  influence  of  this  improvement  on 
the  trade  of  the  port,  especially  in  tropical  fruits, 
lumber,  and  naval  stores  has  been  gratifying. 
The  work  of  deepening  the  harbor  still  con- 
tinues. In  1872  under  the  direction  of  the  sec- 
retary of  war,  a  line  of  canal  was  surveyed  be- 
tween Guntersville  on  the  Tennessee  River  and 
Gadsden  on  the  Coosa  in  view  of  pending  legis- 
lation to  open  both  of  those  long  rivers  to  navi- 
gation their  whole  length.  The  line  of  canal 
surveyed  was  approximately  40  miles  and  the 
project  was  announced  feasible  at  moderate  cost. 

Fisheries. —  These  employ  about  1,000  men, 
with  an  annual  catch  w-orth  about  $150,000. 

Railroads  and  Street  Railways. —  The  rail- 
road system  of  the  State,  which  in  1850  com- 
prised 183  miles,  had  increased  to  1,843  in  1880, 
3,422  in  1890,  and  4.316  in  iqoi,  of  which  650 
were  built  since  1895,  and  118  the  previous  year; 
over  j4  of  a  mile  to  every  10  square  miles,  and 
over  2.3  to  each  1,000  inhabitants.  The  great 
railroad  centre  of  the  State  is  Birmingham, 
which  has  six  trunk  lines  converging  there.  In 
1901  there  were  street  railway  lines  in  11  places 
in  the  State,  operating  216.95  miles  of  track. 

Railroad  building  began  in  Alabama  at  the 
earliest  period  in  the  use  of  that  means  of  trans- 
portation in  America.  In  1832  the  Decatur  & 
Tuscumbia  Railroad  was  chartered.  40  miles 
long,  to  overcome  the  obstacle  of  the  Mussel 
Shoals  in  the  Tennessee  River  by  connecting  the 
two  towns  that  lay  at  either  end  of  the  shoals. 
The  road  was  very  crude  in  construction, —  bar 
iron  laid  on  wooden  stringers,  the  cars  drawn 
by  mules.  The  rich  planters  of  the  level  valley 
through  which  the  line  ran  its  entire  length, 
built  the  grade  by  their  slave  labor,  taking  for 
pay  stock  in  the  road.  Railroad  property  has 
grown  to  the  proportion  of  approximately  1-6  of 
the  assessable  values  of  the  State  now  taxed. 
Up  to  the  time  of  secession,  all  the  stock  of  the 
various  short  lines  was  owned  in  the  State. 
Under  the  effects  of  a  changed  banking  system, 
substituting  the  National  Bank  of  issue,  founded 
on  government  bonds  in  lieu  of  the  private 
bank  of  issue,  regulated  alone  by  the  State, 
founded  on  farm  lands  and  other  personal  as- 
sets, with  gold  and  silver  coin  to  an  ascertained 
deposit,  railroad  stocks  and  bonds  are  almost 
exclusively  owned  in  New  York  and  other  mone- 
tary centres.  The  State  is  represented  in  the 
practical  management  of  the  railroads  that  pene- 
trate its  territory,  in  so  far  as  domestic  traffic 
is  concerned  by  its  own  laws  enforced  by  a 
railroad    commission     of    citizens.       The    com- 


mission is  elective  at  the  polls  and  consists  of  a 
president  and  two  associate  commissioners,  with 
an  office  always  open  at  the  capitol. 

It  had  been  the  purpose  of  the  State  in  ante- 
bellum legislation,  enacted  in  the  last  decade  of 
slavery,  to  connect  deep  water  at  Mobile  with 
the  landlocked  mineral  wealth  of  the  central 
counties  by  rail.  There  was  a  definite  policy  to 
add  to  the  export  cotton  trade  then  enjoyed  by 
Mobile,  an  export  trade  in  iron  and  coal.  To 
this  end  several  lines  of  railroad  were  chartered 
and  supplementary  assistance  rendered  in  the 
initial  movements  to  build  them  to  completion 
by  loans  in  cash  taken  from  the  "two  per  cent9 
and  "three  per  cent8  funds,  funds  donated  to 
the  State  by  the  Federal  government  from  public 
land  sales  within  her  boundaries.  The  main 
resources  of  the  projected  railroads  nevertheless 
lay  in  the  wealth  of  slave-owning  cotton  planters. 
The  results  of  the  war  dissipated  this  reliance 
and  the  ownership  of  the  lines  as  far  as  com- 
pleted became  promptly  absorbed  in  the  North. 
This  change  in  ownership  and  control  had  two 
inevitable  sequence's,  the  operation  of  the  roads 
in  the  interest  of  northern  commercial  centres  as 
against  Mobile,  and  the  rapid  extension  of  the 
mileage. 

State  Finances. —  The  assessed  valuation  of 
the  State  in  1001  was  $284,622,937;  in  1897, 
$25i,390,i35._  The  State  tax  was  5'<  mills,  be- 
sides a  special  soldier  and  school  tax  of  1  mill 
each.  The  bonded  debt  in  1901  was  $9,357,600; 
and  the  interest  charge,  $448,680.  The  assessed 
valuation  of  the  State  in  .1903  was_  $307,643,704. 
The  present  State  Constitution  limits  the  power 
of  the  Legislature  to  levy  in  any  one  year  a 
greater  rate  than  6'<  mills  on  the  dollar  State 
taxes.  No  county  may  levy  a  tax  exceeding  one 
half  of  one  per  centum  by  State  assessment, 
except  to  pay  old  debts.  All  incorporated  cities 
are  subject  to  the  same  limitation  of  the  power 
of  taxation  that  applies  to  counties.  The  State 
can  contract  no  new  debt  except  that  the  gov- 
ernor may  borrow  $300,000.  The  governor  has 
authority  under  the  State  Constitution  to  extend 
the  present  bonded  debt  of  the  State.  The  State 
bonds  of  all  classes  are  now  above  par. 

Banks. —  In  1901  there  were  42  national 
banks,  with  $4,075,000  capital.  $1,883,750  sur- 
plus, $17,648,000  deposits,  $1,968,000  outstanding 
circulation ;  20  State  banks  and  trust  companies, 
with  $992,000  capital  and  $2,328,400  deposits ;  6 
savings  banks,  with  unreported  deposits:  and  34 
private  banks.  The  national  banks  in  1004  had 
increased  to  53  with  $22,000,000  deposits ;  the 
deposits  in  private  banks  then  had  risen  to 
$17,000,000.  The  State  now  has  an  officer,  the 
bank  examiner,  on  a  salary  of  $2,000  a  year, 
charged  with  stated  and  frequent  examinations 
of  private  banks.  Some  of  the  later  constructed 
bank  buildings  are  equal  in  magnificence  of 
appointments  to  the  best  in  the  United  States. 
The  bankers  are  thoroughly  organized. 

Education. —  The  public  school  system  of 
Alabama  was  founded  on  a  grant  of  public  lands 
by  the  Federal  government.  The  principle  under- 
lying the  grant  is  incorporated  in  the  ordinance 
of  1787,  enacted  originally  by  the  Congress  of 
the  Confederation  for  the  government  of  the 
Northwest  Territory.  It  consisted  in  the  dona- 
tion of  the  16th  section  (640  acres)  in  each 
township  of  government  survey  to  be  sold  or 
leased  under  the  State  as  trustee  and  the  pro- 
ceeds accruing  to  be  held  by  the  State  for  the 


ALABAMA 


exclusive  benefit  of  public  scbools  in  the  town- 
ship involved.  Besides  the  [6th  section  tor  pub- 
lic school  support,  the  same  act  of  Congress 
donated  to  tin-  State  for  the  benefit  of  a  uni- 
versity within  its  bounds  a  large  body  of  public 
lands.  The  lands  now  known  as  the  "University 
Lands*  are  rich  in  coal  seams  and  are  now,  al- 
though only  partially  developed,  yielding  a  large 
supplement  to  its  income  from  other  sources. 
The  l6th  section  fund  yields  a  partial  support  to 
the  public  schools,  while  the  State  pays  the  uni- 
versity an  annual  interest  amounting  to  $36,000, 
by  constitutional  proviso,  on  the  proceeds  of 
sales  of  its  lands  received  from  Congress  made 
in  the  earlier  history  of  the  State. 

In  1875,  a  State  convention  repealed  the  mil- 
itary constitution  of  1868  under  which  the  public 
schools  had  practically  suspended.  The  military 
regime  had  accumulated  a  public  debt  which  had 
Utterly  driven  State  credit  away.  Nevertheless 
the  new  Constitution  prescribed  a  limit  of 
appropriations  for  the  schools,  below  which 
the  General  Assembly  could  not  reduce  the 
annual  sum.  In  1901  a  State  convention  again 
assembled  to  revise  the  State  Constitution. 
The  Constitution  of  1875  prescribed  that  the 
public  schools  should  receive  from  the  State 
not  less  than  $100,000  annually.  The  Constitu- 
tion of  1901  so  enlarges  the  limit  that  the  schools 
now  receive  about  $1,000,000  annually.  The 
Constitution  of  1901  ordains  methods  of  pro- 
cedure under  which  each  county  may  create  a 
special  school  fund  by  taxation.  In  every  en- 
largement of  the  public  school  system  the  result 
applies  with  exact  uniformity  to  the  two  races 
wdto  must  have  separate  schools.  The  question 
of  division  of  the  school  fund  between  the  races 
in  ratio  of  race  contribution  was  raised  and  elab- 
orately considered  in  the  convention  only  to  be 
defeated  by  a  decided  majority.  The  youth 
from  5  to  17  in  1900  were  329,003  whites  and 
281,348  colored,  610,351  in  all:  the  actual  attend- 
ance, however,  was  only  161,884  white  and  78,549 
colored,  240,433  in  all,  or  less  than  half  the  total 
of  white  and  not  much  over  one  fourth  the  total 
of  colored.  There  were  upward  of  7.000  schools 
and  7,500  teachers,  the  white  and  colored  being 
taught  separately.  Besides  these  there  were  48 
public  high  schools,  with  about  1.300  scholars; 
and  66  private  secondary  schools,  with  some- 
thing over  1,000  pupils.  There  are  7  normal 
schools  aided  by  the  Peabody  Fund,  3  of  them 
for  colored  students,  besides  3  private  normal 
schools ;  9  agricultural  schools  for  given  dis- 
trict?. 

The  Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute  is  the 
successor  to  the  Alabama  Agricultural  and  Me- 
chanical College  at  Auburn.  The  institution  is 
in  a  highly  flourishing  condition  and  is  con- 
ducted on  the  military  plan.  A  practical  instruc- 
tion in  agriculture  and  mechanics  is  given  there. 
Applied  science  in  many  features  is  taught  in 
addition  to  the  usual  literary  course.  There  are 
more  than  four  hundred  students  there. 

The  University  of  Alabama  rebuilt  entirely 
from  destruction  during  the  War  is  now  open 
to  the  coeducation  of  the  sexes.  A  law  depart- 
ment under  a  dean  is  maintained  in  the  same 
grounds  for  education  in  the  law.  At  Mobile 
the  medical  department  for  the  education  of 
physicians  and  surgeons  is  maintained. 

There  are  in  the  State  o  men's  and  coedu- 
cational universities  and  colleges,  and  9  wo- 
men's; chief  among  them  are: 


Alabama  Baptist  Colored  University  (1878). 
Alabama  Conference  Female  College,  Meth- 
odist (1855).  Athens  Female  College,  Meth- 
odist, Athens  (1842).  Bailey  Springs  Univer- 
sity, non-sectarian,  Bailey  Springs  (1893). 
Blount  College,  non-sectarian,  Blountsvillc 
(1890).  Howard  College.  Baptist,  East  Lake 
(1S41).  Isbell  College,  Presbyterian  (1849). 
Judson  Female  Institute,  Baptist  (1839).  La- 
fayette College,  non-sectarian,  Lafayette  (1885). 
Lincville  College,  non-sectarian,  Lineville 
(1890).  St.  Bernard  College,  Roman  Catholic, 
Cullman  (1892).  Selma  University,  non-secta- 
rian, Selma.  Southern  University,  Methodist, 
Greensboro  (1859).  Spring  Hill  College,  non- 
sectarian,  Mobile.  Tuskcgee  Normal  and  In- 
dustrial Institute,  colored,  Tuskcgee  (1881). 
Talladega  College,  non-sectarian,  Talladega. 
University  of  Alabama,  non-sectarian,  Tusca- 
loosa (1831). 

Tuskcgee  University  (q.v.)  is  of  world- 
wide note  for  Booker  T.  Washington's  mag- 
nificent work  in  elevating  the  colored  race  by 
industrial  training.  In  March  1901  it  had  1,050 
pupils  from  23  States  and  Territories,  Porto 
Rico,  Cuba,  and  Africa. 

Churches. —  The  Baptist  and  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  South  are  the  only  strong  denomina- 
tional bodies;  of  the  others,  the  chief  are  the 
Presbyterian.  Episcopal,  and  Roman  Catholic. 
There  are  about  8,000  churches  of  all  denomi- 
nations. 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions. —  The 
State  maintains  an  asylum  for  the  insane  at 
Tuscaloosa.  It  is  one  of  the  institutions  of  the 
kind  that  primarily  owes  its  origin  to  the  benev- 
olent spirit  of  Miss  Dorothy  Dix  of  New  Eng- 
land. The  asylum  was  opened  formally  in 
1860-1.  Dr.  Peter  Bryce,  a  young  physi- 
cian, was  then  made  superintendent,  and  held 
the  position  the  remainder  of  his  life,  some  35 
years.  The  reforms  in  the  management  of  the 
insane  introduced  there  by  Dr.  Bryce  are  fa- 
mous the  world  over.  There  are  State  schools 
at  Talladega  for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb  of 
both  races,  the  races  kept  separate.  At  Bir- 
mingham there  is  a  State-supported  school  for 
the  reform  of  white  boys.  At  Mountain  Creek 
the  State  supports  a  Home  for  Indigent  Veter- 
ans of  the  Confederate  Army.  The  State  peni- 
tentiary is  at  Wetumpka,  a  farm  of  700  acres. 
There  is  a  branch  farm  of  4,500  acres  at  Spig- 
ners,  10  miles  away,  and  on  the  Tallapoosa 
River,  five  miles  in  the  opposite  direction,  is  a 
third  farm  of  1,800  acres.  The  coal  mines  in 
Jefferson  County  operated  by  the  State  employ 
some  800  convicts.  The  saw-mills  and  farmers 
hire  many.  At  Spigncrs  there  is  a  saw-mill 
and  a  cotton-mill.  Ordinarily  there  are  2,500 
convicts,  85  per  cent  negroes.  The  negro  female 
convicts  are  perhaps  I  per  cent  of  all ;  the  white 
female  convicts  yet  fewer.  The  net  income  from 
the  penitentiary  to  the  State  in  1904  is  estimated 
at  $250,000.  mostly  from  the  coal  mines. 

State  Government. —  The  State  offices  are 
held  for  four  years,  and  incumbents  are  not 
eligible  for  re-election,  and  the  governor  not  for 
any  State  office  or  United  States  Senate  during 
or  within  a  year  after  his  term.  The  governor's 
salary  is  $3,000  per  annum.  The  Board  of  Par- 
dons consists  of  the  attorney-general,  secretary 
of  state,  and  state  auditor,  ex  officio;  its  func- 
tions are  only  advisory,  as  the  governor  has  full 
power.     The    latter's    veto    power    extends    to 


ALABAMA 


items  of  appropriation,  but  a  majority  vote 
overrules  it,  and  a  bill  becomes  law  without 
his  signature  after  a  week.  The  legislature 
meets  once  in  four  years,  sessions  being  limited 
to  SO  days ;  the  Senate  is  limited  to  35  members 
and  the  House  to  105.  Members  are  paid  $4  a 
day  and  traveling  expenses.  The  statutes  must 
be  revised  every  12  years;  the  State  may  not 
vote  money  for  internal  improvements ;  and 
revenue  bills  cannot  be  passed  in  the  last  five 
days  of  a  session. 

Congressional  Representation. — The  State 
has  9  representatives  in  Congress. 

Population  and  Divisions. — The  increase  in 
population  has  been  as  follows :  1820,  127,901 ; 
1830,  309,527;  1840,  590,756;  1850,  771,623;  i860, 
964,201 ;  1870,  996,992 ;  1880,  1,262,505 ;  1890, 
I,5I3-°I7 ;  1900,  1,828,967,  an  increase  of  20.9 
for  the  decade.  The  foreign-born  population 
was  14,592;  colored,  827,545.  The  colored  popu- 
lation is  largely  concentrated  in  the  "cotton- 
belt":  in  15  selected  counties  the  negro  popu- 
lation was  399,397  against  122,040  white,  while 
in  2  of  them  the  proportion  is  between  6  and  7 
colored  to  I  white,  and  in  others  4  and  5.  The 
urban  population  is  small :  the  largest  city  has 
under  40,000  people,  and  only  10  per  cent  of  the 
population  lives  in  places  of  4,000  and  over; 
these  places,  however,  have  increased  from  10 
in  1890  to  16  in  1900,  and  the  negroes  crowd 
into  them. 

The  State  has  67  counties,  whose  names  and 
county-seats  are  as  follows : 


Autauga,    Prattville. 
Baldwin,    Daphne. 
Barbour,  Clayton. 
Bibb,    Centrevillc. 
Blount,   Oneonto. 
Bullock,  Union  Springs. 
Butler,    Greenville. 
Calhoun,    Anniston. 
Chambers,  Lafayette. 
Cherokee,  Centre. 
Chilton,   Clanton. 
Choctaw,    Butler. 
Clarke,  Grovehill. 
Clay,    Ashland. 
Cleburne,     Edwardsville. 
Coffee,    Elba. 
Colbert.    Tuscumbia. 
Conecuh.   Evergreen. 
Coosa,  Rockford. 
Covington,   Andalusia. 
Crenshaw.    Luverne. 
Cullman,  Cullman. 
Dale,    Ozark. 
Dallas.  Selma. 
Dekalb,    Fort  Payne. 
Elmore,    Wetumpka. 
Escambia,   Brewton. 
Etowah,   Gadsden. 
Fayette,   Fayette. 
Franklin,   Russellville. 
Geneva,    Geneva. 
Greene,  Eutaw. 
Hale,    Greensboro. 
Henry,    Abbeville. 


Houston,    Dothan. 
Jackson,    Scottsboro. 
Jefferson,    Birmingham. 
Lamar,   Vernon. 
Lauderdale,    Florence. 
Lawrence,    Moulton. 
Lee,    Opelika. 
Limestone,    Athens. 
Lowndes,    Hayneville. 
Macon,    Tuskegee. 
Madison,    Huntsville. 
Marengo,    Linden. 
Marion,    Hamilton. 
Marshall,     Guntersville. 
Mobile,    Mobile. 
Monroe,   Monroeville. 
Montgomery,     Montgomery. 
Morgan,  Decatur. 
Perry,   Marion. 
Pickens,  Carrollton. 
Pike,    Troy. 
Randolph.   Wedowee. 
Russell,    Seale. 
St.    Clair,    Asheville. 
Shelby,   Columbiana. 
Sumter,    Livingston. 
Talladega,    Talladega. 
Tallapoosa,    Dadeville. 
Tuscaloosa,  Tuscaloosa. 
Walker,   Jasper. 
Washington,    St.    Stephens. 
Wilcox,   Camden. 
Winston,    Double    Springs. 


Chief  Cities. — The  largest  place,  and  the 
commercial  port  of  the  State,  is  Mobile,  with 
38,469  population ;  Birmingham,  the  Pittsburg 
of  the  South,  with  38,415  —  but  Birmingham  has 
a  suburban  population  of  peculiar  density,  num- 
bering of  itself  quite  75.000,  in  hourly  contact 
with  the  city  by  electric  cars.  Montgomery, 
the  capital  and  head  of  navigation  on  the  Ala- 
bama, has  30,346.  Anniston,  in  the  Blue  Ridge, 
another  iron  city  and  cotton  mart,  has  9.695 ; 
Selma,  a  cotton  centre,  on  the  Alabama  below 
Montgomery,  8.713:  Huntsville,  in  the  moun- 
tains north  of  the  Tennessee,  the  emporium  of 


that  region  and  a  noted  sanatorium,  8,068; 
Florence,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  lower 
Tennessee,  6,478;  Bessemer,  a  new  iron  city, 
6,358;  and  Tuscaloosa,  formerly  the  capital, 
head    of    navigation    on    the    Black    Warrior, 

5,094-. 

History. — When  discovered  by  white  men, 
the  territory  was  occupied  by  great  Indian  tribes 
of  the  formidable  Muskohegan  stock  —  Choc- 
taws,  Creeks,  and  Chickasaws,  Alibamos,  and 
Apalachis.  Hernando  de  Soto  (q.v.)  found  the 
Indians  along  the  upper  Coosa  more  bountifully 
supplied  with  corn  and  beans  and  inhabiting 
better  quarters  than  any  of  the  red  men  he  had 
found  on  his  way  from  his  landing  on  the  Flor- 
ida coast.  At  Mauvila,  on  his  way  westward,  he 
found  the  red  men  well  housed  and  fed  and 
ready  for  desperate  fighting  to  resist  the  invader. 
The  first  settlement  was  by  the  French  under  the 
Canadian  Bienville  in  1702,  at  Mobile,  where  he 
built  Fort  St.  Louis ;  the  city  was  founded  in 
1711,  and  was  the  capital  of  Louisiana  for  the 
next  15  years,  New  Orleans  taking  its  place  in 
1726.  Fort  Toulouse  was  built  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa  in  1714. 
There  wrere  the  usual  Indian  wars  and  hostilities 
with  the  English  traders  who  settled  there. 
When  France  lost  her  American  dominions  in 
1763  Alabama  was  divided  at  320  40',  the  north- 
ern half  being  added  to  Illinois  and  the  southern 
to  West  Florida.  In  1779  Spain  seized  the 
latter,  whose  British  inhabitants  had  not  joined 
the  Revolution,  while  the  United  States  suc- 
ceeded to  the  former.  Spain  by  treaty  yielded 
the  territory  above  310  to  the  United  States  in 
1795;  for  a  time  it  was  claimed  by  Georgia.  In 
1798  Congress  organized  Mississippi  Territory, 
with  the  Mississippi  and  Chattahoochee  as 
western  and  eastern  limits,  the  31st  parallel 
(the  present  main  boundary  with  Florida)  S., 
and  a  line  from  the  Yazoo  N. ;  in  1804  the 
northern  boundary  was  carried  to  the  southern 
boundary  of  Tennessee;  in  1812  the  territory 
between  the  Pearl  River  and  the  Perdido  was 
annexed  to  it  by  proclamation,  and  in  1813 
Mobile  was  seized  and  held  by  Gen.  Jackson  for 
the  United  States.  Meanwhile  the  Lower 
Creek  Indians,  instigated  by  the  British,  took 
up  arms  against  the  United  States  and  on  30 
Aug.  1813  massacred  a  large  party  of  settlers 
who  had  taken  refuge  in  Fort  Minis;  the  Upper 
Creeks  remained  loyal,  but  were  involved  in  the 
vengeance  which  overtook  the  Indians  at  the 
hands  of  Jackson,  who  crushed  them  at  Talla- 
dega and  the  Horse  Shoe  Bend  of  the  Talla- 
poosa. (See  Jackson.)  They  had  to  give  up 
their  lands  west  of  the  Coosa  and  south  of 
Wetumpka,  and  were  gradually  expropriated 
and  finally  removed  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
(See  Creek  War:  Indian  Reservations.)  On 
3  March  1817  Alabama  Territory  was  organized, 
capital  St.  Stephens ;  the  first  legislature  met  in 
1818  at  Huntsville.  On  14  Dec.  1819  Alabama 
was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  slave  State, 
paired  with  Maine  as  a  free  State.  In  1820  the 
capital  was  changed  to  Cahaba,  in  1826  to  Tus- 
caloosa, in  1847  to  Montgomery. 

Vlabama  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  the 
Southern  States  to  engage  in  the  secession 
movement,  and  Montgomery  was  the  first  capi- 
tal of  the  Confederacy:  the  ordinance  of  seces- 
sion was  passed  11  Jan.   1861,  61  to  39.     In  the 


ALABAMA 


secession  convention  the  black  belt  influence 
was  dominant,  as  it  had  been  in  the  government 
of  the  State  from  the  earliest  period.  The  di- 
vision of  the  vote  on  the  adoption  of  the 
Ordinance  of  Secession  was  not  between  a  dis- 
union and  a  Union  party.  Two  methods  of 
dissolving  the  Union  were  under  discussion,  and 
one  or  the  other  method  embraced  all  the  dele- 
gates of  the  ioo  holding  seats,  except  perhaps 
a  dozen  who  were  unconditional  Unionists. 
William  L.  Yancey,  a  lawyer,  led  the  straight 
separate  State  secessionists,  u  ho  were  54  in 
number.  Robert  Jemison,  a  capitalist,  led  the 
faction  favorable  to  a  co-operation  of  all  the 
slave  States  for  the  purpose  of  some  undefined 
measure  of  self-defense  against  the  abolitionists 
represented  by  John  Brown's  invasion;  William 
R.  Smith  was  the  representative  of  the  uncondi- 
tional Unionists.  Until  the  military  successes 
of  the  Federal  government  occupied  the  coun- 
ties in  the  northern  part  of  the  State,  the  small 
farmers  there  exhibited  no  reluctance  to  volun- 
teer in  the  Confederate  army.  Forts  Morgan 
and  Gaines,  which  guarded  .Mobile  harbor,  were 
seized;  the  senators  and  representatives  re- 
signed their  seats  in  Congress  21  January,  and 
on  4  February  the  government  of  the  Confed- 
eracy was  organized  at  Montgomery  by  delegates 
from  the  seceding  States.  Selma  was  made  a 
leading  Confederate  arsenal  and  shipyard.  The 
Tennessee  Valley  was  occupied  by  Union  forces 
early  in  1862,  the  fleet  in  Mobile  Bay  destroyed, 
and  the  forts  retaken  by  Farragut  in  1864,  and 
the  whole  State  rcoccupied  April  1865.  A  pro- 
visional government  was  established  by  Presi- 
dent Andrew  Johnson  in  June  1865,  by  the  ap- 
pointment of  Lewis  E.  Parsons,  a  native  of 
New  York  who  had  long  resided  in  Alabama,  to 
be  governor.  Governor  Parsons  ordered  an 
election  by  the  full  body  of  electors  except  the 
several  classes  not  yet  pardoned  by  the  Presi- 
dent, of  delegates  to  assemble  in  the  capitol 
at  Montgomery  September  1865.  This  conven- 
tion made  a  new  State  Constitution,  revoking 
the  Ordinance  of  Secession,  abolishing  slavery, 
providing  for  the  equality  of  the  frcedmen  in 
rights  of  person  and  property  and  ratifying  the 
Thirteenth  Amendment  to  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution. The  new  Constitution  restricted  the 
electorate  to  the  white  males  eligible.  The 
State  government  set,  up  by  the  new  Constitu- 
tion was  accepted  by  all  the  departments  of  the 
Federal  government  and  went  into  effect  De- 
cember following.  The  General  Assembly, 
however,  refused  to  ratify  the  Fourteenth 
Amendment.  Thereupon  the  Senators  and  Rep- 
resentatives from  Alabama  to  Congress  were 
denied  seats  and  by  the  acts  of  March  1867  the 
State  government  was  abolished  and  military 
rule  restored.  Under  military  supervision  the 
Constitution  of  1868  was  made  and  a  civil  gov- 
ernment set  up.  The  Constitution  of  1868  re- 
mained in  force  until  1875,  when  a  new  one  was 
made  by  the  people  in  convention.  The  State 
was  bankrupted  by  the  carpet-bag  regime,  and 
there  was  great  disorder  in  the  attempt  to  bring 
the  rule  once  more  into  the  hands  of  the  better 
classes;  hut  these  conditions  have  long  passed 
away,  and  the  reorganization  of  the  public  debt 
in  1876  made  industrial  progress  possible.  The 
State  is  solidly  Democratic. 

JOHN    WlTHERSPOON    Pr    BoSE, 
Anther  of  'Life  and  Times  of  Yancey? 


Alabama,  a  river  formed  near  Montgom- 
ery, in  the  State  of  Alabama,  by  the  junction 
of  the  Coosa  and  the  Tallapoosa.  It  flows  west 
and  then  south  to  its  junction  with  the  Tom- 
bigbee  about  50  miles  above  its  mouth,  where 
it  assumes  the  name  of  the  Mobile,  and  finally 
falls  into  Mobile  Bay.  Steamboats  ascend  t" 
Montgomery,  320  miles,  but  the  navigation  is 
interrupted  during  the  season  of  low  water. 
Some  of  the  largest  cotton  plantations  of  Amer- 
ica are  situated  on  its  banks. 

Alabama,  The,  a  ship  built  at  Birken- 
head  on  the  Mersey  by  the  Lairds  under  con- 
tract with  the  Confederate  States  at  a  cost  of 
$250,000,  and  sent  to  sea  as  a  privateer,  in  the 
spring  of  1862,  known  as  "200."  The  name  in- 
dicated only  that  the  vessel  was,  in  order  of 
launch  from  the  builders'  yards,  number  290. 
Protest  had  come  to  the  British  government 
from  the  American  minister  at  the  Court  of 
Saint  James,  Charles  Francis  Adams  (q.v.), 
against  the  sailing  of  the  ship.  Meantime  Capt. 
Raphael  Semmes  and  24  young  naval  officers 
from  the  Confederacy  arrived  in  Liverpool  with 
commissions  in  their  pockets  to  take  command. 
For  sake  of  prudence  Capt.  Semmes  ordered 
the  "290"  to  sail  for  the  island  of  Terceira,  one 
of  the  Azores,  under  command  of  Capt.  Butcher, 
a  young  officer  of  the  British  merchant  marine. 
Semmes  immediately  followed  as  a  passenger 
on  an  English  ship.  His  armament  had  been 
already  shipped  to  the  same  rendezvous.  At 
Terceira  the  privateer  ran  up  the  Confederate 
colors,  took  her  name  as  ordered  by  the  Con- 
federate government,  and  received  on  board  as 
armament  two  pivot  guns  amidships  and  six 
32-pounders,  eight  guns  in  all.  The  manning 
of  the  ship  was  25  officers  in  all  and  about  120 
men.  Stores  for  a  long  cruise  were  taken 
aboard,  and  the  vessel,  equipped  for  both  steam 
and  sail,  entered  promptly  upon  her  memorable 
career.  On  the  night  of  11  Jan.  1863,  the 
United  States  steamer  rlatteras  engaged  the 
Alabama  off  the  coast  of  Texas  and  was  sunk. 
The  Alabama  roved  the  seas  for  two  years, 
seeking  the  commerce  of  the  United  States 
from  both  hemispheres.  The  privateer  was 
supposed  to  have  destroyed  one  half  the  Amer- 
ican merchant  marine,  then  second  in  tonnage 
only  to  that  of  Great  Britain  among  the  nations. 
On  the  forenoon  of  11  June  1864  the  Alabama 
made  anchor  in  the  port  of  Cherbourg,  France. 
The  intent  of  Capt.  Semmes  was  to  dock  his 
ship  for  much-needed  repairs.  While  Semmes 
was  awaiting  the  consent  of  the  Emperor  Napo- 
leon III.  to  the  use  of  the  government  docks, 
the  news  of  the  arrival  of  the  privateer  spread 
over  the  land.  Capt.  Winslow,  commanding  the 
United  States  ship  Kearsarge,  lying  at  Flushing, 
was  apprised  of  the  fact  by  Dayton,  United 
States  minister  to  France,  and  made  for  Cher- 
bourg, sailed  into  the  harbor  and  out  without 
anchoring,  but  took  position  outside.  Semmes 
rightly  construed  the  conduct  of  the  Kearsarge 
as  the  equivalent  of  a  challenge  to  combat.  The 
Alabama  steamed  out  on  Sunday  morning  in 
faultless  weather.  The  Kearsarge's  machinery 
was  additionally  protected  by  a  chain-armor 
covered  with  one-inch  deal  boards.  However, 
as  that  part  of  the  ship  was  struck  but  twice, 
the  armor  was  of  no  material  aid.  The  Kear- 
sarge had  163  men  and  seven  guns ;  the  Ala- 
bama 140  men  and  eight  guns.  The  metal  car- 
ried by  the  Kearsarge  guns  was  heavier  than  the 


ALABAMA  CLAIMS 


metal  of  the  Alabama  guns.  The  battle  was 
fought  in  a  circle  and  lasted  I  hour  and  2 
minutes,  resulting  in  the  sinking  of  the  Ala- 
bama. In  the  first  30  minutes  the  Alabama 
lodged  a  rifled  percussion  shell  near  the  stern- 
post  of  the  Kearsarge,  which  from  a  faulty  cap 
failed  to  explode.  The  shell  is  now  to  be  seen, 
in  the  wood  where  it  buried  itself,  in  the 
ordnance  museum  of  the  navy  yard  at  Wash- 
ington. Capt.  Semmes  remained  on  the  deck 
of  his  ship  until  it  went  down.  He  and  41 
others  from  the  sunken  vessel  were  rescued  by 
the  Deerhound,  a  pleasure  yacht  belonging  to 
John  Lancaster,  an  Englishman.  Many  persons 
had  come  from  Paris  to  view  the  battle  and  the 
hills  along  the  coast  were  lined  with  spectators 
as  it  progressed.  After  the  close  of  the  war 
the  British  government  paid  an  indemnity  to 
American  shippers  of  $15,500,000,  representing 
losses  inflicted  by  the  Shenandoah  (in  part), 
the  Florida  (in  full),  and  the  Alabama  (in 
full).  Consult:  Semmes.  'The  Cruise  of  the 
Alabama'  (1864);  Bullock,  'Secret  Service  of 
the  Confederate  States1  (1883);  Sinclair,  'Two 
Years  on  the  Alabama'  (1895)  ;  also  the  narra- 
tives in  'Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War' 
(1887-8),  edited  by  Johnson  and  Buell.  See 
Alabama  Claims. 

John  Witherspoon  Du  Bose. 
Author  of  '■Life  and  Times  of  Yancey? 

Alabama  Claims,  claims  against  Great 
Britain  for  damages  to  United  States  shipping 
by  Confederate  cruisers  —  the  Alabama  chiefly, 
also  the  Florida,  Georgia,  Shenandoah,  and 
others  —  built  or  equipped  in  British  waters 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  allowed  to  depart 
counter  to  international  law  (see  Declaration  OF 
Paris;  Marque  and  Reprisal)  and  to  statutes 
of  both  countries  obligating  their  governments 
to  prevent  expeditions  from  their  territories 
against  friendly  powers.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
"War  the  Confederacy,  having  no  navy,  commis- 
sioned privateers  as  of  old.  Great  Britain  is- 
sued a  proclamation  of  neutrality,  according 
belligerent  rights  to  both  and  forbidding  arma- 
ment at  English  hands  to  either ;  but  the  Eng- 
lish officials  obeyed  their  superiors'  secret  wishes 
and  their  own  sympathies  and  not  their  formal 
orders,  knowing  they  would  not  be  held  to 
account  for  preventing  $1,100,000,000  of  English 
subscriptions  to  Confederate  bonds  from  be- 
coming worthless.  Accordingly  English  built, 
stored,  and  manned  vessels  soon  scoured  the 
seas,  capturing  and  burning  United  States  mer- 
chantmen ;  and  English  colonial  ports,  especially 
Nassau,  were  safe  nests  for  them  for  any  length 
of  time ;  while  Northern  vessels  at  best  were 
held  sternly  to  the  letter  of  the  law,  and  in 
some  cases  illegally  imprisoned  for  many  weeks 
in  harbors  they  had  lawfully  entered  to  refit. 
The  least  part  of  the  loss  was  the  direct  capture 
of  prizes :  manyfold  greater  were  the  indirect 
losses  caused  by  the  decline  in  trade  from  the 
difficulty  in  securing  freights,  the  great  rise  in 
marine  insurance,  and  greatest  of  all,  the  pro- 
longation of  the  war  and  its  increased  cost  while 
it  lasted. 

The  Alabama  case,  by  its  flagrancy  and  Mr 
Adams'  menace,  half  frightened  and  half 
shamed  the  English  government  into  amending 
its  conduct,  and  no  more  privateers  left  Eng- 
land ;  but  those  afloat  heaped  up  for  it  a  legacy 
of  trouble,  of  which  the  United  States  steadily 


pressed  for  a  settlement.  As  early  as  the  winter 
of  1862-3  W.  H.  Seward  (q.v.)  had  served 
notice  on  Great  Britain  of  a  purpose  to  hold  her 
to  account  for  « negligence,"  in  diplomatic 
phrase,  in  enforcing  her  laws.  From  1865  on 
there  was  no  cessation  in  United  States  urgency 
of  the  claims  and  effort  to  arrive  at  some  ad- 
justment, including  claims  for  "indirect  dam- 
ages," above  mentioned,  which  excited  the 
wrath  of  all  parties  in  England.  At  last,  by  the 
Treaty  of  Washington  (q.v.),  8  May  1871,  it 
was  agreed  that  the  «  Alabama  Claims"  (which 
included  those  for  depredations  of  other  ves- 
sels) should  be  referred  to  five  arbitrators ;  one 
to  be  named  by  the  United  States,  one  by  Eng- 
land, and  one  each  by  the  king  of  Italy,  the 
emperor  of  Brazil,  and  the  president  of  Switzer- 
land ;  and  it  defined  for  their  guidance  the  du- 
ties of  a  neutral  and  the  phrase  '<  due  diligence." 
The  commission  met  at  Geneva.  15  Dec.  1871, 
and  named  as  chairman  Count  Federigo  Sclopis, 
the  Italian  nominee.  England  sent  Sir  Alex- 
ander Cockburn ;  the  United  States,  Charles 
Francis  Adams;  Brazil.  Baron  d'ltajuba.  Bra- 
zilian minister  to  France ;  Switzerland,  ex- 
President  Jacob  Staempfli.  The  chief  English 
counsel  was  Sir  Roundell  Palmer ;  while  the 
American  side  was  represented  by  W.  M.  Evarts, 
Caleb  Cushing,  and  M.  R.  Waite  (later 
Chief  Justice), —  Mr.  J.  C.  Bancroft  Davis  pre- 
paring its  case.  The  decision  was  given  14 
Sept.  1872 ;  for  its  rules  see  Geneva  Arbitra- 
tion. Indirect  damages  were  unanimously 
barred  out,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  too 
indefinite  to  estimate  under  international  law 
(q.v.)  ;  also  doubtless  for  the  reason,  not 
openly  expressed,  that  any  nation  would  take 
its  chance  of  going  to  war  rather  than  pay 
such  amounts,  more  than  any  conceivable  war 
indemnity.  England  was  held  liable  only  for 
the  Alabama  (unanimous),  Florida  (4  to  1), 
Shenandoah  in  part  (3  to  2),  and  the  tenders 
of  the  Alabama  and  Florida  (unanimous)  ;  the 
Retribution  failed  of  inclusion  by  3  to  2.  The 
total  amount  was  fixed  in  a  lump  at  $15,500,000, 
the  United  States  being  left  to  settle  with  pri- 
vate claimants.  That  the  total  was  sufficiently 
high  for  the  direct  losses  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  eight  years  after  the  establishment  of  a 
United  States  court  for  distributing  it  (  23  June 
1874),  claims  for  only  three  fifths  of  it  had  been 
allowed.  On  5  June  1882  a  second  court  was 
established  to  deal  with  the  remainder. 

If  the  award  failed  to  content  the  extremists 
on  either  side, —  the  Americans  too  sore  from 
the  war  losses  and  bereavements,  a<id  the  feel- 
ing of  English  foul  play  which  had  made  «  neu- 
trality »  a  national  byword  in  war  time,  to  give 
up  contentedly  all  indirect  damages;  or  the 
English  who  had  lost  their  investment,  and  who 
felt  that  laws  were  made  to  squeeze  and 
stretch  according  to  national  sympathies,  and 
that  every  nation  always  did  so  without  ac- 
countability.—  the  fact  of  such  a  dispute  bi 
the  two  foremost  nations  of  the  world  being 
submitted  to  arbitration  advanced  enormously 
the  cause  of  peace  in  the  world  (see  Arbitra- 
tion 1.  and  made  a  general  settlement  of  national 
contests  without  war  for  the  first  time  a  ra- 
tional forecast  instead  of  a  Utopia.  By  the 
curious  revolution  of  time,  the  United  States  has 
had  more  reason  to  feel  its  hands  tied  by  the 
award  than  England:  as  the  greatest  neutral  and 


ALABAMA  —  ALAMANNI 


trading  nation  in  the  world  it  lias  most  to  lose 
by  enlarging  the  responsibilities  of  neutrals  in 
time  of  war. 

Alabama,  University  of,  a  coeducational 
(non-sectarian)  institution  in  Tuscaloosa;  or- 
ganized in  1831:  Professors  and  instructors, 
50;  students,  400;  volumes  in  the  library,  25,000; 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $300,000;  pro- 
ductive funds,  $300,000;  income,  $42,563;  num- 
ber of  graduates,  553.  The  Medical  School  of 
the  university  is  located  in  Mobile. 

Alabama  Shad.    See  Herring. 

Alabandite,  an  iron-black,  submetallic 
mineral.  It  is  usually  granular-massive,  wdiile 
its  rare  isometric  crystals  exhibit  very  perfect 
cubical  cleavage.  The  black  color  of  a  fresh 
surface  tarnishes  to  a  dark  brown,  while  its 
streak  is  green.  Its  hardness  is  3.5  to  4  and  spe- 
cific gravity  about  4.0.  Alabandite  is  a  man- 
ganese monosulphide  MnS,  and  contains  63.1 
per  cent  of  manganese.  Some  of  its  most  im- 
portant localities  are  in  Austro-Hungary.  Peru, 
and  Mexico.  It  also  occurs  in  Summit  County, 
Col.,  and  at  Tombstone,  Ariz. 

Alabaster,  a  name  applied  to  two  sub- 
stances, the  one  a  stalagmitic  or  stalactitic  car- 
bonate  of  lime,  the  other  a  kind  of  gypsum  or 
sulphate  of  lime.  The  first  is  often  called  Ori- 
ental alabaster,  and  is  that  which  is  mentioned 
in  the  New  Testament.  It  occurs  in  caves  in 
limestone  regions,  and  is  a  translucent  stone  of 
yellowish  milky  color  or  of  a  deeper  tinge  of 
yellow,  and  sometimes  marked  with  lighter  and 
darker  streaks  like  an  onyx.  It  is  found  in  the 
cave  of  Antiparos,  the  Baumann's  cave  in  the 
Hartz,  and  is  now  worked  in  the  province  of 
Oran  in  Algeria.  The  gypseous  alabaster  has  a 
fine  granular  texture,  and  is  usually  of  a  pure 
white  color.  It  is  softer  than  the  other  alabaster, 
indeed  so  soft  that  it  may  be  scooped  out  with 
the  nails;  while  the  other  kind  cannot  be  so 
treated.  It  is  found  in  many  parts  of  Europe; 
in  great  abundance  and  of  peculiarly  excellent 
quality  in  Tuscany  and  Piedmont  in  Italy,  also 
in  England.  It  is  extensively  carved  into 
statuettes  and  vases  and  often  sold  as  "Floren- 
tine marble.'*  Many  museums  contain  ancient 
vases  and  similar  articles  of  alabaster,  for  which 
the  Romans  often  employed  this  material. 

Aladdin,  or  The  Wonderful  Lamp,  one  of 
the  stories  in  'The  Arabian  Nights'  Entertain- 
ments.' Aladdin,  the  son  of  a  poor  widow, 
comes  into  possession  of  a  magic  ring  and  lamp, 
and  thus  becomes  the  master  of  the  powerful 
jinns  who  are  the  slaves  of  the  lamp  and  ring. 
Through  their  powers  he  amasses  great  wealth 
and  becomes  Sultan. 

Alagoas,  a  maritime  province  of  Brazil, 
deriving  its  name  from  various  intercommuni- 
cating lakes  for  which  it  is  noted ;  capital  Ma- 
ceio.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by 
the  province  of  Pernambuco,  on  the  south  by 
that  of  Sergipe  del  Rey,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Atlantic;  area.  11/140  square  miles.  This  prov- 
ince has  several  lakes,  none  of  them  of  great  ex- 
tent, frequented  by  a  great  variety  of  birds ;  and 
in  the  west  several  ridges  of  hills,  none  of  them 
of  great  elevation,  but  generally  well  wooded, 
and  inhabited  by  abundance  of  game,  ounces, 
macaws,  etc.     From  the  extent  of  surface  cov- 


ered by  lakes  and  by  forests  the  climate  of  Ala- 
goas is  on  the  whole  moist.  The  plains  near  the 
sea  are  generally  sandy  and  ii"t  very  fertile; 
but  inland  the  soil  is  good,  producing  besides 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  sugar,  which  are  exported 
to  Bahia  and  Pernambuco,  rice,  cocoanuts,  man- 
goes, oranges,  jack-fruit,  and  abundance  of  fine 
timber  used  for  ship-building  in  the  above- 
named  ports  and  in  Maceio.  The  forests  fur- 
nish excellent  building  and  dye  woods,  and 
much  ipecacuanha.  Limestone,  granite,  and 
various  kinds  of  clay  abound  in  the  province. 
Pop.  (1902)  515,000. 

Alajuela,  al-a-wha'la,  a  city  of  the  State 
of  Costa  Rica,  Central  America,  23  m.  W.N.W. 
of  Cartago,  and  a  little  on  the  western  side  of 
the  watershed  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific.  It  is  connected  with  Cartago  by  rail. 
Pop.  16,000. 

Alaman,  a-la-tnan',  Lucas,  Mexican  histo- 
rian and  statesman:  b.  18  Oct.  1792;  d.  2  June 
1853.  He  was  educated  in  Spain  1814-20,  and 
served  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  1823-5, 
1830,  1837,  1853.  He  introduced  European 
machinery;  founded  a  museum  of  antiquities 
and  natural  history,  and  was  an  active  official 
encourager  of  industry  and  agriculture,  but  re- 
actionary in  religion  and  politics.  His  works 
are,  "Dissertations  on  the  History  of  the  Mexi- 
can Republic  from  the  Conquest  to  its  Independ- 
ence' (3  vols.  Mexico  1844-9),  an  introduc- 
tion to  his  'History  of  Mexico,'  1808-30  (5 
vols.  Mexico,  1849-52),  of  scholarly  impartiality 
in  the  main,  filled  with  documentary  proofs,  but 
with  a  tendency  to  belittle  the  actions  of  those 
not  of  pure  Spanish  blood. 

Alamanni,  or  Alemanni,  a  confederacy  of 
several  German  tribes  which,  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  3d  century  after  Christ,  lived  near 
the  Roman  territory,  and  came  then  and  sub- 
sequently into  conflict  with  the  imperial  troops. 
Caracalla  first  fought  with  them  in  211,  but  did 
not  conquer  them ;  Severus  was  likewise  unsuc- 
cessful. About  250  they  began  to  cross  the 
Rhine  westward,  and  in  255  they  overran  Gaul 
along  with  the  Franks.  In  259  a  body  of  them 
was  defeated  in  Italy  at  Milan,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  they  were  driven  out  of  Gaul  by 
Postumus.  But  the  Alemanni  did  not  desist 
from  their  incursions,  notwithstanding  the  nu- 
merous defeats  they  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the 
Roman  troops.  In  the  4th  century  they  crossed 
the  Rhine  and  ravaged  Gaul,  but  were  severely 
defeated  by  the  Emperor  Julian  and  driven  back. 
Subsequently  they  occupied  a  considerable  terri- 
tory on  both  sides  of  the  Rhine ;  but  at  last 
Clovis  broke  their  power  in  406  and  deprived 
them  of  a  large  portion  of  their  possessions. 
Part  of  their  territory  was  latterly  formed  into 
a  duchy  called  Alemannia  or  Swabia,  this  name 
being  derived  from  Suevi  or  Swabians,  the 
name  which  they  gave  themselves.  It  is  from 
the  Alemanni  that  the  French  have  derived  their 
names  for  Germans  and  Germany  in  general, 
namely,  Allemands  and  AUcmagne,  though 
strictly  speaking  only  the  modern  Swabians  and 
northern  Swiss  are  the  proper  descendants  of 
that  ancient  race. 

Alamanni,  Luigi,  Italian  poet:  b.  in  Flor- 
ence 1495 ;  d.  1556.  His  father  was  zealously 
devoted  to  the  party  of  the  Medici,  and  he  him- 


ALAMEDA  —  ALANI 


self  stood  in  high  favor  with  the  Cardinal  Giulio, 
who  governed  in  the  name  of  Pope  Leo  X. ;  but 
conceiving  himself  to  have  been  injured  he 
joined  a  conspiracy  formed  against  the  life  of 
the  cardinal.  The  plan  was  discovered ;  Ala- 
manni  fled  to  Venice ;  and  when  the  cardinal 
ascended  the  papal  chair,  under  the  name  of 
Clement  VII.,  he  took  refuge  in  France.  But 
the  misfortunes  which  befell  this  Pope  giving 
Florence  an  opportunity  to  become  free,  Ala- 
manni  returned  thither  in  1527.  His  country 
sent  him  on  an  embassy  to  Genoa.  Here  he 
became  the  friend  of  Andrea  Doria,  with  whose 
fleet  he  went  to  Spain.  Charles  V.  soon  after 
sailed  in  the  same  fleet  from  Spain  to  Italy  to 
arrange  the  affairs  of  Florence  and  subject  it  to 
the  Medici. 

After  this  new  revolution,  Alamanni,  now 
proscribed  by  the  Duke  Alessandro,  went 
to  France  (1530),  where  the  favors  of  Francis 
I.  retained  him.  Here  he  composed  the  greater 
part  of  his  works.  The  king  esteemed  him  so 
highly  that  after  the  peace  of  Crespy  in  1544 
he  sent  him  as  ambassador  to  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  Alamanni  discharged  his  office  with 
great  skill.  He  was  held  in  like  estimation  by 
Henry  II.,  who  also  employed  him  in  several 
negotiations.  He  followed  the  court  and  was 
with  it  at  Amboise,  when  he  was  attacked  with 
dysentery,  which  terminated  his  life  in  1556. 
His  principal  works  are  <  Opere  Toscane,>  <  La 
Coltivazione,'  <  Girone  il  Cortese,>  etc.  The 
English  poet  Wyatt  imitated  some  of  his  satiri- 
cal work.  The  writings  of  Alamanni  are  rec- 
ommended by  ease,  perspicuity,  and  purity  of 
style,  but  often  want  strength  and  poetic  eleva- 
tion. 

Alameda,  a-la-ma'da,  co-extensive  city 
and  township  in  Alameda  co.,  Cal.,  on  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  and  the  Southern  Pac.  R.R. ;  11  miles 
E.S.E  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
College  of  Notre  Dame  (Roman  Catholic)  ;  a 
popular  summer  resort,  and  the  place  of  resi- 
dence of  many  San  Francisco  business  men.  It 
has  numerous  banks,  electric  light  and  street 
railway  plants,  the  largest  borax  works  in  the 
world,  extensive  potteries,  oil  refineries,  and 
ship-building  yards.  The  government  of  the 
city  is  vested  in  a  board  of  four  trustees,  the 
president  of  which  is  executive  head.  It  has 
grown  from  a  population  of  100  in  1854  to  about 
18,000  in   1903. 

Alaminos,  a-la-me'nos,  Antonio  de,  Span- 
ish pilot :  b.  in  Palos,  Spain,  about  the  end  of 
the  15th  century.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
with  Columbus  in  1599,  and  was  the  principal 
pilot  for  the  expeditions  of  Cordova,  Ponce  de 
Leon,  and  others,  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th 
century.  The  earliest  map  of  North  America 
is  supposed  to  have  been  prepared  by  Alaminos. 

Alamo,  a'la-mo,  The,  San  Antonio,  Tex.:  a 
Franciscan  mission  house  built  about  1722  and 
called  San  Antonio  de  Valerio ;  after  1793  used 
on  occasion  as  a  fort  and  renamed  Fort  Alamo. 
It  consisted  of  an  oblong  plaza  some  2V2  acres  in 
area,  enclosed  by  walls  8  feet  high  and  33  inches 
thick,  a  church,  a  hospital  building,  a  convent, 
and  a  walled  convent  yard  about  100  feet  square. 
It  has  enduring  celebrity  as  the  scene  of  the 
battle  and  massacre  of  6  March  1836,  in  the  war 
for  Texan  independence.  The  fort  was  held  by 
about   140  men   under  Wm.    B.   Travis,   and  on 


23  February  was  invested  by  a  considerable 
Mexican  army  (probably  about  4,000)  under 
Santa  Anna,  who  at  once  began  a  bombardment 
scarcely  intermitted  for  the  next  ten  days.  The 
little  garrison,  compelled  to  man  the  defenses 
day  and  night,  and  too  few  to  relieve  each  other, 
sent  desperate  appeals  to  their  outside  com- 
rades for  help ;  but  to  break  through  the  dense 
Mexican  forces  was  so  difficult  that  the  only 
reinforcement  received  was  32  men  on  the  1st 
of  March.  At  last  a  breach  was  made  in  the 
walls,  and  shortly  after  daylight  on  the  6th  a 
general  assault  was  ordered.  Twice  the  storm- 
ing party  were  repulsed  with  heavy  loss  of  lives; 
the  third  time  they  gained  the  parapet  and  en- 
tered the  inclosure.  No  surrender  was  offered, 
and  the  result  showed  that  the  Texans  knew 
their  foe  too  well  to  expect  quarter;  worn  with 
fatigue  and  privation,  they  fought  to  a  finish, 
till  only  five  were  left.  These  were  taken  pris- 
oners, and  the  savage  Santa  Anna  had  them 
slaughtered  on  the  spot.  Three  women,  two 
white  children,  and  a  negro  boy  were  the  sole 
survivors  of  about  180  inmates.  Santa  Anna 
stated  the  Mexican  loss  at  70  killed  and  300 
wounded,  but  it  is  believed  to  have  been  much 
greater.  The  news  of  the  heroic  fight,  « the 
Thermopylae  of  America,"  nerved  the  Texans 
in  all  their  future  efforts,  and  their  slogan  was 
«  Remember  the  Alamo !  »  Santa  Anna  him- 
self was  defeated  and  captured  at  San  Jacinto  a 
few  weeks  later.  (Corners,  <  San  Antonio  de 
Bexar,)  1890;  Williams,  <  Sam  Houston  and 
the  War  of  Independence,)  1893;  J.  L.  Ford, 
<  Origin  and  Fall  of  the  Alamo,'    1896.) 

Aland  Islands,  a  group  of  about  80  is- 
lands and  islets  between  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
and  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Gulf  of  Finland;  area,  468  square  miles.  The 
principal  islands  are  Aland,  which  is  the  largest, 
and  gives  name  to  the  group,  Lemland,  Lumpar- 
land,  Ekeroe,  Fogloe.  Kumlinge,  Braendoe,  Vor- 
doe,  and  Hannoe.  Aland,  distant  about  30  miles 
from  the  Swedish  coast,  is  25  miles  long  and 
about  22  broad.  In  this  island  is  a  harbor  ca- 
pable of  containing  the  whole  Russian  fleet. 
The  chief  towns  are  Aland  and  Castelholm.  The 
islands  are  now  included  in  the  province  of 
Finland.     Pop.  about  19,000. 

Alani,  or  Alans,  one  of  the  warlike  tribes 
which  migrated  from  Asia  westward  at  the 
time  of  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire.  They 
are  first  met  with  in  the  region  east  of  Mount 
Caucasus,  where  Pompey  fought  with  them. 
From  this  centre  they  spread  over  the  south  of 
modern  Russia  to  the  confines  of  the  Roman 
empire.  They  were  engaged  in  war  with  Rome 
in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  but  were  defeated  by 
Arrian,  the  general  of  that  emperor.  Marcus 
Aurelius  had  much  difficulty  in  keeping  them  out 
of  the  empire,  and  Tacitus  concluded  a  treaty 
with  them  (275  a.d.).  About  a  century  later 
those  on  the  banks  of  the  lower  Danube  wire 
conquered  by  the  Huns,  after  which  most  of 
them  joined  the  ravaging  expeditious  of  that 
people.  They  accompanied  Rhadagais  on  his 
march  into  Italy,  and  after  his  defeat  they  settled 
first  on  the  Rhine,  afterward  (about  4111  in 
modern  Portugal.  Being  there  completely  de- 
feated by  the  Visigoths,  they  joined  the  Van- 
dals, among  whom  they  have  become  lost  to 
history. 


ALANUS  AB  INSULIS  — ALASKA 


Alanus  ab  Insulis,  a-la'nus  ab  in'su-lis,  or 
Alain  de  Lille,  a-lan'  de  101,  a  noted  French 
scholastic  philosopher  :  b.  1114  ;  d.  1203,  Of  his 
voluminous  theological  writings  the  best  known 
i,  the  treatise  on    'The  Articles  of  the   Faith.* 

His  p ,      Vnti-Claudinus,  or  On  the   Duties 

of  a  Good  and  Perfect  Man,"  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  poetic  compositions  of  the  Middle 
Ages. 

Alarcon,  al-ar-kon',  Ferdinando  de,  called 
El  Scrior  Alarcon,  a  Spanish  general:  b.  1466; 
(1.  1540.  To  his  care  Francis  I.  of  France  was 
entrust  1  after  his  capture  at  tin-  battle  of  1'avia. 
He  also  to<  charge  of  Clement  VII.  when  that 
pope  w.is  taken  prisoner  by  the  troops  of  the 
Constable    Bourbon    in    1527. 

Alarcon,  Hernando,  a  Spanish  navigator: 
flourished  in  the  [6th  century  ;  leader  of  an  ex- 
pedition to  Mexico  which  set  sail  in  154°-  He 
proved  that  California  was  a  peninsula  and  not 
an  island,  as  had  been  supposed  previously. 
lie  penetrated  in  boats  a  considerable  distance 
up  the  Colorado  River.  On  his  return  to  New 
Spain  he  made  a  valuable  map  of  the  California 
peninsula. 

Alarcon,  Pedro  Antonio  de,  a  distin- 
guished Spanish  novelist,  poet,  and  politician: 
b.  in  Guadix,  10  March  1833;  d.  19  July 
1N01.  His  critical  contributions  to  papers,  politi- 
cal and  literary,  his  description  of  the  Moroccan 
campaign,  but  especially  his  novels  and  short 
stories,  are  among  the  best  of  their  kind,  and 
present  a  picture  of  modern  Spanish  society  as 
true  t"  life  as  it  is  variegated.  His  clever  es- 
say, 'The  Toil's  Christmas,'  went  through  over 
100  editions.  An  imposing  number  of  his  sialics 
appeared  under  the  collective  titles  'Lo\e  and 
Friendship,'  'National  Tales,'  "Improbable 
Stories.'  Among  them  (The  Three-Cornered 
Hat'  and  'The  Scandal'  deserve  special  men- 
tion. 

Alarcon  y  Mendoza,  a-lar-lton  0  man-do'- 
tha,  Don  Juan  Ruiz  de,  a  noted  Spanish  dram- 
atist: b.  in  Tasco,  Mexico,  about  1588  or  1500:. 
d.  4  Aug.  [639.  Little  is  known  about  his  early 
life,  but  be  went  to  Spain  in  1600  and  became 
royal  attorney  in  Seville.  From  [608  to  ton  he 
was  in  Mexico;  then  he  took  1111  1 1  i ^  residence  in 
Madrid,  where  he  was  appointed  reporter  ol  the 
royal  council  of  the  Indies,  about  1628.  The 
last  great  dramatist  of  the  old  Spanish  school, 
be  may  he  considered  also  the  creator  of  the 
so-called  character  comedy.  Elevated  sentiment, 
harmony  of  verse,  and  correctness  of  language 
distinguish  bis  works,  the  principal  of  which 
are  'The  Weaver  of  Segovia':  'Suspicious 
Truth,'  the  model  for  Corneillc's  'Liar': 
(Walls  Have  Ears';  'The  Proof  of  Promises'; 
'The  Anti-Christ.'  A  complete  edition  of  his 
work-  was  published  by  Hartzenbusch  in 
Madrid    1 

Al'aric  I.,  king  of  the  Visigoths:  b.  about 
the  middle  of  the  jth  century;  d.  410,  and  is 
fir^t  mentioned  in  history  in  394  A.D.,  when 
Theodosius  the  Great  gave  him  the  command  of 
his  Gothic  auxiliaries.  The  dissensions  between 
Arcadius  and  Honorius,  the  sons  of  Theodosius, 
inspired  Alaric  with  the  intention  of  attacking 
the  Roman  empire.  In  306  he  ravaged  Greece, 
from  which  he  was  driven  by  the  Roman  gen- 
eral Stilicho,  but  made  a  masterly  retreat  to  II- 


lyria,  of  which  Arcadius,  frightened  at  his  suc- 
cesses,  appointed  him  govei In  400  he  in- 
vaded Italy,  hut  was  deflated  by  Stilicho  at 
Pollentia  (403),  and  induced  to  transfer  his 
services  from  Arcadius  to  Honorius  on  condition 
of  receiving  4,000  pounds  of  gold.  Honorius 
having  failed  to  fulfil  this  condition,  Alaric 
made  a  second  invasion  of  Italy,  during  which 
he  besieged  Rome  thrice.  The  first  tune  (408) 
the  city  was  saved  by  paying  a  heavy  ransom; 
the  second  (409)  it  capitulated,  and  Honorius 
was  deposed,  but  shortly  afterward  restored. 
His  sanction  of  a  treacherous  attack  on  the 
forces  of  Alaric  brought  about  the  third  siege, 
anil  the  city  was  taken,  24  Aug.  410,  and  sacked 
for  six  days,  Alaric,  however,  doing  everything 
in  his  power  to  restrain  the  violence  of  his 
followers.  He  quitted  Rome  with  the  intention 
of  reducing  Sicily  and  Africa,  but  died  at  Co- 
senza. 

Alaric  II.,  king  of  t he  Visigoths  from  4S4 
to  507  a. ip.  At  the  beginning  of  bis  reign  the 
dominions  of  the  Visigoths  were  at  their  great- 
est extent,  embracing  three  fourths  of  the  mod- 
ern Spain  and  all  western  Gaul  to  the  south  of 
the  Loire.  I  lis  unwarlike  character  induced 
Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  to  invade  the  king- 
dom of  the  Visigoths.  In  a  battle  near  Poictiers 
(507)  Alaric  was  slain  and  bis  army  completely 
defeated.  The  'Breviarium  Alaricianum,'  a 
code  Of  laws  derived  exclusively  from  Roman 
sources,  was  compiled  by  a  body  of  Roman 
jurists  at  the  command  of  this  King  Alaric. 

Ala-Shehr,  a-la-shar',  ancient  Philadelphia, 

a  town  in  Turkey  in  Asia,  70  miles  east  of 
Smyrna,  famous  as  the  seat  of  one  of  the  first 
Christian  churches,  and  still  having  a  vast 
number  of  interesting  remains  of  antiquity,  con- 
sisting of  fragments  of  beautiful  columns,  sar- 
cophagi, fountains,  etc.  It  is  a  place  of  some 
importance,  carrying  on  a  thriving  trade,  chiefly 
with  Smyrna,  to  which  runs  a  railway.  Top. 
19,000. 

Alaska,  I  unit  al-ak-sbak  or  al-a-ek-sa, 
"great  land,"  formerly  Russian  America;  a 
Territory  of  the  United  Slates,  the  NAV.  ex- 
tremity of  the  continent ;  bounded  N.  by  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  S.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  E. 
by  Canada  (Yukon  District  and  British  Colum- 
bia], W.  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  Siberia,  and  the 
Bering  Sea.  Lat.  540  40'  to  710  30'  N.  ;  Ion. 
mainland  141°  to  167  59'  12"  W.,to  the  farthest 
island  (Attoo)  about  1870.  Length,  mainland 
about  1,150  m.,  Aliaskan  Peninsula  and  islands 
1,500  m.  (as  far  west  of  San  Francisco  as  Maine 
lies  to  the  east )  ;  breadth  N.  to  S.,  about  850 
m. ;  coast  line,  about  8,000  m. ;  area,  590,884  sq. 
m.  Pop.  (1900)  63,592  (for  items  see  Popula- 
tion, below);  (1902)  about  90,000.  Capital,  Sit- 
ka (formerly  New  Archangel),  in  the  extreme 
southeast. 

Sise  of  Alaska. —  For  many  reasons,  but 
chiefly  because  of  its  distance  from  the  United 
States  and  the  present  difficulties  of  travel  in 
its  interior,  the  size  of  the  territory  has  been 
but  little  understood  and  probably  much  under- 
estimated. The  mere  statement  that  the  area  of 
Alaska  is  nearly  600,000  square  miles  will  give 
but  a  vague  idea  of  its  vast  extent.  If  it  were 
possible  to  take  the  whole  territory  of  Alaska 
and  its  adjoining  islands  and  place  them  upon 
the  portion  of  North  America  occupied  by  the 


ALASKA 


United  States,  it  would  be  a  simple  thing  to 
show  exactly  the  proportionate  size  of  this 
great  possession.  This,  in  effect,  has  been  done, 
as  the  accompanying  illustration  demonstrates. 
The  chart  was  prepared  by  Mr.  Alfred  H. 
Brooks  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
It  shows  that  the  Territory  of  Alaska  is  suffi- 
cient in  geographic  extent  to  reach  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  and  from  Canada  to  .Mex- 
ico. Placed  in  this  position  on  the  United 
States,  Alaska  would  cover  23  States  and  Terri- 
tories and  the  western  third  of  Lake  Superior. 

Topography. —  Alaska  consists  of:  (1)  A 
squarish  block  with  the  oceans  on  all  sides  but 
the  east.  (2)  A  strip  of  mountain  coast  50  to 
75  m.  wide,  for  some  500  m.  further  southeast, 
the  last  300  m.  fenced  from  the  ocean  by  a  won- 
derful maze  of  1,100  forested  mountainous 
islands  called  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  13,000 
sq.    m.    in    area,    and    separated    by    glacier-cut 


They  are  divided  into  groups,  known  as  the  Fox 
(the  first  of  which,  Unimak,  is  the  largest  of 
the  archipelago),  the  islands  of  Four  Mountains, 
the  Andreanof,  the  Rat,  and  the  Near  islands. 
The  southern  part  of  the  main  body  is  a  vast 
concave  called  the  Gulf  of  Alaska,  its  two  arms 
the  southeast  coast  and  Aliaska:  the  latter  di- 
vided from  the  north  mainland  by  Bristol  Bay, 
and  nearly  made  an  island  by  the  great  Iliamna 
Lake,  the  Nikhkak  "loch"  N.E.,  and  their  river 
outlet  S.E.  To  the  east,  but  physically  belong- 
ing to  the  first  division,  is  the  important  Kenai 
Peninsula,  divided  from  it  and  the  mainland  by 
Cook's  Inlet,  nearly  cut  off  by  Turnagain  Arm, 
and  separated  on  the  east  by  Prince  William 
Sound.  Half  the  western  side  is  taken  up  by  a 
deep  concavity,  its  cusps  being  Cape  Romanoff 
on  the  south,  and  Point  Hope  and  Cape  Lis- 
burne  to  the  north.  From  its  centre  projects  the 
huge    tooth-shaped    Seward    Peninsula,    divided 


Alaska  compared  with  the  rest  of  the  United  States. 


channels  variously  styled  sounds,  straits,  canals, 
entrances,  inlets,  etc.  They  are  divided  from 
the  mainland  N.  by  Cross  Sound, —  the  ocean 
opening  of  the  great  Klondike  route,  where  the 
fiord  Lynn  Canal,  an  inlet  about  100  m.  long, 
leads  tn  passes  over  the  mountains, —  the  begin- 
ning of  a  striking  physical  change,  where  the 
St.  Elias  Range  and  the  greatest  glaciers  begin 
and  the  greatest  forests  end ;  and  from  Queen 
Charlotte  Islands  (Canadian)  by  Dixon  En- 
trance. The  chief  of  these  islands  are  (from 
the  north)  Chicagof.  Admiralty.  Baranof  (con- 
taining Sitka).  Kulu,  Kupreano,  Zarembo, 
Prince  of  Wales  (the  largest),  and  Revilla- 
gigedo.  (3)  To  the  southwest  the  Aliaska  Penin- 
sula, about  450  m.  long,  and  a  chain  of  some 
150  islands,  31,000  sq.  m.  in  area  (the  Aleutian 
Islands  or  Archipelago)  over  1,000  m.  further, 
nearly  to  Kamchatka.  Bering's  and  Copper  is- 
lands, near  the  Siberian  coast,  belong  to  Russia. 


from  Siberia  by  Bering  Strait ;  the  western 
extremity  being  called  Cape  Prince  of  Wales, — 
only  48  m.  from  East  Cape  (the  extremity  of 
the  Kamchatka  Peninsula),  with  the  Diomed 
Islands  between, —  and  the  southern  point  being 
termed  Cape  Nome.  The  bays  south  and  north 
of  it  are  styled  Norton  Sound,  off  Bering  Sea, 
and  Kotzebue  Sound,  off  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The 
northernmost  point  of  Alaska  is  Point  Barrow, 
where  Franklin's  second  Arctic  expedition  end- 
ed its  course.  St.  Lawrence  Island,  about  150 
m.  long,  lies  between  Cape  Romanoff  and  the 
Siberian  peninsula,  but  nearer  the  latter;  and 
the  Pribyloff  Islands  of  seal  fame  are  out  in 
Bering  Sea,  about  250  m.  northwest  of  the  point 
nf  Aliaska. 

Physically  the  Territory  may  be  divided  into 
four  sections,  climatically  and  productively  dis- 
tinct:  the  Coast-Mountain,  the  Insular,  the 
Basin,   and  the   Yukon-Arctic   Districts. 


ALASKA 


I.  The  Coast-Mountain  District. —  Apart 
from  the  islands  this  consists  entirely  of  two 
great  mountain  ranges,  geologically  distinct, 
with  a  glaciered  plateau  between  them.  One 
(the  St.  Elias  Range)  starts  at  Cross  Sound 
where  the  coast  from  northwest  turns  west,  and 
hugs  it  closely  to  Prince  William  Sound.  The 
other  (the  Coast  Range)  comes  from  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  runs  parallel  to  the 
coast  till  it  turns,  with  a  narrow  table  along  the 
sea;  continues  northwest  behind  the  St.  Elias 
to  about  63°  N.  lat.,  forming  the  western  water- 
shed of  the  upper  Yukon;  then  turns  southwest 
in  a  stupendous  range  called  the  Alaskan  Moun- 
tains of  the  Kenai  and  Aliaskan  peninsulas, 
forming  the  watershed  of  the  Tanana  and  Kus- 
kokwim  valleys.  The  coast  range  proper  is  a 
series  of  irregular  spurs  with  peaks  6,000  to 
8,000  ft.  high,  the  permanent  snow  line  being  at ' 
an  elevation  of  about  2,000  ft.  The  Alaskan 
Range  is  the  highest  elevation  in  North 
America :  flanked  on  the  east  by  the  grand  iso- 
lated volcano  Mt.  Wrangell  (eruptive  early  in 
the  10th  century),  then  from  lower  summits  ris- 
ing steadily  to  the  west  till  it  culminates  in 
enormous  nameless  peaks,  crowned  by  a  named 
one,  Ml.  McKinley,  20,460  ft.,  the  summit  of  the 
continent.  Of  the  other  peaks  in  this  range, 
measurements  have  been  taken  of  Hayes,  14,- 
500  ft.;  Sanford,  14,000;  Tillman  and  Drum, 
13.300  each;  Iliamna  and  Redoubt,  volcanoes, 
about  12,000  each;  and  Lituya,  11,832  ft.  The 
St.  Elias  Range  is  far  loftier,  narrower,  and 
more  regular  than  the  Coast  Range,  and  next 
to  the  Alaskan  the  highest  land  on  the  con- 
tinent. The  part  beyond  Vakutat  Ray  is  known 
as  the  Chugach.  Mt.  Crillon,  near  Cross  Sound, 
is  15,900  ft.  high;  Mt.  Fairweather  just  north, 
15,292;  Mt.  Vancouver,  above  Yakutat  Bay, 
15,666;  Mt.  Cook,  above  Malaspina  Glacier, 
13.75s:  Mt.  St.  Elias  (q.v.),  18,024.  The  high- 
est peak  of  this  range,  Mt.  Logan,  back  of  Mt. 
Cool    (  19,500  ft.),  is  in  Canada. 

The  seaward  Hanks  of  all  these  mountains 
bear  in  most  places  fields  of  everlasting  and 
ever-fresh  ice,  from  which  move  down  to  the 
coast  through  the  valleys  the  rivers  of  ice  called 
glaciers;  but  the  St.  Elias  has  scarce  anything 
else,  the  Chugach  producing  the  most  enormous 
ones  on  earth  outside  the  polar  regions.  The 
Swiss  glaciers  beside  them  would  be  nameless 
and  disregarded  rills.  These  ice-rivers  have 
plowed  their  valleys  into  deep  gorges,  sinking 
for  miles  inland  far  below  sea-level  and  creating 
the  fiords  or  narrow  stccp-walled  mountain  bays 
with  which  the  coast  is  fringed,  and  making  is- 
lands of  the  lower  coastal  lands.  Every  gorge 
down  to  the  head  of  its  fiord  is  choked  with 
these  _  ice-streams,  pushing  swiftly  down  and 
breaking  off  hourly  in  an  amazing  number  of 
gigantic  icebergs;  and  where  there  is  a  strip 
of  coast  between  the  mountain-foot  and  the  sea, 
they  bank  up  and  spread  out  over  it  in  titanic 
ice  walls  of  many  miles  frontage.  The  tremen- 
dous Malaspina  Glacier,  which  lies  along  Ya- 
kutat Bay  and  the  coast  beyond,  is  the  most  not- 
able of  these:  it  is  1,550  ft.  high,  and  has  an 
area  of  500  to  600  sq.  m.  Valdcz  Glacier  at 
Prince  William  Sound  runs  15  m.  along  the 
coast,  full  of  death-dealing  crevices.  The  most 
familiar  are  those  along  the  Klondike  route: 
Muir  Glacier  at  the  head  and  east  end  of  Glacier 
Bay,  over  200  feet  high  and  3  m.  long,  and  Pa- 


cific Glacier  to  the  west  of  it,  off  Fairweather 
Mountain.  Other  vast  ones  are  Miles  Glacier 
off  the  mouth  of  Copper  River,  and  Baring 
Glacier  just  east  of  it. 

Real  rivers  are  naturally  few  in  this  district 
The  little  Chilkat  running  into  Lynn  Canal  is 
familiar  from  the  pass  above  it.  The  largest 
is  the  Copper  River,  with  a  considerable  affluent, 
the  Chechitna,  both  unnavigable  from  rapids. 
Nearly  as  large  and  more  valuable  is  the 
Sushitna  (lowing  into  Cook's  Inlet,  navigable 
for  no  m. ;  its  affluent,  the  Yentna,  is  navigable 
for  100  more,  and  leads  to  a  pass  into  the  Kus- 
kokwim  Valley.  The  Knik  empties  into  a  fiord 
of  Cook's  inlet,  and  has  an  arm,  the  Matanuska. 

2.  The  Insular  District  comprises  the  Ali- 
askan Peninsula  and  the  Aleutian  Islands,  the 
southwestern  continuation  of  the  Alaskan  chain 
nearly  to  Siberia;  the  lower  levels  sinking  under 
the  ocean,  and  for  over  1,000  miles  only  the 
tops  showing  as  islands,  though  these  sometimes 
rise  thousands  of  feet  about  the  waves.  Of  the 
150  composing  the  chain  61  are  volcanoes,  of 
which  10  are  sporadically  active  ;  the  monarch 
of  all  is  the  grand  Shishaldin,  8,000  ft.  above  the 
sea.  Akutcn,  Mashunin,  and  others,  are  also 
on  fire.  Bogoslov  was  thrown  up  by  volcanic 
action  in  1796.  They  have  grass  and  shrubs,  but 
no  trees.  The  great  wooded  Kadiak  Island,  just 
east  and  near  the  mainland,  is  a  prolongation  of 
Kenai  Peninsula  and  belongs  to  the  first  group. 

3.  The  Basin  District. —  This  is  the  great 
space  enclosed  by  the  Alaskan  Mountains  south- 
east and  the  Lower  Yukon  watershed  (a  rather 
low  one),  and  drained  into  Bering  Sea  by  the 
Kuskokwim,  a  large  but  shallow  and  bar- 
obstructed  stream  rising  on  Mt.  McKinley.  Its 
somewhat  sheltered  position  gives  it  a  climate 
possible  for  civilized  existence  and  available  for 
pasturage  and  some  hardy  crops  in  the  lower 
valley,  while  the  upper  valley  leads  through 
rich  mineral  lodes. 

4.  The  Yukon-Arctic  District. —  The  Yukon 
River  (q.v.),  one  of  the  chief  in  the  world, 
emerging  from  Canada,  runs  for  a  long  distance 
in  a  mountainous  plateau ;  as  do  its  tributaries, 
the  Porcupine,  which  enters  from  the  northeast 
at  what  was  Fort  Yukon  north  of  the  Arctic 
Circle;  Birch  Creek,  from  the  southeast  not  far 
below,  through  a  now  famous  mining  district; 
and  the  Tanana,  rising  near  Mt.  Wrangell,  flow- 
ing along  the  eastern  and  northern  flanks  of  the 
Alaskan  Range,  and  entering  the  Yukon  about 
1520  W.  ion.  In  its  lower  course  the  Yukon  cuts 
through  a  vast  swampy  moor.  The  coast  to 
the  north  is  mountainous  to  Point  Barrow,  in- 
cluding the  great  central  western  peninsula ;  the 
interior  west  of  the  Porcupine  2  J  ills  continues 
the  moor,  sloping  to  the  interminable  wastes  of 
tundra  (a  treeless  plain  full  of  ponds  and 
swamps  cut  up  by  small  valleys)  that  stretch 
to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  coast  north  of  the 
delta  is  mountainous.  Kotzebue  Sound  receives 
three  large  rivers,  the  Selawik,  Kowak,  and 
Noatak ;  and  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the 
northern  side  flows  the  Colvillc  through  vast 
tundra  wastes. 

Climate. —  The  climate  of  the  entire  Coast- 
Mountain  and  Insular  districts  is  dominated  by 
the  two  influences  of  the  mountain  barrier  and 
the  Japanese  "Black  Current"  or  Kuro  Shiwo 
(q.v.),  which  flows  along  it  to  California.  The 
former  shields  the  coast  from  the  Arctic  winds; 


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ALASKA 


the  latter  fills  the  air  with  warm  vapors  which 
the  prevailing  western  winds  drive  against  the 
icy  mountain  flank,  condensing  them  into  almost 
perpetual  rain  or  fog.  The  annual  rainfall  of 
the  southern  strip  is  from  60  to  90  inches  (a 
fall  of  156  inches  has  been  known)  ;  and  the 
days  of  rain  in  the  year  average  from  190  to 
285.  August  and  September  are  specially  rainy 
months.  For  the  same  reasons  the  temperature 
is  less  extreme  than  in  districts  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains ;  up  to  Sitka  it  is  about  the 
same  as  that  of  British  Columbia.  It  rarely 
exceeds  o°  or  80°,  and  is  isothermal  at  40° 
annual  mean  with  the  lower  St.  Lawrence,  the 
Rocky  Mountains  deflecting  the  line  northward. 
Going  north  and  west  there  is  greater  cold, 
snow  and  wind ;  Cook's  Inlet,  however,  is  for 
some  reason  free  from  fog.  Along  the  coast  of 
Norton  Sound,  where  the  mountainous  coast  and 
the  warm  current  flowing  into  Bering  Sea  still 
exercise  a  tempering  influence,  the  weather  re- 
mains milder  than  in  the  interior,  with  winters 
less  long  and  rigorous.  But  inside  the  moun- 
tains, where  their  shelter,  the  moderating  cur- 
rent, and  the  vapors,  are  all  absent,  semi-arctic 
conditions  prevail.  In  the  Kuskokwim  Valley 
the  average  temperature  from  December  to 
March  is  about  zero,  and  en  the  Lower  Yukon 
at  Nulato  (about  65°  N.  lat.)  it  is  about — 160. 
The  Yukon  freezes  to  a  depth  of  from  6  to  9 
feet.  There  is  a  short  warm  summer  and  a 
very  long  intense  winter  in  all  this  district, — the 
former  uncertain,  the  latter  sure;  the  cold  sinks 
to — -50°  in  spells.  Farther  north  the  climate  is 
pure  Arctic:  at  Point  Barrow  (where  the  gov- 
ernment keeps  up  at  times  a  whalers'  relief  house 
and  a  weather  observatory)  the  annual  mean  is 
250 ;  and  the  northern  tundra  has  a  permanent 
layer  of  frozen  soil  6  or  8  feet  thick  from  about 
3  feet  below  the  surface. 

Flora. —  The  moisture  and  temperate  climate 
of  the  southern  strip  has  bred  the  same  gigantic 
forests  which  cover  the  entire  northern  Pacific 
coast  from  northern  California  upward ;  their 
great  size  and  commercial  value  ending  at  Cross 
Sound,  and  they  change  to  quasi-arctic  conditions, 
but  reaching  in  lesser  proportions  to  Kadiak  Is- 
land. The  deciduous  trees  are  rather  small,  ex- 
cept the  poplars,  which  are  often  of  great  size; 
but  enormous  evergreens  clothe  all  the  moun- 
tains to  the  snow  line  and  cover  all  the  islands. 
The  many  thousands  of  square  miles  of  white 
pines,  cedars,  and  firs  will  soon  become  of  prime 
importance  to  a  world  wasting  its  trees  so  fast. 
Most  valuable  of  all  as  timber  is  the  yellow 
cedar  (Cufrcssas  nutkaensis) ,  a  straight-grained 
and  highly  durable  wood,  from  which  the  Haida 
Indians  make  their  remarkable  dugout  canoes, 
sometimes  75  feet  long  by  8  to  10  wide,  and  ^ 
carrying  100  people.  The  balsam  fir  is  used  for 
tanning.  But  the  local  wood-of-all-work  is  the 
Sitka  or  Alaska  spruce  (Abies  sitchensis),  the 
most  universal  of  Alaskan  trees,  reaching  in 
stunted  form  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  large 
enough  for  much  utility  only  on  the  southeastern 
and  southwestern  coasts.  It  is  too  knotty  for 
fine  boards;  but  for  rough  lumber,  house  or 
mining  timber,  firewood  and  lightwood,  sledges, 
etc.,  it  is  the  great  resource  of  natives  and  for- 
eigners alike.  The  Aleutian  Islands  have  only 
berry  bushes  and  dwarf  willows.  The  hills 
of  the  lower  Kuskokwim  have  little  wood:  but 
the  mountains  of  its  earlier  course  have  heavy 


spruce  forests  on  their  sides,  and  the  valleys  are 
thick  with  shrubs,  grass,  and  tall  flowering  herbs. 
The  northwestern  hills  are  naked.  The  Yukon- 
Arctic  tundra  has  only  in  permanence  low 
bushes  and  dwarf  scrub  spruce  and  willows, 
though  the  brief  summer  brings  out  a  profusion 
of  herbage. 

Fauna. — -That  of  Alaska  is  of  immense  va- 
riety and  commercial  importance.  The  fur  ani- 
mals are  of  course  first  in  popular  interest.  Most 
valued  is  the  sea-otter  (Lata.v  lutris)  of  the 
southern  coast,  once  plentiful  and  the  means  of 
livelihood  of  many  Aleut  trappers;  but  for  that 
reason  it  is  now  nearly  exterminated,  only  154 
being  caught  in  1889.  The  marten,  the  wolver- 
ene, and  the  coarser- furred  ermine  are  common; 
sables  are  found  in  the  forests ;  and  mink,  musk- 
rat,  and  some  though  diminishing  otter  and 
beaver  in  the  rivers.  Foxes  are  of  several  kinds 
and  among  the  most  valuable  of  fur  animals; 
the  white  arctic  fox  is  found  on  the  western 
coast  and  the  northern  islands ;  the  blue  fox  on 
the  Aleutians,  where  it  is  regularly  bred  for  its 
fur ;  red  and  cross  foxes  in  all  parts ;  the  black 
fox  in  the  eastern  mountains.  Bears  (q.v.)  in- 
clude the  grizzly,  black,  polar,  and  glacier,  and 
the  gigantic  Kadiak  varieties.  Gray  wolves,  the 
ancestors  of  the  sledge  dog,  furnish  a  coarse  fur, 
and  lynxes  and  smaller  animals,  finer  varieties. 
Fossil-elephant  ivory  is  an  article  of  commerce. 
The  food  animals  include  the  moose  of  the  Kus- 
kokwim Valley  ;  the  caribou-reindeer,  once  nu- 
merous, but  now  nearly  exterminated,  though 
the  government  is  attempting  to  stock  the  coun- 
try with  Lapland  and  Siberian  reindeer ;  the 
arctic  hare  and  porcupine,  marmots,  squirrels, 
and  lemmings  ;  with  sheep  and  goats  in  the  south- 
eastern mountains.  The  list  of  birds  and  mam- 
mals of  purely  scientific  interest  is  very  great, 
but  cannot  be  given  here.  Swarms  of  insects 
are  as  numerous  and  formidable  as  in  the 
tropics ;  especially  mosquitoes,  which  rise  in 
throngs  to  the  very  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
sting  even  bears  and  moose  around  the  eyes  till 
they  are  maddened  into  miring  themselves  in  the 
swamps,  force  the  native  hunter  to  wrap  his 
head  in  furs,  and  make  a  settled  lowland  class 
almost   an   impossibility. 

Seals,  Whales,  etc. —  The  fin  seal  once 
swarmed  all  along  the  western  coast  and  the 
Bering  Sea  islands,  but  now  resorts  solely  to 
the  Pribyloff  and  Copper  islands.  The  former 
were  leased  many  years  ago  to  the  Alaska 
Commercial  Company,  under  contract  to  kill 
only  100,000  adult  males  a  year,  no  females 
or  very  young  males.  As  the  herds  showed 
signs  of  exhaustion,  the  number  was  reduced  to 
30,000;  but  the  company  is  now  able  to  secure 
little  more  than  half  that  number,  as  pelagic  seal- 
ing—  before  the  herds  reach  the  islands  —  is 
rapidly  annihilating  them.  Forbidden  by  the 
United  States  to  its  subjects,  iliis  pelagic  scaling 
was  done  by  Canadians  (some,  perhaps,  with 
American  capital  behind  them),  who  killed  many 
more  at  sea  than  the  company  does  on  the  is- 
lands, and  without  restriction  of  kind.  The 
United  States  tried  fur  years  to  have  GriaL 
Britain  join  in  suppressing  the  slaughter;  but 
that  country  would  not  antagonize  Canada  to  the 
behoof  of  the  United  States  (though  to  its  owli 
also,  as  the  seals  furnish  the  most  important 
fur  of  the  world).  At  last,  in  1902,  Great  Brit- 
ain   formed    a    protective    agreement    with    the 


ALASKA 


United  States;  on  which  the  Canadians  took 
shelter  tinder  the  Japanese  (lap;  and  went  on 
slaughtering  as  before.  Unless  all  the  great 
Powers  join  hands,  the  practical  extinction  of 
the  fur-seal  i^  predictable  in  no  long  time,  with 
the  destruction  of  the  livelihood  of  many  native 
Alaskans.  The  other  seals,  though  of  no  mo- 
ment to  civilized  trade,  are  the  very  life  of  the 
natives,  who  shoot  and  spear  them  for  food, 
dress,  boots,  tents,  boats,  dog  harness,  whips, 
etc.,  and  use  the  skins  in  barter.  The  walrus 
tills  a  similar  function  to  the  Eskimo  around 
and  north  of  Bering  Strait;  but  its  hunting  by 
civilized  men  for  ivory  is  also  exterminating  tin- 
race.  The  natives  also  rely  much  on  whales, 
which  are  likewise  hunted  by  the  whaling  fleets, 
which  take  about  150  a  year,  and  often  linger 
too  long  and  arc  frozen  in  for  the  winter ;  thus 
arctic  conditions  render  the  extinction  of  the 
whale  unlikely. 

For  Fisheries,  Agriculture,  Commerce  and 
Transportation,  etc.,  see  Alaska.  Recent  De- 
velopment OF.      See  also    1   1  R     1i-\i>e,   TlIE. 

Geology. —  Alaska  is  geologically  one  of  the 
latest  portions  of  the  continent.  The  west  coast 
and  the  Aleutian  Islands  are  of  very  recent  vol- 
canic upthrow;  and  the  entire  peninsula  islands 
and  Bering  Sea  basin  are  still  rising.  The  ac- 
tivity of  the  forces  now  at  work  is  shown  not 
only  by  the  vast  number  of  volcanoes  eruptive 
or  but  recently  so,  but  by  the  great  number  of 
valuable  hot  mineral  springs  of  every  chemical 
character.  The  southeastern  strip  and  archi- 
pelago are  believed  to  be  later  than  the  Triassic 
period;  they  are  part  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
granitic  system,  overlaid  by  sedimentary  rocks. 
The  Sk  Elias  is  thought  to  be  the  youngest 
range  on  the  continent,  and  post-Tertiary  in 
elevation. 

Minerals. —  Coal  is  found  in  many  places, 
from  the  upper  Yukon  to  the  Aleutian  Islands 
and  Cape  Lisburne,  where  it  is  now  and  then 
utilized  by  whalers  or  revenue  vessels.  Much 
money  has  been  sunk  in  mining  it :  but  it  is  a 
sulphurous  lignite,  endurable  only  for  household 
use,  and  it  has  been  found  cheaper  to  import 
coal  for  making  steam.  The  iron  is  also  poor. 
Copper,  galena,  marbles,  and  petroleum  are  other 
products  as  yet  not  much  exploited. 

The  all-important  mineral  product  so  far  is 
gold,  in  which  Alaska  promises  to  take  high 
rank.  The  Russians  and  trappers  knew  of  gold 
sands  and  placers,  but  the  Russian  government 
did  not  wish  prospecting  in  a  district  utterly 
beyond  effective  control.  With  its  acquisition 
by  the  I'nitcd  States  a  new  policy  prevailed,  and 
prospectors  began  an  active  search  for  precious 
metals.  The  first  great  discovery  was  made  on 
Douglas  Island,  in  the  Alexander  Archipelago 
at  the  foot  of  Lynn  Canal  :  the  first  placer,  which 
drew  together  a  mining-camp;  then  of  the  quartz 
ledges  they  had  crumbled  from,  which  in  tin- 
bands  of  a  powerful  corporation  rank  among 
the  richest  mines  of  the  world,  keeping  1,500 
stamps  busy,  and  making  the  island  and  adjoin- 
ing mainland  one  huge  mine,  connected  by  a 
tunnel  under  the  water.  Exhaustless  water- 
power  close  by,  and  the  ore  cars  running  down 
to  the  stamps  by  their  own  weight,  enable  very 
low-grade  ores  to  be  worked  at  a  high  margin 
of  profit.  Profitable  mines  have  also  been 
opened  near  by,  and  the  town  of  Juneau  is  built 
up  by  this  interest  on  the  mainland  shore  oppo- 


site. Other  mines  are  worked  in  various  islands 
of  the  Archipelago  and  along  the  shores,  some 
around  Sitka,  some  on  Lynn  Canal.  Placer 
mining  and  sand-washing  have  also  yielded  a 
good  return  at  Yakutat  Bay  and  on  the  islands 
and  shores  about  Cook's  Inlet.  Greater  still 
were  the  discoveries  in  the  Yukon  basin,  insti- 
gated by  the  Klondike  placer  finds  higher  up  the 
river  OH  Canadian  soil  in  1890-7.  The  whole 
upper  Yukon  was  eagerly  prospected,  and  very 
rich  deposits  found,  especially  in  the  valleys  of 
the  affluents  Tanana  and  Birch  Creek,  which 
produced  about  $1,000,000  in  1900.  But  greatest 
of  all  was  the  result  of  washing  the  beach  sands 
on  Norton  Sound;  those  at  Cape  Nome  were 
found  in  1898-9  to  be  so  rich  that  the  neighbor- 
ing streams  which  fed  them  wire  searched,  and 
some  of  the  richi  >l  placers  on  the  earth  revealed. 
The  return  of  the  washing  was  fully  $4,000,000 
in  1900.  The  whole  Territory  produced  $8,171,- 
000,  or  395,039  ounces  of  fine  gold,  against  [21,- 
766  ounces  valued  at  $2,459,500  in  1899,  or  3^ 

times   increase   in  one  year. 

Population. —  Rough  estimates  were  made  by 
Russians  in  1839  and  1863,  with  results  of  39,813 
and  30,434  —  the  latter  certainly  the  more  nearly 
accurate.  In  [880  the  first  United  States  census 
was  attempted  under  many  difficulties,  and  found 
430  whites,  1,756  half-breeds,  and  31,240  natives 
—  33,426  in  all.  In  1890  a  closer  computation 
fixed  the  total  at  32.052  of  all  kinds.  In  1900  it 
was  returned  at  63,592:  native  Indian,  29,536; 
Chinese,  3,116;  Japanese,  279;  negro.  [68;  white, 
30,493,  of  whom  only  3,200  were  female.  The 
Chinese  were  mostly  in  the  Southern  salmon 
canneries  and  lumbering  industries.  Of  the  in- 
crease of  31,540  over  1890,  pretty  much  all 
white,  23,435  was  in  the  Yukon  basin.  Making 
allowance  for  errors  in  former  calculations, 
the  natives  had  fallen  Off  somewhat.  In  the 
past  two  years  more  than  25,000  men  are  esti- 
mated to  have  poured  into  the  Nome  district, 
making  perhaps  90,000  altogether,  about  60,000 
being   white. 

I  In-  native  races  of  Alaska  are  from  four 
main  stocks:  (1)  The  Eskimo  (q.v.),  occupy- 
ing originally  most  of  the  interior  and  coasts. 
(2)  The  Athabascans  (q.v.),  who  occupied  the 
upper  Yukon  Valley  and  Eastern  mountains,  and 
the  southern  coast  from  Yakutat  Bay  to  Cook's 
Inlet.  (3)  The  Aleuts  (see  ALEUTIAN  Is- 
lands), of  the  Aliaskan  Peninsula  and  the 
islands  beyond.  (4)  The  Thlimceets  (q.v.), 
from  Yakutat  Bay  to  Puget  Sound,  a  superior 
race.  The  Alaskans  as  a  body  are  of  a  far 
higher  type  than  the  Red  Indians — -a  fact  which 
makes  the  theory  of  the  peopling  of  America 
from  Siberia  improbable.  They  have  not  needed 
to  be  put  in  reservations,  as  they  have  not  the 
fickleness  or  ferocity  of  the  Red  Indians,  have 
a  far  better  forecast  of  the  future  and  greater 
willingness  to  labor  steadily,  and  have  readily 
taken  up  civilized  individual  employments. 
There  is  no  industry  brought  in  by  white  men 
in  which  natives  cannot  be  employed,  though 
they  are  debarred  from  several  by  the  refusal 
to  admit  them  to  citizenship.  Unfortunately 
the  rapid  killing  off  of  the  land  and  marine 
animals  and  river  fish  by  white  companies  is 
impairing  their  old  livelihoods,  and  liquor  and 
alien  diseases  are  decimating  them;  the  Aleuts 
are  nearly  exterminated. 


THE    KAIHAK    FOX. 


Painted  by  CbarUs  R.  Knight. 


THE    KAl'lAK    HEAR. 

ALASKAN  MAMMALS  DISCOVERED  BY  THE    HARRIMAN    EXPEDITION,   ALASKA. 


ALASKA. 


COURTESY  UF  DOUBLEDAY.  PAGE  4  CO. 


I.  City  of  Skagway. 


Phi.>t  by  Miles  Bros. 

2.   City  of  Dawson. 


ALASKA 


Government. —  Alaska,  like  other  Territories, 
is  governed  by  United  States  officials :  there  is 
a  governor  resident  at  Sitka,  a  surveyor-general, 
courts  and  judges,  etc.  There  is  no  Territorial 
legislature,  however;  but  municipal  self-govern- 
ment is  allowed  to  towns  of  some  size.  It  is 
divided  into  three  judicial  districts,  with  head- 
quarters at  Juneau,  Eagle  City,  and  St.  Michael; 
the  judges  may  appoint  commissioners  in  their 
districts  to  act  as  civil  and  criminal  officers, 
recorders,  judges  of  probate,  etc.  A  criminal 
code  was  given  it  in  1899,  a  civil  code  in   1900. 

Education  and  Religion. —  In  1900  the  United 
States  appropriated  $30,000  for  public  schools 
in  Alaska,  and  maintained  25.  Towns  may  tax 
themselves  for  school  purposes.  Mission  schools 
are  maintained  by  various  Protestant  bodies 
(who  are  active  in  Christian  work  here),  and 
the  Russian  Greek  Ghurch,  which  also  sustains 
churches.  An  industrial  training-school  at  Sitka 
is  supported  by  the  Presbyterian  Church.  The 
majority  of  the  natives  are   Christianized. 

History. —  The  peninsula  and  strait  were  dis- 
covered in  1728  by  Vitus  Bering,  a  Danish 
navigator  in  Russian  service.  He  explored  the 
coast  and  islands  in  1741,  and  Russian  adven- 
turers entered  the  country,  maltreating  the 
natives  so  that  they  once  provoked  a  massacre 
which  was  frightfully  avenged.  Capt.  Cook 
explored  the  coast  in  1776,  discovering  Cook's 
Inlet.  The  same  year  the  Russians  organized 
a  company  for  the  Alaska  trade,  and  in  1784 
made  the  first  permanent  settlement  at  Three 
Saints,  on  Kadiak  Island.  In  1790  they  made 
the  famous  Alexander  Baranov  manager.  He 
established  a  colony  on  Bering  Strait  in  1796; 
in  1799,  when  the  Russian- American  Company 
was  organized,  with  a  20-year  monopoly,  ex- 
tended in  1820  and  1844,  Baranov,  as  their 
manager,  took  possession  of  the  island  named 
after  him,  founded  Sitka,  and  began  an  ex- 
tensive trade  with  the  natives  which  was  after- 
ward extended  to  China  and  the  Atlantic  ports 
of  the  United  States.  Under  its  auspices  the 
Russian  Greek  Church  established  many  mis- 
sions. A  scheme  to  lay  a  cable  under  Bering 
Strait,  for  which  energetic  explorations  were 
carried  on  1864-7,  was  superseded  by  the  At- 
lantic cable.  But  the  territory  never  paid  its 
expenses  to  Russia,  which  was  saddled  with 
claims  on  its  behoof  and  was  anxious  to  be  rid 
of  it.  During  the  Civil  War  she  was  actively 
friendly  to  the  United  States  government,  put- 
ting warships  at  its  disposal ;  and  as  a  dis- 
guised payment  the  government,  on  the  advice 
of  William  H.  Seward,  secretary  of  state, —  who 
had  an  enthusiastic  belief  in  Alaska's  future, — 
took  the  territory  off  her  hands  in  March  1867, 
paying  $7,200,000  for  it.  On  18  October  the 
American  forces  took  formal  possession  at 
Sitka,  and  the  next  year  the  United  States  cus- 
toms, etc.,  laws  were  extended  over  it.  The 
United  States  and  Russia  claimed  joint  owner- 
ship of  Bering  Sea  as  an  inland  water,  to  pro- 
tect their  seal-fisheries ;  Great  Britain  could  not 
be  expected  to  allow  the  claim  for  so  vast  an 
oceanic  body,  especially  when  urged  by  Cana- 
dian sealing  interests,  and  the  seizure  of  Cana- 
dian sealing  vessels  by  the  United  States  caused 
an  acrid  international  dispute  for  years.  At 
length  in  1902  a  protective  agreement  was  en- 
tered into  between  the  two  nations ;  for  its  re- 
sults see  Seals,  etc.,  above.  There  was  also  an 
old  contention  as  to  United  States  and  Canadian 
Vol.  1 — 15 


boundaries,  not  pressed  because  the  districts  in 
debate  were  reckoned  worthless.  But  tin-  gold 
discoveries  on  the  Yukon  in  1896-7  and  at  ( 
Nome  in  1898-9  (see  Minerals  and  Chief 
Towns,  above),  with  the  vast  influx  of  popula- 
tion, made  some  settlement  imperative ;  for  years 
no  decision  was  arrived  at  beyond  a  modus 
Vivendi,  the  rival  claims  covering  too  much  of 
value,  but  on  3  Sept.  1903  the  Alaskan  Boun- 
dary Com  mission  (q.v.)  met  in  London  to  de- 
termine the  matter.  The  chief  crux  was  over 
the  district  around  Lynn  Canal,  Canada  claiming 
the  ports  at  the  head  which  form  part  of  the 
main  Klondike  routes, —  Skagway,  Dyea,  and 
Pyramid  Harbor. 

Although  it  is  of  evident  importance  that 
the  United  States  navy  should  in  case  of  a  crisis 
be  able  to  obtain  coal  supplies  at  Sitka,  no  coal 
is  kept  there  by  mercantile  companies,  and  the 
navy  has  frequently  been  embarrassed  for  want 
of  such  supplies  in  the  protection  of  American 
seal  and  other  interests.  In  May  1903  prelimi- 
nary steps  were  taken  for  the  establishment  of 
a  coal  station  at  Dutch  Harbor.  This  port  is 
in  the  northern  part  of  Unalask;.  (q.v.),  one 
of  the  Aleutian  Islands,  and  is  on  the  direct 
commercial  routes  between  the  ports  of  Bering 
Sea  and  southern  Alaska  and  the  Pacific  coast 
of  the  United  States.  It  is  also  on  the  line  of 
steamers  passing  through  the  Unimak  Pass, 
most  of  which  make  it  a  port  of  call.  Dutch 
Harbor  will  form  the  fifth  station  in  the  chain 
of  coal  depots  along  the  Pacific  Coast,  which 
will  begin  at  San  Diego  and  include  San  Fran- 
cisco, Puget  Sound,  and  Sitka.  The  fact  that 
Alaska  is  separated  from  the  States  by  hundreds 
of  miles  of  coast  line  in  a  foreign  domain,  con- 
stitutes a  strong  reason  why  that  great  territory 
should  be  provided  with  its  own  coaling  sta- 
tions. Territorial  status  was  granted  to  Alaska 
6  June  1900. 

Bibliograph  y. —  Abercrombie  ( W.  R ) , 
'Alaska*  (1899);  Aldrich  (H.  L),  "Arctic 
Alaska  and  Siberia1  ;  Balch,  'The  Alaska- 
Canadian  Frontier'  (1902)  ;  Bancroft  (H.  H.), 
'Alaska,  1730-1885';  Bruce,  'Alaska:  Its  His- 
tory and  Resources'  ;  'Compilation  of  Narra- 
tives of  Explorations  in  Alaska'  (U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Affairs  Committee)  ;  Elliott,  'Our  Arctic 
Province';  Foster  (J.  W.),  'The  Alaskan 
Boundary'  ;  Harriman,  'Alaska  Expedition'  ; 
Jackson  (Sheldon),  'Alaska1  ;  Karr,  'The 
Shores  and  Alps  of  Alaska';  'Maps  and  De- 
scriptions of  Routes  of  Exploration  in  Alaska 
in  1898'  (U.  S.  Geological  Survey)  ;  'Mono- 
graph on  Seal  Islands'  ( 10th  U.  S.  Census  Re- 
port) ;  Petroff,  'Population  and  Resources  of 
Alaska'  (nth  U.  S.  Census  Report);  Reid, 
'Studies  of  the  Muir  Glacier'  ;  Report  of  Com- 
missioner of  Education  (1901);  Russell,  'An 
Expedition  to  Mount  St.  Elias'  (U.  S.  Geologi- 
cal Survey)  ;  Schwatka,  'Report  of  a  Military 
Reconnaissance  in  Alaska'  (1883);  'Along 
Alaska's  Great  River'  ;  Swan,  'The  Northwesl 
Coast'  (U.  S.  Geological  Survey)  ;  Swineford, 
'Alaska'  ;  Vancouver,  'Voyage  of  Discovery  to 
the  North  Pacific  Ocean  in  1790-5'  ;  Whymper, 
'Travel  and  Adventure  in  Alaska'  ;  Wright, 
'The  Ice  Age  in  North  America.' 

Alaska,  Commercial.  The  United  States 
purchased  Alaska  from  Russia,  in  1867,  for 
$7, 200,000.  Prior  to  the  purchase  and  for  some 
years,  chiefly  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in  Cal- 


ALASKA,  COMMERCIAL 


ifornia    in    1849,    a    considerable    trade    in    fish, 
lumber,  and  ice,  bad  been  built  up  between  San 

ncisco  and  Alaska.  On  thai  point,  the  Hon. 
O.  P.  Austin,  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics 
of  the  Department  of  Commerce  and  Labor,  in 
his  monograph  on  Alaska,  published  in  1903, 
says:  "Commercial  companies  were  funned  in 
San  Francisco  and  Alaska  to  engage  in  that 
trade,  and  the  information  thus  obtained  regard- 
ing Alaska  and  its  possibilities,  formed  some  of 
the  causes  which  led  to  the  favorable  considera- 
tion of  the  proffer  of  sale  of  Alaska,  made  by 
the  Russian  ambassador  at  Washington  to  Sec- 
retary of  State  Seward,  in  1864,  and  completed 
in  1867."  Thus  was  the  vast  territory  of  Alaska 
and  the  Aleutian  Islands  acquired  and  added  to 
the  national  domain  of  the  United  States  for 
what  is  now  the  value  of  the  country's  internal 
commerce,  for  only  one  hour,  reckoning  that 
commerce  at  twenty-two  thousand  million  dol- 
lars a  year,  the  working  days  at  three  hundred 
yearly,  and  the  working  hours  at  ten  for  each 
day. 

Great  progress  in  Alaskan  matters  generally, 
and  in  its  value  to  the  United  States  has  been 
made  since  the  day  on  which  "Seward's  lee- 
berg"  was  acquired,  but  even  yet  only  the  fringe 
of  Alaskan  possibilities  has  been  touched.  With 
the  acquirement  of  Hawaii,  Guam  and  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  undreamed  of  in  Seward's  day 
and  until  a  very  few  years  ago,  with  the  far- 
thest point  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  almost 
touchin;  ■  farthest  point  of  the  Empire  of 
Japan,  with  the  Philippines  within  as  easy  reach 
of  Japan  s  Xcw  York  is  of  Liverpool,  and 
with  the  prolific  territory  of  Hawaii  and  Little 
Guam  as  milestones  on  the  American  way  across 
the  grct  Pacific,  who  can  measure  the  present 
commercial  possibilities  of  Alaska,  with  its 
wealth  of  furs,  fish,  gold,  coal,  iron,  and  other 
minerals?  Those  possibilities  cannot  be  meas- 
ured, but  a  brief  study  of  what  has  been  done 
and  is  being  done,  will  afford  us  a  glimpse  of 
what  the  womb  of  the  future  has  in  store  for 
the  Alaskan  interests  of  the  United  States. 

.  Irea  and  Population. —  According  to  the 
census  of  1900  the  gross  area  of  Alaska  is  51)0.804 
square  miles.  In  a  recent  report  the  governor  of 
Alaska  states  that  this  is  equal  to  the  area  of 
tin-  jo  States  of  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Ver- 
mont, Massachusetts.  Rhode  Island,  Connec- 
ticut, New  York.  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  West  Virginia, 
North  Carolina.  South  Carolina,  Georgia.  Flor- 
ida, Alabama,  Mississippi,  and  Tennessee.  In 
his  report  for  1901,  the  governor  states  that 
the  area  of  Alaska  in  acres  is  369,529,600. 

The  journey  from  Seattle  to  the  nearest 
point  in  Alaska  covers  no  greater  distance  than 
a  journey  from  New  York  to  Cincinnati,  and 
from  Seattle  to  the  most  distant  point  in  Alaska 
is  about  as  far  as  from  New  York  to  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  first  is  a  two-day  trip  by  steamer, 
and  the  latter  (Seattle  to  Nome)  requires 
12  days.  From  Seattle  to  the  gold  fields  of 
the  Yukon,  by  ocean  steamer,  rail  and  well- 
equipped  river  steamer,  consumes  about  six  days. 

The  population  of  Alaska  at  the  date  of  the 
transfer  was  estimated  at  about  30,000.  One 
third  of  this  number  was  Eskimo,  located  in  the 
entire  north,  one  third  Indian,  located  in  the 
south,  and  the  last  one  third  Russian  or  mixed 
Russian  and  Indian.     The  census  of  1900  gives 


the  population  at  63,592,  an  increase  of  over  too 
per  cent.  Of  the  63,592,  30,507  were  whites, 
29,53<>  natives,  3,116  Chinese,  205  Japanese  and 
158  negroes.  Of  the  30,507  whites,  .'7.307  were 
males.  It  is  not  estimated  that  the  population 
is  much  greater  now  (  1905)  as  the  Cape  Nome 
and   Yukon   gold   rushes   have   quieted   down. 

Industries.-  Furs,  fisheries,  and  mining 
(mainly  gold)  are  the  principal  industries  of 
Alaska  at  the  present  time.  From  the  acquire- 
ment of  the  Territory  in  1867  to  1004,  inclusive, 
37  years,  the  gross  product  of  these  industries 
has  been:  Furs,  $54,000,000;  fisheries,  $75,000,- 
000;  mining  (since  1880),  $62,000,000;  total, 
$191,000,000,  or  more  than  2(  times  the  $7,200,- 
000  purchase  price  of  the  entire    Territory. 

Mining. —  The  recorded  gold  production  be- 
gan with  $6,000  in  1880.  reaching  $9,101,000  in 
1904,  by  the  following  •quinquennial  stages: 
1880,  $6,000;  1885,  $300,000;  1890,  $762,500; 
1895,  $1,615,300:  1900,  $8,171,000;  1902,  $8,345,- 
000:  1904,  $9,101,000. 

The  silver  production  has  been  small:  1890, 
$9,697;  1895,  $86,880;  1000,  $94,772;  1004,  esti- 
mated, $90,000.  While  gold  i  :  the  only  mining 
industry  in  Alaska,  which  has  so  far  received 
particular  attention,  there  arc  other  mineral  de- 
posits equally  valuable  waiting  development. 
Large  deposits  of  coal,  some  of  great  commer- 
cial value,  exist  in  the  Copper  River  Valley, 
and  on  the  shores  of  Cook's  Inlet.  Valuable  de- 
posits of  iron  are  believed  to  exist  alongside 
these  coal  beds,  while  extensive  copper  deposits 
have  been  found  in  the  main  range  of  the  Coast 
Mountains.  In  the  Copper  River  extensive 
argentiferous  quartz  deposits  of  a  promising 
character,  have  been  discovered.  From  other 
regions  have  come  rumor",  cf  mineral  deposits. 
Putting  aside  these  rumors  and  the  present 
large  annual  gold  production,  it  is  easy  to  antici- 
pate how  very  much  greater  will  be  the  value 
of  "Commercial  Alaska"  as  soon  as  railways 
are  built  to  open  these  large  deposits  of  coal, 
iron,  and  copper,  the  three  mineral  resources, 
the  most  useful  to  the  gigantic  manufacturing 
interests   of   the   American   mainland. 

In  an  address  to  the  American  Institute  of 
Mining  F.ngineers,  at  the  I^ike  Superior  meet- 
ing in  September  1904,  Mr.  Alfred  II.  Brooks 
said:  "The  developments  of  the  last  five  years 
have  shown  that  Alaska,  as  a  field  for  mining, 
stands  in  the  first  rank  among  the  possessions 
of  the  United  States.  Its  annual  gold  output 
is  now  about  $8,000,000.  It  also  produces  sil- 
ver, copper  and  coal  in  paying  quantities,  and 
its  recently  discovered  tin  and  petroleum  prom- 
ise to  become  important  products.  Concurrent 
with  the  gradual  development  of  this  wealth. 
the  mining  public  has  ceased  to  regard  the  Ter- 
ritory simply  as  an  Arctic  province,  where  a 
few  placer  miners  struggle  with  adverse  con- 
ditions to  secure  a  good  stake,  or  a  modest 
fortune.  Of  late  years  there  has  been  a  large 
influx  of  capital  to  investigate  its  mineral  re- 
sources, but  in  its  area  of  nearly  600,000  square 
mihs  there  still  remain  large  uncompleted  and 
little  known  fields." 

Mention  must  also  be  made  of  the  finding 
of  asbestos,  platinum,  gypsum,  uranium,  lead, 
zinc,  graphite  in  large  quantities,  near  Nome, 
and  marble.  The  latter  promises  to  become  an 
important  product  of  Alaska.  Large  quarries 
covering  400  acres  are  located  on  Prince  of 
Wales    Island.     Gray   marble    is   also   found   on 


ALASKA,  COMMERCIAL 


Ham's  Island  and  the  contiguous  mainland.  It 
is  exceptionally  hard  and  stands  a  test  of  10,000 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  fact  must  also 
be  recorded  that  the  principal  mines  of  lignite, 
anthracite,  bituminous  and  cannel  coal,  found 
in  every  section  of  the  Territory,  are  located  on 
navigable  streams,  and  near  tide  water,  thus 
enabling  this  industry,  when  railroad  transpor- 
tation is  provided,  to  be  placed  on  a  favorable 
footing  as  a  competitor  with  the  coal  fields  of 
British  Columbia.  The  coal  mining  of  Alaska 
is  destined  to  be  an  enormous  industry.  In 
the  Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce  room,  there 
is  a  lump  of  coal  weighing  1,500  pounds.  It 
came  from  Cape  Sabine,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Ships  have  mined  their  own  coal  there.  In  his 
annual  report  for  1902,  the  governor  of  Alaska 
said :  "One  thing  about  the  gold  from  Alaska 
that  should  not  be  forgotten  is  that  every  ounce 
of  it  is  a  measure  of  human  energy  and  hard- 
ship, as  much  so  as  is  a  bushel  of  grain,  a 
measure  of  the  farmer's  toil." 

The  report  of  the  Senate  Committee,  sent  to 
Alaska  in  1903  to  investigate  conditions  in  the 
Territory,  bears  ample  witness  to  the  vast 
wealth  of  Alaska's  mineral  resources,  sub- 
ject to  the  provision  of  transportation  fa- 
cilities, particularly,  for  all  minerals  out- 
side of  gold,  the  present  annual  output 
of  which  is  more  than  paying  the  full  pur- 
chase price  of  the  Territory  each  year.  Inci- 
dentally, the  report  says :  <cThe  resources  of 
Alaska  are  indicated  by  the  fact  that  since  the 
government  yielded  in  revenues  to  the  general 
government  nearly  $10,000,000,  a  sum  greater 
by  nearly  $1,000,000  than  the  entire  expenditure 
made  in  her  behalf,  as  appears  from  the  records 
of  the  Federal  Treasury  Department."  In  other 
words,  Alaska  is  not  costing  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment a  single  dollar  to  govern  the  Territory 
but  is  actually  making  a  profit  for  the  treasury 
besides  paying  its  purchase  price  once  each 
year  in  gold,  and  over  a  million  dollars  more, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  nearly  $10,000,000  a  year 
which  it  sends  us  in  furs  and  fish.  All  the  Ter- 
ritory and  all  its  resources  to  the  good,  without 
cost,  and  a  large  yearly  profit  earned,  besides. 
On  such  a  record  as  that,  "Commercial  Alaska" 
has  a  great  present  and  the  certain  promise  of 
a  far  greater  future. 

With  three  or  four  railroads  crossing  Alaska 
in  different  directions,  men,  capital,  and  ma- 
chinery will  go  in  and  the  coal,  iron,  copper, 
lead,  zinc,  marble,  tin,  and  other  minerals  will 
come  out,  besides  a  far  larger  annual  output  of 
fish,  gold,  and  silver.  Then  will  go  in  Ameri- 
can products  and  American  manufactures  to  an 
amount  many  millions  greater  than  the  $11,108.- 
004  worth  of  merchandise  which  we  sent  to 
Alaska  in   1904. 

Agriculture. —  Until  quite  recent  years,  agri- 
culture was  an  unknown  quantity  in  connection 
with  Alaska.  Furs,  fish,  and  gold  absorbed  the 
attention  of  employers  and  settlers.  But  since 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
sent  representatives  into  the  Territory  to  ex- 
amine and  seriously  consider  its  agricultural 
possibilities  public  attention  has  been  drawn  to 
that  class  of  Alaska's  manifold  resources.  In 
this  neglect  to  examine  into  the  agricultural 
possibilities  of  Alaska,  we  have  one  of  the  many 
ways  in  which  Alaska,  until  very  late  years,  has 
not  been  taken  seriously  by  the  American  peo- 
ple.    Alaska  is  a  land  of  more  than  furs,  fish, 


and   gold.     It   is  a  land  where  many  phases  of 
agriculture  can  be  profitably  utilized. 

It  is  not  expected  or  claimed  that  Alaska 
will  become  a  great  agricultural  territory,  but  it 
is  capable  of  supplying  the  agricultural  needs  of 
its  present  population,  and  of  the  population  as 
it  gradually   increases. 

In  his  report  for  1899,  the  governor  of 
Alaska  said:  "Oats,  wheat,  rye,  varieties  of  bar- 
ley, and  buckwheat,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  pota- 
toes, turnips,  ruta-bagas,  thyme,  sage,  hi 
radish,  carrots,  beets,  parsnips,  lettuce,  radishes, 
peas,  horse-beans,  onions,  celery,  clover,  flax, 
rhubarb,  etc.,  were  planted,  and  nearly  every 
one  brought  to  perfection.  The  cereals  were 
planted  the  last  of  April,  and  came  to  maturity 
with  full  plump  grain  the  last  of  September. 
They  grow  with  rank  straw.  Good  garden  truck 
was  successfully  grown  as  far  north  as  Eagle 
City,  upon  the  Yukon." 

In  each  of  his  five  annual  report^  since  1899, 
the  governor  of  Alaska  has  continued  to  point 
out  and  emphasize  the  good  possibilities  of  the 
lines    of    agriculture,    specified    above. 

In  agriculture,  Alaska  is  eminently  a  poor 
man's  country.  Such  can  get  direct  and  imme- 
diate returns  for  their  own  labor  from  adja- 
cent consumers.  Farming  makes  men  inde- 
pendent. Farming  will  give  to  Alaska  a  1  I 
of  thrifty,  industrious,  and  self-reliant  citizens  — 
the  very  class  of  men  who  have  made  the 
United  States  what  it  is  to-day,  a  nation  of 
workers,  not  idlers ;  of  doers,  not  dreamers ;  of 
men,   not  chattels. 

Agricultural  results  in  Alaska,  so  far,  have 
been  so  small,  measured  in  money,  that  a  sta- 
tistical record  or  comparison  would  not  mean 
anything,  and  is  therefore  omitted.  In  this  sec- 
tion of  American  enterprise  and  energy,  Alaska 
has  as  yet  taken  only  a  few  tottering  st 
When  railroads  cross  and  recross  the  Territory 
(and  some  are  already  building)  agricultural 
settlers  will  go  in,  small  farms  will  be  staked 
off  and  worked,  crops  will  be  raised,  local  wants 
supplied,  and  the  surplus  be  shipped  to  Oregon, 
Washington,  California,  and  British  Columbia. 
Manufactures. —  The  census  of  1900  gr 
Ala-ka  the  following  credit  for  manufacturing 
interests  located  in  the  Territory:  Number  of 
establishments,  63 ;  capital,  $3.600.400 :  wage- 
earners,  average,  2,263 :  wages  paid  yearly, 
$r>395-7°9;  cost  of  materials  used  yearly, 
$'•"85,776:  yearly  product,  $4,250,984. 

We  Ret  an  idea  of  the  increase  in  Alaska's 
interest  in  manufactures  by  noting  the  figures  of 
that  interest,  as  shown  by  the  census  of  is**.: 
Number  of  establishments.  10:  capital.  $105,727; 
wage-earners,  average.  78:  yearly  wages,  $18,- 
625:  cost  of  materials  used,  yearly,  $30,l<>8: 
yearly  product.  $58,440. 

The  increase  here  shown,  in  only  ten  years, 
is  very  large,  being  practically  an  increase  of 
98"/  per  cent  in  the  yearly  product  Among 
the  2.263  wage-earners  only  one  woman  was 
employed.  The  other  2,262  were  males  of  at 
least   16  years  of  age. 

The  census  of  1900  gives  1,962  as  the  horse- 
power in  use  in   Alaskan  factories  —  an  increase 
of  1. 511  horse  power  or  555  per  cent   over  1890. 
This   power  was   furnished  by  40  steam   engil 
14  water  wheels,  and  II   electric  motors. 

Food  and  kindred  product-,  such  as  fish,  can- 
nine;  and  preserving,  etc..  represented  $3,821,136 
of  the  $4,250,984  total  yearly  product  of  all  tile. 


ALASKA,  COMMERCIAL 


manufacturing  of  the  Territory,  which  ranks 
fourth  among  the  States  and  rerritories  of  the 
Union  in  fish,  canning  and  preserving. 

In  lumber,  manufactured  and  unmanufac- 
tured, tin   cei         of  1900  credits  Alaska  with  a 

rly  product  of  $429,848.  Those  two  items 
make  up  the  $4,250,984  total  yearly  manufactur- 
ing product   of    101*1. 

But  that  is  only  a  beginning.  Winn  Alaska 
has  railroads,  saw-mills  will  be  built,  and  its 
vast  forest  wealth  made  use  of.  Mr.  I'ctroff,  an 
authority,  says:  Forests  of  Alaska:  "The  tim- 
ber of  Alaska  extends  over  a  much  larger  area 
than  a  great  many  surmise.  It  clothes  the  steep 
hills  and  mountain  iidi  .  and  chokes  Up  the  val- 
ley of  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  and  the  con- 
tiguous mainland;  it  stretches,  less  dense,  but 
still  abundant,  along  that  inhospitable  reach  of 
territory  which  extends  from  the  head  of  Cross 
Sound    to    the    Keuai    Peninsula."      The   "Sitka 

spruce"    is    the    universal    forest    tree    of    Alaska 

and  is  found  of  gigantic  si/c  on  the  islands  of 
the  1    Archipelago,   and  on   the   shores 

of  Prince  William  Sound.  This  spruce  is  used 
in  the  construction  of  nearly  every  dwelling 
throughout  the  Territory.  It-  sappy  outer  por- 
tion   is   used   as   torches   to   light    up   the   dark 

dwellings   of   the    interior   tribes,    and    the    w 1 

used  in  many  domestic  ways.  The 
huge  plank-  for  house  building  are  obtained  by 
splitting,    mostly   by   hand. 

Cine  of  tl"    hi' -1  valuable  Alaskan  woods  is 

yellow  cedar.  It  combines,  says  Mr.  Pctroff.  a 
fine  close  texture,  with  great  hardness,  durabil- 
ity, and  a  peculiar  but  pleasant  odor.  The  Rus- 
sian- named  it  "dushnik"  (scented  wood). 
I  luring  the  wasteful  Russian  occupation  of 
ka,  this  tree,  though  of  such  great  value, 
was  nearly  exterminated  in  the  vicinity  of 
Sitka,  and  on  the  Baranof  and  adjoining  is- 
lands, but  considerable  bodies  of  it  still  exist 
on  the  i'.riti-h  Columbian  frontier  on  Prince  of 
Wales  Island,  on  Koo  [stand,  and  a  few  other 
islands  of  the  Alexander  Archipelago.  In  the 
Nass  and  Skeeua  River  valleys  it  is  also  abun- 
dant. 

Other  Alaskan  woods  are  hemlock  and  balsam 
fir.  but  not  of  great  value,  as  compared  with  the 
Sitka  spruce  and  the  yellow  cedar.  At  present 
lumber  from  Puget  Sound  and  British  Columbian 
mills  is  -hipped  to  nearly  all  ports  in  western 
Alaska  for  the  use  of  whites  and  half-breeds, 
while  the  natives  in  their  more  remote  settle- 
ments obtain  planks  and  boards  by  the  very  la- 
borious process  of  splitting  logs  with  iron  or 
ivory  wedges.  Evidently  the  forests  of  Alaska 
have  a  large  commercial  value,  which  railroads 
will  turn  into  money.  In  the  meantime,  we  have 
it  as  .1  resource,  against  the  day  when  the  timber 
and  Washington  becomes  scarce. 

Fisheries. —  The  fisheries  of  Alaska  more 
than  pay  the  entire  $7,200,000  original  cost  of 
the  Territory  each  year.  They  are  of  greater 
annual  value  than  the  annual  gold  field,  though 
that  also,  each  year,  produces  more  than  what 
the  Territory  cost.  Quoting  the  Hon.  O.  P. 
tin,  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Statistics  again, 
we  find  that  in  1901  the  Territory  packed  and 
shipped  2.029.260  cases  of  48  one-pound  cans 
each,  and  [8,042  barrels,  composing  in  all  100,- 
000.000  pounds  of  salmon,  taken  from  Alaska 
waters   in   one   year. 

To  produce  this  result  required  30  com- 
panies   and    individual    packers,    occupying    55 


canneries,  and  12  salteries  and  using  31,000,000 
salmon.  The  capitalization  of  these  enterpi 
was  $22,000,000,  and  the  value  of  the  plants, 
including  vessels,  was  $12,000,000.  All  tin-  has 
grown  from  two  establishments  in  1881,  pro- 
ducing 13.000  cases  a  year,  of  the  value  of 
$50,000.  The  value  of  the  salmon  pack  in  1901 
was  $7,075,000.  These  figures  show  an  increase 
in  the  yearly  product  of  14.000  per  cent  or  140 
fold  in  the  short  space  of  20  year-  The 
annual  packs  of  salmon  since  mot  have  been : 
1902,  $7.834.000 ;  1903,  $8,600,000;  kjo.}, 
054,000;  while  the  annual  breed  of  salmon  does 
nol  lessen,  but  the  contrary.  This  is  a  - 
where  we  do  not  have  to  buy  the  raw  material. 
It  1-  a  nature's  free  gift  to  us  each  year,  just  as 
is  gold  and  everything  else  we  get  out  of  the 
tnd.  In  this  reflection  we  strike  the  key 
note  of  the  marvelous  prosperity  of  the  United 
States. —  its  boundless  natural  resources.  But 
salmon  is  not  the  only  fish  which  Alaska  pro- 
duces. The  codfishing  industry  i-  also  worth 
$150,000  a  year.  The  area  in  which  the  cod 
may  be  taken  and  the  supply  justify  the  state- 
ment that  the  cod  fisheries  of  Alaska  are  des- 
tined to  exceed  in  value  those  of  Newfound- 
land, or  any  other  part  of  the  world.  A-  .1 
calculation,  there  is  not  less  than  125,000  square 
miles  of  codfishing  in  connection  with  the 
Alaska  coast.  Then  there  are  Atka  or  Attn 
mackerel,  black  cod.  halibut,  and  herring.  The 
salmon  industry  employ-  about  13.000  per-, 
including  5,000  Chinamen  and  2,500  natives. 
The  yearly  pay  roll  amounts  to  about  $2,700,000. 
The  tin  plate  used  costs  $1,150,000.  This  dis- 
bursement of  more  than  a  million  dollars  for 
tin  cans  is  a  noteworthy  fact.  In  1001,  the 
shipping  employed  was  110  steamers.  55  sailing 
vessel-,  and  1.777  lighters  and  boats,  a  \ 
imposing  fleet. 

The  government  tax  of  4  cents  a  case  and  10 
cents  a  barrel  yields  about  $100,000  a  year.  The 
salmon  pack  of  Alaska  fills  about  on,-  half  the 
yearly  requirement  of  the  United  States.  In 
1902  the  Pacific  coast  pack  was  worth  $4,259,000. 
As  the  two  packs  combined  fill  only  75  per 
cent  of  the  American  demand,  and  as  that  de- 
mand grows  with  the  rapid  increase  in  popu- 
lation, and  further,  as  salmon  arc  heavy  breed 
ers,  it  is  evident  that  the  salmon  industry  .f 
Alaska  as  well  as  that  of  the  Pacific  coast  has 
a  growing  future.  That  part  of  "Commercial 
Alaska,"  as  well  as  the  gold  part,  is  an  imme- 
diate   and    continuously    profitable    proposition. 

Fur  Seals. — The  Pribilof  I -lands  are  the 
seat  of  the  fur  seals  industry  of  Alaska.  They 
came  to  us  in  the  purchase  from  Russia.  They 
are  leased  to  the  North  American  Commercial 
Company  by  the  United  States  Government  for 
an  annual  rental  of  $60,000  and  a  tax  upon  each 
skin  taken  of  $10.22'/..  The  number  of  seals  to 
be  killed  each  year  being  fixed  by  regulation  of 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury.  In  the  years 
1870-1902,  the  lessees  have  taken  2,209,621  seals. 

No  official  statements  of  the  value  of  the 
seal  skins  taken  on  the  Probilof  Islands  are 
made.  Mr.  Petroff,  the  agent  of  the  United 
States  Census  in  [890,  estimated  the  value  of 
seal  skins  taken  in  Ala-ka  from  1867  to  1890, 
at  $31,537,592.  This  estimate,  combined  with 
estimates  from  official  sources  since  justifies  an 
allowance  of  $50,000,000  as  the  value  of  the  seal 
skins,  taken  from  the  purchase  of  the  Terri- 
tory  to    the   present   date.     The   sea   otter  and 


ALASKA,  RECENT  DEVELOPMENT  OF 


others  bring  the  total   for   furs   up  to  $54,000,- 
ooo. 

Education  and  Churches. —  The  entire  edu- 
cational work  in  Alaska,  except  in  the  incor- 
porated towns,  is  under  the  control  of  the  Rev. 
Sheldon  Jackson,  D.D.,  United  States  General 
Agency  of  Education  in  the  Territory.  His 
report  for  1904  shows  35  public  schools,  38 
teachers,  and  2,257  pupils  outside  of  the  schools 
in  towns.  Nineteen  of  the  new  schools  were 
established  in   1904.     The  expenses  are  $56,211. 

The  Presbyterian  Church  supports  14  mis- 
sions and  a  hospital  and  training  school.  The 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  has  10  missions, 
and  the  Catholic  and  other  religious  organiza- 
tions a  smaller  number. 

All  this  is  education,  and  it  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  the  present  and  future  of  Commer- 
cial Alaska. 

Transportation. —  Transportation  in  Alaska, 
while  not  to-day  the  problem  it  was  a  few  year-; 
ago,  is  still  the  "question  of  the  hour*  and  the 
fundamental  necessity  and  prime  requisite  of 
commercial  or  other  success  in  the  Territory. 
In  the  summer  there  is  one  boat  of  1,000  tons 
each  day  for  the  ocean  travel  from  Puget 
Sound  to  Skagway.  One  can  now  go  by  rail 
from  Skagway  to  White  Horse,  over  the  moun- 
tains, and  freight  rates  are  only  one  tenth  of 
what  they  were  before  the  railroad  was  built. 
In  the  summer  season  the  ardent  adventurers 
can  go  by  semi-weekly  steamers  from  "White 
Horse  to  Dawson.  In  the  winter  the  trip  has 
to  be  made  by  stage.  Lodging  houses  along 
the  road  charge  about  $6  a  day  for  meals  and 
lodging.  In  the  summer  the  $75  boat  fare  in- 
cludes meals.  The  steamboats  on  the  Yukon 
River  are  modern  and  well  equipped.  Nome  is 
reached  by  steamer  from  Sitka  to  Unalaska  in 
the  Aleutian  chain  of  islands,  and  thence  north 
to  Saint  Michael  and  Nome. 

Something  is  being  done  for  transportation, 
through  sundry  small  appropriations  in  the 
army  bill,  toward  building  wagon  roads  and 
trails.  Says  the  governor:  "Trails  are  better 
than  nothing.  If  Congress  cannot  bring  itself 
to  aid  us  to  railroads,  then  we  shall  be  grateful 
for  wagon  roads,  and  if  they  are  impossible  let  ' 
us  have  trails:  but  the  railroads  are  bound  to 
be  built.  The  American  spirit  animates  the 
movement.  Governor  Gilpin's  dream  of  a  'cos- 
mopolitan railway'  will  be  realized." 

Postal  Service. —  Just  as  fast  as  Alaska 
needs  and  can  take  care  of  post-offices,  they 
are  being  started.  Daily  mails  leave  the  Pacific 
coast  for  Alaska.  The  present  number  of  post- 
offices  is  about  80,  and  mails  are  regularly  de- 
livered north  of  the  Arctic  Circle. 

Telegraphs. —  The  United  States  and  the 
world  now  has  telegraphic  communication  with 
all  the  chief  centres  of  population  in  Alaska. 
This  work  has  been  done  by  the  signal  office 
of  the  War  Department.  The  lines  also  con- 
nect with  those  of  the  Canadian  telegraph  sys- 
tem, and  with  all  the  telegraph  systems  of  the 
United  States. 

A  military  cable,  1,300  miles  long,  connects 
Seattle  with  Juneau  and  Sitka,  affording  an 
alternate  route  (the  Canadian  is  the  other")  for 
commercial  business  and  a  more  direct  and  sat- 
isfactory means  of  telegraphic  communication 
for  the  government. 

Land  Lazes. —  The  law  recently  enacted  by 
Congress  permits  the  application   of  the  home- 


stead laws  of  the  United  States  to  tracts  not 
exceeding  80  acres.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  sur- 
veys very  few  homesteads  have  yet  been  ap- 
plied for  under  this  act.  But  they  will  when 
Alaska  has  railroads,  because  railroads  involve 
surveys,  and  emigration  from  one  point  to  an- 
other always  follows  the  whistle  of  the  loco- 
motive. 

Commerce. —  The  commerce  of  Alaska  is  a 
substantial  and  growing  quantity.  Beginning 
with  nothing  less  than  a  generation  ago,  it  has 
already  reached  satisfactory  proportions.  It  is 
not  necessary  to  trace  at  length  the  history  of 
Alaskan  commerce  from  the  acquirement  of  the 
Territory,  as  for  quite  a  number  of  years  after 
that  act  of  farsighted  statesmanship  Alaska  was 
only  thought  of  as  the  place  from  whence  the 
seal  skins  of  our  wives,  our  daughters,  and  our 
sweethearts  came.  It  is  a  vastly  different  propo- 
sition to-day,  with  the  acquirement  of  Hawaii 
and  the  Philippines,  the  American  Pacific  cable 
in  operation,  the  American  Panama  Canal  in 
sight,  and  the  Alaskan  boundary  dispute  set- 
tled in  our  favor.  Commerce  between  the 
United  States  and  Alaska  means  something 
these  days,  and  the  commerce  of  Alaska  with 
Canada  and  the  Far  East  is  beginning  to  tell. 

A  few  figures  will   tell   the  story. 


From    the    U.    S. 


From    Other 

Countries.  Total. 

l879     $      317.000  $     4,7or 

]°90     1,897,000  24.577 

'895     3,017,000  55. 080 

■903     9.509.701  477.463  $9,987,164 

1904  .......  .10,165,110  667.155  10.77J.4f>; 

1905  (est.)    ..11,000,000  800,000  11,800,000 

Alaskan   Exports   to  all   Countries. 
1879     


1890 
1895 


.378 


4.682 

1 1,520 

To  Other 
To    the   U.    S.  Countries.  Total. 

'9o3    $10,228,569  $1,612,128  $11,840,697 

■9o4    .......    10,165,140  1.565.690  11.730.830 

1905    (est.)    .    11,000,000  1,700,000  12,700,000 

These    export    figures    are    exclusive    of    the 
Canadian   dug  gold  —  about  $10,000,000   a   vear. 
which     reaches     the     United     States     thi 
Alaska. 

Summary  for  1904,  actual : 

Alaskan   imports    $10,5 

Alaskan   exports    11 ,840,697 

Canadian    sold    1 0.000,000 

Total   commerce    $32,613,162 

Summary  for  1905,  estimated : 

Alaskan   imports    $11,800,000 

Alaskan    exports     ,  2.700,000 

Canadian    gold    1 0.000,000 


Total   commerce    $34,500,000 

This  is  the  concrete  result  of  38  years  of 
American  "Commercial  Alaska."  Nothing  to 
begin  with,  practically  nothing  for  27  years 
after  the  beginning  (only  $3,000,000  in  1895), 
then  a  growth  to  $30,000,000  more  a  year  in 
nine  years.  Almost  an  average  growth  of 
$1,000,000  a  year,  for  each  of  the  38  years  life 
of  American  "Commercial  Alaska."  witli  27  of 
those  38  years  practically  dormant. 

Walter  J.  Ballard. 

Alaska,  Recent  Development  of.     Ni 
er  is  Alaska,  even  in  popular  conception,  the  lone 
land  of  ice  and  snows  which  fiction  and  tradi- 
tion long  presented  it.     Northward,  swift  on  the 


ALASKA 


heels  of  the  gold-seeking  pioneers,  have  gone 
railroad  builders  and  telegraph  linemen,  engi- 
neei  .  capitalists,  hankers,  teachers,  and  settlers, 
until  nol  onlj  Alaska  but  the  whole  vast  stretch 
of  the  Far  Northwest  is  repeating  California's 
marvelous  story  of  development.  Steamers, 
many  of  them  palatial  in  their  fittings,  now  navi- 
gate the  Alaskan  rivers;  towns  with  organized 
systems  of  government  are  growing  fast,  with 
schools  and  hanks  and  churches,  and  streets 
lighted  by  electricity,  and  paved.  The  telegraph 
and  the  telephone  connect  the  principal  settle- 
ments, and  railroads  are  being  built  which  in  a 
\car  or  two  will  traverse  the  peninsula  almost 
from  end  to  end. 

Vet  the  new  Alaska,  which  has  become  so 
important  a  reality,  is,  in  a  measure,  but  a 
startling  revival  of  the  commercial  Alaska  of  60 
years  ago.  Then  Sitka — a  thousand  miles 
north  from  Seattle  Washington  —  was  the  in- 
dustrial capital  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  America, 
and  San  Francisco  but  a  gathering  place  for  in- 
dolent ranchcros,  who  bought  their  plowshares, 
hoes  and  hatchets  from  the  industrious  work- 
men of  the  Far  North.  From  the  shipyards  of 
Sitka  went  forth  the  first  steamships  built  on  the 
Pacific,  and  the  bells  which  will  chime  from 
many  a  Catholic  mission-house  were  cast  there. 
No  better  equipped  naval  station  existed  than 
that  at  the  Alaskan  capital,  nor  busier  brass  and 
iron  foundries  and  machine-shops.  The  Cali- 
fornia " Forty- Xinn"  worked  with  a  pick  and 
shovel  made  at  Sitka;  the  woolen-stuff  clothing 
which  he  wore  came  from  Sitka;  the  salt  fish 
he  ate  and  the  lumber  with  which  he  built  were 
also  the  product  of  far-away  Alaska,  carried  in 
Sitkan-buill  vessels,  manned  by  Sitka  sailors. 

But  the  military  managers  of  the  Russian- 
American  Company  were  not  captains  of  in- 
dustry. Vast  sums  were  squandered  in  imprac- 
ticable experiments,  in  mining  valueless  coal,  in 
extracting  iron  from  inferior  ore,  in  making 
bricks  and  woodenware  for  which  no  market 
existed.  Thus  the  trade  of  Sitka  languished, 
and  in  time  the  catching  of  fish  and  furs  became 
the  only  occupation  of  the  Alaskans.  Even  the 
purchase  of  the  country  by  the  United  States 
failed  for  many  years  to  add  a  stimulus  to  its 
lapsed  industry. 

The  new  North  which  has  arisen  may  not 
again  dominate  the  trade  of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
but  it  has  attained  an  intrinsic  importance  of 
which  the  Russian  owners  of  Alaska  never 
dreamed,  not  merely  through  its  wealth  of  min- 
erals, its  furs,  and  its  fisheries,  but  also  in  con- 
s  lerahle  measure  through  its  possibilities  in 
agriculture.  Fields  of  grain  and  gardens  stocked 
with  every  variety  of  vegetable  are  now  familiar 
sights  on  the  outskirts  of  a  hundred  thriving 
settlements.  From  end  to  end  of  the  Yukon, 
one  of  the  mighty  rivers  of  the  world,  the 
traveler  may  wander  during  four  months  of  the 
year  and  never  see  snow.  Instead,  there  will 
be  a  tangle  of  rich  vegetation,  of  great  forests, 
of  grass  that  grows  as  high  as  a  man's  shoulder, 
and  endless  fields  of  beautiful  plant  life.  Wild 
berries  in  great  variety  —  raspberries,  currants, 
huckleberries,  blackberries,  cranberries,  etc. — 
beautiful  ferns  waving  in  the  soft  breezes,  great 
beds  of  the  purple  lupine  and  the  red  columbine, 
wild  celery  and  wild  parsnip  growing  many  feet 
high,  ponds  on  which  float  great  yellow  lilies, 
with  the  purple  iris  bordering  their  banks,  are 
everywhere. 


When  Alaska  was  purchased  by  the  United 

Slates  in  1867  its  value  was  lightly  regarded. 
The  price  paid  —  $7,000,000  —  was  thought  to  he 
excessive,  ami  there  was  much  popular  opposi- 
tion to  the  terms.  Vet  in  36  years  the  govern- 
ment received  in  revenues  not  only  the  sum 
expended,  but  $2,000,000  more.  During  the  same 
period  Alaska  and  the  adjoining  Canadian 
Yukon  territory  have  supplied  fish,  furs,  and 
mine  products  amounting  in  value,  at  a  conserva- 
tive estimate,  to  $375,000,000.  Good-,  worth 
about  $40,000,000  a  year  are  now  sent  in  return, 
and  the  amount  of  capital  invested  there  is  prob- 
ably not  less  than  $125,000,000. 

Of  the  future  of  the  new  North,  President 
Roosevelt,  addressing  an  audience  at  Seattle, 
Washington,  in  1903,  made  this  significant 
prophecy : 

"The  men  of  my  age  who  are  in  this  great 
audience  will  not  he  old  men  before  they  see  one 
of  the  greatest  and  most  populous  State  of  the 
entire  Union  in  Alaska.  ...  I  predict  that 
Alaska,  within  the  next  century,  will  support  as 
large  a  population  as  does  the  entire  Scandina- 
vian peninsula  of  Europe,  the  people  of  which  by 
their  brains  and  energies  have  left  their  mark  on 
the  face  of  Europe.  1  predict  that  you  will  see 
Alaska,  with  her  enormous  resources  of  mineral, 
her  fisheries,  and  her  possibilities  that  almost 
exceed  belief,  produce  as  hardy  and  vigorous  a 
race  as  any  part  of  America." 

Not  only  Alaska,  hut  the  entire  northwestern 
portion  of  the  continent — for  many  hundred 
miles  beyond  the  international  boundary  — is  un- 
dergoing a  marvelous  development.  Ten  thou- 
sand miles  of  railroad  are  already  tinder  con- 
struction or  definitely  projected  in  territory 
farther  north  than  is  now  touched  by  any  exist- 
ing completed  line  ;  a  greater  mileage  than  that 
of  the  Union  Pacific,  the  Northern  Pacific,  and 
the  Erie  systems  combined. 

A  glance  at  the  line  in  the  accompanying 
map  which  marks  the  northern  limit  of  cereal 
production  in  America  will  indicate  a  reason  for 
this  railroad  construction.  Gold  and  furs  alone 
could  not  have  brought  it  about.  Were  the  great 
western  North  the  bleak  counterpart  of 
"pitiless  Labrador"  the  miner  and  hunter  there 
would  still  pack  their  treasures  of  mineral  and  fur 
over  weary  wastes  of  snow  by  dog  train.  But, 
whereas  in  the  East  the  extreme  limit  of  cereal- 
growing  territory  is  reached  in  latitude  49,0,  at  a 
point  a  little  north  of  Rimouski,  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  in  the  West  the  limit  is  Norton 
Sound,  beyond  St.  Michael's,  more  than  twelve 
hundred  miles  nearer  the  pole.  So  far  north 
as  that  are  grains  now  grown. 

As  long  as  the  States  to  the  south  are  still 
undeveloped,  the  north  received  but  scanty 
attention.  At  intervals,  it  is  true,  had  come  re- 
ports of  great  natural  wealth  which  existed 
there,  and  now  and  then  the  outcropping  of  a 
boundary  dispute  had  lent  ephemeral  interest 
to  the  country.  But  the  gold  finds  of  1896  in  the 
Canadian  Yukon  and  of  1898  near  Nome  came 
when  the  western  States  were  beginning  to  be 
filled  up.  Thousands  of  American  farmers  had 
already  moved  northward  into  the  Canadian 
provinces  of  Manitoba.  Assiniboia,  and  Alberta, 
beginning  a  movement  which  has  since  assumed 
enormous  proportions.  The  gold  thus  hastened 
a  natural  development.  Prevailing  fallacies  re- 
garding the  climate  of  the  new  land  disappeared. 


ALASKA 


In  southern  Alaska,  which  is  tempered  by  the 
warming  airs  from  the  Japan  current,  the  ther- 
mometer rarely  falls  to  zero,  and  the  changes 
from  midwinter  to  midsummer  do  not  exceed 
twenty-five  degrees.  Even  at  St.  Michael's 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Yukon  River,  the 
mean  summer  temperature  is  50°  F.  In  the 
interior  the  climate  is  more  severe,  but  not 
so  bitter  as  is  commonly  believed.  Daily  obser- 
vations during  five  summers  in  the  Klondike 
region  show  that  on  the  average  the  tempera- 
ture there  rises  to  70°  or  higher  on  forty-six 
days,  and  to  80°  on  fourteen  days ;  900  was 
recorded  in  Dawson  in  June,  1900,  and  950  in 
July  of  the  same  year. 

Great  hardships  were  undergone  by  the  gold 
miners  during  the  pioneer  period,  but  these 
were  due  to  abnormal  conditions.  The  gold 
fever  had  carried  a  great  swarm  of  fortune 
hunters  into  an  unknown  country  of  vast  dis- 
tances. Confusion,  suffering,  and  even  starva- 
tion were  the  natural  outcome.  An  incident  in 
the  construction  of  the  White  Pass  and  Yukon 
Railway  well  illustrates  the  conditions  which 
then  prevailed.  On  the  morning  of  one  June  day 
in  1899  there  were  2,000  men  at  work  along  the 
line  of  the  new  road  —  doctors,  lawyers,  teach- 
ers, and  college  men,  in  a  motley  crowd  with 
Chinese  laborers,  and  rough  prospectors  who 
could  not  write  their  names.  That  afternoon 
came  the  news  of  a  big  discovery  of  gold  near 
Atlin,  and  in  the  evening  there  were  but  600  men 
in  camp.  The  other  1,400  had  plunged  into  the 
wilderness,  carrying  with  them  the  company's 
picks  and  shovels,  but  leaving  behind  a  half 
week's  pay  at  ten  dollars  a  day.  Such  was  the 
spirit  of  recklessness  in  which  the  gold-seekers 
invaded  the  new  country. 

Scenes  similar  to  those  which  marked  the  rush 
to  the  Klondike  were  repeated  at  Nome.  The 
latter  place  is  without  a  natural  harbor,  and  pas- 
sengers and  supplies  had  to  be  landed  through 
the  surf.  In  the  months  of  June  and  July  this 
is  accomplished  with  little  difficulty,  but  later  in 
the  season  storms  prevail,  and  the  landing  is 
then  attended  with  considerable  peril.  Vessels 
are  forced  to  anchor  from  half  a  mile  to  two 
miles  from  the  shallow  beach,  and  their  cargoes 
removed  in  lighters,  which  were  frequently  lost 
in  the  surf.  Wrecks  of  schooners,  barges,  steam- 
launches,  boats,  and  stern-wheel  steamers  littered 
the  beach  at  Nome  every  vear,  and  pumps, 
donkey  boilers  and  engines,  dredging  machinery 
and  damaged  provisions  were  strewn  along  the 
shore. 

The  first  discovery  of  gold  at  Nome  was 
made  by  a  United  States  soldier  who  was  digging 
a  well,  and  the  first  to  profit  by  it  was  an  old 
prospector  from  Idaho,  who  was  ill  and  not 
able  to  reach  the  gulches  farther  inland.  In 
twenty  days  the  man  from  Idaho  look  out  three 
thousand  dollars'  worth  of  gold  with  a  rocker. 
With  the  news  of  the  find  a  wild  frenzy  to  dig  in 
the  beach  seized  people  everywhere,  and  during 
the  height  of  the  excitement  nearly  two  thou- 
sand men  were  burrowing  like  moles  in  the  sand. 
Every  man  at  Nome  —  physician,  lawyer,  car- 
penter, clerk,  or  whatever  else  his  vocation — 
abandoned  his  ordinary  work  and  took  up  the 
shovel  and  rocker.  The  price  of  labor  went  up 
to  fifteen  dollars  a  day,  but  even  at  that  rate 
working  hands  were  hard  to  secure.  When  tin- 
army   of   miners    stopped   work   in   the    fall   the 


beach  for  fifteen  miles  presented  a  hugh  rampart 
of  piled-up  sand,  giving  to  the  city  the  appear- 
ance of  having  been  fortified  against  invasion. 

Nome  is  now  a  city  of  25,000  population,  and 
the  building  of  two  new  railroads,  which  are 
under  way,  and  the  improvement  of  the  harbors 
at  Port  Clarence  and  at  Solomon,  will  remove 
the  last  of  the  transportation  difficulties  of  its 
inhabitants.  In  the  past  the  only  means  of  for- 
warding freight  from  the  city  to  interior  points 
not  reached  by  the  Yukon  River  steamers  was 
by  men  wading  in  the  shallow  streams  and  push- 
ing flat-bottomed  boats  ahead  of  them.  The  cost 
was  about  $300  a  ton  for  fifty  miles,  and  from  8 
to  15  days  were  required  to  make  that  distance, 
according  to  the  conditions  of  the  weather. 

Nome  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  railroad 
development  of  northwestern  Alaska,  whose 
roads  are  the  farthest  north  of  all  in  the  world, 
extending  almost  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  The 
city  is  about  250  miles  southeast  of  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales,  the  point  at  which  Alaska  most  nearly 
approaches  Asia,  and  is  reached  by  steamers 
from  the  western  coast  of  the  United  States  by 
passing  through  the  Aleutian  chain,  past  Un- 
alaska,  as  well  as  by  rail  from  Skagway  and 
steamboat  down  the  Yukon  River.  Nome  boasts 
good  hotels,  large  stores,  daily  newspapers, 
banks,  electric  lights,  telegraph  and  telephone 
systems,  and  the  other  usual  adjuncts  of  civiliza- 
tion in  more  southern  climes.  It  is  connected 
with  St.  Michael's  by  cable,  and  by  telegraph  with 
Dawson  and  Skagway.  Handsome  private  resi- 
dences are  being  built  by  men  who  have  made 
their  money  there  and  who  have  settled  down  to 
make  the  city  their  home.  Well-kept  lawns  and 
flower  gardens  add  to  the  wonderful  metamor- 
phosis which  has  overtaken  the  sandy  beach. 

Seward  Peninsula,  on  which  Nome  is  situated, 
is  being  rapidly  "gridironed"  by  the  various  rail- 
roads built  to  communicate  with  the  principal 
gold  mines  and  with  the  other  towns  in  that 
part  of  Alaska.  The  Valdez  Copper  River  & 
Yukon  Railway  will  run  from  Valdez,  the  most 
northerly  port  in  Alaska,  to  Eagle  City,  a  dis- 
tance of  430  miles,  and  will  open  up  the  mineral 
and  agricultural  districts  of  the  Copper,  Xa- 
nana, and  Yukon  valleys.  Construction  has  al- 
ready begun  on  this  line,  the  route  lying  through 
a  country  which  is  heavily  timbered,  with  tribu- 
tary territory  rich  in  gold,  copper,  and  coal. 
With  a  railroad  projected,  as  a  part  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific  System,  from  Port  Simpson  to 
Dawson,  with  a  100-mile  line  soon  to  be  built 
from  Dawson  north,  and  with  the  Valdez  Cop- 
per River  &  Yukon  Railway  coming  east  to 
Eagle  City  and  west  to  connect  with  the  Nome 
&  Solomon  City  Railroad,  it  remains  but  a 
question  of  time  when  there  will  be  all-rail 
communication  from  New  York  to  Norton 
Sound,  a  few  miles  across  Bering  Strait  from 
tin-  continent  of  Asia.  A  northern  spur  from 
the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  would  then  realize 
the  once  lightly  regarded  dream  of  "New  York 
to  Paris  by  rail." 

The  first  railroad  undertaking  in  th<- 
North  was  begun  in  southern  Alaska  and  tut 
British  Yukon  in  1S98.  In  June  of  that  year 
work  was  begun  by  a  syndicate  of  English  cap- 
italists on  what  is  now  the  White  Pass  & 
Yukon  Railway,  extending  from  Skagway,  in 
Vlaska,  to  White  Horse,  Yukon  Territory,  a 
distance  of  112  miles.     It  was  constructed  pri- 


ALASKA 


marily  to  afford  access  to  the  sold  fields  of  the 
Canadian  Yukon,  but  has  since  been  made  a  link 
in  the  continuous  rail  and  river  mute  to  north- 
western Alaska  and  Seward  Peninsula.  The 
road  was  completed  to  White  Horse  in  June, 
1900,  at  places  the  cost  of  construction  exceed- 
ing $250,000  a  mile.  The  route  had  been  used  for 
I  lie   fall  of  1897.  but  the  trail   was 

almost  impassable,  and  immense  numbers  of  the 
animals    had    died    in    their    tracks.      Two   thou- 
sand had  t<>  be  collected  and  burned  with  ki 
sene   before  the   work   could   be   undertaken.      In 

mpting  to  lower  Lake  St.  Louis  about  three 

feet,  the  entire  lake  washed  away,  causing  widc- 

I  he    total    cost   of   the    White 

-  Railroad  was  about  $5,000,000 ;  but  it 
paid  nearly  $2,000,000  profits  during  its  first  two 
years'  operatii  >ns. 

From  White  Horse  to  Dawson  —  which  has 
a  population  of  1.200  a  distance  of  482  miles, 
connection  is  now  made  by  modern  steamers  in 
summer    and    by    four-horse    sleighs    in    winter. 


other  places  of  amusement,  and  three  banks. 
I  he  personal  and  realty  assessment  of  the  city 
led  $11,000,000  last  year,  and  post-office  or- 
ders to  the  value  of  $1,800,500  were  sold.  The 
streets  are  all  thoroughly  lighted  by  electricity. 
Lines  of  steamboats  along  the  wharves,  l< 
and  unloading,  and  steam  dredges  at  work  in  the 
river,  give  an  animated  aspect  to  the  watei  front 
More  than  $5,000,000  i--  about  to  be  spent  by  a 
private  company  in  installing  a  huge  water-sup- 
ply and  pumping  plant  to  furnish  water  for  con- 
sumption and  for  mining  purposes,  in  working 
the  deposits  that  line  the  side-bars  of  the  neigh- 
boring streams. 

Three  years  ago  the  inhabitants  of  Dawson 
lived  principally  on  dried  and  canned  meats  and 
German  sliced  evaporated  potatoes.  To-day 
fresh  meat  is  brought  in,  frozen  in  winter  and 
in  refrigerator  cars  to  White  Horse  in  summer, 
and  all  vegetables  are  grown  in  market  gardens 
nearby.  Nothing  pleases  the  Dawson  citizen 
more  than  to  entertain  a  skeptical  visitor  from 


^^ejtt* 


.  Proposed  Railroad  Lines. 
— Present  Railroad  Lines. 


UNITED    STATES 


The    great    Northwest   and   its   projected  transportation    facilities,    showing    also    the    northern    limit    of    cereal 

growth. 


The  stages  used  in  winter  cover  the  distance, 
under  ordinary  conditions  of  weather,  in  three 
and  a  half  days,  or  at  a  rate  of  about  90  miles 
a  day.  A  railroad  was  built  last  summer  from 
West  Dawson  to  Stewart  River,  a  distance  of 
82  miles,  tapping  the  rich  mining  districts  in  that 
direction.  A  number  of  other  railroads  leading 
to  different  gold  centres  are  now  being  con- 
structed, and  in  a  few  years  Dawson  will  be 
connected  with  its  outlying  districts  in  every  di- 
rection, and  even,  it  is  projected,  with  the  trans- 
continental lines  to  the  south. 

<on  enjoys  almost  as  many  municipal 
advantages  as  any  place  of  its  size  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  a  splendid  system  of  water-works, 
a  local  telephone  system  and  long-distance  con- 
nections with  the  principal  mines,  telegraphic 
communication  with  the  world,  churches  of 
every  denomination,  large  Federal  and  municipal 
buildings,  and  good  schools.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  clubs  and  lodges,  as  well  as  theatres  and 


the  south  at  table  with  lettuce,  asparagus,  green 
peas,  or  celery,  cauliflower,  cabbage,  and  carrots, 
according  to  the  season,  grown  in  his  own  rear 
yard:  and  the  same  civic  pride  has  led  the  Daw- 
son Chamber  of  Commerce  to  display  some  very 
fine  specimens  of  barley  and  oats  grown  in  that 
section.  Moreover,  throughout  the  Klondike 
country  live  stock  can  find  sufficient  feed  to  sus- 
tain life  outdoors  even  in  winter. 

From  Dawson  to  St.  Michael's,  by  the  Yukon 
River,  is  1,600  miles,  and  during  the  open  season 
of  navigation  —  from  the  middle  of  May  till 
the  middle  of  October  —  about  40  stern-wheel 
steamboats  run  between  the  two  points  in  from 
9  to  12  days.  The  Yukon  is  easy  to  navigate, 
being  without  snags  and  with  shores  alongside 
of  which  boats  can  run  and  tie  tip  at  almost  any 
desired  spot.  Between  its  mouth  and  the  Ta- 
nana  it  flows  with  an  easy  current  of  about 
three  miles  an  hour,  the  stream  varying  in  width 
from  a  mile  to  a  mile  and  a  half.     The  rest  of 


ALASKA 


the  river,  below  Dawson,  flows  variously 
through  mountainous  regions  and  wide  flats,  at- 
taining at  places  a  width  of  10  miles,  with  many 
channels  and  numerous  small  islands. 

The  winter  trade  begins  as  soon  as  the  ice 
has  formed  in  sufficient  thickness  to  sustain 
teams  of  dogs  and  loaded  sleighs,  and  contin- 
ues until  the  break-up  in  the  spring.  The  trail 
having  once  been  marked  by  some  venturesome 
first  traveler,  running  as  nearly  as  possible  over 
the  smooth  ice  near  the  shore,  is  generally  fol- 
lowed thereafter.  Although  the  temperature 
sometimes  falls  to  50  degrees  below  zero,  such 
occasions  are  rare,  and  even  then  the  air  is  dry 
and  uniform  and  accompanied  by  little  wind.  At 
no  part  of  the  route  is  the  traveler  out  of  tele- 
graphic communication   with   the   world. 

At  Eagle,  the  first  American  town  beyond 
Dawson,  four  large  trading  companies  maintain 
well-stocked  stores,  and  Fort  Egbert,  located 
there,  has  a  garrison  of  200  soldiers,  with  bar- 
racks, stables,  hospital,  and  officers'  houses. 
There  are  two  saw-mills,  and  the  town  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  United  States  Weather  Ser- 
vice for  the  interior  of  Alaska.  Several  large 
gardens  supply  an  abundance  of  vegetables  —  po- 
tatoes, carrots,  peas,  beans,  lettuce,  radishes, 
cauliflower,  etc. —  and  barley  and  oats  are  raised 
in  steadily  increasing  quantities.  Grass  grows 
luxuriantly  from  the  fertile  soil,  and  there  are 
large  natural  meadows  in  the  vicinity  from 
which  heavy  crops  are  cut.  Mowing  machines 
and  other  hay-making  tools  are  frequent  sights 
along  the  bank  of  the  river  all  the  way  to  St. 
Michael's. 

The  railroads  of  Alaska  and  of  the  Canadian 
Yukon  are  being  built  primarily  because  of  the 
enormous  mineral  wealth  to  be  tapped.  Those 
projected  for  the  Hudson  Bay,  North  Saskat- 
chewan and  Peace  River  districts  have  another 
reason  for  their  inception.  Agriculture  and 
lumber  are  the  great  natural  resources  of  that 
vast  stretch  of  little-known  territory,  and  min- 
erals and  furs  play  but  subordinate  parts. 

Almost  a  thousand  miles  north  of  the  bound- 
ary between  the  United  States  and  the  Canadian 
Northwest  territories,  in  the  valley  of  the  Peace 
River,  wheat,  barley,  and  oats  are  grown  in 
quantities  limited  only  by  the  number  of  agricul- 
turists; and  a  100-barrel  roller-process  flour-mill, 
the  most  northerly  mill  on  the  continent,  lias 
just  been  completed  at  Vermilion.  Two  other 
water-power  stone  mills,  owned  respectively  by 
a  private  firm  and  by  the  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sion, have  been  running  for  the  past  two  years, 
and  have  been  offered  more  grain  than  they  have 
been  able  to  handle.  Two  steam  saw-mills  are 
also  in  continuous  operation,  while  cattle  and 
hogs  are  raised  by  the  settlers  and  find  a  ready 
market  among  the  traders.  The  town  is  lighted 
by  electricity,  derived  from  the  water-power  of 
Vermilion  Falls. 

The  wheat  which  was  awarded  the  first  prize 
at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  at  Philadelphia  in 
1876  came  from  the  Peace  River  country. 
Farther  east,  on  the  south  side  of  Lesser  Slave 
Lake,  a  wild  meadow,  30  to  40  miles  in  extent, 
from  which  three  tons  of  grass  to  the  acre  are 
obtained,  gives  evidence  of  the  richness  of  the 
soil  there,  while  the  land  on  the  opposite  side  is 
excellently  adapted  to  mixed  farming,  consisting 
of  open  prairie  interspersed  with  tracts  of  cotton- 
wood    timber.     Dr.    Dawson,    of    the    Canadian 


Geological  Survey,  estimates  the  Peace  River 
country  to  contain  15,140,000  acres  of  good  arable 
soil. 

The  Hudson  Bay  and  Western  Railway,  the 
bill  incorporating  which  was  passed  at  the  last 
session  of  the  Canadian  Parliament,  will  con- 
nect Port  Simpson,  on  the  Pacific,  with  Fort 
Churchill,  on  Hudson  Bay,  a  distance  of  1,500 
miles,  passing  through  Vermilion  and  running 
south  of  Lake  Athabasca  and  north  of  Reindeer 
Lake.  Athabasca  Lake  is  connected  with  Great 
Slave  Lake  by  the  Slave  River,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  a  break  about  20  miles  long,  steam- 
boat navigation  between  the  two  is  uninter- 
rupted. From  Great  Slave  Lake  the  Mackenzie 
River  affords  a  clear  course  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
For  years  past  steamboats  have  been  plying 
on  the  Athabasca  and  the  Mackenzie,  and  with 
the  Hudson  Bay  and  Western  Railway  complet- 
ed it  will  be  possible  for  a  passenger  to  buy  his 
ticket  in  New  York — or  'n  any  other  city,  for 
that  matter  —  for  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  pro- 
ceed there  with  almost  as  great  comfort  as  if  he 
were  booked  for  the  Adirondacks. 

Still  another  railroad  —  running  from  North 
Dakota  —  will  have  Fort  Churchill  as  its  north- 
eastern terminus.  The  bill  incorporating  the 
construction  company  was  passed  by  the  Cana- 
dian Parliament  at  its  last  session.  Apart  from 
agriculture,  the  southeastern  Hudson  Bay  dis- 
trict is  said  to  be  rich  in  minerals  of  all  kinds. 
The  fisheries  of  the  bay  are  also  valuable,  and 
whalers  from  New  Bedford  even  now  find  it 
profitable  to  go  there,  notwithstanding  that  it 
takes  them  two  years  to  make  a  catch.  Cod, 
trout,  and  white-fish  in  large  numbers  are  found 
in  both  Hudson  and  James  Bay.  At  Moose  Fac- 
tory there  are  several  large  gardens,  in  which  all 
kinds  of  vegetables  and  fruits  are  grown,  and 
cattle  find  excellent  pasturage  on  the  natural 
meadows,  where  the  wild  grass  grows  in  great 
luxuriance. 

The  timber  wealth  of  all  this  section  is  natur- 
ally great,  the  forests  of  spruce,  pine,  and  poplar 
having  as  yet  been  scarcely  touched  by  the  axe 
of  the  woodsman.  Unrivaled  water-power  is 
furnished  by  the  innumerable  streams  and  rivers. 
and  the  transportation  of  sawn  lumber  is  counted 
upon  to  furnish  no  inconsiderable  source  of  rev- 
enue to  the  railroads.  A  species  of  large  pop- 
lar called  "Hard,"  or  balm  of  Gilead,  which  is 
much  sought  for  by  cabinet-makers,  is  said  to 
grow  very  extensively  in  the  Mackenzie  Valley, 
and  tamarack  for  railway  construction  is  found 
in  the  entire  region.  The  greater  part  of  the 
territory,  also,  is  the  natural  home  of  pulp-wood, 
where,  it  is  declared,  is  a  perennial  crop  to  be 
harvested  unsurpassed  in  the  world.  The  aver- 
age annual  snowfall  at  Moose  Factory,  taken  for 
a  period  of  five  years,  is  80  inches,  as  compared 
with  177  inches  during  the  same  period  at  Mon- 
treal. 

But  railroads  are  only  one  phase  of  the  in- 
creasing activity  in  the  North.  The  telegraph 
has  far  outdistanced  the  iron  horse,  and  remote 
corners,  as  yet  long  distances  removed  from  any 
line  of  railroad,  can  flash  their  intelligence 
around  the  world.  Since  1901  the  Signal  Corps 
of  the  United  States  Army  has  put  in  working 
order  in  Alaska  more  than  1.500  miles  of  land 
telegraph  lines  and  submarine  cabled  and  in  the 
Canadian  territories  of  the  Yukon  ami  North 
British  Columbia  the  Dominion  Government  has 


ALASKA 


displayed  an  equal  activity.  About  2,000  miles  of 
Canadian  Government  telegraph  lines  have  been 
built  from  the  international  boundary,  beyond 
Dawson,  south  to  Port  Simpson  and  Quesnelie. 
At  the  latter  point  connection  is  made  with  the 
regular  commercial  lines.  Well-equipped  tele- 
phone services  have  also  been  established  be- 
tween the  towns,  and  scarcely  a  place  of  500 
inhabitants  in  the  mining  country  has  not  its 
local  and  long-distance  telephone  system. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  daily  mails  leave  by  all 
the  principal  steamship  lines,  and  are  forwarded 
from  Sitka,  Skagway,  Nome,  and  other  dis- 
tributing points  by  steamer,  rail,  wagon,  and 
carrier.  Where  ordinary  means  of  distribution 
fail,  the  Russian  reindeer,  domesticated  in 
Alaska,  carry  the  sacks  over  the  frozen  lakes 
and  snow-mantled  uplands,  traversing  a  \ast  dis- 
tance in  an  incredibly  short  time.  The  highest 
salaried  postal  official  in  the  world  is  in  Alaska. 
Ik-  receives  $-\=;.ooo  a  year  for  carrying  the  mail, 
twice  a  month  the  year  around,  to  Fort  Yukon, 
providing  his  own  dogs  and  sleds  for  the  pur- 
pose. There  are  now  upward  of  100  post-offices 
in  Alaska,  and  mails  are  delivered  regularly  be- 
yond the  Arctic  Circle. 

The  development  of  Alaskan  oil-fields  prom- 
ises to  establish  an  industry  the  extent  of  which 
cannot  be  yet  foretold.  In  1902  an  immense  oil 
gusher  —  Alaska's  first  —  was  struck  at  Cotella, 
near  Kayak,  30  miles  south  from  Copper  City. 
Oil  was  thrown  150  feet  into  the  air,  carry- 
ing away  everything  in  its  course  and  being 
capped  with  great  difficulty.  Experts  were  at 
once  sent  to  the  scene  by  the  officials  of  the 
Standard  Oil  Company,  but  a  Canadian  and 
English  syndicate  had  acted  more  quickly;  and 
secured  control  of  the  larger  part  of  the  Kayak 
fields,  comprising  40,000  acres  of  land  which  had 
been  leased  to  the  Alaska  Development  Com- 
pany. The  British  capitalists  chartered  two 
steamships  to  convey  north  from  Tacoma, 
Wash.,  a  great  quantity  of  pipes  and  machinery 
obtained  from  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  together  with 
other  supplies.  A  hundred  men  were  employed 
in  sinking  additional  wells,  and  $500,000  was 
to  be  spent  in  development  work,  including  the 
erection  of  an  experimental  refinery. 

The  fisheries  of  Alaska  are  among  the  rich- 
est in  the  world.  Cod,  halibut,  and_  other 
important  deep-sea  fishes  are  found  in  the 
waters  off  the  coast,  and  salmon  in  all  the 
streams.  More  than  half  the  entire  salmon 
product  of  the  United  States  comes  from 
Alaskan  waters.  It  is  the  opinion  of  competent 
authorities  that  the  cod  banks  exceed  in  wealth 
those  of  Newfoundland.  The  cod  industry,  how- 
ever, is  as  yet  only  in  its  infancy  —  if,  indeed,  it 
can  be  said  to  have  attained  even  that  primitive 
stage  of  development.  There  are  about  15,000 
persons  engaged  in  the  salmon  fisheries,  and  the 
market  value  of  last  season's  output  was  a 
little  more  than  $7,000,000,  which  is  exactly  what 
we  paid  for  Alaska.  The  packing  industry  is 
conducted  at  60  canneries  and  15  saltcries.  The 
total  number  of  salmon  of  all  varieties  taken  in 
1 002  was  about  33,000,000.  The  companies  en- 
gaged in  this  industry  have  a  capitalization  of 
about  $25,000,000.  and  their  plants,  including 
vessels,  are  valued  at  $15,000,000.  The  amount 
which  they  pay  in  wages  exceeds  $2,500,000  an- 
nually, and  the  yearly  expenditure  for  tin  plate 
is  about  $1,100,000.  In  the  shipping  of  the  fish- 
eries last  year  there  were  employed  115  steamers, 


57  sailing  vessels,  and  100  boats  and  lighters. 
The  codfishing  firms  permanently  located  in 
Alaska  have  vessels,  plying  only  in  Alaska,  val- 
ued at  $00,000.  According  to  estimates  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission,  there  are  nol 
less  than  125,000  miles  of  codfishing  along  the 
Alaskan  coast. 

The  special  features  of  Alaska  —  its  furs, 
fisheries,  and  gold  mines  —  have  been  so  fre- 
quently exploited  by  writers  that  an  entirely 
erroneous  idea  has  been  conveyed  as  to  the 
country's  other  diversified  sources  of  wealth. 
That  a  grain-growing  soil  could  be  found  so  far 
north,  with  summers  sufficiently  long  to  bring 
wheat  to  maturity,  has  not  been  supposed  pos- 
sible. Vet,  as  I  have  already  said,  not  only  has 
wheat  been  grown  and  successfully  harvested 
wherever  the  experiment  has  been  made,  but 
even  so  far  north  as  Fort  Yukon,  within  the 
Arctic  Circle,  oats,  rye,  and  barley  are  ni  >w 
grown  regularly.  The  winters  of  Alaska  are 
more  hospitable  than  those  of  the  great  plains  of 
Wyoming,  Montana,  and  some  parts  of  Nevada, 
and  in  the  dead  of  winter  horses  and  cattle  can 
be  worked  without  fear  of  being  frozen.  I  he 
temperature  frequently  is  very  cold,  but  there 
are  no  storms. 

Except  on  the  coast  of  Bering  Sea,  all  the 
hardy  vegetables  are  grown  with  marked  suc- 
cess throughout  Alaska  and  the  Canadian  Yukon 
south  of  the  Arctic  Circle.  No  finer  potatoes, 
cauliflower,  cabbage,  kale,  peas,  lettuce,  and 
radishes  could  be  found  anywhere  in  the  United 
States  than  samples  which  I  have  seen  grown 
at  the  government  experiment  stations  at  Sitka 
and  Kenai,  and  I  have  been  told  by  a  friend  that 
at  Holy  Cross  Mission  he  had  eaten  new  pota- 
toes, cauliflower,  and  other  late  vegetables  in  the 
month  of  July.  At  Rampart,  in  latitude  65°, 
winter  rye,  seeded  there  in  August,  lived  through 
the  winter  perfectly,  and  matured  grain  by 
August  of  the  following  year.  Barley  seeded  in 
May  was  ripe  by  the  middle  of  August. 

The  great  river  valleys  of  Alaska  and  the 
Canadian  North  embrace  cultivable  areas  large 
enough  to  form  several  good-sized  States.  All 
through  the  interior,  in  fact,  there  are  to  be 
found  extensive  tracts  of  grass  lands,  the 
growths  from  which,  could  there  be  found  a 
market  for  them,  would  exceed  in  value  the 
products  of  all  the  gold  mines.  Along  the  route 
surveyed  for  the  Valdez  Copper  River  &  Yukon 
Railway,  from  Valdez  to  Eagle  City,  many  large 
meadows,  on  which  the  grass  was  waving  waist 
high,  were  traversed  by  the  party  of  engineers. 
\  number  of  horses  were  seen  which  had  run  at 
large  in  this  region  for  two  years. 

Stock-raising  is  becoming  an  important 
Alaskan  industry  —  within  a  very  few  years  it  is 
probable  that  regular  shipments  of  cattle  for  ex- 
port will  be  made.  The  extensive  areas  of  rich 
growths  of  grass  and  the  absence  of  storms  in 
the  winter  make  many  sections  of  the  country 
ideal  places  for  ranching.  The  present  summer 
is  seeing  an  important  step  being  taken  in  this 
connection.  Several  large  stock-growers  of 
Washington  State  are  planning  to  convert  the 
Aleutian  Islands  into  vast  cattle  and  sheep 
ranges,  which  will  surpass  in  extent  the  rapidly 
diminishing  ranges  of  Montana  and  Texas.  One 
company  has  already  begun  the  shipment  of 
25.000  sheep  and  5,000  head  of  cattie  to  the 
Aleutians,  a  first  consignment  of  8,000  head  of 


ALASKAN     BOUNDARY    COMMISSION 


sheep  having  recently  been  sent  from  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  company  had  previously  demonstrat- 
ed that  sheep  will  thrive  there,  living  throughout 
the  winter  solely  on  the  grass  of  the  islands,  by 
having  landed  1,000  head  there  about  a  year  and 
a  half  ago. 

The  rapidly  increasing  importance  of  the 
North  has  made  the  United  States  government 
decide  to  establish  a  coaling  station  at  Dutch 
Harbor  (q.v.),  the  present  end  of  the  cable  from 
Seattle. 

In  1892  the  total  foreign  trade  of  Alaska  — 
by  which  is  meant  imports  and  exports  of  mer- 
chandise—  amounted  to  but  $28,366,  of  which 
the  larger  part  were  imports.  In  1900  the  total 
trade  was  little  less  than  $1,000,000.  For  the 
fiscal  year  ending  30  June  1903,  Alaska's  foreign 
trade  reached  a  total  of  more  than  $22,000,000, 
of  which  the  exports  were  about  $13,000,000. 
With  the  gold  and  silver  added,  the  exports 
would  have  exceeded  $26,000,000,  making  the 
total  foreign  trade  $35,000,000.  The  importation 
of  iron  and  steel  products  into  the  Territory 
during  the  year  exceeded  in  value  $2,000,000. 

And  yet  the  development  of  the  North  has 
only  begun.  Its  immense  wealth  of  fisheries 
and  of  timber  has  been  but  little  exploited ;  its 
possibilities  for  agriculture  have  not  even  been 
attempted.  Only  the  industry  in  furs  and  its 
gold  mines  have  received  general  recognition. 
When  the  cod  banks  of  the  coast  have  been  ex- 
ploited ;  the  salmon  industry  placed  on  a  more 
systematic  basis ;  the  deposits  of  gold,  iron, 
nickel,  copper,  and  coal  worked  by  adequate 
modern  machinery ;  the  vast  tracts  of  fertile  land 
brought  under  cultivation,  and  the  railroads 
briefly  indicated  in  the  foregoing  sketch  have 
been  completed,  the  great  North  will  be  no 
longer  the  lone  terra  incognita  of  the  past,  but 
will  throb  with  an  active  and  productive  civil- 
ization. 

In  the  steady  stream  of  population  north- 
ward there  is  nothing  known  of  the  limits  of 
nationality.  There  are  more  of  American  birth 
in  Dawson  than  there  are  Canadians.  Even  in 
the  great  wheat  lands  of  Manitoba  the  farmers 
from  Dakota,  Montana,  and  the  other  States  of 
the  North  and  West  almost  equal  in  numbers 
those  of  Canadian  origin.  The  explanation  is 
simple.  With  its  population  of  90,000,000  the 
United  States  can  send  forth  its  pioneers  in  the 
ratio  of  thirteen  to  one  from  the  provinces  of 
the  Dominion.  Loyalty  to  British  connection 
will  not  prevent  the  spread  of  American  in- 
fluence and  the  growth  of  American  ideals  of 
government.  The  entire  Canadian  Northwest 
is  already  more  American  than  British  in  its  ad- 
ministrative systems. 

Shut  off,  industrially,  from  the  east  of  Can- 
ada by  the  uninhabited  and  not  very  cultivable 
strip  north  of  Lake  Superior  and  Georgian  Bay. 
northwestern  Canada  must  make  its  commerce 
with  the  northwestern  States  and  with  Alaska. 
From  south,  west,  and  north,  therefore,  the  in- 
fluences will  be  wholly  American,  while  within 
its  boundaries  American  capital  and  American 
settlers  will  spread  the  leaven  of  the  genius  of 
American  institutions.  A  few  years  ago  it  was 
the  custom  to  laugh  at  the  purchase  of  Alaska 
as  having  been,  somewhat  politely,  forced  upon 
the  United  States  by  Russia  as  a  return  for  her 
supposed  friendship  during  the  Civil  War.  The 
laugh  is  no  longer  appropriate.  Larger  in  area 
than  the  combined  States  of  Alabama,  Connecti- 


cut, Delaware,  Indiana,  Indian  Territory,  Ken- 
tucky, Louisiana,  Maine,  Maryland,  Mississippi, 
Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsyl- 
vania, South  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Vermont,  Vir- 
ginia, and  West  Virginia,  or  than  the  British 
Isles,  France,  Germany,  Portugal,  and  Belgium 
together.  Alaska,  already  an  important  part  of 
the  United  States,  will  contribute  largely  to  a 
social  and  commercial,  if  not  a  political,  union 
of  two  nations.  William   R.  Stewart. 

Editorial  Staff  <New   York  Daily  News* 

Alaskan  Boundary  Commission,  a  mixed 
tribunal  which  met  in  London,  England,  3  Sept. 
1903  to  arbitrate  on  the  contentions  of  the  Cana- 
dian government  with  regard  to  the  boundary 
line  between  Alaska  and  Canada,  from  Mount 
St.  Elias  to  the  Portland  Canal.  The  commis- 
sion consisted  of  three  Americans  and  three  Brit- 
ons, the  American  commissioners  being  Secre- 
tary Root,  Senators  Lodge  and  Turner,  while 
the  British  commissioners  were  Lord  Alverstone 
(formery  Sir  Richard  Webster),  English,  Sir 
Louis  Jette,  and  Mr.  A.  B.  Aylesworth,  Canadi- 
ans. Ex-Secretary  Foster  was  agent  for  the 
American  government  and  Mr.  Clifford  Sifton 
for  the   British  government. 

In  May  1898  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  agreed  to  appoint  an  Anglo-American 
Joint  High  Commission  to  consider  and  put  on 
a  satisfactory  basis  the  regulations  of  the  North 
Atlantic  fisheries,  commercial  reciprocity,  the 
Bering  Sea  fishery  question,  and  other  disputes 
which  disturbed  relations  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  When  the  questions  for  the 
deliberation  of  this  commission  were  fixed,  no 
mention  was  made  by  Great  Britain  of  any  di- 
vergence of  opinion  regarding  the  Alaskan  boun- 
dary,—  but  on  1  Aug.  1898  the  British  govern- 
ment informed  the  United  States  that  a  differ- 
ence of  views  existed  as  to  the  provisions  of  the 
treaty  of  1825,  which  defined  the  Anglo-Russian 
boundary.  On  23  August  Great  Britain  sub- 
mitted its  claims,  enumerated  below.  It  was 
proposed  to  arbitrate  the  matter,  but  the  High 
Joint  Commission  could  not  agree.  The  United 
States  rejected  a  European  umpire  for  American 
territory  and  the  Canadians  would  not  agree  to 
an  American  judge.  The  final  compromise  was 
the  above-mentioned  tribunal. 

Previous  to  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  Yu- 
kon region  there  was  no  dispute,  or  occasion  for 
dispute,  as  to  the  course  of  the  boundary  line 
defined  by  the  Anglo-Russian  treaty  of  1825. 
F°r  73  years  it  had  been  tacitly  recognized  by 
all  nations,  including  Great  Britain.  The  his- 
tory of  that  treaty  is  interesting.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  czar  had  from  time  to  time  by  ukase 
asserted  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  the  coast 
lands  and  the  waters  of  Alaska,  to  prevent  any 
encroachment  by  the  British  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany upon  the  monopoly  of  the  Russian-Ameri- 
can Fur  Company  which  had  established  its  sta- 
tions and  carried  on  its  trade  in  the  islands  and 
along  the  coast  of  Alaska  extending  northward 
from  the  Portland  Canal.  Disputes  arose,  and 
in  the  attempt  to  settle  them  the  negotiations 
were  begun  which  led  to  the  signing  of  the 
treaty  of  1825.  The  purpose  of  Russia  in  that 
negotiation  was  altogether  to  shut  out  Great 
Britain  from  the  coast  and  the  waters  in  which 
the  Russian  company  was  carrying  on  its  busi- 
ness The  attempt  of  Great  Britain  was  to  se- 
cure a  foothold  upon  the  coast  with  the  obvious 


ALASKAN     BOUNDARY    COMMISSION 


jnirpose  of  getting  an  opportunity  for  the  Hud- 
sons  Bay  Company  to  establish  its  stations  there, 
which  was  the  very  tiling  Russia  sought  to  pre- 
vent 

The  negotiations  lasted  from  1822  to  1825, 
Count  Nesselbrode  and  M.  de  Poletica  conduct- 
ing the  Russian  case,  and  Sir  Charles  Bagot 
.  and  Lord  Stratford  de  Redcliffe  finally,  the 
British  case.  At  that  time  Great  Britain  feared 
that  the  United  States  would  insist  upon  re- 
taining possession  of  the  whole  Oregon  terri- 
tory up  to  the  Russian  line  at  the  historic  parallel 
of  500  40'.  This  would  have  shut  off  Canada 
from  the  Pacific  coast  entirely,  and  the  British, 
therefore,  made  strenuous  efforts  to  get  an  out- 
let through  the  Russian  coast  strip,  making  vari- 
ous propositions,  one  after  the  other  which  the 
Russians  rejected,  stubbornly  adhering  to  their 
original  proposition,  which  in  the  end  prevailed. 

The  British  first  asked  to  have  the  boundary 
line  drawn  straight  down  the  141st  meridian  to 
the  sea  at  .Mount  St.  Elias,  thus  depriving  Rus- 
sia of  the  entire  "panhandle"  of  Alaska,  and 
causing  her  even  to  relinquish  Sitka,  the  colonial 
capital.  This  was  peremptorily  rejected  by  Rus- 
sia without  serious  consideration.  The  British 
next  pioposed  Christian  Sound,  Chatham  Strait, 
and  Lynn  Canal  as  the  boundary,  leaving  Bar- 
anoff  Island  to  Russia,  but  giving  to  the  British 
Juneau,  Admiralty  Island,  and  everything  to  the 
south  and  east  thereof.  This  was  also  rejected. 
Then  Clarence  Strait  and  the  Stikine  River  were 
proposed,  leaving  Prince  of  Wales  Island  to 
Russia,  but  giving  to  Great  Britain  the  islands 
of  Wrangell  and  Revilla-Gigedo.  This  also  the 
Russians  rejected.  Finally  the  British  commis- 
sioners conceded  to  Russia  the  whole  strip  down 
to  54  40',  but  sought  as  a  last  resort  to  have 
the  coast  line  drawn  straight  across  such  arms  of 
the  sea  as  Glacier  Bay  and  Lynn  Canal,  from 
headland  to  headland,  so  as  to  give  the  British 
access  to  tidewater.  This,  too,  the-  Russians, 
inexorably  refused  to  grant,  and  in  the  end  they 
won  on  this  point  as  on  all  the  others.  From 
first  to  last  the  constant  and  inflexible  Russian 
contention  was  for  Russian  possession  of  an 
unbroken  strip  of  coast  from  Mount  St.  Elias  to 
Portland  Canal,  and  in  the  treaty  of  1825  that 
contention   was   explicitly  upheld  and   confirmed. 

That  Russian  title  was  transferred  to  the 
United  States  in  1867,  and  from  that  time  to  the 
lit  the  United  States  has  stood  for  pre- 
cisely what  Russia  stood  for  in  1822-5. 

In  |S<)8.  however,  as  already  Stated,  following 
the  discovery,  in  1896,  of  the  rich  gold  deposits 
in  the  Klondike  district,  the  Canadian  govern- 
ment set  up  a  claim  based  upon  a  new  under- 
standing of  the  Anglo-Russian  treaty.  The  main 
contention,  which,  by  the  way,  never  had  any 
cordial  support  from  qualified  experts  in  Great 
ain,  was  whether  the  line  of  demarkation 
between  the  southeastern  end  of  Alaska  and  1  he- 
British  northwest  possessions  CUt  through  the 
inlets  and  estuaries  of  the  Pacific  or  went  around 
them,  leaving  all  these  waterways  in  American 
territory  and  preventing  Great  Britain  from  ac- 
cess to  the  sea.  The  British  contended  that  the 
boundary  line,  which  was  defined  by  treaty  as 
running  parallel  with  the  sinuosities  of  the  coast 
at  a  distance  of  30  marine  miles  inland,  except 
where  parallel  mountain  ranges  were  nearer, 
when  it  was  to  follow  these  ranges,  was  to  be 
construed  as  running  parallel  to  the  coast  of 
the  Pacific  and  not  parallel  to  the  shores  of  the 


inlets  of  that  sea,  thus  constituting  a  political 
rather  than  a  physical  coast  line.  If  the  British 
contention  bad  been  granted,  Dyea  and  Skagway, 
two  important  ]>■  irts  on  the  Lynn  Canal,  and  the 
prominent  places  of  export  and  import  for  the 
Yukon  and  Klondike  gold  fields,  would  be  in 
Canadian  territory.  So  would  the  Porcupine 
gold  fields. 

On  account  of  the  apparent  clearness  of  the 
terms  of  the  Anglo-Russian  treaty  in  1825  it  may 
seem  difficult  to  imagine  how  any  interpretation 
different  from  that  argued  f"r  by  the  United 
States  could  have  been  put  forth.  The  original 
treaty,  however,  was  in  French,  and  dispute  an.se 

as  to  the  precise  translation  of  Vivte."  meaning 

crest,  "lisiere."  meaning  strip,  and  "cote,"  usually 
translated  as  coast. 

The  treaty  also  laid  down  the  boundary  on 
supposed  topographical  conditions  which  did  not 
exist.  When  the  treaty  »;h  drawn  up  the  train- 
ers relied  upon  some  of  the  maps  of  Capt.  Van- 
couver, and  from  observations  in  the  small  sec- 
tion of  British  Columbia  which  he  explored  it 
seemed  apparent  that  the  whole  coast  was  bor 
dered  by  a  range  of  mountains  which  ran  parallel 
to  and  at  a  distance  of  from  25  to  30  miles  from 
the  sea. 

\  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  a  jumble  of 
mountains  in  various  places  along  the  coast,  but 
in  no  case  is  there  a  well-defined  watershed. 
The  "crests"  mentioned  in  the  treaty  were  even 
more  difficult  to  decide  upon,  and  with  the  dif- 
ference of  opinion  as  to  whether  the  coast  line 
as  intended  in  the  treaty  ran  through  the  inlets 
or  around  them  there  were  grounds  for  dis- 
putes, for  the  settlement  of  which  an  international 
tribunal  became  necessary. 

The  treaty  between  the  United  Slates  and 
Great  Britain,  of  which  the  appointment  of  the 
Alaska  tribunal  was  the  consequence,  therefore 
decided  that  the  following  questions  should  be 
decided   upon: 

1.  What  is  intended  as  the  point  of  com- 
mencement of  the  line? 

2.  What    channel   is  the   Portland  channel? 

3.  What  course  should  tin-  line  take  from 
the  point  of  commencement  to  the  entrance  to 
Portland  channel  ? 

4.  To  what  point  On  the  56th  parallel  is  the 
line  to  be  drawn  from  the  head  of  the  Portland 
channel,   and   what  course  should   it   follow  be- 

ii  these  points? 

5.  In  extending  the  line  of  demarkation 
northward  from  said  p.  ant  on  the  parallel  of  the 
56th  degree  of  north  latitude,  following  the  crest 
of  the  mountains  situated  parallel  to  the  coast 
until  its  intersection  with  the  141st  degree  of 
longitude  west  of  Greenwich,  subject  to  the  con- 
dition that  if  such  line  should  anywhere  exci  ed 
the  distance  of  10  marine  leagues  from  the  ocean 
then  the  boundary  between  the  British  and  the 
Russian  Territory  should  be  formed  by  a  line 
parallel  to  the  sinuosities  of  the  coast  and  distant 
therefrom  not  more  than  10  marine  leagues,  was 
it  the  intention  and  meaning  of  said  convention 
of  1825  that  there  should  remain  in  the  exclu- 
sive possession  of  Russia  a  continuous  fringe  or 
strip  of  coast  on  the  mainland,  not  exceeding 
10  marine  leagues  in  width,  separating  the  Brit- 
ish possessions  from  the  bays,  ports,  inlets, 
havens,  and  water  of  the  ocean,  and  extending 
from  the  said  point  on  the  56th  degree  of  lati- 
tude north  to  a  point  wdiere  such  line  of  demark- 


ALASKAN     BOUNDARY    COMMISSION 


ation  should  intersect  the   141st  degree   of  lon- 
gitude west  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich? 

6.  If  the  foregoing  question  should  be  an- 
swered in  the  negative,  and  in  the  event  of  the 
summit  of  such  mountains  proving  to  be  in  places 
more  than  10  marine  leagues  from  the  coast, 
should  the  width  of  the  "lisiere"  which  was  to 
belong  to  Russia  be  measured  (1)  from  the  main- 
land coast  of  the  ocean,  strictly  so-called,  along 
a  line  perpendicular  thereto,  or  (2)  was  it  the 
intention  and  meaning  of  the  said  convention 
that  where  the  mainland  coast  is  indented  by 
deep  inlets,  forming  part  of  the  territorial  waters 
of  Russia,  the  width  of  the  lisiere  was  to  be 
measured  (a)  from  the  line  of  the  general  direc- 
tion of  the  mainland  coast,  or  (b)  from  the  line 
separating  the  waters  of  the  ocean  from  the 
territorial  waters  of  Russia,  or  (c)  from  the 
heads  of  the  aforesaid  inlets? 

7.  What,  if  any  exist,  are  the  mountains 
referred  to  as  situated  parallel  to  the  coast, 
which  mountains,  when  within  10  marine  leagues 
from  the  coast  are  declared  to  form  the  eastern 
boundary? 

The  United  States  made  no  actual  claim. 
She  reiterated  her  right  to  territory  which  she 
proved  had  been  recognized  as  hers  by  Great 
Britain  and  by  various  official  acts  of  Canada. 
Various  maps  were  produced  to  show  that  Rus- 
sia had  been  entitled  to  the  disputed  territory 
and  that  after  the  purchase  of  Alaska  that  same 
territory  was  mapped  and  charted  as  belonging 
to   the   United    States. 

Among  the  maps  put  in  evidence  was  the 
British  Admiralty  Chart  No.  "87,  corrected  to 
April  1898,  in  which  the  boundary  line  follows 
the  sinuosities  of  the  actual  sea-coast,  and  de- 
prives Canada  of  the  inlets  which  cut  into  the 
continent.  It  was  proven  also  that  post-offices 
have  been  maintained  on  various  points  of  Un- 
disputed strip ;  that  custom-houses  have  been 
established  there  and  have  collected  duties,  and 
that  government  and  mission  schools,  particu- 
larly at  the  head  of  the  Lynn  Canal  have  been 
maintained  for  nearly  20  years.  The  fact  that 
the  possession  of  the  territory  by  Russians  and 
later  by  Americans  had  not  been  disputed  from 
1825  until  1898,  was  also  put  forth  by  the  United 
States  in  support  of  her  claim. 

The  British  contention  rested  primarily  on  the 
claim  that  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  trace 
at  a  distance  of  30  miles  the  intricate  convolu- 
tions of  the  line  forming  the  edge  of  the  salt 
water,  and  that  therefore  a  general  coast  line, 
including  many  of  the  islands  and  disregarding 
many  of  the  inlets,  was  the  intention  of  the 
framers  of  the  Anglo-Russian  treaty.  If  the  30- 
mile  limit  were  applied  to  such  a  coast,  the 
boundary  line  would  of  course  cut  across  all 
1  he  deeper  inlets,  giving  the  British  immediate 
access  to  the  interior. 

The  British  also  submitted  an  argument  plac- 
ing a  new  interpretation  of  that  clause  of  the 
treaty  which  provides  that  where  the  boundary 
line  follows  the  mountain  ranges,  the  crests  of 
these  mountain  peaks  shall  mark  the  precise  line 
of  demarkation.  It  was  demonstrated  in  the 
rush  to  the  Klondike  that  there  was  no  general 
line  of  mountains  anywhere  near  the  coast,  but 
a  number  of  peaks  and  small  mountains  were 
scattered  disconnected  close  along  the  coast. 

The  British  claim  that  the  boundary  line 
should  follow  the  crests  of  these  isolated  peaks, 
had   it  been  allowed,   would  have   deprived  the 


United  States  of  a  great  portion  of  their  30-mile 
"lisiere."  The  British  cited  the  action  of  Ameri- 
can surveyors  in  1893  in  support  of  their  inter- 
pretation of  "coast." 

Dr.  T.  C.  Mendenhall,  superintendent  of  the 
United  States  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  in 
that  year  directed  his  subordinates  to  carry  their 
operations  inland  "30  nautical  miles  from  the 
coast  of  the  mainland  in  a  direction  at  ri^ht 
angles  to  its  general  trend."  In  regard  to  the 
mountains  it  was  contended  that  a  gap  does  not 
discontinue  the  general  line  of  the  range. 

The  official  report  of  the  tribunal  was  signed 
and  issued  on  20  Oct  1903.  The  signatories 
were  Lord  Alverstone,  the  British  commissioner, 
and  the  three  American  commissioner-,  who 
constituted  a  majority  of  the  tribunal,  the  Cana- 
dian commissioners  refusing  to  sign. 

All  the  American  claims  were  granted  with 
the  exception  of  those  in  regard  to  questions 
2  and  3,  in  which  the  British  contentions  were 
upheld.  The  original  treaty  specified  that  the 
line  should  run  from  the  southernmost  point  of 
Prince  of  Wales  Island  (Cape  Muzon)  to  Port- 
land Channel.  The  course  of  this  line,  accord- 
ing to  the  United  States,  is  due  east  about  70 
miles. 

The  British  locate  it  a  little  north  of  east 
about  66  miles  to  what  they  call  Portland  Chan- 
nel, and  what  the  Americans  call  Pearse  Chan- 
nel. The  American  claim  is  made  on  the  map 
of  Capt.  Vancouver,  who  first  scientifically  in- 
vestigated the  territory,  and  the  British  claim 
was  made  upon  the  text  of  Capt.  Vancouver's 
book,  which  differed  slightly  from  the  map. 

A  substantiation  of  the  American  contention 
would  have  given  to  the  United  States  Pearse 
and  Sitklan  Islands,  which  command  the  en- 
trance to  Fort  Simpson,  to  which  point  Canada 
proposes  to  build  a  new  transcontinental  rail- 
way. 

The  decision  in  regard  to  Portland  Channel 
or  Canal  gave  Canada  Pearse  and  Wales  In- 
lands, while  the  United  States  obtained  Sitklan 
and  Kunnughunnut  Islands  and  the  broad 
southern  portion  of  the  channel.  Three  opini 
were  also  delivered  to  Messrs.  J.  W.  Foster  and 
Clifford  Sifton,  the  agents  respectively  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  one  by  the  United 
States  commissioners  discussing  the  Portland 
Canal  claims:  another  by  Lord  Alverstone  on 
the  general  issue,  and  a  third  by  the  Canadians 
protesting  in  the  most  emphatic  language  against 
all  the  American  claims.  The  chief  interest  in 
the  decision  lay  in  the  conclusions  upon  the 
fifth  or  main  question  of  Lord  Alverstone,  who 
by  his  impartial  and  high-minded  course  re- 
futed the  assumption  on  which  was  based  the 
principal  objection  to  the  former  treaty,  that  not 
even  on  the  bench  could  a  British  subject  be 
found  who  would  not  persist  in  upholding  the 
supposed  interests  of  his  country,  no  matter 
how  cogent  might  be  the  appeals  to  his  sense 
of  justice  or  of  equity. 

The  following  is  an  abstract  of  Lord  Alver- 
stone's  conclusions : 

"The  broad,  undisputed  facts  are  that  the 
parties  were  engaged  in  making  an  agreement 
respecting  the  archipelago  and  islands  off  the 
coast  and  some  strip  of  land  upon  the  coast 
it -<lf.  The  western  limit  of  these  islands  ex- 
tends in  simie  places  about  100  miles  from  the 
coast  and  the  channels  or  passages  between  the 
islands   and   between   the   islands  "and   the  coast 


ALASKAN  BLACKFISH— ALB 


are  narrow  waters,  their  widths  varying  from  a 
few   hundred  yards  to   13  miles. 

"In  ordinary  parlance  no  one  would  call  the 
waters  of  any  of  these  channels  or  inlets  the 
ocean.  1  agree  wiih  you  as  presented  on  behalf 
of  Great  Britain  that  no  one  coming  from  the 
interior  and  reaching  any  of  these  channels,  par- 
ticularly the  head  of  Lynn  Canal  or  Taku  Inlet, 
would  describe  himself  as  being  upon  the  ocean, 
but  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  clear  that  the 
treaty  does  regard  some  of  these  channels  as 
the  ocean.  This  consideration,  however,  is  not 
sufficient  to  solve  the  question.  It  still  leaves 
open  the  interpretation  of  the  word  coast,  to 
which  the  mountains  were  to  be  parallel.    *    *    * 

"There  is,  so  far  as  I  know,  no  recognized 
rule  of  international  law  which  would  by  im- 
plication give  a  recognized  meaning  to  the  word 
1  as  applied  to  such  sinuosities  and  such 
waters  different  from  the  coast  itself.  As  I 
have  said  more  than  once,  the  locus  in  quo  to 
which  the  treaty  was  referring  precludes  the 
possibility  of  construing  the  word  coast  in 
any  particular  article  in  any  special  way  if  it 
does  not  refer  to  the  coast  Hue  of  the  continent. 
I  think  the  words  upon  the  border  of  the  con- 
tinent comprised  within  the  limits  of  the  Russian 
possessions  in  Article  Y.  rather  confirm  the 
view  that  Russia  was  to  get  a  strip  all  along 
the  continent,  but  I  do  not  think  that  much 
reliance  can  be  placed  upon  this  because  of  the 
provision  regarding  the  rivers  and  streams  in 
Article   VI. 

"Turning  from  the  language  of  the  treaty  to 
the  record  of  the  negotiations,  I  have  been  un- 
able to  find  any  passage  supporting  the  view 
that  Great  Britain  was  directly  or  indirectly 
putting  forward  a  claim  to  the  shores  or  ports 
at  the  head  of  inlets.  This  is  not  remarkable 
inasmuch  as  no  one  at  that  time  had  any  idea 
that  they  would  become  of  any  importance. 
*  *  *  The  language  of  both  the  British  and 
Russian  representatives  in  reporting  the  con- 
clusion of  the  treaty  to  their  respective  govern- 
ments is  in  accordance  with  the  view  I  have 
suggested.  *  *  *  I  have  little  doubt  that  if 
shortly  after  making  the  treaty  in  1825  Great 
Britain  and  Russia  had  proceeded  to  draw  the 
boundary  provided  by  the  treaty,  the  difficulties 
and  in  certain  events  the  impossibilities  of  draw- 
ing the  boundary  in  strict  accordance  with  the 
treaty    would   have   been    evident. 

"I  can,  therefore,  understand  and  appreciate 
the  contention  of  Great  Britain  that  under  ex- 
isting circumstances  difficulties  in  delineating  the 
boundaries  described  must  arise  in  one  view  and 
might  arise  in  any  view.  But  these  contentions, 
strong  as  they  arc  in  favor  of  a  just  and  equi- 
table modification  of  the  treaty,  do  not,  in  my 
opinion,  enable  one  to  put  a  different  construc- 
tion upon  the  treaty.  I  think  the  parties  knew 
and  understood  what  they  were  bargaining  about 
and  expressed  the  terms  of  their  bargain  in 
terms  to  which  effect  can  be  given.  The  fact 
that  when,  75  years  later,  the  representatives 
of  the  two  nations  attempted  to  draw  the  bound- 
ary in  accordance  with  the  treaty  they  were 
unable  to  agree  as  to  its  meaning  does  not  en- 
title me  to  put  a  different  construction   upon  it. 

"In  the  view  I  take  of  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
itself  it  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  subsequent 
action.  Had  the  terms  of  tin-  treaty  led  me  to 
a  different  conclusion  and  entitled  me  to  adopt 


the  view  prescribed  by  Great  Britain,  I  should 
have  felt  great  difficulty  in  holding  that  any- 
thing done  or  omitted  to  have  been  done,  by  or 
on  behalf  of  Great  Britain,  prevented  her  from 
insisting  upon  a  strict  interpretation  of  the 
treaty,  nor  do  I  think  the  representations  of  the 
map-makers  that  the  boundary  was  assumed  to 
run  around  the  heads  of  the  inlets  could  have 
been  properly  urged  by  the  United  States  as 
sufficient  reason  for  depriving  Great  Britain  of 
any  rights  she  had  under  the  treaty  had  they 
existed." 

Alaskan    Blackfish,    Greenfish,    etc.       See 

Blackfisii,   etc. 

Alassio,  a-las'se-6,  a  small  seaport  in  the 
province  of  Genoa,  Italy,  situated  on  the  Gulf 
of  Genoa,  about  48  m.  SAV.  of  the  city  of  Genoa. 

Alastor,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  surname 
given  to  Zeus  as  the  avenger;  also  the  name  of 
an  avenging  demon  who  follows  the  sinner  and 
drives  him  to  fresh  crime.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
the  name  was  given  to  a  house-demon,  the  skele- 
ton in  the  cupboard. 

Alatan,  a  range  of  mountains  in  central 
Asia,  forming  the  boundary  between  Mongolia 
and  Turkestan. 

Alatyr,  a-la-tir',  a  town  in  Russia,  govern- 
ment Simbirsk,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Alatyr 
with  the  Sura,  with  a  considerable  trade.  Pop. 
12,000. 

Alau'da,  a  genus  of  insessorial  birds, 
which  includes  the  larks.     See  Lark. 

Alaux,  al-6',  Jean,  called  "Le  Romain," 
a  French  painter:  b.  in  Bordeaux  1786;  d.  3 
March  1864.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vincent  and 
Guerin  ;  in  1815  took  the  Prix  de  Rome  with  the 
painting  of  lBriseis  Finding  the  Body  of  Pa- 
troclus  in  the  Tent  of  Achilles.'  He  executed 
many  portraits  and  other  works.  His  historical 
paintings  in  the  Museum  of  Versailles  are 
famous:  'Battle  of  Villaviciosa,'  'Valen- 
ciennes Taken  by  Assault  by  Louis  XIV.,' 
'States-General  of  Paris  under  Philippe  de 
Valois,'  'Assembly  of  Notables  at  Rouen  under 
Henry  IV.,'  'States-General  of  Paris  under 
Louis  XIII.,'  and  the  'Reading  of  the  Will  of 
Louis  XIV.'  He  spent  nine  years  in  painting 
the  86  pictures  which  decorate  the  hall  of  the 
States-General  of  Paris.  He  was  director  of  the 
Academy  of  France  from  1847  to  1850,  and  in 
1 85 1  became  a  member  of  the  Academy.  His 
brother,  Jean  Paul  Alaux,  called  "Le  Gentil," 
born  in  1788,  was  director  of  the  School  of  De- 
sign at  Bordeaux. 

A'lava,  a  hilly  province  in  the  north  of 
Spain,  one  of  the  three  Basque  provinces ;  area, 
1,207  square  miles;  covered  by  branches  of  the 
Pyrenees,  the  mountains  being  clothed  with  oak, 
chestnut,  and  other  timber,  and  the  valleys  yield- 
ing grain,  vegetables,  and  abundance  of  fruits. 
There  are  iron  and  copper  mines,  and  inex- 
haustible salt  springs.  Capital,  Vittoria.  Pop. 
about  95,000. 

Alb  (from  Lat.  albus,  white),  a  clerical  vest- 
ment worn  by  priests  while  officiating  in  the 
more  solemn  functions  of  divine  service.  It  is  a 
long  robe  of  white  linen  reaching  to  the  feet, 
bound  round  the  waist  by  a  cincture,  and  fitting 
more  closely  to  the  body  than  the  surplice. 


ALBA  — ALBANIA 


Alba,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  ancient 
Italy,  the  most  celebrated  of  which  was  Alba 
Longa,  a  considerable  city  of  Latinm,  according 
to  tradition  built  by  Ascanius,  the  son  of  /Eneas, 
300  years  before  the  foundation  of  Rome.  It 
was  at  one  time  the  most  powerful  city  of  La- 
tinm, and  the  head  of  a  league  of  the  Latin 
cities,  but  fell  during  the  reign  of  Tullus  Hos- 
tilius,  when  the  town  was  destroyed  and  the  in- 
habitants removed  to  Rome.  In  later  times  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Alba  Longa  became  covered 
with  villas  of  wealthy  Romans,  whence  arose 
the  municipium  of  Albanum,  now  Albano  (which 
see).  Another  Alba,  called  Alba  Fucentia  or 
Fucentis,  was  near  the  Lacus  Fucinus.  The 
Cyclopean  walls  of  the  old  town  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  excellent  preservation. 

Alba,  Duke  of.     See  Alva. 

Albacete,  a  town  in  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  highway  be- 
tween Madrid  and  Cartagena,  on  an  important 
line  of  railway.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  but  treeless 
plain.  Albacete,  from  its  position,  is  a  place 
of  considerable  business;  and  carries  on  trade, 
both  direct  and  transit,  with  Murcia,  Alicante, 
Valencia,  and  Madrid,  exporting  grain,  saffron, 
and  cattle ;  and  importing  codfish,  sardines,  rice, 
sugar,  wine,  iron,  cloths,  etc.  A  good  deal  of 
cutlery  is  made  here. 

Alba  Longa.      See  Alba. 

Alban,  Saint,  protomartyr  of  Britain, 
303.  A  native  of  Hertfordshire,  he  was  tortured 
and  executed  at  Verulamium  by  command  of  the 
prefect,  Asclepiodotus.  When  tranquillity  was 
restored  a  chapel  was  erected  over  his  grave ; 
in  795,  OfFa,  king  of  the  Mercians,  founded  a 
large  monastery  upon  the  spot,  and  Pope  Adrian 
IV.  ( 1 154-9)  directed  that  he  should  hold  the 
first  place  among  the  abbots  of  England.  His 
festival  is  celebrated  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  on  22  June,  and  by  the  Anglican  Church 
on  17  June. 

Albani,  a  powerful  family  of  Rome,  which 
has  supplied  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  with 
several  cardinals.  Two  of  them  are  well  known 
as  patrons  of  the  fine  arts:  (1)  Albani,  Ales- 
sandro,  born  in  1692;  died  in  1779;  he  was  a 
great  virtuoso,  and  possessed  a  collection  of 
drawings  and  engravings  which  at  his  death  was 
purchased  by  George  III.  for  14,000  crowns. 
(2)  Albani,  Giovanni  Francesco,  nephew  of 
the  former,  born  in  1720;  a  great  friend  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  in  every  respect  liberal  and  en- 
lightened. His  palace  was  plundered  by  the 
French  in  1798,  when  he  made  his  escape  to 
Naples  stripped  of  all  his  possessions.  Died  in 
1803. 

Albani,  Francesco,  a  famous  painter:  b. 
Bologna  1578:  d.  1660.  He  entered  the  school 
of  Dionysius  Calvaert,  a  Flemish  painter,  who 
had  a  great  reputation  in  Bologna.  Albani  was 
one  of  his  most  distinguished  scholars,  but 
quitted  him  for  Ludovico  Carracci.  under  whose 
instruction  he  made  rapid  progress.  He  labored 
here  several  years  in  connection  with  Domeni- 
chino,  to  whom  he  was  closely  attached  by 
friendship  and  love  of  art ;  and  some  resemblance 
is  perceptible  in  their  manner  of  coloring.  But 
in  invention  he  surpasses  his  friend,  and  indeed 
all  his  rivals  of  the  school  of  Calvaert.  His  fe- 
male   forms    Mengs   places    above   those    of    all 


other  painters.  Among  the  best  known  of  his 
compositions  are  the  <  Sleeping  Venus,'  <  Diana 
in  the  Bath,'  "Danae  Reclining,'  'Galatea  on  the 
Sea,'  <  Europa  on  the  Bull.'  Scriptural  sub- 
jects he  has  less  frequently  selected,  but  when 
he  has,  the  paintings  are  principally  distinguished 
for  the  beauty  of  the  heads  of  the  angels.  He 
had  a  numerous  school  in  Rome  and  Bologna. 
The  scholars  of  Guido,  with  whom  he  vied,  ac- 
cused him  of  effeminacy  and  weakness  of  style, 
and  maintained  that  he  knew  not  how  to  give 
any  dignity  to  male  figures.  He  has  been  called 
the  Anacreon  of  painters. 

Albani,  Marie  Emma  (Lajeunesse),  a  dra- 
matic soprano  and  opera  singer:  b.  1  Nov.  1852, 
in  Chambly,  near  Montreal,  Canada.  After 
studying  with  Lamperti,  at  Milan,  she  made  her 
debut  at  Messina  (1870),  in  lLa  Sonnambula,' 
under  the  name  of  Albani,  in  compliment  to  the 
city  of  Albany,  where  her  public  career  began. 
In  1878  she  married  Ernest  Gye  of  the  Covent 
Garden  Theatre. 

Albania,  an  extensive  region  in  west  Eu- 
ropean Turkey  between  the  Adriatic  Sea, 
Greece,  Macedonia,  and  Montenegro.  Upper  or 
northern  Albania  formed  a  part  of  the  Illyria  of 
the  Romans ;  lower  or  southern  Albania  cor- 
responds to  ancient  Epirus.  It  comprises  the 
vilayets  of  Scutari  and  Janina  and  parts  of 
Monastir  and  Kossovo.  It  forms  the  southwest- 
ern portion  of  the  remaining  immediate  posses- 
sions of  European  Turkey,  and  extends  along 
the  western  shore  of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  from 
the  river  Bojana  to  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  To  the 
north  it  is  bounded,  since  1878-80,  by  the 
newly  won  Montenegrin  territory  and  by  Bos- 
nia; on  the  south  it  is  separated,  since  1881,  from 
Greece  by  the  river  Arta.  The  eastern  boun- 
dary is  a  mountain  range,  which  to  the  north 
attains  an  altitude  of  7,990  feet.  Westward  of 
this  range  lie  parallel  chains  enclosing  long, 
elevated  valleys  sinking  to  level  strips  along 
the  coast,  which  mostly  consist  of  unhealthy 
swamps  and  lagoons.  The  highlands  advance 
to  the  sea,  forming  steep,  rocky  coasts.  One 
promontory,  the  Acroceraunian,  projecting  in 
Cape  Linguetta  far  into  the  sea,  reaches  a  height 
of  6,642  feet.  There  are  three  lakes,  Scutari, 
Ochrida,  and  Janina.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Boyana,  Drin,  Shkumbi,  and  Artino.  A  fine 
climate  and  a  favorable  soil  would  seem  to  in- 
vite the  inhabitants  to  agriculture,  but  in  the 
north  little  is  cultivated  but  maize,  with  some 
rice  and  barley  in  the  valleys ;  the  mountain  ter- 
races are  used  as  pastures  for  numerous  herds 
of  cattle  and  sheep.  In  the  south  the  slopes  of 
the  lower  valleys  are  covered  with  olives,  fruit, 
and  mulberry  trees,  intermixed  with  patches  of 
vines  and  maize,  while  the  densely  wooded 
mountain  ridges  furnish  valuable  supplies  of 
timber.  The  plateau  of  Janina  yields  abun- 
dance of  grain ;  and  in  the  valleys  opening  to 
the  south  the  finer  fruits  are  produced,  along 
with  maize,  rice,  and  wheat.  The  inhabitants 
form  a  peculiar  people,  the  Albanians,  called  by 
the  Turks  Arnauts,  and  by  themselves  Skipetar. 

They  are  half-civilized  mountaineers,  frank 
to  a  friend,  vindictive  to  an  enemy.  They  are 
constantly  under  arms,  and  are  more  devoted  to 
robbery  than  to  cattle-rearing  and  agriculture. 
They  live  in  perpetual  anarchy,  every  village  be- 
ing at  war  with  its  neighbor.  Many  of  them 
serve    as    mercenaries    in    other    countries,    and 


ALBANS,  ST.— ALBANY 


they  form  the  best  soldiers  of  the  Turkish  army. 
At  one  time  the  Albanians  were  all  Christians; 
but  after  the  death  of  their  last  chief,  the  1 
Skanderbeg,  in  1467,  and  their  subjugation  by 
the  Turks,  a  large  part  became  Mohammedans. 
Their  language  is  one  of  the  eight  chief  tni 
( iermanic  g  oups,  and  represents  the  ancient 
lllyrian;  it  is  found  not  only  in  Albania,  but  in 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily.  The  former  notion 
that  its  affinities  were  prevailingly  Greek  was 
derived  from  the  number  of  Greek  loan-words 
in  its  southern  branch,  the  Toskish,  the  northern 
and  more  primitive  being  called  Gegish :  the 
affiliation  of  the  whole  is  rather  to  Slavic  than 
any  other.  While  retaining  its  grammatical 
structure,  its  vocabulary  has  been  largely  trans- 
fi  irmed  by  borrowing  from  neighbors ;  Latin 
most,  then  Greek,  Slavic,  and  Turkish.  It  has 
almost  no  literature  except  folk  songs  and  tales. 
'The  Gegish  uses  the  Roman  alphabet,  the  Tos- 
kish  the   Greek,   with   some   changes. 

Albans,  St.     See  St.  Albans. 

Albany,  Louisa  Maria  Caroline,  or  Aloy- 
sia,  Countess  of,  a  princess  of  the  Stolberg- 
Gedern  family:  b.  1753;  d.  29  Jan.  1S24.  She 
married  in  I  772,  the  English  pretender,  Charles 
Edward  Stuart,  after  which  event  she  bore  the 
above  title.  Her  marriage  was  unfruitful  and 
unhappy.  'To  escape  from  the  barbarity  of  her 
husband,  she  retired,  in  1780,  to  a  cloister,  and 
afterward  to  the  house  of  her  brother-in-law  at 
Rome,  where  she  met  the  poet  Alfieri,  to  whom, 
soon  after  the  death,  of  her  husband,  she  was 
privately  married.     Alfieri  attributed  to  her  his 

tic  inspiration.  (.See  AlFIEEI.)  She  died  at 
Florence,  her  usual  place  of  residence,  in  her 
7_M  year.  Her  ashes  and  those  of  Alfieri  now 
repose  under  a  common  monument  in  the  church 
of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence. 

Albany,  Ga..  county-seat  of  Dougherty 
County,  on  the  Albany  &  North  Seaboard  Air 
Line.  Central  Ga.,  and  Plant  System  R.R.'s,  at 
the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Flint  River,  about 
175  m.  W.  from  Savannah.  The  city  has  large 
manufacturing  interests,  and  is  the  centre  of 
one  of  the  most  productive  agricultural  regions 
in  the  State.  It  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and  a 
council.     Pop.   (1900)   4,606. 

Albany,  Mo.,  city  and  county-seat  of  Gen- 
try County,  on  the  Chicago,  B.  &  Q.  R.R.,  about 
82  m.  N.E.  from  Kansas  City.  The  Central 
Christian  College  and  the  Northwest  Missouri 
College  are  situated  there.  The  city,  first  settled 
in  1845,  has  a  mayor  and  council.  Pop.  (1900) 
2,025. 

Albany,  X.  V.,  State  capital  and  seat  of 
Albany  County,  on  the  right  (west)  hank  of  the 
Hudson,  14.?  miles  north  of  New  York.  200  miles 
west  of  Boston,  297  miles  east  of  Buffalo.  Be- 
sides its  political  importance  as  the  capital,  its 
commercial  and  manufacturing  status  is  high. 
1  tf  old  for  many  years  the  starting  point  of  all 
enormous  eastern  travel  and  traffic  to  the 
Great  West,  over  the  Eric  Canal  (q.v.),  con- 
necting  it  with  the  Great  Lakes  at  Lake  Erie; 
it  is  still  an  important  port  and  the  intersecting 
point  of  the  great  western  as  well  as  northern 
rail  and  water  routes.  With  New  York  and  the 
ocean  it  is  connected  by  the  imperial  Hudson, 
of  which  it  is  the  head  of  navigation  for  large 
steamers  (smaller  ones  going  on  to  Troy,  six 
miles  above).     The  Erie   Canal  is  still  a   great 


commercial  advantage,  and  will  soon  be  more 
so;  while  the  Champlain  Canal  gives  access  not 
only  to  western  Vermont,  hut  to  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  the  heart  of  Canada,  with  the  foreign 
business  centring  at  Montreal.  By  rail  it  joins 
the  western  and  northern  traffic  of  the  New 
York  Central  Railroad  system  (the  Adirondack 
region,  Vermont,  and  Canada)  and  that  of  the 
Delaware  &  Hudson  Railroad  with  the  western 
traffic  of  central  New  England  over  the  Boston 
&  Albany  branch  of  the  New  York  Central  road, 
the  Fitchburgh  branch  of  the  Boston  &  Maine 
Railroad  and  the  Rutland  Railroad. 

Trade  mi  J  Manufacturing. —  'The  through 
freight  lines  now  leave  little  transhipment  to  be 
done  at  Albany,  though  it  still  remains  an  im- 
portant passenger  centre;  but  commerce  and  in- 
dustries are  conservative,  and  it  retains  much 
of  both  given  it  by  its  position  in  earlier  times, 
as  a  distributing  point  and  terminal.  In  par- 
ticular, the  great  Canadian  and  Adirondack 
forests  to  the  north  have  made  it  an  immense 
lumber  port.  Its  manufactures  arc  of  wide  and 
well-known  importance,  the  greatest  being  iron 
goods, —  foundries  and  stove  works, —  wood  and 
brass;  combined  wood  and  metal,  as  carriages 
and  wagons;  brick :  shirts,  collars,  and  cuffs; 
clothing  and  knit  goods;  shoes;  flour;  tohacco 
and  cigars;  and  brewery  products;  billiard  lialls; 
dominoes;  checkers  ami  embossed  blocks. 

In  1900  the  city  contained  1.566  manufactur- 
ing establishments  with  $21,328,764  capital,  em- 
ploying 14,092  persons,  paying  $7,127,864  in 
wages  and  $11,121,501  for  materials,  and  having 
a  total  output  of  $24,992,021. 

Finances. —  The  assessed  valuation  of  tax- 
able property  in  1903  was  $68,672,887  and  the 
net  public  debt  in  11)03  was  $1,318,435.  'The  an- 
nual and  municipal  outlay  is  about  $2,000,000,  of 
which  $300,000  is  for  schools.  $157,000  for  police 
and  $150,000  for  the  fire  department.  There  are 
six  national  hanks,  with  aggregate  capital  of 
$1,750,000,  two  trust  companies  with  a  capital, 
surplus  and  profits  of  $1,135,000,  and  seven 
savings  banks  with  a  surplus  (at  market  value) 
of  $4,621,041,  and  amount  of  deposits  of 
$55,496,220. 

Interior. —  The  city  has  a  river  frontage  of 
four  miles,  and  extends  west  five  miles  from  a 
narrow  alluvial  strip  often  flooded  in  the  spring, 
over  a  steep  rise  to  a  sandy  table-land  150  to 
200  feet  above  tide- water,  divided  into  four  ele- 
vations and  their  corresponding  valleys.  It 
has  85  miles  of  streets,  paved  with  granite, 
asphalt,  and  brick;  gas  and  electric  light  plants; 
and  over  30  miles  of  electric  street  railways 
within  its  limits,  several  suburban  lines  running 
to  towns  at  a  distance,  centring  in  Albany: 
these  lines  reach  'Troy,  Cohoes,  Saratoga,  Glens 
Falls,  Lake  George  and  Warrensburgh  in  the 
north,  a  distance  of  71  miles.  Sand  Lake  in 
the  northeast,  a  distance  of  15  miles:  Schenec- 
tady, Amsterdam,  Johnstown,  and  Gloversville 
in  the  v  est,  a  distance  of  50  miles,  and  Hudson 
in  the  south,  a  distance  of  38  miles.  The  river 
is  crossed  by  two  railroad  and  foot  bridges  and 
one  wagon  bridge  to  Rensselaer  (formerly 
Greenbush).  The  water  supply  is  partly  taken 
by  gravity  from  an  artificial  lake  five  miles  west, 
and  partly  pumped  from  the  river,  with  a  public 
filtration  system.  This  plant  covers  20  acres  of 
ground,  has  eight  filter  beds  and  filters  15.000.000 
gallons  of  water  daily.     The  parks,  11  in  num- 


ALBANY 


ber,  contain  305  acres ;  the  largest  is  Washington 
Park  of  90  acres  with  a  lake  1,700  feet  long. 
This  park  contains  the  celebrated  'Burns'  statue 
by  Charles  Calverly  and  the  bronze  and  rock 
fountain  'Moses  Smiting  the  Rock*  by  J.  Mas- 
sey  Rhind.  The  three  cemeteries  cover  440 
acres.  President  Arthur's  tomb  is  in  the  hand- 
some Rural  cemetery  of  280  acres,  situated  four 
miles  north  of  the  city. 

Buildings. —  The  great  show  building  of  Al- 
bany is  the  magnificent  capitol,  begun  in  1871 
and  continued  by  several  different  architects  at  a 
total  outlay  to  date  of  some  $25,000,000.  The 
lack  of  unity  in  plan  makes  itself  perceptible 
both  in  looks  and  cost,  millions  have  been  spent 
in  alterations  and  reconstructions,  and  some  of 
the  mechanical  work  and  material  have  been 
poor ;  but  though  more  might  have  been  ob- 
tained for  the  money,  the  capitol  is  a  noble 
structure.  It  is  of  Maine  granite,  in  the  Renais- 
sance style  ;  is  300  x  400  feet  and  covers  more 
than  three  acres;  it  occupies  a  most  sightly  posi- 
tion on  the  hillside  facing  the  river,  and  in- 
cluding part  of  the  site  of  the  old  capitol  built 
in  1806.  Besides  its  rooms  for  the  legislative 
bodies  and  officials  and  the  court  of  appeals,  it 
contains  the  magnificent  State  library  of  over 
450,000  volumes,  and  many  interesting  relics  of 
the  Revolution  and  Civil  War.  The  grand 
western  staircase  in  the  western  end  of 
the  building  is  said  to  be  the  finest  staircase 
in  the  world :  it  cost  nearly  two  millions  of 
dollars. 

The  State  Hall  and  the  City  Hall  face  it; 
the  former  of  white  marble,  and  the  latter  of  red 
sandstone  with  grand  campaniles  and  Roman- 
esque doorways.  The  custom-house  and  post- 
office  are  in  the  government  building  at  the  foot 
of  State  Street.  Among  other  buildings  are  the 
State  Arsenal,  Harmanus  Bleecker  Hall,  the  old 
Schuyler  mansion,  now  used  as  an  orphan  asy- 
lum, and  the  Agricultural  and  Geological  hall. 
In  1893  the  second  Van  Rensselaer  manor-house, 
built  1765,  was  removed  to  the  Williams  College 
campus,  of  Wiliiamstown,  Mass. 

The  buildings  of  religious  and  educational 
institutions  are  also  creditable  features :  Albany 
is  the  seat  of  both  Roman  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  bishoprics,  and  has  over  70 
churches.  Very  notable  are  the  cathedrals  of 
the  Immaculate  Conception  (R.  C.)  and  All 
Saints  (P.  E.).  St.  Peter's  Church  (P.  E.)  is 
reputed  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
French  Gothic  type  of  architecture  in  the  United 
States. 

The  Madison  Avenue  and  First  Reformed 
churches  were  organized  in  1642,  incorporated 
in  1720  and  continued  as  one  church  until  1799, 
when  separate  edifices  were  built;  these  two 
churches  continued  under  one  government  until 
1815. 

The  public  school  property  is  valued  at  nearly 
$1,000,000.  Other  institutions  of  learning  are  the 
law  and  medical  departments  of  the  Union  Uni- 
versity at  Schenectady  (originally  independent 
academies  of  1851  and  1839),  Albany  Academv, 
the  State  Normal  College,  St.  Agnes  School,  the 
Albany  Female  Academy,  and  the  Convent  of  the 
Sacred  Heart.  Also  the  Dudley  Observatory  and 
the  Bender  Hygienic  Laboratory.  Albany  has  a 
fine  city  hospital  built  in  1899  on  the  pavilion 
plan  and  covering  16  acre;  with  150.000  feet  of 
floor    space;    the    Albany    penitentiary,    dating 

Vol.  I— 16 


from  1848  —  from  three  to  four  hundred  prison- 
ers a  year  are  confined  in  this  institution. 

Government. —  Biennial  mayor  ;  city  council, 
the  president  elected  at  large,  the  aldermen  by 
wards ;  and  boards  of  finance,  public  works,  pub- 
lic safety,  assessment  and  taxation,  charities  and 
correction,  judiciary,  and  law.  For  their  compo- 
sition, see  statutes  of  New  York  State,  cities  of 
the  second  class.  The  mayor  also  appoints  a 
sealer  of  weights  and  measures,  and  super- 
visors are  elected. 

Population. —  In  1800,  5,289;  1820,  12,630; 
1840,  33./2I;  i860,  62,367;  1880,  90,758;  1890, 
94,923;  1900,  94,151    (i/,70O  foreign). 

History. —  Albany,   as   an    old    frontier   town 
and  strategic  post  against  the  French  settlements 
in  the  18th  century  wars,  is  of  much  historic  in- 
terest.    Next  to  Jamestown,  Ya.,  and  St.  Augus- 
tine,   Fla.,   it   was   the   oldest   settlement    in   the 
Union ;  if  the  13  colonies  only  are  included,  and 
Jamestown  thrown  out  as  deserted  since  1676,  it 
may  perhaps   be  called  the  oldest   with   a   con- 
tinuous life,  though  its   actual  settlement  as  a 
residence   is   later   than    Plymouth.      (For   earlv 
discovery,  see  America;  Hudson;  Verassano.) 
About   1540  a   French  trading-post  was   set    up 
there  for  a  time.     In  1614  the  Dutch,  following 
Hudson's  lead,  established  a  factory,  on  Castle 
Island,  called  Fort  Nassau,  in  1617  removed  to 
the  mainland  and  called   Beverwyck.     The  first 
settlers    were    18   Walloon    families    (Huguenot 
refugees  from  Belgium  —  Peter  Minuit,  the  first 
director-general    of    New    Amsterdam,    was    a 
Walloon),    and    Fort    Orange     (Latinized    Au- 
rania)  was  built  the  same  year,  near  the  present 
capitol.      In    1626    a    war    with    the    Mohawks 
forced   the  temporary  abandonment  of  the   vil- 
lage.    In    1629   Killian   Van    Rensselaer,   having 
obtained    from    the    Dutch    government   a    large 
land-grant  near  by,  colonized  it  with  Dutch  set- 
tlers and   rented   the  land  to  them  as  oatroon. 
(See    Anti-Rent    War;    Patroon.)      This,    as 
always,    ended    in    a    chronic    dispute    over    the 
extent  of  his  legal  rights  and  jurisdiction,  which 
was  not  settled  till  after  the  ownership  of  the 
Dutch  settlements  was  transferred  by  the   Eng- 
lish conquest  to  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albanv 
(later  James  II.)  after  whom  Fort  Orange  was 
renamed.     In  1686  it  received  a  city  charter  ( its 
bi-centennial  was  celebrated  in  1886)   from  Gov. 
Thomas  Dongan ;  its  first  mayor   (appointed  by 
the  governor,   though  the  council    was   elected) 
was     Peter     Schuyler.       The     English     settlers 
rapidly  increased,  but  Albany  was  long  a  Dutch 
city.     In  the  French  and  Indian  wars  it  was  a 
stockaded  rendezvous,  arsenal,  and  hospital,  the 
refuge  of  the  border.     In  1754  it  was  the  meet- 
ing-place    of     the     first     Provincial     Congress, 
which   formed  "a  plan  of  a  proposed  union  of 
the   several   colonies"    (see  Albanv   Congress). 
In  1777  it  was  Burgoyne's  objective  point,  where 
he  was  to  meet  the  expeditions  up  the  river  and 
from  Canada.     After  being  for  many  years  later 
the  occasional  seat  of  State  government,  it  be- 
came the  permanent  capital  in   1797,  the  centen- 
nial of  which  it  celebrated  6  Jan.  1897.     Its  rapid 
growth    began    with    the    opening    of    the    Erie 
Canal  in  1825,  making  it  the  terminal  for  west- 
ern    business.     Within     35     years     it     had     in- 
creased  fivefold.     In   1848   it   was  partially   de- 
stroyed by  fire. 

William  Boucher  Jones, 
Secretary  Albany  Chamber  of  Commerce. 


ALBANY  —  ALBATROSS 


Albany,  (  >rc.,  city  and  county-seat  of  Linn 
County,  mi  the  Southern  Pacific  and  the  Cowalli 
&  E.  R.R.'s,  and  the  Willamette  River,  about  25 
m.  S.  by  W.  from  Salem.  The  city  has  good 
water-power  from  the  Willamette  River,  and 
has  large  manufacturing  interests.  It  ships  both 
grain  and  Hour.    Pop.  (1900)  3,149. 

Albany,  West  Australia,  in  Plantagenet 
co.,  on  King  George's  Sound.  It  has  one  of 
the  finest  harbors  in  Australia,  and  is  a  port  of 
call  fur  the  steamers  of  the  Peninsular  &  Ori- 
ental Co.  It  is  a  consular  station  of  the  United 
States.     Pop.  about  3.000. 

Albany  Congress,  an  assembly  of  repre- 
sentatives of  tin-  seven  northern  British-Amer- 
ican colonies  (Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire, 
Connecticut,  Rhode  Island.  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Maryland),  called  together  in 
1754  by  the  British  government  to  consult  in 
regard  to  the  threatening  French  war.  It  met 
19  June,  and  two  plans  were  proposed:  (1)  a 
league  with  the  Five  Nations,  which  was  car- 
ried out;  (2)  a  proposal  offered  by  Franklin 
for  a  political  union.  In  this  a  common  presi- 
dent was  proposed,  and  a  great  council  repre- 
senting the  different  colonies.  The  president 
was  to  be  appointed  by  the  Crown;  to  be  also 
commander-in-chief,  to  commission  all  civil  offi- 
cers and  appoint  all  military  ones,  and  have  a 
veto  on  the  council.  The  council  was  to  con- 
sist of  three-year  members,  two  to  seven  from 
each  colony;  not  to  be  adjourned  or  dissolved 
or  kept  over  six  weeks  in  session  against  its 
will;  it  coidd  lay  taxes,  maintain  troops,  build 
forts,  nominate  civil  officers,  manage  Indian 
affairs,  and  authorize  new  settlements;  and 
its  acts  were  to  be  valid  unless  vetoed  within 
three  years  by  the  Crown.  This  plan  was  re- 
jected by  the  British  Crown  because  it  gave 
too  much  power  to  the  colonies  and  by  the  col- 
onies because  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the 
Crown.  The  significance  of  this  congress  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  stimulated  the  union  of  the 
colonies   which   was  afterward  accomplished. 

Albany  Regency,  in  American  political 
history,  the  nickname  of  a  powerful  group  of 
Democratic  leaders  in  New  York  State,  who 
controlled  the  party  machinery  there  and  acted 
together  for  influence  in  State  and  national  af- 
fairs about  1820-54:  so  named  because  its  mem- 
bers either  lived  near  the  capital  or  held  offices 
which  made  it  their  headquarters.  Its  origin 
and  essence  as  an  aristocracy  of  « bosses »  lay 
in  the  system  of  frequent  elections  among  a 
democracy,  which  puts  nominations  into  the 
hands  of 'professionals  who  will  be  paid  in  some 
shape,  creating  a  permanent  standing  army  of 
political  managers.  The  Regency  was  the  un- 
official staff  of  this  army,  and  was  larger  than 
in  other  States  from  the  imperial  field  which 
New  York  offered  for  great  careers;  but  it 
could  not  have  perpetuated  its  power  but  for 
the  means  of  rewarding  friends  and  punishing 
enemies  given  it  by  the  "  spoils  system  »  (a 
name  derived  from  the  saying  of  one  of  its 
members,  William  L.  Marcy.  in  1833.  that  « to 
the  victors  belong  the  spoils  »)•  While  per- 
sonally upright,  and  strong  opponents  of  cor- 
ruption, they  held  firmly  to  this,  the  very  spring 
of  corruption:  the  giving  or  taking  away  of 
offices,  the  use  of  public  contracts  for  printing 
or  other  work  or  supplies,  etc.     That  this  was 


its  cement  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  after  the 
bitter  factional  split  of  1848  (see  Barnburners) 
had  given  the  Othei  party  this  patronage  to 
use  against  it,  the  Regency  was  reduced  in  a 
few  years  to  unorganized  individuals.  The 
members  of  course  kept  themselves  in  high  or 
profitable  positions  according  to  their  capacities 
or  preferences;  several  alternating  between 
State  and  national  preferment,  but  never  ne- 
glecting the  former  basis  even  in  the  latter 
service.  The  earliest  and  greatest  leader  was 
Martin  Van  Buren,  State  attorney-general. 
United  States  senator  iN_>i  8,  resigning  to  be- 
come governor  of  New  York,  Jackson's  secre- 
tary of  state,  Vice-President,  President.  Others 
were  William  I..  .Matey.  Stair  comptroller, 
judge  of  the  New  York  supreme  court,  United 
States  senator  1831,  resigning  [833  to  become 
governor  of  New  York,  Polk's  secretary  of 
war.  Pierce's  secretary  of  state;  Silas  Wright, 
Congressman.  State  comptroller.  United  States 
senator  1833  (succeeding  Marcy).  resigning 
1844  to  become  governor  of  New  York;  John 
A.  Dix,  State  secretary  of  state,  United  States 
senator  1845-0.  Buchanan's  secretary  of  the 
treasury,  again  governor  of  New  York  1872-4; 
Benjamin  F.  Butler,  Van  Buren's  attorney- 
general  and  acting  secretary  of  war;  while 
others  held  only  State  offices, —  Azariah  C. 
Flagg,  Slate  secretary  of  stale  and  afterward 
twice  comptroller;  Edwin  Croswell,  State 
printer,  editor  of  the  Albany  .traits,  leading 
Democratic  organ;  Benjamin  Knower,  State 
treasurer;  and  others  held  no  offices, —  Dean 
Richmond,  Roger  Skinner.  Peter  Cagger,  Sam- 
uel A.  Talcott,  etc.  (Hammond's  'Political 
History  of  New  York'  is  a  shrewd  analy- 
sis of  State  politics  from  a  judicious  and 
experienced  observer.)  Afterward  Samuel  J. 
Tilden,  Daniel  Manning,  and  others  of  high 
stamp,  by  sagacity  of  central  management,  pre- 
served in  a  manner  the  traditions  of  the  older 
group,  though  they  never  had  its  patronage  to 
use  for  discipline. 

Albatross  (corrupted  from  Portug.  alca- 
tros,  the  cormorant;  from  Ar.  al.  the;  qadus, 
bucket,  on  account  of  its  pouch),  a  large,  al- 
most exclusively  pelagic  bird  of  the  family 
Diotnedeidte,  a  feature  of  the  lonely  southern 
oceans.  They  are  rarely  seen  on  the  north  At- 
lantic, but  frequent  nearly  all  other  seas,  and 
are  never  seen  ashore  except  on  the  barren 
antarctic  islands  where  they  breed.  They  have 
great  powers  of  Might  and  follow  ships 
for  long  distances  to  pick  up  .offal.  Their 
appetites  are  rapacious,  their  natural  diet 
consisting  of  any  fishes,  mollusks,  or  other 
animal  matter  which  they  find  at  the  sur- 
face of  the  water;  tiny  ilo  not  dive.  Sailors 
are  fond  of  them  and  have  a  strong  supersti- 
tion against  killing  them.  Like  their  allies, 
the  petrels,  the  albatrosses  have  three  fully- 
webbed  toes,  while  the  hind  toe  is  cither  en- 
tirely wanting  or  represented  by  a  claw.  The 
bill  of  an  albatross  is  four  inches  or  more  long, 
very  thick,  and  finished  by  a  powerful  hook  at 
the  tip.  The  nostrils  open  from  round  hori- 
zontal tubes  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
bill,  but  at  its  base,  instead  of  together  on  top 
as  with  the  petrel.  The  wings  are  extremely 
long  and  pointed,  the  tail  short  and  somewhat 
rounded.  The  feathers  of  the  body  form  so 
thick    a    coat    as   to    withstand    both    water    and 


ALBAUGH  —  ALBERT 


severe,  long-continued  cold ;  owing  to  the  ex- 
treme length  of  the  wing  the  number  of  flight 
feathers  on  it  is  greater  than  on  the  wing  of 
any  other  bird.  The  single  large  white  egg  of 
the  albatross  is  usually  hatched  on  the  bare 
earth.  Two  rather  small  species  of  albatross, 
the  short-tailed  {Diomcdca  albatrus)  and  the 
black-footed  (Diomcdca  nigripcs),  occur  on  the 
western  coasts  of  North  America ;  these  are 
about  three  feet  long  and  seven  feet  across  the 
wings.  The  sooty  albatross  (Pliccbctria  fuli- 
ginosa),  of  much  the  same  size,  belongs  broadly 
to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  There  are  from  seven  to 
nine  other  species,  of  which  the  largest  is  the 
\\andering  albatross  (Diomedea  exulans)  of 
the  southern  oceans.  It  is  4  or  5  feet  long  and 
10  to  12  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  wings.  Its  color 
is  white,  with  black  bars  across  the  wing  coverts 
and  across  part  of  the  back.  This  is  probably 
the  best  known  species  in  the  family. 

Albaugh,  John,  American  actor:  b.  Bal- 
timore, 30  Sept.  1837.  Under  the  management 
of  Joseph  Jefferson  he  made  his  first  appearance 
in  a  play  called  (Brutus,)  in  1855.  For  13  years 
he  played  throughout  the  United  States  and  in 
1868  became  manager  of  various  theatres,  lat- 
terly in  Washington  and  Baltimore.  He  re- 
tired from  the  stage  in  1899  and  devoted  his 
leisure  to  stock-raising. 

Albay,  a  province  in  the  southeast  of 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  and  the  richest  hemp- 
growing  district  on  the  island.  It,  has  yielded 
as  much  as  40,000  tons  of  hemp  in  a  season. 
The  province  contains  a  picturesque  volcano, 
Mayon,  which  has  had  several  destructive  erup- 
tions, the  last  in  1888.  In  January  1900  Brig.- 
Gen.  William  A.  Kobbe,  United  States  Volun- 
teers, was  appointed  military  governor  of  the 
province  and  Catanduanes  Island,  with  tem- 
porary authority  over  Samar  and  Leyte  Islands 
for  the  purpose  of  controlling  the  hemp-growing 
country  and  occupying  and  opening  to  trade  the 
various  hemp  ports.  The  principal  towns  in  the 
province  are  Albay  (the  capital),  Tivi,  Malinao, 
Tobaco,  Malilipot,  Bagacay,  Libog,  Legaspi, 
Manito,  Libon,  Polangui,  Ligao,  Oas,  Guinoba- 
tan,  Cagsaua,  and  Camalig.  Vicol  is  almost  the 
exclusive  language  of  the  province.  The  indus- 
tries are  hemp-growing  (annual  value  $4,750.- 
217),  ship-building,  gold,  silver,  coal,  and  iron 
mining.    Pop.  (1900)  195,129. 

Albemarle,  The,  a  Confederate  ram, 
which  for  a  long  time  did  great  damage  among 
Union  shipping,  but  was  finally  destroyed  by  W. 
B.  Cushing  (q.v.),  who  was  entrusted  at  dif- 
ferent times  with  various  difficult  feats  of  the 
sort.  Cushing,  while  the  Albemarle  was  at 
moorings  in  the  harbor  of  Plymouth,  N.  G,  on 
the  night  of  27  Oct.  1864  entered  the  harbor  and 
succeeded  in  blowing  up  the  vessel  by  means  of 
a  torpedo.  The  Albemarle  was  rendered  com- 
pletely useless,  and  Cushing  obtained  lieutenant- 
commander's  rank  and  the  thanks  of  Congress 
for  his  execution  of  the  exploit. 

Albemarle  Sound,  a  shallow  and  narrow 
body  of  water  on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina, 
separated  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  low  sand 
islands.  The  greatest  depth  is  about  18  feet, 
but  it  is  generally  so  shallow  as  to  be  (innavi- 
gable except  where  it  has  been  dredged.  The 
water  is  generally  fresh  and  is  not  affected  by 
the   tides.      It   extends    directly   west    from    the 


ocean  about  60  miles.  It  is  the  outlet  of  many 
of  the  streams  of  northeastern  North  Carolina, 
chief  of  which  are  the  Roanoke  and  Chowan. 

Alberoni,  Giulio,  cardinal  and  minister  of 
the  king  of  Spain:  b.  Firenzuola,  Parma,  1664; 
d.  Rome  1752.  He  soon  gained  the  favor  of 
powerful  patrons,  especially  the  Duke  of  Ven- 
dome,  whom  he  accompanied  to  Paris  and  then 
to  Spain,  the  Duke  being  appointed  generalis- 
simo of  the  armies  of  Philip  V.  Having  made 
himself  a  favorite  of  the  Spanish  king,  he  rose 
to  be  prime  minister,  became  a  caidinal,  was  all- 
powerful  in  Spain  after  the  year  1715,  and  en- 
deavored to  restore  it  to  its  ancient  splendor. 
He  reformed  abuses,  created  a  naval  force, 
organized  the  Spanish  army  on  the  model  of  the 
French,  and  rendered  the  kingdom  of  Spain 
more  powerful  than  it  had  been  since  the  time 
of  Philip  II. 

Albert,  Prince  (Albert-Francis-Augus- 
tus-Charles-Em  manuel),  Prince  of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha,  and  Prince  Consort  of  England, 
second  son  of  Ernest  I.,  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
was  born  at  the  Rosenau,  a  castle  near  Coburg, 
on  26  Aug.  1819.  In  1837  he  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Bonn,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
studies  of  political  and  natural  science,  history, 
philosophy,  etc.,  as  well  as  to  those  of  music 
and  painting.  On  leaving  the  university  he  made 
a  tour  through  the  chief  cities  of  Italy  with 
Baron  Stockmar.  On  10  Feb.  1840  he  married 
his  cousin,  Queen  Victoria  of  England.  An 
allowance  of  £30.000  a  year  was  settled  upon  the 
prince,  who  was  naturalized  by  act  of  Parlia- 
ment, received  the  title  of  Royal  Highness  by 
patent,  was  made  a  field-marshal,  a  Knight  of 
the  Garter,  of  the  Bath,  etc.  Other  honors  were 
subsequently  bestowed  upon  him,  the  chief  of 
which  was  the  title  of  Prince  Consort  (1857). 
He  always  took  a  deep  and  active  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  the  people  in  general.  His  services 
to  the  cause  of  science  and  art  were  very  im- 
portant ;  he  presided  over  the  commission  ap- 
pointed in  1841  to  consider  the  best  means  of 
rebuilding  the  houses  of  parliament  and  the 
great  exhibition  of  1851  owed  much  of  its  suc- 
cess to  his  activity,  knowledge,  and  judgment. 
He  died  of  typhoid  fever  on  14  Dec.  1861,  after 
a  short  illness.  A  collection  of  his  speeches  and 
addresses  was  published  in  1862.  A  biography 
of  the  prince  by  Sir  Theodore  Martin  has  been 
published  in  five  volumes,  London  1875-80. 

Albert  I.,  Duke  of  Prussia,  son  of  Fred- 
erick, Margrave  of  Ansbach  and  Baireuth,  and 
grandson  of  Albert  Achilles,  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg: b.  17  May  1490:  d.  20  March  1568. 
In  15 1 1  he  was  chosen  by  the  Teutonic  Knights 
grand  master  of  their  order.  Being  the  son  of 
Sophia,  the  sister  of  Sigismund,  king  of  Poland, 
and  descended  from  one  of  the  most  powerful 
German  families,  the  Knights  hoped  by  his 
means  to  be  freed  from  the  feudal  superiority 
of  Poland  and  placed  under  the  protection  of 
the  empire.  Being  recognized  by  Poland  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Konigsberg  and  assumed  the  govern- 
ment' in  1512.  He  refused  the  oath  of  allegi- 
ance to  Poland,  which  the  previous  grand 
master  had  evaded,  and  prepared  for  resist- 
ance. In  1520,  after  protracted  negotiations, 
Sigismund  attempted  to  enforce  submission  by 
an  invasion  of  the  territories  of  the  Order,  but 
the  contest  was  without  decisive  result,  and  in 


ALBERT 


the  following  year  a  truce  of  four  years  was 
agreed  to  at  thorn.  The  latter  years  of  his 
reign  were  troubled  with  many  intrigues,  for- 
eign and  domestic;  in  1532  he  was  put  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire,  hut  su led  in  trans- 
mitting his  succession  to  his  son. 

Albert  I.,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  sur- 
named  the  Bear,  from  his  heraldic  emblem, 
was  the  son  of  Otto  the  Rich,  Count  of  Ballen- 
stadi.  \-  Marquis  of  Lusatia  he  served  the 
Emperor  Lothaire  with  credit  in  his  war  with 
Bohemia.  'The  Diet  afterward  withdrew  Lusa- 
tia from  him,  but  the  emperor  for  further 
services  conferred  on  him  in  1 134  the  mar- 
gravate  of  Brandenburg.  In  1136-7  he  made 
incursions  into  the  territory  of  the  Wends,  who 
disturbed  his  government,  and  checked  their 
disorders.  In  1 138  the  Emperor  Conrad  con- 
fined on  him  the  duchy  of  Saxony,  of  which 
he  had  deprived  Henry  the  Proud.  This  led  to 
a  war  with  Henry,  in  which  Albert  was  deprived 
of  Brandenburg,  but  was  restored  by  an  armis- 
tice negotiated  by  the  ecclesiastical  electors. 
On  the  death  of  Henry  (1130)  he  reassumed 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Saxony.  A  combination 
was  then  formed  against  him,  which,  in  spite 
of  the  favor  of  the  emperor,  reduced  him  to 
extremities.  Peace  was  concluded  in  1142.  Al- 
bert resigned  Saxony,  and  Brandenburg  was 
raised  to  an  immediate  fief  of  the  empire.  He 
acquired  at  the  same  time  by  inheritance  from 
Przihislas,  a  Vandal  king  who  had  taken  his 
name  in  baptism,  the  country  between  the  Elbe 
and  the  Oder.  He  made  his  new  possessions  a 
fief  of  the  empire,  and  in  order  the  better  to 
guard  them  removed  his  residence  to  Branden- 
burg. In  1148  he  led  an  expedition  into  Pomc- 
rania,  and  in  the  following  year  induced  the 
duke  of  that  country  to  embrace  Christianity. 
In  1 150  he  was  raised  to  the  electoral  dignity. 
In  1 157  he  made  a  third  expedition  against  the 
Wends,  conquered  their  country,  and  colonized 
it  with  agriculturists  from  Germany,  Holland, 
and  Zealand.  In  1164  he  went  on  a  crusade 
to  the  Holy  Land.  Another  war  broke  out  be- 
tween him  and  Henry.  Duke  of  Saxony,  which 
was  terminated  to  the  advantage  of  the  latter 
in  1168  by  the  mediation  of  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick I.  In  1 169  Albert  remitted  his  estates  to 
his  son.  He  died  in  1 170.  The  origin  of  Ber- 
lin, Kolln,  Aken  on  the  Elbe,  and  other  towns, 
is  attributed  to  the  colonies  founded  by  him. 

Albert  I.,  Duke  of  Austria,  and  afterward 
emperor  of  Germany:  b.  1248;  son  of  Rudolph 
of  Hapshurg,  who  had  a  short  time  before  his 
death  attempted  to  place  the  crown  on  the  head 
of  his  son.  But  the  electors,  tired  of  his  power, 
and  emboldened  by  his  age  and  infirmities,  re- 
fused his  request  and  indefinitely  postponed  the 
election  of  a  King  of  the  Romans  (the  title  of 
the  designated  successor  of  the  emperor). 
After  the  death  of  Rudolph,  Albert,  who  in- 
herited only  the  military  qualities  of  his  father, 
saw  his  hereditary  possessions,  Austria  and 
Styria,  rise  up  in  rebellion  against  him.  He 
quelled  by  force  this  revolt,  which  his  avarice 
and  severity  had  excited:  but  success  increased 
his  presumption.  He  wished  to  succeed  Ru- 
dolph in  all  his  dignities,  and  without  waiting 
for  the  decision  of  the  Diet  seized  the  insignia 
of  the  empire.  Ibis  act  of  violence  induced 
the  electors  to  choose  Adolphus  of  Nassau  em- 


peror. The  disturbances  which  had  broken  out 
against  him  in  Switzerland,  and  a  disease  which 
deprived  him  of  an  eye.  made  hi  1  more  humble. 
He  delivered  up  the  insignia  and  took  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  new  emperor.  Adolphus, 
after  a  reign  of  six  years,  having  lost  the  regard 
of  all  the  princes  of  the  empire,  Albert  was 
elected  to  succeed  him.  A  battle  ensued  near 
Gellheim,  in  which  Adolphus  fell  by  the  hand 
of  his  adversary.  The  last  barrier  had  fallen 
between  Albert  and  the  supreme  power,  but  he 
was  conscious  of  having  now  an  opportunity  of 
displaying  his  magnanimity.  He  voluntarily  re- 
signed the  crown  conferred  on  him  by  the  last 
election,  and  as  he  had  anticipated  was  re- 
elected. His  coronation  took  place  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  August  1298,  and  lie  held  his  first 
diet  at  Nuremberg  with  the  utmost   splendor. 

But  a  new  storm  was  gathering  over  him. 
The  Pope,  Boniface  VIII..  denied  the  right  of 
the  electors  to  deprive  Adolphus  of  the  impe- 
rial dignity  and  bestow  it  upon  one  wdio  had 
caused  the  death  of  the  legitimate  sovereign. 
He  accordingly  summoned  Albert  before  him 
to  ask  pardon  and  submit  to  such  penance  as 
he  should  dictate;  he  forbade  the  princes  to 
acknowledge  him.  and  released  them  from  their 
oath  of  allegiance.  The  archbishop  of  Main/ 
from  a  friend  became  the  enemy  of  Albert  and 
joined  the  party  of  the  Pope.  On  the  other 
hand,  Albert  formed  an  alliance  with  Philip  le 
Bel  of  France,  secured  the  neutrality  of  Saxony 
and  Brandenburg,  and  by  a  sudden  irruption 
into  the  electorate  of  Mainz  forced  the  arch- 
bishop not  only  to  renounce  his  alliance  with 
the  Pope  but  to  form  one  with  him  for  the  five 
ensuing  years.  In  April  1301  Boniface  forbade 
all  submission  to  Albert  until  he  would  go  to 
Rome  and  repair  his  crimes.  The  next  year 
Albert  entered  into  negotiations  with  the  Pope. 
in  which  he  again  showed  the  duplicity  of  his 
character.  He  broke  his  alliance  with  Philip, 
acknowledged  that  the  Western  Empire  was  a 
grant  from  the  Popes  to  the  emperors,  that  the 
electors  derived  their  right  of  choosing  from 
the  see  of  Rome,  and  promised  to  defend  with 
arms  the  rights  of  the  Pope,  whenever  he  should 
demand  it,  against  any  one.  As  a  reward  Boni- 
face excommunicated  Philip,  proclaimed  him  to 
have  forfeited  his  crown,  and  gave  the  kingdom 
of  France  to  Albert.  Philip  in  revenge  an- 
noyed and  persecuted  the  Pope. 

Albert  was  engaged  in  unsuccessful  wars 
with  Holland.  Zealand,  Fricsland,  Hungary,  Bo- 
hemia, and  Thuringia.  While  preparing  to  re- 
venge a  defeat  which  he  had  suffered  in  Thurin- 
gia he  received  the  news  of  the  revolt  of  the 
Swiss,  and  saw  himself  obliged  to  direct  his 
forces  thither.  The  revolt  of  Unterwalden, 
Schwyz,  and  Uri  had  broken  out  1  Jan.  1308. 
Albert  had  not  only  foreseen  this  consequence 
of  his  oppression  but  desired  it,  in  order  to 
have  a  pretence  for  subjugating  Switzerland  en- 
tirely to  himself.  A  new  act  of  injustice,  how- 
ever, put  an  end  to  his  ambition  and  life.  Sua- 
bia  was  the  inheritance  of  John,  the  son  of  his 
younger  brother  Rudolph.  John  had  repeatedly 
asserted  his  right  to  it,  but  in  vain.  When  Al- 
bert set  out  for  Switzerland  John  renewed  his 
demand,  which  was  contemptuously  rejected  by 
Albert.  John,  in  revenge,  conspired  with  his 
governor,  Walter  of  Eschenbach,  and  three 
friends    against    the    life    of    Albert.     The    con- 


ALBERT  LEA  — ALBIGENSES 


spirators  took  advantage  of  the  moment  when 
the  emperor,  on  his  way  to  Rheinfelden,  was 
separated  from  his  train  by  the  river  Reuss,  and 
assassinated  him.  Albert  breathed  his  last,  I 
May  1308,  in  the  arms  of  a  poor  woman  who 
was  sitting  on  the  road. 

Albert  Lea,  Minn.,  connty-seat  of  Free- 
born County,  on  the  Chicago,  M.  &  St.  P.,  the 
Burlington,  C.  R.  &  N.,  and  the  Minneapolis  & 
St.  L.  R.R.'s,  about  100  m.  S.  of  St.  Paul  and  10 
m.  N.  of  the  boundary  of  Iowa.  The  presence  of 
many  lakes  and  artesian  wells  of  chalybeate 
waters  make  the  city  and  neighborhood  a  popu- 
lar summer  resort.  It  is  the  market  town  for  a 
large  agricultural  and  dairy  region  and  has  con- 
siderable manufacturing  interests.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  Presbyterian  college  for  women  (est.  1855), 
and  a  Lutheran  Academy.     Pop.    (1900)   4,500. 

Alberta,  a  Canadian  Northwest  Territory, 
created  in  1882,  and  named  for  II.  R.  H.  Prin- 
cess Louise,  wife  of  the  Marquis  of  Lome, 
then  Governor-General.  Area,  101,521  sq.  m. ; 
chief  towns,  Calgary,  Edmonton,  Lethbridge, 
and  Strathcona  (q.v.).  The  southern  part  is 
open  and  rolling,  with  timber  along  the  streams 
and  in  the  foot-hills ;  the  northern  is  more  or 
less  timbered  throughout.  The  drainage  is 
about  equally  northward  and  eastward  through 
the  Athabascan  and  Saskatchewan  river  sys- 
tems; some  small  streams  in  the  south  are  of 
the  Missouri  system.  The  winters  are  mild, 
with  little  snow,  and  the  summers  hot  and  dry. 
The  rainfall  is  small,  but  the  melting  snow  in 
the  mountains  affords  an  abundance  of  water 
for  irrigation.  The  winter  storms  are  severe, 
but  the  warm  west  wind,  the  Chinook,  disperses 
the  snow  rapidly,  and  cattle  and  horses  graze 
all  winter.  The  soil  is  good  in  the  northern 
and  eastern  parts.  Ranching  and  dairying  are 
the  chief  industries ;  extensive  irrigation  has  in- 
creased general  farming  in  recent  years.  The 
natural  resources  are  coal,  petroleum,  natural 
gas,  building  stone,  and  gold.  The  mountain 
district  about  Banff  has  been  set  apart  by  the 
Dominion  Government  as  a  national  park. 
Three  branches  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail- 
way (q.v.)  traverse  the  territory,  and  a  short 
independent  line  connects  Lethbridge  with  the 
Great  Northern  Railway  at  Great  Falls,  Mon- 
tana. The  projected  lines  of  the  Canadian 
Northern  and  Grand  Trunk  Pacific  Railways 
(q.v.)  will  pass  through  Edmonton  and  the 
northern  part.  Pop.  (1904)  about  70,000.  On 
1  Sept.  1905  the  western  portion  of  Atha- 
basca was  added  to  Alberta,  thus  nearly  dou- 
bling its  area  and  materially  increasing  its 
population. 

Alber'tus    Magnus,    or   Albert   the    Great, 

Count  of  Bollstadt,  a  distinguished  German 
scholar  of  the  13th  century:  b.  1200;  d.  1280. 
He  studied  at  Padua,  became  a  monk  of  the  Do- 
minican order,  teaching  in  the  schools  of  Hildes- 
heirn,  Ratisbon,  and  Cologne,  where  Thomas 
Aquinas  became  his  pupil.  In  1245  he  went  to 
Paris  and  publicly  expounded  the  doctrines  of 
Aristotle.  It  was  through  his  teaching  that  the 
philosophy  of  the  Stagyrite  became  predomi- 
nant in  the  Middle  Ages.  He  became  a  rector 
in  the  school  of  Cologne  in  1249:  in  1254  he 
was  made  provincial  of  his  order  in  Germany: 
and  in  1260  he  received  from  Pope  Alexander 
IV.    the    appointment    of    Bishop    of    Ratisbon. 


In  1263  he  retired  to  his  convent  at  Cologne, 
where  he  composed  many  works,  especially  com- 
mentaries on  Aristotle. 

Albicore,  or  Albacore.     See  Tunny. 

Albigenses,  a  religious  sect,  coming  first 
into  prominence  in  the  12th  century,  and  taking 
its  name  from  Albi,  their  principal  stronghold. 
What  their  doctrines  were  has  not  been  deter- 
mined, as  no  formal  statement  of  them  was  ever 
drawn  up.  It  appears  that  the  Albigenses  held 
beliefs  similar  to  those  of  the  Patarins  in  Italy, 
the  Bulgarians  in  France,  and  other  similar 
sects.  They  styled  themselves  Cathari  the  Pure 
and  traced  their  doctrines  to  the  Manichean  sect 
known  as  Paulicians,  that  settled  in  Bulgaria, 
whence  their  tenets  spread  to  France. 

They  taught  the  doctrine  of  the  Manicheans, 
that  there  are  two  opposing  creative  principles, 
one  good,  the  other  evil ;  the  invisible  word  pro- 
ceeding from  the  former,  the  body  and  all  ma- 
terial things  from  the  latter.  "Their  teachers 
assumed  a  great  simplicity  of  manners,  dress, 
and  mode  of  life.  They  inveighed  against  the 
vices  and  worldliness  of  the  clergy,  and  there 
was  sufficient  truth  in  their  censures  to  dispose 
their  hearers  to  believe  what  they  advanced  and 
reject  what  they  decried.  They  also  rejected 
the  Old  Testament,  said  that  infant  baptism 
was  useless,  and  denied  marriage  to  the  per- 
fect* as  they  called  their  more  austere  members.9 
(Addis  and  Arnold's   'Catholic  Dictionary'.) 

On  the  other  hand  the  license  permitted  to 
the  imperfect  gave  rise  to  so  much  fanaticism 
and  grave  social  and  moral  disorders  as  to 
threaten  the  destruction  of  Christian  civilization 
in  the  heart  of  France.  They  had  increased 
very  much  toward  the  close  of  the  12th  century 
in  the  south  of  France,  about  Toulouse  and  Albi, 
and  in  Raymond,  Count  of  Toulouse,  they  found 
a  patron  and  protector.  Innocent  III.,  after 
trying  in  vain  to  reform  the  abuses  prevalent 
among  them,  was  so  incensed  by  the  assassina- 
tion of  the  papal  legate,  Peter  of  Castelnau,  in 
1208,  that  he  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  them, 
and  was  supported  by  the  king  of  France. 

An  army  was  accordingly  collected,  large 
numbers  of  those  composing  it  being  mere  mer- 
cenaries and  adventurers  brought  together  by 
the  hope  of  plunder  rather  than  by  zeal  for  the 
Catholic  faith.  The  chief  leader  was  Simon  de 
Montfort,  father  of  the  well-known  Earl  of 
Leicester.  Raymond's  territories  were  ravaged, 
and  in  1209  the  crusaders  took  Beziers  by  storm, 
and  put  a  number  of  the  inhabitants  to  the 
sword.  Simon  de  Montfort  was  equally  severe 
toward  other  places  in  the  territory  of  Ray- 
mond and  his  allieSj  of  whom  Roger,  nephew 
of  Raymond,  died  in  a  prison  and  Peter  I., 
king  of  Aragon,  in  battle.  The  lands  taken 
were  presented,  as  a  reward  for  his  services, 
to  Simon  de  Montfort,  who,  however,  was 
killed  at  the  siege  of  Toulouse  in  1218.  When 
Innocent  III.  heard  of  the  cruelties  of  the 
invading  armies  he  recalled  his  legate  Milo 
for  his  weakness  in  not  restraining  Simon  and 
restored  to  Raymond  the  captured  territory. 
Soon  after,  however,  Raymond  once  more  es- 
poused the  cause  of  the  Albigenses.  He  died  in 
1222,  under  excommunication,  and  his  son,  Ray- 
mond VII.,  was  obliged  to  defend  his  inherit- 
ance against  the  legates  and  Louis  VIII.  of 
France,  who  fell  in  1226  in  a  campaign  against 
the  Albigenses.     After  thousands  had  fallen  on 


ALBINISM  —  ALBUFERA 


both   sides  a  peace  was   made   in    1229  by   the 

terms  of  which  Raymond  was  released  from  the 
penalties  in  consideration  of  a  large  tribute  He 
ceded  Narbonne,  with  several  estates,  to  Louis 
IX.,  and  made  his  son-in-law,  a  brother  of 
Louis,  heir  of  his  other  lands. 

Albinism,  a  condition  in  which  there  is  a 
congenital  absence  of  pigment  in  the  hair,  eye, 
and  skin.  Animals  so  affected  are  albinos. 
Albinism  is  also  present  in  the  flowers  of  many 
if  not  all  plants,  white  flowers  occurring  among 
those  of  other  color  on  the  same  plant.  Albinos 
have  been  known  among  all  races  and  all  peo- 
ples, hence  neither  climate  nor  race  are  its  caus- 
ative factors.  Rare  in  many  races,  it  occurs 
frequently  in  others,  as  for  instance  in  the  Zuni 
and  other  tribes  of  Arizona.  The  most  widely 
accepted  theory  is  that  the  condition  is  due  to  an 
arrest  of  development  of  the  pigment  layers  in 
the  embryo.  Affections  of  the  eye  are  the  most 
important  disagreeable  features  for  albinos. 

Albion,  the  earliest  name  by  which  the 
island  of  Great  Britain  was  known,  employed  by 
Aristotle,  and  in  poetry  Mill  used  for  Great 
Britain.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  probably  re- 
ceived the  name  from  the  Gauls,  in  whose  lan- 
guage it  would  mean  mountain-land  or  white- 
land,  from  the  Celtic  alp,  <ill>.  said  to  mean  high 
or  white  (whence  also  Alps),  the  latter  name 
being  given  to  it  in  reference  to  the  chalky 
cliffs  on  the  coasts. 

Albion,  Mich.,  city  in  Calhoun  County. 
situated  on  Kalamazoo  River,  the  Lake  Shore 
&  M.  S.  and  the  Michigan  C.  R.R.'s,  28  miles 
south  of  Lansing.  It  has  three  banks,  with  a 
combined  capital  (if  $185,000;  six  churches  and 
good  schools.  Albion  College  (q.v.)  is  located 
here.  There  are  manufactures  of  doors  and 
sashes,  tools,  harness  and  carriages.  It  is  gov- 
erned by  common  council  of  eight  members, 
elected  yearly.  First  settled  in  1831.  became 
a  borough  in  1855,  incorporated  in  1885.  Pop. 
(1900)  4,519.  W.  S.  Kennedy, 

Editor   'Recorder.' 

Albion,  N.  Y.,  the  county-seat  of  Orleans 
County,  on  the  New  York  Central  R.R.  and  the 
Erie  Canal,  about  4.?  m.  northeast  of  Buffalo.  It 
has  two  banks,  public  parks,  a  free  library,  sev- 
eral schools  and  churches,  and  5  newspapers. 
The  House  of  Refuge  for  Women  is  located 
here.  The  most  important  manufactures  are 
mowing-machines,  carriages,  shoes,  and  plows. 
There  are  large  stone  quarries  here  and  several 
fruit  canneries.  The  city  is  lighted  by  electric- 
ity. The  affairs  of  the  community  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  mayor  and  board  of  trustees.  Albion 
was  first  settled  in  1812,  incorporated  1828.  Pop. 
(I'joo)  5,749- 

Albion,  New.     See  New  Albion. 

Albion  College,  a  coeducational  institu- 
tion in  Albion,  Mich.,  organized  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 
Professors  and  instructors,  25;  students,  454; 
volumes  in  the  library,  15.000:  grounds  and 
buildings  valued  at  $80,000;  productive  funds, 
$228,000;  income,  $29,000;  graduates,  986. 

Albite,  an  important  member  of  the  feld- 
spar group  of  minerals.  It  stands  at  one  end  of 
the  albite-anorthite  series  of  triclinic  feldspars 
(see  Feldspar  Group).  It  is  a  sodium-alumi- 
num silicate.  Na  Al   SijOs,  and   is  often  called 


"soda  feldspar."  It  has  perfect  basal  cleavage 
and  also  cleaves  easily  parallel  to  the  brachypin- 
acoid.  It  is  brittle,  breaking  with  an  uneven  to 
conchoidal  fracture.  Its  hardness  is  6  to  6.5,  and 
specific  gravity  about  2.63.  Its  usual  color  is 
white,  whence  its  name  (from  "albus,"  white), 
but  it  is  occasionally  gray  or  tinted  with  blue, 
green  or  red.  The  variety  peristerite  shows  a 
delicate  blue  irridescence,  similar  to  the  "change 
of  colors"  of  moonstone,  which  is  also  some- 
times a  variety  of  albite.  Cleavelandite  is  a 
common  lamellar  variety,  named  in  honor  of  the 
eminent  mineralogist,  Dr.  P.  Cleaveland,  who 
died  in  1858.  Albite  crystals  present  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  some  of  the  simpler  of  which 
are  quite  similar  to  those  of  the  monoclinic 
orthoclase.  with  which  albite  is  often  associated 
in  parallel  growths  and  intergrowths  such  as 
perthite.  Twinning  is  even  more  common  in 
albite  than  in  orthoclase,  and  their  analogy  is 
shown  by  the  occurrence  of  Carlsbad,  Baveno 
and  Manebach  twins.  Several  other  laws  of 
twinning  are,  however,  followed  by  albite,  not- 
ably those  known  as  the  "albite  law"  and  the 
"pericline  law."  Both  of  these  types  are  very 
common  and  often  manifest  themselves  by  the 
polysynthetic  twinning  lamellae  which  are  so 
characteristic  of  the  plagioclase  feldspars.  Al 
bite  often  occurs  in  tabular  crystals  and 
embedded  masses  in  which  this  twinning  is  re- 
vealed by  striations  on  the  basal  plane.  Prob- 
ably the  most  striking  occurrence  of  albite  is  at 
Amelia,  Va.,  this  locality  producing  large  groups 
of  tabular  crystals,  each  over  a  foot  in  length. 
It  usually  occurs  in  granite  or  gneiss,  and  less 
frequently  in  the  crystalline  schists.  It  is  found 
but  rarely  in  volcanic  rocks  and  in  limestones. 
Many  of  the  most  highly  prized  gem  minerals, 
such  as  topaz,  beryl  and  tourmaline  occur  in 
albitic  granite,  while  albite  is  often  a  guide  min- 
eral to  columbite,  allanite  and  other  rarer  min- 
erals. It  is  also  an  essential  constituent  of 
dioryte.  There  are  many  noteworthy  localities 
in  Switzerland,  the  Tyrol,  Cornwall  and  else- 
where in  Europe,  while  it  abounds  throughout 
the  Atlantic  Coast  States,  and  is  found  in  espe- 
cially attractive  specimens  on  amazonstone  in 
Colorado. 

Albret,  Jeanne  d\  Queen  of  Navarre, 
daughter  of  Henry  II.  of  Navarre  and  Margaret 
of  Valois  (sister  of  Francis  I.  of  France),  was 
the  mother  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  a  zeal- 
ous supporter  of  the  reformed  religion,  which 
she  established  in  her  kingdom.  She  was  b.  in 
1528;  d.  1572.  She  married  Antoine  de  Bour- 
bon in  1548,  succeeded  her  father  on  the  throne 
of  Navarre  and  Beam  in  1555.  reigned  in  con- 
junction with  her  husband  till  his  death  in  1562, 
and  afterward  alone. 

Albright,  Jacob,  American  minister  of 
the  Methodist  Church :  b.  near  Pottstown,  Pa., 
1  May  1759;  d.  1808.  His  work  lay  among  the 
Germans  of  Pennsylvania.  Becoming  impressed 
with  the  decline  of  religious  life  and  of  the  doc- 
trines and  morals  of  the  surrounding  churches, 
he  began  a  work  of  reform  in  1790.  He  trav- 
eled about  the  country  at  his  own  expense, 
preaching  his  mission,  until  he  founded  in  1800 
the  Evangelical  Association  (q.v.),  often  known 
as  "Albrights." 

Albufera,  a  lake  about  9  miles  square  near 
Valencia,  Spain,  supposed  to  have  been  exca- 
vated by  the  Moors.   It  is  separated  from  the  sea 


ALBULA  —  ALBURNUM 


by  a  strip  of  land.  The  revenues  from  the 
fisheries  of  the  lake  belonged  at  one  time  to  the 
Duke  of  Wellington. 

Albula,  a  Swiss  river  in  the  Canton  Gri- 
scns,  an  affluent  of  the  Rhine.  29  m.  in  length, 
in  which  distance  it  falls  over  4,500  feet. 

Albula  Pass,  at  the  head  of  the  Albula 
Valley,  about  7,600  ft.  above  the  sea.  In  this 
pass  is  the  most  direct  road  from  the  valley 
of  the  Inn  to  the  valley  of  the  Hiter-Rhein. 
A  railroad  now  runs  through  it. 

Album,  among  the  Romans,  a  board  or 
tablet  on  which  official  notices,  such  as  the 
prastor's  edicts,  lists  of  the  members  of  public 
bodies,  etc.,  were  written,  and  which  was  put  up 
in  some  public  place  to  be  seen  by  all.  It  was 
so  called  either  because  it  was  of  a  white  ma- 
terial (albus,  white)  or  a  material  whitened,  or 
because  the  writing  on  it  was  in  white.  Album 
is  a  name  now  generally  given  to  a  blank  book 
for  the  reception  of  pieces  of  poetry,  autographs, 
engravings,  photographs,  etc. 

Albu'men,  or  Albumin  (L.,  from  albus, 
white),  a  substance,  or  rather  group  of  sub- 
stances, so  named  from  the  Latin  for  the  white 
of  an  egg,  which  is  one  of  its  most  abundant 
known  forms.  It  may  be  taken  as  the  type  of  the 
protein  compounds  or  the  nitrogenous  class  of 
food  stuffs.  One  variety  enters  largely  into  the 
composition  of  the  animal  fluids  and  solids,  is 
coagulable  by  heat  at  and  above  160°,  and  is 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
oxygen,  with  a  little  sulphur.  It  abounds  in  the 
serum  of  the  blood,  the  vitreous  and  crystalline 
humors  of  the  eye,  the  fluid  of  dropsy,  the  sub- 
stance called  coagulable  lymph,  in  nutritive  mat- 
ters, the  juice  of  flesh,  etc.  The  blood  contains 
about  7  per  cent  of  albumen.  When  albumen 
coagulates  in  any  fluid  it  readily  incloses  any 
substances  that  may  be  suspended  in  the  fluid. 
Hence  it  is  used  to  clarify  syrupy  liquors.  In 
cookery  white  of  eggs  is  employed  for  clarifying, 
but  in  large  operations  like  sugar-refining  the 
serum  of  blood  is  used.  From  its  being  coagu- 
lable by  various  salts,  and  especially  by  corrosive 
sublimate,  with  which  it  forms  an  insoluble 
compound,  white  of  egg  is  a  convenient  antidote 
in  cases  of  poisoning  by  that  substance.  With 
lime  it  forms  a  cement  to  mend  broken  ware. 

In  Botany. — A  substance  interposed  between 
the  embryo  and  the  testa  of  many  plants.  It  is 
sometimes  soft  and  fleshy,  and  at  other  times 
hard.  It  varies  greatly  in  amount  in  those  plants 
in  which  it  is  present,  being  particularly  large 
in  some  endogens,  such  as  the  cocoanut,  in 
which  it  constitutes  the  eatable  part  of  the  fruit. 

In  Photography. — A  process  by  which  albu- 
men is  used  instead  of  collodion  to  coat  glass 
or  paper.  A  method  of  doing  this  in  the  case  of 
glass  was  published  by  M.  Niepce  de  Saint  Vic- 
tor in  the  '  Technologist  >  for  1848.  It  was 
subsequently  improved  by  M.  le  Gray.  The 
foreign  transparent  stereoscopic  views  were  at 
one  time  obtained  by  the  use  of  albumen  in  the 
way  now  described. 

Albuminoid.      See  Proteids. 

Albuminuria,  a  condition  characterized  by 
the  presence  of  albumen  in  the  urine,  irrespec- 
tive of  any  organic  disease  of  the  kidney.  Thus 
there  may  be  a  functional  or  physiological  al- 
buminuria, following  excessive  exercise,  such  as 


bicycling;  febrile  albuminuria  as  a  result  of 
fever,  being  especially  common  in  malaria,  pneu- 
monia, diphtheria,  and  typhoid ;  hemic  albumi- 
nuria accompanying  blood  diseases,  lukemia, 
anasmia,  poisoning  by  lead  and  mercury,  syphilis, 
etc.  Any  of  these  albuminurias  may  result  in 
chronic  disease.     See  Kidneys. 

Albunol,  a  town  of  southern  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Granada,  near  the  Mediterranean, 
on  which  it  has  a  harbor,  some  35  m.  to  the 
south  of  the  city  of  Granada.     Pop.  9,400. 

Albuquerque,  Affonso  d\  al'bo-kark'e, 
« the  Great,"  Viceroy  of  the  Indies:  b.  near 
Lisbon,  1453;  d.  in  Goa,  16  Dec.  1515.  The 
Portuguese  had  discovered  and  subjugated  a 
great  part  of  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  and 
were  beginning  to  extend  their  dominion  over 
the  seas  and  the  people  of  India.  Albuquerque, 
being  appointed  viceroy  of  these  new  possessions, 
with  a  fleet  and  some  troops  landed  on  the  Mal- 
abar coast  in  1503 ;  conquered  Goa,  which  he 
made  the  seat  of  the  Portuguese  government 
and  the  centre  of  its  Asiatic  commerce ;  and 
afterward  Ceylon,  the  Sunda  Isles,  the  Penin- 
sula of  Malacca,  and  the  island  of  Ormuz  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  When  the 
king  of  Persia  sent  for  the  tribute  which  the 
princes  of  this  island  had  formerly  rendered  to 
him,  Albuquerque  presented  bullets  and  swords 
to  the  ambassador,  saying:  «  This  is  the  coin 
in  which  Portugal  pays  her  tribute."  He  made 
the  Portuguese  name  profoundly  respected 
among  the  princes  and  people  of  the  East ;  and 
many  of  them,  especially  the  kings  of  Siam  and 
Pegu,  sought  his  alliance  and  protection.  He 
maintained  strict  military  discipline,  was  active, 
far-seeing,  wise,  humane,  and  equitable,  re- 
spected and  feared  by  his  neighbors  while  be- 
loved by  his  subjects.  His  virtues  made  such 
an  impression  on  the  Indian  peoples  that,  long 
after  his  death,  they  resorted  to  his  grave  to 
implore  his  protection  against  the  misgovern- 
ment  of  his  successors.  Yet  he  did  not  escape 
the  envy  of  courtiers  and  the  suspicions  of  his 
king,  who  appointed  Soarez,  a  personal  enemy 
of  Albuquerque,  to  supersede  him  as  viceroy. 
This  news  reached  him  just  as  he  was  leaving 
Ormuz,  and  gave  a  severe  shock  to  his  shattered 
health  and  he  died  a  few  days  later. 

Albuquerque,  al'be-kerk,  N.  M.,  town  and 
county-seat  of  Bernalillo  co. ;  situated  on  the 
Rio  Grande  and  the  Atchison,  T.  &  S.  F.  and  the 
Santa  Fe  Pacific  R.R.'s ;  75  m.  S.W.  of  Santa 
Fe.  It  has  an  elevation  of  5.000  feet  above  sea- 
level  :  is  an  ancient  and  interesting  settlement, 
divided  into  the  Old  and  New  towns;  and  is 
the  seat  of  the  LTniversity  of  New  Mexico  and  of 
a  government  school  for  Indians.  The  town  is 
located  in  a  rich  gold,  silver,  iron,  and  coal 
mining  region,  and  has  also  an  extensive  trade  in 
hides,  grain,  wool,  and  wine.  There  are  a 
number  of  railroad  shops,  a  foundry  and  ma-- 
chine  works,  a  national  bank  (capital  about 
$150,000),  and  large  trading  and  jobbing  in- 
terests.    Pop,    (1900)   6,238. 

Alburnum,  the  soft  white  substance 
which,  in  trees,  is  found  between  the  liber  or 
inner  bark  and  the  wood,  and.  in  progress  of 
time  acquiring  solidity,  becomes  itself  tin-  wood. 
A  new  layer  of  wood,  or  rather  of  alburnum,  is 
added  annually  to  the  tree  in  everv  part  just 
under  the  bark. 


ALCALA  —ALCHEMY 


Alcala,  name  of  seven  cities  in  Spain,  but 
by  far  the  most  important  in  Spanish  history  is 
Alcala  de  Henares,  province  of  Toledo.  Car- 
dinal Ximines  began  the  first  building  of  the 
University  of  Alcala  in  1500.  Francis  I.,  in 
1517.  declared  that  the  cardinal  had  done  for 
Spain  what  it  had  taken  many  kings  to  do  for 
France.  It  was  in  Alcala  that  the  famous  Com- 
plutensian  Polyglot  Bible  was  brought  forth. 

Alchemist,  The,  a  satirical  comedy  by 
Ben  Jonson ;  probably  his  greatest  work.  It  was 
played  in  1010,  and  published  in  1612.  Its  sub- 
ject is  the  paramount  folly  of  the  time,  the 
search  for  the  philosopher's  stone.  The  Al- 
chemist is  the  quack  Subtle,  who,  previous  to 
exposure  deludes  the  credulous  characters  of 
the  play,  the  chief  of  whom  is  Sir  Epicure 
Mammon. 

Alchemy,  or  Alchymy,  the  art  which  in 
former  times  occupied  the  place  of  and  paved 
the  way  for  the  modern  science  of  chemistry 
(as  astrology  did  for  astronomy),  but  whose 
aims  were  not  scientific,  being  confined  solely  to 
the  discovery  of  the  means  of  indefinitely  pro- 
longing human  life,  and  of  transmuting  the 
baser  metals  into  gold  and  silver.  Probably  the 
ancient  nations,  in  their  first  attempts  to  melt 
metals,  observing  that  the  composition  of  differ- 
ent metals  produced  masses  of  a  color  unlike 
cither  —  for  instance,  that  a  mixture  like  gold 
resulted  from  the  melting  together  of  copper  and 
zinc  —  arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  one  metal 
could  he  changed  into  another.  At  an  early 
period  the  desire  of  gold  and  silver  grew  strong 
as  luxury  increased,  and  men  indulged  the  hope 
of  obtaining  these  rarer  metals  from  the  more 
common.  At  the  same  time  the  love  of  life  led 
to  the  idea  of  finding  a  remedy  against  all 
diseases,  a  means  of  lessening  the  infirmities  of 
age,  of  renewing  youth,  and  repelling  death. 
The  hope  of  realizing  these  ideas  prompted  the 
efforts  of  several  men.  who  taught  their  doc- 
trines through  mystical  images  and  symbols. 
To  transmute  metals  they  thought  it  necessary 
to  find  a  substitute  which,  containing  the  origi- 
nal principle  of  all  matter,  should  possess  the 
power  of  dissolving  all  into  its  elements.  This 
general  solvent  or  menstruum  universale,  which 
at  the  same  time  was  to  possess  the  power  of 
removing  all  the  seeds  of  disease  out  of  the 
human  body  and  renewing  life,  was  called  the 
philosopher's  stone,  lapis  philosophorum,  and  its 
pretended  possessors  adepts.  The  more  obscure 
the  ideas  which  the  alchemists  themselves  bad 
of  the  appearances  occurring  in  their  experi- 
ments, the  more  they  endeavored  to  express 
themselves  in  symbolical  language.  Afterward 
they  retained  this  phraseology  to  conceal  their 
secrets  from  the  uninitiated.  In  Egypt  Hermes 
Trismegistus  was  said  to  have  left  behind  him 
many  books  of  chemical,  magical,  and  alchemical 
learning.  These,  however,  are  of  a  later  date. 
(See  Hermes  Trismegistus.)  After  him  chem- 
istry and  alchemy  received  the  name  of  the 
hermetic  art.  It  is  certain  that  the  ancient 
Egyptians  possessed  considerable  chemical  and 
metallurgical  knowledge,  although  the  origin  of 
alchemy  cannot  with  certainty  he  attributed  to 
them.  Several  Grecians  became  acquainted  with 
the  writings  of  the  Egyptians,  and  initiated  in 
their  chemical  knowledge.  The  fondness  for 
magic,  and  for  alchemy  more  particularly,  spread 


afterward  among  the  Romans  also.  When  true 
science  was  persecuted  under  the  Roman  tyrants, 

superstition  and  false  philosophy  flourished  the 

more.  The  prodigality  of  the  Romans  excited 
the  desire  for  gold,  and  led  them  to  pursue  the 
art  which  promised  it  instantaneously  and  abun- 
dantly. Caligula  made  experiments  with  a  view 
of  obtaining  gold  from  orpiment.  On  the  other 
hand,  Diocletian  ordered  all  books  to  he  burned 
that  taught  to  manufacture  gold  and  silver  by 
alchemy.  At  that  time  many  hooks  on  alchemy 
wen-  written,  and  falsely  inscribed  with  the 
names  of  renowned  men  of  antiquity.  Thus  a 
number  of  writings  were  ascribed  to  Democritus, 
and  more  to  Hermes,  which  were  written  by 
Egyptian  monks  and  hermits,  and  which,  as  the 
Tabula  Smaragdina,  taught  in  allegories,  with 
mystical  and  symbolical  figures,  the  way  to  dis- 
cover the  philosopher's  stone.  At  a  later  period 
chemistry  and  alchemy  were  cultivated  among 
the  Arabians.  In  the  8th  century  the  first 
chemist,  commonly  said  to  he  Geber,  flourished 
among  them,  in  whose  works  rules  are  given  for 
preparing  quicksilver  and  other  metals.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  monks  devoted  themselves  to 
alchemy,  although  they  were  afterward  pro- 
hibited from  studying  it  by  the  popes.  But 
there  was  one  even  among  these,  John  XXII., 
who  was  fond  of  alchemy.  Raymond  Lully.  or 
Lullius,  was  one  of  the  most  famous  alchemists 
in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries.  A  story  is 
told  of  him  that  during  his  stay  in  London  he 
changed  for  King  Edward  I.  a  mass  of  50,000 
pounds  of  quicksilver  into  gold,  of  which  the 
first  rose-nobles  were  coined.  The  study  of 
alchemy  was  prohibited  at  Venice  in  1488.  Para- 
celsus, who  was  highly  celebrated  about  1525, 
belongs  to  the  renowned  alchemists,  as  do  Roger 
Bacon,  Basilius  Valentinus,  and  many  others. 
When,  however,  more  rational  principles  of 
chemistry  and  philosophy  began  to  be  diffused 
and  to  shed  light  on  chemical  phenomena,  the 
rage  for  alchemy  gradually  decreased,  though 
many  persons,  including  some  nobles,  still  re- 
mained devoted  to  it.  Alchemy  has.  however, 
afforded  some  service  to  chemistry,  and  even  to 
medicine.  Chemistry  was  first  carefully  studied 
by  the  alchemists,  to  whose  labor  and  patience 
we  are  indebted  for  several  useful  discoveries, 
for  example,  various  preparations  of  quicksilver, 
kermes,  etc. 

It  i.s  still  impossible  to  assert  anything  with 
certainty  about  the  transmutation  of  metals. 
Modern  chemistry,  indeed,  places  metals  in  the 
class  of  elements,  and  denies  the  possibility  of 
changing  an  inferior  metal  into  gold.  Most  of 
the  accounts  of  such  transmutation  rest  on  fraud 
or  delusion,  although  some  of  them  are  accom- 
panied with  circumstances  and  testimony  which 
render  them  probable.  By  means  of  the  galvanic 
battery  even  the  alkalies  have  been  discovered 
to  have  a  metallic  base.  The  possibility  of  obtain- 
ing metal  from  other  substances  which  contain 
the  ingredients  composing  it,  and  of  changing 
one  metal  into  another,  or  rather  of  re- 
fining it.  must  therefore  be  left  undecided.  Nor 
arc  all  alchemists  to  be  considered  impostors. 
Many  have  labored,  under  the  conviction  of  the 
possibility  of  obtaining  their  object,  with  inde- 
fatigable patience  and  purity  of  heart  (which  is 
earnestly  recommended  by  sound  alchemists  as 
the  principal  requisite  for  the  success  of  their 
labors).     Designing  men,  however,  have  often 


ALCIATI  —  ALCMiEON 


used  alchemy  as  a  mask  for  their  covetousness, 
and  as  a  means  of  defrauding  silly  people  of 
their  money.  Many  persons  even  in  our  days, 
destitute  of  sound  chemical  knowledge,  have 
been  led  by  old  books  on  alchemy,  which  they 
did  not  understand,  into  long,  expensive,  and 
fruitless  labors.  Hitherto  chemistry  has  not 
succeeded  in  unfolding  the  principles  by  which 
metals  are  formed,  the  laws  of  their  production, 
their  growth  and  refinement,  and  in  aiding  or 
imitating  this  process  of  nature;  consequently 
the  labor  of  the  alchemist  is  but  a  groping  in  the 
dark. 

Alciati,  Andrea,  Italian  jurist  and  poet: 
b.  Milan,  8  May  1492;  d.  Pavia,  12  Jan.  1550. 
For  many  years  an  advocate  in  Milan,  he  treated 
the  objects  of  legal  science  to  keen  criticism,  and 
was  founder  of  the  so-called  (<  elegant"  school  of 
law.  He  also  wrote  several  antiquarian  and 
historical  essays,  but  his  most  popular  work 
was  the  '  Emblems  >  (Milan  1522),  epigram- 
matic poems  on  his  contemporaries'  virtues 
and  vices.  Of  the  numerous  editions  of  this 
work  several  are  chiefly  sought  on  account  of 
their  wood-engravings.  Editions  of  his  '  Com- 
plete Works'  in  Latin:  4  vols.  Basle,  1546-9; 
6  vols.  Lyons,  1560-1  ;  4  vols.  Frankfort,  161". 
Cf.  C.  Mignault's  (  Life  of  Alciati  >  (Milan, 
1584). 

Alcibiades,  son  of  Cleinias,  an  Athenian  of 
high  family:  b.  in  Athens  450  B.c  ;  d.  404  B.C. 
His  father,  who  died  a  few  years  after  his 
birth,  had  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
Persian  wars,  and  had  taken  a  prominent  part 
in  the  expulsion  of  the  Peisistratidae.  Alcibiades 
was  a  relation  of  Pericles,  who  was  his  joint 
guardian  along  with  Ariphron.  He  was  re- 
markable in  youth  for  the  beauty  of  his  person, 
the  dissoluteness  of  his  manners,  the  determina- 
tion of  his  character,  and  the  greatness  of  his 
abilities.  He  came  under  the  influence  of  Socra- 
tes, who  tried  to  lead  him  into  the  paths  of 
virtue ;  but  though  their  friendship  was  strength- 
ened by  mutual  obligations,  each  having  saved 
the  other  in  battle,  the  passions  of  Alcibiades 
were  too  strong  for  advice,  and  little  permanent 
effect  was  produced  on  his  character.  He  ac- 
quired great  popularity  by  his  liberality  in  pro- 
viding for  the  amusements  of  the  people,  and 
although  guilty  of  many  violent,  extravagant, 
and  audacious  acts,  he  had,  after  the  death  of 
Cleon,  a  political  ascendency  which  left  him  no 
rival  but  Nicias.  Both  at  first  cultivated  alliance 
with  Sparta,  to  which  Alcibiades  had  a  hered- 
itary partiality,  but  the  Spartans  trusting  more 
to  Nicias,  he  was  offended,  and  induced  the 
Athenians  to  break  with  Sparta  and  ally  them- 
selves with  Argos,  Elis,  and  Mantineia  (in  the 
Peloponnesian  war).  In  419  he  was  chosen 
strategos,  and  led  a  small  army  into  the  Pelopon- 
nesus with  which  some  important  operations 
were  effected.  In  415  he  advocated  the  Sicilian 
war,  and  was  chosen  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
expedition  appointed  to  conduct  it;  but  before 
it  sailed  he  was  charged  with  profaning  and 
divulging  the  Eleusinian  mysteries,  and  mutilat- 
ing the  busts  of  Hermes  which  were  set  up  in 
public  all  through  Athens.  He  was  permitted  to 
take  his  place  in  the  expedition,  but  was  recalled 
before  his  plans  could  be  accomplished.  He 
made  his  escape  and  went  to  Sparta,  where  he 
was  well  received.    He  divulged  the  plans  of  the 


Athenians,  and  assisted  the  Spartans  to  defeat 
them.  Sentence  of  death  and  confiscation  was 
pronounced  against  him  at  Athens,  and  he  was 
cursed  by  the  ministers  of  religion.  He  induced 
the  Athenian  dependencies  of  Athens  to  revolt, 
and  made  alliance  with  Tissaphernes,  a  Persian 
satrap.  Soon  after  he  abandoned  Sparta  and 
took  refuge  with  the  Persian,  ingratiating  him- 
self by  his  affectation  of  Persian  manners  as  he 
had  previously  done  at  Sparta  by  a  similar  affec- 
tation of  Spartan  simplicity.  He  now  began  to 
intrigue  for  his  return  to  Athens,  offering  to 
bring  Tissaphernes  over  to  the  Athenian  alliance. 
His  intrigue  led  to  the  establishment  of  an  oli- 
garchy (the  Four  Hundred),  but  they  did  not 
recall  him.  The  fleet,  however,  which  was  sta- 
tioned at  Samos  declared  in  favor  of  a  democ- 
racy and  recalled  him.  The  revolution  was 
effected  at  Athens  without  the  return  of  the 
armament,  and  the  banishment  of  Alcibiades  was 
cancelled.  He  remained  abroad,  however,  for 
some  years  in  command  of  the  Athenian  forces, 
gained  several  victories,  and  took  Chalcedon  and 
Byzantium.  In  407  B.C.  he  returned  to  Athens, 
where  all  proceedings  against  him  were  can- 
celled, but  in  406,  the  fleet  which  he  commanded 
having  suffered  a  severe  defeat,  he  was  deprived 
of  his  command.  He  retired  to  the  Thracian 
Chersonesus,  where  he  made  war  with  mercena- 
ries on  the  Thracian  tribes.  On  the  establishment 
of  the  Thirty  at  Athens  a  decree  of  banishment 
was  passed  against  him.  He  took  refuge  with 
Pharnabazus,  a  Persian  satrap,  and  was  about 
to  proceed  to  the  court  of  Persia  when  he  was 
assassinated,  probably  through  private   revenge. 

Alcinous,  said  to  have  been  a  king  of  the 
Phaeacians,  in  the  island  now  called  Corfu. 
See  Ulysses. 

Alciphron,  al'si-fron,  a  Greek  rhetorician 
who  flourished  in  the  2d  century  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  and  attained  celebrity  through  his  series 
of  more  than  a  hundred  imaginary  letters  pur- 
porting to  be  written  by  the  very  dregs  of  the 
Athenian  population,  including  courtesans  and 
petty  rogues.  Their  importance  in  literature 
is  due  almost  wholly  to  the  insight  they  afford 
into  the  social  conditions  and  manners  and 
morals  of  the  day.  The  letters  from  the  cour- 
tesans (hctairai)  are  based  upon  incidents  in 
Menander's  lost  plays,  and  the  new  Attic  comedy 
was  likewise  drawn  upon  for  material. 

Alciphron,  or  The  Minute  Philosopher. 
See  Berkeley,   Bishop. 

Alcira,  a  well-built  and  strongly-fortified 
town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Valencia,  on 
an  island  encircled  by  two  arms  of  the  river 
Jucar,  some  25  m.  from  Valencia.  It  was 
founded  by  the  Carthaginians.     Pop.  20.000. 

Alcmaeon,  alk-me'on,  a  son  of  Amphiaraus 
and  Eriphyle,  was  one  of  the  heroes  who  took 
part  in  the  successful  expedition  of  the  Epigoni 
against  Thebes.  He  was  charged  by  his  father 
to  put  his  mother  to  death  in  revenge  for  her 
having  urged  her  husband  to  take  part  in  an 
expedition  in  which  his  foresight  showed  him 
he  should  perish.  She  had  been  gained  over  to 
urge  this  fatal  course  by  a  gift  from  Polynices 
of  the  fatal  necklace  of  Harmonia.  The  matri- 
cide brought  upon  Alcmseon  madness  and  the 
horror  of  being  haunted  by  the  Furies,  but  at 
Psophis  he  was  purified  by  Phegeus,  whose 
daughter     he     married,     giving    her     the     fatal 


ALCMAN  —  ALCOHOL 


present.  But  the  land  became  barren  in  conse- 
quence of  his  presence,  and  be  fled  to  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Achelous,  the  god  of  which  gave 
him  his  daughter  Callirrhoc  in  marriage.  His 
new  wife  longed  for  the  fatal  necklace,  and  sent 
her  husband  tn  Psophis  to  procure  it  under  the 
pretence  of  dedicating  it  at  Delhi ;  but  Phegcus, 
learning  for  whom  it  was  really  intended,  caused 
his  sons  to  murder  the  ill-fated  Alcmseon. 

Alcman,  one  of  the  earliest  and  greatest  of 
Greek  lyric  poets,  belonging  to  the  7th  century 
B.C.  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Lydia,  and  to  have  been  taken  as  a  slave  to 
Sparta.  Only  small  fragments  of  his  odes  re- 
main. He  used  the  broad,  homely  Doric  dialect. 
His  poems  were  love  ditties,  hymns,  paeans,  pro- 
cessional chants,  etc. 

Alcmene,  or  Alkmene,  alk-me'ne,  in 
Greek  mythology,  the  daughter  of  Anaxo  and 
Elcctryon,  king  of  Mycenar.  She  became  the 
mother  of  Hercules  through  Zeus,  who  took  the 
form  of  her  husband  Amphitryon.  Finally  Zeus 
bade  Hermes  guide  her  to  the  Islands  of  the 
Blest,  where  she  was  happily  united  with  Rha- 
damanthus. 

Alco,  a  small  variety  of  dog,  with  a  small 
head  and  large  pendulous  ears,  found  wild  in 
Mexico  and   Pent,  and  also  domesticated. 

Alcobaja,  a  small  town  of  Portugal,  in 
Estremadura,  50  m.  N.  of  Lisbon,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Alcoa  and  Baca  ;  is  celebrated  for  a 
magnificent  Cistercian  monastery,  the  richest  in 
the  kingdom.  It  was  founded  in  1148  by  Don 
Alphonso  I.  The  buildings  include  an  early 
Gothic  church,  containing  the  tombs  of  some  of 
the  Portuguese  kings.  The  library  is  said  to 
possess  more  than  25.000  volumes.  Parts  of  the 
buildings  are  used  for  barracks. 

Alcock,  Sir  Rutherford,  diplomat:  b.  Ea- 
ling, 1809;  (1.  London,  2  Nov.  1897.  Educated  as 
a  physician,  he  served  as  surgeon  with  British 
troops  in  Spain  and  Portugal  1832-6;  and  was 
appointed  consul  at  Fuchow  1844.  On  the 
way  his  services  were  requisitioned  at 
Amoy,  where,  with  Sir  Harry  Parkes,  he 
succeeded  in  convincing  the  Chinese  of- 
ficials that  treaty  agreements  were  to  be 
respected  and  kept.  Transferred  to  Shanghai 
he  showed  courage  and  determination  by  pro- 
claiming that  English  ships  would  pay  no  duties, 
and  that  1,400  grain  junks  then  waiting  to  sail 
would  not  be  allowed  to  go  until  the  murderers 
of  some  missionaries  were  seized  and  punished. 
Though  only  one  British  sloop  of  war  was  in  the 
harbor  at  the  time,  his  bold  attitude  succeeded. 
He  was  appointed  first  consul-general  in  Japan 
1858,  and  created  K.  C.  B.  1862.  As  minister 
at  Peking  (1865)  he  conducted  many  difficult 
negotiations  with  tact  and  success.  Retiring  in 
1871,  he  devoted  himself  to  medical  charities, 
promotion  of  geographical  studies,  and  the  fur- 
therance of  a  knowledge  of  Japanese  art. 
Works:  '  Medical  History  and  Statistics  of  the 
British  Legion  in  Spain*  (1838);  'Japanese 
Grammar*  (1861);  'Capital  of  the  Tycoon* 
(1863);  'Art  and  Art  Industries  in  Japan* 
(1878). 

Alcofribas  Nasier,  pseudonym  sometimes 
used  by  Rabelais  (q.v.). 

Al'cohol.  (Origin  of  the  word  somewhat 
obscure.     According   to    most    authorities    it    is 


from  the  Arabic  al-koh'l,  koh'l  being  the  finely- 
powdered  black  sulphid  of  antimony  used  i:i 
the  East  for  painting  the  eyebrows.  First  used 
to  signify  this  powder,  it  afterward  stood  for 
any  fine  powder  obtained  by  trituration  or  sub- 
limation ;  then  for  any  essence  or  spirit,  and 
lastly  for  the  liquid  to  which  it  is  now  applied. 
In  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century  spirit  dried 
over  powdered  carbonate  of  potash  was  called 
spiritus  alcolisatus;  but  Kopp  suggests  that  this 
is  a  corruption  of  spiritus  alcalisutus.  signifying 
spirit  that  has  been  treated  with  alkali,  and  that 
alcolized  [or  alcoholized]  spirit  was  then  short- 
ened to  alcohol.) 

1.  Ethyl  Alcohol. —  Unless  otherwise  quali- 
fied, "  alcohol  ■  is  understood  to  mean  the  liquid 
known  to  the  chemist  as  "  ethyl  alcohol,*1  and 
to  the  trade  as  «  grain  alcohol,"  or  "  spirits  of 
wine."  It  is  colorless  and  inflammable,  burning 
with  a  flame  that  is  intensely  hot  but  almost 
non-luminous.  Most  of  the  alcohol  used  in  the 
arts  is  produced  by  the  fermentation  of  sugars 
or  starches.  A  thin  paste  is  made  from  molasses, 
finely  ground  corn  or  potatoes,  or  other  natural 
products  containing  sugars  or  starches,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  malt  or  other  agent  containing 
diastase  (q.v.)  is  added.  The  mixture  is  then 
allowed  to  stand  until  the  diastase  has  trans- 
formed the  starch  into  dextrose  (glucose). 
Taking  the  chemical  formula  of  starch  as 
(CeHiuOrOa  for  the  sake  of  illustration,  we  may 
have  either  of  the  following  reactions  as  the 
primary  effect  of  the  diastase: 
(C6H10O5)3  +  H20  =  (C„H10O5)2  +  C6H1209 
Starch  Water  Dextrin  Dextrose 

(C6H10O6)3+  2H20=  C12H22011+C6H1206 
Starch        Water         Maltose        Dextrose 

Neither  dextrin  nor  maltose  is  directly  ferment- 
able, but  each  slowly  becomes  further  trans- 
formed into  dextrose,  as  appears  from  the  fol- 
lowing equations : 

(Cr,H10O5)2+  2H20  =  2CBH1206 
Dextrin         Water        Dextrose 

C,2H220,,  +  H,0  =2CGH,206 
Maltose  Water       Dextrose 

The  reduction  to  dextrose  (glucose)  being  now 
complete,  yeast  is  added,  and  the  temperature 
is  maintained  at  from  720  to  850  F.  Under  the 
influence  of  the  yeast-plant  (Saccharomyccs 
cerevisia  or  Torula  ccrevisicr)  the  dextrose  then 
undergoes  fermentation,  alcohol  and  carbon- 
dioxid  being  the  chief  products,  according  to 
the  equation : 

C6H1206  =  2C2H0O  +  2CO3 
Dextrose         Alcohol        Carbon- 
dioxid 

(A  certain  amount  of  nitrogenous  and  mineral 
matter  must  be  present,  in  addition  to  the  starch 
and  sugar,  in  order  to  furnish  food  for  the  yeast- 
plant.)  The  next  step  in  the  process  is  to 
distil  off  the  alcohol  from  the  fermented  prod- 
uct. This  is  usually  done  in  a  still  heated  by 
steam.  One  or  more  redistillations  may  be 
necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  alcohol  in  a 
satisfactory  state  of  purity  and  strength.  The 
product  of  the  original  fermentation  is  weak  in 
alcohol,  but  the  subsequent  distillations  effect  a 
great  concentration,  since  alcohol  is  far  more 
volatile  than  water  and  therefore  passes  off 
first.  The  British  Pharmacopoeia  requires  recti- 
fied   spirits    (produced   as   described   above)    to 


ALCOHOL 


have  a  specific  gravity  of  0.838,  which  is  equiv- 
alent to  84  per  cent  of  alcohol  by  weight.  The 
United  States  Pharmacopoeia  fixes  the  specific 
gravity  at  0.820,  which  corresponds  to  91  per 
cent  of  alcohol  by  weight.  It  is  possible  to  ob- 
tain this  latter  degree  of  concentration  by 
ordinary  distillation ;  but  it  is  not  possible  to 
free  the  alcohol  entirely  from  water  without  dis- 
tilling it  with  potassium-carbonate,  quicklime, 
calcium-chloride,  or  some  similar  substance  pos- 
sessing sufficient  affinity  for  water  to  prevent  the 
water  from  passing  over.  The  best  way  to  elim- 
inate the  last  traces  of  water  is  to  digest  strong 
alcohol  with  quicklime  for  two  hours  at  about 
ioo°  F.,  and  then  distil,  rejecting  the  first  and 
last  portions  of  the  distillate.  The  product  is 
then  subjected  to  the  same  treatment  a  second 
time,  after  which  it  will  probably  be  free  from 
water.  Alcohol  thus  deprived  of  the  last  trace 
of  water  is  termed  *  absolute  B  or  (<  anhydrous  8 
alcohol.  Its  chemical  formula  is  C2HS.0H,  and 
its  specific  gravity  is  0.80625  at  32°  F.,  and 
079367  at  590  F.  Absolute  alcohol  boils  at 
173.10  F.,  when  the  barometer  stands  at  29.92 
inches  (760  mm.).  It  freezes  at  about  2000 
below  zero  F.,  first  becoming  very  viscid.  Its 
low  freezing-point  has  led  to  its  use  as  a  ther- 
mometric  fluid  for  the  measurement  of  low  tem- 
peratures. Its  specific  heat  is  variously  estimat- 
ed, but  is  in  the  vicinity  of  0.61.  Absolute 
alcohol  has  a  powerful  affinity  for  water,  and 
it  is  therefore  used  as  an  astringent,  and  ifor 
certain  purposes)  as  an  antiseptic.  When  ex- 
posed to  the  air  it  quickly  absorbs  a  sensible 
amount  of  aqueous  vapor,  and  ceases  to  be  <(  ab- 
solute." According  to  the  experiments  of  At- 
water,  the  human  body  is  capable  of  oxidizing 
about  two  ounces  of  it  per  day,  since  this  amount 
can  be  administered  without  any  evidence  of 
alcohol  appearing  in  the  excreta.  Alcohol  mixes 
with  water  in  all  proportions,  and  is  extensively 
used  as  a  solvent  for  substances  that  do  not 
dissolve  in  water:  notably  for  organic  substances 
and  for  alkaloids  and  drugs.  When  absolute 
alcohol  is  mixed  with  water  the  volume  of  the 
mixture  is  considerably  less  than  the  sum  of  the 
volumes  of  the  constituents.  The  specific  grav- 
ity of  such  a  mixture  therefore  cannot  be  de- 
duced by  any  simple  formula ;  but  it  has  been 
found  by  direct  experiment,  and  tabulated,  for 
all  possible  mixtures  and  temperatures.  The 
strength  of  a  given  mixture  of'alcohol  and  water 
may  be  found  by  observing  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  mixture  at  a  definite  temperature  by 
means  of  a  hydrometer  (q.v.)  and  then  referring 
to  the  tables.  The  greatest  contraction  of  vol- 
ume observed  upon  mixing  absolute  alcohol  and 
water  occurs  when  49.8  volumes  of  water  are 
mixed  with  53.9  volumes  of  absolute  alcohol, 
both  liquids  being  at  320  F.  The  volume  of 
the  mixture  is  then  100,  instead  of  103.7,  as  it 
would  be  if  there  were  no  contraction.  Men- 
deleeff  points  out  that  this  particular  mixture 
corresponds  to  a  possible  compound  having  the 
formula  QHe0.3H20 ;  but  it  has  not  been  con- 
clusively proved  that  such  compound  exists.  An 
alcohol  containing  49.3  per  cent  (by  weight)  of 
absolute  alcohol  is  known  in  the  arts  and  for 
excise  purposes  as  "proof  spirit."  This  term 
was  originally  intended  to  denote  alcohol  just 
strong  enough  to  ignite  gunpowder  when 
burned  upon  it;  but  it  was  defined  by  law  in 
the  reign  of  George  III.  of  England  to  be  spirit 


"such  as  shall,  at  the  temperature  of  51°  R, 
weigh  exactly  twelve-thirteenth  parts  of  an  equal 
amount  of  distilled  water"  (Watts).  At  60°  F. 
proof  spirit  has  a  specific  gravity  of  0.920.  A 
mixture  stronger  or  weaker  than  this  is  said  to 
be  (respectively)  overproof  or  underproof.  Dis- 
tilled liquors,  such  as  whiskey,  brandy,  and  gin, 
contain  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  absolute  alco- 
hol, wines  from  7  to  20,  ale  and  porter  from 
5  to  7,  and  beer  from  2  to  10.  Alcohol  coag- 
ulates albumen,  and,  partly  for  this  reason  and 
partly  because  of  its  action  in  arresting  the 
development  of  micro-organisms,  it  prevents  the 
putrefaction  of  dead  animal  matter.  The  alkali 
metals  attack  absolute  alcohol  rapidly  with  the 
formation  of  compounds  variously  known  as 
alcoholates,  alcohates,  and  alcoates,  but  more 
definitely  and  correctly  as  <(  ethylates."  Thus  al- 
cohol may  be  regarded  as  water  in  which  one 
atom  of  hydrogen  has  been  replaced  by  a  mole- 
cule of  the  organic  radical  ethyl,  C:H:„  and, 
water  being  H-O-H,  the  formula  for  alcohol 
may  be  written  (CsHO-O-H.  An  alkali  metal, 
when  it  combines  with  alcohol,  merely  replaces 
the  H  at  the  right  of  this  formula ;  and  sodium 
ethylate  (for  example)  is  therefore  (GHa)- 
O-Na,  or  simply  C;Hr.ONa.  The  commonest 
test  for  alcohol  in  small  quantities  consists  in 
warming  the  suspected  liquid  (or  its  distillate) 
with  caustic  potash  and  iodine.  If  alcohol  is 
present  iodoform  comes  down  after  a  time  as  a 
precipitate.  In  England  the  use  of  alcohol  in 
the  arts  is  permitted  without  the  payment  of  an 
excise  tax,  provided  the  alcohol  contains  10  per 
cent  of  methyl  alcohol  (wood  spirit).  Alcohol 
so  treated  is  known  as  •  methylated  spirit  "  ;  it 
is  unfit  for  drinking,  and  the  methyl  alcohol 
that  it  contains  cannot  be  readily  removed.  Al- 
cohol can  be  prepared  directly  from  its  elements 
as  follows:  Acetylene  (q.v.),  C;H2,  will  com- 
bine directly  with  hydrogen  to  form  olefiant  gas, 
GH4;  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  will  absorb 
olefiant  gas  with  the  formation  of  hydrogen- 
ethyl-sulphate,  C-Hs-HSO.:  and  if  the  product 
so  obtained  is  diluted  with  water  and  boiled, 
alcohol  is  formed  in  accordance  with  the  equa- 
tion: 

C2HB.HSO.+  H20  =  H:SO<+  GH5.OH. 

This  process  is  of  considerable  theoretic  inter- 
est, and  is  said  to  be  in  commercial  use  in  Rus- 
sia. Until  carbide  of  calcium  (from  which 
acetylene  is  prepared)  can  be  had  more  cheaply, 
however,  it  can  hardly  be  successfully  used  in 
the  United  States. 

2.  Wood  Alcohol,  or  Methyl  Alcohol. —  A 
colorless,  inflammable  liquid,  strongly  resem- 
bling ethyl  alcohol  in  its  general  properties.  It 
burns  with  a  flame  resembling  that  of  grain 
alcohol,  but  with  sensibly  less  evolution  of  heat. 
It  is  far  cheaper  than  grain  alcohol,  because 
there  is  no  excise  tax  upon  it;  in  many  uses  it 
may  be  substituted  for  grain  alcohol  with  suc- 
cess, its  solvent  powers  being  very  similar.  It 
cannot  be  used  internally,  however,  as  it  is  of 
a  poisonous  nature,  and  has  a  peculiar  selective 
acti6n  upon  the  optic  nerve,  in  which  it  often 
induces  a  condition  of  permanent  atrophy  with 
consequent  total  blindness.  Methyl  alcohol  is 
obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of  wood.  The 
process,  as  carried  out  in  New  York  State,  is 
substantially  as  follows :  Hardwood  is  cut  into 
cordwood  size  and  allowed  to  season  thoroughly. 


ALCOHOL 


two-year-old  wood  being  dry  enough  to  yield 
excellent  results.  Beech,  maple,  and  birch  are 
most  commonly  used,  birch  being  the  poorest  of 
the  three,  because  it  yields  a  larger  proportion 
of  objectionable  tarry  matter.  The  seasoned 
wood  is  placed  in  retorts  of  cast  iron  or  sheet 
steel,  which  are  cylindrical  in  general  shape, 
and  large  enough  to  hold  rather  more  than  half 
a  cord  each.  A  slow  fire  is  then  built  under 
the  retorts,  its  intensity  being  gradually  in- 
creased as  the  distillation  progresses,  and  regu- 
lated so  that  at  the  end  of  from  12  to  18  hours 
nothing  remains  in  the  retort  but  charcoal.  The 
distillate  is  passed  through  a  condenser,  by 
which  a  portion  is  condensed  into  a  watery  fluid, 
while  another  and  very  considerable  portion 
passes  through  in  the  form  of  a  permanent,  non- 
condensable  gas.  The  non-condensable  part  con- 
sists largely  of  marsh  gas,  hydrogen,  carbon- 
dioxid,  and  carbon-monoxid,  together  with 
smaller  amounts  of  acetylene  and  numerous 
other  substances.  No  attempt  is  made  to  utilize 
this  portion  of  the  product  except  as  fuel.  The 
portion  that  condenses  consists  largely  of  acetic 
acid  and  methyl  alcohol,  together  with  acetate  of 
methyl  and  acetone,  and  a  considerable  quantity 
of  tarry  matter.  The  condensed  distillate  is 
passed  into  settling-tanks,  where  it  is  allowed 
to  remain  until  the  greater  part  of  the  tarry 
matter  has  subsided.  The  lighter  part  is  then 
drawn  ofT  and  saturated  with  slaked  lime  to 
fix  the  acetic  acid.  A  second  distillation  expels 
the  methyl  alcohol,  which  is  recovered  by  means 
of  a  condenser  and  shipped  to  the  refiners  in 
iron  tanks,  being  known  to  the  trade  in  this 
form  as  *  wood  spirit."  The  acetate  of  lime 
remaining  behind  is  then  recovered  by  evapora- 
tion and  spread  out  upon  a  heated  floor  to 
dry. 

Acetate  of  lime,  as  it  comes  from  the  alcohol 
manufacturer,  is  brown  in  color,  from  the  tarry 
impurities  that  it  contains.  It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  acetic  acid  and  the  various  ace- 
tates (notably  those  of  iron  and  aluminum) 
that  are  used  in  dyeing  and  in  printing  upon 
cloth.  The  impure  methyl  alcohol,  or  «  wood 
spirit,"  that  is  shipped  from  the  factory  to  the 
refiner,  usually  contains  80  per  cent  of  alcohol 
and  20  per  cent  of  water.  The  yield  of  spirit 
of  this  strength  varies  greatly,  according  to  the 
skill  and  care  exercised  by  the  manufacturer; 
but  in  the  best  plants  it  may  be  taken  at  from 
eight  to  nine  gallons  per  cord  of  good  wood. 
Crude  wood  spirit  contains  considerable  empy- 
reumatic  matter  as  well  as  acetone,  acetate  of 
methyl,  and  acetate  of  ammonia.  Pure  methyl 
alcohol  may  be  prepared  by  saturating  the  crude 
spirit  with  fused  calcium  chloride  (CaCl:)  and 
heating  on  a  water-bath.  Methyl  alcohol  com- 
bines with  calcium  chloride,  under  these  condi- 
tions forming  a  compound  which  can  be  readily 
purified,  and  from  which  the  alcohol  can  again 
be  recovered  by  distilling  with  water.  A  final  dis- 
tillation over  quicklime  will  give  the  alcohol  in 
its  anhydrous  or  ((  absolute  *  state.  Pure  methyl 
alcohol,  free  from  water,  has  a  specific  gravity 
at  32°  F.  of  0.8101.  Its  chemical  formula  is 
CHi.OH ;  it  is  the  hydrate  of  the  organic  radical 
"methyl*  (CHj),  being  analogous  in  this  re- 
spect to  ethyl  alcohol,  which  is  the  hydrate  of 
the  organic  radical  «  ethyl  B  (GIL).  It  boils  at 
about  151°  F.  under  ordinary  atmospheric  pres- 
sure. 


3,  Alcohol — In  organic  chemistry,  a  member 
of  a  numerous  class  of  compounds  consisting 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  and  derived 
from  hydrocarbons  containing  an  even  number 
of  hydrogen  atoms  by  the  substitution  of  one  or 
more  hydroxyl  molecules  (HO)  for  an  equal 
number  of  hydrogen  atoms.  The  alcohols,  as 
thus  defined,  include  the  two  substances  de- 
scribed above,  and  also  many  others  (such  as 
glycerin)  whose  properties  at  first  sight  appear 
to  be  radically  different  from  those  of  either 
ethyl  or  methyl  alcohol.  Alcohols  are  classified 
as  monohydric,  dihydric,  trihydric,  tetrahydric, 
pentahydric,  and  hexahydric,  according  as  they 
contain  one,  two,  three,  four,  five,  or  six  mole- 
cules of  hydroxyl  (OH).  Thus  ethyl  alcohol, 
GILOH,  is  monohydric,  while  glycerin, 
CsHs.  (OH)s,  is  trihydric.  In  the  present  ar- 
ticle only  the  monohydric  alcohols  will  be  con- 
sidered. These  are  divisible  into  five  general 
scries  as  follows:  (a)  Those  having  the  gen- 
eral formula  CnH.n  -f  i.OH  ;  they  are  derived 
from  the  paraffins,  Cnll:n  ■+>  by  the  substitu- 
tion of  one  molecule  of  OH  for  one  atom  of 
hydrogen,  and  are  known  as  the  "  fatty  alco- 
hols." (b)  Those  having  the  formula  CnH:n — 
i.OH.  Ally]  alcohol  is  the  most  familiar  mem- 
ber   of    this    series.     Its    formula    is    GIL.OH. 

(c)  Those  having  the  general  formula 
CnH:n-3.OH.    No  familiar  example  can  be  given. 

(d)  Those  having  the  general  formula  CnILn — 
i.OH.  This  series  is  derived  from  the  aromatic 
series  of  hydrocarbons,  just  as  the  first  series 
given  above  is  derived  from  the  paraffins.  Thus, 
when  hydrogen  peroxid,  H=0=,  acts  upon  ben- 
zene, GIL,  we  have  CeH.+  H;0  ,=  ILO ;  + 
GHs.OH,  the  last  expression  in  this  equation 
being  the  formula  of  phenyl  alcohol,  or  (as 
it    is    more    familiarly    known)     carbolic    acid. 

(e)  Those  having  the  general  formula  CnH;n  — 
9.OH.  Cholesterin  belongs  to  this  series.  It  will 
be  evident  that  the  complete  discussion  of  even 
the  monohydric  alcohols  would  be  impossible  in 
the  present  place ;  hence  in  what  follows  atten- 
tion will  be  confined  to  the  fatty  or  paraffin 
series  of  monohydric  alcohols,  having  the  gen- 
eral formula  CnHin  +,.OH.  No  less  than  17 
distinct  members  of  this  series  are  known,  the 
first  five,  when  they  are  arranged  in  order  ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  carbon  atoms  they 
contain,  being: 

Methyl  alcohol,  CH,.OH. 
Ethvl  alcohol,  GIL.OH. 
Propvl  alcohol,  GHr.OH. 
Btitvl"  alcohol,  GH..OH. 
Amyl  alcohol,   GHu.OH. 

The  first  two  members  of  this  series  do  not  ad- 
mit of  any  isomeric  modifications;  but  the  third 
member  admits  of  one  such  modification,  and 
the  following  members  admit  of  more  than  one. 
For  example,  propane  has  the  formula 
CHa.CH>.CHa,  and  an  alcohol  may  be  formed  by 
substituting  OH  for  any  one  of  the  H  atoms  in 
this  formula.  If  a  hydrogen  atom  at  the  end  of 
the  formula  be  replaced  in  this  way,  we  shall 
obtain  the  same  result  whether  the  substitution 
be  made  at  the  right-hand  end  or  the  left ;  that 
much  is  evident  from  the  symmetry  of  the 
■  formula.  But  if  one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in 
the  central  CIL  be  so  replaced,  the  alcohol  thus 
formed  may  differ  from  the  one  previously  ob- 
tained by  an  end  substitution;  and  in  fact  ex- 


ALCOHOLISM 


periment  show?  that  two  different  alcohol?  do 
actually  exist,  both  having  the  same  formula 
GHtOH.  These  are  distinguished  as  "pri- 
mary" and  "secondary"  respectively.  In  gen- 
eral, an  alcohol  is  called  "primary"  if  the  carbon 
atom  to  which  the  OH  is  attached  is  itself  at- 
tached to  only  one  other  carbon  atom ;  it  is 
"secondary"  if  the  carbon  atom  to  which  the 
OH  is  attached  is  itself  attached  to  two  other 
carbon  atoms;  and  it  is  "tertiary"  if  this  car- 
bon atom  is  attached  to  three  other  carbon 
atoms.  If  it  is  admitted  that  the  quantivalence 
of  carbon  is  never  greater  than  four,  it  follows 
that  no  carbon  atom  can  be  attached  to  more 
than  three  other  carbon  atoms ;  hence  every  al- 
cohol in  the  class  under  consideration  must  be 
either  primary,  secondary,  or  tertiary.  The  va- 
rious radicals  with  which  hydroxyl  (OH)  is 
combined  in  the  alcohols  are  collectively  called 
alkyls.  Thus  CH,  (methyl).  GH5  (ethyl),  and 
CH;  (propyl)  are  all  "alkyls,"  and  an  alcohol 
may  be  briefly  described  as  the  hydrate  of  an 
alkyl.  Other  alkyl  compounds  are  also  known. 
For  example,  hydrochloric,  hydrobmmic,  hydri- 
odic,  or  hydrofluoric  acid,  when  allowed  to  act 
upon  an  alkyl  hydrate,  yields  the  chloride,  bro- 
mide, iodide,  or  fluoride  of  that  alkyl.  Thus: 
CH,.0H+HC1  =  CH,.C1  +  H=0;  and  GH..OH 
+  HI  =  C,H;.I  +  H,0.  CH3.C1  is  ''methyl 
chloride,"  and  CTL.I  is  "propyl  iodide.'"  The 
oxids  of  alkyls  are  called  "simple  ethers."  (See 
Ether.)  For  example,  (C;H=)-.0  is  ethyl  oxid 
(or  ether),  often  erroneously  called  "sulphuric 
ether"  from  the  fact  that  sulphuric  acid  is 
used  in  preparing  it.  By  the  action  of  various 
acids  upon  alkyl  hydrates  (or  alcohols),  salt?  of 
these  alkyls.  entirely  analogous  to  the  metallic 
salts,  are  obtained.  Thus  acetic  acid  and  ethyl 
alcohol  react  according  to  the  equation : 
GH-.OH+CH  ,COOH=CH,.COO(GH3)+H:,0. 

Ethyl  Acetic  Ethyl  Water 

hydrate  acid  acetate 

This  reaction  is  entirely  analogous  to  the  fol- 
lowing  familiar  one   relating  to  potassium: 

K  OH  +  CH;.CqOH  =  CH3.COOK  +  HX>. 
Potassium         Acetic  Potassium       Water 

hydrate  acid  acetate 

See  Esters.  A.  D.  Risteen,  Ph.D., 

Editorial  Staff,    'Encyclopedia    Americana* 

Alcoholism,  a  term  applied  to  the  symp- 
toms produced  by  poisoning  with  ethyl  alco- 
hol (see  Alcohol).  Alcoholism  may  be  acute, 
subacute  or  chronic,  and  in  order  to  under- 
stand its  phases  a  brief  review  of  the  more 
important  features  of  the  physiological  action 
of  alcohol  is  necessary.  Locally  alcohol  is  an 
irritant,  and  induces  congestion  and  increased 
cellular  activity.  There  appears  to  be  some 
foundation  for  the  popular  view  that  taken  be- 
fore a  meal  alcohol  increases  the  appetite  and 
digestive  power,  for  although  in  any  marked 
quantity  it  greatly  reduces  or  altogether  inhibits 
the  action  of  the  digestive  ferments  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  increased  amount  of  gastric  juice 
secreted  under  the  influence  of  small  amounts 
more  than  makes  up  for  this  effect.  Some  au- 
thorities maintain  that  while  the  stimulant 
remains  in  the  stomach  digestion  is  retarded, 
hut  that  after  absorption  of  the  alcohol  the 
process  advances  more  rapidly  than  would  oth- 
erwise base  been  the  ca*e.  The  most  impor- 
tant  effect    of  the   administration   of   alcohol   is 


manifested  by  the  nervous  system.  There  Is 
still  some  difference  of  opinion  in  this  regard, 
some  observers  claiming  that  in  small  amounts 
it  acts  as  a  stimulant,  whereas  others  assert 
that  the  apparent  increase  in  intellectual  activ- 
ity is  not  real  but  is  dependent  on  depression 
of  the  higher  centres  whereby  the  normal  self 
control  and  reserve  are  cast  off  and  the  lower 
centres  are  allowed  to  act  without  restraint. 
Experiments  have  shown  that  tasks  like  the 
addition  of  columns  of  figures  or  reading  series 
of  disconnected  syllables  were  less  well  per- 
formed when  the  person  had  taken  moderate 
amounts  of  alcohol,  though  he  usually  felt  in- 
creased self-confidence  and  was  convinced  that 
the  actually  inferior  work  he  was  doing  was 
especially  good.  It  is  in  this  way  that  alcohol 
aids  the  after  dinner  speaker,  who  is  by  mod- 
erate amounts  of  wine  relieved  of  diffidence  or 
embarrassment  and  enabled  to  speak  with  a  flu- 
ency never  at  his  command  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions. It  is  probable  that  the  capacity  for 
muscular  work  also  is  only  apparently  aug- 
mented by  alcohol,  the  slight  increase  in  effici- 
ency at  the  start  being  neutralized  by  the 
earlier  onset  of  fatigue.  According  to  modern 
observers  alcohol  has  but  little  direct  effect 
on  the  circulation,  though  there  is  some  change 
in  the  distribution  of  the  blood  through  dila- 
tation of  the  peripheral  vessels.  Respiration  is 
little  if  at  all  affected.  The  question  of  whether 
or  not  alcohol  is  a  food  has  elicited  much  con- 
troversy, but  the  experiments  of  Atwater,  Neu- 
mann, and  others  show  beyond  doubt  that  a 
certain  amount  of  alcohol  can  be  completely 
burnt  in  the  body  and  serve  as  a  source  of 
heat  and  energy.  In  this  way  a  saving  of 
other  food  stuffs  is  affected,  and  in  this  sense 
alcohol  is  undoubtedly  a  food.  The  view  up- 
held by  some  of  the  older  authors  that  alcohol 
has  the  power  of  lessening  the  oxidation  of 
the  tissues  is,  however,  unfounded.  The  mod- 
ern tendency  is  to  regard  alcohol  not  as  a 
physiological  stimulant  but  as  a  universal  de- 
pressant. From  the  above  it  might  be  inferred 
that  alcohol  does  not  possess  the  traditional 
value  ascribed  to  it  in  medicine,  and  to  some 
extent  this  is  true.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
are  many  legitimate  indications  for  its  use 
that  cannot  be  met  by  other  drugs  and  few 
thoughtful  clinicians  would  be  willing  to  do 
without  its  aid.  Alcohol  is  often  used  in 
popular  medicine  without  a  correct  conception 
of  its  action.  Contrary  to  general  belief  it 
does  not  raise  the  bodily  temperature,  but 
actually  causes  it  to  fall  on  account  of  the 
increased  radiation  of  heat  from  the  surface 
of  the  body  accompanying  the  dilatation  of  the 
blood  vessels  of  the  skin.  Consequently  alco- 
holic drinks  should  not  be  taken  before  ex- 
posure with  the  idea  of  avoiding  fatigue  or 
chilling,  though  there  is  no  objection  to  its 
use  when  the  exposure  is  over  and  the  in- 
dividual has  returned  home  wet  or  chilled 
through. 

Acute  alcoholic  poisoning  follows  the  taking 
of  very  large  quantities  of  strong  spirits  in  a 
short  lime,  and  is  not  often  seen.  The  patient 
promptly  becomes  comatose,  the  face  is  con- 
ge-ted or  purplish,  there  is  complete  muscular 
relaxation,  weak  heart  action,  and  collapse,  end- 
ing in   death   through  paralysis  of  the   heart  or 


ALCORAN  —  ALCOTT 


of  respiration,  or  both,  unless  medical  aid  is 
given.  Subacute  alcoholism  is  the  ordinary 
type  of  drunkenness  or  "intoxication"  and  pro- 
duces different  manifestations  in  different  in- 
dividuals. The  first  effect  of  moderate  amounts 
of  alcohol  is  tn  cause  exhilaration,  garrulity,  in- 
distinctness and  incoherence  of  speech,  blunt- 
ing of  the  sense  of  touch,  and  loss  of  muscular 
control  so  that  the  patient  is  unsteady  on  his 
feet  and  staggers  when  he  walks.  Dizziness 
and  disturbances  of  sight  and  hearing  may  also 
appear,  and  finally  a  deep  lethargy  and  stupor 
supervene.  On  awaking,  nausea,  vomiting, 
headache  and  mental  depression  remind  the 
sufferer  of  his  debauch.  In  some  individuals 
the  stage  "f  hilarity  does  not  appear  and  quar- 
relsomeness and  moroseness  are  manifested 
frnm  the  start.  The  insensibility  of  alcoholic 
intoxication  to  some  extent  resembles  that  at- 
tending certain  grave  disorders  like  apoplexy, 
epileptic  coma,  fracture  of  the  skull,  or  opium 
poisoning,  and  mistakes  in  diagnosis  on  per- 
sons found  unconscious  in  the  street  are  un- 
fortunately not  infrequent.  The  true  state  of 
affairs  i-  often  extremely  difficult  to  recog- 
nize, and  it  is  always  wiser  to  treat  doubtful 
cases  as  if  the  more  serious  trouble  existed. 
The  fact  that  the  breath  smells  of  liquor  is  of 
little  value,  as  bystanders  may  have  sought  to 
aid  a  victim  of  other  conditions  in  this  way,  or 
a  man  who  has  indulged  in  alcohol  may  also 
be  suffering  from  some  of  the  difficulties  men- 
tioned. Sonic  parsons  instead  of  becoming 
stuporous  pass  into  a  condition  of  wild  excite- 
ment and  uncontrollable  fury  termed  alcoholic 
mania,  during  which  the  most  revolting  crimes 
may  be  committed.  In  others  convulsive  seiz- 
ures, or  alcoholic  epilepsy,  may  succeed  the 
first  stage.  Dipsomania  is  a  form  of  insanity 
in  which  the  patient  is  subject  to  attacks  of 
irresistible  craving  for  liquor,  though  in  the 
intervals  he  may  be  quite  rational  and  alcoholic 
beverages  may  even  be  repugnant  to  him.  De- 
lirium tremens  is  a  state  of  nervous  unrest 
sometimes  following  a  protracted  debauch, 
sometimes  appearing  in  steady,  but  not  nec- 
essarily excessive,  drinkers,  usually  as  the  re- 
sult of  some  physical  or  mental  shock.  There 
are  distaste  for  food,  intense  restlessness, 
terrifying  hallucinations  and  illusions,  and  ob- 
stinate insomnia.  The  treatment  of  acute  alco- 
holism comprises,  first,  elimination  of  the  poison 
by  washing  out  the  stomach,  purging,  rec- 
tal irrigation  with  salt  solution,  and  the  Turk- 
ish bath,  and  secondly,  the  substitution  of  other 
stimulants  such  as  ammonia,  strychnine,  caf- 
feine, etc.,  until  nourishment  can  be  retained 
and  strength  returns.  In  delirium  tremens  the 
two  great  indications  are  to  produce  sleep  and 
nourish  the  patient,  problems  that  often  tax 
the  ingenuity  of  the   physician  to  the  utmost. 

Chronic  alcoholism  is  the  result  of  long  con- 
tinued immoderate  indulgence  in  alcoholic 
liquors  and  is  a  serious  cause  of  disease. 
Nearly  all  the  organs  of  the  body  are  affected 
and  exhibit  a  new  growth  of  connective  tissue. 
The  blood  vessels  show  the  lesions  of  arterio- 
sclerosis, the  heart  is  affected  in  a  variety  of 
ways,  commonly  becoming  fatty  and  weak,  the 
kidneys  develop  nephritis,  the  liver  cirrhosis,  and 
the  stomach  is  the  seat  of  a  chronic  catarrhal 
condition  giving  rise  to  nausea,  vomiting  and 
distaste    for    food.      There    are    congestive    and 


catarrhal  changes  in  the  respiratory  apparatus; 
the  bodily  strength  is  decreased  and  there  is  a 
tendency  to  obesity.  There  is  also  marked  in- 
volvement of  the  nervous  system  leading  to 
complete  mental  and  moral  deterioration  with 
loss  of  will  power,  loss  of  memory,  and  inca- 
pacity for  the  responsibilities  of  life.  Chronic 
alcoholics  have  lessened  power  of  resistance  to 
infectious  diseases  and  readily  break  down 
under  the  stress  of  any  mental  or  physical 
strain.  The  treatment  of  chronic  alcoholism 
requires  isolation  of  the  patient,  preferably 
in  an  institution,  where  no  intercourse  with 
friends  will  be  possible.  In  one  plan  of  treat- 
ment every  article  of  food  given  the  patient 
is  soaked  in  liquor  until  the  disgust  awakened 
by  its  odor  and  taste  is  sufficiently  great  to 
ensure  abstinence  for  a  time  at  least.  Some 
authorities  advise  immediate  withdrawal  of  all 
alcohol,  others  recommend  a  more  gradual 
process  of  "tapering  off."  Which  method  is 
preferable  depends  on  the  individual  case.  Hy- 
podermic injections  of  nitrate  of  strychnine  form 
the  basis  of  some  of  the  courses  of  treatment. 
See  Insanity;  Temperance.  Consult:  dish- 
ing, 'A  Textbook  of  Pharmacology  and  Thera- 
peutics.' 

Karl  M.  Vocf.i.,  M.   D, 

New  York  City. 
Alcoran.    See  Koran. 

Alcorn,  al'kern,  James  Lusk,  American 
statesman:  b.  near  Golconda,  111.,  4  Nov.  1816; 
d.  30  Dec.  1894.  He  was  educated  at  Cumber- 
land College;  five  years  deputy  sheriff  of  Liv- 
ingston co.,  Ky. ;  member  of  the  legislature 
1843;  in  1S44  removed  to  Mississippi  and  began 
law  practice,  and  was  in  the  Mississippi  legis- 
lature 1846-65.  He  was  a  Scott  presidential 
elector  in  1852,  declined  a  Whig  nomination  for 
governor  1857,  and  the  same  year  was  defeated 
for  Congress  by  L  Q.  C.  Lamar.  He  founded 
the  levee  system  in  the  State.  In  1861  he  was 
in  the  Secession  Convention,  and  was  elected 
brigadier-general,  but  Jefferson  Davis  refused 
his  commission  from  political  grudge.  In  1865 
he  was  elected  United  States  Senator,  but  not 
allowed  to  take  his  seat.  In  i860  be  was  elected 
governor  (Republican),  but  resigned  on  election 
to  the  United  States  Senate,  where  he  served 
[871-7.  lie  was  independent  candidate  for  gov- 
ernor in   1873,  but  was  defeated. 

Alcott,  Amos  Bronson,  American  philoso- 
pher and  educator :  b.  Wolcott,  Conn.,  29  Nov. 
1799;  d.  4  March  [888.  In  1823  he  set  up  an 
infant  school,  teaching  it  by  conversation; 
and  it  gained  much  local  fame.  In  1828 
he  removed  to  Boston,  and  till  1836  con- 
ducted a  school  of  the  same  sort,  exciting  wide 
attention  by  bis  genius  for  teaching,  his  revolu- 
tionary methods,  and  bis  exaggerated  respect  for 
the  infant  mind.  His  system  was  disfavored  by 
most  people,  and  in  1836  he  removed  to  Concord, 
Mass.,  thenceforth  expounding  reform  views  on 
all  human  subjects,  society  and  theology,  diet 
and  education,  politics,  morals,  and  metaphysics. 
lb-  became  an  admired  public  lecturer  in  the 
great  days  of  the  lecture  platform.  In  1842  he 
visited  England,  where  a  Pestalozzian  school 
near  London  had  been  named  Alcott  House. 
Returning  with  two  English  friends,  one 
of  them.  Charles  Lane,  bought  an  estate  in 
the  town  of  Harvard,   Mass.,  for  a  communistic 


ALCOTT  — ALCOV 


settlement,  and  the  others  joined  him ;  but  it 
failed.  Mr.  Alcott  lived  in  Boston  for  a  while, 
but  finally  returned  to  Concord,  where  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life  as  a  "  peripatetic 
philosopher,"  as  justly  said:  giving  talks  in  dif- 
ferent towns  and  cities  on  all  human  subjects 
when  invited, —  first  at  random,  but  latterly  for- 
mal, with  printed  topics  and  regular  places  and 
periods.  The  conversation  was  nominally  open, 
and  questions  in  order ;  but  it  was  soon  found 
better  to  let  it  be  a  monologue  by  Mr.  Alcott, 
who  was  put  out  by  interruptions  and  could  not 
argue.  The  company  lost  nothing;  for  though 
entirely  unsystematic,  and  having  no  set  philoso- 
phy which  could  have  been  developed  into  a 
school,  he  was  fertile  in  ideas  of  deep  spiritual 
insight  and  noble  loftiness,  and  many  leaders  of 
thought,  as  Emerson,  acknowledged  him  as  a 
source  of  some  of  their  best  inspirations.  In  this 
characteristic  of  intellectual  scrappiness,  yet 
great  molding  influence,  he  may  be  compared 
with  Coleridge  and  St.  Simon.  He  was  a  leader 
among  the  Transcendentalists ;  and  that  he  was 
an  ardent  Abolitionist  goes  without  saying.  His 
grounds  in  Concord  represented  his  independ- 
ence of  mind  and  whimsicality:  they  were 
fenced  by  himself  with  gnarled  pine  boughs  of 
endless  diversity  of  form,  apparently  picked  up 
as  he  walked.  He  contributed  '  Orphic  Say- 
ings' to  the  Dial,  of  Boston  (1839-42),  and  pub- 
lished many  scattered  papers;  'Tablets'  (1868)  ; 
'Concord  Days,'  recollections  of  that  place 
(1872);  'Table  Talk'  (1877);  'Sonnets  and 
Canzonets'    (1877). 

Alcott,  Louisa  May,  American  novelist, 
daughter  of  A.  B.  Alcott :  b.  Germantown,  Pa.,  29 
Nov.  1832  ;  d.  Boston,  Mass..  6  March 
1888,  two  days  after  her  father.  She  was  two 
years  old  when  her  parents  moved  to  Boston ; 
eight  when  they  went  to  Concord.  Her  father 
was  her  chief  teacher,  on  the  system  of  his 
famous  infant  schools :  as  the  latter  developed  no 
other  geniuses,  probably  nature  was  responsible 
for  hers.  Thoreau  also  taught  her  for  a  time. 
She  had  always  creative  facility  and  sense  of 
literary  form,  and  began  writing  in  early  youth ; 
at  first  for  pleasure,  then  at  16  for  periodicals 
to  help  support  the  struggling  family,  whose 
mainstay  she  continued  all  her  life,  her  father's 
superiorities  not  being  of  the  money-making  or- 
der. But  for  many  years  afterward  she  groped 
for  her  true  field,  starting  with  sensational  sto- 
ries of  no  permanent  merit.  For  ten  years  she 
was  a  school-teacher.  In  1862  she  went  to 
Washington  as  a  war  hospital  nurse,  and  wrote 
letters  thence  to  her  mother  and  sisters;  on  her 
return  in  1863  she  recast  these  into  a  volume  en- 
titled l  Hospital  Sketches,'  as  the  easiest  avail- 
able literary  capital,  not  suspecting  that  she 
had  found  her  kingdom.  In  these  was  first  re- 
vealed her  peculiar  power  of  sketching  common- 
place people  and  scenes  in  all  their  commonplace- 
ness,  yet  by  the  play  of  genial  humor  and  rare 
selective  art  making  them  as  charming  as  the 
best  creations  of  the  fancy.  The  success  of  these 
stimulated  the  publication  of  '  Little  Women  » 
(written  1867,  after  return  from  a  year's  Euro- 
pean trip  for  impaired  health,  published  1868), 
which  sold  60,000  copies  the  first  year,  and  after 
35  years  remains  one  of  the  best  copyrights  in 
American  literature.  It  raised  her  at  once  and 
justly  to  one  of  the  front  places  in  American 
authorship,  and   remains   the  one  work  of  hers 


Lie  world  would  much  regret  losing.  In  formal 
art  it  has  no  merits :  there  is  no  structure  and  no 
climax,  merely  detached  scenes  of  an  uneventful 
life;  little  delicacy  of  touch,  though  there  are 
passages  of  much  tenderness  and  pathos :  but  the 
healthy  sense  and  stereoscopic  Iifelikeness  make 
it  rather  an  addition  to  people's  actual  experi- 
ences than  their  memories  of  fiction ;  and  the 
girls,  despite  the  blunt  portrayal  of  surface 
faults  and  even  over-harsh  lack  of  idealization, 
are  loved  like  sisters  by  millions.  It  is  the 
world-photograph  of  the  New  England  home  and 
the  American  girl.  This  was  her  great  oppor- 
tunity: her  own  family  and  friends  to  "com- 
pose" and  adorn,  with  scant  need  for  imagina- 
tion, of  which  she  had  little,  or  plot,  in  which 
she  was  very  deficient.  After  this,  with  the 
necessity  of  inventing  a  set  story,  and  her  per- 
sonal life  mostly  wrought  into  her  previous 
work,  her  limitations  were  strongly  apparent: 
'An  Old-Fashioned  Girl'  (1869),  'Little 
Men  '  (1871),  and  a  series  of  later  juveniles, 
though  only  less  popular  with  the  young  than 
'  Little  Women,'  add  nothing  to  her  real  repu- 
tation. They  are  also  deformed  by  two  un- 
wholesome qualities :  one  derived  from  her  fa- 
ther,—representing  grown  people  mainly  as 
vexatious  interferences  with  children's  enjoy- 
ment, and  the  latter  as  quite  capable  of  teaching 
wisdom  to  their  elders ;  the  other  a  proof  how 
much  feminine  craving  lay  underneath  her  spin- 
ster life, —  making  love-sentiment  a  sauce  to 
everything  from  the  kindergarten  up,  and  the 
world  one  vast  scene  of  "  philandering."  But 
these  pot-boilers  had  a  higher  motive  and  result 
than  most  money-earning,  for  they  enabled  her 
father  to  live  his  serene  life.  She  adopted  at 
different  times  a  son  of  her  sister,  Mrs.  John 
Pratt  ("Meg")  and  the  orphaned  daughter  of 
her  artist  sister,  Mme.  Nieriken  ("Amy")  ;  and 
kept  house  for  them  and  her  father  in  vigorous 
New  England  fashion,  caring  for  the  latter  like 
a  baby.  Fatigue  and  excitement  during  his  last 
hours  laid  her  low  with  a  fatal  brain  fever.  Be- 
sides the  books  above  mentioned  she  published 
'Flower  Fables  or  Fairy  Tales'  (1855); 
'  Moods'  (1864,  revised  1881)  ;  a  series,  '  Aunt 
Jo's  Scrap  Bag'  (1871-82);  'Work,  a  Story 
of  Experience  '  (1871)  ;  '  Eight  Cousins  ' 
(1874);  'Rose  in  Bloom'  (1876):  'Silver 
Pitchers  '  (1876)  ;  <  Under  the  Lilacs  '  (1878)  ; 
'Jack  and  Jill'  (1880);  'Proverb  Stories' 
(1882);  <  Spinning- Wheel  Stories'  (1884); 
<  Lulu's  Library'    (1885). 

Alcott,  May  (Mme.  Ernest  Nieriken), 
American  artist,  daughter  of  A.  B.  Alcott :  b. 
Concord,  Mass.,  1840 ;  d.  1879.  She  studied  at 
the  Boston  School  of  Design,  and  under  Krug. 
Rimmer,  Hunt,  Vautier,  Johnston,  and  Miiller. 
Thenceforward  she  lived  variously  in  Boston, 
London,  and  Paris;  after  marriage  chiefly  in  the 
last.  She  did  good  work  in  still-life  painting, 
both  oil  and  water-color,  and  copied  Turner  so 
ably  that  Ruskin  had  some  of  the  work  adopted 
for  models  at  the  South  Kensington  schools. 
She  •  published  '  Concord  Sketches.'  with  a 
preface  by  her  sister  (1869);  'Art  Studying 
Abroad'    (1879). 

Alcoy,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Valencia,  24 
m.  N.  by  W.  of  Alicante,  near  the  source  of  the 
Alcoy,  in  a  hollow  encircled  by  hills.  There  is 
a  Roman  bridge  over  the  river,  and  the  town  has 


ALCUIN  —  ALDEHYDE 


a  very  picturesque  appearance.  Its  chief  manu- 
facture is  paper,  and  it  is  likewise  famed  for 
sugar-plums.     Pop,  32,000. 

Alcuin,  or  Flaccus  Albinus,  an  English- 
man, renowned  in  his  age  for  learning;  the  con- 
fidant, instructor,  and  adviser  of  Charlemagne. 
He  was  probably  born  in  York  in  7.15.  and  wa9 
educated  under  the  care  of  Archbishop  Egbert, 
and  his  successor  .Elbert,  with  whom  he  went 
to  the  continent,  and  who  afterward  gave  him  the 
management  of  the  school  at  York,  Having 
gone  to  Rome  to  bring  home  the  pallium  (sec 
Pallium  )  for  Eanbert,  the  successor  of  .Elbert, 
Charlemagne  became  acquainted  with  him  in 
Parma  on  his  return  ;  invited  him,  in  782.  to  his 
court,  and  made  use  of  his  services  in  his  en- 
deavors to  civilize  his  subjects.  In  the  royal 
academy  he  was  called  Flaccus  Albinus.  To  se- 
cure the  benefit  of  his  instructions  Charlemagne 
established  at  his  court  a  school,  called  Schola 
Palatina,  or  the  Palace  School,  and  intrusted 
him  with  the  superintendence  of  several  monas- 
teries, in  which  Alcuin  exerted  himself  to  diffuse 
a  knowledge  of  the  sciences.  Most  of  the 
schools  in  France  were  either  founded  or  im- 
proved by  him:  thus  he  founded  the  school  in 
the  abbey  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  in  796,  after 
the  plan  of  the  school  in  York.  He  himself  in- 
structed a  large  number  of  scholars  in  this 
school,  who  afterward  spread  the  light  of  learn- 
ing through  the  empire  of  the  Franks.  Alcuin 
took  his  leave  of  the  court  in  801,  and  retired  to 
the  abbey  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours,  but  kept  up  a 
constant  correspondence  with  Charles  to  the 
time  of  his  death  in  804.  lie  left,  besides  many 
theological  writings,  several  elementary  works 
in  the  branches  of  philosophy,  rhetoric,  and 
philology;  also  poems,  and  a  large  number  of 
letters,  the  Style  of  which,  however,  is  not  pleas- 
ing and  plainly  betrays  the  uncultivated  charac- 
ter of  the  age;  nevertheless  lie  is  acknowledged 
as    the    most    learned    anil    polished    man    of    his 

time.  He  understood  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew. 
The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  published  at 
Ratisbon  (1777,  2  vols,  folio).  See  Lorenz's 
'  Life  of  Alcuin,'  translated  into  English  (Lon- 
don,  1837). 

Alcyonaria  (from  Gk.  alkyon[e]ion,  bas- 
tard-sponge), a  sub-class  of  coral  polyps  (.(»- 
thozoa),  including  fan-corals.  0  dead  men's 
fingers."  organ  corals,  the  red  coral  used  for 
beads  and  ornaments,  and  others.  Eight  tenta- 
cles around  the  mouth  and  the  eight  cells  into 
which  the  body  is  divided  arc  the  characteristic 
elements  of  this  group.     See  Coral. 

Alcyone,  the  brightest  star  of  the  Pleiades 
(q.v.).    Also  see  Kingfisher. 

Al'dan,  a  river  of  E.  Siberia,  a  tributary 
of  the  Lena,  1,200  m.  in  length,  navigable  for 
600  m.  The  Aldan  Mountains  run  along  paral- 
lel to  it  on  the  left  for  400  miles. 

Aldana,  Ramon,  alda-na  ra-mon',  Mexican 
poet:  b.  1832;  d.  1882.  Besides  four  dramas, 
among  which  are  'Honor  and  Happiness'  and 
'Nobility  of  Heart,'  he  produced  lyric  poems  and 
sonnets  and  contributed  articles  to  journals. 

Aldborough,  or  Aldeburgh,  a  small  sea- 
port and  watering  place  of  Suffolk,  20  m.  N.E. 
of  Ipswich  by  rail.  It  was  disfranchised  in  1832; 
but  in  1885  it  received  a  new  municipal  charter. 
It  has  a  quaint,  half-timbered  moot  hall ;  and  in 
the  church  is  a  bust  of  the  poet   Crabbe,  who 


described  the  place  in  In-;  poem,  '  The  Borough.' 
It  has  a  two-mile  promenade  and  lobster  and 
herring  fisheries.     Pop.  2.150. 

Aldeb'aran,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude, 
forming  the  eye  of  the  constellation  Taurus  or 
the  Bull,  the  brightest  of  the  five  stars  known  to 
the  Greeks  as  the  I  lyades.  Spectrum  analysis 
has  shown  it  to  contain  antimony,  bismuth,  iron, 
mercury,  hydrogen,  sodium,  calcium,  etc. 

Al'dehyde  ("dehydrogenated  alcohol,"  or 
alcohol  which  has  been  deprived  of  a  portion 
of  its   hydrogen),   a    substance  intermediate   in 

Composition  between  a  primary  alcohol  and  the 
corresponding  acid.  When  an  alcohol  (q.V.) 
containing  the  molecular  group  CIP.Oll.  is  acted 
upon  by  oxidizing  agents,  it  loses  two  atoms  of 
hydrogen  from  this  group,  and  becomes  trans- 
formed into  a  substance  which  no  longer  con- 
tains the  hydroxyl  group  (till),  and  which  is 
Known  as  the  "aldehyde"  of  the  alcohol  from 
which  it  was  produced.  Air  effects  the  desired 
oxidization  readily,  when  in  the  presence  of 
platinum  black.  If  the  formula  of  the  original 
alcohol  is  R,CHj.0H,  thai  of  the  corresponding 
aldehyde  is  R.CO.H.  Aldehydes  combine  with 
bisulphites  (or  acid  sulphites),  producing  com- 
pounds that  are  usually  soluble  in  water,  but 
insoluble  in  a  solution  of  a  bisulphite.  Hence 
if  a  solution  containing  an  aldehyde  is  shaken 
with  a  saturated  solution  of  a  bisulphite   (such 

as  HNaSOj),  the  aldehyde  is  all  thrown  down 
in  the  form  of  an  insoluble  compound,  from 
which  the  aldehyde  itself  may  afterward  be 
liberated  by  treatment  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid 
and  distillation  by  steam.  Aldehydes  are  easily 
oxidized  into  their  corresponding  acids,  and  on 
account  of  their  affinity  for  oxygen  they  act  as 
powerful  reducing  agents.  An  aldehyde  may 
also  be  reconverted  into  the  alcohol  from  which 
it  was  obtained,  by  the  action  of  sodium  amal- 
gam. About  50  aldehydes  are  known,  nearly  all 
of  which  are  volatile  liquids. 

The  general  relation  of  the  aldehydes  to  their 
corresponding  alcohols  and  acids  may  be  illus- 
trated by  the  following  examples:  The  formula 
of  methyl  alcohol  is  ('II, oil.  or  II. (II  I  HI. 
In  the  presence  of  platinum  black,  air  oxidizes 
methyl  alcohol  in  accordance  with  the  following 
equation : 

II.CIL.OH  +  0  =  H.O  +  H.CO.II. 

Ml  (III  (or  CHjO)  is  0  formic  aldehyde,"  or 
"formaldehyde.11  This  rapidly  absorbs  oxygen 
and  und<  rgoes  the  change 

H.CO.II +  0  =  H.COOH. 
Formaldehyde  Formic  acid 

Again,   if  ethyl   alcohol    (C.H..0H,  or  CH,. 

(11,(111  1  is  treated  111  the  same  manner  (or, 
better,  if  it  is  oxidized  with  a  mixture  of  potas- 
sium bichromate  and   sulphuric  acid),  we  have 

CIICH..OH  +  0  =  CH,.C0.H  +  IPO. 
Ethyl  alcohol  Acetic  aldehyde 

If  allowed  p>  absorb  oxygen,  acetic  aldehyde 
then  undergoes  the  further  transformation 

CH,.C0.H  +  O  =  CH..C00II. 
Acetic  aldehyde        Acetic  acid 

Acetic  aldehyde,  or  acetaldehyde. —  When 
not  qualified  in  any  way  aldehyde  is  under- 
stood to  mean  acetic  aldehyde,  the  substance 
whose    formation    from    ethyl    alcohol    has   just 


ALDEN 


been  described.  Aldehyde  (in  this  sense)  is  a 
colorless  liquid  with  a  suffocating  smell,  misci- 
ble  in  all  proportions  with  water,  alcohol,  and 
ether,  boiling  at  "0°  F.,  and  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  0.800  at  32°  F.  It  is  capable  of  exist- 
ing in  several  polymeric  states,  each  having  the 
same  chemical  composition  as  aldehyde,  but  dif- 
fering from  it  in  appearance  and  behavior. 
Thus  although  aldehyde  may  be  preserved  for  a 
long  time  if  kept  in  contact  with  excess  of  acid, 
in  its  pure  state  it  soon  deposits  a  solid  substance 
known  as  metaldehyde,  which  sublimes  at 
2500  F.  without  decomposition,  and  is  recon- 
verted into  aldehyde  when  confined  and  heated 
to  4000  F.  By  treatment  with  sulphuric  or  hy- 
drochloric acid,  aldehyde  may  be  converted  into 
a  liquid  known  as  paraldehyde,  which  boils  at 
2550  F.  and  has  a  vapor  density  indicating  the 
formula  3(C.H,0). 

Aldehyde  is  used  for  silvering  mirrors  and 
other  objects,  on  account  of  the  property  that  it 
possesses  (in  common  with  other  aldehydes)  of 
throwing  down  a  deposit  of  metallic  silver  when 
heated  with  a  concentrated  ammoniacal  solution 
of  silver  nitrate  containing  a  little  caustic  soda. 

Alden,  Bradford  R.,  American  soldier:  b. 
Meadville,  Pa.,  1800;  d.  Newport,  R.  I..  10  Sept. 
1870.  Graduating  at  West  Point  1831,  he  was 
instructor  there  1833-40  after  some  camp  and 
garrison  life;  then  for  nearly  two  years  aide 
to  Winfield  Scott ;  after  three  years  more  of 
garrison  duty  was  commandant  at  West  Point 
1845-52.  Sent  to  the  far  West  for  service  in  the 
Puget  Sound  Indian  troubles,  in  1853  he  organ- 
ized and  led  an  expedition  against  the  Rogue 
River  Indians  of  southwest  Oregon ;  and  in  the 
fierce  battle  at  Jacksonville  24  August,  was  per- 
manently disabled  and  forced  to  retire  from  the 
army.  He  was  a  man  of  culture  and  fine 
literary   tastes. 

Alden,  Henry  Mills,  American  editor  and 
author:  b.  Mt.  Tabor,  Vt.,  11  Nov.  1836.  He 
graduated  1857  at  Williams  College,  in  the 
class  with  Garfield  and  Horace  E.  Scudder ;  in 
i860  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  re- 
ceived license  to  preach,  but  was  never  ordained. 
He  settled  in  New  York  in  1861  ;  was  managing 
editor  of  <  Harper's  Weekly  '  1863-9,  and  has 
been  editor  of  '  Harper's  Magazine  '  since  1869. 
His  earliest  interests  were  classical,  especially  in 
regard  to  ancient  thought,  religion,  and  litera- 
ture :  in  the  winter  of  1863-4  he  delivered  12 
lectures  at  the  Lowell  Institute,  Boston,  on  '  The 
Structure  of  Paganism  *  ;  his  earliest  writings 
published  were  two  papers  on  the  Eleusinian 
Mysteries,  in  the  '  Atlantic  Monthly  >  ;  and  his 
classical  scholarship  is  recognized  as  of  a  high 
type.  In  his  editorial  work  he  has  sought  to 
combine  fresh  intellectual  outlook  and  the  pres- 
entation of  the  latest  results  of  scholarship 
with  sound  ethics  and  an  elevating  social  tone ; 
also  to  make  the  magazine  American  in  the  best 
sense  and  to  bring  forward  new  writers.  He 
collaborated  with  A.  H.  Guernsey  in  'Harper's 
Pictorial  History  of  the  Great  Rebellion1 
(1862-5);  and  has  written  'The  Ancient  Lady 
of  Sorrow,1  poem  (1872)  ;  'God  in  His  World' 
(1890,  anonymous),  and  a  'Study  of  Death' 
('895)1  widely  read  and  admired. 

Alden,        (Mrs.)        Isabella        McDonald 

( 'Pansy8).      American      juvenile      writer:      b. 
Rochester.   N.   Y..  3   Nov.    1841 ;    married   Rev. 
Vol.    1  —  17 


G.  R.  Alden  1866.  She  was  educated  at  Ovid 
and  Auburn,  N.  Y.  While  she  has  written  fic- 
tion for  adults,  and  <  The  Prince  of  Peace,'  a 
life  of  Christ,  her  chief  note  is  as  the  author  of 
the  (  Pansy  Books,'  Sunday-school  juvenile 
novels,  about  60  volumes  in  all ;  and  as  editor  of 
the  juvenile  periodical  '  Pansy,'  1873-96.  She 
has  since  been  on  the  staff  of  the  '  Christian 
Endeavor  World  '  of  Boston  and  the  '  Herald 
and  Presbyter  '  of  Cincinnati.  Her  home  is 
Philadelphia. 

Alden,  James,  American  naval  officer:  b. 
Portland,  Me.,  31  March  1819;  d.  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  6  Feb.  1877.  Becoming  midshipman  i82«, 
he  accompanied  the  Wilkes  expedition  around 
the  world  1838-42;  commissioned  lieutenant 
1841,  he  served  through  the  Mexican  War  in 
all  the  leading  seaboard  engagements.  The 
Puget  Sound  Indian  troubles  called  him  thither 
1855-6  for  active  duty.  The  Civil  War  found 
him  in  command  of  the  steamer  South  Carolina, 
and  he  was  sent  to  the  Gulf  and  had  a  fight  at 
Galveston,  Tex. ;  later,  in  command  of  the  sloop- 
of-war  Richmond,  he  was  at  the  passage  of 
Forts  Jackson  and  St.  Philip  and  the  capture 
of  New  Orleans  and  Port  Hudson.  He  became 
captain  1863,  and  commanded  the  Brooklyn  in 
the  battle  of  Mobile  Bay  (August  1864)  and 
the  assaults  on  Fort  Fisher ;  commodore  1866, 
and  given  charge  of  the  Mare  Island  (Cal.) 
navy  yard  1868;  in  1869  made  chief  of  the 
bureau  of  navigation,  and  in  1871  promoted 
to  rear-admiral  and  assigned  to  command  of 
the  European  squadron.     He  was  retired  1873. 

Alden,  John,  of  the  Plymouth  colony:  b. 
England,  1599;  d.  Duxbury,  Mass.,  12  Sept. 
1687.  His  name  is  familiarized  by  Longfellow's 
poem  'The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish.'  He 
was  originally  a  cooper  of  Southampton,  was 
employed  in  making  repairs  on  the  Mayflower, 
and  came  over  in  her  with  the  Pilgrim  Fathers. 
By  some  accounts  he  was  the  first  to  step  ashore 
at  Plymouth.  He  married  Priscilla  Mullens: 
the  tradition  is  (as  used  by  Longfellow-)  that 
he  had  previously  pleaded  the  cause  of  Miles 
Standish.  He  was  for  over  50  years  a  colo- 
nial magistrate,  and  highly  esteemed  for  probity, 
sagacity,  and  resolution.  All  the  distinguished 
Aldens  of  the  United  States  are  his  descend- 
ants. 

Alden,  Timothy,  inventor:  b.  Barnstable, 
Mass.,  1819:  d.  December  1858.  He  was  one 
of  many  thousands  of  printers  who  have 
dreamed  of  inventing  type-setting  machines,  and 
of  hundreds  who  have  attempted  it.  He  labored 
on  one  from  1846  till  death,  a  horizontal  rotat- 
ing wheel  with  type-cells  on  its  circumference, 
making  receivers  rotate  with  it  to  pick  out  the 
type  at  the  proper  places.  His  brother  Henry 
W.  improved  the  machine  after  his  death. 

Alden,  William  Livingston,  American  hu- 
morous writer  and  journalist:  b.  Williamstown. 
Mass..  9  Oct.  1837.  He  introduced  the  sport  of 
canoeing  into  the  United  States.  He  was  for  a 
time  United  States  consul-general  at  Rome. 
Among  his  principal  writings  are  '  Domestic 
Explosives'  (1877);  <  Shooting  Stars  '  (1878); 
'The  Canoe  and  the  Flving  Proa'  (T878); 
'Moral  Pirates'  (1880):  'The  Comic  Liar' 
(  [882)  :  '  Cruise  of  the  Ghost  >  (1882)  :  <  Life 
of   Christopher    Columbus'     (1882);    'A    New 


ALDENHOVEN  — ALDINE    EDITIONS 


Robinson  Crusoe'  (1888),  etc.  Since  1900  he 
has  been  London  correspondent  of  the  New 
York  Times. 

Aldenhoven,  a  town  of  Prussia,  Rhine 
province;  12  111.  N.E.  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Here 
the  French,  in  1793,  under  Dumouriez,  were 
defeated  by  50,000  Austrian*  under  Prince  Josias 
of  Coburg,  and  were  prevented  from  making 
their  contemplated   invasion  of  Holland. 

Alder,  the  common  name  for  a  genus  of 
plants  (AInus),  of  the  order  Cupulifercc  (oak 
family).  In  the  eastern  United  States  it  is  a 
very  common  shrub,  branching  freely  from  the 
roots,  and  forming  dense  clumps  along  the 
banks  of  streams  and  in  other  wet  places.  On 
the  west  coast  it  often  attains  a  height  of  from 
40  to  60  feet  in  favorable  locations.  It  is  found 
in  temperate  and  cold  regions.  The  species 
familiar  in  England  has  a  wood  soft  and  light, 
but  very  durable  in  the  water,  and  therefore 
well  adapted  to  mill-work,  sluices,  piles  of 
bridges,  etc.  Its  bark  and  shoots  are  used  for 
dye,  and  its  branches  for  the  charcoal  employed 
in  making  gunpowder.  The  names  black,  red, 
and  white-alder  are  often  popularly  applied  to 
plants  of  other  orders. 

Alderman,  Edward  Sinclair,  American 
clergyman  and  educator:  b.  Wilmington,  N.  C, 
27  July  1861.  He  was  graduated  from  Wake 
Forest  College,  N.  C,  in  1883  and  the  Southern 
Baptist  Theological  Seminary  in  1886.  He  has 
held  Baptist  pastorates  in  Kentucky  and  has  been 
president  of  Bethel  College,  Ky.,  from   1898. 

Alderman,  Edwin  Anderson,  American  edu- 
cator: b.  Wilmington,  N,  C,  15  May  1861.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  North  Caro- 
lina: was  superintendent  of  the  public  schools  of 
Goldsboro,  N.  C,  1884-87 ;  assistant  state  super- 
intendent of  North  Carolina,  1889-92;  professor 
of  English  and  history  at  the  State  Normal  Col- 
lege, 1892-93 ;  professor  of  the  philosophy  of 
education  at  the  University  of  North  Carolina, 
1893-96;  president  of  the  latter  institution,  1896- 
1900;  president  of  Tulane  University,  1900- 
1904.  when  he  assumed  the  presidency  of  the 
University  of  Virginia.  He  has  been  active 
in  educational  work  in  the  Southern  States 
with  the  design  of  securing  better  schools  and 
the  increase  of  revenue  from  taxes  for  this 
purpose. 

Alderman,  a  title  pertaining  to  an  office  in 
the  municipal  corporations  of  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States.  In  the  United  States  the 
powers  and  duties  of  aldermen  differ  in  the 
various  States  and  cities.  As  a  rule  they  are 
elected  by  popular  vote  and  constitute  the  source 
of  municipal  legislation. 

Alderman  Lizard,  or  Chuckwalla,  nick- 
names in  California  for  a  fat-bodied  lizard  (q.v.). 

Al'derney  (  French  Aumgny),  an  island  be- 
longing to  Great  Britain,  on  the  coast  of  Nor- 
mandy, 10  m.  due  W.  of  Cape  La  Hogue,  and 
60  from  the  nearest  point  of  England,  the  most 
northerly  of  the  Channel  Islands.  It  is  about  4 
m.  long  and  l><j  broad,  having  an  area  of 
fully  3  sq.  m.  The  coast  is  bold  and  rocky, 
the  cliffs  in  many  places  rising  from  100  to 
200  feet  in  height.  In  the  interior  the  soil  is 
fertile,  producing  excellent  crops  of  corn  and 
potatoes.  About  a  third  of  the  island  is  occu- 
pied by  grass  lands ;  and  the  Alderney  cows  are 


famous  for  the  richness  of  their  milk.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild  and  healthy.  The  town  of  St. 
Anne  is  situated  111  a  beautiful  valley  near  the 
centre  of  the  island.  A  judge,  with  six  "ju- 
rats," chosen  by  the  people  for  life,  and  12 
"douzaniers."  representatives  of  the  people, 
form  a  kind  of  local  legislature;  but  the  judge 
and  jurats  alone  decide  upon  any  measure,  the 
douzaniers  having  only  a  deliberative  voice. 
The  French  language  still  continues  to  prevail 
among  the  inhabitants,  but  all  understand  and 
many  speak  English.  Alderney,  Guernsey,  Jer- 
sey, and  Sark  are  the  only  parts  of  the  Duchy 
of  Normandy  that  have  remained  under  the 
government  of  England  since  1456.  The  Race 
of  Alderney  is  a  name  given  to  the  strait  run- 
ning between  the  coast  of  France  and  this  island. 
Six  miles  northwest  from  Alderney  are  the 
Casquets,  a  cluster  of  rocks,  on  the  largest  of 
which  is  a  lighthouse  and  a  fog-bell.  Pop. 
(1901)   2,062. 

Aldershot,  Camp  at,  a  permanent  camp 
for  the  army  in  England,  commenced  in  1854 
by  the  purchase,  on  the  part  of  government,  of 
an  extensive  tract  of  moorland  known  by  the 
name  of  Aldershot  Heath,  lying  on  the  confines 
of  Surrey,  Hampshire,  and  Berkshire.  The  ob- 
ject was  to  accustom  the  officers  and  soldiers 
to  act  in  brigades  and  divisions,  and  to  familiar- 
ize them  with  the  operations  of  a  campaign  by 
accustoming  them  to  camp  life,  and  exercising 
them  in  all  the  evolutions  which  they  might  be 
required  to  perform  when  brought  into  actual 
contact  with  the  enemy.  The  Basingstoke  Canal 
divides  the  camp  into  a  North  and  a  South  Camp 
(otherwise  known  respectively  as  Marlborough 
and  Stanhope  Lines).  The  accommodation  pro- 
vided for  the  army  consisted  at  first  of  wooden 
huts  of  the  simplest  construction;  but  these 
have  been  superseded  by  brick  buildings,  and 
altogether  the  money  expended  on  the  camp  has 
amounted  to  upward  of  $20,000,000. 

A  town  has  sprung  up  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  camp,  immediately  beyond  the  govern- 
ment ground,  on  the  edge  of  which  the  camp  is 
established.  The  town  of  Aldershot  is  in 
Hampshire,  to  the  south  of  the  barracks.  It 
contains  several  churches,  hotels,  numerous 
shops,  and  offers  accommodation  of  various 
kinds,  good  and  bad,  to  the  soldiers:  thus  there 
are  schools,  newspapers,  missions,  literary  insti- 
tutes, music-halls,  public-houses,  etc.  Pop. 
(1901)  30,974   (including  military). 

Ald'helm,  an  Anglo-Saxon  scholar  and 
prelate,  bishop  of  Sherborne:  b.  640  (?);  d. 
709.  He  was  a  great  fosterer  of  learning  and 
builder  of  churches,  and  has  left  Latin  writings 
on  theological  subjects. 

Aldine  Editions,  the  books  printed  by 
Aldus  Manutius  and  his  family  in  Venice 
(1490-1597).  They  comprise  the  first  editions 
of  Greek  and  Roman  classics:  others  contain 
corrected  texts  of  modern  classic  writers,  as  of 
Petrarch,  Dante,  or  Boccaccio,  carefully  collated 
with  the  MSS.  All  of  them  arc  distinguished 
for  the  remarkable  correctness  of  the  typogra- 
phy ;  the  Greek  works,  however,  being  in  this 
respect  somewhat  inferior  to  the  Latin  and 
Italian.  The  editions  published  by  Aldo  Manu- 
zio  (1450-1515),  the  father,  form  an  epoch  in 
the  annals  of  printing,  as  they  contributed  in  no 
ordinary   measure    to   the   perfecting   of   types. 


EDWIN    ANDERSON    ALDERMAN 

PRESIDENT    OF    UNIVERSITY    OF    VIRGINIA 


ALDER. 


1.  Tip  of  Twig  with  Budding  Calkins  |  Alnus  dutinosak 

•2.  Male  Flowers. 

:;.  A  Single  Flower,  showing  Anthers. 

i.  Female  Fli  iwers 

5.  Stamens  of  Female  Flower. 


6.  Frail 

7.  Fruit  Case. 

i  mpty  Fruit  Case. 
9     Twig,  with  Three  Buds 
10.    Spray,  with  Fruit  i Alnus  incana) 


ALDOBRANDINI  —  ALDRICH 


No  one  had  ever  before  used  such  beautiful 
Greek  types,  of  which  he  got  nine  different  kinds 
made,  and  of  Latin  as  many  as  14.  It  is  to 
him,  or  rather  to  the  engraver,  Francesco  of 
Bologna,  that  we  owe  the  types  called  by  the 
Italians  Corsivi,  and  known  to  us  as  italics, 
which  he  used  for  the  first  time  in  the  octavo 
edition  of  ancient  and  modern  classics,  com- 
mencing with  Virgil  (1501).  Manuzio's  im- 
pressions on  parchment  are  exceedingly  beau- 
tiful ;  he  was  the  first  printer  who  introduced 
the  custom  of  taking  some  impressions  on  finer 
or  stronger  paper  than  the  rest  of  the  edition  — 
the  first  example  of  this  being  afforded  in  the 
'  Epistolae  Graecae  '  (1499).  From  1515  to  1533 
the  business  was  carried  on  by  his  father  and 
brothers-in-law,  Andrea  Torresano  of  Asola, 
and  his  two  sons  —  the  three  Asolani.  Paolo 
Manuzio  (1512-74),  Aldo's  son,  possessed  an 
enthusiasm  for  Latin  classics  equal  to  that  of 
his  father  for  Greek ;  and  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  the  younger  Aldo  (1547-97).  The 
printing  establishment  founded  by  Aldo  con- 
tinued in  active  operation  for  100  years,  and 
during  this  time  printed  908  different  works. 
The  distinguishing  mark  is  an  anchor,  entwined 
by  a  dolphin,  with  the  motto  either  of  "  Fcstina 
lente  »  or  of  "  Sudavit  ct  alsit.^  The  demand 
which  arose  for  editions  from  this  office,  and 
especially  for  the  earlier  ones,  induced  the 
printers  of  Lyons  and  Florence,  about  1502,  to 
hegin  the  system  of  issuing  counterfeit  Aldines. 
The  Aldo-mania  has  considerably  diminished  in 
later  times.  Among  the  Aldine  works  which 
have  now  become  very  rare  may  be  mentioned 
the  (  Horse  Beats  Maris  Virginis  '  of  1497.  the 
c  Virgil  '  of  1501,  and  the  '  Rhetores  Graeci,' 
not  to  mention  all  the  editions,  dated  and  un- 
dated, from  1490  to  1497,  which  are  now  ex- 
tremely rare.  See  Renouard's  '  Annales  de 
l'lmprimerie  des  Aides'  (1834),  a°d  Didot's 
<  Aide  Manuce>   (1873). 

Aldobrandi'ni,  the  name  of  a  Florentine 
family,  latterly  of  princely  rank  (now  extinct), 
which  produced  one  Pope  (Clement  VIII.)  and 
several  cardinals,  archbishops,  bishops,  and  men 
of  learning. 

Aldobrandini  Marriage,  an  ancient  fresco 
painting  belonging  probably  to  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, discovered  in  1606,  and  acquired  by 
Cardinal  Aldobrandini,  nephew  of  Clement 
VIII.,  now  in  the  Vatican.  It  represents  a 
marriage  scene  in  which  10  persons  are  por- 
trayed, and  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
precious  relics  of  ancient  art. 

Al'dred,  or  Ealdred,  Anglo-Saxon  prelate, 
bishop  of  Worcester  and  archbishop  of  York: 
b.  1000  (?);  d.  1069.  He  improved  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  Church  and  built  several  eccle- 
siastical edifices.  On  the  death  of  Edward  the 
Confessor  he  is  said  to  have  crowned  Harold. 
Having  submitted  to  the  Conqueror,  whose 
esteem  he  enjoyed  and  whose  power  he  made 
subservient  to  the  views  of  the  Church,  he  also 
crowned  him  as  well  as  Matilda. 

Aldrich,  Anne  Reeve,  American  poet  and 
novelist:  b.  Xew  York.  25  April  1866;  d.  there. 
22  June  1892.  She  wrote  '  The  Rose  of  Flame  ' 
(1889):  'The  Feet  of  Love,'  novel  (1800): 
'  Songs  about  Life,  Love,  and  Death  >  (post- 
humous, 1892).  Her  early  death  was  widely 
regretted  from  the  brilliant  promise  of  her  work, 


especially  in  poetry:  some  of  her  lyrics  of  pas- 
sion and  regret  are  among  the  most  perfect  of 
American  poetic  gems  in  symmetrical  art. 

Ald'rich,  Henry,  dean  of  Christchurch, 
Oxford:  b.  1647:  d.  1710.  He  was  distinguished 
as  a  writer  on  logic,  as  an  architect,  and  as  a 
musician.  His  '  Compendium  of  Logic  >  was 
a  text-book  till  quite  recently.  He  adapted 
many  of  the  works  of  the  older  musicians,  such 
as  Palestrina  and  Carissimi. 

Aldrich,  James,  American  poet:  b.  Matti- 
tuck,  L.  I.,  14  July  1810;  d.  New  York,  9  Sept. 
1856.  His  best  known  poem  is  '  The  Death- 
Bed,  '  an  imitation  of  Hood,  preserved  in  most 
anthologies. 

Aldrich,  Nelson  Wilmarth,  American  leg- 
islator: b.  Foster.  R.  I.,  6  Nov.  1841.  A  far- 
mer's lad,  with  district-school  education,  he  was 
clerk  in  a  store  from  about  12  to  16 ;  but,  nat- 
urally studious  and  with  a  strong  taste  for 
mathematics,  entered  the  East  Greenwich  Acad- 
emy in  1857,  and  after  graduation  took  a  posi- 
tion in  a  large  wholesale  house  in  Providence, 
where  he  soon  became  a  partner.  In  1862  he 
was  for  nine  months  on  garrison  duty  near 
Washington.  In  1869  he  was  elected  to  the 
Providence  Common  Council,  where  he  became 
a  leader  as  expert  in  finance  and  business,  and 
a  dextrous  manager  without  compromise  of 
right,  and  was  its  president  1871-3.  In  1875  he 
was  elected  to  the  legislature,  and  in  1876  was 
Speaker  of  its  House.  In  1878  he  was  sent  to 
Congress,  taking  his  seat  in  1879  (Forty-second 
Congress)  ;  re-elected  for  the  term  1881-3,  he 
resigned  in  i88t.  having  been  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate  on  the  4th  of  October, 
to  succeed  Gen.  Burnside,  and  has  been  three 
times  re-elected, —  in  1886,  1892,  and  1898,  prac- 
tically without  opposition  in  his  party.  Dur- 
ing more  than  20  years  he  has  been  known 
as  one  of  the  chief  Republican  leaders,  an  au- 
thority on  finance  and  political  economy,  and 
a  champion  of  protection ;  rarely  taking  part  in 
debate,  but  powerful  in  legislative  work,  a  mem- 
ber of  committees  on  civil  service  and  finance, 
and  chairman  of  the  committee  on  rules  for  the 
Fifty-fifth  Congress.  He  was  president  of  the 
Providence  Board  of  Trade  in  1878. 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  author:  b.  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  n  Nov.  1836.  Prepared  for 
Harvard,  but  his  father's  death  (1852)  prevent- 
ed a  college  career.  Held  editorial  positions  on 
the  New  York  Evening  Mirror  and  N.  P.  Willis' 
'Home  Journal'  till  1865.  Edited  'Every 
Saturday,'  Boston,  1865-74.  and  '  The  Atlantic 
Monthly,'  1881-90.  As  a  poet  he  combines  con- 
ciseness and  aptness  of  expression  with  a  facul- 
ty for  bringing  into  conjunction  subtly  con- 
trasted thoughts,  images,  or  feelings.  The  best 
of  his  short  stories  are  surpassed  by  no  other 
American  writer.  In  prose  and  verse  he  has 
ever  held  himself  to  the  highest  ideals  of  liter- 
ary art  and  workmanship.  His  best  known 
volumes  are,  in  verse,  'Cloth  of  Gold'  (1874")  ; 
'  Lyrics  and  Sonnets  '  (1880)  ;  <  Friar  Jerome's 
Beautiful  Book'  (1881) ;  'Ballad  of  Baby 
Bell'  (1856);  <  Wvndham  Towers'  (1800): 
'Unguarded  Gates  and  Other  Poems'  (1895); 
'  Mercedes,  a  Drama  '  (1883)  :  in  prose,  '  Story  of 
a  Bad  Bov  '  (1870)  :  '  Marjorie  Daw  and  Other 
People'  (1873)  :  '  Two  Bites  at  a  Cherry,  and 
Other  Tales  '  (1893)  ;  (  A  Sea  Turn  >   (1902). 


ALDRIDGE  — ALE 


Aldridge,  Ira  Frederick,  American  negro 
tragedian:  b.  ( ?)  ;  d.  Lodz,  Poland,  7  Aug. 
1807.  The  discrepancies  about  liis  birth  and 
training  are  monstrous,  and  indicate  invention 
on  one  side.  One  is  that  he  was  a  mulatto,  born 
near  Baltimore  about  1810.  who  picked  up  Ger- 
man from  immigrants,  became  Edmund  Kean's 
servant,  and  developed  stage  talent  under  him  in 
England,  returned  and  made  a  theatrical  failure 
in  Baltimore  1830-1,  then  went  back  to  England 
and  became  famous.  The  other  is  that  he  was 
son  of  a  full-blooded  negro  pastor  in  New  York 
city  (Greene  Street  Chapel),  an  immigrant 
Senegal  chieftain  converted  and  educated,  who 
sent  his  son  to  Glasgow  I'niversity  to  study  for 
the  same  profession,  despite  a  passion  for  the 
stage  justified  by  successful  amateur  perform- 
ances; but  the  boy  (at  this  point  the  stories 
coincide)  dropped  theology  and  made  his  debut 
at  the  Royal  Theatre  as  Othello.  He  took  at  once  ; 
and  Kean  made  him  Othello  to  his  Iago  in  Bel- 
fast. He  played  Shakespearean  roles  in  London 
till  1852,  regarded  as  an  excellent  interpreter  in 
all,  but  most  liked  in  color-parts,  such  as  Othel- 
lo, Aaron  in  '  Titus  Andronicus.'  Rolla,  Zanga, 
etc.  He  then  played  in  Brussels  and  Germany 
1852-5 ;  the  king  of  Sweden  invited  him  to 
Stockholm  in  1857.  The  Continent  ranked  him 
one  of  the  foremost  actors  of  the  age,  and  the 
greatest  sovereigns,  with  cities  like  Bern,  show- 
ered honors  and  decorations  on  him  and  made 
him  member  of  all  sorts  of  learned  societies. 
He  married  an  Englishwoman.  He  was  on  his 
way  to  an  engagement  in  St.  Petersburg  when 
he  died. 

Aldrovandi,  Ulisse,  Italian  naturalist:  b. 
Bologna,  11  Sept.  1522:  d.  10  May  1605.  He 
aroused  interest  in  the  natural  sciences  at  a 
time  when  they  had  been  long  neglected,  wrote 
profusely  on  natural  history  subjects,  estab- 
lished the  Botanical  Garden  of  Bologna,  and, 
through  his  legacy  to  the  Senate  of  Bologna  of 
his  collections,  left  behind  him  the  germ  of  the 
great  Bologna  Museum.  A  short  account  of  his 
life,  together  with  a  descriptive  list  of  his  pub- 
lished writings  and  manuscripts,  may  be  found  in 
'  Notizte  degli  Scrittori  Bolognesi,'  Vol.  I. 
(Bologna  1781).  He  was  the  first  to  collect  an 
herbarium,  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word. 
He  traveled  widely,  collecting  plants  and  ani- 
mals, and  preparing  himself  to  write  a  great 
work  on  the  animal  life  of  the  world.  Of  this 
work  four  volumes  on  ornithology  and  one  on 
mollusks  were  issued  before  his  death,  and  10 
others,  prepared  by  him  from  his  material,  were 
brought  out  afterward  by  his  pupils  and  friends. 
Many  of  his  manuscripts  and  drawings  were 
preserved  unpublished  in  the  library  of  Bo- 
logna. 

Ale  and  Beer,  well  known  and  extensively 
used  fermented  liquors,  the  best  of  which  is 
prepared  from  barley  after  it  has  undergone  the 
process  termed  malting.  Beer  is  a  more  gen- 
eral term  than  ale.  being  often  used  for  any 
kind  of  fermented  malt  liquor,  including  porter, 
though  it  is  also  used  in  a  more  special  sig- 
nification. "  The  numerous  varieties  of  malt 
liquors  met  with  in  commerce  may  be  resolved 
into  three  great  classes  —  ale,  beer,  porter.  Ale, 
as  the  term  is  generally  understood,  is  a  pale 
liquor  brewed  from  lightly-dried  malt,  and 
abounding  more  or  less  in  undecomposed  sac- 


charine matter  and  mucilage  and  the  bitter  and 
fragrant  principles  of  the  hop ;  characteristics 
which,  however,  it  more  or  less  loses  by  ma- 
turation and  age.  Beer  is  a  fine,  strong,  well- 
fermented  liquor,  darker,  less  saccharine,  and 
more  alcoholic  than  ordinary  ale.  Porter  is  a 
dark-brown  colored  liquor,  originally  brewed 
from  high-dried  malt,  but  now  generally  made 
from  pale  malt,  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
patent  or  roasted  malt  to  imparl  the  necessary 
color  and  flavor.  Stout,  brown  stout,  etc.,  arc 
mere  varieties  of  porter,  differing  from  that 
liquor  only  in  their  superior  strength  and  qual- 
ity. East  India  ale,  bitter  ale,  etc.,  of  the  great 
brewers,  are  beverages  which  combine  the  pale 
color  and  fragrant  bitter  of  ale  (the  latter 
usually  in  undue  excess)  with  the  '  dryness  ' 
and  maturity  of  beer.  Table-ale  or  table-beer 
is  a  weak  liquor,  commonly  containing  three 
or  four  times  the  proportion  of  water  usually 
present  in  ordinary  beer  or  ale.  In  London 
porter  is  called  beer,  and  indeed  in  all  parts  of 
the  kingdom  the  prevailing  beverage  of  this  kind 
consumed  by  the  masses,  of  whatever  class, 
commonly  goes  by  the  name  of  beer.  The  three 
great  classes  of  malt  liquor  above  referred  to 
are,  independent  of  mere  differences  of  strength, 
excellence,  and  commercial  value,  practically 
subdivided  into  an  almost  infinite  number  of  va- 
rieties. Every  county,  every  town,  and  almost 
every  brewer  is  distinguished  by  the  production 
of  a  different  flavored  beer,  readily  perceived 
and  highly  appreciated  by  their  respective  vo- 
taries" (Cyclopaedia  of  Practical  Receipts). 
These  differences  depend  chiefly  on  the  quality 
of  the  materials  and  the  varying  proportions 
in  which  they  are  employed,  the  temperature  of 
the  water  used  for  mashing,  the  length  of  time 
the  mash  is  boiled,  the  temperature  at  which 
fermentation  is  effected,  and  the  extent  to  which 
it  is  allowed  to  proceed.  The  color  of  the  beer 
depends  on  the  color  of  the  malt  and  the  length 
of  time  occupied  by  the  boiling.  The  pale  ale 
is  made  from  malt  dried  by  steam  or  in  the 
sun;  the  deep-yellow  ale,  from  a  mixture  of 
pale,  yellow,  and  brown  malt  ;  and  the  dark- 
brown  beer  from  malt  that  has  been  highly 
dried  in  the  kiln  and  partly  carbonized,  mixed 
with  the  paler  sorts.  Besides  being  made  from 
barley,  maize,  wheat,  and  other  grains.  Inn 
may  be  manufactured  from  a  good  many  other 
amylaceous  and  saccharine  substances,  such  as 
beet-root,  potatoes,  turnips,  beans,  cane-syrup, 
molasses,  etc..  but  the  best  is  that  made  from 
barley-malt.  Some  of  these  substances  are  ex- 
tensively employed  in  Germany,  which  has  been 
celebrated  as  a  beer-drinking  country  from  the 
earliest  times.  Many  different  kinds  of  beer  are 
there  made,  among  the  most  important  being 
the  Bavarian  summer  or  lager  (that  is,  store) 
beer,  and  winter  beer,  the  Bavarian  bock  beer, 
Berlin  white  beer,  wheat  lager  beer,  Broyhan 
beer  (Hanover).  Merseburg  brown  beer,  etc. 
The  Bavarian  beer  possesses  excellent  qualities, 
and  is  distinguished  from  most  of  the  beers  of 
Germany  and  other  countries  by  the  valuable 
property  of  not  turning  sour  on  exposure  to 
the  air,  so  that  it  can  be  preserved  in  half-full 
casks  equally  well  as  in  full  ones.  This 
quality  it  owes  to  the  way  in  which  it  is  fer- 
mented, this  being  done  by  the  untergdhrung 
process,  or  process  of  fermentation  from  below. 
The  malt-wort  is  set  to  ferment  in  open  backs 


ALEMANNI  —  ALESSANDRIA 


with  an  extensive  surface  and  placed  in  cold 
cellars  with  a  temperature  not  higher  than  46^2° 
to  50°.  The  operation  lasts  three  or  four  weeks, 
and  the  wort,  instead  of  showing  a  large  head 
of  froth,  is  scarcely  covered  with  any,  the  yeast 
sinking  to  the  bottom  in  the  form  of  a  viscid 
sediment  called  the  unterhefc,  or  bottom-yeast. 
This  bottom-yeast  is  a  different  substance  from 
the  precipitate  which  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the 
backs  in  the  ordinary  fermentation  of  beer.  The 
summer  or  lager  beer  is  brewed  in  the  coldest 
months  of  the  year,  namely  December,  January, 
and  February,  and  is  stored  up  in  air-tight 
cellars.  The  winter  beer  is  intended  for  almost 
immediate  consumption,  and  is  hence  called 
schenk  (that  is,  pot  or  draught)  beer.  It  is 
rather  weaker  than  the  summer  beer.  The  Ba- 
varian bock  beer  is  a  double-strength  beverage 
of  the  best  lager  description,  with  a  somewhat 
darker  color  than  the  ordinary  lager  beer  and  a 
sweeter  taste.  Berlin  white  or  pale  beer 
(wcissbier)  is  brewed  from  one  part  of  barley 
malt  and  five  parts  of  wheat  malt. 

The  manufacture  of  ale  or  beer  is  of  very 
high  antiquity.  Herodotus  ascribes  the  inven- 
tion of  brewing  to  Isis,  and  tells  us  that  the 
Egyptians  drank  a  liquor  which  they  called 
zuthos,  fermented  from  barley.  Ale  or  beer 
was  never  used  to  a  great  extent  in  Greece  or 
Italy,  partly  owing,  no  doubt,  to  the  abundance 
of  wine  in  these  countries.  Xenophon,  in  his 
'Anabasis,'  mentions  it  as  being  used  among 
the  inhabitants  of  Armenia,  and  the  Gauls  were 
also  acquainted  with  it  in  early  times.  Ale  or 
beer  was  in  common  use  in  Germany  in  the  time 
of  Tacitus.  "All  the  nations,"  says  Pliny,  "who 
inhabit  the  west  of  Europe  have  a  liquor  with 
which  they  intoxicate  themselves,  made  of  corn 
and  water  (fruge  inadida).  The  manner  of 
making  this  liquor  is  somewhat  different  in 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  other  countries,  and  it  is  called 
by  many  various  names ;  but  its  nature  and 
properties  are  everywhere  the  same.  The  peo- 
ple' of  Spain,  in  particular,  brew  this  liquor  so 
well  that  it  will  keep  good  for  a  long  time.  So 
exquisite  is  the  ingenuity  of  mankind  in  grati- 
fying their  vicious  appetites  that  they  have  thus 
invented  a  method  to  make  water  itself  intox- 
icate." Our  Teutonic  ancestors  would  of  course 
bring  with  them  from  the  Continent  their  na- 
tional beverage,  and  accordingly  we  find  ale 
mentioned  in  English  history  in  very  early  times. 
It  is  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of 
Wessex  (680),  and  ale-bootl.s  were  regulated 
by  law  in  728.  It  was  customary  in  the  reigns 
of  the  Norman  princes  to  regulate  the  price  of 
ale,  and  a  statute  passed  in  1272  enacted  that 
a  brewer  should  be  allowed  to  sell  two  gallons 
of  ale  for  a  penny  in  cities,  and  three  or  four 
gallons  for  the  same  price  in  the  country.  The 
use  of  hops  in  the  manufacture  of  ale  and  beer 
seems  to  have  been  a  German  invention,  and 
the  name  beer  appears  to  have  come  from  Ger- 
many to  England  with  this  practice  (1524),  after 
which  "beer"  and  "ale"  were  used  respectively 
for  the  hopped  and  the  unhopped  liquor.  In 
1552  hop  plantations  had  begun  to  be  formed 
in  England.  Ale-houses  were  first  licensed  in 
1621,  and  in  Charles  II.'s  reign  duties  amount- 
ing to  2s.  6d.  a  barrel  on  strong,  and  to  6d.  on 
small  ale  or  beer,  were  imposed  for  the  first 
time  (1660).  From  that  time  up  to  1830.  when 
it  was  entirely  repealed,  though  the  malt-tax  re- 


mained, the  duty  on  the  barrel  of  strong  beer 
varied,  being  in  1804  as  high  as  10s.  Up  to 
1823  beer  was  classed  into  strong  beer  and  small 
beer,  the  former  being  beer  of  the  value  of  16s. 
and  upward  the  barrel,  the  latter  beer  below  this 
value.     See  also  Brewing. 

Alemanni.      See  Alamanxi. 

Aleardi,  Gaetano,  Italian  poet  and  patriot: 
b.  Verona  4  Nov.  1812;  d.  there  17  Julv  1878. 
From  his  boyhood  he  was  devoted  to  the  study 
of  political  and  social  questions,  and  was  so 
active  in  the  insurrection  in  Venetia  (1848-9.) 
that  he  was  twice  imprisoned  by  the  Austrians. 
As  a  poet  he  has  always  been  popular  in  Italy, 
and  many  editions  of  his  works  have  been  pub- 
lished. 

Alembert,  Jean  le  Rond  d',  a  French 
mathematician  and  philosopher:  b.  Paris  16 
Nov.  1717;  d.  there  29  Oct.  1783.  The  illegit- 
imate child  of  Chevalier  Destouches-Canon  and 
the  celebrated  Madame  de  Tencin,  sister  of  the 
archbishop  of  Lyons,  he  was  abandoned  in  in- 
fancy near  the  church  of  St.  Jean  de  Rond,  a 
fact  from  which  his  Christian  name  was  derived. 
After  he  had  attained  eminence  his  father  rec- 
ognized him  and  gave  him  a  pension.  While 
still  very  young  he  displayed  such  precocity  of 
talent  that  he  was  placed  in  the  College  Mazarin, 
where  he  became  deeply  interested  in  mathe- 
matics and  philosophy,  and,  in  fact,  while  he 
attempted  to  study  both  medicine  and  law,  his 
inability  to  turn  his  mind  to  either  of  these  pro- 
fessions determined  him  to  become  a  mathema- 
tician. In  1740.  he  was  admitted  to  membership 
in  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and,  a  year  later, 
he  published  his  celebrated  < Treatise  on  Dy- 
namics.' Other  scientific  work  followed  rap- 
idly, and  in  1750  he  became  associated  with 
Diderot  in  the  publication  of  the  'Encyclopedia,' 
for  which  he  wrote  the  introduction,  the  article 
on  mathematics,  and  many  of  the  biographies. 
In  1754  he  became  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  in  1772,  having  declined  several 
pressing  invitations  to  become  royal  tutor  at  the 
court  of  Russia,  he  was  elected  perpetual  sec- 
retary of  the  Academy.  His  'Elements  of  Phi- 
losophy,' in  which  he  followed  the  principles  of 
Locke  to  their  ultimate  conclusion,  both  in 
skepticism  and  materialism,  had  appeared  in 
1759.  Two  editions  of  his  works  have  been 
published:  Paris,  1805,  18  vols.  8vo.,  and  Paris, 
182 1,  S  vols.    8vo. 

Alencar,  Jose  Martiniano  de,  celebrated 
Brazilian  jurist  and  novelist:  b.  Ceara  1  May 
[829;  d.  Rio  de  Janeiro  12  Dec.  1877.  Although 
prominent  in  his  profession  he  is  best  known  as 
a  writer  of  fiction,  his  most  popular  works  being 
'O  Sertancjo,'  'Iracema.'  and  'O  Guarany,' 
all  of  which  are  stories  of  local  Indian  and 
colonial  life. 

Alessandria,  Armistice  of,  the  armistice 
under  which  the  Austrian  general,  Melas,  re- 
tired' after  the  celebrated  battle  of  Marengo.  16 
June  1800.  By  this  act  Gen.  Mela-  abandoned 
to  Napoleon  every  fortification  in  northern  Italy 
west  of  the  Minc'io,  a  result  which,  according  to 
the  opinions  of  the  historians,  was  a  more  seri- 
ous blow  to  the  Austrian  cause  than  an  uncon- 
ditional surrender  would  have  been. 


ALESUND  —  ALEXANDER 


Alesund,  a  town  on  the  western  coast  of 
Norway.  Its  chief  industry  is  codfishing.  Pop. 
about   12,000. 

Aletia.    See  Cotton  [nsei  i  Pests. 
Aleurone,  a  substance  rich  in  nitrogen,  found 
in  the  cells  of  seeds.     In  the  legumes  it  is  found 

imbedded  in  the  grains  of  starch,  but  in  grains  it 
constitutes  the  inner  nodule.  It  is  sometimes 
called  gluten  (q.v.). 

Aleu'tian  Islands,  a  chain  of  about  80 
small  islands  belonging  to  Alaska  Territory, 
separating  the  sea  of  Kamchatka  from  the 
northern  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  extend- 
ing nearly  1,(00  miles  from  east  to  west  be- 
tween Ion.  172°  E.  and  i(>3°  W. ;  total  area, 
6,391  sq.  111.  Pop.  (1900),  about  2,500.  They 
are  of  volcanic  formation,  and  in  a  number  of 
them  there  are  volcanoes  still  in  activity.  '1  heir 
general  appearance  is  dismal  and  barren,  yet 
grassy  valleys  capable  of  supporting  cattle 
throughout  the  year  are  nut  with,  and  potatoes, 
turnips,  and  other  vegetables  arc  successfully 
cultivated.  They  afford  also  an  abundance  of 
valuable  fur  and  of  fish.  The  natives  belong 
to  the  same  stock  with  those  of  Kamchatka. 
They  are  a  strong  hardy  race,  capable  of  endur- 
ing extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  They  are  nom- 
inally Christianized,  and  are  connected  with  the 
Greek  Church  of  Russia.    See  Alaska. 

Alewife  (possibly  from  aloofe,  its  Indian 
name),  a  small  anadromous  fish  {Pomolobus 
pscudoharengus)  found  abundantly  along  the 
cast  coast  of  the  United  States,  except  at  the 
extreme  north  and  south.  Somewhat  earlier  in 
the  spring  than  its  relatives,  it  goes  up  the  riv- 
ers in  multitudes  to  spawn.  The  eggs,  which 
are  voided  in  vast  quantities,  sink  to  the  bot- 
tom and  stick  to  rocks,  etc.  It  is  closely  allied 
to  both  the  herring  and  the  shad,  but  it  most 
resembles  the  shad  in  shape  and  color,  though 
it  is  only  from  8  to  10  inches  long.  It  is  less 
esteemed  for  its  quality  than  the  shad,  but  is  of 
great  importance  as  a  food  fish,  and  is  taken  by 
millions  annually.  This  fish  is  called  «  gas- 
pereau »  in  St.  Lawrence  Bay,  and  « branch 
herring »  and  «  sawbelly »  locally  elsewhere ; 
but  the  «  alewife  »  of  Bermuda  is  an  entirely 
different  fish,  the  round  pompano. 

Alexander,  a  name  of  various  ancient 
writers,  philosophers,  etc.  (1)  Alexander  of 
.Egae;  a  peripatetic  philosopher  of  the  1st  cen- 
tury a.d.  :  tutor  of  Nero.  (2)  Alexander  the 
.Etolian:  a  Greek  poet  who  lived  at  Alexandria 
about  285-247  B.C.,  reckoned  as  one  of  the  seven 
poets  constituting  the  tragic  pleiad.  (3)  Al- 
exander of  Aphrodisias,  surnamed  Exegetes; 
lived  about  200  a.d.;  a  learned  commentator  on 
the  works  of  Aristotle.  (4)  Alexander  Corne- 
lius, surnamed  Polyhistor,  of  the  1st  century 
B.C.  He  was  made  prisoner  during  the  war  of 
Sulla  in  Greece  and  sold  as  a  slave  to  Corne- 
lius Lentulus,  who  took  him  to  Rome,  made 
him  the  teacher  of  his  children,  and  restored 
him  to  freedom.  The  surname  Polyhistor  was 
given  him  on  account  of  his  prodigious  learn- 
ing. The  most  important  of  his  voluminous 
works  was  one  in  42  books,  containing  histori- 
cal and  geographical  accounts  of  nearly  all  the 
countries  in  the  ancient  world.  (5)  A  Greek 
rhetorician  and  poet,  surnamed  Lychnus ;  lived 
about  30  B.C.,  wrote  astronomical  and  geo- 
graphical   poems.     (6)  Alexander   Numenius  ; 


a  Greek  rhetorician  and  teacher  of  elocution, 
of  the  zd  century  a.d..  two  of  whose  works  are 
historically  known.  (7)  ALEXANDER  the  Paph- 
lagonian  ;  a  celebrated  impostor  who  lived  about 
the  beginning  of  the  2d  century  a.d.,  obtained  a 
great  influence  with  the  people  as  an  oracle; 
pretended  to  be  .Esculapuis  reappeared.  Lu- 
cian  chiefly  has  made  him  known  to  us.  (8) 
A  Greek  rhetorician  of  the  2d  century  ,\.i>. .  sur- 
named Peloplaton,  who  vanquished  Herodes 
Aniens  in  a  rhetorical  contest.  (9)  Alexan- 
der Phii.alethes;  a  physician  of  the  1st  cen- 
tury B.C.,  who  succeeded  Zeuxis  as  president  of 
the  famous  Herophilean  school  of  medicine, 
(10)  Saint  Alexander  (d.  326  a.d.);  the  Pa- 
li iarch  of  Alexandria  from  312  a.d.;  an  oppo- 
nent of  Arius;  member  of  the  Council  of  Nice 
(325  a.d. )  ;  commemorated  in  the  calendar  26 
February.  Ill)  ALEXANDER  of  Trallcs;  an  emi- 
nent physician  of  Lydia,  of  the  Oth  century  a.d.  ; 
author  of  two  extant  Greek  works. 

Alexander,  the  name  of  eight  Popes. 

1.  Alexander  I.,  bishop  of  Rome  about  109 
a.d.,  recorded  on  the  list  of  Popes  by  all  the 
chronicles  except  Optatus  Mllevitanus.  He 
continued,  some  say  introduced,  the  rite  of  using 
unleavened  bread  for  the  Eucharist,  of  blessing 
water  with  salt,  and  certain  rubrics  in  the  mass. 
He  died   a   martyr's   death. 

2.  Alexander  II.,  Anselmo  Baggio,  a  na- 
tive of  Milan;  he  lived  for  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Henry  III.,  and  in  1056  or  1057  became 
Bishop  of  Lucca.  In  1059  In-  became  papal 
legate  at  Milan,  and,  1  Oct.  1061,  through  the 
zeal  of  Hildehrand.  he  was  raised  to  the  papal 
throne,  consequently  the  imperial  party  elected 
Bishop  Cadalovis  of  Parma,  a  rival  Pope,  as 
Honorius  II.  Alexander  was  driven  by  him  in 
1062  from  the  vicinity  of  Rome.  He  then 
withdrew  to  Lucca,  and  on  the  decision  of  the 
contest  by  Bishop  Burchard  of  Halberstadt  he 
was  sent  by  the  German  court  to  Italy  and  rec- 
ognized as  Pope.  At  the  Council  of  Mantua 
in  1604,  with  the  assistance  of  Anno  of  Cologne, 
he  got  possession  of  Rome  against  his  rival. 
His  reign,  under  the  influence  of  Hildehrand, 
carried  out  the  reform  of  the  churches  and  their 
emancipation  from  secular  control.  When 
Henry  IV.  wished  a  divorce  from  his  wife  Ber- 
tha, Alexander,  through  his  legate,  Cardinal 
Pietros  Damiana,  decided  against  him  and  sum- 
moned the  king  to  Rome  to  answer  for  his 
crimes,  but  shortly  after  he  died,  21  April  1073. 

3.  Alexander  HI.  (d.  1181),  Rolando 
Raiiuci ;  Pope,  1150-81.  His  career  is  histori- 
cally important  because  of  his  vigorous  pros- 
ecution, in  opposition  to  Frederick  Barbarossa, 
of  the  policies  begun  by  Hildehrand.  Three 
anti-Popes,  Victor  IV.,  Pascal  III.,  and  Calix- 
tus  III.,  had  been  confirmed  in  succession  ty 
the  emperor.  Alexander  succeeded,  and  after 
the  decisive  victory'  at  Lcgnanc  compelled  Fred- 
erick's submission.  The  papal  struggle  was 
carried  on  in  England  by  Thomas  a  Becket,  end- 
ing in  a  victory  for  Alexander.  William  the 
Lion,  of  Scotland,  was  excommunicated  for 
opposing  him.  Important  decrees  were  issued 
by  Alexander  III.,  safeguarding  ecclesiastical 
powers  and  privileges. 

4.  Alexander  IV.,  Pope  1254-61 ;  a  man  of 
great  gifts,  which,  however,  were  of  little  avail 
in  his  unfortunate  times.     His  administration  is 


ALEXANDER 


signalized  by  attempts  to  unite  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Churches,  and  the  establishment  of  the 
Inquisition  in  France  (1255).  He  was  the 
nephew  of  Gregory  IX.  In  his  battle  with  Man- 
fred of  Sicily,  he  suffered  bitter  humiliations 
and,  deserted  by  his  bishops,  was  obliged  to  es- 
cape from  Rome.     He  died  in  Viterbo   in  1 261. 

5.  Alexander  V.,  Pietro  Philargi,  of  Can- 
dia.  He  was  for  some  time  professor  in  Paris, 
and  in  1402  was  made  Archbishop  of  Milan,  and 
in  1404  cardinal.  In  1409,  after  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  rival  Popes,  Gregory  XII.  and  Ben- 
edict XIII.,  he  was  elected  Pope  by  the  cardinals 
at  the  Council  of  Pisa,  but  was  recognized 
by  only  a  part  of  Christendom.  He  forbade 
the  teaching  of  Wyclif  in  Bohemia,  and  prohib- 
ited Huss  from  preaching  even  in  private  chap- 
els. He  died  at  the  age  of  70,  and  it  was  sup- 
posed by  some,  though  without  foundation,  that 
he  was  poisoned  by  his  successor,  Balthasar 
Cossa   (Pope  John  XXIIL). 

6.  Alexander  VI.,  Roderick  Llangol,  was 
born  at  Cativa,  in  the  diocese  of  Valencia,  in 
Spain.  1  Jan.  143 1.  He  assumed  the  name  Bor- 
gia when  his  uncle  of  that  name  became  Pope 
as  Calixtus  III.  After  studying  law  he  en- 
tered the  papal  court  and  was  advanced  rap- 
idly, becoming  commendatory  archbishop  of 
Valencia,  cardinal  deacon,  and  vice-chancellor 
of  the  Church  in  Rome.  Appointed  cardinal- 
bishop  of  Albano  in  1476,  he  was  ordained 
priest  in  that  year.  By  the  unanimous  consent 
of  the  cardinal  electors  he  was  crowned  Pope 
11  Aug.  1492.  His  administration  was  a  re- 
markable one.  He  cleared  Rome  of  the  ban- 
dits who  had  infested  the  city ;  held  court  every 
Wednesday ;  established  the  Congregation  of 
the  Index  for  the  censorship  of  books:  re- 
pressed the  insolence  and  rapacity  of  the  Roman 
nobility ;  put  a  stop  to  the  falsification  of  ec- 
clesiastical documents;  drew  up  measures  for 
the  reformation  of  ecclesiastical  discipline;  co- 
operated with  European  rulers  in  their  projects 
against  the  inroads  of  the  Saracens;  effected 
peace  between  the  kings  of  Spain  and  Portugal 
by  repartitioning  between  them  their  discoveries 
in  tlie  Xew  World ;  provided  missionaries  for 
preaching  the  gospel  in  newly  explored  coun- 
tries; approved  and  confirmed  several  religious 
congregations;  restored  discipline  in  the  Church 
in  Flanders ;  suppressed  magic  in  Germany  and 
Bohemia;  popularized  the  custom  introduced  by 
Calixtus  III.  of  saying  the  Angelus  at  mid- 
day ;  encouraged  arts,  particularly  painting  and 
literature ;  put  an  end  to  the  famines  which  had 
so  often  visited  Rome ;  and  issued  many  noted 
bulls,  letters,  and  other  papal  documents,  which 
alone  show  that  he  was  a  man  of  extraordi- 
nary genius  and  power. 

He  is  charged  by  historians  like  Guicciardini 
and  Burchard  and  more  modern  writers  who 
follow  them,  of  licentiousness  before  his  ordina- 
tion to  the  priesthood,  of  simony,  nepotism,  and 
cruelty  as  Pope.  It  is  difficult  to  reconcile  all 
the  crimes  attributed  to  him  with  his  high  qual- 
ities and  distinguished  deeds.  Of  late  years 
the  tendency  of  moderate  historians  is  to  ex- 
onerate him  from  many  extreme  charges,  to 
extenuate  the  faults  of  his  youth,  and  cast 
doubt  on  the  serious  accusations  brought 
against  him  as  Pope. 

7.  Alexander  VII.,  Fabio  Chigi.  of  Siena, 
was  durine  the  treaties  of  peace  at  Miinster  and 


Osnabriick,  papal  nuncio  in  Germany.  He  was 
chosen  Pope  7  April  1665,  through  the  influence 
of  France.  In  1161,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of 
the  Jansenists,  he  confirmed  the  condemnation 
of  the  five  Jansenist  dogmas  which  had  been 
condemned  by  his  predecessor,  Innocent  X. 
Later  he  fell  into  controversy  with  Louis  XIV. 
During  his  rule  Rome  was  beautified  in  many 
directions,  especially  by  the  colonnade  before 
St.  Peter's.  He  was  himself  a  poet  and  friend 
of  the  arts  and  sciences.  A  collection  of  his 
poems  appeared  in  1656. 

8.  Alexander  VIII.  (1610-91),  Pietro  Ot- 
toboni,  of  Venice ;  Pope  1689-91 ;  assisted 
Italy  in  wars  against  the  Turks.  Through  the 
purchase  of  the  library  of  Queen  Christina  of 
Sweden  he  enriched  the  Vatican  with  1.900 
precious  manuscripts.  The  collection  is  known 
as  the  Ottobonian  Library. 

Cambridge  •  Modern  History,'  Vol.  I. ; 
Hefele,  '  History  of  the  Councils  *  ;  Parsons, 
1  Studies  in  Church  History  '  ;  Pastor,  '  His- 
tory of  the  Popes.' 

Alexander  I.,  emperor  of  Russia,  son  of 
Paul  I.  and  Maria,  daughter  of  Prince  Eu- 
gene of  Wurtemberg:  b.  23  Dec.  1777;  d.  I 
Dec.  1825.  On  the  assassination  of  his  father, 
24  March  1801,  Alexander  ascended  the 
throne,  and  soon  after  a  ukase  was  published 
for  diminishing  the  taxes,  liberating  debtors, 
etc.  One  of  the  first  acts  of  his  reign  was  to 
conclude  peace  with  Great  Britain,  against 
which  his  predecessor  had  declared  war.  In 
1803  he  offered  his  services  as  mediator  between 
England  and  France,  and  two  years  later  a 
convention  was  entered  into  between  Russia, 
England,  Austria  and  Sweden  for  the  purpose 
of  resisting  the  encroachments  of  France  on 
the  territories  of  independent  states.  He  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  Austerlitz  (2  Dec. 
1805),  when  the  combined  armies  of  Russia  and 
Austria  wrere  defeated  by  Napoleon.  Alexander 
was  compelled  to  retreat  to  his  dominions  at 
the  head  of  the  remains  of  his  army.  In  the 
succeeding  campaign  the  Russians  were  again 
beaten  at  Eylau  (8  Feb.  1807),  and  Friedland 
(14  June),  the  result  of  which  was  an  interview 
a  few  days  after  the  battle,  on  a  raft  anchored 
in  the  Niemen,  between  Alexander  and  Na- 
poleon, which  led  to  the  treaty  signed  at  Tilsit, 
7  July.  The  Russian  emperor  now  for  a  time 
identified  himself  with  the  Napoleonic  schemes. 
The  seizure  of  the  Danish  fleet  by  the  British 
brought  about  a  declaration  of  war  by  Russia 
against  Great  Britain  and  Sweden,  and  Alexan- 
der invaded  Finland  and  conquered  that  long- 
coveted  duchy,  which  was  secured  to  him  by 
the  peace  of  Friedrichshamn  (1809).  In  1809- 
12  war  was  carried  on  against  Turkey.  The 
French  alliance,  however,  he  found  to  be  too 
oppressive,  and  his  having  separated  himself 
from  Napoleon  led  to  the  French  invasion  of 
1812.  In  1813  he  published  the  famous  mani- 
festo which  served  as  the  basis  of  the  coalition 
of  the  other  European  powers  against  France. 
After  the  battle  of  Waterloo.  Alexander,  accom- 
panied by  the  emperor  of  Austria  and  the 
king  of  Prussia,  made  his  second  entrance  into 
Paris,  where  they  concluded  (26  Sept.  1815), 
the  treaty  known  as  the  Holy  Alliance.  The  re- 
maining part  of  his  reign  was  chiefly  taken  up 
in    measures   of   internal    reform,   including  the 


ALEXANDER 


gradual  abolition  of  serfdom,  and  the  promo- 
tion of  education,  agriculture,  commerce,  and 
manufactures, 

Alexander  II.,  emperor  of  Russia:  b.  29 
April  [818;  succeeded  his  father  Nicholas  in 
1855,  before  the  end  of  the  Crimean  war. 
After  peace  was  concluded  the  new  emperor 
sel  about  effecting  reforms  in  the  empire,  among 
the  first  heing  the  putting  of  the  finances  in 
order.  The  greatest  of  all  the  reforms  carried 
out  by  him  was  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs 
by  a  decree  of  2  March  1861.  The  czar  also 
did  much  to  improve  education  in  the  empire 
and   introduced  a  reorganization  of  the  judicial 

•  in  I  luring  his  reign  the  Russian  domin- 
ions in  central  Asia  were  considerably  extended, 
while  to  the  European  portion  of  the  mon- 
archy was  added  a  piece  of  territory  south  of 
the  Caucasus,  formerly  belonging  to  Turkey 
in  Asia.  A  part  of  Bessarabia,  belonging  since 
the  Crimean  war  to  Turkey  in  Europe,  but 
previously  to  Russia,  was  also  restored  to  the 
latter  power.  The  latter  additions  resulted  from 
the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-8.  in  which 
the  Turks  were  completely  defeated,  the  Rus- 
sian troops  advancing  almost  to  the  gates  of 
Constantinople.  Toward  the  end  of  the  czar's 
life  several  attempts  at  his  assassination  were 
made  by  Nihilists,  and  at  last  he  was  killed 
by  an  explosive  missile  Hung  at  him  in  a  street 
in  St.  Petersburg.  [3  March  1881.  He  was 
succeeded    by   his    son,    Alexander    III. 

Alexander  III.,  emperor  of  Russia,  son  of 
Alexander  II.;  b.  10  March  1845;  d.  I.ivadia, 
I  Nov.  1804.  lie  married  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Denmark  in  1866.  After  his  father's 
death,  through  fear  of  assassination,  he  shut 
himself  up  in  his  palace  at  Gatschina.  His 
coronation  was  postponed  till  1883.  and  was  cel- 
ebrated with  extraordinary  magnificence,  and 
with  national  festivities  lasting  several  days. 
Through  the  fall  of  Merv,  the  subjugation  of 
the  Turkomans  in  central  Asia  was  completed. 
In  1885  hostilities  with  England  with  regard  to 
the  defining  of  the  frontier  between  the  Rus- 
sian territories  and  Afghanistan  for  a  time 
seemed  imminent.  In  European  affairs  he 
broke  away  from  the  triple  alliance  between 
Russia,  Germany,  and  Austria,  and  looked 
rather  to  France.  He  was  aggrieved  by  the 
new  Bulgarian  spirit.  His  home  policy  was 
reactionary,  though  strong  efforts  were  made 
to  prevent  malversation  by  officials,  and  stern 
economics  were  practised.  The  liberties  of  the 
Baltic  provinces  and  of  Finland  were  curtailed. 
the  Jews  were  oppressed,  ami  old  Russian 
orthodoxy  was  favored.  Several  Nihilist  at- 
tempts were  made  on  bis  life,  and  throughout  his 
reign  he  kept  himself  practically  a  prisoner  in  his 
palace. 

Alexander  I.,  king  of  Scotland,  fourth  son 
of  Malcolm  Canmore;  b.  about  1078,  in  1 107 
succeeded  his  brother,  Edgar,  only,  however, 
to  that  part  of  the  kingdom  north  of  the  firths  of 
Forth  and  Clyde;  d.  Stirling.  1224.  He  mar- 
ried Sibylla,  a  natural  daughter  of  Henry  I. 
of  England,  and  his  reign  was  comparatively 
untroubled,  though  about  1 1 15  he  had  to  quell 
an  insurrection  of  the  northern  clans.  He 
founded  the  abbeys  of  Scone  and  Inchcolm 
and  initiated  a  diocesan  episcopate:  while  his 
determined   resistance    to    the   claims    of    York 


and  Canterbury  to  supremacy  over  the  see  of 
St.  Andrews  did  much  to  secure  the  independ- 
ence, not  only  of  the  Scottish  Church,  but  of 
Scotland   itself. 

Alexander  II.,  king  of  Scotland:  b.  Had- 
dington, 1198;  d.  1249.  He  succeeded  his  fa 
titer.  William  the  I. ion.  in  1  _•  14.  He  early  dis- 
played that  wisdom  and  strength  of  character 
in  virtue  of  which  he  holds  so  high  a  place  in 
history  among  Scottish  kings.  His  entering 
into  a  league  with  the  English  barons  against 
King  John  drew  down  upon  him  and  his  king- 
dom the  papal  excommunication;  hut  two  years 
later  the  ban  was  removed,  and  the  liberties  of 
the  Scottish  Church  were  even  continued.  On 
Henry  III.'s  accession  to  the  English  throne, 
Alexander  brought  the  feuds  of  the  two  na- 
tions to  a  temporary  close  by  a  treaty  of  peace 
(1217).  in  accordance  with  which  he  married 
Henry's  eldest  sister,  the  Princess  Joan  (1221). 
'The  alliance  thus  established  was  broken  after 
her  death  without  issue  (1238)  and  the  Second 
marriage  of  Alexander  with  the  daughter  of  a 
noble  of  France.  In  [244  Henry  marched 
against  Scotland  to  compel  Alexander's  hom- 
age; but  a  peace  was  concluded  without  an 
appeal  to  arms.  In  1240.  while  engaged  in  an 
expedition  to  wrest  the  Hebrides  from  Norway. 
Alexander  died  of  fever  on  Kerrera.  near  Oban. 
Alexander  III.,  king  of  Scotland,  b,  up  ; 
succeeded  his  father,  Alexander  II.,  u;V.  d.  (2 
March  128(1.  In  1251  he  married  the  Pririci  , 
Margaret  (1240-75),  eldest  daughter  0:  Henry 
HI.  of  England.  Very  shortly  aftir  he  had 
come  of  age  his  energies  were  summoned  to 
defend  his  kingdom  against  the  formidable  in- 
vasion of  Haco,  king  of  Norway  (1263),  whose 
utter  rout  at  Largs  secured  to  Alexander  the 
allegiance  both  of  the  Hebrides  and  the  Isle  of 
Man.  'The  alliance  between  Scotland  and  Nor- 
way was  strengthened  in  uSj  by  King  Eric's 
marriage  to  Alexander's  only  daughter.  Mar- 
garet (1261-83);  the  untimely  death  of  their 
infant  daughter.  Margaret,  commonly  desig 
natcd  the  Maid  < > f  Norway,  on  her  way  to  take 
possession  of  her  throne,  was  the  occasion  of 
many  calamities  to  Scotland.  During  the  con- 
cluding years  of  Alexander's  reign  the  kingdom 
enjoyed  a  peace  ami  prosperity  which  it  did  not 
taste  again  for  many  generations.  His  only 
surviving  sent  died  with. nit  issue  in  1284;  and 
next  year  Alexander  contracted  a  second  mar- 
riage with  Je.leta.  daughter  e,f  the  Count  de 
Dreux. 

Alexander  I.,  king  of  Scrvia:  b.  14  Aug. 
1876:  son  of  King  Milan  I.  In  1889  Milan 
abdicated  and  proclaimed  Alexander  king  under 
a  regency  till  he  should  attain  his  majority  (  iS 
years).  On  13  April  1893,  when  in  his  171I1 
year.  Alexander  suddenly  took  the  royal  au- 
thority into  his  own  hands  and  summarily  dis- 
missed the  regent.  On  5  Aug.  1900  he  married 
Mme.  Draga  Maschin.  This  marriage  was  ex- 
ceedingly unpopular  by  reason  of  the  charac- 
ter of  the  new  queen,  and  this  fact,  joined  to 
her  unwise  attempts  to  advance  her  own  fam- 
ily, induced  a  crisis  which  resulted  in  the  as- 
sassination of  the  king  and  queen  11  June  1903. 
See  Sekvia 

Alexander,  Abraham,  American  agitator: 
b.  North  Carolina,  1718 ;  d.  1786.  His  place  in 
history  is  due  to  the  fact  that  he  was  chairman 


ALEXANDER 


of  the  convention  which  on  31  May  1775  passed 
the  resolutions  generally  known  as  the  (<  Meck- 
lenburg Declaration  of  Independence." 

Alexander,  Archibald,  American  clergy- 
man, of  Scottish  descent:  b.  Virginia,  17  April 
1772;  d.  Princeton,  N.  J.,  22  Oct.  1851.  He 
studied  theology,  and  performed  itinerant  mis- 
sionary work  in  various  parts  of  Virginia ;  be- 
came president  of  Hampton-Sidney  College  in 
1796,  and  pastor  of  a  Presbyterian  church  in 
Philadelphia  in  1807.  On  the  establishment  of 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  in  1812  he  was 
appointed  its  first  professor,  a  position  which 
he  held  till  his  death.  Among  other  works  he 
published  '  Outlines  of  the  Evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity,' '  Treatise  on  the  Canon  of  the  Scrip- 
tures '  (1826)  :  '  History  of  the  Patriarchs  ' 
(1833)  :  and  '  History  of  the  Israelitish  Na- 
tion '  (  1852)  ;  his  '  Moral  Science  '  was  post- 
humous. 

Alexander,  Barton  Stone,  American  sol- 
dier :  b.  Kentucky,  1819 ;  d.  San  Francisco,  Cal., 
15  Dec.  1878.  He  graduated  from  West  Point 
1842,  and  became  lieutenant  in  the  engineer 
corps ;  as  such  he  superintended  the  building 
of  Minot's  Ledge  lighthouse  off  Boston  Har- 
bor, the  marine  hospital  at  Chelsea,  north  of 
Boston,  and  the  military  asylum  at  Washington, 
besides  repairs  on  fortifications.  He  assisted 
in  constructing  the  defenses  of  Washington  in 
the  Civil  War,  took  part  in  the  first  campaign 
about  Manassas,  and  was  brevetted  major  for 
conduct  at  Bull  Run ;  and  remaining  with  the 
Army  of  the  Potomac  was  brevetted  lieutenant- 
colonel  for  conduct  at  the  siege  of  Yorktown  in 
1862.  In  1864  he  was  consulting  engineer  on 
Sheridan's  staff,  and  in  March  1865  was  brev- 
etted brigadier-general  for  services  in  the  war. 
The  next  two  years  he  was  in  charge  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  public  works  in  Maine;  and 
in  1867  became  senior  engineer  with  rank  of 
lieutenant-colonel.  Thence  till  death  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Pacific  board  of  engineers  for 
fortification. 

Alexander,  Cecil  Frances  (Humphrey), 
an  Irish  poet,  born  in  County  Wicklow, 
1818:  d.  12  Oct.  1895.  She  was  very  active 
in  religious  and  charitable  works.  She  is  best 
known  as  a  writer  of  hymns  and  religious 
poems.  Among  the  most  noted  are  the  hymns, 
•  The  Roseate  Hue  of  Early  Dawn  >  and  <  All 
Things  Bright  and  Beautiful.'  Her  most 
famous  poem  is  <  The  Burial  of  Moses.' 

Alexander,  Edward  Porter,  American 
military  engineer :  b.  Washington,  Ga.,  26  May 
1835.  Graduating  from  West  Point  1857.  he 
was  made  second  lieutenant  in  the  engineer 
corps;  resigned  1861,  and  entering  the  Confed- 
erate army  served  there  till  the  surrender  at 
Appomattox,  April  1865 ;  at  first  as  chief  of 
ordnance  and  chief  signal  officer  in  the  Army 
of  Northern  Virginia,  then  as  brigadier-general 
and  chief  of  artillery  in  Longstreet's  corps,  tak- 
ing part  in  the  Wilderness  and  Spottsylvania 
and  the  siege  of  Petersburg.  From  1866  to 
1870  he  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  en- 
gineering in  the  University  of  South  Carolina; 
thence  (1871-92)  manager  and  president  of  some 
of  the  foremost  Southern  railroads,  and  is  a 
rice-planter  in  South  Carolina.  He  was  a  gov- 
ernment director  of  the  Union  Pacific  R.R. 
J885-7 ;  a  member  of  the  boards  on  navigation 


of  the  Columbia  River  and  on  the  Chesapeake- 
Delaware  ship  canal  1892-4;  and  in  1891  en- 
gineer arbitrator  of  the  boundary  survey  be- 
tween Nicaragua  and  Costa  Rica. 

Alexander,  James,  American  colonial  law- 
yer and  patriot:  b.  Scotland  about  1690;  d. 
New  York,  2  April  1756.  He  was  an  engineer 
officer  in  Scotland ;  compelled  to  leave  Great 
Britain  for  taking  part  in  the  Old  Pretender's 
Rebellion  of  1715,  he  came  to  Perth  Amboy,  was 
its  first  official  recorder  in  1718,  and  was  shortly 
after  appointed  surveyor-general  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey.  Studying  law,  he  rose  to  dis- 
tinction at  the  bar.  He  engaged  in  political  de- 
bate in  the  press ;  was  temporarily  disbarred 
for  serving  as  counsel  to  a  printer  accused  of  se- 
dition, but  was  reinstated  two  years  later;  held 
many  important  public  offices,  including  those  of 
attorney-general  and  of  secretary  to  the  prov- 
ince of  New  York:  acquired  a  large  fortune, 
and  was  a  zealous  upholder  of  colonial  liberties, 
—  he  died  from  the  fatigues  of  a  journey  from 
New  York  to  Albany  while  sick,  to  oppose  a 
ministerial  project  threatening  colonial  rights. 
With  Franklin  and  others  he  founded  the 
American  Philosophical  Society.  His  son  was 
the  famous  (<  Lord  Stirling  "  of  the  Revolution. 

Alexander,  Sir  James  Edward,  a  British 
soldier  and  explorer :  b.  in  Scotland  in  1803 ;  d. 
2  April  1885;  served  in  the  principal  wars  of 
his  day,  particularly  distinguishing  himself  in 
the  Crimean ;  conducted  an  exploring  expedition 
into  central  Africa,  and  published  several  narra- 
tives of  travel.     He  died  2  April  1885. 

Alexander,  James  Waddell,  American 
clergyman,  son  of  Archibald  Alexander :  b, 
near  Gordonsville,  Va.,  13  March  1804 ;  d.  31 
July  1859.  He  studied  in  Philadelphia,  then 
graduated  at  Princeton  and  from  its  theological 
seminary.  He  held  a  pastorate  at  Charlotte  C. 
H.,  Va.,  1825-8,  and  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  1828-30.  Resigning 
from  ill  health,  he  became  editor  of  the  Phila- 
delphia Presbyterian.  He  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  and  belles-lettres  in  Princeton.  1833-44; 
pastor  of  the  Duane  Street  Church,  New  York, 
1844-9 ;  professor  of  ecclesiastical  history  and 
church  government  in  Princeton  Seminary, 
1849-51  ;  from  1851  till  death  pastor  of  his  old 
Duane  Street  Church,  reorganized  as  the  Fifth 
Avenue,  corner  19th  Street.  He  wrote  much 
for  religious  and  other  periodicals,  and  for  the 
Tract  Society,  and  over  30  volumes  for  the 
American  Sunday-School  Union.  He  published 
also  volumes  of  sermons;  '  The  American  Me- 
chanic and  Workingman  '  (2  vols.  1847 )  ; 
<  Plain  Words  to  a  Young  Communicant  ' 
(1854)  ;  a  biography  of  his  father  (1854)  ;  <  Dis- 
courses on  Christian  Faith  and  Practice  ' 
(1858)  ;  <  Thoughts  on  Preaching  >    (1864)  ;  etc 

Alexander,  John  Henry,  American  scien 
tist :  b.  Annapolis.  Md.,  26  June  1812;  d.  2 
March  1867.  Graduating  from  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Annapolis,  1826,  he  studied  law,  then  en- 
gineering; and  a  plan  for  the  survey  of  Mary- 
land he  put  before  its  legislature  gained  him  the 
appointment  of  topographical  engineer  of  tin- 
State,  which  he  held  till  1841.  preparing  annual 
reports  which  did  much  to  enlist  capital  in  de- 
veloping its  coal  and  iron  fields.  He  published  a 
two-part  <  History  of  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron,' 
1840-2.     He  was  also  associated  in  Hassler  an<J 


ALEXANDER—  ALEXANDER  SEVERUS 


Bache's  coast  survey.  He  made  great  efforts  to 
establish  a  uniform  standard  of  weights  and 
measures  in  the  United  States,  and  published  in 
1850  a   'Universal    Dictionary   of   weights  and 

Measures,  Ancient  and  Modern.'  In  1857  the 
United  States  government  sent  him  to  England 
as  a  delegate  to  the  British  commission  uii  inter- 
national coinage,  and  his  appointment  to  the 
directorship  of  the  Philadelphia  mint  was  only 
prevented  by  his  death.  He  served  on  many 
commissions,  and  published  very  valuable  re- 
ports; papers  in  the  'American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence and  Arts,'  etc.  He  was  also  at  different 
times  professor  of  physics  in  St.  James'  Col- 
lege, Maryland,  the  University  of  Maryland, 
and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.  He  also 
wrote  volumes  of  religious  verse,  an  unpublished 
'Dictionary  of  English  Surnames,'  etc.,  and 
edited  scientific  works. 

Alexander,  John  White,  American  artist: 
b.  Alleghany  City,  Pa.,  7  Oct.  1856.  Eor  three 
years  he  was  connected  with  the  art  depart- 
ment of  the  Harpers,  and  then  was  three  years 
abroad,  studying  at  the  National  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  Munich,  and  with  Duvcncck  in  Ven- 
ice and  Florence.  Upon  his  return  to  the 
United  States  he  was  active  as  a  magazine  illus- 
trator. Attention  was  first  attracted  to  his 
paintings  by  his  exhibit  in  the  Salon  of  the 
Champ  de  Mars  in  1803.  He  received  the  gold 
medal  of  the  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  in  1807,  and  gold  medals  at  the  Paris  Ex- 
position of  1900,  and  the  Pan-American  Ex- 
position,  Buffalo,  in  1901.  In  1902  he  was 
elected  an  academician  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy. He  is  represented  in  the  Luxembourg  and 
many  American  and  European  collections;  and 
by  six  lunettes  depicting  'The  History  of  the 
Book'  in  the  east  hall  of  the  Congressional 
Library,   Washington. 

Alexander,  Joseph  Addison,  American 
Biblical  scholar,  son  of  Archibald  Alexander: 
b.  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  24  April  1809;  d.  28  Jan. 
i860.  He  graduated  first  in  the  Princeton  class 
of  1826,  and  with  R.  B.  Patton  founded  Edge- 
hill  Seminary  there.  He  was  adjunct  professor 
of  ancient  languages  at  Princeton,  1830-3,  then 
spent  some  years  abroad  in  linguistic  studies; 
from  1838  till  death  was  professor  at  Prince- 
ton Seminary,  1838-50  of  Oriental  and  Biblical 
literature,  1851-60  of  church  history  and  gov- 
ernment. 1850-60  of  New  Testament  history 
and  Biblical  Greek.  He  was  ranked  among  the 
foremost  of  American  Bihliologists,  an  Orien- 
talist of  high  order,  and  a  linguist  of  eminent 
variety  and  soundness.  His  exegetical  works 
include  commentaries  on  Isaiah  (1846.  rS  17, 
1851),  the  Psalms  (3  vols.  1850),  Acts  (1857), 
Mark  (185S),  all  indebted  to  German  sources. 
His  sermons  were  collected  in  2  vols.  i860. 

Alexander,  Mrs.,  pseudonym  of  Annie 
Hector    (q.v). 

Alexander,  Romance  of,  a  romance  of  the 
Middle  Age*,  based  on  a  fabulous  account  of 
Alexander's  invasion  of  Asia,  written  by  Cal- 
listhenes.  In  some  form  it  makes  a  part  of  all 
the  literatures  of  Europe  and  western  Asia. 

Alexander,  Sir  William,  Earl  of  Stirling, 
poet  and  statesman:  b.  1567;  d.  London  i6jo. 
Tutor  to  Prince  Henry,  son  of  James  I. : 
knighted   1609;  held  various  high  offices  under 


the  crown  and  in  1621  received  the  famous  and 
stupendous  grant  of  land  embracing  what  is 
now  Canada  and  the  best  portion  01  the  New 
England  States,  and  given  almost  absolute  au- 
thority in  its  government,  a  grant  that  roused 
bitter  envy  among  his  contemporaries.  At  the 
coronation  of  Charles  I.  (1633)  Alexander  be- 
came Earl  of  Stirling.  His  last  years  were 
embittered  by  great  pecuniary  reverses  and  he 
died  insolvent.  In-  strength  of  character,  in- 
tegrity, and  many-sidedness  he  was  the  great- 
est Scotchman  of  his  time;  took  a  conspicuous 
place  as  scholar,  courtier,  colonizer,  and  poet. 
As  a  poet  he  belongs  to  the  type  of  Fulk  Grcville 
and  Lord  Brooke;  his  tragedies  are  labored;  but 
some  minor  pieces  like  the  'Aurora'  are  ele- 
gant and  musical.  Milton  read  his  works,  and 
Addison  praised  them  highly.  The  earliest 
editions  of  them  bring  high  prices  and  are 
eagerly  sought  after.  Chief  among  them  are, 
•Tragedie  of  Darius'  (1603);  'A  Para?nesis  to 
the  Prince'    (1604). 

Alexander,  William,  general  in  Revolu- 
tionary War,  known  as  "Lord  Stirling":  b. 
New  York,  1726;  d.  Albany  15  Jan.  1783.  He 
entered  the  service  as  a  colonel  of  militia,  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Long  Island, 
where  he  commanded  a  brigade,  and  served 
through  the  New  Jersey  campaigns  with  Wash- 
ington. His  claim  to  the  title  and  estates  of 
Stirling  was  disallowed  by  the  English  House 
of  Lords  in  1761,  and  on  his  return  to  America 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  troubles  leading  up 
to  the  Revolution.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
first  board  of  governors  of  King's  College,  now 
Columbia  University. 

Alexander  Archipelago,  or  Alexander 
Islands,  a  group  of  islands  on  the  W.  coast 
of  North  America,  extending  from  540  40'  N. 
to  580  25'  N. ;  belong  to  Alaska  Territory.  The 
principal  islands  are  Baranoff  and  Prince  of 
Wales. 

Alexander  Land,  an  area  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  discovered  by  Bellinghausen  in  1821. 
It  is  in  lat.  68°,  Ion.  70°  to  750. 

Alexander  of  Hales,  a  noted  English  phi- 
losopher and  theologian:  b.  Hales,  Gloucester- 
shire: d.  Paris  1245.  One  of  the  greatest  of 
the  schoolmen,  he  was  among  the  first  to  study 
Aristotle  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  Arabic 
commentators.  His  chief  work  was  'The  Sum 
of  Theology'    (1475). 

Alexander  of  Rumania,  Hospodar  of 
Rumania:  b.  Husch  20  March  1820;  d.  Heidel- 
berg 15  May  1873.  On  29  Jan.  1859  he  was 
chosen  hospodar  at  Jassy  and  on  17  February 
at  Bukharest.  with  title  Alexander  John  I.  By 
abolishing  serfdom  and  dividing  landed  proper- 
ties he  benefited  the  peasantry,  but  his  efforts 
toward  centralization  caused  discontent,  and  on 
22  Feb.  1866  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate. 

Alexander  Severus,  Roman  emperor  (in 
full,  Marcus  Aurelius  Alexander  Severus): 
b.  Ace  (the  modern  Acre),  Phoenicia,  205  ad.; 
d.  235.  He  was  the  son  of  Genesius  Marcianus 
and  of  Julia  Mamma?a.  niece  to  the  Emperor 
Severus.  He  was  admirably  educated  by  his 
mother,  and  was  adopted  and  made  Cxsar  by 
his  cousin  Heliogabalus.  then  but  a  few  years 
older  than  himself,  at  the  prudent  instigation  of 
their  common  grandmother,   Mscsa.     That  con- 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 


temptible  emperor,  however,  soon  grew  jealous 
of  his  cousin  and  would  have  destroyed  him 
but  for  the  interference  of  the  praetorian 
guards,  who  soon  after  put  Heliogabalus  him- 
self to  death  and  raised  Alexander  to  the 
imperial  dignity  in  his  17th  year,  II  March 
222.  Alexander  adopted  the  noble  model  of 
Trajan  and  the  Antonines,  and  the  mode  in 
which  he  administered  the  affairs  of  the  empire, 
and  otherwise  occupied  himself  in  poetry,  phi- 
losophy, and  literature,  is  eloquently  described 
by  Gibbon.  On  the  whole,  he  governed  ably 
both  in  peace  and  war ;  but  whatever  he  might 
owe  to  the  good  education  given  him  by  his 
mother,  he  allowed  her  a  degree  of  influence  in 
the  government  which  threw  a  cloud  over  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign.  He  himself  finally  be- 
came convinced  that  in  this  matter  he  had  al- 
lowed his  filial  reverence  to  mislead  him,  and 
is  said  to  have  reproached  his  mother  with  his 
dying  breath  as  the  cause  of  the  disaster  which 
had  befallen  them  both.  Alexander  behaved 
with  great  magnanimity  in  one  of  the  frequent 
insurrections  of  the  praetorian  guards ;  but,  ei- 
ther from  fear  or  necessity,  he  allowed  many 
of  their  seditious  mutinies  to  pass  unpunished, 
though  in  one  of  them  they  murdered  their 
prefect,  the  learned  lawyer  Ulpian,  and  in  an- 
other compelled  Dion  Cassius  the  historian, 
then  consul,  to  retire  to  Bithynia.  At  length, 
after  having  defeated,  in  232,  the  Persians  un- 
der Artaxerxes,  who  wished  to  drive  the  Ro- 
mans from  Asia,  and  undertaking  an  expedition 
into  Gaul  to  repress  an  incursion  of  the  Ger- 
mans, he  was  murdered  with  his  mother  in  an 
insurrection  of  his  Gallic  troops,  headed  by  the 
brutal  and  gigantic  Thracian,  Maximin,  who 
took  advantage  of  their  discontent  at  the  em- 
peror's attempts  to  restore  discipline.  Alexan- 
der was  favorable  to  Christianity,  following  the 
predilections  of  his  mother,  Julia  Mammxa, 
and  he  is  said  to  have  placed  the  statue  of 
Jesus  Christ  in  his  private  temple,  with  those 
of  Orpheus  and  Apollonius  of  Tyana. 

Alexander  the  Great,  the  third  king  of 
Macedon  bearing  the  name  which  he  made  so 
famous :  b.  Pella,  356  B.C. ;  d.  Babylon,  323  B.C. 
His  mother  was  Olympias,  an  Epirote  princess, 
who  traced  htr  descent  from  Achilles.  There 
is  little  reason  to  doubt  that  his  father  was 
Philip  of  Macedon,  though  the  latter  was  not 
confident  about  his  paternity,  and  though  there 
is  no  evidence  of  any  feelings  between  the  two 
such  as  are  expected  to  -exist  between  father 
and  son.  On  the  contrary,  Philip  seems  to 
have  resented  the  imperial  qualities  of  his  son, 
which  he  was  clever  enough  to  see  and  appre- 
ciate ;  and  Alexander  showed  a  precocious  envy 
of  his  father's  neglected  opportunities  of  con- 
quest, a  feeling  which  the  sagacious  biographer 
Plutarch  has  noted  and  dwelt  on.  No  open 
rupture  took  place  till  Philip  repudiated  Olym- 
pias to  wed  a  Macedonian  lady  (Cleopatra  ac- 
cording to  Plutarch  and  others,  but  Eurydice 
according  to  Arrian).  During  the  nuptial  feast- 
ing Philip  made  at  Alexander  with  his  sword, 
while  the  son  jeered  at  his  father's  drunken 
fury  and  unsteady  gait.  In  the  assassination  of 
Philip  in  336  the  repudiated  and  banished  Olym- 
pias certainly  had  a  hand,  and  we  cannot  be 
sure  that  Alexander  was  not  an  accomplice. 

The  memorable  year  in  which  Alexander 
first  appeared  on  the  stage  of  universal  history 


was  339  b.c.  At  the  age  of  16  the  regency  of 
Greece  was  entrusted  to  him  by  Philip  when 
he  set  out  on  an  expedition  against  Byzantium ; 
and  in  that  capacity  it  fell  to  his  lot  to  lead  his 
first  army  against  an  Illyrian  rising,  to  found 
his  first  Alexandria  in  the  upper  valley  of  the 
Strymon,  and  to  receive  a  deputation  of  envoys 
from  the  king  of  Persia, —  a  fit  beginning  for 
the  miracle  of  precocity  who  was  afterward  to 
destroy  Thebes  at  21,  to  conquer  Babylon  at  25, 
and  to  die  master  of  the  world  at  33.  In  the 
year  after  his  appointment  to  the  regency  Alex- 
ander showed  eminent  military  capacity  at  the 
battle  of  Chaeronea  (338),  and,  on  the  murder 
of  Philip,  ascended  the  throne  in  336,  before  he 
had  reached  his  20th  year. 

The  brilliant  natural  gifts  of  Alexander  had 
been  developed  under  the  tutelage  of  Aristotle. 
His  personal  beauty,  with  its  ardent  expressive- 
ness and  flashing  eyes,  was  very  remarkable,  and 
he  was  pre-eminent  in  horsemanship  and  all 
athletic  accomplishments.  A  habit  (or  perhaps 
some  peculiar  muscular  conformation  of  the 
neck)  which  gave  his  head  a  tilt  toward  the 
left  shoulder  imparted  to  him  an  air  of  hauteur, 
which  gave  a  note  of  eminent  distinction  to 
manners  of  charming  grace  and  affability.  He 
was  of  an  extremely  trusting  disposition.  His 
position  in  ascending  the  throne  was  a  difficult 
one.  He  had  enemies  on  every  side.  The  Illy- 
rians  and  Thracians  were  always  watching  an 
opportunity  to  attack  Macedon,  and  indeed 
most  of  the  Grecian  states  were  ready,  if  pos- 
sible, to  throw  off  the  Macedonian  yoke.  Per- 
sia regarded  the  growth  of  Macedon  with  sus- 
picion ;  and  finally  his  own  Macedonian  sub- 
jects were  far  from  being  united  in  approval 
of  the  career  of  conquest  on  which  Philip  and 
Alexander  had  both  resolved  to  embark. 

His  reign  began  with  an  act  of  cruelty  such 
as  was  destined  subsequently  to  become  almost 
a  matter  of  course  on  every  change  of  rulers; 
his  uncle  and  his  half-brother  were  put  to  death, 
and  the  little  daughter  of  Cleopatra,  Philip's 
widow,  was  butchered  in  the  arms  of  her  moth- 
er. In  the  autumn  of  336  Alexander  marched 
into  Greece,  and  was  confirmed  in  the  chief 
command  against  Persia  by  the  Amphictyones 
at  Thermopylae.  In  335  he  advanced  to  the 
Haemus  range  (the  Balkans),  and  showed  great 
ability  in  his  campaign  against  the  Thracians, 
crossing  the  Danube  —  apparently  out  of  mere 
bravado  —  in  the  face  of  the  enemy  without 
losing  a  single  man.  He  had  no  real  friends 
among  the  Greek  states.  The  Thebans.  hear- 
ing a  false  report  of  his  death,  became  overt 
enemies,  proclaimed  their  independence,  and 
slew  some  Macedonian  officers.  Alexander  ap- 
peared in  Bceotia  with  amazing  dispatch,  and 
took  Thebes  by  storm  on  the  third  day  of  the 
siege.  This  was  the  occasion  on  which,  in  the 
words  of  Milton, 

"  The  great  Emathian  conqueror  bade  spare 
The   house   of    Pindar." 

Leaving  Antipater  to  govern  in  Europe,  he 
crossed  over  into  Asia  in  the  spring  of  334  with 
30.000  foot  and  5,000  horse.  The  Persian  em- 
pire, the  conquest  of  which  he  undertook,  was 
at  least  50  times  as  large  as  his  own,  and  num- 
bered about  20  times  as  many  inhabitants.  It 
extended  from  the  Hellespont  to  the  Punjab, 
from   Lake   Aral   to   the  cataracts  of   the  Nile. 


ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 


But  it  was  a  vast  congeries  of  subject  provinces 
having  no  internal  bond,  and  no  principle  of 
cohesion  but  the  will  of  the  king.  For  80 
it  had  been  tending  to  dissolution  in  its  western 
provinces,  which  were  the  most  exposed  to 
danger.  As  stages  in  this  process  may  be  men- 
tioned the  revolt  of  Egypt  under  Amyrtacus  in 
410,  and  that  of  the  Cypriote  Evagoras,  which 
was  ii' >t  put  down  till  383 ;  the  numerous  re- 
volts of  satraps,  of  Greek  cities,  and  of  semi- 
Greek  tyrants  during  the  first  half  of  the  5th 
century;  and  the  attack  on  Persia  made  by 
rachos,  king  of  Egypt,  in  ,?'>t.  It  has  been  well 
remarked  by  Adolf  Holm  that  the  position  of 
the  Persian  empire  when  attacked  by  Alexander 
had  s.nne  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Roman 
empire  when  overrun  by  the  Germans.  Both 
empires  held  together  merely  by  the  law  of 
inertia;  in  both  tbeir  strength  lay  not  in  their 
native  elements,  but  in  mercenaries  taken  from 
the  very  pro],],-,  the  Germans  and  the  Greeks, 
wdio  threatened  respectively  the  safety  of  the 
two  empires.  Alexander  proposed  to  himself 
nothing  short  of  complete  dispossession  of  Da- 
rius in  favor  of  himself  as  captain-general  of 
Hellas,  and  the  establishment  of  bis  own  l'an- 
hellenic  empire  in  the  room  of  the  Persian, 
lie  was  iiiil  led  from  point  to  point  by  this  or 
that  strategical  reason.  His  business  was  not 
to  leave  Asia  till  every  satrapy  in  the  Persian 
empire  acknowledged  Ins  sway.  Even  the  burn- 
im.;  ,,1  tie  Persian  capital  Persepolis  was  prob- 
ably no  act  of  drunken  folly,  as  which  it  has 
often  been  described,  but  rather  a  signal  and 
emphatic  assertion  of  mastery  and  ownership, 
as  of  one  who  should  say,  "  The  Persian  empire 
is  mine,  to  throw-  it  into  the  lire  if  I  please." 
Alexander  bad  no  intention  of  remaining  king 
of  Macedon.  His  design  was  to  be  the  Greek 
emperor  of  Europe  and  Asia;  and  this  position 
in  effect  he  assumed  on  the  death  of  Darius. 
With  this  view  throughout  his  whole  career  in 
Asia  he  sought  as  much  as  possible  to  fuse 
and  commingle  his  Asiatic  and  European  sub- 
jects, very  much  as  England  did  in  India.  This 
was  the  project  to  which  he  was  giving  all  his 
efforts   at    the   time  of  his   death. 

The  first  hostile  army  he  encountered  was 
on  the  Granicus  River  (an  affluent  of  the  Sea 
of  Marmora).  He  crossed  the  Granicus,  just 
as  he  afterward  crossed  the  Pinarus  at  Issus, 
in  full  view  of  the  enemy,  hurled  himself  with 
all  his  force  on  their  centre  and  completely 
broke  it  up.  It  was  not  his  way  to  refrain 
from  the  pass  in  quart  till  be  had  first  hit  in 
tierce.  His  victories  sometimes  remind  us  of 
the  oft-quoted  C'est  magnifique,  mats  ce  n'est 
pas  la  guerre.  He  won  by  an  impetuous  dash 
a  victory  which  a  subtler  strategy  might  have 
failed  to  achieve,  just  as  his  sword-cut  at  Gor- 
dium  made  away  with  the  knot  which  his  lin- 
gers could  not  undo.  The  victory  at  Granicus 
was  attended  with  unprecedented  results;  Sar- 
des,  Miletus,  Ephesns,  Halicarnassus  submitted 
one  after  another,  and  he  established  in  them 
racies  of  the  Greek  type.  In  November, 
333.  Darius,  eager  to  meet  the  invader,  hastened 
to  the  sea-coast  near  Issus  (at  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Iskanderoon).  The  tactics  pursued  at 
the  Granicus  had  here  again  a  successful  issue. 
Darius  fled,  leaving  his  family  and  his  treasures 
in  the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  The  mother, 
wife,  two  daughters,  and  son  of  Darius  were 
treated    with    a    clemency    which    foreshadowed 


the  ages  of  chivalry.  An  Asiatic  conqueror 
would    have    put    the    males    to    death,    probably 

with  torture,  and  would  have  sent  the  females 

to  his  harem.  Captive  Greek  generals  he  also 
spared  and  liberated.  He  took  possession  of 
Damascus,  a  city  which  even  then  could  boas) 
of  a  hoary  antiquity,  and  secured  all  the  towns 
along  the  .Mediterranean  Sea.  His  plan  now 
was  to  occupy  Egypt,  and  this  was  made  easy 
by  the  capture  of  lyre  on  20  Aug.  332,  after 
a  siege  of  seven  months.  During  the  siege  a 
message  came  from  Darius  offering  Alexander 
10,000  talents,  the  hand  of  his  daughter  in  mar- 
riage, and  Asia  as  far  as  the  Euphrates,  if  he 
would  make  peace.  "  I  would  accept  it  if  I 
wire  Alexander,"  said  his  general,  Panncnio. 
(<  So  would  1,"  replied  Alexander,  "it"  I  were 
Parmenio."  Gaza  fell  in  November,  ;,.!_>,  and 
Alexander,  taking  possession  of  Egypt,  sacri- 
ficed to  Apis  and  the  Egyptian  gods  m  Memphis, 

and  held  musical  and  athletic  competitions  after 
the  Greek  fashion  in  lyre.  '1  bus  he  conciliat- 
ed the  affections  of  his  subjects.  Politically  he 
organized  Egypt  as  a  province  in  a  way  which. 
as  Arrian  remark--,  foreshadowed  the  Koniau 
system,  giving  the  civil  administration  first  to 
two,  ami  then  to  a  single  governor,  while  the 
troops  were  placed  under  several  separate  com- 
manders. It  was  now  that  Alexander  founded 
the  celebrated  Alexandria  —  destined  in  two 
generations  to  In-  tin-  first  city  in  the  Levant  — 
and  marched  through  the  Libyan  desert  to  con- 
sult the  oracle  of  Jupiter  Amnion,  whose  son  he 
claimed  to  be. 

Meantime  Darius  was  collecting  an  army  in 
Assyria;  but  before  the  decisive  battle  of  Ar- 
bela  he  made  Overtures  of  peace  to  Alexander, 
whose  answer  was,  "  I,  Alexander,  hold  all  thy 
treasure  and  all  thy  land  to  be  mine," — a 
verbal  cutting  of  the  Gordian  knot.  The  Per- 
sian force  encountered  by  the  Greeks  at  Gau- 
gamela.  near  the  ancient  Nineveh,  and  about 
50  miles  from  Arbela  (which  strangely  has  giv- 
en iis  name  to  the  battle  ever  since),  is  said  to 
have  numbered  1,000.000  infantry,  40.000  caval- 
ry, 200  scythed  chariots,  and  15  elephants. 
Alexander  had  only  40,000  foot  and  7,000  horse, 
but  he  won  a  decisive  victory  on  1  Oct.  331. 
The  Macedonians  aimed  at  the  faces  of  their 
adversaries,  as  the  Ctcsarians  afterward  did  at 
Pharsalus.  Babylon  and  Susa  opened  their 
gates  to  the  conqueror,  who  then  entered  Per- 
sepolis, the  capital  of  the  province  of  Pcrsis, 
seized  its  immense  treasures,  and  burned  its 
palace  and   citadel   to   the   ground. 

In  the  spring  of  330  Alexander  proceeded 
to  Media  in  pursuit  of  Darius.  That  weak 
monarch  was  being  carried  about  by  P.essus. 
satrap  of  Bactria,  who,  on  hearing  of  the  ap- 
proach  of  Alexander,  inflicted  a  mortal  wound 
on  Darius  and  lied,  leaving  hint  to  die.  Darius 
died  before  Alexander  came  up  with  him  (July, 
330).  The  conqueror  sent  his  body  to  Per- 
sepolis to  be  interred  with  royal  honors.  Af- 
ter taking  possession  of  Hyrcania  and  Bactriana 
he  was  meditating  still  more  gigantic  plans, 
when  he  learned  in  the  autumn  of  330  that 
Philotas,  the  son  of  Parmenio,  though  cog- 
nizant of  a  conspiracy  against  his  life,  had  not 
reported  it.  He  put  both  Philotas  and  Par- 
menio to  death.  The  execution  of  the  former 
has  been  condemned,  but  is  on  the  whole  de- 
fensible; the  murder  of  the  latter  is  an  inex- 
cusable act  of   brutal   tyranny.     About   the  end 


ALEXANDER  —  ALEXANDRA 


of  330  or  the  beginning  of  329  he  crossed  the 
great  range  of  the  Caucasus  (not  the  modern 
Caucasus,  but  the  Hindu  Kush)  by  a  pass 
at  an  altitude  of  13,200  feet  —  a  march  com- 
parable with  that  of  Hannibal  over  the  Alps. 
He  reached  the  city  of  Bactra  (Balkh),  and 
made  his  way  north  as  far  as  the  Jaxartes  or 
Tanais,  where  he  founded  a  city,  probably  the 
modern  Khojend. 

He  remained  in  these  regions  till  the  summer 
of  327,  spending  the  winter  in  Nautaca,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  O.xus.  Here  occurred  the 
murder  of  Clitus,  and  Alexander's  marriage 
with  Roxana,  daughter  of  Oxyartes,  a  satrap 
of  Sogdiana.  She  had  a  son  named  after  his 
father  in  323.  After  the  death  of  Alexander  she 
compassed  the  destruction  of  his  other  wife,  the 
daughter  of  Darius,  and  was  killed  with  her 
son  in  31  r  by  Cassander.  The  murder  of  Clitus 
has  been  regarded  as  a  great  blot  on  the 
career  of  Alexander.  But  the  circumstances 
in  which  he  was  placed  greatly  extenuate  the 
act.  The  East  believed  in  the  divinity  of  Alex- 
ander, and  such  a  belief  was  almost  an  essen- 
tial condition  of  the  permanence  of  his  empire. 
When  one  of  his  own  officers  openly  denied  and 
ridiculed  the  emperor's  pretensions  at  a  state 
banquet  he  seriously  imperiled  the  Hellenic  raj. 
The  empire  of  Alexander  was  never  subject  to 
a  second  single  emperor.  The  destinies  of  the 
West  awaited  the  struggle  between  Rome  and 
Carthage.  But  his  vast  empire  nowhere  save  in 
India  reverted  to  the  pre-Alexandrine  type. 

Alexander  now  formed  the  idea  of  conquering 
India.  He  passed  the  Indus  in  327,  and  formed 
an  alliance  with  Taxiles,  under  whose  guidance 
he  reached  the  Hydaspes  (modern  Jhelum). 
This  river  he  crossed  after  a  severe  struggle 
with  Porus,  in  whom  he  met  an  opponent  very 
superior  to  the  Persian  satraps  who  had  hitherto 
confronted  him  or  rather  retreated  before  him. 
He  then  moved  farther  east  and  crossed  the 
Acesines  (Chenab)  and  the  Hyraotes  (Ravi), 
and  reached  the  Hyphasis  (Beas),  which  now 
joins  the  last  river  of  the  Punjab,  the  Sutlej, 
but  which  then  flowed  in  a  different  channel. 
He  never  reached  the  Sutlej  itself.  The  mur- 
murs of  his  army  compelled  him  to  return. 
The  fine  instrument  which  he  had  fashioned 
so  dexterously  broke  in  his  hand.  He  re- 
crossed  the  Acesines  to  the  Hydaspes,  where 
he  completed  the  cities  of  Nicsea  and  Bucephala 
(named  after  his  famous  horse  Bucephalus), 
which  he  had  already  begun.  He  had  only  seen 
the  fringe  of  India  —  the  Punjab.  The  won- 
drous country  of  Brahma  and  Buddha  never 
felt  the  sway  of  Secundar.  It  was  the  only 
land  which,  on  his  departure,  reverted  to  its 
condition  before  his  arrival.  He  was  obliged  to 
content  himself  with  writing  his  name  large 
across  the  histories  of  Hellenic,  Semitic,  Egyp- 
tian, and  Iranian  civilization.  Alexander's 
name  does  not  appear  in  Sanskrit  literature. 

When  he  had  reached  the  Hydaspes  he  built 
a  fleet,  in  which  he  sent  part  of  his  army  down 
the  river,  while  the  rest  proceeded  along  the 
banks.  The  city  of  the  Malli,  where  Alexander 
was  wounded,  is  probably  Multan ;  Puttala  is 
perhaps  Haidarabad.  The  march  of  500  miles 
through  the  hideous  desert  of  Gedrosia  (Ba- 
luchistan), and  the  voyage  of  Nearchus,  have 
given  much  material  to  romancers  and  rhetori- 
cians. At  Carmania  he  was  joined  by  Craterus, 
who  had   marched   through  the   Bolan    Pass  to 


Kandahar,  and  by  Nearchus,  whose  voyage, 
then  thought  so  marvelous  a  feat,  is  no  more 
than  the  short  steam  run  from  Karachi  to 
Bunder  Abbas.  From  Carmania  he  went  to 
Pasargadae,  and  thence  to  Susa,  where  he  de- 
voted himself  with  great  energy  to  the  task  of 
uniting  as  far  as  possible  the  Macedonian  and 
Persian  nations.  He  himself  married  two  Per- 
sian princesses,  and  he  gave  rewards  to  those 
of  his  staff  who  followed  his  example  in  con- 
tracting Persian  alliances.  He  sent  home  to 
Macedonia,  with  a  present  of  a  talent  each, 
about  10,000  Macedonians  who  by  age  or  wounds 
were  incapacitated  for  service.  These  veterans 
were  led  by  Craterus,  who  was  sent  to  succeed 
Antipater  as  governor  of  Europe.  Antipater 
seems  to  have  fallen  into  disfavor,  though  in 
330  he  had  done  service  in  defeating  Agis, 
the  Spartan  king  who  threatened  Megalopolis. 
It  was  of  this  exploit  that  Alexander  contemp- 
tuously observed,  B  So  there  has  been  a  battle 
of  the  mice  in  Arcadia,  while  we  have  been 
conquering   Asia." 

In  323  Alexander  arrived  at  Babylon,  where 
he  found  numberless  envoys  from  nations  near 
and  far.  come  to  pay  their  homage  to  the  young 
conqueror.  He  was  engaged  in  very  extensive 
plans  for  the  future,  including  the  conquest  of 
Arabia  and  the  reorganization  of  the  army, 
when  he  fell  ill  of  a  fever,  shortly  after  the 
death  of  his  beloved  Hephsestion,  which  had 
deeply  affected  him.  He  died  in  323.  after  a 
reign  of  12  years  and  8  months.  The  day  be- 
fore a  rumor  had  gone  abroad  that  the  great 
general  was  dead,  and  that  his  friends  were  con- 
cealing the  truth.  The  dying  king  caused  his 
army  to  defile  past  his  bed,  and  feebly  waved 
them  a  last  farewell.  Alexander  was  a  great 
administrator,  a  second  Pericles  in  his  devotion 
to  work,  an  Alcibiades  in  his  distinguished 
presence,  a  Phocion  in  his  simplicity  of  char- 
acter. 

Alexander  Yaroslavitch  Nevski,  a  Russian 
hero  and  saint,  the  son  of  the  Grand  Duke 
Jaroslav:  b.  Vladimir,  1219;  d.  1263.  In  or- 
der to  defend  the  empire,  which  was  attacked  on 
all  sides,  but  especially  by  the  Mongols.  Jaroslav 
quitted  Novgorod  and  left  the  charge  of  the 
government  to  his  sons,  Fedor  and  Alexander, 
the  former  of  whom  soon  afterward  died.  Alex- 
ander repulsed  the  assailants.  Russia,  neverthe- 
less, came  under  the  Mongolian  dominion  in 
1238.  Alexander,  when  Prince  of  Novgorod, 
defended  the  western  frontier  against  the  Danes, 
Swedes,  and  Knights  of  the  Teutonic  Order. 
He  gained,  in  T240,  a  splendid  victory  on  the 
Neva  over  the  Swedes,  and  thence  received  his 
surname.  He  overcame  in  1243  the  Livonian 
Knights  of  the  Sword,  on  the  ice  of  Lake  Peipus. 
After  the  death  of  his  father  in  1247  Alexander 
became  Prince  of  Novgorod,  and.  on  the  death 
of  his  brother  Andreas.  Grand  Prince  of  Vladi- 
mir. The  gratitude  of  his  countrymen  has 
commemorated  the  hero  in  popular  songs  and 
raised  him  to  the  dignity  of  a  saint.  Peter  the 
Great  honored  his  memory  by  the  erection  of 
a  splendid  monastery  in  St.  Petersburg,  on  the 
spot  where  Alexander  gained  his  victory,  and  by 
establishing  the  order  of  Alexander  Nevskoi. 

Alexandra  Caroline  Marie  Charlotte 
Louise  Julie,  queen  of  England:  1>.  1  Dec. 
1S44:  daughter  of  Christian  IX.  of  Denmark, 
and  wife  of  Edward  VII.,   whom  she  married 


ALEXANDRETTA— ALEXANDRIAN  AGE 


10  March    1863.     She  has   had   three  sons,  two 
of  whom  are  dead,  and  three  daughters. 

Alexandretta  (the  ancient  Alexandria  ad 
Issum),  a  small  seaport  in  Syria,  on  the  S.E. 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Iskanderoon.  It  is  the  nat- 
ural port  of  Aleppo  and  northern  Syria.  The 
town  is  rendered  unhealthy  DJ  the  surrounding 
marshes',  but  this  has  been  partially  remedied  bj 
draining  one  of  the  largest.  The  port  is  a  fine 
hay,  running  southeast  from  the  Gulf.  The  im- 
ports are  chiefly  grain,  rice,  and  salt;  the  ex- 
ports, galls,  silk,  cotton,  and  dips  or  beshmet 
(a  preparation   from  grapes,  used  by  the  natives 

as  1 1 1      Pop.  about  3.000. 

Alexandria  (Iskanderieh  of  the  Turks), 
an  ancient  city  and  seaport  in  Egypt,  about  14 
miles  west  of  the  CanOpic  mouth  of  the  Nile, 
on  tin'  ridge  of  land  between  the  sea  and  the 
bed  of  the  (.Id  Lake  Mareotis.  Ancient  Alexan- 
dria was  founded  by,  and  named  in  honor  of, 
Alexander  the  Great,  in  332  B.C.,  on  the  site 
of  a  village  called  Rakotis  or  Racondah.  Its 
plan  was  sketched  by  the  architect  Dinocrates. 
It  stood  nearly  on  the  site  of  the  present  town, 
though  the  configuration  of  the  land  has  al- 
tered considerably  since  then,  was  15  miles  in 
circumference,  and  had  300.000  free  inhabitants 
and  at  least  an  equal  number  of  slaves.  The 
Romans  ranked  it  next  to  their  own  capital. 
and  when  captured  by  Amru.  general  of  the 
Caliph  Omar  (a.d.  641)  it  contained  "4,000 
palaces,  4.000  baths,  400  theatres  or  places  of 
amusement.  [2,000  shops  for  the  sale  of  vege- 
tables,  and  40.000  tributary  Jews"  (Gibbon). 
The  city  was  regularly  built  and  traversed  by 
two  principal  streets,  each  ioo  feet  wide  and 
one  of  them  4  miles  long.  It  consisted  of 
two  quarters,  Rakotis,  or  the  people's  quarter, 
and  Brucheion,  or  the  quarter  of  the  palace. 
One  fourth  of  the  area  upon  which  it  was 
built  was  covered  with  temples,  palaces,  and 
public  buildings,  the  most  conspicuous  being 
the  famous  lighthouse  upon  the  little  island  of 
Pharos,  which  was  connected  with  the  city  by 
a  mole:  the  splendid  temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis; 
the  Library,  at  that  time  the  richest  in  the 
world;  the  Museum,  a  kind  of  academy  in 
which  learned  men  of  every  description  were 
entertained  at  the  expense  of  the  state;  an  im- 
mense hippodrome;  numerous  obelisks  and  pil- 
lars, among  which  were  Pompey's  Pillar,  or 
more  properly  Diocletian's  Pillar,  and  the  two 
obelisks  known  as  Cleopatra's  Needles.  Pom- 
pey's Pillar  occupies  an  eminence  1.800  feet  to 
the  south  of  the  present  walls;  its  total  height 
is  98  feet  9  inches;  the  Needles,  of  red  granite. 
and  70  feet  high,  stood  on  the  edge  of  the 
eastern  harbor.  One  was  taken  to  London  in 
1878 ;  the  other  stands  in  Central  Park.  New 
York.     The  city  was  bombarded  by  the  British 

11  July  1882.     (Sec  Egypt.) 

The  present  city  is  chiefly  built  on  the  mole, 
which  has  been  increased  by  alluvial  deposits 
till  it  has  become  a  broad  neck  of  land  between 
the  two  harbors.  The  European  quarter  swarms 
with  cafes,  shops,  and  theatres,  lighted  with  gas. 
The  castle  stands  near  the  old  Pharos,  and  the 
handsome  new  lighthouse  has  a  revolving  light 
visible  at  a  distance  of  20  miles.  Recent  im- 
provements, undertaken  at  a  cost  of  $10,000,000, 
are  expected  to  make  the  western  or  the  old  har- 
bor by  far  one  of  the  best  and  most  spacious  on 
the  Mediterranean.     There  is  railway  communi- 


cation with  Cairo  and  Suez ;  the  Mahmoudieh 
canal,  made  by  Mehemet  Ali.  connects  Alexan- 
dria with  the  Nile.     Pop.   (.1902)   about  400,000 

Alexandria,  Ind.,  a  city  in  Madison  co.,  on 
the  Cleveland,  C,  C.  &  St.  L.,  and  Lake  Erie 
&  VV.  R.R.'s,  45  miles  N.I'.,  of  Indianapolis.  It 
is  in  a  natural  gas  region  and  has  large  window 
glass  and  lamp  chimney  factories,  and  manu 
factures  of  paper,  steel,  axes,  and  mineral  wool. 
It  has  municipal  water  and  lighting  plants; 
churches,  schools,  banks,  and  daily,  triweekly. 
and  weekly  newspapers.  It  was  settled  in  1X37 
and  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  elected  for  four 
years,  and  a  council  of  six  members.  Poo 
(1800)    715;    (1000)    7,221. 

Alexandria,  I. a.  a  town  of  Rapides  parisl 
about  100  miles  N.W.  of  Baton  Rouge  on  the 
Red  River,  in  the  centre  of  the  State,  in  the 
midst  of  a  line  farming  country.  It  is  becom- 
ing quite  a  railroad  centre,  the  following  roads 
having  entered  the  town:  Texas  &  Pacific,  St. 
Louis.  Iron  Mountain  &  Southern.  Southern 
Pacific.  St.  Louis,  Watkins  &  Gulf,  Louisiana 
Railway  &  Navigation  Co.  It  has  a  number  ot 
institutions  of  learning,  a  $30,000  public  school 
building,  and  a  convent  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy. 
It  has  a  number  of  miles  of  asphalt  street  pav 
ing.  The  State  has  recently  erected  an  insti- 
tution for  the  insane  here.  The  town  docs  a 
good    wholesale   and   retail   business,   and   has    a 

g I  trade  in  molasses,  hides,  sugar,  cotton,  and 

lumber.  Here  in  1864  a  dam  was  built  h\ 
Lieut.-Col.  Bailey,  by  which  a  Federal  squadron 
during  Ranks'  expedition  was  enabled  to  pass 
the  rapids.     Pop.   (1904)  est.  10.000. 

Alexandria.  Ya..  city,  port  of  entry,  anil 
county-scat  of  Alexandria  CO.;  situated  on  the 
Potomac  River,  the  Pennsylvania  &  So.  R.R .'  . 
and  trolley  line  connecting  with  Washington.  I). 

C,  and  Mt.  Vernon;  6  m,  S.  of  Washington. 
The  river  here  expands  to  the  width  of  a  mile 
and  gives  the  city  an  excellent  harbor  that  will 
accommodate  the  largest  vessels.  The  city  is 
an  important  trade  centre;  has  manufactures 
aggregating  $20,000,000  annually,  and  is  noted 
for  its  educational  institutions,  which  include 
Washington  High  School.  Potomac,  Mt.  Ver- 
non, and  St.  Mary's  Academics,  and  near  by 
the  Theological  Seminary  and  High  School  of 
the  Diocese  of  Virginia  I  Protestant  Episcopal). 
There  are  four  national  banks,  public  school 
property  valued  at  $33,000.  and  daily  and  weekly 
periodicals.  Gen.  Rraddock  made  his  head 
quarters  here  in  1775.  and  in  1861  Col.  Ells- 
worth, an  officer  in  Maj.-Gen.  McDowell's 
army,  was  shot  after  tearing  down  a  Confeder- 
ate flag  which  floated  from  the  Marshall  House. 
Pop.   (1000)    14.528. 

Alexandria  Bay.  N.  Y.,  a  village  in  Jeffer- 
son co.,  on  the  Rome.  W.  &  O.  R.R..  about  70 
m.  N.  E.  of  Oswego.  It  is  a  prominent  resort 
of  the  Thousand  Islands.     Pop.  (1900I   1,511. 

Alexandrian  Age,  or  School,  the  school  or 
period  of  Greek  literature  and  learning  that  ex- 
isted at  Alexandria  in  Egypt  during  the  300 
years  that  the  rule  of  the  Ptolemies  lasted  (323- 
30  B.r),  and  continued  under  the  Roman  su- 
premacy. Ptolemy  Soter  founded  the  famous 
library  of  Alexandria  fsee  below)  and  his  son. 
Philadelphia,  established  a  kind  of  academy  of 
sciences  and  arts.  Many  scholars  and  men  of 
genius   were  thus  attracted  to  Alexandria,  and 


a 


ALEXANDRIAN  LIBRARY —  ALEXANDRINE 


a  period  of  literary  activity  set  in  which  made 
Alexandria  for  long  the  focus  and  centre  of 
Greek  culture  and  intellectual  effort.  It  must 
be  admitted,  however,  that  originality  was  not 
a  characteristic  of  the  Alexandrian  age,  which 
was  stronger  in  criticism,  grammar,  and  science 
than  in  pure  literature.  Among  the  grammarians 
and  critics  were  Zenodotus,  Eratosthenes, 
Aristophanes,  Aristarchus,  and  Zoilus,  prover- 
bial as  a  captious  critic.  Their  merit  is  to 
have  collected,  edited,  and  preserved  the  exist- 
ing monuments  of  Greek  literature.  To  the 
poets  belong  Apollonius,  Lycophron,  Aratus,  Ni- 
cander,  Euphorion,  Callimachus,  Theocritus,  Phi- 
letas,  etc.  Among  those  who  pursued  mathe- 
matics, physics,  and  astronomy  was  Euclid,  the 
father  of  scientific  geometry ;  Archimedes,  great 
in  physics  and  mechanics ;  Apollonius  of  Perga, 
whose  work  on  conic  sections  still  exists ;  Nico- 
machus,  the  first  scientific  arithmetician ;  and 
(under  the  Romans)  the  astronomer  and  geog- 
rapher Ptolemy.  Alexandria  also  was  distin- 
guished in  philosophical  speculation,  and  it  was 
here  that  the  New  Platonic  school  was  estab- 
lished at  the  close  of  the  2d  century  after 
Christ  by  Ammonius  of  Alexandria  (about  193 
A.D.),  whose  disciples  were  Plotinus  and  Origen. 
Being  for  the  most  part  Orientals,  formed  by  the 
study  of  Greek  learning,  the  writings  of  the 
New  Platonists  are  strikingly  characterized  — 
for  example,  those  of  Ammonius  Saccas,  Ploti- 
nus, Iamblicus,  Porphyrius  —  by  a  mixture  of 
Asiatic  and  European  elements.  The  principal 
Gnostic  systems  also  had  their  origin  in  Alex- 
andria. 

Alexandrian  Library,  a  remarkable  collec- 
tion of  books,  the  largest  of  the  ancient  world, 
was  founded  by  the  first  Ptolemy  and  fostered 
by  his  son.  It  quickly  grew,  and  already  in  the 
time  of  the  first  Ptolemy,  Demetrius  Phalereus 
had  _  50,000  volumes  or  rolls  under  his  care. 
During  its  most  flourishing  period,  under  the 
direction  of  Zenodotus,  Aristarchus  of  Byzan- 
tium, Callimachus,  Apollonius  Rhodius,  and 
others,  it  is  said  to  have  contained  490.000,  or, 
according  to  another  authority,  including  all 
duplicates,  as  many  as  700,000  volumes.  The 
greater  part  of  this  library,  which  embraced  the 
collected  literature  of  Rome,  Greece,  India,  and 
Egypt,  was  contained  in  the  famous  Museum, 
in  the  quarter  of  Alexandria  called  the  Bru- 
cheion.  During  the  siege  of  Alexandria  by  Ju- 
lius Caesar  this  part  of  the  library  was  destroyed 
by  fire ;  but  it  was  afterward  replaced  by  the 
collection  of  Pergamos,  which  was  presented  to 
Cleopatra  by  Mark  Antony.  The  other  part  of 
the  library  was  kept  in  the  Serapeum,  the  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  Serapis.  where  it  remained  till  the 
time  of  Theodosius  the  Great.  When  this  em- 
peror permitted  all  the  heathen  temples  in  the 
Roman  empire  to  be  destroyed,  the  magnificent 
temple  of  Jupiter  Serapis  was  not  spared.  A 
mob  of  fanatic  Christians,  led  on  by  the  Arch- 
bishop Theophilus,  stormed  and  destroyed  the 
temple,  together,  it  is  most  likely,  with  the 
greater  part  of  its  literary  treasures,  in  391 
a.d.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  destruction 
of  the  library  was  begun,  and  not  at  the  taking 
of  Alexandria  by  the  Arabs  under  the  Caliph 
Omar,  in  641.  There  are  strong  reasons  for  be- 
lieving that  no  library  then  existed  there. 

_Cf.  Petit-Radel.   '  Recherches  sur  les  Biblio- 
theques     Anciennes     et     Modernes  >      (1819); 


Ritschl,  '  Die  Alexandrinische  Bibliothek ' 
(1838)  :  Weniger,  *  Das  Alexandrinische  Mu- 
seum'    (1875J. 

Alexandrian  Version,  or  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus  (Codex  A.),  a  Greek  manuscript  of  the 
Bible,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  of  great  im- 
portance in  Biblical  criticism.  It  is  on  parch- 
ment, with  uncial  letters,  without  breathings  and 
accents  or  spaces  between  the  words.  It  was 
written  probably  in  the  middle  of  the  5th  cen- 
tury, and  contains,  in  four  volumes,  small  folio, 
the  whole  Greek  Bible,  two  letters  of  Bishop 
Clement  of  Rome  to  the  Corinthians,  the  genu- 
ine epistle  and  a  fragment  of  the  second,  the 
spurious  one,  and  eight  psalms  of  Solomon,  so 
called.  The  first  three  volumes  contain  the 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament ;  the  fourth. 
the  New  Testament.  A  large  part  of  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Matthew  and  of  the  Second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  Gos- 
pel of, St.  John,  are  wanting.  The  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  Cyrillus  Lucaris,  who  in  1628 
sent  this  manuscript  as  a  present  to  Charles  I., 
said  he  had  received  it  from  Egypt ;  and  it  is 
evident  from  other  circumstances  that  it  was 
written  there.  But  it  cannot  be  decided  with 
certainty  whether  it  came  from  Alexandria 
(whence  its  name).  It  is  said,  however,  to  have 
belonged  to  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria  at  the 
end  of  the  nth  century.  John  Ernest  Grabe 
followed  it  in  his  edition  of  the  Septuagint  (Ox- 
ford, 1707-20,  folio,  4  vols.).  Dr.  Woide  pub- 
lished the  New  Testament  (London,  folio, 
1786),  with  types  cast  for  the  purpose,  page 
for  page  and  line  for  line,  as  in  the  manuscript 
itself.  A  somewhat  more  accurate  text  of  the 
New  Testament  in  ordinary  Greek  type  (with 
the  lacunae  supplied)  was  published  by  R.  H. 
Cowper  in  i860.  Henry  Hervey  Baber  edited 
a  facsimile  edition  of  the  Old  Testament  (Lon- 
don 1816-28,  3  vols,  folio.).  In  1864  the  com- 
plete text,  along  with  three  other  of  the  oldest 
texts  of  the  Bible,  was  published  at  Oxford,  the 
work  being  arranged  in  parallel  columns.  An 
autotype  facsimile  of  the  whole  codex  in  four 
volumes  was  published  by  the  British  Museum 
in  1879-83.  The  text  of  this  manuscript  is  of 
most  importance  in  the  criticism  of  the  Epis- 
tles of  the  New  Testament ;  in  the  Gospels  the 
text  is  not  so  good. 

Alexandrine,  the  name  of  a  verse,  which 
consists  of  6  feet  (or  of  6y2  with  female 
rhymes),  equal  to  12  syllables,  the  pause  being 
in  correct  Alexandrines  always  on  the  6th  syl- 
lable ;  for  example,  the  second  of  the  follow- 
ing verses  (from  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism)  : 

"  A    needless   Alexandrine   ends   the   song 
That,    like    a    wounded   snake,    drags    its    slow    length 
along." 

The  only  complete  English  poem  of  literary  im- 
portance written  in  this  measure  is  Drayton's 
(  Polyolbion.*  The  concluding  line  of  the 
Spenserian  stanza  is  an  Alexandrine.  The 
French  in  their  epics  and  dramas  are  confined  to 
this  verse,  which  for  this  reason  is  called  by 
them  the  Heroic.  The  Alexandrine  derives  its 
name  from  an  old  French  poem  belonging  to 
the  middle  of  the  12th  or  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  century,  the  subject  of  which  is  Alexander 
the  Great,  and  in  which  this  verse  was  first 
made  use  of. 


ALEXANDROPOL  —  ALFALFA 


Alexandrite,  a  variety  of  the  mineral 
chrysoberyl  (q.v.).  It  occurs  in  twin  crystals 
(trillings)  and  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  fact 
that  while  by  daylight  its  color  is  a  dark  em- 
erald to  grayish-green,  it  assumes  a  beautiful 
columbine-red  color  by  artificial  light.  Because 
of  this  property,  and  owing  to  its  rarity  and 
great  hardness  (8.5),  it  is  highly  prized  as  a 
gem.  Its  name,  given  in  honor  of  Alexander  II. 
of  Russia,  seems  singularly  appropriate  when  it 
is  recalled  that  the  gem  is  said  to  have  been  first 
discovered  in  the  emerald  mines  of  Takowaja, 
Siberia,  on  the  very  day  on  which  the  then  heir 
apparent  attained  his  majority,  and  further  that 
the  green  and  red  colors  of  alexandrite  are  the 
national  colors  of  Russia.  The  finest  alexan- 
dritcs  still  come  from  Siberia,  but  good  gems  are 
occasionally  found  in  Ceylon. 

Alexandropol  (formerly  Gumri),  a  Rus- 
sian town  and  fortress  in  the  trans-Caucasian 
government  of  Erivan,  situated  on  a  bare  plateau 
near  the  highway  from  Erivan  to  Kars.  There 
is  accommodation  in  the  military  quarters  for 
a  force  of  10,000  men.  The  town  has  several 
churches  and  caravanserais,  and  there  are  ex- 
tensive silk  manufactories.     Pop.  32,078. 

Alexia.     See  Aphasia. 

Alexiad,  a  life  of  the  emperor  Alexis 
Comnenus  (q.v.)  by  the  Princess  Anna  Com- 
nena,  his  daughter.  This  work,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  important  authorities  for  the  history 
of  the  closing  years  of  the  11th  century,  is  writ- 
ten in  modern  Greek  and  divided  into  15  books. 
It   gives  a   vivid   picture  of  the   First   Crusade. 

Alexian  Brothers.     See  Cellites. 

Alexis,  a  Greek  comic  poet,  a  native  of 
Thurii,  in  Magna  Grcecia,  afterward  an  Athenian 
citizen :  b.  about  304  B.C.,  and  is  known  to  have 
lived  as  late  at  least  as  288  B.C.  He  was  the 
uncle  and  instructor  of  Mcnander,  and  is  said  to 
have  written  245  plays. 

Alexis,  Wilibald,  pseudonym  of  Wilhelm 
Hiring   (q.v.). 

Alexis  Mikhailovitch,  second  Russian 
czar  of  the  line   of   Romanof.    See   Russia. 

Alexis  Petrovitch,  the  eldest  son  of  the 
czar  Peter  the  Great  and  Eudoxia  Lapuchin : 
b.  in  Moscow,  1690.  He  opposed  the  innova- 
tions introduced  by  his  father,  who  on  this 
account  determined  to  disinherit  him.  Alexis 
renounced  the  crown,  and  when  Peter  set  out 
on  his  second  journey  he  made  his  escape  in 
1 717  to  Vienna,  where  he  sought  the  protec- 
tion of  his  brother-in-law,  the  German  em- 
peror, and  thence  to  Naples,  under  the  pretext 
of  going  to  his  father,  who  had  sent  for  him. 
At  the  command  of  Peter  he  returned ;  but  the 
enraged  czar,  regarding  his  flight  as  an  act 
of  treason,  disinherited  him  by  a  ukase  of  2 
Feb.  1718;  and  when  he  discovered  that  Alexis 
was  paving  the  way  to  succeed  to  the  crown 
he  not  only  caused  all  the  participators  of  his 
project  to  be  punished  capitally  or  otherwise, 
but  bad  his  son  also  condemned  to  death,  and 
the  sentence  read  to  him,  as  pronounced  unani- 
mously by  144  judges.  Although  he  was  soon 
afterward  pardoned,  the  fright  and  anxiety 
which  he  had  experienced  affected  him  so 
much  that  he  died  in  the  course  of  four  days, 
7  July  171S.  It  is  supposed  by  some  that  he 
was  poisoned.  He  left  a  daughter  and  a  son, 
afterward  the  emperor  Peter  II. 


Alexius  (Comnenus),  emperor  of  Constan- 
tinople: b.  1048;  d.  IS  Aug.  1 1 18.  He  was  the 
third  son  of  John  Comnenus,  the  emperor 
Isaac's  brother.  Naturally  clever,  he  was  care- 
fully educated  under  the  direction  of  his  moth- 
er; and  at  the  age  of  14  took  part  in  an  en- 
gagement with  some  European  adventurers 
commanded  by  a  Scot  called  Russel  de  Balliol, 
of  whom  the  youthful  warrior  afterward  be- 
came an  intimate  friend.  After  several  suc- 
cessive emperors  had  tasted  for  a  brief  season 
the  "bitter  sweets"  of  a  nominal  supremacy 
over  a  country  torn  by  anarchy,  Alexius,  with 
the  aid  of  the  army,  was  proclaimed  emperor, 
seized  on  Constantinople,  which  he  permitted 
his  soldiers  to  pillage,  and  shut  up  the  nominal 
ruler  in  a  monastery  (1081).  The  empire  was 
then  in  a  deplorable  state.  The  Turks  were 
profiting  by  these  intestine  dissensions  to  seize 
upon  the  Asiatic  provinces  while  Robert  Guis- 
card  ami  bis  Normans  were  menacing  the  west, 
and  fierce  swarms  from  beyond  the  Danube 
threatened  the  nearer  provinces.  However, 
Alexius  did  not  despair;  he  sent  supplies  of 
money  to  his  ally  Henry  IV.  of  Germany  to  en- 
able him  to  attack  Rome,  the  Pope  (Gregory 
VII.)  being  a  linn  friend  of  the  Norman  lead- 
er. His  Holiness  had  to  flee,  and  Guiscard 
hastened  to  bis  aid,  leaving  in  Greece  his  son  Bo- 
hemond,  who  gained  two  victories  over  Alex- 
ius; but  famine  and  disease  weakened  the  Nor- 
man army,  which  Robert  could  not  rejoin,  as  he 
was  detained  in  Italy  by  a  revolt  of  his  vassals. 
In  1084  he  returned  to  the  charge,  and  after 
gaining  some  advantages  he  suddenly  died  of  an 
epidemic;  although  some  ascribe  bis  death  to 
poison  administered  by  one  of  Alexius'  secret 
agents.  In  consequence  of  this  event  the  Nor- 
mans abandoned  all  their  conquests,  and  Alex- 
ius turned  his  attention  to  the  Turks  and 
Scythians,  whom,  after  an  arduous  struggle,  he 
completely  defeated.  Scarcely  was  this  accom- 
plished when,  in  1096,  the  bands  of  the  first 
Crusade  arrived  at  Constantinople  demanding 
aid,  rudely  menacing  him  in  his  own  palace, 
and  finally  compelling  him  to  join  them.  The 
alliance  did  not  last  long;  a  war  broke  out  be- 
tween the  emperor  and  the  Crusaders,  which 
ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter.  The  rest  of 
Alexius'  life  was  employed  in  consolidating  his 
conquests  and  restoring  orderly  government  in 
his  states,  which  were  much  disturbed  by  here- 
sies. He  died  at  70,  after  a  reign  of  37  years. 
He  extended  bis  empire;  and  for  its  defense  he 
left  to  his  successors  a  well-disciplined  army, 
which  he  had  wholly  created  himself.  His- 
torians differ  respecting  his  conduct  and  abili- 
ties; his  daughter  Anna  wrote  his  life  (the 
Ale.xiad). 

Alfalfa,  also  called  Lucerne  (q.v.)  {_M.edu 
cago  saliva),  is  a  herbaceous  plant  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Leguminosce.  The  leaves 
are  pinnate-trifoliate;  its  flowers  small,  gener- 
ally purple  in  color,  situated  in  the  axillary 
Spikes.  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Asia,  but  has 
been  cultivated  in  Europe  since  before  the  time 
of  Christ.  The  Spaniards  introduced  it  into 
South  America,  but  it  did  not  reach  North 
America  until  some  lime  between  1850  and 
i860,  when  it  was  introduced  into  California. 
Since  then  it  has  become  the  most  extensively 
cultivated  forage  crop  in  the  United  States. 
Its    adaptability   to   varying   conditions    of    soil 


ALFARABI  —  ALFONSO 


and  climate  gives  it  an  extensive  range,  extend- 
ing from  the  arid  lands  of  the  West,  where  ir- 
rigation is  required,  to  the  richer  soils  of  the 
East,  and  from  sea-level  to  heights  of  over  7,000 
feet.  It  will  not  flourish  in  extremely  damp 
or  clayey  soils.  Its  roots  strike  to  great  depths, 
so  that  it  withstands  droughts  better  than 
most  of  the  forage  plants.  It  is  cut  when  com- 
ing into  bloom,  and  yields  from  3  to  12  tons  of 
hay  to  each  acre.  In  some  regions  it  is  cut 
every  month  in  the  year.  It  is  particularly  val- 
uable as  a  green  manure,  as  it  takes  nitrogen 
from  the  air,  and  its  deep-growing  roots  draw 
from  the  lower  soils  large  quantities  of  lime, 
phosphoric  acid,  potash,  and  other  minerals 
useful  as  crop  foods.  Alfalfa  is  relished  by 
cattle  whether  green,  as  hay,  or  as  ensilage, 
but  to  secure  the  best  results  it  should  be  fed 
with  root  crops  and  grain,  which  add  the  in- 
gredients needed  for  a  well-balanced  ration. 
Alfalfa  is  subject  to  two  fungus  diseases,  one 
on  the  leaf  and  another  on  the  root,  either  of 
which,  if  not  checked,  will  spread  and  ultimately 
ruin  the  field.  The  (  Farmers'  Bulletins,'  is- 
sued by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at 
Washington  and  the  various  State  Experimen- 
tal Stations,  give  full  information  on  the  cul- 
ture of  the  plant  and  the  treatment  of  its 
diseases. 

Alfarabi,  an  eminent  Arabian  philosopher 
of  the  10th  century,  was  a  native  of  Farab,  in 
Asia  Minor,  his  proper  name  being  Abu  Nasr 
Mohammed  ben  Mohammed  ben  Tarkhan ;  died 
at  Damascus  in  950.  His  works  consist  of 
treatises  on  different  parts  of  the  Aristotelian 
philosophy.  He  excelled  in  music  and  phi- 
lology as  well  as  in  philosophy ;  and  one  of 
his  most  famous  works  is  a  kind  of  encyclo- 
paedia, in  which  he  gives  a  brief  account  and 
definition  of  all  branches  of  science  and  art. 
The  manuscript  of  this  is  in  the  Escurial.  His 
works  were  printed  at  Paris  in  1638. 

Alfieri,  Vittorio,  Count:  b.  Asti,  in  Pied- 
mont, in  1749,  of  a  rich  and  distinguished  fam- 
ily. His  early  education  was  very  defective, 
like  that  of  most  men  of  his  rank  and  country 
at  that  time.  He  died  8  Oct.  1803.  At  the  age 
of  16  he  joined  a  provincial  regiment  which 
was  only  called  together  a  few  days  during  the 
year.  For  some  years  he  led  a  restless  and  dis- 
satisfied life,  traveling  in  Italy,  France.  Eng- 
land, Holland,  and  then  through  the  countries 
of  northern  Europe.  He  next  left  the  military 
service,  and  driven  by  ennui  tried  among  many 
other  things  to  write  dramatic  poetry,  and  met 
with  great  success,  his  first  play,  (  Cleopatra,1 
put  on  the  stage  in  1775,  being  received  with  gen- 
eral applause.  He  now  determined  at  the  age 
of  27  years  to  devote  all  his  efforts  to  at- 
taining a  position  among  writers  of  tragic  po- 
etry. Sensible  of  his  deficiencies,  he  went  to 
work  zealously  to  educate  himself.  In  seven 
years  he  composed  14  tragedies,  studied  Latin 
and  Tuscan,  and  even,  in  his  48th  year,  made 
himself  master  of  Greek.  At  Florence  he  be- 
er me  intimate  with  the  Countess  of  Albany, 
wife  of  Prince  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  a  daugh- 
ter of  the  House  of  Stolberg.  His  passion 
had  the  effect  of  stimulating  him  to  strive  more 
earnestly  after  poetic  fame.  To  continue  his 
labors  in  a  free  and  independent  manner,  he 
broke  the  last  tie  that  bound  him  to  his  coun- 


try ;  and  making  over  all  his  fortune  to  his  sis- 
ter, save  a  moderate  income  for  himself,  he 
lived  by  turns  in  Florence  and  Rome.  Prince 
Charles  now  dying,  Alfieri  married  his  widow, 
and  changed  his  places  of  abode  to  Alsace  and 
Paris.  He  was  at  Paris  when  the  Revolution 
broke  out,  but  after  10  Aug.  1792,  returned  to 
Florence.  In  the  troubles  of  that  stormy  time 
he  lost  his  books  and  the  greater  part  of  t lie- 
complete  editions  of  his  tragedies,  published  by 
Didot  in  five  volumes.  He  worked  hard  to  the 
day  of  his  death.  He  was  buried  in  the  Church 
of  Santa  Croce,  at  Florence,  between  Macchia- 
velli  and  Michael  Angelo,  where  a  beautiful 
monument  by  Canova  covers  his  remains.  Al- 
fieri's  tragedies  are  full  of  lofty  and  patriotic 
sentiments,  but  the  language  is  bare  and  stiff, 
and  the  plots  barren.  Nevertheless  he  is  the 
first  tragic  writer  of  Italy,  and  has  served  as 
a  model  for  those  who  have  followed  him.  His 
comedies  display  the  same  faults  in  a  vet  m 
glaring  manner.  His  l  Abel  '  is  the  most  suc- 
cessful of  all  his  dramatic  works.  This  he 
called  a  iramelogedxa  —  a  name  as  novel  as  the 
work  itself,  which  is  intermediate  between 
tragedy  and  opera.  Besides  his  dramas,  Alfieri 
composed  an  epic  poem,  lyrics,  satires,  and  poet- 
ical translations  from  the  ancient  classics.  His 
autobiography,  a  striking  exhibition  of  his  char- 
acter, appeared  after  his  death.  His  complete 
works  were  published  at  Padua  in  1800-11,  in 
37  volumes. 

Alfonsine  Tables.   See  Alfonso  X. 

Alfon'so,  the  name  of  a  number  of  Por- 
tuguese and  Spanish  kings. 

Alfonso  I.,  the  Conqueror,  first  king  of 
Portugal,  son  of  Henry  of  Burgundy,  the  con- 
queror, and  first  Count  of  Portugal:  b.  mc; 
fought  successfully  against  the  Spaniards  and 
the  Moors ;  named  himself  king  of  Portugal, 
and  was  recognized  as  such  by  the  Pope;  d.  1185. 

Alfonso  I.,  king  of  Naples  and  Sicily. 
See  Alfonso  V.  (of  Aragon). 

Alfonso  V.,  the  African,  king  of  Portugal, 
succeeded  his  father,  Edward  I..  1438.  Con- 
quered Tangiers ;  d.  1481.  During  his  reign 
Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  continued  the  im- 
portant voyages  of  discovery  already  begun  by 
the  Portuguese.  Under  him  was  drawn  up  an 
important  code  of  laws. 

Alfonso  X.,  king  of  Castile  and  Leon,  sur- 
named  the  Astronomer,  the.  Philosopher,  or  the 
Wise:  b.  \22b\  succeeded  to  the  throne  1252: 
d.  1284.  Being  grandson  of  Philip  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  son  of  Frederick  Barbarossa,  he 
endeavored  to  have  himself  elected  emperor  of 
Germany,  and  in  1257  succeeded  in  dividing  the 
election  with  Richard,  Earl  of  Cornwall.  On 
Richard's  death  in  1272  he  again  unsuccessfully 
contested  the  imperial  crown.  Meantime  his 
throne  was  endangered  by  conspiracies  of  the 
nobles  and  the  attacks  of  the  Moors.  The 
Moors  he  conquered,  but  his  domestic  troubles 
were  less  easily  overcome,  and  he  was  finally 
dethroned  by  his  son  Sancho,  and  died  two 
years  after,  1284.  Alfonso  was  the  most  learn- 
ed prince  of  his  age.  Under  his  direction  or  su- 
perintendence were  drawn  up  a  celebrated  code 
of  laws,  valuable  astronomical  tables  which  go 
under  his  name  (Alfonsine  Tables),  the  first 
general  history  of  Spain  in  the  Castilian  tongue, 
and  a  Spanish  translation  of  the  Bible. 


ALFONSO  — ALFRED  THE  GREAT 


Alfonso  V.,  king  of  Aragon:  b.  1385;  d. 
1458.  lie  was  the  son  of  Ferdinand  I.  of  Ara- 
gon, the  throne  of  which  he  ascended  in  1416, 
ruling  also  over  Sicily  and  the  island  of  Sardinia. 
Queen  Joanna  of  Naples  had  promised  to  make 
him  her  heir,  hut  at  her  death  in  14.15;  had  left 
her  dominions  to  Rem-  of  Anjou.  Alfonso  now 
proceeded  to  take  possession  of  Naples  by  force, 
which  he  succeeded  in  doing  in  1442,  and 
reigned  till  his  death  in  1458.  He  was  an  en- 
lightened patron  of  literary  men,  by  whom,  in 
the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  his  court  was 
thronged. 

Alfonso  XII.,  king  of  Spain.  He  was  the 
only  son  of  Queen  Isabella  II.  and  her  cousin, 
Francis  of  Assisi,  was  born  in  1857  and  died  in 
1885.  He  left  Spain  with  his  mother  when  she 
was  driven  from  the  throne  by  the  revolution 
of  1808,  and  till  1874  resided  partly  in  France, 
partly  in  Austria.  In  the  latter  year  he  studied 
for  a  time  at  the  English  military  college.  Sand- 
hurst, being  then  known  as  Prince  of  the  As- 
turias.  His  mother  had  given  up  her  claims 
to  the  throne  in  1870  in  bis  favor,  and  in  1874 
Alfonso  came  forward  himself  as  claimant,  and 
in  the  end  of  the  year  was  proclaimed  by  Gen- 
eral Martinez  Campos  as  king.  He  now  passed 
over  into  Spain  and  was  enthusiastically  re- 
ceived, most  of  the  Spaniards  being  by  this 
time  tired  of  the  republican  government,  which 
had  failed  to  put  down  the  Carlist  party.  Al- 
fonso was  successful  in  bringing  the  Carlist 
struggle  to  an  end  (1876),  and  henceforth  he 
reigned  with  little  disturbance.  He  married 
first  his  cousin.  Maria  de  las  Mercedes,  daugh- 
ter of  the  Duke  de  Montpensier;  second.  Maria 
Christina,  Archduchess  of  Austria,  whom  he 
left  a  widow  with  two  daughters,  a  son  ( Al- 
fonso XIII.)   being  born  posthumously. 

Alfonso  XIII.,  king  of  Spain,  son  of  Al- 
fonso XII.  and  Maria  Christina,  daughter  of 
Karl  Ferdinand,  Archduke  of  Austria:  b. 
after  his  father's  death.  17  May  1886,  succeeding 
by  his  birth,  being  a  male,  his  eldest  sister.  His 
mother  was  made  queen  regent  during  his 
minority.  On  17  May  1902  the  young  king  for- 
mally acceded  to  the  throne  and  took  the  oath 
prescribed  by  the  constitution,  the  queen  re- 
gent having  taken  official  leave  of  the  ministry 
on  the  1 2th.  The  United  States  was  represent- 
ed at  the  ceremony  by  special  envoy.  The 
President  sent  the  king  a  cordial  message. 

Alford,  Henry,  an  English  poet  and  mis- 
cellaneous  writer,  philologist,  critic,  artist,  and 
preacher:  b.  London,  7  Oct.  1810;  d.  in  Can- 
terbury, 12  Jan.  187 1.  He  became  Dean  of 
Canterbury  in  1856.  An  accomplished  man.  his 
literary  work  attracted  attention  in  several  de- 
partments. Besides  sermons  and  university 
lectures,  he  wrote  '  The  School  of  the  Heart, 
and  Other  Poems'  (1835),  his  most  popular 
volume  of  verse :  '  The  Queen's  English  > 
(1866).  He  was  best  known  by  his  celebrated 
edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament  (1844-52), 
which,  incorporating  the  results  of  German  Bib- 
lical scholarship,  formed  a  landmark  in  New 
Testament  study  in  England  and  America.  He 
was  the  first  editor  of  the  '  Contemporary  Re- 
view.' 

Alfred,  N.  V..  a  village  of  756  population, 
in  Allegany  co.,  on  the  Erie  R.R..  12  m.  from 
Hornellsville.     It   is   noted   as   being   the   head- 


quarters in  America  of  the  Seventh-Day  Bap- 
tists, and  as  the  seat  of  Alfred  University,  a 
co-educational  (non-sectarian)  institution,  organ- 
ized in  1836  as  a  school,  incorporated  as  a  uni- 
versity in  1857.  Professors  and  instructors,  26; 
students.  215:  volumes  in  the  library,  12,136; 
value  of  grounds  and  buildings,  $90,000;  800 
graduates;  total  endowment  is  $450,000. 

Alfred,  or  Aluredus,  of  Beverley,  chron- 
ieler :  flourished  1 143.  His  'Nine  Books  of 
Annals  or  History  of  the  British  Kingdoms  to 
1129'  is  largely  devoted  to  the  fabulous  history 
of  Britain.  It  is  of  no  use  to  the  historical 
student,  as  it  adds  nothing  to  what  is  found  in 
earlier  authorities.  The  best  manuscript  of  the 
work  is  among  the  Hengwet  MSS.,  and  has 
never  been  printed.  Ilearn  printed  an  inferior 
Bodleian  MS    in   1716. 

Alfred  the  Great,  king  of  the  West  Sax- 
ons, and  foremost  figure  in  early  English  his- 
tory: b.  Wantage,  849;  d.  and  buried  in 
Winchester,  28  Oct.  901.  Separated  from  the 
mass  of  myth  and  legend  that  has  clustered 
about  the  name  of  this  great  king,  the  following 
are  the  known  facts  of  his  life,  or  those  which 
the  best  scholarship  agrees  upon  as  being  well 
authenticated.  The  fifth  and  youngest  son  of 
/Ethel  will  f  and  Osburh,  he  was  sent  to  Rome  in 
853,  remaining  there  and  at  the  court  of  Charles 
the  Bold  for  several  years.  The  impressions 
received  during  this  Continental  experience  and 
education  unquestionably  helped  to  give  him 
that  international  temper  and  freedom  from 
narrow-  insularjsm  which  so  marked  him  among 
the  men  of  his  time.  Little  is  recorded  of  him 
during  the  reigns  of  his  brothers  /Ethelbald 
and  Kthelberht,  but  when  he  became  next  in 
line  of  succession  under  /Ethelred  (866)  he  was 
clearly  second  only  in  importance  to  the  king 
himself,  a  fact  attested  by  his  holding  the  high 
office  of  Sccundarius.  In  868  he  married 
Ealhswith,  daughter  of  ealdorman  /Ethelred  the 
Mickle.  In  869  he  fought  against  the  Danes 
at  Nottingham,  and  when  the  enemy  attacked 
his  own  Wessex  Alfred  led  the  van  of  his 
brother's  army.  Throughout  that  momentous 
year  of  fighting  he  was  easily  the  leading  spi- 
rit, taking  part  in  the  great  victory  of  /Escesdun 
(Ashdown),  and  the  later  battles  of  Basing  and 
Merton.  Soon  after  Easter,  in  the  midst  of 
the  strife  with  the  Danes,  ^Ethelred  died,  and 
Alfred,  then  only  22  years  of  age,  took  bis 
place  on  the  throne.  A  month  later  he  fought 
the  last  battle  of  the  year  at  Wilton.  A  series 
of  petty  defeats,  due  to  his  lack  of  men,  com- 
pelled him  to  make  truce,  and  the  withdrawal 
of  the  Danes  from  Wessex  was  bought  upon 
the  usual  terms, —  a  payment  of  money.  For 
seven  years  the  kingdom  had  peace.  Then  the 
Danish  power  again  broke  upon  Wessex,  over- 
running Somerset  and  Devonshire  almost  with- 
out opposition.  About  Easter  a  general  resist- 
ance began ;  seven  weeks  later  he  defeated  the 
enemy  at  Ethandun  (Edington.  Wiltshire),  cap- 
turing their  stronghold.  This  broke  the  assail- 
ants'  spirit;  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  the 
Danish  leader,  Guthrum,  and  Alfred  regained 
all  of  his  own  kingdom,  added  to  it  all  south- 
western Mercia,  and  established  an  overlordship 
over  the  lands  ceded  to  the  Danes.  Alfred  and 
Wessex  became  the  sole  English  power  in 
Britain.     In   884   Guthrum,   with   a   Danish   and 


ALGJE  —  ALGARVE 


Scandinavian  force,  landed  in  Kent  and  at- 
tacked Rochester.  Alfred  drove  them  to  their 
ships.  In  886  he  occupied  and  fortified  London, 
and  a  general  submission  to  him  seems  to  have 
followed  throughout  Britain.  During  894-7 
the  Danes  again  proved  troublesome.  For  two 
years  there  was  fighting  throughout  the  country, 
but  the  king  with  his  Londoners  and  South- 
Saxons  made  a  vigorous  resistance,  and  the  in- 
vaders, worn  out,  retired  to  the  Continent. 
Four  years  later  he  died,  survived  by  his  wife 
and  five  children;  two  sons,  Eadward,  his  suc- 
cessor, and  /Ethelward  ;  three  daughters,  yEthel- 
flaed.  the  Lady  of  the  Mercians,  /Elfthryth.  wife 
of  Baldwin.  Count  of  Flanders,  and  -Ethelgifu, 
Abbess  of  Shaftesbury. 

King  Alfred  left  behind  him  magnificently 
concrete  results.  He  converted  ill-trained, 
short-service  levies  into  a  thoroughly  organ- 
ized national  army,  as  powerfully  effective  a 
fighting  machine  as  it  had  formerly  been  in- 
effective and  helpless.  He  was  the  only  one  of 
his  time  to  realize  that  the  Danish  pirates  must 
be  fought  on  the  sea  as  well  as  on  land.  He 
thereupon  created  a  national  fleet :  built  larger 
ships  than  had  ever  before  been  used  for  war- 
fare ;  and  so  developed  his  naval  force  that  in 
time  it  was  fully  able  to  cope  with  the  invaders 
upon  their  own  element, —  the  sea. 

His  <  Laws  -'  are  but  a  compilation  of  the 
best  ones  of  his  predecessors.  His  own  words 
explain  this :  "  I  durst  not  venture  to  set  down 
in  writing  much  of  my  own,  for  it  was  un- 
known to  me  what  of  it  would  please  those  who 
should  come  after  us."  a  Those  things  which 
I  met  with  which  seemed  to  me  rightest,  those  I 
have  gathered  together  and  rejected  the  oth- 
ers." The  importance  of  his  work  was  really 
great,  for,  with  the  blending  of  the  codes  of 
Wessex,  Mercia.  and  Kent,  the  conception  of  a 
national  law  began  and  the  idea  of  separate 
systems  of  tribal  customs  passed  away. 

At  Alfred's  accession  learning  seemed  dead 
in  England.  In  his  own  person,  as  author  and 
translator,  he  started  English  prose  into  vig- 
orous life.  His  translation  of  Orosius'  <  His- 
tory of  the  World  >  (edition  with  modern  Eng- 
ish  translation  by  Bosworth,  1851)  became  the 
one  accessible  handbook  of  English  history;  he 
translated  Boetius'  *  Consolation  of  Philosophy  ' 
(edition  with  modern  English  translation  by  S. 
Fox,  1864),  recasting  somewhat  its  pagan  doc- 
trines ;  the  l  Pastoral  Care  '  of  Gregory  the  Great 
(text  and  translation  by  H.  Sweet,  1871-2)  ; 
and  his  English  version  of  Beda's  '  Eccle- 
siastical History  '  perhaps  suggested  a  greater 
work.  This  was  that  unique  and  priceless  pos- 
session of  the  English  race,  *  The  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle,'  which,  without  much  doubt,  was 
at  his  bidding  put  into  the  shape  in  which  it 
has  come  down  to  us.  For  the  years  of  his 
own  reign  it  is  a  detailed  contemporary  narra- 
tive of  the  highest  value.  It  is  to  his  efforts, 
to  what  he  preserved,  what  he  wrote,  and  to 
what  his  example  and  support  encouraged 
others  to  write,  that  England  has  a  richer  and 
earlier  vernacular  literature  than  any  other 
Western  European  nation.  For  his  title  of 
•  Great  "  there  is  no  ancient  authority,  its  use 
going  no  further  back  than  the  17th  century- 
He  never  needed  it,  for  his  countrymen  and  the 
world  know  no  other  of  the  name  with  whom 
't  is  possible  to  confound  his. 


The  biography  cf  Alfred  by  his  friend  As- 
set- is  our  chief  authority  for  the  king's  life. 
Though  its  authenticity  has  been  questioned, 
modern  scholars  accept  it.  A  Latin  edition  is 
printed  in  Petrie  and  Sharpe's  c  Monumenta 
Historica  Britannica  '  (1848),  and  an  English 
translation  may  be  found  in  J.  A.  Giles'  *  Six 
Old  English  Chronicles'  (1848).  There  are 
modern  *  Lives  >  by  J.  A.  Giles  (1848;  2d  ed. 
1854),  R.  Pauli  (1853),  and  T.  Hughes  (1869). 
Freeman's  (  Old  English  History'  (1883)  and 
'Norman  Conquest'  (1870-6;  may  be  con- 
sulted with  profit,  and  Stubbs'  (  Constitutional 
History  of  England  '  (Vol.  I.)  gives  the  con- 
stitutional aspect  of  Alfred's  reign.  A  most  at- 
tractive account  is  to  be  found  in  the  chapters 
of  patriotic  panegyric  in  Green's  (  Conquest  of 
England.' 

Algae,  a  term  popularly  restricted  to  ma- 
rine cryptogamous  plants  or  seaweeds,  but 
which  may  be  generally  defined  as  comprehend- 
ing all  aquatic  flowerless  plants,  whether  grow- 
ing in  fresh  or  salt  water,  belonging  to  the 
class  Thallophytes.  The  only  absolute  distinc- 
tion between  the  Alga?  and  the  remaining  Thal- 
lophytes or  Fungi  is  that  the  former  contain 
chlorophyll,  w'hile  the  latter  do  not.  The  higher 
forms  have  stems  bearing  leaf-like  expansions, 
and  they  are  often  attached  to  rocks  by  roots. 
A  stem  is  most  frequently  absent.  The  plants 
are  nourished  through  their  whole  surface  by 
the  medium  in  which  they  live.  They  vary  in 
size  from  the  microscopic  diatoms  to  forms 
whose  stems  resemble  those  of  forest  trees,  and 
whose  fronds  rival  the  leaves  of  the  palm. 
They  are  entirely  composed  of  cellular  tissue, 
and  many  are  edible  and  nutritious,  as  carra- 
geen or  Irish  moss,  dulse,  etc.  Kelp,  iodine, 
and  bromine  are  products  of  various  species. 
Coulter  distinguishes  four  groups :  the  blue- 
green  algae  (Cyanophycece) ,  green  algae  (Chlo- 
rophycea),  brown  algae  (Phaophycca) ,  and 
red  algae  (Rhodophycea) . 

Algar'di,  Alessandro,  one  of  the  chief 
Italian  sculptors  of  the  17th  century:  b.  1602; 
d.  1654.  He  lived  and  worked  chiefly  at  Rome; 
executed  the  tomb  of  Leo  XI.  in  St.  Peter's,  and 
a  marble  relief  with  life-size  figures  over  the 
altar  of  St.  Leo  there. 

Algarotti,  Francesco,  iil-ga-rot'e,  fran- 
ches'ko,  Count,  Italian  author:  b.  Venice  12 
Dec.  1712;  d.  Pisa  3  March  1764.  His  'Plu- 
rality of  Worlds'  (1733),  a  popular  exposition 
for  ladies  of  Newton's  philosophy,  established 
his  fame.  Till  1739  he  lived  much  in  France 
and  became  intimate  with  Voltaire.  The  study 
of  French  literature  and  contact  with  its  leading 
representatives  exercised  a  marked  influence  on 
his  style.  His  contemporaries  greatly  respected 
his  art  judgments,  and  his  <  Essays  on  the  Fine 
Arts,'  in  Italian  (Germ.  tr.  1760),  show  keen 
discernment.  Frederick  the  Great  held  him  in 
high  regard,  created  him  count,  and  ordered  a 
monument  built  to  his  memory  in  Pisa.  The 
best  edition  of  his  works  is  in  17  vols.,  Venice, 
1 791-4. 

Algarovill'a,  the  seed-pods  of  one  or  two 
South  American  trees  (genus  Prosopis),  valu- 
able as  containing  much  tannin 

Algarve,  or  Faro,  a  maritime  province  of 
Portugal,  extending  across  the  southern  coast 
of   the   kingdom,    bounded   north    by   the   prov- 


ALGAZZALI     ALGEBRA 


of  Alemtejo,  east  by  the  Spanish  province 
of  Huelva,  south  and  west  by  the  Atlantic 
( Icean.  It  has  a  mountainous  surface,  with  some 
fertile  tracts,  in  which  excellent  oil,  wine,  figs, 
and  almonds  are  produced,  and  a  coast  indented 
with  good  bays  and  harbors.  Its  tunny  and 
sardine  fisheries  are  productive.  Faro  is  its 
capital.      Thi'  area  is  2,oog  sq.  m.      Pop.  229,000. 

Algazzali,  or  Alghazzali,  Abu  Hamed  Mo- 
hammed, an  Arabian  philosopher,  Persian  by 
birth  b  'Pus  in  Khurasan  in  1058  or  1050;  d. 
iiii.  He  lirst  taught  theology  at  Bagdad,  but 
left  his  chair  and  traveled  in  Syria,  and  lived  for 
some  time  m  Damascus,  after  which  he  returned 
to  Persia  and  resumed  teaching.  The  details 
of  his  lift-  given  by  biographers  are  numerous 
but  contradictory.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
prolific  of  the  Arabian  authors.  One  of  his 
writings,  called  the  'Destruction  of  the  Philos- 
ophers,' was  answered  by  Avcrroes  in  a  book 
entitled  the  'Destruction  of  the  Destruction.' 
He  also  wrote  several  moral  treatises.  Algaz- 
zali. as  a  disciple  of  the  Sulis,  was  an  opponent 
of  the  prevailing  Aristotelian  philosophy  of  the 
day,  and  predisposed  to  the  mystical  dogmas  of 
emanation,  to  which,  after  a  keen  and  critical 
Study  of  philosophy,  he  entirely  resigned  him- 
self. See  Dugat  s  'Ilistoirc  des  Philosophies  et 
des  Th6ologiens  Musulmans'  (Paris,  1878). 

Algebra,  Elementary.  Any  determinate  body  of 
entities  or  symbols  subject  to  a  logically  consistent 
SJ  Item  of  laws  of  operation  or  combination  gives 
rise  to  a  theory  called  an  algebra.  Accordingly 
there  are  various  algebras,  as  the  algebra  of 
quaternions,  the  algebra  of  logic,  linear  algebra, 
the  algebra  of  relations,  the  algebra  of  opera- 
lions  or  o|  groups,  multiple  algebra,  etc.,  and 
two  algebras  may  differ  in  respect  to  cither 
content  or  form  or  both.  The  subject-matter 
of  ordinary  algebra,  with  which  this  writing  is 
concerned,  consists  of  the  entities  known  as  num- 
bers, whether  real  or  complex  (imaginary),  the 
interrelations  and  properties  of  the  entities  and 
the  laws  in  conformity  with  which  they  admit 
of  combination  or  operation.  As  appears  from 
the  definition,  the  use  of  symbols  to  denote  the 
entities,  relations,  and  operations  is  not  essen- 
tial to  the  conception  of  algebra,  although  to 
its  development  such  use  is,  on  grounds  of 
economy,  practically  indispensable.  The  evolu- 
tion of  the  number  system,  one  may  say  of  the 
number  concept  in  its  wider  generality,  has  been 
very  slow  and  very  long.  For  an  account  of 
the  historical  development  and  for  citation  of 
its  literature,  the  reader  is  referred    to  the  article 

History  ok  Elementary  Algebra.  On  the 
scientific  side,  algebra  has  no  more  escaped  the 
minute  refinements  of  modern  criticism  than 
have  other  branches  of  mathematics  or  of  science 
and  thought  in  general.  Speaking  generally,  the 
desideratum  has  been  to  apply  the  Razor  of 
Occam  to  hypothesis  ami  to  deduce  the  doctrine 
from  the  smallest  number  of  the  simplest  and  most 
fundamental  data.  All  mathematics,  all  science, 
originates  in  common  sense.  It  has  been  justly 
said  that  mathematics  is  common  sense  refined, 
ctlu  realized.  It  is  the  aim  of  this  article,  in  so 
far  as  space  limitations  allow,  to  present  the 
elements  of  algebra  in  that,  aspect,  to  exhibit  it 
as  growing  under  the  stimuli  of  need  and  curiosity 
from  a  soil  of  common  experience,  as  the  prod- 
uct of  powers  that  are  universal  among  men. 
Elementary    Faculties    and    .\\>iions.  —  Every 


normal  person  has  the  power  to  form  the  notions, 
thing  and  things;  the  notion,  thing  composed  of 
things,  i.e.,  the  notion  of  collection  or  assem- 
blage (see  General  Theory  of  Assemblages);  and 
the  notion  of  correspondence,  of  associating  a 
thing  or  things  with  a  thing  or  things,  as  a  name 
with  an  object.  These  notions  are  neither 
absolutely  simple  nor  absolutely  fundamental 
(possibly  there  arc  no  such  notions),  but  rela- 
tivelv  they  are  very  simple  and  very  funda- 
mental, and  it  will  be  seen  that  they  play  an  all- 
important  role  as  basis  of  the  concept  and 
doctrine  of  number. 

Simple  Properties  of  Assemblages. — For  ex- 
planation of  the  terms  element,  assemblage, 
one-to-one  correspondence,  equivalence  (or 
Sameness  Of  power)  of  assemblages,  part  and 
proper  part,  see  GENERAL  THEORY  OP  ASSEM- 
BLAGES. Assemblages  will  be  denoted  by  large 
Roman,  elements  by  small  Greek,  letters.  De- 
partures from  that  rule  will  be  such  as  need 
cause  no  obscurity.  The  questionable  "notion" 
of  assemblage  of  all  things  is  not  here  admitted. 
Hence  no  .i  contains  everything.  If  a  thing  fl 
not  in  .1  be  put  in.  there  arises  IS  =A  -f /?,  where 

+  (plus)  denotes  the  introduction  of  f),  and  = 
means  that  B  and  A  -f/?arc  the  same.  The  in- 
verse, removing  /?  from  B,  yields  B—p=A, 
where  —  (minus)  means  such  removal.  The 
elements  common  to  .1  and  B  constitute  their 
intersection.  Thus,  if  .1  is  all  red  flowers  and 
B  is  all  roses,  the  intersection  of  .-1  and  B  is  all 
red  roses.  Any  proper  part  B  of  .-1  is  the  inter- 
section of  B  and  .1.  In  that  case,  .1  +B=A; 
eg.,  all  rectangles  +  all  squares  =  all  rectangles. 
If  .1  is  the  intersection  of  B  and  ( ',  then 
B+C  =  B+(C  —  A);  the  parenthesis  sign  dies  that 
C—A   is  to  be  taken  as   a   whole;   e.g.,  all  men 

(-all  Europeans  =  all  men  (  (all  Europeans- 
European  men).  But  (B  +C)  —A  is  not  the 
same  as  B  +(C  —  A),  for  plainly  (all  men -fall 
Europeans)  —all  European  men  is  not  the  same 
as  all  men -fall  Europeans.  If,  however.  />'  and 
C  have  no  intersection  and  A  is  part  of  ( ',  then 
(B+O-.-l  =  B+(C-A);  and,  if  C  is  part  of  B, 
and. 4  ispartofC,thenB-(C-.4)  =  (B-C)+A. 
In  all  cases,  (A  f  B)  +(' =  A  +'B  +  C) ,  .-1  f  B  -  B 
-tA.  If  -1  - —  /j  ,  i.e.,  if  .1  and  B  are  equivalent,  and 
if  a  is  not  in>4  and  /?not  in  B,  then  A  +  a  —  B  +  /?. 
So,  too,  arc  A  —  a  and  B  —j3  if  a  is  in  A,  (i  in  /', 
and  if  A  —^B. 

Cardinal  Number  Defined. — It  is  essential  to 
distinguish  between  power  and  sameness  of 
power  or  equivalence.  The  power  (Machtigkeit) 
of  an  .1  is  the  new  assemblage  yielded  by  disre- 
garding (abstracting  from)  both  the  character  and 
the  order  ><(  .l's  elements.     (See  General  Tlieory 

of  Assemblages.)  The  new  assemblage,.!,  is 
called  the  (cardinal)  number  of  A.  The  num- 
ber of  A  is  thus  an  orderless  assemblage  of 
characterless  elements  (units).      Every  .1    has  an 

A;  anil  all  equivalent  .4's  have  the  same  A,  and 

conversely.  Hence  the  number  A  of  an  .1  is 
sometimes  said  to  be  or  to  characterize  the  class 
of  all  assemblages  equivalent  to  A.  How  many 
elements   in   .4    or    any  equivalent    assemblage? 

.In steer:   A. 

Greater  and  Less  Cardinals. — In  respect  to  A 
and  B,  it  may  happen  that:  (i)  A  has  no  proper 
part  equivalent  to  B.  but  B  has  a  proper  part 
equivalent   to   A ;     (it)  B    has   no    proper   part 


ALGEBRA 


equivalent  to  .4 ,  but  A  has  a  proper  part  equiva- 
lent to  li;  (Hi)  A  has  a  proper  part  equivalent 
to  B  and  B  has  a  proper  part  equivalent  to  A ; 
(iv)  neither  A  nor  B  has  a  proper  part  equiva- 
lent to  the  other.  If  one  of  the  relations  holds 
for  .4  and  B,  it  holds  for  .4'  and  B'  whenever 
.4— .4'  and  B~B'.  If  (Hi)  or  (iv)  is  valid  for 
.4    and   B,  it  follows  that   ^4  — - B,   thence   that 

A  =B,  and  conversely;  where  =  means  that  the 
cardinals  are  equal,  or  the  same.     If  (i)  is  valid, 

.4   and  B   are  not  equivalent,  B  is  said  to  be 

greater  than   .4,    A    less   than    B;     symbolically, 

B>A,  A<B.  Relation  (it),  essentially  the 
same  as  (i) ,  needs  no  further  remark.  Hence 
any  two  cardinals  are  either  equal  or  one  is 
greater  (or  less)  than  the  other. 

Addition  of  Cardinals. — Suppose  A  and  B  to 
have  no  intersection.  Their  union,  assemblage 
composed   of  all   and   only   the   elements   of  .4 

and  B,  is  denoted  by  (.4,  B).     Plainly  (.4,  B) 

depends  only  on  A  and  B\    for  (A,  B)  ^—(.4',  B') 

whenever  A  — A'  and  B — B'.     (A,  B)  is  called 

the  sum  of  the  sutnmands,  or  addends,  A  and  B; 

symbolically,  A+B=(A,B),  an  equation  for- 
mally defining  addition  or  summation  of  cardinals, 
lb  as-  many  things  in  A  and  B  together?  An- 
swer: A  +B  As  a  cardinal  is  orderless,  addi- 
tion is  commutative:  A+B=B+A.  For  the 
same     reason,     it     is     associative:      A+(B+C) 

=  (A+B)+C. 

Multiplication, — Associate  each  element  a  of 
A  with  each  element  /?  of  B.  Denote  the  assem- 
blage of  all  pairs  so  arising  bv  (.4  ■  B).  (.4  -B)  — - 
(A'B')   whenever    .4— .4'  and  £—  B' ;     hence 

(.4-.fr)  is  determined  by  .4  and  B;  (A-B)  is 
called  the  product  of  the  factors  A  and  B;  sym- 
bolically, .4  -B  =  (.4  -B),  definition  of  multiplica- 
tion of  the  multiplicand  A  by  the  multiplier  B. 
A  single  /?  taken  with  each  a  yields  an  assem- 
blage A'  of  pairs  such  that  .4' =.4.  Each  /? 
gives  such  an  .4';  in  all  there  are  B  such  .4''s; 
the    union    of   these    is    (.4  •  B) ;     hence    A  ■  B  = 

A  +  A  + .  .  .  where  there  are  B  summands. 
Hence  multiplication  is  summation  of  equal 
addends.  A  cardinal  number  being  orderless,  it 
readily  appears  that  multiplication  of  cardinals 

is:        commutative,        A-B=B-A\        associative. 

A-(B-C)  =(A-B)-C;  and  distributive.  A-(B+C) 

=  A-B+A-C;    where,   e.g.,   (B-C)    means   that 

the  product  within  (  )  is  multiplier  of  A. 

Involution. — The  continued  product  of  B  equal 


multiplication    of    equal    factors    is    called    in- 

volution,    and   the   process   of   obtaining   A       is 

described  as  raising  A  to  the  Bth  power.  From 
the  definitions  involved,  the  following  relations, 

laws  of  exponents,   are   found:   .4     -.4     =A  ; 

Ordinary  Cardinals. — If  A  contains  but  a  single 

thing   or,   .4   is  named  one,  denoted  by   i;    i.e., 

•4=i.  The  symbol  se  between  two  assem- 
blage symbols  means  that  these  denote  the  same 
assemblage.     Let  At=(A,  a,),  union  of  .4,  or  a, 

and  another  thing  a,.     Then  .4,  is  denoted  by 

2  and  named  two.  In  like  manner  .42  is  named 
three  and  denoted  by  3,  in  case  As  =  (At,  a,), 
<t2  I  .ring  different  from  a  and  a,.     Continuation 

of  the  process  yields   the   series  1,2,3,4 

v,  .  .  .  ,  of  symbols,  and  the  corresponding  series. 
one,  two,  three,  four of  names,  of  the  num- 
bers .4,  .4,,  A2,  A„  .  .  .  Each  of  these  num- 
bers has  a  next  after  it  and,  except  1,  a  next 
before  it.  It  admits  of  proof  that  the  numbers 
of  the  series  have  the  properties:  no  two  of 
them  are  equal;  each  is  greater  than  any  pre- 
ceding one,  less  than  any  following  one;  if  v' 
is  next  before  v,  v  =  1/  +  1 ;  there  is  no  cardinal 
number  at  once  >  v  and  <  v  +  1 ;  no  number  of 
the  series  is  greater  than  every  other;  there  is 
a  least  cardinal,  viz.,  1.  Any  word  with  its 
predecessors  of  the  count  w'ord  series,  one, 
two,  .  .  .  ,  constitute  an  assemblage  equivalent 
to  that  whose  cardinal  the  word  names;  hence. 
in  counting,  the  word  last  used  tells  the  number 
of  things  counted,  no  matter  in  what  order. 

Distinction  of  Finite  and  Infinite. — If  A  +1  =A, 

A  is  said  to  be  infinite  or  transfinite;  in  the  con- 
trary case,  finite.  Denote  by  A"  the  assemblage: 
1,  2,  3,  .  .  .  ,  v,  .  .  .  Every  element  of  .V  is  a 
finite  cardinal,  and  every  finite  cardinal  is  in  .V. 

But  .V  itself  is  transfinite  for,  (.V,  a)-~X,  where 
a  is  not  in  N:   we  may  pair  a  with  1,  1  with  2,  .  .  . 


-B 


,4* 


factors  .4  is  denoted  by  .4     ;  i.e. ,  A  ■  A  ■  A  ... 

Here  B  is  named  exponent  of  A.      The  continued 


Hence  (.V,  a),  or  A'  +  i,  =  .Y;  i.e.,  the  number 
of  the  part  X  is  equal  to  the  number  of  the 
■whole  (X,  a).  The  so-called  self-evident  truth. 
the  whole  is  greater  than  any  of  its  parts,  is 
generally  false.  It  is  always  valid  for  finite 
assemblages,  never  for  infinites.  It  serves  as 
discriminant  of  the  two  classes. 

The  foregoing  sketch  will  serve  to  indicate 
briefly  something  of  the  simplicity,  depth,  and 
generality  of  the  modern  doctrine  of  the  car- 
dinal number. 

Need  of  Generalization  of  X umber  Concept. — 
The  numbers  in  A',  the  finite  cardinals,  con- 
stitute the  foundation  of  arithmetic  and  algebra. 
These  numbers  are  necessary  but  not  suffi- 
cient. They  afford  answers  to  hosts  of  questions 
about  themselves,  but  at  the  same  time  they 
stimulate  curiosity  to  ask  other  hosts  that  they 
cannot  answer.  What  number  added  to  itself 
gives  4?  What  number  multiplied  bv  itself 
gives  9*  For  these  A'  has  the  answers.  Not 
so,  however,  if  we  replace  4  and  (,  bv  5  and  10. 
If  (i  and  b  are  any  two  numbers  in  N,  we  may 


ALGEBRA 


ask:  what  is  their  sum?  0+6  —  ?  Their  prod- 
uct? a-b  —  ?  (or  ii/>  -  ?  or  aX6-  ?)  What  is 
the  oth  or  /'i)i  power  of  6  or  o?  />a -=  ?  u*  =  ? 
.V  contains  the  answer  to  every  such  question 
of  addition  or  multiplicatii  in  or  involution.  But 
the  inverse  operations,  subtraction,  division,  and 

evolution,    yield    questions    about     the   cardinals 

that  the  latter  do  not  suffice  to  answer.  To 
answer  all  such  questions,  to  render  the  inverse 
operations  always  possible,  it  is  necessary  to  in- 
vent or  create  new  entities  to  meet  the  demands 
These  entities,  once  created,  constitute  a  new 
assemblage  The  union  of  this  with  N  is  then  a 
new  enlarged  assemblage  or  domain  of  numbers. 

Subtraction,  Creation  of  Negatives. — If  .1  is  a 
finite  assemblage,  />'  a  proper  part  of  .1,  and  l< 
tin-  assemblage  left  on  suppressing  B,  then,  if 

A  —  a,  B  =b,  R=c,  we  write  c=a— b,  formal 
definition  of  subtraction  of  subtrahend  b  from 
minuend  a,  yielding  the  difjerence  c,  or  a—  b. 
From   this  definition   and   thai    of  addition,   it 

follows  that  c  +  b=a.  As  1  is  finite  and  /.'  is 
proper  part  of  A,  a>  b  What  if/;-  I?  Then 
R  is  empty,  and  i  is  not  in  N  We  write  zero  (o) 
for  c,  so  obtaining  a— a  —o.  Calling  zero  a  num- 
ber and  treating  it  like  the  cardinals,  we  have 
a  +  0— O,        a  — 0=a.  Consider      the       relation 

b.  If  b>a,  the  relation  has  no  defined 
meaning,  for  c  is  neither  zero  nor  in  A'.  We  give 
it  a  meaning.  Note  that  C  is  to  he  such  that 
c  +b  =a.  Let  n  be  any  number  in  A',  and  define 
ii  to  be  such  that  h  +  m=o.  The  number  n  is 
called  a  negative  integer,  visually  written  with 
th.-  bar  in  front;  thus,  —  ii ;  in  contradistinction, 
ii  is  called  positive,  and  often  written  +n.  To 
every  positive  integer  corresponds  a  negative. 
The  sum  of  any  such  pair  is  zero.  If  c=u  —  b, 
where  b>a,  c  now  has  definite  meaning:  c  is 
in  A',  the  assemblage  of  negative  integers.  For 
example,  if  e  =  2  —  j,  c  —  —  5,  or  5,  for  c  +  7  =  2, 
5+5+2=0  +  2=2. 

The  growth  of  the  number  concept  is  note- 
worthy: first,  the  numbers  in  A';  next,  zero 
giving  the  assemblage  /s=(.V,  o) ;  then  the 
negatives,  giving  E'  =(/•-,  .V'j.  which  suffice  to 
answer  every  subtraction  question  about  finite 
cardinals,  or  positive  integers. 

E  (tension  of  Old  Operations  to  New  Numbers. 
— Curiosity  grows  by  what  it  feeds  upon. 
Hi  ing  secured  the  invention  of  zero  and  nega- 
tive integers,  it  asks:  how  operate  on  them? 
How  combine  any  two  of  the  numbers  now  in 
hand,  whether  new  or  old?  Fot  the  new  num- 
bers new  rules,  any  logically  consistent  set, 
might  be  adopted.  So  would  result  another 
bra.  That  would  be  lawful  but  not  expe- 
dient. Expedience  counsels,  though  necessity 
does  not  compel,  the  retention  and  extension  of 
the  old  rules;  as,  a+b  =b+a,  etc.  Expedience 
prevails.  The  consequences,  though  formally 
obtainable,  are  for  beginners  best  found  by 
some  di      ice,    as    the    plotting    of    the 

numbers  on  tin-  a  right   line: 

,  .  .  — 3  —  2  —  I  O  +1  +  2  +  1   .   .   . 

For  addition  and  subtraction  the  new  prob- 
lems are: 

( 1 )  -  5  +  2  =  ?  -  a  +  b  =  ? 

(2)  +2+(-0  =  ?  +  (>  +  (-a)  =  ? 

(3)  -2+(-5)  =  ?  -6  +  (-a)  =  ? 

(4)  -2-(+5)  =  ?  -6-(+a)  =  ? 
I  +2-(-5)  =  ?  +6-(-a)  =  ? 

(6)    -2-(-5)  =  ?      -6-(-a)  =  ? 


Zero  is  obviously  either  (both)  positive  or  (ami) 
negative.  old  question:  5+2-?  a  +6  =  ? 
Answer  by  Stepping:  begin  at  5  or  a,  steji  right- 
ward,  2  or  b  steps:  old  rule.  To  answer  (1), 
follow    old     rule:      begin     at     —5,    etc.      Hence, 

—  5  +2  =  —  3;  but  by  old  rule,  commutative  law, 

—  5  +  2  =2  +(  —  5),  hence  2+(  — 5)  —  — 3;  but  by 
definition,  2  —  5  =  —3,  hence  2  +  (  —  5)  =  2  —  5  :  I  he 
reasoning  is  independent  of  the  particular  in- 
tegers use. 1;  hence  —  a  +  b  =  b  +  (—«)=/>  —  a;  i.e., 
to  add  a  negative  is  to  subtract  corresponding 
positive.     Analogously  one  may  find:  —6-1  (—  o) 

—  —b  —  a  =  -(b+  a);  6  —  (-<i)  =  b  +  a;  -b-(-a) 
=  -b  +a  =  —(b  —  a).       For  multiplication,  solu- 

oi  the  like  problems  are  similarly  obtain- 
able: (-a)-b=b-(-a)  =  -(a-b);  (-a)-(-b) 
-(-6).(-o)=(o-6)=a6;  o-fi  /..0=o-(-&)- 
(  —  b)  -o  =0  =  o-o.      If  .1   be    in    A'   or    \ ',   and    if 

ii=2-/i,  where  6  is  in  A'  or  A'',  11  is  called  even; 
otherwise,  odd.  If  <i  is  in  A'  and  />  in  N,  then, 
from  the  definitions  involved,  it  is  seen  that 
af>  is  in  .V  or  in  A''  according  as  />  is  even 
or  oild;  symbolically,  (—  a)b  =  +<i  ,  if  b  is  even, 
and  (—a)*  =  —  u  ,  if  b  is  odd  In  particular, 
(  —  i)b  =  i  or  —  1  according  as  b  is  even  or  is 
odd:  (—a)b  —  (  —  i)bal',  b  even  or  odd.  Exten- 
sion of  the  old  involution  notion  and  its  rules 
to  the  new  numbers  yields  new  symbols  such 
as  a",  (  —a)0,  a~b,  (  —  a)~b and  correspond- 
ing formal  relations  such  as  (-a)b-  (  —  ,11  c 
=  (—a)b-c:  .  .  .  ;  of  which  the  meaning  in  other 
terms  will  appear  at  a  subsequent  stage. 

Operation  of  Division,  th,-  Concept  of  Fraction, 
— The  numbers  in  17  suffice  to  answer  all  addi- 
tion, subtraction,  and  multiplication  questions 
about  themselves,  but  other  questions  remain, 
unanswerable     in      such     terms.      E'     docs     not 

enable  us  to  answer  the  inverse  of  every  multi- 
plication question  even  about  tin-  positive  in- 
tegers, much  less  about  all  the  numbers  in  /•.'. 
Tin'  inverse'  of  multiplication  is  named  division. 
Given  <i  and  /),  any  numbers  of  /■',  multiplica- 
tion asks:  0-6  =  ?  The  answer  is  ill  /■.'.  Given 
.1  and  1.  of  /'•.'.  division  asks:  u-(?)=c;  for  ex- 
amples, 4-(?)  =8,  .((?)=<).  In  general  1-7  fails 
to  answer.  To  meet  the  demand,  a  new  entity, 
named  fraction,  to  be  thenceforth  regarded  as  a 

number,   is  created   by   the   definition:   a—  =  c, 

a 

oT  —  -a=c.     The  fraction  -    is  often  written  c/a 

a  a 

or  .  :a  or  c-r-a;    c  is  numerator  or  dividend,  a  is 
minator    or  divisor,  c  and  a  are  the  terms; 

c  is  said  to  be  divided  by  a,  and  —  is  the  quotient 

of  C  by  a,  or  ratio  of  c  to  a.      Plainly,  the  defini- 

c  c 

tion  fails  to  determine  — ,  when  a  =0;   forif  —  =  6, 
a  a 

c=-b-a,  but  b-o=n-o.  Hence  zero  is  not  ad- 
missible as  denominator  (divisor). 

Rational  Numbers. — The  positive  and  negative 

integers,    zero,    and    the    fractions    are'    together 

said     to    constitute    the    assemblage    of    rational 

numbers.      Obviously  all  the  rationals  are  (con- 

ible  as)    fractions;     for,   if  u  be  an  integer 

ij  ,  a      „., 

or  zero,  a- 1  =a,  but  —  •  1  =u,  whence  a  =— .      J  he 

1  1 

rules  for  combination  of  rationals  are  consistent 
extensions  of  those  found  for  the  special  ra- 
tionals composing  £'.      As  to  signs: 


+  a 
+  b 


—  a 


+  a 
-b 


—  a 
Tb- 


ALGEBRA 


+  a 
+  b 


—  a  +  a 


i 
-b' 


'K)-'(-j)--e-j)- 

and  so  on  as  for  integers.  Formula?,  or  rules,  for 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  divi- 
sion  of   rationals    (including   those   not   in   E') 

are    readily    obtained.       For  example,   7 — r="? 
J  b    a 

Let  y---j-=x;   then   by  the  definitions  involved 

b    a 
and    the    commutative,    distributive,    and    asso- 
ciative laws,  one  has: 


The    entity    or   symbol     yr    is    named    radical, 
or  nth  root  of  r.     The  previously  unanswerable 

*7~ 
question  is   now  answerable:     k  =  y  — 


If    « 


is  even  and  r  negative,  yr  is  called  imaginary 
(see  Theory  of  Functions  of  Complex  Vari- 
able); in  particular,  y*  —  i,  or  simply  V  —  i, 
denoted  by  »',  is  called  imaginary  unit.  If  n 
is  odd  and   r  negative,  or  if  n  is  odd   or  even 

and  r  positive,  yr  is  said  to  be  real.  Obviously 
any    rational    is    conceivable    under    the    form 


,  etc.      Often,  too. 


(H)-M-M:  (H(^-d) 


•/></;    T-,-bd=ac: 
ba 


bd 


bd ■■ 


=  x-bd; 
x-bd; 


(V~r)";    e.g.,3-^1)    -(VD 

fr  is  rational:  e.g.,  V7=2,  T27=3.  If  yr 
is  real  but  not  a  rational,  it  is  named  s»rd  of 
nrrfcr  n;  e.g.,  V2  is  a  surd  of  2d  order.  That 
V2  is  »d/  rational  is  readily  shown.  It  is 
plainly    no    integer.      If,    then,    it    is    rational, 


a    c       ac 


bd 


x:   -, — 7  =  v^,  rule  for  multiplication.    Again, 
0    d      bd 


V7 


t-,  where  b>  1  numerically  and  7-  is  in  its 
b  '  b 


let  y-  +  -r=x;    then    ly-  +  -7-)  -bd  =  x-bd; 

-rbd  + -rbd  =  x-bd;    ad+bc  =x-bd\ 

b  d 

ad  +  bc  ,  ,         ,  ,  .        ad  +  bc   .  .  ,, 

■  bd=  ad  +  bc;   — — — ■■bd=x-bd; 


bd 


bd 


ad+bc  a       c      ad+bc  , 

— j-j — =x\  -r+-r= — n — .    rule    for     addition 
bd  b      d  bd 


found  that 


i.e.,  division  is  con- 


including  subtraction).  Analogously  may  be 
a  c  a  d 
b  '  d  be 
vcrtible  into  multiplication.  The  absolute  or 
numerical  value  of  a  rational  is  its  value  regard- 
less of  sign;    e.g.,  the  numerical  value  of  —4  is  4. 

a       ad    c      eb  .  a . 

Plainly,  j-  =7-3,  "7  =7T;  numerically,  r  is  greater 

than,  equal  to,  or  less  than  -j-  according  as  the 

like  relation  subsists  between  ad  and  be.  In 
respect  to  numerical  value,  there  is  a  rational  and 
hence  an  infinity  of  rationals  between  every  two 
numerically  unequal  rationals.  Any  positive  is 
said  to  be  algebrati  ally  greater  than  any  negative. 
Evolution,  Radicals.  Surds. — The  sum,  differ- 
ence, product,  or  quotient  (division  by  zero 
being  excluded)  of  any  two  rationals  is  a  ra- 
tional. As  to  these  operations,  the  domain  of 
rationals    is    closed.      Not    so,    however,    if    we 


lowest    terms,   i.e.,   a    and  b  are   prime*  to    each 
other,   i.e.,    have    no    common    factor    except     1 

a- 
or  —  1 ;   then  2/1=7-,  an   integer  equal  to  a  non- 
integer. 

Generalized  Exponents. — By  means  of  the  new- 
numbers,  zero,  negatives,  fractions,  radicals 
(including  surds),  the  notion  of  exponent,  de- 
fined for  positive  cardinals,  admits  of  generali- 
zation to  include  such  forms  as  a",  a',  a-2,  etc. 
The  question  is:  What  do  such  forms  signify? 
In  themselves  they  are  meaningless.  It  is  man 
who  gives  them  meaning,  subject  to  the  condi- 
tion that  his  algebra  shall  be  self-consistent. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  process. 
For  (positive)  cardinals,  a>»  •  an  =  a»'+».  This 
law  is  imposed  in  case  a  is  any  number,  new  or 
old.   Similarly  for  (a"<)"  =a»>n  and  a>"-b»i=(ai)>n. 


It  readily  appears  that  —  =a'»- 


vhere  m    ■  n 


admit  evolution. 


Let  7-  be  any  rational,  and   11 

b  J 


e-r-' 


a  positive  integer.      Involution    asks: 

The  answer  is  a  rational.      But,  11  being  a  positive 

integer  and  -7-  being  rational,  evolution   inverts 

the  question  and  asks  for  a  number  k  such  that 

kn  =  -j.     In    general   no   rational   answers.     For 

example,  no  rational  satisfies  the  relation  k2  =  —  1 
or  the  relation  k2=2.     To   meet   such  needs  a 

new  entity,   yr,  r  being  rational  and  n   a   posi- 
tive integer,  is  created  by  the  definition  :  (  4  r)"=r. 


and  a  is  not  zero.     What  signifies  ab ,  b  being  a 

positive  integer?     Assume   that  ab   satisfies  the 

•  1       1 

law,  a'" -a"  =a<"+n.    Then  ab  -ab  . ,  .  .  (to  b  factors) 

T-+-T  + ...  (to6  terms)         r         ,  .         (    -77) 

=  ab      b  =ljd  =  al=a;  i.e.,  \ab /  =a, 

but     (in)  '=n,    hence     ab=\a;    e.g.,  V2  —  2* 
, b       c  : 

V/-3=(-3).     It  similarly  follows  that  a«  =  4  o* 

=  \ya)  .  [n  like  manner,  a°-o*=al,+6  =a*,  bul 
\-ab=ab,  hence  a"  t.  Once  men',  lei  b  be  a 
positive   integer   or   fraction,  then  a~b-ab  =  ab-b 

=  i!°=i;    multiplying  by  —r,  a~b  =  — -      It  then 

requires  and  admits  of  proof  that  the  exponent 

laws  hold  g 1   in   ease  the  exponents  are  any 

rationals.  The  ease  where  the  exponents  are 
not  rationals  remains  for  consideration,  requir- 
ing another  order  of  ideas  of  which  some  account 

follows. 

Irrational  Numbers. — It  has  been  seen  that 
the  surds  arc  irrational.  They  may  be  defined 
by   a   more   general    method,   available   for  the 


*  See  Theory  of  Numbers. 


ALGEBRA 


definition  of  ailrlitinnnl  irrationals,  For  ex- 
ample, the  aril  timet  ic  process  (hen  a  u 
for  extracting  square  rool  yields  for  \  2  the 
endless  decimal  1.41421  ...  Consider  the  two 
endless  sequences  of  nationals:  (1)  1,  1  1.  1.41. 
1.414.  1  n  t-'.  ■  ■  ;  (2)  2,  1.5,  '  1-'.  t-4'Si 
1.414.5,...  Every  number  of  (1)  is  <  every 
Dumber  of  (2);  it  is  possible  to  find  in  (1)  a 
number  m  and  in  (2)  a  number  n  such  thai 
11—  ni<r,  r  being  a  positive  rational  small  at 
will,  chosen  in  advance.  Hence  (1)  and  (.') 
are  said  !  1  define,  by  approaching  mar  at  will, 
some  Definite,  d,  as  their'common  limit.  Plainly 
,/  is  in  neither  (1)  nor  (2)  What  is  dl  The 
sequences  (3)  and  <|i  obtained  by  squaring  the 
numbers  of  (.1)  and  (2)  are  clearly  related  l" 
2  as  (1)  and  (2)  to  ./:  heme  </  is  V2.  That  is, 
the  irrational  \^2  is  definable  as  limit  of  rational 
sequences.  Compare  (see  Elementary  Pure 
Geometry)  the  definition  of  -.  (irrational)  ratio 
oi  circumference  to  diameter  of  circle.  The 
defining  method  just  exemplified  is,  in  generality, 
as  follows:  l.et  .1  ami  />'  he  any  two  sequences 
of  nationals  such  that:  (/)  every  number  of 
/>'  is  >  every  one  of  .1;  (ii\  given  any  positive 
rational  r,  small  at  will,  there  are  in  A  and  B 
numbers  a  and  h  such  that  b  —  a<r.  Then 
1  and  /,'  have  a  common  limit,  some  definite,  d 
Such  ■/  may  be  rational,  as  2  in  case  of  (3)  and 
(4).  [f  d  be  not  a  rational,  it  is  named  irrational 
number.  The  rationals  and  tin-  irrationals  to- 
gether constitute  t  he  assemblage  of  real  numbers 
(see  Theory  of  tub  Real  Variable).  If  11  and 
b  are  real  and  i  =  V  —  1 ,  numbers  of  the  form 
ii  t-  Hi   arc-    called    complex    (see    THEORY    or    the 

Complex    Variable)      The    complex    numbers 

1!  |-W  and  ,/  hi  are  said  to  be  conjugate,  It  is 
found  that  the  real  and  complex  numbers  obey 
the  forma]  laws  of  operation  that  control  com- 
bination  of   rationals. 

Terms,  Expressions,  Factors,  etc. — -In  algebra 
numbers,  real  or  complex,  are  commonly  called 
quantities.  Any  lawful  combination,  however 
complicate,  of  number  symbols  represents  a 
number  or  quantity,  and  is  named  algebraic  ex- 

a 

pression,  as  5,  3a,  \/y  (<!*  —  3/~x*),    '"  ~  "  _  .    The 

parts  of  an   algebraic  expression   that   are  con- 
nected  by   the   sign     +    or    —    are   called   tern:-. 
Two   or   more    terms   enclosed   in    parentheses   () 
or    brackets    []    or    braces     ||     or    written    under   a 
vinculum   ~    ~  are    treated    as    a    whole;     thus, 

2  -(4  +6)  =2-10,  3X7-5=3X2,  x—\y—{z— 
(x-y-z)\]j=x-[y-\s-(x-y+z))]~x-[y-lz 

—  X  Vy  —  ~l]  =  .V—  [y  t  v  —  v]  =  .v  —  X  =  o.  An  ex- 
|  ion    of    more    than    one    term    is    a    polytlO- 

mial  or  multinomial.  Expressions  of  one,  two, 
three  terms  an'  respectively  monomial,  bino- 
mial, trinomial;  thus,  a  —  (b—  c)  is  binomial, 
though  its  equivalent,  a—b+c,  is  trinomial. 
The  term  fraction  is  extended  to  any  expression 
m  the  form  of  a  fraction  (as  above  defined). 
An  expression  may  be  integral  as  to  some  of 
its  symbols  and  fractional  as  to  others;  thus 
(x*—  y*)w-* 

- —  -  is  integral  as  to  x  and  y,  but  frac- 

tional as  to  :  and  re.  The  like  distinction  holds 
in  respect  to  rational  and  irrational:  thus 
x V2—  tyz1  is  rational  as  to  r,  irrational  as  to 
arand  z.  In  the  indicated  product  of  two  or  more 
symbols,  as  4Xl<i'\v,  any  partial  product  is  the 


tcieni  of  the  complementary  product;    thus 

4  and  \ab\  are  coefficients  Of  each  other;  simi- 
larly, for  4  •;  J  and  abx,  lor  4  •.  1 1  and  ab,  etc. 
An  expression  that  is  rational  and  integral  as 
I',       line  symbol,  as    t,  is  said   to  be  of  degree   H 

in  that  symbol  if  its  greatest  exponent  in  any 

term  is  n;  thus  a'x*  I  bah  '  \\a"  I  1  is  of  de- 
gree 5  in  v,  of  degree  (1  in  a,  and  of  degree  r 
in  />.  An  expression  rational  and  integral  in 
two  or   more   symbols  is  said    to   be   of  .lego. 

in  those    lymbols  (together)  if  s  is  the  largest 

sum   of    the  exponents  of    those   symbols  in   any 

term;     thus    a'b'c     ia*b4c'     jb'c1   is    of  degree 

<)  in  ii,  />,  1    (together)        In  general,  each  of  two 

or  more  expressions  is  called  a  factor  of  their 

product.      In   this   general   sense,   u*   and   o'   are 

factors  of  (i3,  and  so,  too,  are  -r-  and  — .      In  a 

b  a 

more  restricted  sense,  the  factors  of  an  expres- 
sion rational  and  integral  as  to  some  letter  must 
themselves  be  rational  and  integral  as  to  that 
letter;  thus  some  factors  of  a'b —  a*b  are  o,  a"-, 
6,  ab,  o'6,  1  -a,  for  division  by  any  of  these 
yields  a  quotient  rational  and  integral  as  to  ,j 
and  b.  In  such  cases,  factors  of  lowest  degree 
in  any  symbol  are  tailed  simple  factors  (in  that 
(symbol).  A  factor  of  two  or  more  expressions 
is  called  a  common  factor  of  them.  The  common 
factor    of    highest     degree    is    called    the    highest 

common  factor  (II .( '/■'.);  thus  the  H.C.F.  of 
a3h-  and  a-b3  is  <i:/>:;  of  a-  —  b2  and  ac  |  be,  it 
is  0+6.  Every  expression  is  a  multiple  of  its 
factors.  A  multiple  of  two  or  more  expressions 
is  called  a  common  multiple  of  them;  it  is  their 
/sec./  common  multiple  (L.C.M.)  if  it  is  the 
common  multiple  of  lowest  degree;  thus,  the 
L.C.M.  of  a  ab--r-  and  a*bc*  1.  aW;  of 
(x-a)lx  b)\x-  c)'  and  (x-a)\x-b)fx-c)  it 
is  (  v  —  a)'(x  —  b)'(x  —  <.-)'.  It  is  readily  proved 
tli.it  the  product  of  two  expressions  is  equal 
to    that    of   their    //.('./■'.    and    L.C.M.      If    /•.    is 

any    algebraic   expression,  then    I:"- ,   El E" 

are     respectively    the     second,     third nth 

powers  of  /-,,  and  I:  is  the   square,  ,  ube »lh 

root  respectively  of  /•.'  ,  /•' /•>.  In  par- 
ticular,  E'  and    /•.'  are  tin'  square  and  the  cube 

of  E,     Thus  ax1  is  the  square  root  of  az.\ '. 

is  the  cube  root  of  a*b— *,  ,r}  —  y1  is  the  square 
root  of  (vi  — yi)2,  or*+ji-2.iV, 

Kali, 1,    Proportion,  Variation. — The  fraction  -7 

is  the  ratio  of  a  to  }>.  often  written  a\b,  of  which 

a   is   antecedent   and  b  is  consequent.       If   a=     ■ 

y 

z  xiv 

and  b=—,  then  a:b— — .      A   ratio  is  commen- 
w  yz 

surable  or  incommensurable  according  as  it  is  or 
is  not  a  rational  number;  thus,  2:5  is  com- 
mensurable, but  V  -' :  1 ,  ratio  of  diagonal  to  side 
of  square,  is  incommensurable.  Plainly,  ratio 
theory  is   fraction   theory.      It  is  easily  proved 


that  if 


then 


a+c  +  g  +  . 

b  +  ,/  +  /+. 


b' 


=  0.     If  j-  =-7,  a,  b,  c,  and  </, 


b      d       j 

unless  6 +rf+/  +  .  .. —«.  ni- 
taken  in  order,  are  in  proportion,  often  written 
a:b::c:d,  or  a:b=c:d,  a  and  d  being  the  ex- 
tremes and  b  and  c  the  means.  In  such  ease 
ad  be,  and  conversely.  If  a:b  =b:c,  i.e..  if 
b' =ac,  b  is  a  mean  proportional  to  a  and  c,  and 


ALGEBRA 


eis  a  third  proportional  to  a  and  b.  If  a:b  =  c:d, 
then  a+b:b  =  c  +  dui,  a —b:b  =c  —  d:d.  whence 
a+b:a  —  b=c4-d:c—d,  i.e.,  a,  b,  c,  d  are  in  pro- 
portion by  composition,  by  divtsi  it,  and  by  both. 
A  quantity  -v  vanes  direct!)  as  y,  symbolically 
*  oc  y,  if  the  ratio  of  every  two  values  of  x  is 
equal  to  the  ratio  of  the  corresponding  y  values. 
If  x  OC  L\y,  x  varies  inversely  as  }'.  If  x  oc  yz, 
x  varies  as  y  and  z  jointly.  Examples:  if  x  is 
distance  traveled  and  y  is  rate,  x  oc  y;  if  x 
is  volume  of  given  mass  of  gas  (at  constant 
temperature)  and  y  is  pressure  on  it,  x  <X  i:y 
(Boyle's  Law);  if  x  is  the  area  of  triangle  and 
,v  and  z  are  base  and  altitude,  x  oc  yz.  If  x  OC  y, 
x=cy,  where  c  is  some  constant;  if  x  oc  i:y, 
x  =c:y\  if  x  oc  yz,  x=cyz,  if  x  oc  y  and  oc  i  :z, 
x=cy:z;  if  .r  oc  y  and  y  a  z,  x  ex  z,  x  +y  oc  z, 
*— y  oc  z,  V-ry  oc  z;  if  .v  a  y  and  z  oc  a;,  arz  a  yw; 
if  v  a  y,  xk  OC  y*,  fc  any  exponent;  if  a:  oc  y  when  0 
is  constant,  and  x  oc  z  when  y  is  constant,  then 
x  oc  yz  when  y  and  z  both  vary.  It  is  seen  that 
variation  is  a  kind  of  generalized  doctrine  of  pro- 
portion. 

The  Notion  and  Notation  of  Function. — A 
quantity  which  may  take  different  values  is  a 
variable.  Two  variables  so  related  that  to  a 
value  of  either  there  corresponds  one  cr  more 
values  of  the  other  are  called  function  of  each 
other  (see  Infinitesimal  Calculus  .  Any 
algebraic  expression  is  a  function  of  the  symbols 
it  involves,  and  conversely;  for  example,  2X2  +  3 
is  a  function  of  x,  and  conversely.  A  function 
of  a  symbol  as  x  is  often  denoted  by  the  symbol 
](x)  or  F(x)  or  (j>(x)  or  the  like  and  read  /-func- 
tion of  x,  and  so  on.  If  f(x)  =  2X2  —  4,  then 
f(o)  =  -4,  f(-i)  =  -2,  }(a)=2a2-4,  etc.  The 
function  symbol  has  reference  to  the  form  of  the 
function,  and  in  the  same  argument  or  discussion 
the  same  symbol  may  not  be  used  for  two 
different  functions.  Of  great  importance  are 
the  integral  (entire)  polynomials,  of  which  the 
general  form  for  a  single  variable  x  is  /n(.v)  =a^ 
-\-avx"~l+ajtn-1-r.  .  .+an-lx+an.  The  coeffi- 
cients a,,,  a, an  are  regarded  as  arbitrary 

constants.  Accordingly  f1(x)sa^c+a1,  said  to 
be  linear  or  of  first  degree;  f?(x)  sa^x2  +atx  +a2, 
the  general  quadratic  expression  or  expression  of 
second  degree;  /jsa^'  + .  .  .  +  a3,  the  general 
cubic,  fl{x)=a<^i  +  ...+ai,  the  general  biquad- 
ratic .  etc.  The  general  expressions  become  par- 
ticular or  special  on  assigning  specific  (numerical) 
values  to  the  (literal)  coefficients.  In  any  /„(.<) 
any  value  may  be  given  to  .r,  the  corresponding 
value  of  /„(.v)  is  then  determined.  The  inverse 
pri  iblem  of  determining  all  values  of  .r  for  which 
/„(  i  1  shall  have  a  prescribed  value  is  far  more 
difficult.  A  value  of  x  for  which  /n(v)  is  zero 
is  said  to  cause  /n(r)  to  vanish.  To  every  ex- 
pression /„(.i)  corresponds  an  equation,  /n(.r)  =0, 

of  1st,  2d Hth  degree,  according  as  n  =  1, 

2 n.     The  equation   imposes   a  condition 

on  x,  restricting  its  variability,  allowing  it  only 
such  values  as  make  /„( x)  vanish.  (The  variable 
in  an  equation  is  called  the  unknown  quantity.) 
Any  such  value  is  a  root  of  the  equation.  Tin- 
equation  f„(x)  =0  has  n  and  onlv  n  roots  (see 
Theory  of  Equations).  To  solve  an  equation 
is  to  find  its  roots.     A  linear  equation  a„x  +al  =0 

has  one  root,  -,  and  it  may  always  be  found 

by  adding   —a,  to  both  members  a^x+a,  and  o 


and  then  dividing  the  sums  by  a0.  The  re- 
sult of  the  addition  is  the  equation  11^  = 
—  a,.  Obviously  any  term  may  be  trans- 
posed from  either  member  of  an  equation  to 
the  other  if  at  the  same  time  the  sign  of  the 
term  be  reversed.  Presently  we  shall  see 
how  to  solve  quadratic,  cubic,  and  biquadratic 
equations. 

Factor  and  Remainder  Theorems. — Obviously 
fn(x)  may  contain  a  factor  of  the  form  x—a; 
e.g.,  x  —  2  is  a  factor  of  x2  —  4.  If  /'„(.»)  has 
x  —  a  for  factor,  then  fn'x)  =(x —  a)Q,  where  Q 
is  the  quotient  of  fn(x)  divided  by  x  —  a.  Hence 
under  the  supposition  fn(x)  vanishes  when  a  is 
put  for  x.  The  converse  is  the  factor  theorem: 
If  /n(.v)  vanishes  on  replacing  the  variable  x  by 
a  number  a,  then  x  —  a  is  a  factor  of  fn(x). 
Proof:  divide  fn(x)  by  x  —  a  until  the  remainder 
R  does  not  contain  x.  Then  fn(x)  =(x  —  a)Q +R; 
put  a  for  x,  then  fn{d)  =(0  —  o)Q  +  R,  but  }„(a)  =0, 
hence  R  =  o,  hence  /„(.r)  =  (,r  —  a)Q.  At  the  same 
time  is  proved  the  remai  rem:    Division 

of  fn(x)  by  x—a  yields  /„(")  for  remainder.  By 
the  factor  theorem  it  is  seen  that  xn  —  an  is 
divisible  by  x—a,  for  on  putting  a  for  x,  x*  —  <!» 
=  an— an  =  o.  Put  a  for  x  in  xn  +an;  the  result 
is  not  zero;  hence  x  —  a  is  not  a  factor  of  .r"  +a». 
If  n  is  odd,  x+a  is  a  factor  of  x^  +  a"  for 
(  —  a)"  +a»  =  0  for  n  odd. 

The  Quadratic  Equation. — The  general  quad- 
ratic equation  ax2+bx+c  =  o  can  be  solved  as 
follow-s:  The  roots  of  an  equation  are  not  altered 
by  adding  a  constant  to  both  members  or  by 
multiplying  both  by  a  constant.     Dividing  both 

b2        b2 

members  by  a,  then  adding  — ; to  the  left 

n  4a2      4a2 

b2  —  4ac\ 

-)  =0; 

factoring, 

\x+ —  +  — Vb2~4ac[\x+ -Vb2~Aac[  =0. 

I        2a     2a  )  I        2a     2a  \ 

If  the  product  of  two  or  more  integral  factors 
is  zero,  one  of  them  must  be  zero  and  the 
equation  is  satisfied  if  any  one  of  them  is  zero 
Hence  the  roots  of  the  quadratic  are  the  too- 
the  linear  equations  obtained  by  equating  to  zero 
the  foregoing  factors.     The  roots  r,  and  r,  are: 


member,   we   obtain 


4"  4" 

H;)"-(- 


r,=—  (-6  +  V62-4ac),r2=— (-b-Vb* -4ac). 

1         2CJ  '       *         2(2 

Thus  it  is  seen   that  every   quadratic   equation 
has     two     and     but     two     roots.       Their     sum 

ri  +  r2= and  their  product  r,r2  =— ,  a  special 

case  (see  Theory  of  Equations)  of  the  law- 
connecting  the  roots  and  coefficients  in 
general  equation  /„(.r)  =0.  If  the  coefficii 
are  real,  the  roots  are  both  imaginary  when  and 
only  when  the  discriminant  b2  —  40c  <o,  or  nega- 
tive. If  b2  —  40c  -=0  the  roots  are  equal;  if  b2  —  411c 
is  a  perfect  square,  they  are  rational. 

The  Cubic  liquation.  Cube  Roots  of  Unity. — Let 
x*  =  i,   then    .v3  — 1  =< 
(.v-i)(.v7+.v  +  i)=o. 

of   unity   are   1,    to  = 
-V—3); 

UJ2  =  (Or, 

the  cube  roots  of  1  are  1,  uj,  or.  Any  num! 
has  three  cube  roots,  ^/a,  w^/a.  oj2^/a;  thus  the 
cube  roots  of  8  arc  2.  tu2  and  w22.  The  general 
cubic   may    be   written  x'' +  ax2  +bx +c  =  0.     On 


factoring   left    member. 
Hence    the    cube 
=  J(-i+V^),    <Uj  =  J(_I 
<",    and   m,  are   imaginary   (complex) ; 
,2  =  <o,.  a),3=w,3  =  i:   writing   in   for   at,. 


ALGEBRA 


putting  y — fur  v,  the  cubic  becomes 

y+("-7>+(c-f  +  T7)=0- 

or  y'  +  py+q  =  o    lacking  the  second   term  and 
called    ti"  I    cubic.      It    is  sufficient  to 

solve   the   reduced   cubic,   for   the  roots  of  the 

original  arc  tlun  found  by  the  relation  x  —  y . 

P  P* 

Let    v  =  s  — — ,     then     z'+qz*  —  —  =o.       This      is 

quadratic  in   a*,    yielding  c'=— —  ±V7}      [where 

I  1    in   the    f.ut    that    s  lias  six  values,  it  must 
not    be   inferred    that     V    has    six;     for   the    two 

P* 
values  c.'  and  zJ  of  g»  are  such  that  S,Z.'  =  —  —  : 

27 

hence  the  six  g-values,  s1,  rs,  &«,,  w2;,,  <uc2,  or;,, 

yield  but  */ir<v   v-valucs,  corresponding  to  the 

relations  :t:3  =  to:l-w-:„  =  tajnt  ■ 


-'-.     For  ex- 


ample, }',  - *i  ■ 


=  ;2  z,  +c2. 

J"2 


If 


gl_y/_£  +  VQ,    then    a,-|/-£-VS, 


and  the  v-valucs  are: 

y,=Jy  -  1-  +  \/Q  +  a,iy  -~--\/Q, 

y,  =  ^\/      -[      s/Ql      \  '      's/o. 

It  can  be  readily  shown  for  real  p and  q that  one  of 
the  r's  is  real  and  the  other  two  are  conjugate 
imaginaries  if  Q  be      ,  that  all  are  real  and  two 

equal  if  Q=0,  and  thai  all  are  real  and  dis- 
tinct if  Q  is  — .  The  last  ease  is  called  irre- 
ducible because  the  root  formula,  involving 
imaginaries,  is  practically  valueless.  In  this 
the  roots  may  be  found  by  help  of  the 
trigonometric  functions  (sec'  Trigonometry)  as 
follows:  Let  Q=—  r1  sin'O,  —  $<;  =  rcos0,  then 
r=V-/>':27,  cos  0  =  -\q:V  -p":  27.  The 
value  of  0  may  be  found  by  trigonometric  table. 
Hence 


^  ~  hi  +  "^Q  =i/'r  c°s  0  +ir  sin  0 

-*i/r{cos  \{0  +  2kn)  I  i  sin  \(6  +  2kn)\ 

and 

-?/-.,/-%  Q 

~tyr jcos  i(0  I  2/,-) -/sin  l(0  +  2ibr), 
fc=o,  J,  or  1.  The  v  formul.e  then  give 
y-°xfyr  cos  \(0  +  2kii). 

The  Biquadratic,  or  Quartit  -  In  general  form 
this  is  x*  t  px*+qx*  I  ra  l-j  =  o.  The  equivalent 
reduced  quartic,  r1  +  ax'  +  bx  +c  =  0,  is  found  by 

replacing  *    by  x  — — .     To    solve    the    reduced 


quartic,  let  x  =  u+y+g,  then  x'  —  2t!(i<!+j>:  )  ;') 

Buy  x  >  (/r  i  y1  Hl)'-4((iV+jV  1  ;2h2)  =0; 

if  this  be  identical  with   the   reduced  quartic 

o 2i>24-;y2+c2),   b--&uyz,   c  =  (u'+y>  | 

—  4(»2.f2  '  i.     Owing    to    relations   be- 

tween the  roots  and  coefficients  of  any  equation 
(see  Theory  of  Equations),  the  roots  of  the 

auxiliary  cubic  /'  I  — /2H —t =0  are  1*1 

2  16  64 

y',  c'  Iieuoling  them  by  /,  in,  n,  we  have 
X  =  ±Vl±Vni±\/  ti,  apparently  eight  values  of 
\.     but    really    only    /ear    because    the    product 

1  —6:8.  If  b  is  positive  the  values  of  v 
are  -  v7-  Vj7i  -  Vn,  -  \//"+  Vm  4-  V~n,  VT— 
\/m  +  vSi,  V/ 4- v'nj  —  VTi ;  if  /1  is  negative,  they 
are   the   negatives  of  the  former. 

Historical  and  Critical  Note. — As  seen,  the 
general  equations  of  4th  and  lower  degrees  are 
soluble  by  means  of  radicals  or  root  extraction. 
It  was  naturally  but  incorrectly  supposed  that 
the  same  means  would  prove  available  in  case 
of  the  general  quintic  and  equations  of  higher 
degree,  and  one  of  the  great  problems  of  the 
eighteenth  century  was  to  solve  the  quintic  in 
a  manner  analogous  to  that  employed  above 
for  the  quartic,  cubic,  and  quadratic.  In  1770 
Lagrange  proved  that  the  method  was  not 
adequate  for  that  purpose,  as  it  gave  (or auxiliary 
equation  an  essentially  general  one  of  sixth 
degree.  By  Abel,  Wantzcl,  and  Galois  (see 
Galois  Theory  of  Equations)  it  was  shown 
to  be  impossible  to  solve  by  radicals  any 
general  equation  of  degree  above  4.  Subse- 
quently Hermite  proved  that  the  roots  of  the 
general  quintic  are  expressible  in  terms  of 
elliptic  functions.  The  quadratic,  cubic,  and 
quartic  are  solvable  by  other  methods  than 
those  given  above,  but  all  are  essentially  the 
same.  The  solution  of  the  general  quadratic 
was  known  to  the  Arabs  in  the  ninth  century. 
The  solution  of  x3  +  px+q  =  o  was  discovered  by 
Scipio  I'crrco  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  It  was  rediscovered  a  few  years  later 
by  Tartaglia.  The  solution  given  above  is 
known  as  Cardan's,  but  it  is  known  that  Cardan 
learned  it  from  Tartaglia.  Ferrari,  a  pupil  of 
Cardan's,  solved  the  quartic.  The  solution, 
given  by  Bombelli  in  his  algebra  (1579),  is  some- 
times attributed  to  him.  Descartes  gave  a 
different  solution  in  1637.  The  solution  pre- 
sented above  is  Euler's,  having  been  found  by 
him  in  1 770. 

Higher  aquations  — Although  the  general  equa- 
tions of  the  5th  and  higher  degrees  are  not 
solvable  by  radicals,  many  particular  equations 
of  such  degrees  are  thus  solvable;  e.g.,  x*  —  i  =0 
breaks  up  into  two  quartics,  x'  —  1  =0,  x*  + 1  =0. 
In  works  on  the  theory  of  ei  |  nations  (see  THEORY 

of  Equations)  various  methods,  chief  of  which 
is  Horner's,  are  given  whereby  the  commensur- 
able roots  of  any  equation  having  numerical 
coefficients  can  be  found  and  the  incommen- 
surable roots  can  be  found  to  any  required  degree 
of  approximation. 

Simultaneous  Equations. — The  general  linear 
equation  in  two  variables  or  unknowns,  as  .v 
and  y.  is  ax  +  by  =  c.  Solved  for  one  of  the 
variables,  say  \,  in  terms  of  the  other,  the  equa- 
tion becomi  — -.  It  is  seen  that  x  and  y 
a 

are  functions  of  each  other:  to  any  value  of 
cither  corresponds  a  value  of  the  other.     Any  two 


ALGEBRA 


corresponding  values  constitute  a  pair  satisfying, 
the  equation.  There  are  infinitely  many  such 
pairs  satisfying  a  given  equation  of  the  kind  in 
question,  as  many  pairs  as  there  are  numbers.  Ob- 
viously there  are  hosts  of  pairs  not  satisfying  a 
given  equation.  All  the  pairs  satisfying  a  given 
equation  constitute  a  system  of  pairs.  Two  equa- 
tions a,x  +  b,y  =  c, ,  ajc  +  b2y  =  c2  are  different  unless 
a,  :a2  =  6,  :b2  =  c,  :c2.  Have  the  two  systems  de- 
termined by  two  different  equations  any  pairs 
in  common?  The  answer  is,  one  pair.  It  can 
be  found  as  follows:  Multiplying  the  former 
equation  by  b2,  the  latter  by  —6,,  adding  and 
solving  for  a:,  x  =  (b2cl—blc2):(alb,—a1bl);  analo- 
gously, y  =  (a2c,—c1a2):(a,b2  —  a2bl).  This  and 
only  this  pair  of  values  of  x  and  y  satisfies  both 
equations.  In  combining  the  equations,  x  and  y 
were  regarded  as  the  same  in  both.  Two  or 
more  equations  in  two  or  more  unknowns  are 
called  simultaneous  when  the  unknowns  are 
treated  as  representing  the  same  numbers  in  all 
the  equations.  In  the  foregoing  solution  the 
^-equation  was  found  by  eliminating  y  between 
the  given  equations.  The  elimination  was  ac- 
complished by  addition.  It  might  have  been  done 
otherwise,  as  by  comparison,  i.e.,  solving  each 
equation  for  y  and  equating  the  y-values  so  ob- 
tained, or  by  substitution,  i.e.,  solving  one  of  the 
equations  for  y  and  substituting  the  j'-value  so 
found  for  y  in  the  other  equation.  In  any  of 
these  ways  or  by  combinations  of  them  one 
may  find  a  triplet  of  values  satisfying  three 
arbitrary  equations  in  three  unknowns,  x,  y,  z: 
eliminate,  say  s,  between  two  of  them  and  then 
between  the  remaining  one  and  one  of  the  others; 
so  result  two  equations  in  x  and  y,  to  be  handled 
as  above.  The  method  is  obviously  extensible 
to  the  case  of  n  equations  in  n  unknowns.  In 
general,  n  linear  equations  in  n  unknowns  are 
satisfied  simultaneously  by  but  a  single  set  of 
values  of  the  unknowns,  but  in  special  cases  by 
more  than  one  set.  The  latter  happens  only 
when  the  coefficients  satisfy  some  special  condi- 
tion or  conditions.  Under  certain  conditions  n  or 
more  equations  in» —  I  unknowns  may  be  satisfied 
by  a  same  set  of  values.  Thus  ax  +  b  =  o  and 
ex  +  d  =  o  have  the  same  root  when  and  only  when 
be  —  ad  =  o;  axx  +  bly  +c,  =o,  a^x  +  b2y  +  c2  =  o , 
a^v  +  b3y  +  c3  =  o ,  are  simultaneously  satisfied  or 
are  consistent  when  and  only  when  atb2c3  +  a2b3Cj 
+aib1ct  —  a3b2C)  —  a2blc3—  a1b3c2  =  o.  For  the  ex- 
pression of  such  conditions,  and  the  solution  of 
sets  of  linear  equations,  by  means  of  deter- 
minants, sec  the  article  Determinants  and  works 
therein  cited. 

Simultaneous  equations  involving  the  un- 
knowns to  degrees  higher  than  the  first  may 
sometimes  be  solved.  Consider,  for  example, 
the  pair  of  equations:  ax  +  by  +  c  =  o,  dx'+ey2 
+fxy+gx+hy+k=o;       from    the    former    y  = 

—  (c  +  ax):a;  substituting  that  y-value  for  y 
in  the  second  given  equation,  a  quadratic  in  x 
is  found ;  this  gives  two  x- values ;  substituting 
these  in  the  given  linear  equation,  the  two 
corresponding  values  of  y  are  found.  The  corre- 
sponding values  must  be  properly  paired;  thus 
the    equations    ^x+^y  —  5=0    and    2X2  —  xy  +  y1 

—  22=0  give  x  —  t,  and  —109:53,  y=—  1  and 
14S  :  53  ;  the  proper  pairing  is  x  =  3,  y  =  —  1,  and 
x  =  —109:53,  y  =  i48:53;  the  equations  are  not 
satisfied  by  x  =  3,  y  =  148  :  53,  for  example.  Once 
more,  the  two  quad  rat  ics.v1  +3.1.V  =  28,  xy  +  4.v'  =  S 
give,  on  division  (member  by  member)  and  clear- 
ing of  fractions,  2(x2  +  $xy)  =  7 {xy  +  4 y2) ;  whence 


.v  =  4v  or  —yy-.2.  For  x  =  $y,  the  second  given 
equation  furnishes  4y2  +  4y2  =8  and  y  =  1  or  —  1 
whence  .r  =  4  or  —4;  using  x=—  -jy.2  in  like 
manner,  one  finds  y=  +4  or  — 4  and  x  =  —  14  or  14; 
in  all  four  pairs  of  values  corresponding  thus: 
x=4,  y—i;  x=—4,  y=—i;  ^  =  14,  y=—  4; 
x=  — 14,  y  =  4.  In  general,  an  equation  of  wth 
degree  and  one  of  Bth  degree  in  two  un- 
knowns are  both  satisfied  by  tnn  pairs  of  num- 
bers. The  solution  of  such  a  pair  involves,  in 
general,  the  solution  of  an  equation  of  degree 
mn. 

Permutations  and  Combinations. — Any  arrange- 
ment (in  a  row)  of  r  things  (regarded  as  belong- 
ing to  a  set  of  n  things)  is  called  a  (straight) 
permutation  0}  the  n  things  r  at  a  time.  Two 
permutations  are  the  same  when  and  only  when 
they  consist  of  the  same  things  in  the  same 
order.  The  number  of  different  (possible)  per- 
mutations of  n  things  rata  time  is  often  de- 
noted by  „Pr.  To  find  this  number,  think  of 
any  one  of  the  nPr-t  permutations  of  n  things 
r—  1  at  a  time.  There  remain  n—r+i  things. 
Put  one  of  these  after  the  things  of  the  given 
permutation.  There  so  results  a  permutation  of 
the  n  things  rata  time.  It  readily  follows  that 
nPr-«Pr-r(n-r  +  i),  *Pr-i=«Pr-2-(»-r  +  2), 
...,  nPi  =  nP,-(n-i),  nl\  =  n.  Multiplying 
these  equations  member  by  member,  it  is 
found  that  nPr  =  n(n  —  1)  .  .  .  (»— r  +  i).  If 
r  =  n,  IVPn  =  )i!i  where  n!  (or  |«)  means  1X2X3 
X.  .  .X»  and  is  read  factorial  n.  It  can  be 
readily  proved  that  the  number  P  of  permuta- 
tions of  n  things  {a,  b,  c,  .  .  .)  n  at  a  time,  p  of 
the    things   being   a's,    q   of   them    b's,    .  .  .  ,    is 

P  =  — ; — ^ —  .     If  the  order  in  a  permutation  of 

p\q\... 
n  things  r  at  a  time  be  disregarded,  the  result 
is  a  combination  of  n  things  r  at  a  time.  Two 
combinations  are  the  same  if  they  consist  of 
the  same  elements.  A  common  symbol  for  the 
number  of  combinations  of  n  things  r  at  a  time 
is  nCr.  By  permuting  the  r  things  of  a  com- 
bination in  every  way,  r!  permutations  arise. 
It  follows  that  nCr-rl  =nPr,  whence  nCr  =  «Pr:r!. 
Since,  on  taking  r  things  from  n  things,  there 
remain  n  —  r  things,  it  is  seen  that  nCr  =  nCn—r- 

Arithmetical  Progression. — An  A. P.  is  a  series 
of  numbers  such  that  the  difference  between  any 
two  adjacent  terms  is  the  same  as  that  between 
any  other  two  adjacent  terms.  The  general  A  P. 
is:  a,  a+d,  a  +  2d,  ....  a  +  n  —  id.  The  theory 
involves  five  elements:  the  common  difference, 
d;  the  first  term,  0;  the  last,  /;  the  number  of 
terms,  n;  and  the  sum  of  the  terms,  s.  Given 
any  three  of  the  elements,  the  remaining  two 
can  be  found.  Since  5C3  =  io,  there  are  but  20 
problems  to  solve,  giving  rise  to  as  many 
formula;.  The  formula  for  /  in  terms  of  a, 
d,  and  n  obviously  is  l  =  a  +n  —  \d.  To  find  s 
in  terms  of  a,  /,  and  11.  let  s  =  a  +(a  +d)  +(a  +  2d) 
+  .  .  .+(i-2d)+(l-d)  +1;  then  s  =  l  +  (l-d) 
+  (l-2d)  +.  .  .  +{a-2d)  +(a-d)  +a;        adding, 

2s  —  n{a  4- /) ,  whence  s  =  -(.a  +1)  The  remaining 
eighteen  formula:,  completely  exhausting  the  sub- 
ject,   are:    /-  -  2-d  +  x/2ds  +  (a  -  id)2;    /  =  -  -a; 

.     s      (n—i)d 

I  =  —  4- v — ;      s 

n  2 


Jn(  j.i   }■  n  —  id);      s  =  

2 


2d 


s  —  i»(2^  —  n—  id) ; 


ALGEBRA 


.)■/; 


JJ  ±  \  "  -  2J5; 


that    J  = 


The   remaining  eigh- 


=  (/ —  a)  h- (11- 1);    d  —  2(5  —  an) 

-=-11(11-1);  J  =  (/1-,i')-(25-/-<j);  </  =  2(h/-.t) 
:   in  (  +  (i  —  a)  h-J;      11  =  (d  — 2a  ± 

1  -d-)'  4-  sJs)+  i-./;     «  -  2 5  -5- (a  +  /) ;     n  = 
(a/+d±V(a/+d),-8<fc)  :  ad. 

Geometric  l'r  -A  C.P.  is  a  series  of 

numbers  such  that  the  ratio  of  any  one  to  the 

is   equal    to    the    ratio   of   any   other  one 

to   its   next.      Accordingly,   the   general    form  of 

P.   is;    a,  ttr,  ar1 arn~'.      Again,  there 

are  five  elements  to  lie  considered:  the  first 
term,  a;  the  last.  /;  the  ratio,  r,  the  number 
of  terms,  it;  ami  the  sum  of  the  terms,  s.  In 
terms    of  anv    three    of   the  live  elements,    either 

of   the    remaining  elements   can   be   expressed, 
rdingly    the    theory   of   the   G.P.    involves 

the  solution  of  but  twenty  problems.  Most  im- 
portant of  these  are  the  problems,  to  expo 
in  terms  of  a,r,  and  it,  and  to  express  s  in  terms 
of  o,  r,  and  11.  It  is  plain  that  /,  or  the  nth  term, 
is  /  =  iir"-'.  To  find  5,  let  s  =a+ar  +  .  .  .  +arn~2 
';  then  rs  -  ar  +  ar2  +  .  .  .  -far"-1  +  nr" ; 
subtracting,  and  dividing  by  1—  r,  it  is  found 
-f»)  =  o— rl 
i—r  1  — r  ' 
teen  formula-  are  easily  obtained  If  r  be  nu- 
merically less  than  1,  the  G.P.  is  said  to  be  a 
decreasing  G.P  1  otherwise,  not.  In  case  of  .1 
decreasing  G.P.,  it  is  possible  to  sum  the  scries 
to     infinity,     a     phrase     requiring    explanation. 

An  endless  series,  a,,  a, is  said  to  be  infinite, 

to  contain  an  infinite  number  of  terms      A 

series   that   has  an   end,   a   last   term,   is   finite. 

I.(i     „  denote  the  sum  of  the  first  n  terms  of  an 

infinite  series.     If  the  series  be  such  that  there 

is   a   finite   number   /.    from   which,  by   taking   n 

large  enough.  .s„  may  be  made  to  differ  by  less 

than    any   prescribed   amount   and   to   which  sn, 

ntinues    to  increase,   approaches  nearer 

and    nearer  in    value,    then    /.   is   named    limit   of 

ilessly,  the  series  is  said  to  be 

■    Series)  and  L  is  called  the  sum 

it .1   infinity)   of  the   series.     Observe  that  here 

The   word  sum   is  used  in  a  new  sense,   viz..  as 

limit  of  a  sum  (in  old  sense).      Now  consider  the 

infinite  G.P.,  >',  or,  ar*,   ....   ar*—1,  ar* 

The  sum  s„  of  the  first  11  terms,  by  the   foregoing 

(1         nrn 
formula  for  s,  is:   s„  = .      If  the  G.P. 

1 —r     1  —  r 

is  a  decreasing  one,  r<i  numerically,  rn  ap- 
proaches   zero  'as    limit    as    n   increases  without 

bound,  and  hence  sn  has  — —  for  limit,  the  G.P. 

is  a  convergent    series,  and  its  sum  to  infinity  is 

s= .     For  example,  the  sum  of  the  infinite 

1  —  r  ' 

I,  | is  s° 


1 

Harmonica!  Progression. — An  H.P.  is  a  series 
of  numbers  such  that  the  series  of  their  recip- 
rocals  is   an    A.I'.      I  bine    the   typical   //./'.    is 

of  the  form    — ,    „    ■„  ....   — ; —.. 

.1      a+d    0  +  20  11+ (11  —  1  )J 

It  is  obvious  that  every  problem  involving  an  H.P. 

is   convertible   into   a   problem  involving  an  .  1 ./'. 
If  a  and   6  be  any  two  numbers,  their  arithmetic 
mean  is  a  number  c:  such  that  the  series  a, 
is  an  A.P.    Hence  e  — a=b— c,  whence  c  =  J(a 
i.e.,  the  arithmetic  mean  of  two  numbers  is  half 


their  sum.     The  geometric  mean  of  a  and  6  is  a 
number  c  such  that   the  series  ./,  c,  b  is  a  G.P, 

Henci  whence  c  —  v/o6;  i.e..  the  geometric 

a      c 

mean  of  two  numbers  is  the   square  root    of  their 

product.     The  harmonic  mean  of  a  and  /'  i 

where  c  is  such  that  the  series  o,  c,  b  is  an  III'. 

II  III.  I       ,,  IT  I  I  I  I 

Hence  — ,  -,  7-  is  an  A. P.    Hence =7 , 

a    c     b  c       a      b      c 

whence  c  = r.      Denote   bv  A,  G,  and   //  re- 

a+b 

spectively    the    arithmetic,    the    geometric,    and 

the  harmonic  means  of  a  and  b.  Then/1  =  i(u+'0. 

C  =  \/a6,  // = r.       It    is    readily    seen     that 

a+b 

II  =G- :  A  .  whence  G  =  v7. 1//  ;    i.e.,  the  geometric 

n   of  tWO  numbers  is  the  geometric  mean   of 

their  arithmetic  and  their  harmonic  means. 

The  Binomial  Theorem  or  Expansion. — If  a  and 

any  numbers  and   11   is  any  positive  integer, 


(a  +b)*  =  u"  +  no"-'b  + 
n(>i  —  0(11  —  2)  .  .  .  (n 


11(11 -1) 


r  - 


1  •  2 
-r  +  i) 


a*~'b'+. 


■3- 


arb*-r  +. 


2  • 

+  nab»-'  +b*, 
an  expansion  containing  it  +.1  terms.  For  proof  of 
the  relationship  see  article  Mathematical  Induc- 
tion. It  can  be  proved  by  algebraic  means, 
most  readily  by  Maclaurin's  formula  (see  Cal- 
culus), that,  if  ii  is  numerically  greater  than  b 
and  11  is  any  real  number,  the  same  expansion 
as  that  above  given  is  valid,  i.e.,  (a+b)*  >a* 
■  n,i"-lb  +  .  .  .  ,  which,  however,  contains  an  in- 
finite number  of  terms,  except  in  the  case  where 
11  is  a  positive  integer.  The  equation  is  called 
the  binomial  theorem.  It  was  discovered  by 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  but  its  correctness  was  not 
proved  by  him.  One  of  the  simplest  of  its 
countless  applications  is    its    application   to  the 

l'[i  blem  of  finding  correct  to  any  required  degri  e 
of  appri  iximatii  m  any  real  n  k  it  of  any  real  number. 
For  example,  suppose  it  is  desired  to  know  the 
real    cube    root    of    25    correct    to     five    decimal 

places.     We  may  proceed  as  follows: 


(.iJ)* 
5,s. 


■5/25=  (25)*  =  (27 -2)*  =  (3s -2)*  = 

J2 4_'  _     40 

3-32      9-35      81-3' 
The  Number  e  and  thi      ei  re1  —  If  n  be 

numerically  greater  than     1,   the  foregoing  1 
rem  yields  the  equations 


=  3~: 


■  2.92402. 


1  + 


1  \ nx 


= 1 + 1  +- 


I  +X  + 


»!  3! 

■H)H). 


Hence 


+  1  +- 


>'       \        n)  ['      n  ) 


=  1  +x-\ 


■(•4)    KM*- 


»/" 


+  . 


ALGEBRA 


This  equation  is  valid  for  every  value  of  n 
numerically  greater  than  i.  The  limits  ap- 
proached by  its  members  as  n  increases  be- 
yond every  finite  value  are  equal;  i.e.. 


(I+I+7!+7>  +  --)*  =  I+x 


-- 


+— ■+• 


The  series  on  the  right  is  convergent  for  every 
finite  value  of  r;  in  fact,  for  any  given  value 
of  x,  the  series  after  a  certain  number  of  terms 
converges  more  rapidly  than  any  decreasing 
G.P.  The  series  on  the  left  is  a  special  case 
of  that  on  the  right,  viz.,  x  —  x.  The  limit  of 
the  sum  of  the  first  n  terms  of  the  series  on  the 
left,  i.e.,  its  sum  (to  infinity)  is  denoted  by  e; 
accordingly     the     equation    may    be    written: 

e*=i  +  x  +  — r  H — r  +•  •  •  The  meaning  is  that  the 
2!       3! 

number  e  raised  to  a  power  indicated  by  a  given 

value  of  x  is  the  sum  to  infinity  of  the  series 

for  that  value  of  x.  Since  e  =  i+H :  H — ;  +  ..., 

2  ■  3! 
its  approximate  value  can  be  readily  calculated. 
That  value,  correct  to  ten  decimal  places,  is 
e  =  2.7  182818284.  The  number  e,  one  of  the 
most  important  of  all  numbers,  is  incommen- 
surable, i.e.,  not  exactly  expressible  as  a 
rational  fraction,  and  it  is  transcendental,  i.e., 
not  a  root  of  an  equation  axn  +  bxn~l  +.  .  .  =0, 
win- re  the  coefficients  a,  b,  .  .  .  are  integers  (see 
General  Theory  of  Assemblages). 

Logarithms. — Let  a  be  any  positive  number 
greater  than  1.  If  ax=N,  x  is  named  loga- 
rithm of  X  to  the  base  a;  symbolically,  x  =  log„.Y, 
or,  if  the  base  is  supposed  known,  simply 
x  =  logAr.  If  a  be  fixed,  x  and  N  will  vary 
each  with  the  other,  each  is  a  function  of  the 
"tlier.  Since  u°=i,  log  1  =0  no  matter  what 
the  base.  But  in  general  the  logarithm  of  a 
given  number  will  vary  with  the  base;  thus, 
since  2*  =  16,  42  =  16,  log2i6  =4,  log,i6  =  2.  The 
general  connection  can  be  readily  found  thus: 
let  ax=N  and  V  =N,  then  log0.Y=*  and  log&.V 

=  »■;     also     ax  =  b>,    a=6^,     log6a  =  ^  = '-21^ ; 

X        loga-V 

whence  log&.V=logoiV-loga&.     Calling   a   an   old 

and  b  a  new  base,  it  is  seen  that  the  logarithm 

of  a  given  number  to  a  new  base  is  equal  to 

the  product  of  the  logarithm  of  the  number  to 

the  old  base  and  the  logarithm  of  the  new  base 

to    the    old    base.       Let    ax=N,    a>=M,   then 

ax+V=NM;    hence   the   logarithm  of  a   product 

is   the   sum   of   the    logarithms   of   the    factors. 

Again,    (a")K  =  .V  =<i"  ;   whence  it  is  seen   that 

the  logarithm  of  the  xth  power  of  a  number  is  *c 

times  the  logarithm  of  the  number.     Once  more, 

a* 

—-  =  a*-y;   that  is,  the  logarithm  of  a  fraction  is 

equal  to  that  of  the  numerator  minus  that  of  the 
denominator.  Logarithms  to  the  base  10  are 
called  common  logarithmsor/Jr/ggsitmlogarithrns, 
after  Briggs,  who  introduced  them  in  1615. 
These  are  used  in  practical  computation,  but 
in  theoretical  work  logarithms  are  referred  to 
the  number  e,  the  Napierian  base,  so  called  after 
Napier  (1550-1617),  the  inventor  of  logarithms. 
Let  .V  be  any  number  and  u  any  positive  in- 
teger. Then  log,0(.Y  •  1  o»)  =  log,0.Y  4- "  log10 1  o  =  n 
-rlog1(J.Y;  and  log10(.Y -:- io»)  =  log,0.Y -nlog1?io 
=  —  n  +log10.Y.  Now  multiplication  or  division 
by  a  power  of  10  has  only  the.  effect  of  moving 
the  decimal  point,  while  the  logarithm  of  the 
product,  as  just  seen,   is  equal  to   that  of  the 


multiplicand  (or  dividend)  increased  (or  de- 
creased) by  an  integer.  Accordingly,  if  two 
numbers  differ  only  in  the  position  of  the  decimal 
point,  their  logarithms  differ  only  in  respect  to 
the  integral  part  (called  the  characteristic),  the 
fractional  part  (called  the  mantissa)  being  the 
same  in  both.  In  that  fact  resides  the  chief 
practical  advantage  of  the  Briggsian  system. 
For  example,  if  log„)2.23  =  .3483,  it  follows 
that  log,02  2.3  =  1.3483;  and_  log10.oo2 23  =log,0 
(2.23 -mo3)  = -3 +.3483,  0^3.3483.  as  negative 
characteristics  are  often  written.  It  is  easy  to 
see  that  the  characteristic  of  a  logarithm  is  +n 
if  the  number  has  n  +  i  figures  before  the  deci- 
mal point,  and  is  —n  if  the  number  is  a  pure 
decimal  in  which  the  point  is  followed  by  n  —  1 
zeros.  Thus,  Iog10235o6.o54  =4  +a  pure  decimal, 
and  log10. 0008953  =  4 +a  pure  decimal. 

Exponential  and  Logarithm  .  Series,  Calcula- 
tion of  Logarithms. — On  replacing  x  in  the  series 
for  ex  by  x  logca,   there  results  the  exponential 

\~~ 
series,  a"  =  1  +(logea)x  +  (logea):—  +.  .  .      In  this 

replace  x  by  y  and  a  by  1  +x.  The  result  is, 
(1 +x)y  =  i -r-y\oge(i+x)'+.  .  .  Also,  if  x  be 
numerically  less  than  1 ,  the  binomial  theorem 
gives  (1 +x)y  =  1 +yx  +  .  .  .  These  series  being 
equal  for  all  values  of  y,  the  coefficients  of  like 
powers  of  y  are  equal  (see  Undetermined  Coeffi- 
cients,   below).     Hence,    for   x<i    numerically, 

*-2  ju-S  *-4  j-5 

loge(i  +x)  =  x l-; '- 1 .  .  .  ,  the  loga- 
rithmic series.      Replacing  x  by   —  x,  loge(i  —  x) 

X  X  X^  X 

=  —x ' ' .  .  .     The  logarithmic 

2  3  4  5 
series  converges  slowly  for  all  but  small  values 
of  .r.  It  is  on  that  account  ill  adapted  to  the 
computation  of  Napierian  logarithms.  A  series 
better  adapted  to  such  calculation  is,  however, 
readilv  obtained  as  follows:  From  the  last  two  se 


1  4-  x        I        v3       r*         \ 

;  it  follows  that  loge =  2  I  x  H 1 I- ... ) 

1 -x        \        3        5  / 


Put    x 


m  —  n 


m  +  n 


so    that 


1  +x 

■ =  — ,    then 

1  —x        n 


m         \>n—n       1   Im  —  >A  3      1   /m  —  n\i  I 

l°Z<n=2\lm-TTi  +  j{mTn)     +j[mTTi)    +~\- 

a  rapidly  converging  scries  that  may  be  used  for 
the  calculation  of  logarithms  as  follows.  For 
m  =  2  and  11  =  1,  we  get  loge2  =0  +  2  |J  +i(J)3  +  ..  I  . 
whence  loge2  =  .693147  (correct  to  six  decimal 
places).  For  111  =  3  an<^  »  =  -.  the  series  gives 
logc3=loge2+2|i+4(5)3  +  --l  =1.098612.  Tak- 
ing »i=5  and  11  =  3.  it  is  found  that  logc5  = 
1.609438         Then     loge4  =  2  log.,2,     logc6=logc2 

+  I°ge3-  l°ge8  =3  l°ge2.  and  so  on.  In  particular 
logelo=log«2+]  -5         Since      log  ,  Y 

=  (log  1.    it    is    seen    that    the    common 

logarithm  of  any  number  may  be  found  frc  im 
the  Napierian  logarithm  of  that  number  by 
multiplying  the  latter  logarithm  by  2.302585 
This  last  is  called  the  modulus  of  common 
rithms.  It  is  obviously  possible  to  calculate 
logarithms  that  shall  be  correct  to  any  pre- 
scribed number  of  decimal  places  Logarithms 
correct  to  3  or  4  places  are  sufficiently  accu- 
rate' for  all  ordinary  computations,  though 
tables  correct  to  5,  6,  7  and  even  10  or  more 
places  are  often  employed  By  means  of  any- 
such  table  can  be  found  the  logarithm  of  any 
given  number  and  conversely  The  number 
sponding  to  a  given  logarithm  is  often  called 
the     an::;  'garithm       The     advantage     of     loga- 


ALGEBRA 


rithmic  over  ordinary  computation  is  i 
Thus  to  find  the  pr»  iducl  of  two  or 
numbers,  it  suffices  to  add  their  logarithms  and 
then  to  take  the  antilogarithm  of  the  sum.  To 
extract  any  root,  saj  the  7th,  of  any  number, 
it  suffices  to  divide  the  logarithm  of  the  number 
by  7  and  to  1  a  tilogarithm  of  the  quo- 

tient.  To  find  the  quotient  of  two  numbers, 
it  suffices  to  subtract  the  logarithm  of  the  divisor 
from  thai  of  the  dividend  and  to  take  the  anti- 
logarithm  of  the  difference.  The  cologarithm  of 
a    number  is   the    logarithm   of   the   reciprocal; 

thus,     colog  n-»log  —  =  log  1  —  log  rt  =  o—  log  u; 

n 

hence  to  subtract  a  logarithm  is  equivalent  to 
adding  the  corresponding  cologarithm. 

Undetermined  Coefficients.  —  Reference  was 
made  above  to  this  subject,  of  which  some 
account  will  now  be  given.  Let  j(x)s<i„\" 
+  ij,v"-'  fd_»v"_!  +-.  .  .  +an-,x  +  an,  a  rational  in- 
il function  of  degree  uin.r.  It  can  be  proved 
and  is  here  assumed  that  any  such  function 
vanishes  for  some  value  of  the  variable.  If 
/(r,)  "o,  then,  by  the  factor  theorem,  f(x) 
fV/'M),  where  /'(.V)=1,»V-1+.  .  .  If 
f(r,)-o,  then  j'(x)  =  (.v-r,,)/"(.v),  where 
/"i  1  1  -a„xn--  -)-...  ,  and  hence  /( v)  s (x  —  r,) 
(.v  —  r3)J"(x).  By  the  argument  here  exemplified 
it  is  proved  that  f(x)  may  be  put  in  the  form 
f(x)  ma^^x  — rt)(,x—rt)  .  .  .  (x  —  r„).     Each  of  the 

>i  numbers  r„  r2 r"  causes  f(x)  to  vanish; 

In  rice  tin-  n  numbers  arc  roots  of  the  equation 
j(x)  =0.      It  can  be  easily  seen  that   the  equation 

I cannot  have  more  than  n  different  roots 

unless  its  coefficients  are  each  zero;  that  is. /(.v) 
cannot  vanish  for  more  than  »  different  values  of 
x  unless  a„  =  al= .  .  .  =  an  =  0.  For  if  f(rn+,)  =0, 
then  ,i„(r„+1-r,)(r„+l-r2)  .  .  .  (r„+,  -r„)=o, 
but  by  hypothesis  no  (  )=o,  hence  ii0=o,  and 
f(x)  •aix»~l  +  .  .  .  As  the  latter  is  to  vanish 
for  more  than   »  — i    values  of  X,  O,  =  o ,     In  like 

manner  it   would   follow  that  a;=o <i„=o. 

Hut  if  the  coefficients  are  each  zero,  j(x)  van- 
ishes for  every  value  of  X.  If  j(x)  vanishes  for 
more  than  u  values  of  .v,  it  vanishes  for  all 
values  of  .v.     Now   suppose   that   a„\  "  1  - ■/, >" ■-' 

+  .  .  .+an  is  to  be  equal  to  /i„t»  +blXn~'  +.  .  .  +  bn 
for  all  values  of  .v,  then  the  function  (Oj  —  b0)x* 

+  (a,—  bl)xn~ '  +  .  .  .+(a»— bn)  must  vanish  for 
every  value  of  x,  and,  consequently,  Oj  =■=&„, 
.,  ,    ■  /„  -/■„.      Hence    two    rational    inte- 

gral functions  of  degree  >i  in  x  are  equal  for  all 
values  of  v.  i.e.,  arc  taentii  .1/,  when  and  only  when 
the  coefficients  of  like  powers  of  *  arc  equal. 
This  proposition  enables  us  to  solve  many  prob- 
invi  living  the  determination  of  undetermined 

lent  l-'of  example,  suppose  it  required  to 

find  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  the  first,  n  integers 
\  line  the  identity  i2  +  22  +  .  .  .  +(n  —  i)2  +n' 
=  a +bn+cn1+dn,+  en1  +fn'  +  .  .  .  ,  where  the 
coefficients  a,  b.  .  .  .  are  to  be  determined.  Re- 
ne; 11  by  tt  +  x,  we  obtain  1 J  4-22  +  .  .  .  +  nl 
+  (i!  +  i)!Hfl  +  |.(ii  +  i)  +  c(n+i)!  +  (;(ti  +  i)' 
+e(n  +  i)*  +  .  .  .  By  subtracting  corresponding 
members  of  the  identities,  there  results  the  iden- 
tity n2  +  211  +  1  =  b  +  201  +  c  +  jdn*  1-  $dn  f  d 
+  4cn3  +  6cn2  I  ^en  +  e  +  .  .  .  As  this  relation  is 
to  be  valid  for  every  value  of  n.  coefficients  of 
like  powers  of  n  must  be  equal.  Hence  e  =  o, 
f  =  0,  .  .  .  ,  1  " $>l,  2  =  $d  +  2C,  1  =i+c+ii;  hence 
b  =  i,  C  =  h.  d  =  \.  Accordingly,  1 2  +  2s  +  .  .  .  + 
(11 .  —  i)2  +  112  =11  +  \n  +  Jrc2  +  \n3,'  true  for  every 
value  of  h,  hence  for  n  =  1 ,  and  hence  a=o. 
Therefore  I'  +  a'-K  .  .  +  >t2  =  \n\ ,11  +  i)(2n  +  i). 


Part-fractions. — The  so-called  principle  of  un- 
determined coefficients  has  frequent  application 
in  the  solution  of  the  problem,  to  decompose  a 

■1     fraction     into    part -fractions     (commonly 
called  partial   fractions)  whose  sum  shall  be  the 

a  traction.  Any  fraction  whose  term 
rational  integral  functions  of  x  maybe  thus  de- 
composed. The  method  of  procedure  may  be 
made  sufficiently  clear  by  a  few  examples. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  problem  is  in  a  sense 
the  inverse  of  the  problem  of  summing  fractions. 

2  5  "  —  1 

For  example,  the  sum  of—,  —r-^ .  and  — ; r 

*    3(i-i)  i(2+x) 

x+4                           x+4  _       . 

is  -    — -, ,    or     —. r-. — ; — -.     The    inverse 

2X—X'—X°  X(l—X)(2    i    l  I 

problem  is:  given  the  latter  fraction,  to  find 
its  components.  It  is  plain  that  the  only  frac- 
tions whose  denominators  are  linear  and  whose 
sum  is  a  fraction  of  the  proper  denominator  and  a 

linear  numerator  are  — , ,  and .     Hence 

X       I  —X  2  +X 

x+4           a          b            c 
— =  —  H 1 —.whence 

—X'—X'       X         l—X       2+X 


we  assume: 


x+4=a(i  —x)(2  +x)  +b\(2  I  i)   lci(i-.v), 

which  is  to  be  valid  for  all  values  of  .v.  Expand- 
ing the  right-hand  member  and  equating  corre- 
sponding coefficients  on  right  and  left,  we  obtain: 
4  =  20,  i  =  — a  +  26+c,  o=—a+b  —  c;  whence 
a  =  2,   b=f,   c  = —\;     and    the   component   frac- 


tions are  seen  to  be  — , 


.«> 


5 


For 


■X)'    3(2    !    1  )■ 

another  example,  we  may  takcFs;—  — t-S r. 

0-i)2(.t  +  2) 

A  little  reflection  suffices  to  show  that  the  assump- 
tion to  be   made  is    F  = h  ,     — r-,  +  -, — ■■ — r. 

X—l       (X—  i)2       (x+  2) 

Then  4X1  +  3*  —  1  -  a(x  —  1 )!  +  b(x  —  i)(.v  +  2) 
+  c(x  +  2);  equating  coefficients  and  solving  the 
resulting  equations,  it  is  found  that  0  =  1,  0=3, 
c  =  2.      in  case  a  factor  of  the  given  denominator 

N 

is  repeated   n  times,  as  in 7-7-, r,    tnc. 

(mx+n)"(px+q) 

assumption    to    be    made    is:     given     fraction 


mx  +  n      (nix    I  11  r 

lf  F  is  of  the  form 


(hi.v  +  «)" 

N 


(/■i  \q)' 


then  assume  F  • 

ax+b 


(mx*+nx+l)K(px  +q)'(gx  +/«)  " 
ax+b  ax  +  b 

+    } 9     .     >\  ?  +  ■ 


+    , 


mx'  +  nx  +  l     (mx2  +  nx+l) 

+  etc.,  as  before.      If  .V   is  of 


(»ix-  +  nx+l)* 
degree  equal  to  or  higher  than  that  of  the 
given  denominator,  F  is  converted  by  division 
into  an  integral  function  4-a  fraction  the  degree 
of  whose  denominator  exceeds  that  of  its  numera- 
tor. The  latter  fraction  is  then  decomposed 
by  the  methods  above  indicated. 

Indeterminate  (Undetermined,  Evanescent,  III11- 

sory)  1'orms. — In  case  of  a  fraction,  c6(.r)  3-7^—, 

it  may  happen  that  both  terms  vanish  for  some 

value  of  x,  as  x=a,  yielding  the  form  — ,  which, 

as  division  by  zero  is  meaningless,  is  itself  with- 
out meaning  and  is  commonly  called  indetermi- 
nate. In  such  case  we  are  free  (logically)  to 
give  the  form  a  meaning,  any  meaning  or  value 
whatever.  But  while  all  meanings  (values) 
are  allowable,  not  all  are  expedient.     For  ex- 


ALGEBRA,  HISTORY  OF  THE  ELEMENTS  OF 


ample, 


has    a    definite    value    for   every 


x  —  a 
jr- value  except  x  =  a.     For  this  value  the  frac- 

o 
tion  takes  the  form  -.     To  this  we  might  assign 

o 
the  value  of  5  or  —  3,  or  any  other.     Rut  such  a 
choice  would  be  motiveless.     On  the  other  hand, 
x2-a2 

=  .r  +  o   for   all   values   of   x   except    a; 

x  —  a 

for  this  critical  value  a,  the  right  member  takes 
a  definite  value,  20,  which  is  accordingly  sug- 
gested as  the  value  to  be  naturally  assigned  to 
the  indeterminate  form  in  this  case.  The  de- 
cisive motive  for  this  choice  lies  yet  deeper:  it 
is  that  as  x  varies  through  a  sequence  of  values, 
say  a -f- J,  «-f- },  a  +5,.  . .,  having  a  as  limit, 
the  corresponding  sequence  of  fraction-values, 
2a  +  \,  20  4-  h  2a  -\-  \,  .,.,  approaches  20  as 
limit.  Accordingly,  if  4>(x)  assumes  the  form 
o 

-  for  x  —  a,  the  value  assigned  to  <P(a)  is  the 
o 

limit  value  which  the  sequence  of  fraction-val- 
ues approaches  as  x  approaches  a  through  any 
sequence  of  .v-values  for  each  of  which  0(.r) 
has  a  definite  value.  The  fraction  <P(x)  may  be 
such  that  as  x  approaches  a,  f(x)  approaches 
a  definite  value  other  than  zero  and  that  F(x) 

x  —  a  +  4 

approaches  zero.     Such  a  fraction  is  . 

x  —  a 
In  such  case  the  fraction-value  obviously  be- 
comes larger  and  larger,  surpassing  every  pre- 
scribed number,  a  fact  commonly  expressed  by 
saying  that  as  x  approaches  a,  <t>(x)  approaches 
positive  or  negative  infinity  (00  or  —  00)  accord- 
ing as  the  numbers  in  the  fraction  sequence  are 
positive  or  negative.  If,  as  x  approaches  a, 
both    f(x)    and    F(x)    approach    00,    then,    for 

00 
x  =  a,  <t>(x)  assumes  the  indeterminate  form  — . 

00 
o 
But  it  may  be  made  to  take  the  form  -,   since 

o 
f(x)  tF(j)=(itFW)-t(i-t/W)    Other 
indeterminate  forms  also  reducible  to  the  form 
o 

-,  are  0.00,  00.0,  00 — 00,  co°,  o00.        For    further 
0 
treatment  see  Calculus. 

The  boundary  of  what  is  or  should  be  called 
elementary  algebra  is  ill  defined  alike  in  theory 
and  in  practice,  and  beside  the  topics  dealt 
with  in  this  article  other  subjects  are  briefly 
treated  in  some  of  the  elementary  text-books. 
Of  such  additional  subjects,  the  more  important, 
as  chance  or  probability,  the  complex  variable, 
and  theory  of  numbers,  series,  and  others,  are 
subjects  of  special  articles  in  this  work.  Rela- 
tively meager,  merely  introductory,  text-books 
of  algebra  are  sometimes  quite  absurdly  de- 
scribed in  their  titles  as  "complete,"  and  others 
that  might  be  called  advanced  are  improperly 
characterized  as  "higher."  The  better  usage 
has  appropriated  the  term  higher  algebra  to 
the  doctrine  of  invariants  and  covariants  (q.v.). 
Bibliography.— Text-books  of  elementary  al- 
gebra, good,  bad.  and  indifferent,  are  very  nu- 
merous.    The  most  scientific  work  on  the  subject 


is  that  by  Weber  and  Wellstein :  'Elementare 
Algebra  und  Analysis.'  The  most  comprehen- 
sive elementary  English  text-book  is  Chrystal's 
< Algebra,'  2  vols.  Cassius  J.  Keyser. 

Professor  of  Mathematics,  Columbia  University. 
Algebra,  History  of  the  Elements  of. 
Taking  the  definition  of  algebra  as  given  in  the 
article  under  that  title  (q.v.),  the  history  of  the 
subject  goes  back  to  the  early  Egyptians.  In  a 
certain  hieratic  papyrus  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  copied  by  one  Ahmes  (Aahmesu,  the 
moon-born),  about  1700  B.C.,  from  a  work  writ- 
ten some  centuries  earlier,  several  traces  of  alge- 
bra appear.  There  are  symbols  for  addition, 
subtraction,  and  equality,  and  eleven  examples 
of  linear  equations  with  one  unknown  quantity 
are  given.  The  unknown  quantity  is  called  hau, 
or  heap,  the  first  example  involving  an  equation 
being   "Heap,    its    seventh,   its   whole,    it   makes 

x 
nineteen"   that   is   —  -f  x  =  10  .     A   number   of 

applied  problems  are  also  given,  and  Ahmes 
shows  some  familiarity  with  arithmetic  and  geo- 
metric progressions.  Such  was  the  stagnation  of 
the  later  Egyptians,  however,  that  algebra  never 
advanced  beyond  this  point,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile,  at  least  until  Greek  influence  established 
the  famous  school  of  Alexandria. 

The  Greek  mind  turned  to  the  science  of 
form  rather  than  to  that  of  number  (see  Geom- 
etry, History  of  the  Elements  of),  and  con- 
sequently but  few  evidences  of  algebra  are  found 
in  Greece  during  the  golden  age  of  philosophy. 
Whenever  a  need  for  algebra  is  met  it  is  always 
for  the  solution  of  some  geometric  problem,  and 
whenever  a  solution  is  effected  it  is  usually  by 
some  device  involving  geometry.  One  of  the 
earliest  evidences  of  an  algebraic  symbolism  is 
seen  in  a  problem  of  Aristotle's,  in  which  he 
represents  quantities  by  means  of  letters,  letting 
A  stand  for  the  moving  force,  B  for  that  by 
which  it  is  moved,  V  for  the  distance,  A  for  the 
time,  and  so  on.  About  the  same  time  Hippoc- 
rates (q.v.)  called  the  square  of  a  number 
5iva.fj.is  (power),  from  which  the  Latins  de- 
rived the  name  potentia,  which  appears  in  our 
language  as  power.  Euclid  (q.v.),  c.  300  B.C., 
proved  geometrically  certain  fundamental  laws 
of  algebra,  such  as  a(b  +  c)=  ab  +  ac,  (a  +  6)! 
=  a2  +  2ab  +  b2,  (a  —  b)*  =  a*  —  2ab  +  b";  and 
(a  +  b)(a—  b)  =a'  —  b'.  The  equation  of 
the  second  degree  was  also  known  to  the 
Greeks,  and  they  were  able  to  solve  the  general 
case  by  the  aid  of  proportion.  Archimedes 
(q.v.)  is  even  said  to  have  solved  one  case  of 
the  cubic,  and  he  undoubtedly  knew  a  consider- 
able amount  about  series. 

It  was  not,  however,  until  the  time  of 
Diophantus  (q.v.),  c.  300  a.d.,  that  Greek  alge- 
bra attained  any  standing  as  a  separate  science. 
This  great  mathematical  genius  improved  the 
symbolism,  divorced  the  subject  from  geometry, 
and  created  the  ancient  science  of  indeterminate 
equations,  a  science  called  in  his  honor  "Dio- 
phantine  Analysis." 

For  reasons  above  suggested,  algebra  flour- 
ished more  naturally  in  the  Orient  than  in 
Greece.  The  first  Hindu  algebraist  of  any  im- 
portance was  Aryabhata.  who  was  born  at  Pa- 
taliputra,  on  the  Upper  Ganges,  in  476  a.d.  Part 
of  his  "Aryabhattiyam"  is  devoted  to  algebra, 
and  covers  the  fundamental  operations,  rules  for 


ALGECIRAS 


square  and  cube  roots,  progressions,  permuta- 
tions, equations  of  the  first  and  second  degrees 
with  one  unknown  quantity,  and  some  treatment 
i if  indeterminate  equations,  Aryabhata  differs 
from  Diophantus  in  that  he  considers  algebra 
frnm  a  broader  standpoint,  treating  it  rather  as 
a  theory  of  elementary  functions  than  as  the 
of  a  particular  form  of  the  eqimtion. 

The  next  great  algebraist  in  the  East  was 
Al  Khowarazmi  (q.v.),  c.  800  a.d.,  so  called 
from  his  birthplace,  Kharazm,  the  territory  of 
the  modern  Khiva,  With  him  algebra  takes  a 
still  different  meaning.  It  is  no  longer  the 
theorj  of  indeterminate  equations  of  Diophantus, 
nor  is  it  chiefly  the  theory  of  elementary  func- 
tions of  Aryabhata,  hut  it  becomes  primarily  the 
general  theory  of  equations.  Indeed  tin'  title 
of  his  work  'ilm  al-jabr  wa'  1  muqabalah,* 
means  the  science  of  redintegration  and  equation, 
a  title  from  which  only  the  words  al-jabr  have 
survived,  giving  the  accidental  name  of  algebra 
to  the  subject.  Al  Khowarazmi  solved  three 
types  of  the  quadratic,  in  modern  symbolism 
.r*  +  ax  =  b,  x* —  ax  =  b,  x2  +  b  =  ax,  thus 
showing  his  inability  to  generalize,  a  failing 
with  all  writers  before  the  17th  century. 

It  was  two  centuries  before  another  writer 
of  prominence  appeared.  About  1010  a.d.,  Al 
Karchi,  like  Al  Khowarazmi  of  the  Bagdad 
school,  wrote  a  treatise  in  which  he  shows  famil- 
iarity with  the  works  of  his  predecessors  rather 
than  great  genius  himself.  Like  many  of  the 
older  writers,  he  gives  attention  to  those  rules 
for  approximating  roots,  so  necessary  before  the 
time  of  decimal  fractions.  Stated  in  modern 
symbolism    bis    rule    for    square    root    is    Va  = 


w  +  • 


that      is,      ^10  =  3  + 


10 


2  7V+  I 

whence  Vio  was  often  used  fori 


■3h 


6  +  1 
He  also  gives 

the  rule  Va  +  b  ±  V4ab  =  Vo  ±  Vb,  and  a  rule 
for   Z«». 

In  the  12th  century  two  Oriental  writers 
of  prominence  appear,  Omar  Khayyam  (q.v.)  the 
Persian,  who  died  in  1123,  and  Bhaskara  the 
Hindu,  who  was  horn  in  1114.  Omar  solved  one 
case  of  the  cubic,  and  was  the  first  to  treat 
equations  above  the  second  degree  in  a  sj  S- 
tematic  manner.  The  binomial  theorem  with 
positive  integral  exponents  was  also  known  to 
him.  His  algebra,  published  in  Paris  both  in 
\  tabic  and  in  French,  made  Omar  known  in 
the  West  as  an  algebraist  some  time  before 
FitzGerald  made  him  celebrated  as  a  poet. 

Bhaskara  wrote  on  both  arithmetic  and  alge- 
bra, and  his  work  has  long  been  known  in 
Europe  through  Colebrook's  English  translation. 
Among  the  features  of  his  algebra  is  the  state- 

0 
ment  that  — =  00,  and  the  solution  of  the  quad- 

o 
ratic   by   the   reduction   of   ax1  +  bx  +  c  =  o   to 
the     form     (2ax  +  b)2  — —  40c  +  b2,     a     device 
known  in  England  as  the  Hindu  Method. 

The  rise  of  modern  elementary  algebra  took 
place  in  Italy  in  the  16th  century.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  the  cubic  was  solved  by  Tar- 
taglia  (q.v.),  the  publication  being  made  by 
Cardan  (q.v.)  in  his  Ars  Magna  in  1545.  The 
solution  of  the  quartic  soon  followed,  after  which 
the  quintic  occupied  the  attention  of  algebraists 
until  its  solution  was  proved  to  be  impossible  by 


the  operations  of  elementary  algebra,  in  the 
loth  century.  A  common  name  for  algebra 
at  this  time  was  "L'arte  niaggiore"  (the  greater 
art,  whence  the  Latin  title  of  Cardan's  treatise), 
arithmetic  being  called  by  contrast  "L'arte  me- 
nore"  (the  lesser  art).  The  unknown  quantity 
was  called,  in  Latin,  res,  whence  the  Italian 
translation  cosa  (thing).  On  this  account  the 
science  was  called  the  Coss  in  the  early  German 
schools,  and  the  name  "Cossic  Art9  was  not  un- 
common among  the  English  writers  of  about 
1600.  The  mere  processes  and  solutions  of  ele- 
mentary algebra  were  fairly  perfected  by  the 
close  of  the  16th  century,  and  little  he-ides 
the  symbolism  was  needed  to  make  the  subject 
what  it  is  to-day. 

The  title  of  Father  of  modem  elementary 
algebra  is  frequently  given  to  Vieta  (q.v).  lie 
was  the  first  to  devise  a  systematic  and  fairly 
satisfactory  scheme  of  literal  notation,  using 
vowels  for  the  unknown  quantities  and  con- 
sonants for  the  knowns.  For  example,  he  used 
A  where  we  use  x,  Aq  (./  quadratus)  for  our 
.v",  Ac  for  .r'\  .L]t]  for  x,  and  so  on.  He  also 
recognized  that  a  letter  may  represent  both  a 
positive  and  a  negative  number,  and  both  an 
integer  and  a  fraction,  a  generalization  not  rec- 
ognized by  his  predecessors,  and  one  that  was 
perfected  later  by  Descartes.  Vieta  was  also 
the  first  to  recognize  the  advantage  of  making 
the  second  member  zero  in  considering  an  equa- 
tion. His  work  greatly  influenced  the  English 
algebra  as  set  forth  by  Harriot  (q.v.),  who  ac- 
knowledged his  indebtedness  to  him.  Mention 
should  also  be  made  of  the  work  of  Clavius,  who 
did  much  to  meet  the  demand  for  a  usable  text- 
book at  this  period. 

The  final  touch  was  put  upon  the  elementary 
science  by  Descartes  (q.v.),  who  suggested  and 
used  our  modern  literal  notation,  and  who  per- 
fected the  generalizations  begun  by  Vieta.  His 
introduction  of  the  graphic  treatment  of  equa- 
tions not  only  revolutionized  mathematics  in 
general,  but  materially  assisted  in  the  under- 
standing of  the  elements. 

Since  Descartes's  time  there  have  been  cer- 
tain improvements  in  the  symbolism  of  elemen- 
tary algebra,  the  theory  of  approximate  solutions 
of  numerical  higher  equations  has  been  created, 
chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  Newton,  Euler, 
and  Horner  (qq.v.),  the  binomial  theorem  has 
been  generalized  for  negative  and  fractional  ex- 
ponents, principally  by  the  labors  of  Newton, 
the  theory  and  the  symbolism  of  determinants 
(q.v.)  have  been  developed,  the  various  number 
S)  -terns  met  in  algebra  (notably  the  complex 
number)  have  been  placed  upon  a  scientific  basis, 
and  in  general  the  foundation  theories  of  the 
science  have  been  greatly  strengthened. 

Bibliography. — Eisenlohr,      'Ein      mathemat- 
isches    Handbuch    der    alten    Egyptcr'     (I.eipsic 
1877):  Heath.  'Diophantos'    (Cambridge  1885)  ; 
Matthiessen,   'Grundziige  der  antiken  und  mod- 
ernen      Algebra      der      littcralen      Gleichungen' 
(Leipsic  1878)  :  Cantor,  "Geschichte  der  Mathe- 
matics'   (Leipsic  1880-98,  various  editions). 
David  Eugene  Smith, 
Professor    of    Mathematics,    Teachers    College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York. 
Algeciras,  or  Algesiras,  a  seaport  of  Spain, 
on  the  west   side  of  the   Bay  of  Gibraltar,  and 
7   m.    N.W.    of   Europa    Point.     The   old   town. 
once   possessed   of   great    strength,   but   now  in 


ALGER  — ALGERIA 


ruins,  stood  on  the  Isla  Verde ;  the  modern 
town  stands  on  the  mainland,  on  an  acclivity  ris- 
ing rapidly  from  the  shore,  and  though  un- 
walled  is  defended  by  a  fort.  A  brisk  coasting- 
trade  is  carried  on  by  the  inhabitants.  Near 
Algeciras  were  fought  two  naval  engagements 
in  July,  1801.  In  the  first  the  English  admiral 
Saumarez  failed  in  an  attack  on  the  French 
fleet,  which  was  strongly  posted  in  the  bay 
under  the  protection  of  the  batteries  on  shore 
(6  July),  but  in  the  second  he  defeated  the  com- 
bined French  and  Spanish  fleets  (12  July). 
Pop.   13,000. 

Alger,  Cyrus,  an  American  inventor:  b. 
West  Bridgewater,  Mass.,  II  Nov.  1781  :  d. 
Boston,  4  Feb.  1856.  He  learned  the  iron  foun- 
dry business,  and  in  1809  established  himself  in 
South  Boston,  where  he  soon  made  himself 
widely  known  by  the  excellence  of  the  ordnance 
he  manufactured.  He  supplied  the  United  Sta'.es 
government  with  a  large  quantity  of  cannon- 
balls  during  the  War  of  1812 ;  produced  the 
first  gun  ever  rifled  in  America,  as  well  as 
the  first  perfect  bronze  cannon ;  and  supervised 
the  casting  of  a  mortar  which  was  the  largest 
gun  of  cast-iron  that  had  then  been  made  in 
the  United  States.  Subsequently  he  made  im- 
provements in  the  construction  of  time  fuses 
for  bomb-shells  and  grenades :  patented  a  meth- 
od of  making  cast-iron  chilled  rolls;  and  was  the 
original  designer  of  the  cylinder  stove. 

Alger,  Horatio,  an  American  writer  of  ju- 
venile books:  b.  Revere,  Mass.,  13  Jan.  1834;  d. 
Natick,  Mass.,  18  July  1899.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1852,  settled  in  New  York  in  1866,  and 
became  interested  in  the  condition  of  self-sup- 
porting boys,  described  in  his  series  of  more  than 
50  books,  including  (  Ragged  Dick,'  '  Tattered 
Tom,'  '  Luck  and  Pluck,'  which  became  very 
popular.  Other  works :  (  Nothing  to  Do :  A 
Tilt  at  Our  Best  Society.'  a  poem  (1857)  ; 
1  Helen  Ford,'  a  novel  (i860)  ;  a  series  of  ju- 
venile biographies  of  Webster,  Lincoln,  Garfield, 
etc.;   and    'The   Young   Salesman'    (1896). 

Alger,  Russell  Alexander,  an  American 
merchant,  capitalist,  and  politician :  b.  Lafayette, 
O.,  27  Feb.  1836.  He  served  in  the  Civil  War, 
rising  from  a  captaincy  to  the  rank  of  brevet 
major-general  of  volunteers.  He  acquired  a 
large  fortune  in  western  enterprises,  particular- 
ly the  lumber  business.  He  was  governor  of 
Michigan  from  1885  to  1887;  a  candidate  for  the 
Republican  presidential  nomination  in  1888; 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Grand  Army  of  the 
Republic  (1880-90):  and  became  secretary  of 
war  in  President  McKinley's  cabinet  in  1897. 
Almost  from  the  beginning  of  the  Spanish- 
American  war  of  1898  he  was  the  object  of 
much  public  censure  for  alleged  shortcomings 
in  the  various  bureaus  in  his  department,  and 
this  pressure  became  so  strong  and  widespread 
that  he  resigned  his  office  in  1899  after  an  in- 
vestigation committee  had  exonerated  him.  In 
1901  he  published  '  The  Spanish-American 
War.' 

Alger,  William  Rounseville,  Unitarian 
clergyman:  b.  Freetown,  Mass.,  30  Dec.  1822:  d. 
Boston,  Mass.,  7  Feb.  1905.  Graduated  at  Har- 
vard Theological  School  1847;  filled  pastorates  in 
Roxbury,  Mass..  Boston;  New  York.  Denver, 
Chicago.  Portland.  Me.  Works:  'Poetry  of 
the  Orient1  (1856);  'Critical  History  of  the 
Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life'  (1861);  'Genius  of 
Vol.  1 — 19 


Solitude'  (1861)  ;  'Friendships  of  Women' 
(1867);  'Life  of  Edwin  Forrest'  (2  vols. 
1878)  ;  <  Symbolic  History  of  the  Cross ' 
(1881). 

Alge'ria,  a  French  colony  in  north  Africa, 
having  on  the  north  the  Mediterranean,  on  the 
east  Tunis,  on  the  west  Morocco,  and  on 
the  south  (where  the  boundary  is  ill-defined)  the 
Desert  of  Sahara ;  area,  122.878  sq.  m.,  or  in- 
cluding the  Algyian  Sahara,  257,000.  The 
country  is  divided  into  three  departments  —  Al- 
giers, Oran,  and  Constantine.  The  coast-line  is 
about  550  m.  in  length,  steep  and  rocky,  and 
though  the  indentations  are  numerous  the  har- 
bors are  much  exposed  to  the  north  wind.  The 
country  is  traversed  by  the  Atlas  Mountains, 
two  chains  of  which  —  the  Great  Atlas,  border- 
ing on  the  Sahara,  and  the  Little,  or  Maritime 
Atlas,  between  it  and  the  sea  —  run  parallel  to 
the  coast,  the  former  attaining  a  height  of  7,000 
feet.  The  intervals  are  filled  with  lower  ranges, 
and  numerous  transverse  ranges  connect  the 
principal  ones  and  run  from  them  to  the  coast, 
forming  elevated  table-lands  and  enclosed  val- 
leys. The  rivers  are  numerous,  but  many  of 
them  are  mere  torrents  rising  in  the  mountains 
near  the  coast.  The  Shelif  is  much  the  largest. 
Some  of  the  rivers  are  largely  used  for  irriga- 
tion, and  artesian  wells  have  been  sunk  in  some 
places  for  the  same  purpose.  There  are,  both 
on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior,  extensive  salt 
lakes  or  marshes  (sholts),  which  dry  up  to  a 
great  extent  in  summer.  The  country  border- 
ing on  the  coast,  called  the  Tell,  is  generally 
hilly,  with  fertile  valleys ;  in  some  places  a  flat 
and  fertile  plain  extends  between  the  hills  and 
the  sea.  In  the  east  there  are  shotts  that  sink 
below  the  sea-level,  and  into  these  it  has  been 
proposed  to  introduce  the  waters  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. The  climate  varies  considerably  ac- 
cording to  elevation  and  local  peculiarities.  There 
are  three  seasons :  winter  from  November  to 
February,  spring  from  March  to  June,  and  sum- 
mer from  July  to  October.  The  summer  is  very 
hot  and  dry.  In  many  parts  of  the  coast  the 
temperature  is  moderate  and  the  climate  so 
healthy  that  Algeria  is  now  a  winter  resort  for 
invalids. 

The  chief  products  of  cultivation  are  wheat, 
barley,  and  oats,  tobacco,  cotton,  wine,  silk,  and 
dat  's.  Early  vegetables,  especially  potatoes  and 
pease,  are  exported  to  France  and  England.  A 
fibre  called  alfa,  a  variety  of  esparto,  which 
grows  wild  on  the  high  plateaus,  is  exported  in 
larc  ■  quantities.  Cork  is  also  exported.  There 
are  valuable  forests,  in  which  grow  various  sorts 
of  pines  and  oaks,  ash,  cedar,  myrtle,  pistachio- 
nut,  mastic,  carob,  etc.  The  Australian  Eu- 
calyptus globulus  (a  gum-tree)  has  been  suc- 
cessfully introduced.  Agriculture  often  suffers 
much  from  the  ravages  of  locusts.  Among  wild 
animals  are  the  lion,  panther,  hy.-ena,  and  jackal ; 
the  domestic  quadrupeds  include  the  horse,  the 
mule,  cattle,  sheep,  and  pigs  (introduced  by  the 
French).  Algeria  possesses  valuable  minerals, 
including  iron,  copper,  lead,  sulphur,  zinc,  anti- 
mony, marble  (white  and  red),  phosphate,  and 
lithographic  stone. 

The  trade  of  Algeria  has  greatly  increased 
under  French  rule,  France.  Spain,  and  England 
being  the  countries  with  which  it  is  principally 
carried  on.  and  three  fourths  of  the  whole  being 
with  France.     The  exports  (besides  those  men- 


ALGHERO  — ALGOA  BAY 


tioned  above)  are  olive  oil,  raw  hides,  wood, 
I,  tobacco,  oranges,  etc.:  the  imports,  man- 
ufactured goods,  wines,  spirits,  coffee,  etc.  The 
manufacturing  industries  are  unimportant,  and 
include  morocco  leather,  carpets,  muslins, 
and  silks.  French  money,  weights,  and  measures 
are  generally  used.  The  chief  towns  are  Al- 
giers, Oran,  Constantinc.  Bona,  and  Tlemcen. 
There  are  about  2.000  miles  of  railways  opened  ; 
there  is  also  a  considerable  network  of  telegraph 

The  two  principal  native  races  inhabiting  Al- 
geria are  Arabs  and  Berbers.  The  former  are 
mostly  nomads,  dwelling  in  tents  and  wandering 
o  place,  though  a  large  .lumber  of 
them  are  settled  in  the  Tell,  where  they  carry 
on  agriculture  and  have  formed  numerous  vil- 
lages. The  Berbers,  here  called  Kabyles,  are 
the  original  inhabitants  of  the  territory  and  Mill 
form  a  considerable  part  of  the  population. 
They  speak  the  Berber  language,  but  use  Arabic 
characters  in  writing.  The  Jews  form  a  small 
bin  influential  part  of  the  population.  Various 
r  races  also  exist.  Except  the  Jews  all  the 
native  racus  are  Mohammedans.  There  are  now 
a  considerable  number  of  French  and  other  col- 
onists, provision  being  made  for  granting  them 
cone,  ion  of  land  on  certain  conditions.  There 
are  over  260.000  colonists  of  French  origin 
in  Algeria,  and  over  200,000  colonists  natives  of 
Other  European  countries  (chiefly  Spaniards  and 
Italians).  Algeria  is  governed  by  a  governor- 
general,  who  is  assisted  by  a  council  appointed 
by  the  French  government.  The  settled  portion 
of  the  country,  in  the  three  departments  of  Al- 
giers, Constantine,  and  Oran,  is  treated  much 
as  if  it  were  a  part  of  France,  and  each  depart- 
ment sends  two  deputies  and  one  senator  to  the 
French  chambers.  The  rest  of  the  territory  is 
under  military  rule.  The  colony  costs  France 
a  considerable  sum  every  year.  Pop.  (iyo2) 
estimated  about  4,500.000. 

Industries. —  The  wine  business  at  the  pres- 
ent day  constitutes  the  largest  industry  in  Al- 
geria. Until  very  recently  it  had  been  going  up 
by  leaps  and  bounds,  many  large  fortunes  hav- 
ing been  made.  During  1900  and  1901,  how- 
ever, the  price  of  wine  steadily  decreased  on 
account  <  i  the  abnormal  yield   in   France,  and 

■Treat  losses  were  consequently  incurred  by  those 
who  were  forced  to  dispose  of  their  vintage. 
In  11)02.  the  crops  in  France  having  been  great- 
ly damaged  by  late  frosts,  wet.  and  severe 
hailstorms,  the  wine-growers  partially  recouped 
their  losses.  The  amount  of  wine  exported 
from     Algeria    during    1897    was    781,558    gal- 

:    in     1X98,    796.049    gallons;    in    1899,    945,- 

879  gallons;  and  in  1900,  549.131  gallons.     The 

il  products  are  alfa,  cereals,  cork, 

table  hair,  locust  beans,  olive  oil,  fruits,  and 
vegetables,  and  Italian  pastes.  The  area  which 
alfa  occupies  in  the  three  departments  of  Alge- 
ria ;s  estimated  at  more  than  12.000.000  acres. 
The  principal  district,  called  the  *  Alfa  Sea,"  is 
2to  miles  by  95  miles  and  is  bounded  on  the 
N.  by  the  Tell,  on  the  W.  by  Morocco,  on  the 
S.  by  the  mountains  of  Ksowcs.  and  on  the  E. 
by  th-  Hodna.  The  producing  area  is  much 
greater  than  that  actually  cut ;  nevertheless,  in 
order  to  prevent  the  loss  which  would  result 
from  bad  working,  the  governor-general  issued 
an  order  in  1888  limiting  the  cutting,  sale,  and 
export  of  alfa.     The  average  production  of  an 


acre  of  alfa  is  estimated  at  8  cwt.  after  drying 
and  sorting.  In  1900  Algeria  exported  1,650,- 
235  cwt.  of  wheat,  1,188,153  cwt.  of  oats,  1,773,- 
509  cwt.  of  barley,  and  27,496  cwt.  of  maize. 
The  barley  is  much  in  demand  in  Europe  for 
malting  purposes.  Algeria  produces  excellent 
hard  wheat,  giving  a  flour  rich  in  gluten,  and 
consequently  very  good  for  the  manufacture  of 
Italian  partes  and  semolina.  This  industry  is 
annually  increasing:  the  existing  works  are  en- 
larging and  improving  their  machinery,  modern 
methods  of  shop  management  are  being  intro- 
duced, and  the  output  of  the  various  establish- 
ments to-day  rivals  that  of  France  and  other 
countries. 

Consult :  Wilkin,  '  Among  the  Berbers  of  Al- 
geria '  ;  Nugent,  *  A  Land  of  Mosques  and 
Marabouts  '  ;  Morell,  <  Algeria  '  ;  Playfair,  '  The 
Scourge  of  Christendom.' 

Algerine  War.  See  Barbary  Powers, 
U.  S.  Treaties  and  Wars  With  the. 

Alghero,  or  Algheri,  a  fortified  town  and 
seaport  on  the  W.  side  of  the  island  of  Sardi- 
nia, in  the  province  of  Sassari,  and  17  m. 
S.W.  of  the  town  of  that  name.  The  port  is 
not  good,  but  7  m.  W.  of  it  is  Porto  Come, 
the  best  harbor  in  the  island.  The  town  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop  and  possesses  a  handsome  ca 
thedral.  The  inhabitants  are  mainly  employed 
in  wine-growing  and  coral-fishing.       Pop.  10.50c. 

Algiers  (French,  Alger),  a  city  and  sea- 
port on  the  Mediterranean,  capital  of  the  French 
colony  of  Algeria,  is  situated  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  Bay  of  Algiers.  It  stands  on  the  slope  of 
a  hill  facing  tile  sea,  from  which  its  array 
of  white  houses,  rising  in  the  form  of  an  am- 
phitheatre, presents  an  imposing  appearance. 
I  he  old  town,  which  is  the  higher,  has  an 
Oriental  aspect.  Its  crowning  point  is  the  Cas- 
bah,  or  ancient  fortress  of  the  deys,  about  500 
feet  above  the  sea.  Its  streets  are  narrow, 
crooked,  and  dirty.  The  houses  are  strong, 
prison-like  edifices,  with  iron-grated  slits  for 
windows,  looking  into  central  quadrangles  en- 
tered by  a  low  doorway.  The  modern  town, 
which  occupies  the  lower  slope  and  spreads 
along  the  shore,  is  handsomely  built,  with  broad 
Streets  adorned  with  arcades  and  having  ele- 
gant squares.  It  contains  the  government  build- 
ings, the  barracks,  the  commercial  warehouses, 
the  residences  of  the  governor-general  and  the 
government  officials,  and  the  superior  courts  of 
justice.  The  Place  du  Gouvernement  and  the 
Place  Bresson  here  are  the  two  chief  squares  of 
the  city.  The  fine  Boulevard  de  la  Republique 
runs  along  the  sea-front,  overlooking  the  bay 
and  harbor.  Algiers  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop. It  has  a  cathedral  and  a  number  of 
churches  (one  of  them  being  an  English  church) 
and  mosques.  There  are  schools  of  law.  med- 
icine, science,  and  letters,  and  a  lyceum ;  also 
a  library  and  museum.  It  is  defended  by  sea- 
batteries  and  other  works.  The  French  have 
been  at  great  expense  in  improving  the  port 
and   providing   docks.      Pop.   about    100,000. 

Algoa  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  S.E.  coast  o{ 
Cape  Colony,  Africa;  about  420  m.  E.  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  At  its  entrance,  formed 
by  Cape  Woody  on  the  N.E.  and  Cape  Recife 
on  the  S.W.,  it  has  a  width  of  33  miles.  Its 
shelter  is  very  valuable,  as  there  is  no  other 
refuge  for  ships  during  the  N.W.   gales.     The 


ALGOL  —  ALHAMBRA 


usual  anchorage  is  off  Port  Elizabeth,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Baakens,  where  there  is  now  a 
large  and  increasing  trade. 

Algol',  a  star  in  the  constellation  Perseus 
(head  of  Medusa),  remarkable  as  a  variable 
star,  changing  in  brightness  from  the  second 
to  the   fourth   magnitude. 

Algo'ma,  a  district  of  Canada,  on  the  N. 
side  of  Lake  Superior,  forming  the  N.  W. 
portion  of  Ontario,  rich  in  silver,  copper,  iron, 
etc. 

Algona,  Iowa,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Kossuth  County,  on  the  Iowa  Cent.,  Chicago  & 
N.  W.,  and  Chicago,  M.  &  St.  P.  R.R.'s  about 
123  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Des  Moines,  on  a  branch  of 
the  Des  Moines  River.  The  city  has  four  banks., 
handsome  public  buildings,  and  flourishing  man- 
ufactures of  foundry  and  machine-shop  products, 
wooden-ware,  bricks  and  tiles.     Pop.  3,000. 

Algonkian  System,  the  name  given  in  the 
United  States  to  a  great  series  of  rocks  that 
succeeds  the  basal  system  of  the  Archaean  and 
is  overlaid  by  the  strata  of  the  Palaeozic  system. 
The  rocks  of  the  Algonkian  system  are  devel- 
oped on  an  enormous  scale  in  the  Lake  Su- 
perior region,  where  they  comprise  limestones, 
sandstones,  quartzites,  shales,  slates,  and  schists, 
all  more  or  less  disturbed  and  bearing  evidence 
of  having  been  subjected  to  metamorphism. 
They  also  include  dikes  and  beds  of  igneous 
rocks,  and  great  copper  and  iron  ore  deposits, 
which  are  among  the  richest  in  the  world.  A 
few  fossil  remains  have  been  found,  but  little 
is  known  as  to  the  life  conditions  during  the 
Algonkian  period. 

Algonquian,  or  Algonkian  Stock,  a  North 
American  group  once  comprising  forty  or  more 
separate  languages,  and  embracing  a  larger  area 
than  any  other  on  the  continent,  stretching  in 
a  solid  block  from  Labrador  to  the  Rockies  and 
from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Pamlico  Sound  and  the 
Cumberland  River  at  least,  except  the  enclaves 
of  Iroquois  in  and  around  New  York  State, 
and  of  Beothukan  in,  Newfoundland.  Outlying 
tribes  were  the  Shawnee  or  Shawano  to  the 
south ;  and  to  the  west  the  Cheyenne  and  Arapa- 
hoe, which  clove  their  way  through  the  heart  of 
the  Sioux  across  the  Missouri  and  into  the  Black 
Hills  region,  and  later  to  Colorado  and  Wy- 
oming, their  advance  westward  being  checked 
by  the  Shoshone  group.  They  numbered  sev- 
eral hundred  tribes,  or  <(  villages,"  entirely  in- 
dependent ;  many  in  which  several  such  villages 
were  grouped  together ;  and  several  confed- 
eracies of  tribes  united  in  a  loose  bond  for 
mutual  aggression  or  defense,  though  never  with 
any  real  central  government.  The  chief  con- 
federacies were  the  Abnaki  or  Abenaki  of 
Maine  and  New  Brunswick;  the  Pennacook 
of  New  Hampshire,  and  the  adjacent  parts  of 
Maine  and  Massachusetts ;  the  Powhatan  of 
Virginia  and  Maryland;  the  Illinois  or  Mini 
of  that  region  and  adjacent  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and 
Missouri;  the  Siksika  (Blackfeet,  etc.)  of  north- 
ern Montana  and  adjacent  Canada;  the  Chey- 
enne and  Arapahoe,  already  mentioned ;  and  the 
Sac  and  Fox,  first  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ottawa, 
then  in  northern  Wisconsin.  (See  each  title.) 
Of  the  individual  tribes,  the  most  important 
remaining  were  the  Micmac,  Amalecite,  Massa- 
chuset,  Wampanoag,  Narraganset,  Nipmuc.  Pe- 
quot,    Mohegan,    Mohican,    Metoac,    and    Wap- 


pinger  on  the  North  Atlantic  coast :  Munsi, 
Leni-Lenape  or  Delaware,  Shawano,  Nanticnkr, 
Conoy,  Mattamuskeet,  on  the  South  Atlantic 
coast ;  Nascapi,  Montagnais,  Algonquin,  Ottawa, 
Muskegon,  Cree,  Ojibwa.  Misisaga,  Miami, 
Piankishaw,  Kickapoo,  Pottawotomi.  Meno- 
mini,  in  the  interior;  and  Atsina  in  the  West. 
Tradition  places  the  original  home  of  all  these 
tribes  on  the   North   Atlantic  coast. 

From  their  being  the  first  to  come  in  contact 
with  the  English  settlers,  and  the  history  of 
English  settlement  for  two  centuries  being  a 
steady  record  of  fierce  conflict  with  and  bloody 
reprisals  from  and  on  them,  more  is  known  of 
their  minor  names  and  those  of  their  great 
chiefs  —  Powhatan,  Opechancanough,  Philip, 
Pontiac,  Tecumseh,  Black  Hawk,  etc. —  than  of 
any  others  except  the  Iroquois,  and  their  lan- 
guages  are  better  studied. 

Constant  wars  with  the  English,  French,  and 
Dutch  colonists  depleted  their  numbers.  Filled 
at  first  with  the  idea  of  freeing  the  soil  from 
the  whites,  they  afterward  degenerated  into 
mere  mercenaries,  fighting  on  either  side  for 
revenge  or  gain.  After  the  AVar  of  1812,  in 
which  they  took  the  side  of  the  British,  the 
United  States  government  resolved  to  send 
them  as  far  west  as  possible.  After  1840  few 
of  them  remained  east  of  the  Mississippi.  In 
Canada  they  were  not  removed  from  their 
homes,  but  were  limited  as  to  territory.  War 
and  disease  have  thinned  their  number  until 
only  about  43.000  remain  in  the  United  States, 
and  38,000  in  Canada ;  there  are  a  few  hundred 
refugees  in  Mexico. 

Algonquin  (properly  Algomekin,  K  other- 
siders ")  a  once  powerful  Indian  tribe  along 
the  Ottawa  River  and  Lake  Nipissing.  Canada. 
Decimated  by  the  Iroquois,  some  of  them  with 
other  Indian  waifs  took  refuge  along  the  Up- 
per Lakes  and  assumed  the  name  of  Ottawas 
(q.v.),  bringing  forth  the  greatest  Indian  of 
history,  the  mighty  Pontiac  (q.v.)  ;  others  kept 
their  name  and  were  protected  by  the  French 
in  mission  villages.  It  was  French  missionaries 
who  discovered  almost  at  their  first  coming 
that  the  Algonquin  language  was  a  type  com- 
mon to  what  is  now  called  the  Algonquian  stock. 
The  chief  body  of  the  remaining  tribe  numbers 
nearly  1,000,  in  villages  of  Quebec  and  Onta- 
rio ;  about  250  more  are  confederated  with  the 
Iroquois  at  Gibson,  Out.,  and  Lake  of  Two 
Mountains,   Que. 

Alhama,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Motril; 
25  m.  S.W.  of  the  town  of  Granada.  This  place 
is  celebrated  for  its  warm  medicinal  (sulphur) 
baths  and  drinking-waters,  and  also  for  its  ro- 
mantic situation  between  craggy  mountains.  The 
principal  bath  was  a  Moorish  edifice,  the  smaller 
was  circular  in  form  and  probably  a  Roman 
erection.  The  town  was  thrown  completely 
into  ruins  by  an  earthquake  shock  in  1884. 
Washington  Irving,  in  his  <  Chronicle  of  Gra- 
nada,' gives  a  spirited  account  of  the  taking  of 
Alhama,  8  the  key  of  Granada,"  from  the  Moors, 
by  Rodrigo  Ponce  de  Leon,  Marquis  of  Cadiz, 
in  February  1482. 

Alhambra  (Kelat-al-hamrah,  the  red  castle), 
the  citadel  of  Granada  when  that  city  was  one 
of  the  principal  seats  of  the  empire  of  the  Moors 
in  Spain.  The  wall  which  surrounded  it  still 
stands  flanked  by  many  towers,  and   has  a  cir- 


ALHAMBRA  — ALI  BEY 


ctiit  of  -"  i  miles.     Within  it  wore  included  sev- 
eral    importanl     buildings,     besides     dwell  n 
houses;  but  the  building  to  which  the  celebrity  of 
ite  is  due  is  I  r,  or  royal  palace 

of  the  kings  of  Granada,  seated  on  the  northern 
brow  of  a  lofty  eminence  which  commands  a 
full  view  of  the  city  of  Granada,  and.  beyond 
it.  of  a  charming  country,  hounded  in  the  dis- 
tance by  a  line  of  lulls.  It  1-  a  place  equally 
interesting  to  the  artist,  the  antiquarian,  and 
the  historian.  The  erection  of  the  greater  part 
of  the  present  building  seems  to  have  occupied 
almost   the  whole  of  the  first  half  of  the   14th 

1;    con    IStS  mainly   of  two  oblong   rcc- 
■  -,   the  one    (  which   was    seric 
damaged,     if     not     ruined,     by     tire     in     Septem- 
ber 1890),  called  the  court  of  the  Fish-pond  or 
he  Myrtles,  [38  by  74  feet,  and  terminating 
at    it<    northern    end    in    an    apartment    35    feet 
square,  richly  ornamented :  the  other,  called  the 
irt    of   the    Lions.    115   by  66   feet,   and    so 
named    from    the    white    marble    fountain    in   the 
centre    supported    by    twelve    lions.      An    exact 
111.  m    of    this   court,    on    two    thirds   of   the 
scale   of   the   original,    was   made   by    Mr.    Owen 
|,  nes  in   the  Crystal   Palace.     It  is  surrounded 
by  an  arcade,  with   small  pavilions  at   each   end. 
consisting  of   128  columns  supporting  arches  of 
most  delicate  and  elaborate  finish,  still  very 
perfect    and    retaining    much    of    their   original 
beauty.      From    the    character    of   many    of    the 
arches    in    various    portions    of    the    palace    they 
are  most   appropriately  called  stalactitic.     They 
are    formed    on    a    peculiar    system    with    plaster 
bricks  of  various  forms  in  a  manner  universally 
pted    in    the   buildings    of   the    Moors.     The 
1  rmti.  in  of  tin.'  arches  is  remarkable   for  its 
simplicity.      Over    the    columns,    which    are    of 
white   marble,   and   which   were  probably   gilded, 
are    brick    piers    carrying    rough    brick    arches; 
:•■  these  tiles  are  placed  diagonally,  forming 
diamond-shaped    open    work,    running    through 
the   thickness  of  the   walls,  and  a  brest-summer 
of  timber  supporting  the  weight  above.    To  these 
rough   arches   are   attached   the   various   enrich- 
ments,  and  against  the  tiles  are  placed  the  pcr- 
fora  '"   ornaments   which    give   a    singu- 

larly light  appearance  to  the  arches,  and  create 
very  beautiful  effects  from  the  rays  of  light 
cast  through  the  openings  on  the  wall  behind 
them. 

Alhambra,  The,  by  Washington  Irving. 
(183-'.  Revised,  enlarged,  and  rearranged. 
1852.)  'Ibis  Spanish  Sketch-Book  grew  out  oi 
the  experiences  and  studies  of  Irving  while  an 
actual  resident  in  the  old  royal  palace  of  the 
Moors  at  Granada.  Many  of  the  forty  sketches 
have  their  foundation  only  in  the  author's  fancy, 
but  others  are  veritable  history. 

Ali,  a'le,  cousin  and  son-in-law  of  Mo- 
hammed, the  first  of  his  converts,  and  the 
bravest  and  most  faithful  of  his  adherents;  b. 
602;  d.  661.  He  married  Fatima,  the  daughter 
of  the  prophet,  but  after  the  death  of  Moham- 
med (632)  his  claims  to  the  caliphate  were  set 
aside  in  favor  successively  of  Abu-Bekr,  Omar, 
and  Othman.  On  the  assassination  of  Othman, 
in  656  a.d.,  he  became  caliph,  and  after  a  series 
of  struggles  with  his  opponent-,  including  Aye- 
sha,  widow  of  Mohammed,  finally  lost  his  life 
by  assassination  at  Kufa.  A  Mohammedan 
schism  arose  after  his  death,  and  has  produced 


two  sects.  One  sect,  called  the  Sbiites.  put  Ali 
on  a  level  with  Mohammed,  and  .I.,  not  acknow- 
ibe  three  caliph-,  who  preceded  All.  They 
are  regarded  as  heretics  by  the  other  sect,  called 
Simmies.  The  Maxims  and  Hymns  of  Ali  are 
yet  extant.     See  Cai. it'll. 

Ali,  pasha  of  Vanina,  commonly  styled 
Ali  Pasha,  a  bold  and  able,  but  ferocious  and 
utterly  unscrupulous  Albanian,  b.  17.11.  s.m  of  an 
Albanian  chief  who  was  deprived  of  his  tcrri- 
tories  by  rapacious  neighbors.  By  his  enterpi 
and  success  and  entire  want  of  scruple  he  got 
possession  of  more  than  his  father  had  lost, 
making  himself  master  of  a  large  part  of  Al- 
bania, including  Vanina.  which  the  Porte  sanc- 
ed  bis  holding,  with  the  title  of  pasha.  As 
a   ruler    he   displayed    excellent    qualities,   putting 

an  end  to  brigandage  and  anarchy,  making 
roads,  and  encouraging  commerce.  He  extend- 
ed In-  sway  by  subduing  the  brave  Suliotes  of 
Epirus,  whom  be  conquered  in  [803  after  a 
three  years'  war.  Aiming  at  independent  sover- 
\.  he  intrigued  alternately  with  England, 
France,  and  Russia.  Latterly  be  was  almost 
independent  of  the  Porte,  which  at  length  de- 
termined to  put  an  end  to  his  power;  and  in 
[820  Sultan  Mahmoud  pronounced  his  depi 
tion.  Ali  resisted  several  pashas  who  were  sent 
to  carry  out  this  decision,  only  surrendering  at 
last  ill  l822  on  receiving  assurances  that  life  and 
property  should  be  granted  him.  Faith  was  not 
kept  with  him,  however;  he  was  killed  ami  his 
head  cut  off  and  conveyed  to  Constantinople, 
while  his  treasures  were  seized  by  the  Porte. 

Alias,  in  law,  a  term  used  to  indicate  the 
names  under  which  a  person  who  attempts  to 
conceal  his  true  name  is  ascertained  to  have 
passed  during  the  successive  stages  of  his  ca- 
reer. An  alias  writ  is  a  writ  issued  where  one 
of  the  same  kind  has  been  issued  before  in  the 
same  cause. 

Ali  Baba,  the  principal  figure  in  the 
famous  'Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments'  tale 
of  'Ali  Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves.'  He  over- 
bears the  thieves  opening  the  door  of  their 
cavern  by  the  use  of  the  magic  words  "  Open 
sesame."  He  does  the  same  in  their  absence  and 
appropriates  as  much  of  their  wealth  as  he 
can  carry.  Cassim,  his  brother,  enters  the  cave 
later,  but  having   forgotten   the  magic   word    is 

ently  found  by  the  robbers  and  killed.     They 
make  an   attempt   to   slay  Ali   Baba,  but   are  .1. 
feated  by  the  slave  Morgiana,  who  pours  boiling 
oil  in  the-  jars  in  which  the  robbers  are  hi.1.1.  11. 

Ali  Bey,  a  ruler  of  Egypt:  b.  in  the  Cau- 
casus in  1728,  was  taken  t..  Cairo  and  sold  a-  a 
slave,  but  having  entered  the  force  of  the 
Mamelukes,  and  attained  the  first  dignity  among 
them,  he  succeeded  in  making  himself  virtually 
governor  of  Egypt.  He  now  refused  the  custo- 
mary tribute  to  the  Porte  and  coined  money  in 
his  own  name.  In  1769  he  took  advantage  of  a 
war  in  which  the  Porte  was  then  engaged  with 
Russia,  to  endeavor  to  add  Syria  and  Palestine 
to  his  Egyptian  dominion,  and  in  this  he  bad 
almost  succeeded  when  the  defection  of  his 
own  adopted  son  Mohammed  Bey  drove  him 
from  Egypt.  Joining  his  ally  Sheikh  Daher  in 
Syria,  he  still  pursued  bis  plans  of  conquest 
with  remarkable  success,  till  in  1773  be  was 
induced  to  make  the  attempt  to  recover  Egypt 
with  insufficient  means.     In  a  battle  near  Cairc 


SECION   'N    PALACE — Alhambra 


ALIBI  — ALIEN  AND  SEDITION  ACTS 


his  army  was  completely  defeated  and  he  him- 
self taken  prisoner,  dying  a  few  days  afterward 
either  of  his  wounds  or  by  poison. 

Alibi,  in  law,  a  plea  that  the  person  ac- 
cused of  having  committed  a  crime  was  else- 
where at  the  time  when  the  breach  of  the  law 
occurred.  If  he  substantiate  this,  he  is  said 
to  prove  an  alibi.  In  Scotland  the  defendant 
must  give  notice  of  a  special  defense  of  alibi, 
stating  where  he  was  when  the  crime  was  com- 
mitted. In  England  and  the  United  States  this 
notice  is  not  required.  If  the  accused  can  make 
it  appear  that  at  the  time  when  the  crime 
charged  is  alleged  to  have  been  committed  (it 
being  of  a  nature  to  require  his  personal  pres- 
ence) he  was  in  another  place,  his  innocence 
will  be  established,  because  of  the  obvious  im- 
possibility of  the  same  person  being  in  two 
places  at  once.  This  species  of  defense  is  con- 
stantly resorted  to  in  trials  for  crime.  One 
of  the  principal  rules  in  the  application  of  this 
species  of  evidence  is  that  the  time  relied  on, 
and  in  which  the  value  of  the  evidence  mainly 
consists,  must  correspond  closely  with  the  time 
at  or  during  which  the  offense  is  proved  to  have 
been  committed.  If,  time  having  been  fixed  to  a 
particular  day,  hour,  and  minute,  the  person 
accused  can  show  that  at  that  exact  time  he 
was  in  another  place,  his  innocence  is  at  once 
made  apparent. 

Alicante,  a  seaport  of  Spain;  capital  of 
the  province  of  Alicante ;  the  ancient  Lucentum. 
It  is  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  cliff  830  feet  high, 
crowned  by  the  fort  of  Santa  Barbara.  It  has 
one  of  the  best  harbors  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade,  exporting 
wine,  fruit,  esparto  grass,  etc.  It  was  bom- 
barded in  1873  by  two  vessels  sent  out  by  Car- 
tagena insurgents.  Prof.  Freeman,  the  English 
historian,  died  here  in  1892.  An  American 
consul  has  been  stationed  at  Alicante  for  some 
years.    Pop.  (1900)  5°,495- 

Alicata,  or  Licata,  a-le-ka'ta,  le-ka'ta,  the 
most  important  commercial  town  on  the  south 
coast  of  Sicily,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Salso,  24 
m.  E.S.E.  of  Girgenti,  with  a  considerable  trade 
in  sulphur,  grain,  wine,  oil,  nuts,  almonds,  and 
soda.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  town  which 
the  tyrant  Phintias  of  Acrogas  erected  and 
n'imed  after  himself,  when  Gela  was  destroyed 
in  280.     Pop.   15,966. 

Alice's  Adventures  in  Wonderland,  by; 
Lewis  Carroll  (.Charles  L.  Dodgson).  Alice,  a 
bright  little  girl,  is  the  heroine  of  the  tale  and  by 
following  an  extraordinary  rabbit  into  a  rabbit 
hole,  she  finds  herself  in  a  land  where  unreal 
things  seem  real.  Her  mistakes  at  first  barely 
save  her  from  drowning  in  her  own  tears;  but 
she  presently  meets  many  queer  animal  friends 
besides  a  crusty  old  Duchess,  a  mad  Hatter,  a 
sleepy  Dormouse,  and  a  March  Hare,  with  whom 
she  has  strange  experiences,  and  finally  they 
take  her  to  play  croquet  with  the  Queen  of 
Hearts.  During  a  trial  by  jury  at  the  court 
of  the  Queen,  Alice  becomes  excited  and  calls 
every  one  there  nothing  but  a  pack  of  cards. 
As  they  rise  into  the  air  and  come  flying  down 
upon  her,  she  awakes  to  find  herself  on  a  bank 
where  she  had  fallen  asleep.  A  sequel  to  the 
story  is  'Through  the  Looking-Glass,  >  (1871). 

Alien,  any  person  not  legally  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  country  as  one  of  its  citizens. 


By  the  laws  of  the  United  States  the  childrer. 
of  male  citizens,  whether  born  within  the  coun- 
try or  abroad,  are  held  to  be  citizens;  but  all 
other  foreign-born  individuals  are  aliens  until 
made  citizens  by  naturalization.  In  the  United 
States  aliens  are  nominally  prohibited  from  ac- 
quiring title  to  real  estate,  but  in  practice  they 
may  own  lands  subject  to  proceedings  by  the 
State  to  determine  the  fact  of  alienage;  and, 
moreover,  in  nearly  all  the  States  there  are  spe- 
cial provisions  removing  such  restrictions  from 
resident  aliens  who  are  in  the  course  of  natural- 
ization. The  rights  of  aliens  to  hold  personal 
property  and  carry  on  trade  are  the  same  as 
those  of  citizens.  In  time  of  war,  however, 
aliens  belonging  to  the  country  of  the  enemy 
cannot  make  contracts  with  citizens  or  resort 
to  the  courts  except  as  accorded  such  privileges 
by  special  treaties.  In  the  United  States,  if  an 
alien  dies  without  making  a  will  and  without 
leaving  any  known  heirs,  his  estate  immediately 
vests  in  the  State  without  office  found.  An  alien 
may  sue  and  be  sued ;  he  may  be  tried  for 
crime,  and  has  a  right  to  labor  and  to  trade. 
No  State  can  pass  a  law  refusing  rights  tc 
aliens  which  are  secured  by  treaty.  A  law  of 
this  kind  would  be  void,  for  the  reason  that 
every  treaty  made  by  the  authority  of  the 
United  States  is  superior  to  the  constitution  and 
laws  of  any  State.  Naturalized  aliens  are  sub- 
ject to  political  disabilities  as  follows:  They 
are  permanently  disqualified  for  election  as 
President  or  Vice-President,  and  cannot  become 
members  of  the  National  Senate  or  House  of 
Representatives  until  they  have  been  citizens  for 
nine  or  seven  years  respectively.  In  Great 
Britain  there  is  no  discrimination  whatever  be- 
tween aliens  and  subjects  as  far  as  property 
rights  are  concerned.  It  is  held  by  British  law 
that  the  children  of  aliens  born  in  Great  Britain 
are  natural-born  subjects.  In  all  Christian  coun- 
tries the  tendency  of  legislation  concerning 
aliens  shows  increasing  liberality,  although  it  is 
still  the  policy  of  the  Latin  nations,  in  their 
colonies,  to  limit  materially  the  trade  advan- 
tages of  foreigners. 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts,  in  American  po- 
litical history,  four  acts  passed  by  the  Federalist 
party  in  Congress  in  the  summer  of  1798,  under 
John  Adams,  which  were  the  immediate  cause 
of  the  first  nullification  proceedings  in  the 
South  (see  Kentucky  Resolutions;  Nullifi- 
cation; Virginia  Resolutions),  and  one  of  the 
causes  which  alienated  enough  votes  from  the 
Federalists  to  drive  them  out  of  power  sooner 
than  was  inevitable.  (For  the  genesis  of  the 
alien  acts  see  also  American  Party.)  The 
embittered  exiles  who  flocked  here  from  1790 
on  were  doubly  obnoxious  to  the  Federalist-;: 
both  as  scurrilously  offensive  journalists,  often- 
times, and  as  hostile  to  all  attempts  to  punish 
France  for  her  wanton  aggressions  on  American 
commerce.  In  1797  the  House  was  Republican, 
the  Senate  Federalist ;  the  latter  attempted  to 
pass  measures  for  defense  against  France,  which 
the  former  steadily  voted  down.  At  length,  in 
1798,  the  publication  of  the  "X.  Y.  Z."  corre- 
spondence, showing  the  rottenness  of  the  French 
Directory,  shamed  the  defenders  of  France  and 
incensed  the  moderates  into  supporting  the 
Federalists:  who,  having  now  a  majority  in 
both  houses,  first  enacted  three  laws  concerning 
aliens:     (1)   18  June,  making  the  residence  be- 


ALIENATION  OF  ESTATES —  ALIMENTARY  SYSTEM 


fore  naturalization  Fourteen  years  instead  of 
five,  and  the  term  after  declaration  of  intentions 
five  instead  ol  three;  alien  enemies  not  to 
be  allowed  naturalization;  registration  of  all 
aliens  on  arrival,  under  penalties,  and  entry  on 
such  register  the  only  proof  admitted  on  apply- 
ing for  naturalization.  (2)  25  June,  empowering1 
the    President    for   two   years   to   order   out  of 

the  Country  any  alien--  he  thought  dangerous  or 
engaged   in    conspiracies,      (3)    6  July,   legalizing 

the  apprehension  or  deportation  of  all  resident 
aliens  when  war  wa  ed  against  the  United 

States.  These  acts  w  n  denounced  by  the 
Republicans  on  tlire'e  grounds,  two  of  State 
rights  and  one  general:  as  invading  the  Consti- 
tutional rights  of  the  Stales  to  permit  such 
immigration  as  they  chose  up  to  [808  (really 
intended  to  apply  only  to  slaves)  ;  lint  it  as- 
sumed national  powers  over  persons  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  their  States;  and  that  it  violated 
the    right   of   trial    by    jury.      It    was   on   these 

its  that  Jefferson  and  Madison  drew  up  the 
Kentucky  and  Virginia  legislative  resolutions; 
the  former  oi  which,  on  its  repetition  in  1799, 
named  nullification  as  the  proper  remedy. 
1  o  June,  Lloyd  of  Maryland  intro- 
duced a  bill  (1)  declaring  France  an  enemy  of 
the  United  States,  and  any  one  who  should 
uphold  her  or  give  her  aid  or  comfort  guilty  of 
high  treason;  (2)  defining  treason;  (3)  impos- 
ing $5,000  fine  and  six  months'  to  five  years' 
imprisonment  on  any  one  conspiring  to  oppose 
or  impede  United  States  measures,  intimidate 
United  States  officers,  stir  up  insurrection,  etc.; 
(4)  imposing  a  line  of  not  over  $2,000  and  im- 
prisonment for  not  over  two  years  for  any  utter- 
ance or  writing  tending  to  justify  France,  or  to 
di  lame  United  States  officials  as  hostile  to 
popular  liberties,  etc.  It  passed  the  Senate  by  a 
heavy  majority;  the  House  made  important 
changes  in  it  and  passed  the  altered  bill  by  a 
scratch.  These  changes  were:  (1)  Canceling  the 
first  two  sections  altogether;  (2)  substituting 
for  the  fourth,  the  publishing  or  printing  any 
false,  scandalous,  or  malicious  writings  to  bring 
the  Government,  Congress,  or  President  into 
contempt  or  disrepute,  excite  popular  hostility 
to  them,  incite  resistance  to  United  States  laws 
or  encourage  hostile  designs  against  the  United 
States,  etc.  To  these,  which  gave  Federal 
judges  power  to  make  any  opposition  to  the 
ruling  party  a  felony,  Bayard  of  Delaware  got 
two  clauses  added  which  drew  their  teeth:  the 
first  making  the  truth  a  good  defense  and  juries 
the  judges  of  the  fact;  the  second  restricting 
the  term  of  operation  to  4  March  1801 — that  is, 
till   a   new    administration   came   in,   so   that   it 

lid  expire  with  the  Federalists  if  they  went 
out,  and  the  Republicans  thus  lose  the  eclat 
of  repealing  it.  It  would  naturally  be  supposed 
that  the  Alien  Acts,  which  affected  only  a  few 
foreigners  and  no  internal  liberties,  and  which 
as  a  fact  remained  entirely  unenforced,  would 
have  caused  little  commotion  in  the  Republican 
party:  and  that  the  Sedition  Act,  which  struck 
at  all  liberty  of  free  speech  or  publication,  and 
was  contrary  to  the  very  basis  of  free  govern- 
ment, and  under  which  at  least  six  prosecutions 
and  most  scandalous  performances  of  one  Fed- 
eral judge  took  place,  would  have  provoked 
almost  a  civil  war.  The  facts  are  an  instructive 
historical  lesson  against  transferring  the  ideas 
of  one  age  to  another.  The  Republicans  dis- 
liked  the   use   of  prosecutions   under  the   Sedi- 


tion Act  as  a  party  weapon,  and  resented  Judge 
n  decisions;  but  it  was  only  as 
1  against  themselves,  not  as  against  civil 
liberty,  that  they  reprobated  it. —  neither  party 
had  attained  to  that  ideal, —  and  their  chief 
rhetoric  and  defiance  was  directed  against  the 
harmless  acts  which  tried  to  prevent  their  sup- 
porting France.  It  was  in  crystallizing  the  spirit 
of  State  resistance  to  national  power  that  the 
acts  have  their  main  importance. 

Alienation  of  Estates,  comprises  any 
method  whereby  estates  are  voluntarily  resigned 

by  one  and  accepted  by  another,  whether  that 
be  effected  by  sale,  gift,  marriage  settlement. 
devise,  or  other  transmission  of  property  by 
the  mutual  consent  of  the  parties.  2  Bl.  Com., 
§  287;  55  N.  J.  L.  417.  The  term  alienation  is 
particularly  applied  to  absolute  conveyances  of 
real  property.     1  N.  Y.  200,  294. 

Alienations  by  deed  may  be  by  convey- 
ances at  common  law  ;  which  are  either  original 
or  primary,  being  those  by  means  of  which  the 
benefit  or  estate  is  created  or  first  arises;  or 
derivative  or  secondary  conveyances,  being  those 
by  which  the  benefit  or  estate  originally  created 
is  enlarged,  restrained,  transferred,  or  extin- 
guished; or  they  may  be  by  conveyances  under 
the  statute  of  uses.  The  original  conveyances 
are  the  following:  feoffment,  gift,  grant,  lease, 
exchange,  partition.  The  derivative  are  release, 
confirmation,  surrender,  assignment,  defeasance. 
Those  deriving  their  force  from  the  statute  of 
uses  are  covenants  to  stand  seized  to  uses,  bar 
gain  and  sale,  lease  and  release,  deeds  to  lead 
cr  declare  the  uses  of  other  more  direct  convey- 
ances, deeds  of  revocation  of  uses.  2  Bl.  Com. 
ch.  20;  2  VVashb.  Real  Prop.  600. 

Alienist.      See  Psychiatry. 

Ah  Ferrough  Bey,  Turkish  diplomatist:  b. 
Constantinople,  1865.  After  serving  as  secre- 
tary of  embassy  at  Paris,  London,  and  Bucha- 
rest, as  well  as  councilor  of  embassy  at  St. 
Petersburg,  he  was  promoted  to  the  post  of 
minister-plenipotentiary  and  envoy-extraordinary 
to  the  United  States.  Besides  histories  of 
Arabia  and  Turkey  he  has  published  (  Public 
and  Private  International  Law.' 

Aligarh,  or  Alighur,  a  town  in  India,  in  the 
Northwest  Provinces,  in  the  executive  district  of 
the  same  name,  53  m.  N.  of  Agra.  Aligarh  is 
merely  a  fortress,  the  town  being  Coel,  distant 
about  two  miles  and  connected  with  Aligarh  by 
a  beautiful  avenue.  It  was  formerly  of  import- 
ance and  was  more  recently  one  of  Dowlel  Rao 
Sindia's  principal  depots  for  military  stores. 
The  fort  is  square,  with  round  bastions,  ditch, 
and  glacis,  and  a  single  entrance,  protected  by  a 
strong  ravelin.  It  was  taken  in  1X03  by  Lord 
Lake.  Sindia's  commander,  Perron  (a  French- 
man) having  previously  surrendered,  and  the 
whole  district  was  then  added  to  the  British  pos- 
sessions. Since  that  time  the  fort  has  been  much 
improved,  and  the  town  made  the  station  of  a 
civil  and  judicial  establishment.  Pop.  of  Coel 
(1901)    70,127. 

Aliment.      See  Food  ;  Nutrition. 

Alimentary  System,  or  Gastro-intestinal 
System,  is  the  collection  1,1'  organs  in  animals 
that  is  chiefly  concerned  in  the  processes  of 
digestion  and  nutrition.  It  is.  in  man.  a  highly 
complicated  tube  of  some  thirty  or  more  feet 
in    length,    beginning    at    the    mouth,    then    the 


ALIMONY  — ALISON 


pharynx,  the  oesophagus  leading  into  the  stom- 
ach, which  organ  is  a  dilated  and  pouch-like 
portion  of  the  tube.  From  the  stomach  the  tube 
is  narrowed  into  the  small  intestine,  there  being 
some  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet  of  this,  divided 
into  three  parts,  the  duodenum,  the  jejunum, 
and  the  ileum.  These  three  parts  are  distin- 
guished the  one  from  the  other  by  means  of 
their  minute  histological  structure.  At  the  end 
of  the  ileum  the  tube  once  more  dilates,  a  pouch 
is  formed,  the  appendix  vermiformis  being  situ- 
ated here,  and  the  large  intestine  or  colon 
begins.  This  passes  up  the  right  side  of  the 
abdomen,  constituting  the  ascending  colon; 
crosses  over  under  the  liver  high  up  in  the 
abdomen,  about  on  the  level  of  the  umbilicus, 
the  transverse  colon;  then  descends  on  the  left 
side,  to  turn  at  the  lower  iliac  region  abruptly 
backward  and  into  the  centre  of  the  body  to 
form  the  short  rectum.  The  tube  terminates  at 
the  anus,  guarded  by  two  circular  muscles 
known  as  the  sphincters.  The  number  of  ac- 
cessory glands  and  organs  that  empty  their 
secretions  into  the  intestinal  system  is  very 
great.  The  most  important  are  the  salivary 
glands  in  the  mouth,  the  digestive  glands  of  the 
■  stomach,  the  liver  and  pancreas,  the  secretions 
of  which  enter  by  a  common  duct  just  below 
the  stomach,  and  the  intestinal  glands.  Mucous 
glands  are  found  throughout  the  entire  length 
of  the  intestinal  system. 

The  structure  of  the  different  portions  of  the 
tube  is  similar,  but  variations  in  function  pro- 
duce slight  modifications,  especially  in  the  mus- 
cular coats.  In  general  there  is  a  layer  of 
mucous  membrane  on  the  interior  of  the  canal ; 
this  is  surrounded  by  a  connective-tissue  sup- 
porting framework,  and  is  further  strensthened 
by  a  varying  amount  of  unstriped  muscular 
tissue.  The  details  of  structure  will  be  con- 
sidered in  the  descriptions  of  the  several  organs. 
(See  Intestine;  Stomach.)  The  work  of  the 
alimentary  system  in  the  complicated  chemical 
processes  of  digestion  is  more  fully  described  in 
various  other  articles.  See  Digestion  ;  Metab- 
olism ;  Nutrition. 

Alimony,  in  law,  the  allowance,  awarded 
out  of  her  husband's  estate,  to  which  a  wife  is 
entitled  on  separation  or  divorce.  Jurisdiction 
in  this  matter  in  England  rested  with  the  ec- 
clesiastical court  until  1857,  when  it  was  con- 
ferred upon  a  court  of  divorce.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  vested  in  the  courts  of  equity. 
Alimony  may  be  granted  by  the  court  during 
litigation,  in  which  case  it  is  known  as  pendente 
/</.•  (during  the  suit)  ;  or  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  suit,  when  it  is  called  permanent.  The 
former  enables  the  wife  to  pursue  the  litigation, 
whether  proceedings  have  been  brought  by  or 
against  her.  The  amount  granted  lies  within 
the  discretion  of  the  court  and  depends  upon  a 
variety  of  considerations,  and  is  governed  by  no 
fixed  rules.  The  ability  of  the  husband  to  pay 
is  of  most  importance  in  determining  the 
amount,  and  in  estimating  his  ability  his  entire 
income  will  be  taken  into  consideration,  whether 
derived  from  his  property  or  his  personal  ex- 
ertions. So  far  as  any  general  rule  can  be 
drawn  from  the  decisions  and  practice  of  the 
courts,  the  proportion  of  the  joint  income  to  be 
awarded  for  permanent  alimony  is  said  to  range 
from  one  half  to  one  third,  while  in  case  of 
!        .iv    pending   suit   it   is   not  usual  to  allow- 


more  than  one  fifth,  and  usually  a  smaller  pro 
portion  will  be  allowed  out  of  a  large  estate  than 
out  of  a  small  one.  Permanent  alimony  is  a  pe- 
riodical allowance  awarded  to  the  wife  if  the 
termination  of  the  suit  is  favorable  to  her.  By 
a  writ  of  ne  exeat  (let  him  not  depart,)  the 
court  can  prevent  the  husband  from  leaving  the 
State  without  leaving  sufficient  security  for  pay- 
ment. The  writ  of  ne  exeat  has  been  expressh 
abolished  in  many  of  the  States  of  the  Union, 
but  its  place  has  been  filled  in  almost  every 
instance  by  a  similar  procedure.  In  New  York 
a  system  of  arrest  and  bail  has  been  substituted 
for  the  writ.  If  the  husband  should  remove  to 
another  State  the  wife  can  enforce  her  claim  in 
the  Federal  courts.    See  Marriage  and  Divorce 

Alis,  Hippolyte  Percher,  al-e,  ip-o-let  par 
sha,  French  novelist  and  journalist:  b.  Couleu- 
vre,  7  Oct.  1857.  Besides  journalistic  work,  he 
has  written  several  "  naturalistic "  novels,  in- 
cluding 'Hara-Kiri'  (1882);  'A  Daughter  of 
the  Soil'  (1885);  'Some  Foolish  People' 
(1889). 

Alishan,  Leo  M.,  al-e-shan',  Armenian 
poet  and  historian :  b.  Constantinople,  30  July 
1820;  studied  in  Venice,  took  orders  there  1S40. 
was  given  a  chair  in  the  College  Raphael,  and 
made  its  director  1848 ;  head  of  the  Armenian 
college  in  Paris  1858,  director  of  St.  Lazare  in 
Venice  1865.  Armenians  regard  him  as  their 
leading  poet.  His  complete  poems  were  pub- 
lished 1857-67.  He  issued  '  Popular  Songs  of 
the  Armenians'  (1867);  'Historical  Mono- 
graphs' .(1870);  'History  and  Geography  of 
Armenia  '  (  1S85),  seized  and  suppressed  by  the 
Turkish  authorities. 

Alisma'ceas,  the  water-plantain  family. 
Sagittaria  (arrowhead).  See  Arrowhead; 
Water  Plantain. 

Al'ison,  Rev.  Archibald,  Scottish  theolo- 
gian and  writer  on  aesthetics:  b.  Edinburgh. 
1757;  d.  there  1839.  Studied  at  Glasgow  and 
Oxford,  entered  the  English  Church,  and  (1800) 
settled  as  the  minister  of  an  Episcopal  chapel 
at  Edinburgh.  He  published  two  volumes  of 
sermons,  and  a  work  entitled  'Essays  on  the 
Xature  and  Principles  of  Taste'  ("1790),  in 
which  he  maintains  that  the  beauty  of  material 
objects  depends  upon  the  associations  connected 
with  them. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  Scottish  lawyer 
and  writer  of  history,  son  of  the  above:  b. 
Shropshire,  1792;  d.  near  Glasgow,  1867.  He 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  and  in 
1814  was  admitted  to  the  Scottish  bar.  After 
several  years  passed  in  Continental  travel  he  was 
appointed  advocate-depute,  which  post  he  held 
till  1830.  In  1832  he  published  '  Principles  of 
the  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland,'  and  in  1833 
'  The  Practice  of  the  Criminal  Law.'  Was  ap- 
pointed sheriff  of  Lanarkshire  in  1834,  and  re 
tained  this  post  till  his  death.  He  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1852.  His  chief  work,  <  The  His- 
tory of  Europe,  from  1789  to  1815,'  was  first 
issued  in  10  vols.  1833-42,  the  narrative  being 
subsequently  brought  down  to  1852,  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  French  empire. 

Alison,  Sir  Archibald,  Jr.,  Scottish  gen- 
eral :  b.  Edinburgh,  21  Jan.  1826.  He  was  a 
son  of  the  preceding  and  was  educated  at  Glas- 
gow _  and  Edinburgh,  and  after  entering  tin 
English  army  served  in   the  Crimea  and   India. 


ALIZARIN  —  ALKALOIDS 


He  distinguished  himself  while  second  in  com- 
mand >'i  the  \  liantee  expedition,  1873  74.  and 
also  in  the  wai  in  Egypt  in  1882,  becoming 
lieutenant-general  in  that  year.  He  retired  in 
1893. 

Aliza'rin  (from  alisari,  the  commercial  name 
of  madder  in  the  East),  a  substance  having  the 
formula  I  rl«0  (OH)>,  formerly  obtained  from 
the  rout  of  the  madder  (Rubia  tinctoria),  but 
now  artificially  produced  from  coal-tar  and  the 
refuse  from  the  distillation  of  crude  petroleum. 
It  is  used  a^  a  dye,  for  producing  the  color 
known  as  "  turkey  red."  Alizarin  is  of  in- 
to the  chemist  not  only  on  account  of 
its  industrial  importance,  but  also  because  it  was 
the  first  vegetable  coloring  matter  to  be  pro- 
duced artificially;  and  the  year  1868,  in  which 
its  synthesis  was  effected  by  W.  11.  Perkin, 
nning  of  a  new  era  in 
industrial  chemistry.  In  the  manufacture  of 
alizarin,  anthracene  (( ',,11,..)  is  first  prepared 
from  coal-tar,  and  by  oxidation  (which  it  read- 
ily undergoes  under  the  influence  of  potassium 
bichromate  or  other  oxidizing  agent)  is  trans- 
formed into  antbraquinonc,  CuHaO*  The  next 
step  is  to  sulphonate  the  substance  sc  formed. 
Anthraquinone  is  remarkably  stable  toward  sul- 
phuric acid,  but  combination  can  be  effected  by 
strongly  beating  a  mixture  of  the  two,  and  a 
solution  of  mono-  and  disulphonic  acids  of  an- 
thraquinone is  the  result.  The  excess  of 
sulphuric  acid  is  then  removed,  and  the  sulphonic 
acids  are  heated  with  caustic  potash  to  about 
3500  F.  The  mass  gradually  darkens  till  it 
becomes  almost  Mack,  at  which  stage  it  dissolves 
in  water  with  the  formation  of  a  rich  purple  so- 
lution, from  which  alizarin  can  be  precipitated 
in  abundance  by  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid. 
A  similar  process  was  also  devised  by  Perkin, 
in  which  the  first  step  is  the  formation  of  di- 
chlorantbracene,  C»HgCl:,  by  treating  anthracene 
with  chlorine  Subsequent  treatment  of  this 
body  with  sulphuric  acid  gives  anthraquinone 
disulphonic  acid.  CnHoO:(HSO.i):.  This  is 
fusc<l  with  potash,  as  described  above,  and  the 
alizarin  precipitated  with  sulphuric  acid  as  be- 
fore. Anthrapurpurin  is  formed,  simultaneously 
with  alizarin,  in  the  processes  given  above.  Its 
behavior  as  a  dye  is  similar  to  that  of  alizarin, 
but  it  gives  a  brighter  red.  Pure  alizarin,  as 
obtained  by  sublimation,  crystallizes  in  yellow- 
ish-red crystals,  only  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol 
or  water,  but  readily  dissolving  in  alkalis. 
Chemically,  alizarin  is  known  as  dioxyanthra- 
quinone. 

Alkahest,  or  The  House  of  Claes,  The 
('  La  Recherche  dc  I'Absolu  '—The  Search  for 
the  Absolute),  is  a  striking  novel  by  Honore  de 
Balzac.  The  central  character,  Balthazar  Claes, 
is  a  wealthy  chemist,  the  dream  of  whose  life 
is  to  solve  the  mystery  of  matter.  Gradually 
the  quest  becomes  a  fixed  idea,  for  which  money, 
family,  health,  sanity,  are  sacrificed,  and  Claes 
dies  heart-broken  and  defeated.  As  foils  to 
him  stand  his  devoted  wife  and  his  eldest 
daughter  Marguerite,  noble  women,  the  latter 
one  of  the  finest  creations  of  Balzac's  genius. 
They  sympathize  sorrowfully  yet  tenderly  with 
his  ideal,  and  bear  with  true  heroism  the  misery 
to  which  his  mad  course  subjects  them.  The 
story  belongs  to  that  series  of  the  Human 
Comedy  known  as  «  Philosophical  Studies,»  and 
appeared  in   1834. 


Alkali  (  from  the  Arabic,  al,  <>  the,11  and 
qaliy,  «ashes»),  a  term  originally  used  for  the 
soluble  part  of  "  pol  ashes,"  but  since  extended 
to  include  the  hydrate  or  oxid  of  any  of  the 
metals  lithium,  sodium,  potassium,  caesium  and 
rubidium,  or  of  the  radical  ammonium.  The 
alkalis  possess  strongly  basic  properties,  and 
(with  the  exception  of  ammonia)  rapidly  ab- 
sorb carbon  dioxid  from  the  air,  when  moist, 
passing  into  the  form  of  carbonates.  They  are 
all  soluble  in  water,  and  nearly  all  of  their  com- 
pounds are  also  soluble.  The  real  nature  of  the 
alkalis  was  first  conclusively  proved  by  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  when  in  1S07  he  decomposed 
potash  and  soda  by  means  of  the  electric  cur- 
rent. Alkalis  in  concentrated  solution  exert  a 
powerfully  corrosive  action  on  the  skin,  and 
even  in  very  dilute  solution  they  alter  the  color 
of  certain  vegetable  infusions  very  markedly. 
This  property  is  utilized  for  detecting  free  al- 
kalis in  solutions  under  examination,  strips  of 

bibulous  paper  impregnated  with  red  infusion 
of  litmus  being  moistened  with  the  fluid  to  be 
tested.  An  exceedingly  small  amount  of  frei 
alkali  will  transform  the  red  color  to  a  blue. 
The  alkali  metals  are  all  monovalent. 

The  early  chemist  distinguished  another  class 
of  substances,    somewhat    resembling  the  alkalis, 

as  the  "alkaline  earths."  These  include  the 
oxids  of  calcium,  strontium,  and  barium.  The 
alkaline  earths  are  basic  in  nature,  and  differ 
from  the  alkalis  chiefly  in  being  less  soluble. 
Magnesium  is  sometimes  included  among  the 
alkaline  earths,  but  it  falls  more  naturally  into 
the  zinc  group.     See  Antacid;  Soils. 

Alkalimetry,  that  branch  of  chemistry 
which  treats  of  the  quantitative  estimation  of 
alkalis  present  in  a  given  solution.  Sec  Anal- 
ysis, Chemical. 

Alkaloids,  organic  bases,  forming  definite 
salts  with  acids  and  resembling  in  some  respects 
the  metals  of  the  alkalis,  hence  the  name.  A 
number  of  basic  nitrogenous  compounds  of 
marked  physiological  action  and  somewhat  anal- 
ogous in  their  chemical  composition.  It  has 
been  proposed  to  limit  the  word  alkaloid  to  the 
group  of  basic  nitrogenous  principles  found 
in  plants,  the  somewhat  similar  bodies  found  in 
animals  being  termed  ptomains  (q.v. )  and  leu- 
comains  (q.v.).  (See  Animal  Alkaloids.) 
Some  even  class  as  alkaloids  a  series  of  feebly 
basic  compounds  prepared  synthetically  from 
the  anilines,  antipyrine,  etc.  Alkaloids  are  here 
considered  in  their  strict  sense  as  basic  nitro- 
genous principles,  products  of  the  metabolism  of 
plants. 

Distribution. — Alkaloids  are  widely  distrib- 
uted throughout  the  plant  kingdom;  many  plants 
contain  them,  and  some  plants  contain  a  large 
number;  opium,  Papaver  somnifcrum,  for  in- 
stance, contains  a  dozen  or  more  alkaloids.  The 
Cinchona  family  also  contains  many.  In  such 
cases,  however,  the  alkaloids  are,  as  a  rule,  very 
closely  related  in  their  chemical  structure.  Cer- 
tain plant  families  contain  many,  others  a  few 
or  none.  Most  of  the  alkaloids  are  found  in  the 
Dicotyledons,  a  few  only  are  found  in  the 
Monocotyledons,  Colchicum,  and  perhaps  some 
of  the  Liliacece.  The  cryptogams  do  not  seem  to 
contain  alkaloids  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word, 
although  ergot  was  supposed  to  contain  some 
principles    closely    resembling    alkaloids.      The 


AL-KHOWARAZMI  —  ALKMAAR 


Papaveracca,  Solanacccr,  and  Ranunculacea  are 
particularly  rich  in  alkaloids.  The  Leguminosea, 
Rubiacee,  and  Umbellifera  contain  many,  while 
the  large  families  of  the  Composite  and  Labia- 
iete  contain  very  few.  For  the  most  part  similar 
alkaloids  are  found  in  related  plants,  yet  a  few 
widely  separated  plants  contain  similar  alkaloids, 
berberin  being  an  example.  As  to  their  loca- 
tion in  the  plants  themselves,  alkaloids  are  found 
mostly  in  the  fruit  and  seeds ;  many  are  found  in 
the  barks,  and  some  in  the  roots.  They  are 
formed  for  the  most  part  in  the  actively  grow- 
ing portions  of  the  plant  and  are  probably 
katabolic  products  of  the  plant  metabolism. 
They  are  usually  found  in  solutions  combined 
with  some  plant  acid  in  the  cell  sap,  sometimes 
dissolved  in  oils  or  mucilage,  and  in  many 
instances  are  stored  up  in  secretory  passages 
in  the  plant.  As  to  the  role  that  the  alkaloids 
play  in  the  plant  economy  it  is  difficult  to  state 
positively:  they  do  not  seem  to  be  utilized  by 
the  plant  as  a  source  of  energy  and  in  some 
instances  are  even  poisonous  to  the  plant  itself. 
One  of  the  services  they  perform  for  the  plant 
is  to  aid  it  in  the  struggle  for  existence  by 
being  poisonous  to  animals.  The  large  quanti- 
ties found  in  seeds  is  evidence  for  the  support 
of  this  view. 

For  the  most  part  alkaloids  are  solid,  non- 
volatile, crystalline  bodies,  a  few  being  liquid 
and  volatile,  that  is,  arecolin,  nicotin,  coniin, 
spartein.  The  former  contain  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen.  The  three  latter  liquid 
alkaloids  contain  no  oxygen  and  have  a  marked 
odor;  the  solid  alkaloids  possess  no  odor.  With 
few  exceptions  the  alkaloids  are  insoluble  (or 
soluble  with  great  difficulty)  in  water. 

Chemically  the  alkaloids  are  divisible  into 
five  provisional  groups,  although  it  was  at  one 
time  held  that  only  those  bodies  belonging  to 
the  Pyridin  group  should  be  considered  as  alka- 
loids. These  groups  as  classed  by  Bruhl  are 
(I)  the  Pyrrolidin  group  —  containing  an  alka- 
loid from  the  coca  leaf,  hygrin;  (2)  the  Pyridin 
group,  which  contains  a  large  number,  pilocarpin, 
pilocarpidin,  arecolin,  arecain,  coniin,  conydrin, 
piperin,  nicotin,  atropin,  hyoscamin,  cocain, 
pelleterein,  spartein,  cystisin,  and  others;  (3) 
Chinolin  group  —  containing  cinchonin,  quinin, 
cinchonidin,  strychnin,  brucin,  curarin,  and 
others;  (4)  Isochinolin  group — containing  the 
opium  alkaloids,  morphin,  papaverin,  narcotin, 
codein,  thebain,  hydrocotarnin,  hydrastin,  can- 
nabin,  berberin,  corydalin ;  (5)  alkaloids  of 
undetermined  relationship,  a  few  only  being  of 
other  than  chemical  interest,  ergotinin,  colchicin, 
veratrin,  cevadin,  jervin,  rubijervin,  aspidosper- 
min,  yohimbin.  anhalonin,  lupinin,  gelsemin, 
aconitin,  pseudoaconitin,  japaconitin,  delphinin, 
emetin,  etc. 

The  internal  chemical  construction  of  all 
the  alkaloids  is  extremely  complex;  for  many 
it  is  unknown.  Most  are  tertiary  bases ;  a  few 
are  similar  to  the  secondary  amines  in  structure. 
Ammonia  bases  are  also  present  in  many.  Many 
alkaloids  acted  on  by  strong  alkalies  are  broken 
up  into  two  components,  a  basic  body  and  a  ni- 
trogen free,  mostly  aromatic  acid.  Most  of  the 
alkaloids  react  similarly  to  oxidizing  agents; 
nitric  acid,  chromic  acid,  potassium  ferrocya- 
nide,  and  potassium  permanganate  are  the  most 
active.  The  last  makes  an  efficient  chemical 
antidote   for   many  of   them.     A   few   alkaloids 


have  been  made  synthetically.     In  the  making, 
however,  a  related  base  has  been  necessary. 

Physiologically  the  alkaloids  are  for  the  most 
part  very  active.  Some  have  very  little  action, 
berberin,  for  example,  while  aconitin  is  one  of 
the  most  toxic  of  substances.  Nearly  all  of 
them  have  a  marked  affinity  for  nerve  struc- 
tures, on  which  a  few  have  markedly  poisonous 
action :  some  of  them  attacking  the  sensory 
nervous  elements  more  particularly  (aconitin, 
cocain)  ;  others  exerting  their  greatest  activity 
on  the  motor  nervous  structures,  sometimes  in 
the  muscle  plates  (coniin,  curarin)  causing 
paralysis ;  others  in  the  motor  cells  in  the 
anterior  horn  cells  of  the  spinal  cord  (strych- 
nin). Still  others  exert  their  influence  on  the 
nerve  cells  of  the  brain  (morphin,  hyoscyamin). 

History. — The  history  of  the  discovery  of  the 
alkaloids  is  about  one  hundred  years  old.  Der- 
osne  of  Paris  first  isolated  from  opium  in  1803 
a  salt  "of  opium,"  as  he  termed  it.  This  was 
a  mixture  of  morphin  and  narcotin,  and  in 
1806  Sertiirner,  a  pharmacist  of  Hanover,  first 
definitely  discovered  morphin.  It  was  not  until 
181 7,  however,  that  the  discovery  was  noticed. 
Following  this  in  rapid  succession  different  alka- 
loids were  isolated, —  narcotin  and  emetin  in 
1817,  veratrin  and  strychnin  in  1818,  brucin  and 
piperin  in  1819,  caffein,  cinchonin,  and  quinin 
in  1820,  and  by  1835  at  least  30  alkaloids  were 
known.  At  the  present  time  there  are  more  than 
200  known,  and  new  ones  are  being  discovered 
rapidly ;  detailed  study  of  more  important  alka- 
loids will  be  found  under  their  respective  heads. 
See  Animal  Alkaloids:  Plants:  Poisons. 

Bibliography. — 'Introduzione  alio  Studio  de- 
gli  Alcaloidi,'  Icilio  Guareschi ;  translated  into 
German  as  'Die  Alkaloide,'  by  Kuntz  Krause, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  of  modern  works. 
Also  see  'La  Constitution  Chimique  des  Alca- 
loides  Vegetaux.'  by  Ame  Pictet  (2d  ed.  1807 )  : 
'Die  Pflanzen- Alkaloide,'  by  J.  W.  Bruhl 
(1900).  For  studies  of  location  in  plants,  see 
Rusby  &  Jelliffe,  'Morphology  and  Histology 
of  Plants*   (1899,  with  bibliography). 

Al-Khowarazmi,  Arabian  mathematician  of 
the  9th  century.  He  was  the  librarian  of  Al- 
Mamun  at  Bagdad,  and  also  worked  in  the  Bag- 
dad Observatory,  where  he  carried  on  his  astro- 
nomical and  mathematical  researches.  Among 
his  writings  is  a  geographical  treatise.  '  Rasm 
Al-Ard,'  giving  the  latitude  and  longitude  of 
all  places  mentioned.  He  also  wrote  several 
mathematical  treatises,  including  one  on  Hindu 
arithmetic,  and  'Al  Jabr  wa'l  Muqabalah,'  dis- 
cussing the  quadratic  equation  and  other  alge- 
braic problems  ;  both  of  these  were  later  trans- 
lated into  Latin,  the  latter  giving  algebra  its 
name.  See  Algepra.  History  of  Elements  of, 
and  Arithmetic,  History  of. 

Alkmaar,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
the  province  of  North  Holland,  on  the  North 
Holland  canal,  and  20  m.  N.N.W.  of  Amster- 
dam. It  is  regularly  built,  and  its  appearance 
has  been  much  improved  by  the  conversion  of 
its  ramparts  into  public  walks.  Its  finest  public 
buildings  are  the  15th-century  church  of  St. 
Lawrence  and  a  richly  decorated  Gothic  town- 
house.  It  has  manufactures  of  salt,  sail-cloth, 
etc..  and  an  extensive  trade  in  cattle,  corn,  but- 
ter, and  cheese.  Among  interesting;  events  in  its 
history  arc  it*  successful  defense  against  the 
Duke  of  Alva  in  1573.  and  the  invention  of  dam- 


ALKORAN  — ALLAN 


ask-weaving  by  a  citizen,  Pascbier  Lammertyn, 

in   1595.     To  the   west    stood  the  castle  of  the 
counts  of  Egmont.     Pop.  (1900)   18,275. 

Alkoran.     See  Koran. 

Al'kyl.  the  radicals  of  the  alcohols  (tor 
example,  methyl  CH,;  ethyl.  C=H,;  and  propyl, 
C,H,)  are  collectively  called  alkyls.  (bee 
Alcohol.)  A  compound  of  an  alkyl  with  a 
halogen  is  called  an  alkylogen ;  and  the  me- 
tallic alcoholates  are  frequently  called  alkox- 
ids,  since  they  may  be  regarded  as  double  oxids 
of  a  metal  and  an  alcohol  radical. 

All  Hallows  College,  Drumcondra,  Dublin. 
Ireland.  The  foreign  missionary  college  of  All 
Hallows,  as  its  name  implies,  was  instituted  for 
the  exclusive  object  of  educating  priests  for  the 
foreign  missions,  for  the  purpose  of  supplying 
with  missionary  priests  those  parts  of  the  world 
where  the  Gospel  had  never  been  preached,  lhe 
missionaries,  however,  going  forth  from  its 
halls,  were  tn  have  as  a  primary  claim  on  their 
attention,  the  spiritual  needs,  to  speak  in  native 
parlance,  of  the  "Irish  of  the  dispersion,"  who, 
owing  chiefly  to  the  effects  of  bad  laws,  had 
begun  at  that  period  to  emigrate  in  large  num- 
bers from  Ireland.  All  Hallows  was  founded 
in  the  year  1842  by  the  Rev.  John  Hand,  a  native 
of  the  diocese  of  Meath,  Ireland,  then  a  young 
man,  but  a  few  years  previously  ordained  at 
Maynooth.  It  was  formally  opened  on  All 
Saints'  Day  of  that  year  with  only  one  student, 
a  very  small  beginning  indeed,  but  it  increased 
in  numbers  and  resources  till  it  is  now  probably 
one  of  the  great  foreign  missionary  colleges 
in  the  world.  It  is  at  present,  and  has  been  for 
some  time  past,  in  charge  of  the  Vincentian 
Fathers,  and  was  never  in  a  more  flourishing 
condition.  It  shelters  within  its  walls  some  300 
students,  all  destined  for  the  foreign  missions. 
It  is  pleasantly  situated  at  Drumcondra,  one  of 
the  suburbs  of  the  metropolis,  on  a  demesne  of 
rich  land,  obtained  for  it  through  the  efforts 
of  Daniel  O'Connell,  at  that  time  Lord  Mayor 
of  Dublin.  A  large  number  of  Catholic  priests 
in  the  United  States  received  their  philosophical 
and  theological  training  at   All  Hallows. 

Rev.  John  Reynolds, 
Brooklyn,  N.   Y. 

Al'lactite,  a  mineral  found  in  Sweden,  and 
crystallizing  in  small  monoclinic  prisms  or  tab- 
lets having  the  composition  7MnO.As:Ob.4H;0. 
Its  hardness  is  4.5  and  its  specific  gravity 
about  3.84.  It  exhibits  double  refraction  to  a 
marked  degree,  and  varies  in  color  from  red 
to  green,  according  to  the  direction  from  which 
it  is  viewed.  This  property  has  given  it  its 
name,  "allactite."  being  derived  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  "to  change."  The  variability  in 
color  is  due  to  the  varying  absorption  of  the 
ordinary  and  extraordinary  rays  of  the  incident 
light.     See  Physical  Crystallography. 

Allah,  in  Arabic,  the  name  of  God,  a  word 
compounded  of  the  article  al,  and  the  word 
Elah.  which  signifies  "the  Adored"  and  "the 
Adorable,"  and  synonymous  with  the  singular 
of  the  Hebrew  word  Elohim.  Allah  akbar 
(God  is  great")  is  a  Mohammedan  war-cry. 

Allahabad,  an  ancient  city  of  India,  capital 
of  a  division  and  district  of  the  same  name,  as 
well  as  of  the  whole  of  the  northwest  provinces, 
72  m.  W.  of  Benares.  The  native  town  con- 
sists largely  of  mud  houses.  Its  English  suburb 
of  Canningtown  has  much  more  of  a  European 


aspect.  Among  the  remarkable  buildings  of 
Allahabad  are  a  large  triangular  fort,  occupy- 
ing a  point  of  land  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna;  the  Jumna  Musjid, 
or  great  mosque;  the  mausoleum  of  Khosru ; 
All  Saints'  Church;  the  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral; the  Muir  Central  College  founded  in  1S74, 
the  chief  educational  establishment  of  the  north- 
west provinces ;  the  Mayo  Memorial  and  town 
hall.  Allahabad  is  one  of  the  chief  resorts  of 
Hindu  pilgrims,  who  come  partly  to  visit  a  sa- 
cred cave  under  the  Chali  Saturn  temple  (  whence 
it  is  said  there  is  a  subterranean  passage  to 
Benares),  but  chiefly  to  have  their  sins  washed 
away  by  bathing  in  the  waters  of  the  sacred 
rivers  of  Ganges  and  Jumna  at  their  junction, 
where  believers  sec  a  third  river,  the  Sarasw.it i 
(which  is  in  reality  lost  in  the  sands  at  a  dis- 
tance of  400  miles  from  Allahabad),  mingle  its 
current  with  those  of  the  other  two.  A  great 
fair  held  on  14  December  is  much  attended  by 
pilgrims.  There  are  few  manufactures.  Alla- 
habad forms  a  junction  in  the  railway  system 
between  Bengal  and  Central  India,  and  its  trade 
is  rapidly  increasing.  In  the  mutiny  of  1857  it 
was  the  scene  of  a  serious  outbreak  and  mas- 
sacre. Pop.  (1001)  175.750.  The  division  of 
Allahabad  contains  the  districts  of  Cawnpur, 
Futtchpur,  Hamirpur,  Banda,  Jhansi,  Jalaun, 
Lalitpur,  and  Allahabad.  The  agriculture  of  the 
division  is  greatly  promoted  by  a  canal  310  miles 
long,  connecting  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna. 
About  five  sixths  of  the  surface  is  under  cultiva- 
tion, the  principal  crops  being  rice,  pulse,  wheat, 
tobacco,  etc.     Pop.   (1001)    1.548,737. 

Allan,  Sir  Hugh,  founder  of  the  Allan 
line  of  steamships:  b.  Scotland,  29  Sept.  1810;  d. 
Edinburgh,  8  Dec.  1882.  A  clerk  with  limited 
education,  he  emigrated  to  Canada  in  1824,  was 
clerk  in  Montreal  stores,  became  captain  in 
the  rebellion  of  1837,  and  in  1838  succeeded  bis 
late  employer  as  a  partner  in  the  shipping  and 
shipbuilding  business.  In  1853  his  firm  began 
building  iron  screw  steamships,  and  their  first 
vessel,  the  Canadian,  made  its  first  voyage  in 
1855,  two  more  being  used  as  transports  in 
the  Crimean  war.  The  Allan  Line,  after  many 
disasters,  gained  a  permanent  footing,  and  has 
been  a  large  element  in  developing  Canadian 
prosperity.  Sir  Hugh  was  one  of  the  projectors 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and  prominent 
in  the  political  investigations  to  which  it  led. 
He  was  a  director  in  banking,  telegraph,  gold 
mining,  and  other  large  business  enterprises, 
and  was  knighted  in  1871. 

Allan,  Sir  William,  a  distinguished  Scot- 
tish artist:  b.  1782;  d.  1850.  He  was  a  fellow 
student  with  Wilkte  in  Edinburgh,  afterward 
a  student  of  the  Royal  Academy,  London ;  then 
went  to  Saint  Petersburg  and  remained  for  10 
years  in  the  Russian  dominions.  In  1814  he 
returned  to  Scotland  and  publicly  exhibited  his 
pictures,  one  of  which  ("Circassian  Captives') 
made  his  reputation.  He  now  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  historical  painting  and  produced  scenes 
from  Scottish  history  and  battle  scenes;  among 
them  two  pictures  of  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo, one  from  the  British,  the  other  from  the 
French  position,  and  delineating  the  actual  scene 
and  the  incidents  therein  taking  place  at  the 
moment  chosen  for  the  representation.  One  of 
these  Waterloo  pictures  was  purchased  by 
the    Duke    of    Wellington.      He    traveled    ex- 


ALLAN  —  ALLEGHENY 


censively,  visiting  Italy,  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
Spain,  and  Barbary.  In  1835  he  became  R.A., 
in  1838  president  of  the  Scottish  Academy;  in 
1842  he   was   knighted. 

Allan,  William,  American  military  writer: 
b.  Virginia,  1837;  d.  1880.  He  was  a  lieutenant- 
colonel  in  the  Confederate  army  during  the  Civil 
War.  His  works  are:  'Jackson's  Valley  Cam- 
paign' (1862);  'The  Battle-Fields  of  Virginia' 
(1867)  ;  and  'The  Army  of  Northern  Virginia.' 

Al'lanite,  a  mineral,  isomorphous  with 
epidote,  and  containing  rare  metals  of  the  Ce- 
rium and  Yttrium  groups.  It  is  variable  in  com- 
position, but  is  essentially  a  silicate  of  these 
metals,  combined  with  aluminum,  iron,  and 
calcium.  It  occurs  in  Norway  and  Finland,  and 
in  the  United  States  in  Massachusetts,  Connect- 
icut, New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Virginia,  and  North  Carolina;  also  in  Canada. 
It  was  named  for  Thomas  Allan,  of  Edinburgh, 
who  described  it  in  1808.     (Also  called  orthite.) 

Allan'toin,  a-lan'to-in,  a  substance  found 
in  the  allantoic  fluid  of  the  cow,  in  the  urine  of 
sucking  calves,  in  the  leaf  buds  of  the  maple, 
and  in  the  bark  of  the  horse-chestnut  tree. 
It  is  readily  soluble  in  alcohol  and  crystallizes 
in  monoclinic  prisms  having  the  formula 
CH»N,0:,.  It  may  be  formed  by  treating  uric 
acid  with  boiling  water  and  PbO».  Compounds 
of  allantoin  with  several  of  the  metals  are 
known. 

Allantois,  a  structure  appearing  during 
the  early  development  of  vertebrate  animals  — 
reptiles,  birds,  and  mammalia.  It  is  largely 
made  up  of  blood-vessels,  and,  especially  in 
birds,  attains  a  large  size.  It  forms  the  inner 
lining  to  the  shell,  and  may  thus  be  viewed  as 
the  surface  by  means  of  which  the  respiration 
of  the  embryo  is  carried  on.  In  mammalia  the 
allantois  is  not  so  largely  developed  as  in  birds, 
and  it  enters  largely  into  the  formation  of  the 
placenta. 

Al'legan,  Mich.,  town  and  county-seat  of 
Allegan  County,  33  m.  S.  of  Grand  Rapids.  It 
is  situated  on  the  Kalamazoo  River  and  on  the 
Cincinnati  N.,  Lake  Shore  &  M.  S.,  and  the  Pere 
M.  R.R.'s.  It  is  m  the  midst  of  a  fertile  re- 
gion, and  a  large  dam  on  the  river  a  few  miles 
above  the  village  affords  valuable  water  power. 
Among  its  industries  are  mills  of  various  kinds, 
carriage  works,  furniture  factories,  etc.  It  con- 
tains a  public  library,  two  banks,  court  house, 
city  hall,  and  public  schools.  First  settled  in 
1834.     Pop.  (1905)  3.941- 

Allegation  is  the  assertion,  declaration,  or 
statement  by  a  party  of  what  he  can  prove. 
Under  the  reformed  method  of  procedure  adopt- 
ed in  nearly  if  not  all  of  the  States  of  the 
Union,  the  general  rule  that  the  allegations  in 
the  pleadings  and  the  proof  must  correspond 
has  been  greatly  relaxed.  Under  our  present 
system  a  failure  to  prove  an  immaterial  aver- 
ment cannot  in  general  be  a  material  variance 
at  the  trial,  and  will  be  disregarded.  If  the 
substance  of  the  issue  be  proved  it  is  sufficient, 
i  1  a  contract,  for  instance,  agree  in  substance 
and  legal  effect  with  that  stated  in  the  com- 
plaint,  the   variance   will   be   disregarded. 

Alleghanies,  a  name  sometimes  used  to 
designate  the  entire  Appalachian  mountain  sys- 
tem, but  more  properly  applied   to  the   western 


range  of  this  system  in  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  and  West  Virginia.  They  begin 
near  the  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  border  — 
the  Catskills  forming  a  northern  outline  —  and 
extend  in  a  southwesterly  direction  into  West 
Virginia,  where  the  line  of  elevations  is  con- 
tinued by  other  ranges  across  Tennessee.  In 
the  northern  part  the  mountains  have  an  ele- 
vation of  about  2.000  feet  (over  4,000  feet  in  the 
Catskills),  but  they  gradually  increase  in  alti- 
tude southward  until  in  Virginia  they  rise  to 
4.500  feet  above  the  sea.  Throughout  their  ex- 
tent they  present  a  remarkably  even  crest-line 
with  few  gaps  and  isolated  peaks.  On  the  east- 
ern side  the  slope  is  abrupt  to  the  bottom  of 
the  longitudinal  valley  from  50  to  100  miles 
wide,  winch  is  limited  on  the  east  by  the  paral- 
lel range  of  the  Blue  Ridge;  on  the  west  the 
elevations  fall  off  more  gradually.  The  range 
forms  the  water-parting  between  the  streams 
draining  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico.  The  former  receives  the  drainage 
from  the  eastern  slope  principally  through  the 
Delaware,  Potomac,  and  James  Rivers,  while 
the  Ohio  River  collects  most  of  the  waters  on 
the  western  side.  The  range  has  been  formed 
by  uplift  and  folding  of  sedimentary  strata, 
the  abrupt  edges  of  which  are  turned  toward  the 
east.  Limestone,  sandstones,  and  conglomerates 
are  the  predominant  formations  and  range  from 
the  Cambrian  to  the  Carboniferous  systems.  Im- 
mense coal-seams  occur  in  the  higher  part  of 
the  series,  forming  the  basis  of  a  great  mining 
industry.     See  Appalachians. 

Allegheny,  Pa.,  a  large  manufacturing  and 
residential  city  opposite  Pittsburg  on  the  right 
or  north  bank  of  the  Allegheny  river  and 
stretching  down  along  the  Ohio  river,  here 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Allegheny  river 
with  the  Monongahela ;  connected  with  Pitts- 
burg by  three  wooden  and  five  modern  steel 
bridges  crossed  by  numerous  electric  rail- 
ways. Is  the  home  city  for  a  large  proportion 
of  the  business  men  of  Pittsburg.  Although 
having  separate  municipal  governments  Pitts- 
burg and  Allegheny  form  practically  one  great 
citv  of  over  half  a  million  people;  their  business 
interests  being  based  upon  the  same  natural  ad- 
vantages and  th_'  same  railroad  and  river  trans- 
portation facilities  being  common  to  both. 

Interior. —  Allegheny  has  a  river  frontage  of 
six  and  one-half  miles  and  an  area  of  over 
5,000  acres.  Originally  laid  out  upon  a  small 
plateau  slightly  elevated  above  the  river,  it  has 
gradually  spread  out  over  the  surrounding  hills 
which  rise  seven  hundred  feet  above  the  river 
or  thirteen  hundred  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
hi'!  districts  now  made  accessible  by  electric 
railways  form  a  desirable  home  section.  The 
city  owns  its  own  electric  lighting  plant  and 
pumps  its  water  from  the  Allegheny  river  at 
Montrose  nine  miles  above  the  city.  Has  180 
miles  of  streets,  over  100  miles  paved,  over  80 
miles  of  sewers  and  140  miles  of  water  mains. 
There  are  two  public  parks,  Allegheny  Park,  of 
100  acres,  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  River- 
view  Park  in  the  northern  district. 

Th  ■  most  noteworthy  monuments  are  the 
Anderson  monument  at  the  corner  of  Federal 
and  Ohio  streets,  the  two  most  important  thor- 
oughfares,   the    Humboldt,    Armstrong.    Wash- 


ALLEGHENY  COLLEGE— ALLEGIANCE 


ington  and  Hampton  battery  in  the  Allegheny 
park*  and  the  on  a  height  to  the  west 

Education. — An   efficient   public   school   sys 
tern  is  maintained  at  a  tout  $400,000  a 

year.  There  arc  27  public  school  buildings  val- 
ued at  over  $2,000,000  and  attended  by  30,000 
pupils. 

Is  the  seat  of  the   Western   (Presbyterian), 
United  Presbyterian,  and  the  Reformed  Presby 
terian  Theological  Seminaries,  and  the  Western 
University.     I  he  latter  was  founded  in  1819  and 
is   now   attended   by   over   TOO   students.      Under 

I  iv  the  famous  Allegheny  Observatory 
located  on  a  height  in  Riverview  Park.  In  con- 
nection with  the  public  schools  a  public  library 

of  Some  20,000  volumes  is  maintained,  located  in 

the  High  School  Building-  The  Carnegie  Free 
Library  of  nearly  60,000  volumes,  the  lust  of 
the  large  number  of  libraries  founded  bv  the 
munificence  of  Andrew  Carnegie,  is  located  on 
one  of  the  corners  of  the  public  square  and  is  the 
most  conspicuous  building  in  the  city. 

Religion. —  There  are  in  churches,  the  most 
pron  lificeS    being    St.     Peter's     (  K.    C), 

Trinity  (Ev.  l.uthi,  North  Avenue  (M.  1  I, 
nuel  (Trot.  Epis.),  and  Sandusky  Street 
(Bapl 

Benevolent  Institutions. — Three  modern  well- 
equipped  hospitals  arc  maintained,  viz.,  Alle- 
gheny General,  Presbyterian,  and  Saint  John's 
I  Lutheran  1.  lit  orphan  asylums  and  other 
benevolent  institutions  the  most  important  are 
The  Home  of  tiie  Friendless,  The  Orphan  I  lome 
for  Colored  Children,  The  Orphans'  Home  on 
Ridge  Avenue,  and  the  Saint  Joseph's  (R.  C.) 
Orphan  Asylum.  Also  the  seat  of  the  Western 
Penitentiary. 

Trade  and  Manufacturing. —  The  system  of 
slack  water  navigation  now  under  construction 
bj  the  United  States  government  on  both  the 
Allegheny  and  Ohio  rivers  make  this  an  im- 
portant shipping  centre  especially  for  coal  and 
Other  bulky  products.  The  heaviest  manufac- 
tures are  those  developed  by  Pennsylvania's 
coal  and  iron,  foundries  and  blast  furnaces,  roll- 
ing mills,  locomotive  and  car  works,  machinery, 
stoves  and  furnaces,  plumbers'  goods ;  other  prod- 
ucts are  gla-s,  white  lead,  and  colors.  There 
are  also  large  (four  mills  and  four  large  pickling 
and  preserving  establishments.  At  one  time  the 
city  was  the  centre  of  the  tanning  industry  of 
the  United  States  and  still  has  many  large  tan- 
neries in  operation.  In  1000  there  were  r<  ported 
893   manufacturing   establishments,   with   20,804 

employes    and    an    output    valued    at    $54,136,067, 
paying  $10,352,502  for  wages  and  using  $50,122.- 
tpital. 

Finances. —  The  assessed  valuation  in  "1  ' 
was  over  $95,000,000.  The  city's  expenditures 
are  over  $2,500,000  a  year,  of  which  $400,000  goes 
for  schools  ami  $150,000  each  for  the  police  and 
tire  departments.  There  ire  ten  banks  with  an 
aggregate  capital  and  surplus  of  ?7.ooo,ooo. 
ernment. —  The  executive  power  ;s  ■, 
in  a  iii:!<  I  for  a  three  year  term.     The 

mayor  appoints  all  the  minor  city  officials  and 
employes.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
city  council  of  two  chambers. 

History  and  Population. —  The  settlement 
was  laid  out  in  1788  and  incorporated  as  a  bor- 
ough in  [828.  The  first  settlers  consisted  largely 
of  Scotch-Irish,  later  reinforced  by  a  large  in- 
tlux  of  German   immigrants.     In    1S40  it  had  a 


population  of  10,089  and  was  granted  a  city 
charter.  Its  population  according  to  the  census 
of  1900  was  [29,896  and  Us  estimated  population 
now  (1906)  is  145,000.  Its  greatest  disasters 
were  m  1S74:  a  lire  on  July  4th  wholly  01  par- 
tially destroyed  199  buildings,  and  three  weeks 
later  a  heavy  local  flood  swept  away  much  prop- 
erty and  cost  124  lues.  EDWARD  E.  Eg< 
Librarian  Carnegie  Free  Library,  Alleghi 
Allegheny       College,       a       co-educational 

(.Methodist  Episcopal)  institution  in  Meadville, 
P  ;  organized  in  1815  reported  at  the  cud  of 
1905:  Professors,  16;  students,  290;  volumes  in 
the  library,  20,000;  grounds  and  buildings  val- 
ued at  $200,000;  productive  funds,  $450,000;  in- 
come, $42,500;  graduates,   [,386. 

Allegheny  River,  a  river  of  Pennsylvania 
an  1  Xew  York;  a  headstream  of  the  Ohio.  It 
rises  in  Potter  County,  Pa.,  and  joins  the  Mo- 
nongahela  at  Pittsburg.  Among  us  tributaries 
are  French  Creek  ami  Clarion  and  Conemaugh 
rivers.  Its  length  is  about  400  miles,  and  it  is 
navigable  for  about   150  miles  above   Pittsburg. 

Allegiance  is  the  obligation  of  fidelity 
anJ  obedience  which  an  individual  owes  to  the 
government  under  which  he  lives,  ,,r  to  Ins 
sovereign  in  return  for  the  protection  he  re- 
ceives. It  may  be  an  absolute  and  permanent 
obligation,  or  it  may  hi-  qualified  and  tempo- 
rary one.  The  citizen  or  subject  owes  an  abso- 
lute ami  permanent  allegiance  to  bis  govern- 
ment or  sovereign,  or  at  least  until,  by  some 
open  and  distinct  act,  he  renounces  it  and  be- 
comes a  citizen  or  subject  of  another  govern- 
ment or  another  sovereign.  While  domiciled  in 
this  country  the  alien  owes  a  temporary  and 
h  cal  allegiance  which  continues  during  the 
period  of  his  residence. 

Publicists  and  statesmen  everywhere  recog- 
nize this  obligation  of  temporary  allegiance 
by  an  alien  resident  in  a  friendly  country.  In 
the  case  of  Thrasher,  a  citizen  of  the  I'niled 
States  resident  in  Cuba,  who  complained  of  in- 
juries suffered  from  the  government  of  that  is- 
land, Mr.  Webster,  then  secretary  of  state,  made 
in  1851  a  report  to  the  President  in  answer  to  a 
resolution  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  in 
which  he  said:  "Every  foreigner  hom,  residing 
in  a  country,  owes  to  thai  country  allegiance  and 
obedience  to  its  laws  so  long  as  he  remains  in 
it.  as  a  duty  upon  him  by  the  mere  fact  of  his 
residence  and  that  temporary  protection  which 
he  enjoys,  and  is  as  much  bound  to  obej  its 
laws  as  native  subjects  or  citizens  This  is  the 
universal  understanding  in  all  civilized  states, 
and  nowhere  a  more  established  doctrine  than 
in  this  country." 

Acquired  allegiance  is  that  kind  id  allegiance 
which  binds  a  citizen  who  was  born  an  alien. 
but  has  been  naturalized. 

Local  allegiance  is  that  which  is  due  from 
an  alien  while  resident  in  a  country,  in  return 
for  the  protection  afforded  by  the  government. 

Natural  allegiance  is  that  which  results  from 
the  birth  of  a  person  within  the  territory  and 
under  the  obedience  of  the  government.  It  was 
at  one  time  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  com- 
mon law  of  England  that  natural  allegiance  was 
perpetual  and  could  not  be  renounced  without 
consent    of    the    sovereign.      The    same    doctrine 

.  maintained  in  the  United  States  for  some 
years.      This    principle    has,    however,    been    re- 


ALLEGORY  —  ALLEN 


puditfted  by  statute  in  both  countries.  The  act 
of  Congress  enacted  27  July  1868  declared  that 
« the  right  of  expatriation  is  a  natural  and  in- 
herent right  of  all  people,  indispensable  to  the 
enjoyment  of  the  right  of  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness.  The  British  Naturaliza- 
tion Act  of  1870  has  practically  the  same  provi- 
sions. The  fourteenth  amendment  to  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  provides  that 
'■  all  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof 
are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
State  wherein  they  reside."  The  consequence 
of  this  amendment  is  that  the  individual  owes 
allegiance  to  the  State  in  which  he  resides,  and 
to  the  Federal  government,  his  duty  to  the  lat- 
ter being  paramount. 

Allegory  (from  Greek  alio,  something  else, 
and  agoreuein,  to  speak),  a  figurative  represen- 
tation, in  which  the  signs  (words  or  forms)  sig- 
nify something  besides  their  literal  or  direct 
meaning,  each  meaning  being  complete  in  itself. 
In  rhetoric,  allegory  is  often  but  a  continued 
simile.  Parables  and  fables  are  a  species  of 
allegory ;  for  example,  the  beautiful  parable  in 
one  of  the  tales  in  the  'Arabian  Nights,'  in 
which  the  three  religions,  the  Mohammedan, 
Jewish,  and  Christian,  are  compared  to  three 
similar  rings,  bequeathed  to  three  brothers  by 
their  father.  Sometimes  whole  works  are  alle- 
gorical, as  '  Reynard  the  Fox,'  Spenser's 
faerie  Queene,'  and  Bunyan's  'Pilgrim's 
Progress.'  When  an  allegory  is  thus  continued 
through  long  works  it  is  indispensable  to  its 
success  that  not  only  the  allegorical  meaning 
should  be  appropriate,  but  that  the  story  should 
have  an  interest  of  its  own  in  the  direct  mean- 
ing apart  from  the  allegorical  signification. 
There  was  a  time  when  every  poem  was  taken 
as  an  allegory;  even  such  works  as  those  of 
Ariosto  and  Tasso  were  tortured  from  their 
true  meaning  and  made  to  pass  for  allegorical 
pictures.  No  poet  has  made  use  of  allegory 
in  a  more  powerful  and  truly  poetical  manner 
than  the  great  Dante.  Allegory  is  often  made 
use  of  in  painting  and  sculpture  as  well  as  in 
literature. 

Allegri,  Gregorio,  an  Italian  composer  and 
a  singer  in  the  papal  chapel,  considered  one  of 
the  most  excellent  composers  of  his  time :  b. 
Rome  about  1580  (according  to  others  1590)  ; 
d.  there  1652.  His  "Miserere"  has  particularly 
distinguished  him.  It  is  even  now  regularly 
sung  during  Passion  Week  in  the  Sistine  Chapel 
at  Rome.  Its  subject  is  the  fifty-seventh  psalm 
(  which  in  the  Latin  version  begins  with  the  word 
Miserere),  and  is  composed  for  two  choruses  in 
five-  and  in  four-part  harmony.  This  composi- 
tion was  once  esteemed  so  holy  that  whoever 
ventured  to  transcribe  it  was  liable  to  excom- 
munication. In  1770  Mozart,  then  only  14 
years  of  age,  disregarded  this  prohibition,  and 
after  two  hearings  made  a  correct  copy  of  the 
original. 

Allegro,  an  Italian  word  signifying  gay, 
and  used  in  music  to  express  a  more  or  less 
quick  rate  of  movement.  The  degrees  of  quick- 
ness are  indicated  by  additional  qualifying 
words  or  by  derivatives  of  the  word  allegro. 
thus  allegretto  or  poco  allegro  means  rather 
lively;  allegro  moderato,  commotio,  giusto,  mod- 
erately quick ;  allegro  maestoso,  quick  but  with 


dignity;  allegro  assai  and  allegro  molto,  very 
quick ;  allegro  con  brio  or  con  fuoco,  with  fire 
and  energy:  allegnssimo.  with  the  utmost  ra- 
pidity. Pm  allegro  is  a  direction  to  play  or  sing 
a  little  quicker.  Presto  indicates  a  still  quicker 
rate  than  allegro,  but  there  is  usually  also  this 
difference  between  the  presto  and  allegro  move- 
ments, that  the  former  demands  nothing  more 
than  rapid  execution,  while  the  latter  requires  to 
be  performed  with  expression  as  well  as  quick- 
ness. The  first  movement  of  a  symphony  and 
other  similar  compositions  is  called  the  allegro. 
See  Music. 

Alleine,  Joseph,  English  nonconformist 
clergyman:  b.  Devizes,  1634;  d.  Taunton,  17 
Nov.  1668.  Educated  at  Oxford,  he  became  as- 
sistant at  St.  Mary  Magdalene's  Church,  Taun- 
ton, in  1655,  but  was  ejected  for  nonconformity 
in  1662.  He  was  the  author  of  'An  Alarm  to 
the  Unconverted.' 

Allemontite,  a  tin-white,  metallic  mineral, 
regarded  as  a  native  alloy  of  arsenic  and  anti- 
mony. SbAs3.  It  usually  occurs  in  fine-gran- 
ular or  mammillary  forms.  Its  hardness  is  3.5 
and  specific  gravity  about  6.20.  It  is  found  at 
Allemont  in  France,  also  in  Bohemia  and  Ger- 
many. 

Allen,  Alexander  Viets  Griswold,  Protes- 
tant theologian:  b.  Otis,  Mass.,  4  May  1841. 
Graduated  Kenyon  College.  O..  1862.  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  1865 ;  rector  St.  John's 
Episcopal  Church,  Lawrence,  Mass.,  1865-7; 
professor  of  church  history.  Episcopal  Theo- 
logical School,  Cambridge,  since  1867.  A  prom- 
inent leader  in  modern  religious  thought ;  he 
has  written  'Continuity  of  Christian  Thought' 
(1884);  'Life  of  Jonathan  Edwards'  (1889); 
'Religious  Progress'  (1893)  ;  'Christian  In- 
stitutions' (1897)  ;  'Life  and  Letters  of  Phil- 
lips Brooks'    (1900). 

Allen,  Alfred,  author  and  playwright:  b. 
Alfred.  X.  V..  8  April  1866.  He  graduated  at 
Alfred  University,  studied  at  the  Johns  Hop- 
kins and  Columbia  universities  and  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Dramatic  Arts  in  which  last  he 
is  now  a  professor.  His  plays  are  'Jack  the 
Giant  Killer'  ;  'A  Burglar  Honeymoon'  ; 
Playmates'  ;  and  'Head  of  the  House'  :  all 
have  been  produced  on  the  stage.  Novels:  'The 
Heart  of  Don  Vega'  :  'Judge  Lynch"  ;  'The 
Cup  of  Victory*   (with  Richard  Hovey). 

Allen,  Charles  Grant  Blairfindie.  See 
Allen,  Grant. 

Allen,  Charles  Herbert,  American  diplo- 
matist :  b.  Lowell.  Mass..  15  April  18  fi.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Amherst  1869:  associated  with  his  father 
in  the  lumber  business  in  Lowell ;  served  in 
bath  branches  of  the  State  legislature,  and  in 
Congress  in  1885-9:  was  defeated  as  Republican 
candidate  for  governor  of  Massachusetts,  1891  ; 
.and  succeeded  Theodore  Roosevelt  as  assistant 
secretary  of  the  navy  in  May  1898.  On  the  pas- 
sage by  Congress  of  the  Porto  Rico  tariff  and 
civil  government  bill,  in  April  1900,  the  Presi- 
dent appointed  him  the  first  civil  governor  of 
Porto  Rico:  he  resigned  July  1901. 

Allen,  David  Oliver,  missionary:  b.  Barre, 
Mass.,  1S00;  d.  Lowell.  Mass..  17  July  1863. 
He  was  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1823; 


ALLEN 


and  became-  a  missionary  in  western  India  1827- 
53.  He  established  schools  in  the  province  of 
Bombay,  wrote  tracts  in  Mahratta,  and  edited  a 
new  translation  of  the  Bible  in  that  language. 
He  also  wrote  a  '  History  of  India,  Ancient  and 
Modern  '   (1856). 

Allen,  Ebenezer,  American  soldier:  b. 
Northampton,  Mass.,  17  Oct.  1743;  d.  26  March 
1806.  He  emigrated  to  Vermont  in  1771,  and 
was  made  a  lieutenant  in  Col.  Seth  Warner's 
regiment  of  *  Green  Mountain  Boys."  In  1776 
he  was  a  delegate  to  the  conventions  in  the  New 
Hampshire  grants,  and  in  1777  to  those  which 
declared  the  State  independent  and  framed  its 
Constitution.  In  July  of  that  year  he  was  made 
captain  in  Merrick's  battalion  of  «  Rangers,"  and 
took  an  active  part  in  the  battle  of  Bennington; 
in  September  he  captured  Mount  Defiance;  and 
ik  titty  prisoners  among  the  troops  retreat- 
ing from  Ticonderoga.  He  afterward  became 
major  and  continued  to  win  distinction  during 
the  war.  He  lived  at  Burlington  in  his  later 
years. 

Allen,  Edward  Patrick,  an  American 
Roman  Catholic  clergyman:  b.  Low  ill.  Mass, 
17  March  1853.  He  worked  in  the  Lowell  mills 
as  a  boy,  acquiring  bis  early  education  at  an 
evening  school  and  from  local  priests;  graduated 
ai  Mount  St.  Mary's  College,  Emtnitsburg,  Md., 
in  1878;  took  a  course  in  theology;  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1881  ;  was  president  of  Mount  St. 
Mary's  College  in  1884-^97 ;  and  on  16  May  1897 
was  consecrated  fifth  bishop  of  Mobile,  Ala. 

Allen,  Elisha  Hunt,  American  legislator 
and  diplomat :  b.  New  Salem,  Mass.,  28  Jan. 
1804;  d.  1  Jan.  1883.  Graduating  at  Wil- 
liams College,  1823,  he  became  a  lawyer  at  Brat- 
tleboro,  Vt.,  but  soon  removed  to  Bangor.  Me., 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Maine  legislature 
1834-41,  and  speaker  in  1838.  He  was  elected  rep- 
resentative  to  Congress  in  1841.  Removing  to 
Boston  in  1847,  be  was  elected  to  the  Massachu- 
setts legislature  in  1849.  Appointed  consul  at 
Honolulu  in  1852,  he  held  that  post  till  1856,  and 
thence  till  1876  was  chancellor,  minister  of 
finance,  and  chief  justice  of  the  Hawaiian  king- 
dom. Several  times  during  that  period  and  from 
1876  onward  he  was  its  minister  to  the  United 
States  and  died  in  Washington,  dean  of  the  dip- 
lomatic corps. 

Allen,  Elizabeth  Akers  (Chase),  Ameri- 
can poet :  b.  Strong,  Me.,  9  Oct.  1832.  She 
was  married  in  i860  to  Paul  Akers,  the  sculptor, 
who  died  in  1861 ;  and  in  1865  to  E.  M.  Allen 
of  New  York.  Her  first  volume,  (  Forest  Buds,' 
appeared  under  the  pen  name  of  « Florence 
Percy")  (1855).  Other  works:  'The  Silver 
Bridge  and  Other  Poems  '  (1866)  ;  a  volume  of 
1  Poems'  (1866),  which  contains  'Rock  Me 
to  Sleep,  Mother  '  (her  authorship  of  this  pop- 
ular ballad,  once  disputed,  is  proved  in  the  New 
York  Times,  27  May  1867);  '  The  High  Top 
Sweeting  and  other  Poems*  (1891),  'Sunset- 
Song'   (1902). 

Allen,  Ethan,  American  soldier:  b.  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  10  Jan.  1737;  d.  13  Feb.  1789. 
About  1769  he  removed  to  Bennington,  Vt.  The 
Vermont  territory  had  been  given  by  the  Crown 
to  both  New  Hampshire  and  New  York  under 
conflicting  grants;  and  when  the  dispute  was 
settled  (1764)  in  favor  of  New  York,  Gov. 
Went  worth    of    New    Hampshire    had    already 


granted  128  townships,  and  continued  to  grant 
others  up  to  the  Revolution.  New  York  at  once 
proceeded  to  re-grant  the  same  territory,  but  the 
indignant  settlers  drove  out  the  surveyors,  ap- 
plying the  "beech  seal"  (fresh-cut  rods)  to 
enforce  their  withdrawal.  The  English  gov- 
ernment ordered  the  status  quo  to  be  respect 
ed  by  New  York,  and  further  disorders  averted 
by  granting  only  ungranted  lands;  the  New 
York  authorities  continued  to  send  surveyors, 
their  grantees  persisted  in  attempting  to  take 
possession  of  their  lands,  and  the  New  Hamp- 
shire grantees  continued  to  eject  both  deputy 
sheriffs  and  claimants  by  armed  force  and  to 
chastise  them  besides.  Allen  at  once  took  part 
in  the  dispute  and  soon  became  a  leader :  an 
athletic  and  adventurous  giant,  he  was  now  in 
his  element.  In  1770  he  was  appointed  agent 
for  the  settlers  at  Albany,  where  they  were  to 
plead  their  rights;  the  decision  went  against 
them,  and  a  fresh  attempt  being  made  to  enforce 
New  York  rights,  the  settlers  raised  a  regi- 
ment for  defense,  called  "  Green  Mountain 
Boys,»  of  which  Allen  was  made  colonel. 
Tryon  of  New  York,  historically  more  re- 
nowned for  vanity  and  bad  temper  than  ability 
or  success,  proclaimed  him  an  outlaw  and  of- 
fered £150  for  his  capture:  but  under  Allen, 
Seth  Warner,  and  other  able  partisan  chiefs 
the  settlers  held  New  York  at  bay.  Allen  in 
1774  answered  publications  in  defense  of  the 
New  York  claims  by  a  tract  defending  the  Ver- 
monters,  reprinted  in  1779.  When  the  Revolu- 
tion broke  out  Congress  ordered  Arnold  to 
raise  troops  and  seize  the  British  fortresses  on 
the  New  York  border:  but  the  Vermonters  fore- 
stalled them  by  collecting  a  force  of  (<  Green 
Mountain  Boys  »  at  Castleton,  Vt.,  under  Allen's 
command,  which  on  10  May  1775,  captured  Ti- 
conderoga and  its  garrison  without  a  combat, 
and  shortly  after  Crown  Point  and  Skenes- 
borough  (Whitehall),  giving  them  a  mass  of 
stores  and  the  command  of  Lake  Champlain. 
This  action  moved  Congress  to  grant  them  the 
same  pay  as  Continental  soldiers,  and  to  recom- 
mend the  New  York  Assembly  to  employ  them 
in  the  army  under  their  own- officers.  Allen  and 
Warner  journeyed  thither  and  asked  admittance 
to  the  session:  and  after  some  grumbling  over 
receiving  proclaimed  felons  a  heavy  majority 
voted  to  admit  Allen,  and  later  to  raise  a  regi- 
ment of  Green  Mountain  Boys.  Allen  wrote  a 
letter  of  thanks,  and  proposed  an  invasion  of 
Canada,  which  was  rejected.  He  then  joined 
Schuyler's  army  as  a  volunteer,  was  sent  on 
secret  missions  to  Canada,  meeting  on  the  last 
one  Col.  John  Brown,  who  agreed  to  join  him 
in  an  invasion  of  Canada.  Fort  Chambly  was 
captured;  but  Brown  left  Allen  in  the  lurch  at 
the  attack  on  Montreal,  and  Allen  was  taken 
prisoner  25  September  and  sent  to  England.  He 
was  chained  and  treated  with  great  severity,  but 
after  some  months  was  sent  to  Halifax,  N.  S., 
and  exchanged  6  May  1778.  On  returning  to  Ver- 
mont he  was  appointed  commander  o-f  the  mi- 
litia, and  Congress  made  him  lieutenant-colonel 
in  the  regular  army.  The  old  land-grant  feud 
still  raged,  and  in  the  attempted  British  intrigue 
(1780-3)  to  have  Vermont  annex  itself  to  Can- 
ada as  a  protection  against  New  York.  Allen 
paralyzed  British  military  action  by  professing 
to  consider  a  bribe  for  favorable  action  ;  later  he 
was  charged   with  treason,  but  the  charge  was 


ALLEN 


not  sustained.  He  settled  in  Bennington  and 
finally  in  Burlington,  where  he  died.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  legislature ;  and  after  the  war 
was  a  delegate  to  Congress,  where  he  worked 
for  the  admission  of  Vermont  as  a  State,  which 
it  had  been  by  self-proclamation  since  1777.  It 
was  not  till  1789,  however,  that  New  York 
waived  its  claims,  and  Allen  did  not  live  to 
see  the  result.  He  wrote  the  story  of  his  cap- 
tivity (1779)  ;  and  '  Reason  the  Only  Oracle  of 
Man'  (1784).  being  a  deist  of  the  Paine  stripe. 
(See  Sparks'  '  Life,  '  and  Henry  Hall's  '  Ethan 
Allen,'    1892.) 

Allen,  Frederick  De  Forest,  classical 
scholar:  b.  Oberlin,  Ohio,  1844;  d.  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  4  Aug.  1897.  He  graduated  at  Oberlin 
College  1863,  and  studied  at  Leipsic.  From 
1866  to  1880  he  held  professorships  in  the  uni- 
versities of  Tennessee,  Cincinnati,  and  Yale. 
In  1880  he  accepted  the  chair  of  classical 
philology  at  Harvard,  holding  it  until  his  death. 
He  published  an  edition  of  Euripides'  '  Medea  ' 
(1876),  (  Remnants  of  Early  Latin'  (1880),  a 
revision  of  Hadley's  '  Greek  Grammar'  (1884), 
and  '  Greek  Versification  in  Inscriptions  ' 
(1880);  besides  contributing  many  papers  to 
classical  journals  and  editing  numerous  classics. 

Allen,  Fred  Hovey,  author  and  Congrega- 
tional clergyman :  b.  Lyme,  N.  H..  1  Oct.  1845. 
He  graduated  at  Hartford  Theological  Semi- 
nary and  studied  abroad.  Later  he  became  pas- 
tor at  Boston  and  Abingdon,  Mass..  and  edi- 
tor of  the  Suffolk  County  Journal,  Boston, 
and  a  lecturer  on  art.  He  has  published : 
'Modern  German  Masters'  (1885);  'Recent 
German  Art'  (1885);  'Great  Cathedrals  of 
the  World'  (1886);  'Popular  History  of  the 
Reformation'  (1887);  and  edited  numerous 
art  works. 

Allen,  George  William,  Canadian  states- 
man: b.  Toronto  1822.  Called  to  the  bar  in  1846 
he  became  senator  in  1867.  For  many  years  he 
was  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Banking  and 
Commerce.  In  1891  he  became  member  of  the 
Queen's  privy  council  for  Canada.  He  pre- 
sented the  city  of  Toronto  with  the  ground  on 
which  is  built  the  Canadian  Institute.  He  was 
for  a  long  time  chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Toronto. 

Allen,  Grant  (Charles  Grant  Blair- 
fixdie  Allen),  essayist,  novelist,  naturalist:  b. 
Kingston,  Canada,  24  Feb.  1848;  d.  London,  25 
Oct.  1899.  He  graduated  at  Oxford  in  187 1.  and 
for  a  time  was  professor  of  logic  and  philosophy 
in  Jamaica,  but  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life 
in  England.  Widely  known  as  a  scientist  in 
several  departments,  he  aimed  to  popularize  sci- 
ence, and  his  brilliant  style  contributed  greatly 
to  his  success  in  this  respect.  His  score  or  so 
of  novels  and  works  of  light  fiction  attained 
great  popularity,  but  though  entertaining  have 
only  an  ephemeral  value.  His  outspoken  agnos- 
ticism is  reflected  in  many  of  his  writings.  In 
science  his  chief  titles  are,  <  Physiological  /Es- 
thetics '  (1877);  'The  Color  Sense'  (1879); 
'  Evolutionist  at  Large  '  (1881)  ;  '  Flowers  and 
Their  Pedigrees'  (1883);  'Charles  Darwin' 
( 1885)  ;  <  Force  and  Energy  '  (1888)  ;  <  Story 
of  the  Plants'  (1896)  ;  <  Evolution  of  the  Idea 
of  God'  (1897).  In  fiction  the  following  were 
most  widely  read.  '  This  Mortal  Coil  '  (1888)  : 
'  The  Great  Taboo  '    ( 1890) ;  '  The  Duchess  of 


Powysland  '  (1891)  ;  <  The  Woman  Who  Did' 
(1895);  'The  British  Barbarians'  (1895); 
'Under  Sealed  Orders'    (1896). 

Allen,  Harrison,  anatomist:  b.  Philadel- 
phia. 17  April  1844;  d.  there,  14  Nov.  1897. 
He  graduated  M.D.  at  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania 1861  ;  was  assistant  surgeon  in  the 
United  States  army  1862-5 :  professor  of 
comparative  anatomy  and  medical  zoology  in 
the  University  of  Pennsylvania  1865-78,  and 
of  physiology  1878-95.  He  was  the  author 
of  numerous  articles  and  books  on  the  subjects 
connected  with  his  professorship,  and  of  '  Stud- 
ies in  the  Facial  Region  '  (1874)  ;  '  Analysis  of 
the  Life  Form  in  Art'  (1875);  'System  of 
Human  Anatomy'    (1880). 

Allen,  Henry,  religious  enthusiast:  b.  New- 
port. R.  I.,  14  June  1748;  d.  Northampton,  N.  H, 
2  Feb.  1784.  He  was  founder  of  the  sect  known 
as  "  Allenites  "  and  made  numerous  converts  in 
Nova  Scotia.  He  asserted  that  Adam  and  Eve 
before  the  fall  had  not  corporeal  bodies,  that 
the  Bible  is  to  be  interpreted  wholly  in  a 
mystic  or  spiritual  sense,  and  denied  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  He  was  an 
eloquent  preacher  and  published  some  sermons 
and  hymns. 

Allen,  Henry  Watkins,  American  soldier 
and  public  officer  :  b.  Prince  Edward  County,  Va., 
29  April  1820;  d.  22  April  1866.  He  removed  in 
early  youth  to  Missouri,  where  he  was  sent  to 
Marion  College ;  he  subsequently  became  a 
teacher  in  Grand  Gulf,  Miss.,  studied  law  and 
entered  practice  there.  He  raised  a  company 
for  Houston's  Texas  war  against  Mexico ;  and 
after  the  war  was  over  resumed  practice,  and  was 
sent  to  the  legislature  in  1846.  Settling  in 
Baton  Rouge,  he  was  elected  to  the  Louisiana 
legislature  in  1853.  In  1859  he  went  to  Italy,  to 
share  her  struggle  for  independence  against 
Austria  :  but  arriving  after  it  was  over,  made  a 
tour  of  Europe,  which  he  described  in  <  Travels 
of  a  Sugar  Planter.'  He  was  elected  to  the  leg- 
islature in  his  absence.  He  was  one  cf  the 
Southern  Whigs  who  joined  the  Democrats  after 
the  party  break-up  caused  by  the  Kansas-Ne- 
braska bill.  At  the  opening  of  the  War 
he  was  commissioned  by  the  Confederacy  lieu- 
tenant-colonel; later  colonel,  and  military  gov- 
ernor at  Jackson.  He  was  wounded  at  Shiloh ; 
constructed  fortifications  at  Vicksburg ;  was  dis- 
abled at  Baton  Rouge ;  made  brigadier-general 
September  1864 ;  and  shortly  after  elected  gov- 
ernor of  Louisiana.  He  was  a  vigorous  and 
efficient  magistrate,  with  almost  dictatorial 
powers.  After  the  War  he  migrated  to  Mexico 
and  started  the  (English)  Mexico  Times  in  the 
city  of  Mexico,  where  he  died. 

Allen,  Horace  N.,  American  minister:  b. 
Delaware.  Ohio,  23  April  1858.  He  graduated  at 
Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  and  after  a  medical 
course  went  to  China  as  Presbyterian  missionary. 
Going  to  Korea  in  1884  he  was  in  Seoul  at  the 
time  of  the  coup  d'etat  of  that  year  and  saved 
the  life  of  a  prince  related  to  the  queen :  he  was 
thereupon  made  court  physician  and  allowed  to 
establish  a  hospital  under  government  orders. 
He  came  to  Washington  in  1887  with  the  first 
Korean  legation,  and  returned  in  1890  as  United 
States  secretary  of  legation :  won  great  confi- 
dence for  sagacity  and  acquaintance  with  Korea 
and   in    1897   was  made  I'nited   States  minister 


ALLEN 


•here.  He  has  written  '  Korean  Tales  '  :  a 
chronological  index  of  Korea's  foreign  relations; 
and  many  papers  for  the  '  Korean  Repository' 
and  the  '  Transactions  of  the  Foreign  Society 
of  Korea.' 

Allen,  Horatio,  American  engineer:  b. 
Schenectady,  X.  Y.,   iSoj;  d.   i  muting 

at  Columbia  University  in  1823,  in  1826  lie  was 
resident  engineer  on  the  summit  level  of  the 
Delaware  &  Hudson  Canal,  and  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land m  [828  to  buy  locomotives  for  its  proposed 
railway.  In  1829  he  made  the  first  locomotive 
trip  in  America  at  Honcsdale,  Pa.,  with  the 
'  Stourbridge  Lion.'  He  was  chief  engineer, 
■  (.  of  the  Smith  Carolina  Railway,  then  the 
1  line  in  the  world:  and  in  1838-42  was 
chief  assistant  engineer  of  the  Croton  Aqueduct. 
He  was  chief  engineer  and  afterward  president 
of  the  Erie  Railway,  consulting  engineer  of  the 
Panama  Railway  and  the  Brooklyn  Bridge; 
president  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  En- 
gineers 1872-3.  He  invented  the  swivel  car- 
truck. 

Allen,  Ira,  younger  brother  of  Ethan 
(q.v.)  and  a  "Green  Mountain  Boy":  b.  Corn- 
wall, Conn.,  21  April  1751  ;  d.  7  Jan.  1814.  lie 
went  to  Vermont  in  1772  and  was  an  active  sup- 
porter of  Ethan  in  the  "■  beech  seal  "  proceedings. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Vermont  legislature 
1776-7,  and  of  the  Vermont  Constitutional  Con- 
vention 1778  :  v  as  its  first  secretary  of  state,  then 
its  treasurer,  and  surveyor-general.  He  was  in 
the  battle  of  Bennington,  1777.  In  1780-1  he 
was  a  Vermont  commissioner  to  Congress  to 
contest  the  New  York  land  claim.  In  1789  he 
aided  in  organizing  the  University  of  Vermont; 
and  in  1 702  was  a  delegate  to  the  convention  that 
ratified  the  United  States  Constitution  after  Ver- 
mont's admission  as  a  State.  In  1705.  as  senior 
major-general  of  militia,  he  went  to  France  and 
bought  arms  to  be  sold  to  the  State;  but  in  re- 
turning was  captured  by  an  English  cruiser, 
taken  to  England,  and  charged  with  supplying 
the  Irish  rebels  with  arms,  and  only  won  his 
suit  after  eight  years.  Imprisoned  in  France  in 
1798  he  returned  to  the  United  States  in  1801. 
He  wrote  '  The  Natural  and  Political  His- 
tory of  Vermont  '  (London  1798)  ;  '  Statements 
Appended  lo  the  Olive  Branch'    (.1807). 

Allen,  James  Lane,  American  novelist:  b. 
near  Lexington,  Ky.,  1840.  He  was  educated  at 
Transylvania  University  in  his  native'  State  and 
uccessively  an  instructor  in  Kentucky  Uni- 
versity and  Bethany  College.  Wot  Virginia. 
In  1886  he  removed  to  New  York  city  and  has 
since  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literary  pur- 
suits. In  his  short  stories  and  novels  he  has 
v  employed  a  Kentucky  background,  and 
his  finished  literary  style,  though  somewhat  too 
highly  elaborated  for  the  taste  of  the  average 
reader,  has  been  much  admired  by  the  more 
critical.  His  prose  is  characterized  by  a 
markedly  poetic  cast,  and  his  realism  is  of  that 
under  kind  which  concerns  itself  with  es- 
sential truths  rather  than  with  photographic 
fidelity  to  local  types.  His  published  books  com- 
prise: *  Flute  and  Violin  >  (T891)  ;  (  The  Blue 
Grass  Region  and  Other  Sketches'  (1892); 
<  John  Gray,  a  Novel  >  (1893)  ;  (  A  Ken- 
tucky Cardinal'  (1894);  <  Aftermath  >  (1895); 
'  A  Summer  in  Arcady '  (1896);  'The  Choir 
Invisible  '  an  expanded  version  of  '  John  Gray' 
1  18071  :  '  The  Reign  of  Law  '    (1900). 


Allen,  Jerome,  American  educator:  b. 
Westminster  West,  \'t.,  1830;  d.  1894.  He  grad- 
uated at  Amherst  1851  ;  was  professor  and  prin- 
cipal of  several  Western  institutions  thence  till 
1885;  professor  of  pedagogy  at  the  University  of 
New  York  1887-93.  He  was  the  chief  agei 
in  founding  the  New  York  School  of  Pedagogy 
and  became  its  dean  in  1889.  He  wrote 
<  Handbook  of  Experimental  Chemistry  '  ; 
'  Methods  for  Teachers  in  Grammar';  '  Mind 
Studies  for  Young  Teachers  '  ;  and  '  Tempera- 
ment in  Education.' 

Allen,  Joel  Asaph,  naturalist:  b.  Spring- 
field.  Mass.,  19  July  1838.  He  studied  under 
Agassiz  at  Harvard;  took  part  in  scientific  ex- 
peditions to  Brazil,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
Florida  1865-9;  was  chief  of  the  scientific  party 
accompanying  the  Northern  Pacific  railroad 
survey  1873;  and  curator  of  vertebrate  zo- 
ology in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His 
tory,  New  York,  since  1885.  He  is  author 
of  '  Monographs  of  North  American  Rodentia' 
(with  E.  Cones,  1877)  ;  '  History  of  North  Amer- 
ican Pinnipedes  '  (1880):  editor  of  'Bulletin 
of  Nuttall  "Ornithological  Club'  (1876-83),  and 
of  its  successor,  '  The  Auk  '  (1884-1901  )  ;  and 
has  written  hundreds  of  minor  articles  on  orni- 
thology and  mammalogy. 

Allen,  Sir  John  Campbell,  Canadian  jurist: 
b.  Kingslear,  N.  B.,  October  [817 ;  d.  Fredericton, 
N.  B.,  27  Sept.  1898.  He  was  member  of  the 
New  Brunswick  House  of  Assembly  1850-115; 
solicitor-general  1856-7;  speaker  1863-5;  attor- 
ney-general 1865.  He  opposed  the  confed 
eration  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  and  Canada. 
He  was  chief  justice  of  the  supreme  court 
1875-96.  and  was  knighted  by  the  queen 
1889.  His  '  Law  Reports  '  (6  vols.)  and  rules 
of  the  supreme  court  and  acts  of  assembly  : 
ting  to  the  practice  of  the  courts  are  ranked 
highly. 

Allen,  John  Romilly,  English  civil 
neer  and  archaeologist:  b.  London,  9  June  1847. 
Educated  at  Rugby  and  King's  College,  Loud'  n, 
he  became  resident  engineer  on  Baron  de  Ren- 
te r's  Persian  railways,  and  on  the  construction  of 
the  docks  at  Leith  and  at  Boston,  Lincoln- 
shire. Has  lectured  on  archaeology  at  Edin- 
burgh University  College.  London.  His  published 
books  arc :  '  Design  and  Construction  of  Dock 
Walls  '  (1876)  ;  <  Christian  Symbolism  in  Great 
Britain'  (1887);  'Monumental  History  of  the 
Early  British  Church  >  (1889)  :  '  Early  Christian 
Monuments  of  Scotland  '    '  '003). 

Allen,  Joseph  Henry,  Unitarian  clergyman 
and  author:  b.  Northborough,  Mass..  21  Aug. 
1821  ;  d.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  20  March  1898. 
He  graduated  at  Harvard  1840,  and  at  its  divin- 
ity school  1843.  and  tilled  pastorates  at  North- 
borough.  Roxbury,  Mass..  Washington,  D.  C, 
Bangor.  Me.,  and  other  places  till  1878.  For 
twelve  yeai  -  he  was  editor  of  the  '  Christian  Ex- 
aminer.' He  was  also  lecturer  on  ecclesiastical 
history  at  Harvard  1878-82,  editor  of  the  <  Uni- 
tarian Review  '  1887-98.  and  a  prolific  writer  on 
religious  and  philosophical  subjects.  His  chief 
works  are:  'Ten  Discourses  on  Orthodoxy' 
(1841JI:  'Hebrew  Men  and  Times'  (1861); 
'  Christian  History  in  its  Three  Great  Pe- 
riods '  (3  vols.  1880-2)  ;  '  Positive  Religion  ' 
(1892)  ;  '  Unitarianism  Since  the  Reforma- 
tion '    (1894);    translations   of   Renan's    '  Anti- 


ALLEN 


Christ,'  'Origins  of  Christianity,'  and  'His- 
tory of  the  People  of  Israel.'  A  Latin  grammar 
and  other  schoolbooks,  prepared  in  collaboration 
with  Prof.  J.  B.  Greenough,  are  extensively 
used. 

Allen,  Karl  Ferdinand,  Danish  historian: 
b.  Copenhagen,  23  April  181 1 ;  d.  there,  27  Dec. 
1871.  He  became  professor  of  history  and 
northern  archaeology  at  the  University  of  Co- 
penhagen in  1862.  His  principal  works  are : 
'Handbook  of  the  History  of  the  Fatherland' 
(1840),  very  democratic  in  tone,  and  'History  of 
the  Three  Northern  Kingdoms'    (1864-72). 

Allen,  Richard,  preacher:  b.  1760;  d.  Phil- 
adelphia, 26  March  1831.  He  organized  the  first 
church  for  colored  people  in  the  United  States 
and  was  elected  first  bishop  of  the  African 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  1816. 

Allen,  Robert,  American  soldier:  b.  Ohio 
about  1815;  d.  Geneva,  Switzerland,  1886. 
Graduating  at  West  Point  in  1836,  he  was  second 
lieutenant  in  the  Seminole  war,  assistant  quar- 
termaster in  the  Mexican  war,  brevetted  major 
for  conduct  at  Cerro  Gordo,  and  was  in  the  bat- 
tles that  led  to  the  capture  of  the  City  of  Mexico. 
Appointed  chief  quartermaster  of  the  Pacific  di- 
vision, he  was  transferred  to  Missouri  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  with  headquarters  in 
St.  Louis,  in  charge  of  supplies  and  transporta- 
tion for  armies  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  He 
was  made  colonel  in  1862,  brigadier-general 
of  volunteers  1863,  brevet  brigadier-general  in 
the  regular  army  1864,  brevet  major-general 
1865.  From  November  1863  to  1866  he  was 
chief  quartermaster  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
with  headquarters  at  Louisville,  outfitted  Sher- 
man's march  across  country  to  Chattanooga, 
and  the  Kentucky,  Virginia,  and  North  Carolina 
expeditions.  After  serving  a  second  time  as 
chief  quartermaster  of  the  Pacific  division  he 
was  retired  in  1878. 

Allen,  Thomas,  landscape  and  animal 
painter:  b.  St.  Louis,  19  Oct.  1849.  He  studied 
at  Washington  University,  graduated  at  Royal 
Academy  of  Diisseldorf,  and  studied  in  France 
three  years.  Has  frequently  exhibited  at  the 
Paris  salons  and  was  a  judge  of  awards  at  the 
World's  Fair,  Chicago,  1893.  His  studio  is  in 
Boston,  Mass. 

Allen,  Viola,  American  actress:  b.  1867; 
made  her  debut  at  the  age  of  15  at  Madison 
Square  Theatre,  N.  Y.,  in  'Esmeralda.'  She 
has  played  leading  classical,  Shakespearean,  and 
comedy  roles  with  Lawrence  Barrett,  Salvini. 
Joseph  Jefferson,  and  W.  J.  Florence.  Between 
1893-1900  created  and  played  parts  in  'Sowing 
the  Wind.'  'The  Masqueraders,'  'Under  the 
Red  Robe,'  and  starred  in  Hall  Caine's  'Chris- 
tian' and  F.  M.  Crawford's  'In  the  Palace  of 
the  King.' 

Allen,  Walter,  American  author  and  jour- 
nalist: b.  Boston,  Mass.,  21  March  1840.  He 
graduated  at  Yale  in  1863 ;  served  in  the  pay- 
master's department  of  the  navy,  1864-5 1 
has  been  connected  with  leading  newspapers  in 
Portland,  Me.,  Cincinnati,  Boston,  and  New 
York,  and  contributed  to  the  periodicals :  and 
was  appointed  by  President  Hayes  to  investigate 
the  condition  of  the  Ponca  Indians.  He  was  as- 
sistant editor  of  Webster's  International  Diction- 
ary and  author  of  'Governor  Chamberlain's 
Administration  in  South  Carolina'  and  'Life  of 
Gen.  U.  S.  Grant.' 


Allen,  William,  Cardinal,  English  ecclesi- 
astic: b.  1532  in  Lancashire,  studied  at  Oxford 
and  was  Fellow  of  Oriel  College.  Owing  to  the 
persecution  of  Catholics  under  Queen  Elizabeth 
he  left  England,  and  in  1568  he,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Dr.  Vendeville,  founded  an  English 
College  at  Douay,  where  aspirants  to  the  priest- 
hood might  obtain  the  instruction  denied  to  them 
at  home.  During  the  first  five  years  of  its 
existence,  this  college  trained  and  sent  back  to 
England  over  100  priests.  Another  of  his  claims 
to  the  gratitude  of  English-speaking  Catholics 
is  that  while  professor  at  Douay.  in  collaboration 
with  Gregory  Martins  and  Richard  Bristow  he 
translated  the  Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate 
into  English.  This  translation  is  known  as 
the  Douay  Bible  (q.  v.)  and  is  the  one  generally 
used  by  Catholics  in  England  and  America. 

Allen,  William,  American  preacher  and 
miscellaneous  writer:  b.  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  2 
Jan.  1784;  d.  Northampton,  Mass.,  16  July 
1868.  He  became  president  of  Dartmouth  Uni- 
versity in  1817,  and  was  president  of  Bowdoin 
College  1820-39.  Of  numerous  works,  both  in 
prose  and  verse,  the  best  known  is  'American 
Biographical  and  Historical  Dictionary'  (3d  ed. 
1857). 

Allen,  William,  American  public  official: 
b.  Edenton.  N.  C,  1806;  d.  11  July  1879.  He 
studied  law  at  Chillicothe,  Ohio,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  at  21,  and  in  three  years  had  become 
noted  as  a  coming  leader.  In  1832  he  was 
elected  (Democratic!  member  of  Congress  by 
one  vote,  the  youngest  member  of  the  Twenty- 
second  Congress.  He  was  a  leading  champion 
of  his  party  ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  1836  can- 
vass for  Van  Buren.  and  was  given  the  United 
States  senatorship  by  the  Democrats  at  the  earli- 
est age  of  any  senator  before  or  since.  He  was 
re-elected  in  1843.  and  in  1848  was  tendered  the 
nomination  for  the  Presidency  by  the  supporters 
of  both  Cass  and  Van  Buren,  but  refused  from 
loyalty  to  Cass.  After  the  expiration  of  his 
term  Mr.  Allen  took  no  further  part  in  public 
life  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century,  till  1873, 
when  he  was  elected  governor  of  Ohio :  again 
nominated  in  1875  as  a  "rag-money"  champion, 
he  was  defeated  by  Rutherford  B.  Hayes.  His 
stentorian  voice  gave  him  the  Congressional 
nickname  of  the  "Ohio  Gong"  :  and  he  is  cred- 
ited with  the  famous  slogan  of  the  cam- 
paign of  1844  on  the  question  of  the  northwest- 
ern boundary',  "Fifty-four  forty  or  fight." 

Allen,  William  Francis,  historian  and  es- 
sayist :  b.  Northborough,  Mass.,  5  Sept.  1830 ;  d. 
9  Dec.  1889.  He  graduated  Harvard  in  185 1  : 
studied  at  Berlin,  Gottingen.  and  Rome.  1854^6: 
was  professor  of  Latin  and  history  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Wisconsin  1867-89  and  is  noted  as  a 
scholar  of  wide  and  varied  attainments,  equally 
strong  in  the  linguistic,  historical,  and  archae- 
ological sides  of  his  subjects.  A  list  of  his 
writings  covers  thirty  i2mo.  pages.  Three 
of  especial  interest  may  be  found  in  the  Transac- 
tions of  the  American  Philological  Association 
for  the  years  given:  'The  Battle  of  Mons 
Graupius1  (1880) ;  'Lex  Curiata  dc  Imperii)* 
(1888):  'The  Monetary  Crisis  in  Rome,  A.n. 
33'    (1887). 

Allen,  William  Henry,  American  naval 
officer:  b.  Providence,  R.  I.,  1784:  d.  1S13.  He 
entered  the  navy  in  1800  and  served  in  some  of 
the   greatest   naval   battles   in   American   history. 


ALLEN  — ALLIANCE  OF  THE  REFORMED  CHURCHES 


For  bravery  displayed  on  the  Chesapeake  and 
United  States  he  was  made  commander  of  the 
brie  Argus  in  June  1813.  He  did  great  damage 
jhsh  commerce  in  the  Irish  Channel,  cap- 
turing in  a  month  27  ships.  In  a  few  days  the 
Argus  was  taken  by  the  English  brig  Pelican. 
In  the  battle  Allen  was  shut,  died  soon  after- 
ward, and  was  buried  with  military  honors  in 
Plymouth,  England. 

Allen,  William  Vincent,  American  politi 
cian :  1).  1847;  leader  in  the  People's  or  Populist 
party;  became  senator  from  Nebraska  in  [893. 
In  the  memorable  special  session  of  1893  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  opposing  the  repeal 
of  the  silver  purchase  act.  lie  was  chairman 
of  the  Populist  national  convention  of  1896,  and 
instrumental  in  obtaining  us  indorsement  of 
William  Jennings    Bryan  for   President. 

Allen,  Willis  Boyd,  American  writer:  b. 
Maine.  [855.  Besides  a  collection  of  verse,  en- 
titled 'In  the  Morning, '  he  has  written  several 
books  for  young  people,  including  'The  Red 
Mountain  of  Alaska,'  'Pine  Cones,'  (1885); 
'Silver  [tags'  (1886),  'Kelp.'  'Navy  Blue' 
(  1888)  ;   'The  Mammoth-Hunters.' 

Allen,  Zachariah,  American  inventor:  b. 
Providence.  R.  1..  15  Sept.  1705;  d.  17  March 
1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1813,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1815, 
but  soon  turned  his  attention  to  manufacturing. 
He  traveled  ir  Europe  1825,  to  study  manu- 
facturing methods,  and  on  his  return  published 
the  'Practical  Tourist.'  He  invented  in  1S21 
the  first  hot-air  furnace  for  household  use;  in 
1833  the  automatic  cut-off  valve  for  steam  en- 
gine- ;  and  later  an  improved  lire  engine,  ex- 
tension rollers,  and  a  storage  system  for  water- 
power.  He  first  suggested  the  system  of  inn 
tual  mill  insurance,  and  drafted  laws  to  regu- 
late the  sale  of  explosive  oils.  He  was  the 
first  to  compute  the  motive  power  of  Niagara. 
He  was  a  member  from  1822  and  president 
from  1880  of  the  Rhode  Island  Historical  So- 
ciety. He  published  'The  Science  of  Mechan- 
ic-' (1829);  'Philosophy  of  the  Mechanics  of 
Nature'  (1851);  <Solar  Light  and  Heat,  the 
Source  and  Supply'    (  1879)  ;   etc. 

Allen-a-Dale,  the  friend  and  confidant  of 
Rohm  Hood  in  the  Robin   II 1  ballads. 

Allenites.     See  A1.1.1  -\.  Henry. 

Allentown,  Pa.,  city  and  county-seat  of  Le- 
high County  on  the  Lehigh  Valley,  the  Phila- 
delphia &  Reading,  and  the  Central  of  New 
Jersey  R.R.'s,  six  miles  S.W.  of  Bethlehem,  18 
miles  S.W.  of  Easton,  and  55  miles  N.W.  of 
Philadelphia.  It  was  founded  ahout  1752  by 
William  Allen.  Esq.,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Prov- 
1  Pennsylvania,  father-in-law  of  Gover- 
ihn  Penn,  and  a  great  friend  of  the  Penn 
family,  from  whom  he  derived  his  grants  of  land, 
and  named  Allentown  in  honor  of  its  founder. 
Here  Colonel  James  Bird  displayed  much  hero- 
ism in  the  wars  against  the  Indians;  here,  dur- 
ing the  Revolution,  the  bells  now  in  Christ 
Church.  Philadelphia,  were  concealed  by  the 
Americans;  and  here,  in  1799,  John  Fries!  q.v. ) . 
of  "Fries  Rebellion"  notoriety,  fomented  till 
German  opposition  to  the  "window  tax."  In- 
habited at  first  by  a  few  wealthy  and  unenter- 
prising Germans,  and  by  the  influence  of  the 
neighboring  towns  cut  off  for  several  years 
from  the  different  post  routes,  it  remained  un- 
nrogressive  until,  in  181 1.  by  the  division  of 
Northampton    County,    it    became    the    seat   of 


justice  of  Lehigh  County,  and  by  an  act  of  the 
Legislature  passed  (8  Mar.  1811.  was  incorpu 
rated  as  Northampton  Borough.  With  it-  ad- 
vance to  the  rank  of  a  county-seat,  the  town 
improved  rapidly,  ami  it-  accessibility  to  >\c 
posits  of  limestone,  iron  ore.  /me.  cement,  etc., 
added  to  its  increasing  importance  in  trade 
and  wealth.  An  inadequate  water  supply, 
one  of  its  chief  drawbacks,  was  removed  in 
1828  by  the  organization  of  a  water  company, 
and  the  city  now  owns  and  operates  its 
water-works.  In  1838  the  original  name  of  the 
town  wa-  restored,  and  in  1807  it  received  a 
special  charter.  Allentown  now  rank-  Second 
only  to  Pater-011  in  the  United  State-  for  th. 
manufacture  of  silks,  and  has  considerable 
manufactures  of  iron  and  steel,  furniture,  ce- 
ment, thread,  and  cigars.  The  large  court- 
house, tine  hospital,  spacious  prison,  and  other 
public  buildings  are  of  hewn  limestone.  The 
numerous  educational  establishments  include 
Muhlenberg  College,  a  Lutheran  institution 
founded  in  1867;  the  Allentown  College  for 
Women;  a  theological  seminary,  and  a  mili- 
tary institute.  The  city  is  governed  under  a 
charter  of  1889  by  a  council  divided  into  an 
upper  house  of  11  members  and  a  lower  house 
of  22  members,  presided  over  by  a  mayor,  who 
is  elected  tricnnially.  The  city's  annual  income 
is  about  $450,000.  The  inhabitants  are  largely 
of  German  descent,  and  German  1-  -till  com 
monlv  spoken.  Pop.  (1890)  25,228;  (1900) 
354I& 

Allerton,  Isaac,  one  of  the  'Pilgrim 
Fathers':  b.  England  about  1583;  a.  New 
Haven,  Conn.,  1659.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
influential  members  of  the  Plymouth  Colony, 
hut  on  account  of  some  disagreement  with  his 
associates  he  removed  to   New   Amsterdam  in 

1(131.  and  later  to   New    Haven.      Mary  Allerton, 
his    daughter,    was    the    latest    survivor    of   the 

original    Mayflower    company. 

All  Hallows.     See  All  Saints'  Day. 

Alliaceous  Plants.     See  Allium. 

Alliance,  0.,  city  of  Stark  co.,  situated  on 
the  Mahoning  River,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Alliance  &  Mahoning,  Lake  Erie,  Pittsburg, 
Fort  Wayne  &  Chicago,  and  other  R.R.'s.  56 
miles  S.S.E.  of  Cleveland.  It  is  in  a  thriving 
agricultural  region,  and  is  a  busy  industrial 
centre  with  manufactures  of  agricultural  im- 
plements, white  lead,  terra  cotta  ware,  and  ex- 
tensive steel  works,  manufacturing  heavy  ma- 
chinery, structural  iron  work,  boilers,  cranes, 
gun  carriages,  steam  hammers,  and  drop  torg- 
ings.  The  first  settlement,  made  in  1S38,  was 
known  at  Freedom  until  1850,  when  the  name 
wa-  altered  to  Alliance.  It-  principal  educa- 
tional establishment.  Mount  Union  College,  ,» 
Methodist  Episcopal  institution,  was  founded  in 
1S46.  Alliance,  incorporated  as  a  city  under  a 
charter  of  1854.  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  elected 
every  two  year-,  and  by  a  council  of  12  mem- 
bers.    Pop.   (1890)  7,607;   (1900)  8,974. 

Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches  Hold- 
ing the  Presbyterian  System,  a  voluntary  or- 
ganization popularly  styled  the  Presbyterian 
Alliance,  formed  in  London  in  1875.  Its  coun- 
cils have  much  moral  significance  but  possess 
no  legislative  authority.  Rather  more  than  90 
Presbyterian  bodies  are  represented  in  tile  Alli- 
ance, with  some  25,000.000  adherents  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.     The  first  General  Council  of  the 


ALLIBONE  —  ALLIGATOR 


Alliance  met  in  Edinburgh  in  1877:  and  the  sub- 
sequent councils  were  held  in  Philadelphia,  1880; 
Belfast,  1884;  London.  1888;  Toronto,  1892; 
Glasgow,  1896;  Washington,  1899. 

Allibone,  Samuel  Austin,  bibliographer 
and  librarian:  b.  Philadelphia,  17  April  1816;  d. 
Lucerne,  Switzerland,  2  Sept.  1889.  For  a  time 
he  engaged  in  mercantile  pursuits ;  was  book- 
editor  of  the  American  Sunday-School  Union, 
1867-73  •  and  in  1879  was  appointed  librarian  of 
the  Lenox  Library,  New  York.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  '  Critical  Dictionary  of  English 
Literature  and  British  and  American  Authors  ' 
(3  vols.  1854-71),  a  monumental  work  that  cost 
him  20  years  of  labor.  It  contains  notices  of  46,- 
499  authors,  with  extracts  from  reviews  of  their 
works,  and  40  classified  indexes  of  subjects.  It 
is  an  indispensable  reference  work  for  libraries 
and  students.  A  supplement  containing  over  37,- 
000  authors,  by  John  Foster  Kirk,  appeared  in 
two  volumes,  1891.  Others  of  Allibone's  works 
are :  '  Poetical  Quotations  from  Chaucer  to 
Tennyson'  (1873);  'Prose  Quotations  from 
Socrates  to  Macaulay '  (1876)  ;  '  Great  Authors 
of  all  Ages:  Selections  '    (1880). 

Alike,  or  Allis  (Fr.  alosc,  from  Lat.  alau- 
sa),  the  larger  European  shad  (Alosa  vulgaris), 
about  20  inches  long.  There  is  but  one  other 
shad  in  Europe,  the  twaite.  In  the  Rhine  val- 
ley both  are  called  maifisch.    See  Shad:  Twaite. 

Allier,  al-le-a,  a  central  department  of 
France,  intersected  by  the  river  Allier  and  partly 
bounded  by  the  Loire ;  surface  diversified  by  off- 
sets of  the  Cevennes  and  other  ranges,  rising  in 
the  south  to  over  4,000  feet,  and  in  general  richly 
wooded.  It  has  extensive  beds  of  coal  as  well 
as  other  minerals,  which  are  actively  worked, 
there  being  several  flourishing  centres  of  mining 
and  manufacturing  enterprise :  mineral  waters 
at  Vichy,  Bourbon,  L'Archambault,  etc.  Large 
numbers  of  sheep  and  cattle  are  bred.  Area, 
2,822     miles.     Capital,     Moulins.     Pop.     500,000. 

Allier,  a  river  of  France,  tributary  of  the 
Loire,  rising  in  the  department  of  Lozere  and 
flowing  northward  about  200  miles  through  Lo- 
zere, L'pper  Loire,  Puy  de  Dome,  and  Allier. 

Allies,  Jabez,  English  antiquary,  and  one 
of  the  earliest  writers  on  folklore :  b.  Sulsley, 
22  Oct.  1787;  d.  29  Jan.  1856.  He  devoted  his 
life  to  the  study  of  the  antiquities  in  his  native 
county,  embodying  the  results  in  his  monumental 
work,  <  The  Ancient  British,  Roman,  and  Saxon 
Antiquities  and  Folklore  of  Worcestershire  ' 
(1852). 

Alligator,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  croco- 
dilian reptiles  derived  from  a  corruption  of  the 
Spanish  cl  lagarto,  <(  lizard,"  from  the  Latin 
laccrtus,  a  lizard.  Alligators  differ  from  croco- 
diles mainly  in  having  relatively  short  and  broad 
snouts  and  by  the  circumstance  that  as  a  rule 
the  first  and  fourth  tooth  on  each  side  of  the 
lower  jaw  enter  into  pits  in  the  upper  jaw, 
whereas  those  of  crocodiles  slide  outside  of  the 
jaw  and  are  visible.  The  caymans  of  South 
America  may  be  included  in  the  general  term. 
These  reptiles  are  confined  mainly  to  the  rivers 
of  the  New  World,  in  which  they  typically  rep- 
resent the  crocodiles  of  the  eastern  hemisphere, 
but  there  is  one  species  in  China  (Alligator  si- 
nensis) first  made  known  in  1879.  and  resembling 
the   South   American   species.     The  best-known 


species  are  the  alligator  of  the  southern  States 
(Alligator  mississtppiensis) ;  the  cayman  of 
Surinam  and  Guiana  (A  palpebrosus).  and  the 
spectacled  alligator  (A.  sclcrops),  found  in  Bra- 
zil. In  the  water  a  full-grown  alligator  is  a 
formidable  animal,  on  account  of  its  great  size 
and  strength.  These  reptiles  swim  with  wonder- 
ful celerity,  impelled  by  their  long,  laterally- 
compressed,  and  powerful  tails.  On  land  their 
motions  are  proportionally  slow  and  embar- 
rassed, owing  to  their  weight,  the  shortness  of 
their  legs,  and  generally  unwieldy  proportions. 
It  grows  to  the  length  of  15  or  possibly  20  feet, 
and  is  covered  above  by  a  dense  armor  of  horny 
scales. 

Under  the  throat  of  this  animal  are  two 
openings  or  pores,  the  excretory  ducts  from 
glands  which  pour  out  a  strong,  musky  fluid, 
giving  the  alligator  a  peculiarly  unpleasant  smell. 
In  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  males  are 
under  the  excitement  of  the  sexual  propensity, 
they  frequently  utter  a  loud  roar,  which,  from  its 
harshness  and  reverberation,  resembles  distant 
thunder,  especially  where  numbers  are  at  the 
same  time  engaged.  At  this  period  frequent  and 
terrible  battles  take  place  between  the  males, 
which  terminate  in  the  discomfiture  and  retreat 
of  one  of  the  parties.  The  females  make  their 
nests  in  a  curious  manner,  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
or  lagoons,  generally  in  the  marshes,  along 
which,  at  a  short  distance  from  the  water,  the 
nests  are  arranged  somewhat  like  an  encamp- 
ment. They  are  obtuse  cones  four  feet  high, 
and  about  four  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  built 
of  mud  and  grass.  A  floor  of  such  mortar  is 
first  spread  upon  the  ground,  on  which  a  layer  of 
eggs,  having  hard  shells  and  larger  than  those 
of  a  common  hen,  are  deposited.  Upon  these 
another  layer  of  mortar,  seven  or  eight  inches  in 
thickness,  is  spread,  and  then  another  bed  of 
eggs;  and  this  is  repeated  nearly  to  the  top. 
From  100  to  200  eggs  may  be  found  in  one  nest. 
It  is  not  ascertained  whether  each  female 
watches  her  own  nest  exclusively,  or  attends  to 
more  than  her  own  brood.  It  is  unquestionable, 
however,  that  the  females  keep  near  the  nests 
and  take  the  young  under  their  vigilant  care  as 
soon  as  they  are  hatched,  defending  them  with 
great  perseverance  and  courage.  The  young 
may  be  seen  following  the  mother  through  the 
water  like  a  brood  of  chickens  following  a  hen. 
When  basking  in  the  sun  on  shore,  the  young  are 
heard  whining  and  yelping  about  the  mother,  not 
unlike  young  puppies.  In  situations  where  alli- 
gators are  not  exposed  to  much  disturbance  the 
sites  of  the  nests  appear  to  be  very  much  fre- 
quented, as  the  grass  and  reeds  are  beaten  down 
for  several  acres  around.  The  young,  when  first 
hatched,  are  very  feeble  and  helpless,  and  are 
devoured  by  birds  of  prey,  soft-shelled  turtles, 
etc..  as  well  as  by  the  male  alligators,  until  they 
grow  old  enough  to  defend  themselves.  As  thr 
eggs  are  also  eagerly  sought  by  vultures  and 
other  animals  the  race  would  speedily  become 
extinct  but  for  the  great  fecundity  of  the  fe- 
males. 

The  alligator  is  generally  considered  as  dis- 
posed to  retire  from  man,  but  this  is  only  where 
they  are  frequently  disturbed.  In  situations 
where  they  are  seldom  or  never  interrupted  they 
have  shown  a  ferocity  and  perseverance  of  the 
most  alarming  character  in  attacking  individuals 
in   boats,   rearing   their   heads    from   the   water 


ALLIGATOR-APPLE  —  ALLITERATION 


and  snapping  their  jaws  in  a  threatening  manner. 
At  present  alligators,  though  still  numerous  in 
the  remoter  parts  of  Florida  and  Louisiana,  are 
no  longer  regarded  as  very  dangerous.  Their 
numbers  annually  decrease,  and  at  no  distant 
period  they  must  be  marly,  if  not  quite,  exter- 
minated.  In  the  winter  the  alligators  spend  a 
great  part  of  their  time  in  deep  holes,  winch 
they  make  in  the  marshy  hanks  of  rivers,  etc. 
They  feed  on  fishes,  reptiles,  small  quadrupeds 
(dogs  if  they  can  get  them),  or  carrion,  and 
though  very  voracious  arc  capable  of  existing  a 
long  time  without  food  Compare  Crocodile; 
and  sec  CAYMAN  ;  .1  '< 

Alligator-apple.    See  Custard-apple. 

Alligator-fish,  one  of  the  Agonidte,  a  fam- 
ily of  fish  whose  slender  bodies  arc  armored  by 
large  bony   plates.     One  species   12  inches  long 
dothecus    acipenserinus)    is    found    on   the 
northern  Pacific  coast. 

Alligator-gar,  the  immense  greenish  col- 
ored gar  (Litholepis  tristachus)  found  in  the 
southern  States  and  southward  through  North 
America,  and  sometimes  measuring  10  feet.  See 
(Iak. 

Alligator-lizard,  any  member  of  the  genus 
Sceloporus,  which,  although  iguanid,  has  many 
small  species  without  the  typical  iguanid  charac- 
t(  ristics.  They  abound  in  Mexico  and  the  south- 
western United  States,  and  one  species  (Scelo- 
porus  undulatus)  is  the  familiar  "fence  lizard  " 
of  the  colder   Slates.      Though  often  mconspicu- 

|y  colored  on  the  back  except  for  black  cross- 
lines,  the  throat  and  inferior  surfaces  are  gen- 
erally striking  in  color,  and  frequently  there  are 
light'  lines  along  the  sides.  They  arc  often 
ignorantly  called  poisonous!  but  all  are  harmless. 

Alligator-pear,  or  Avocado-pear,  a  tree, 
Pejpea  gratissima,  of  the  natural  order  Lauracea, 
indigenous  to  subtropical  and  tropical  America 
and  widely  cultivated  in  warm  countries  for  its 
more  or  less  pear-shaped,  purple-  or  grecn- 
skinned  fruits,  each  of  which  contains  a  single 
seed  embedded  in  a  yellowish-green  edible  mar- 
row-like pulp.  Wherever  it  grows  the  alligator- 
pear  is  highly  prized  as  a  salad  and  is  usually 
served  with  "pepper,  salt,  and  vinegar,  or  with 
wine  and  snee.  hut  natives  of  temperate  climates 
usually  have  to  acquire  a  taste  for  it.  It  is  rich 
in  oil,  which  may  he  used  in  soap-making  and  in 
lighting.  ["he  seeds  yield  a  black  dye.  Little 
beyond  the  selection  of  chance  seedlings  has 
been  doni  to  obtain  improved  varieties.  Seed- 
lings are  easily  raised  and  begin  to  hear  in  about 
five  years  if  planted  in  good  soil  in  warm  places. 
outhern  Florida  and  southern  Cali- 
fornia  the  avocado-pear  docs  not  produce  pala- 
table fruit  in  the  United  States.  The  American 
market,  therefore,  which  is  limited  to  the  larger 
cities,  is  mainly  supplied  from  Hawaii,  Mexico, 
and  the  West  Indies.  The  fruit  is  sometimes 
called  midshipman's  butter  and  aguacate. 

Alligator-terrapin,  -tortoise,  or  -turtle, 
the  snapping-turtle ;  more  particularly,  a  very 
large  species  (Macrochelys  lacertina)  which  is 
eaten  ami  esteemed  as  a  delicacy  in  the  lower 
valley  of  the  Mississippi.  It  sometimes  weighs 
50  pounds. 

Allingham,  Helen  (Paterson),  English  art- 
ist: b.  26  Sept.  1848.  Received  her  art  educa- 
tion    in     the    Royal     Academy     Schools,     and 


married  the  Irish  poet,  William  Allingham  (q.v./ 
in  1S74.  She  has  drawn  much  in  black  and 
white  for  the  '  Graphic  '  and  other  periodicals, 
and  her  work  as  an  illustrator  has  been  much 
admired. 

Allingham,  William,  Irish  poet:  b.  Bally- 
shannon,  Ireland,  19  March  1824;  d.  llampstcad, 
iS  Nov.  1889.  From  1846  to  his  retirement  in 
1870  he  held  various  posts  in  the  Irish  customs 
service.  He  was  sub-editor  of  '  leaser's  Maga- 
zine,' 1870-4,  when  he  succeeded  James  Anthony 
Froude  as  editor,  and  conducted  it  with  ability 
until  1879.  At  its  best  Allingham's  poetry  is 
excellent,  being  simple,  clear,  and  graceful,  and 
whether  pathetic,  sportive,  or  descriptive  is  al- 
ways characterized  by  delicate  artistic  expres- 
sion. His  best  work  is  in  the  volume  called 
<  Day  and  Night  Songs'  (1854).  'Laurence 
Bloomficld  in  Ireland'  I  1864),  a  long  poem  winch 
has  been  called  "  the  epic  of  Irish  philanthropic 
landlordism."  has  a  wealth  of  fine  description, 
but  was  not  a  public  success.  Other  volumes 
are.  'Poems'  (i8so),  'The  Ballad  Book' 
(1864),  'Songs,  Ballads,  and  Stories'  (1877). 
'Collected  Poetical   Works  >    (6  vols.   1888-0.D. 

Allison,  William  Boyd,  American  legis- 
lator: b.  Perry.  Ohio,  2  March  1829.  A  farmer's 
son,  he  received  an  excellent  education,  first  at 
Allegheny  College,  Pa.,  then  at  Western  Reserve 
College,  Ohio.  Studying  law,  he  practised  in 
his  native  State  till  1857,  when  he  removed  to 
Dubuque,  Iowa.  An  ardent  Republican  and  a 
trusted  local  political  leader,  he  was  sent  as  a 
delegate  to  the  Republican  national  convention 
in  Chicago  in  i860,  which  nominated  Lincoln. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  Civil  War  he  served  on 
the  governor's  staff,  and  was  actively  engaged  in 
raising  troops  for  the  Union  army.  In  186.3  he 
was  elected  to  Congress,  and  served  by  suc- 
cessive re-elections  till  1869;  on  4  March  1873 
be  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  and 
has  been  four  times  re-elected,  in  1878,  1884, 
l8go,  and  1896,  his  nearly  30  years  of  service 
making  him  one  of  the  oldest  as  he  has  always 
been  among  the  most  influential  leaders.  He  has 
served  on  many  important  committees;  and  as 
chairman  of  the  Finance  Committee  in  1878  was 
the  chief  author  of  the  bill  that  committee  re- 
ported for  the  purchase  of  silver  bullion  usually 
known  as  the  Bland-Allison  Act,  for  the  pur- 
chase of  silver  bullion  (see  Bland  Silver  Bill), 
a  compromise  from  the  free-coinage  bill  of  Con- 
gressman Bland.  He  has  repeatedly  been  a 
strong  candidate  in  Republican  national  conven- 
tions for  the  presidency;  and  was  offered  the 
secretaryship  of  the  treasury  by  both  Garfield 
and  Harrison.  In  1892  be  was  a  representative 
of  the  United  States  at  the  Brussels  Monetary 
Conference. 

All  is  True,  a  nlay  attributed  to  Shake- 
speare. The  burning  of  the  Globe  Theatre  (29 
March  161,3)  while  the  piece  was  being  played 
destroyed  the  manuscript.  Parts  of  the  drama 
were  incorporated  into  the  play  of  '  Henry 
VTII.' 

Alliteration,  the  succession  or  frequent  oc- 
currence of  words  beginning  with  the  same  con- 
sonant. In  the  older  Scandinavian,  German,  and 
Anglo-Saxon  poetry  it  served  instead  of  rhyme. 
It  is  found  in  early  English  poetry  with  the  same 
function.  As  thus  used  it  had  a  certain  regu- 
larity of  accent  and  emphasis.     In  '  Piers  Plow- 


ALLIUM  —  ALLOPHANE 


man  >  the  line  is  constructed  with  two  hemi- 
stichs,  the  former  with  two  words  beginning 
with  the  alliterative  letter,  and  the  latter  with 
one,  thus : 

"  Her  robe  was  full  rich  with  red  scarlet  engreyned." 
The  poetry  of  widely  separated  nations  exhib- 
its this  device,  it  being  found  both  in  India  and 
in  Finland.  It  still  remains  in  Icelandic  poetry. 
Early  in  the  17th  century  English  writers  ran  to 
great  extravagance  in  the  use  of  alliteration, 
both  in  prose  and  poetry.  It  is  said  that  preach- 
ers from  their  pulpits  addressed  their  hearers  as 
*  chickens  of  the  church  "  and  "  sweet  swallows 
of  salvation."  No  other  device  of  composition 
so  easily  lends  itself  to  fanciful  conceits  or  in- 
genious trifling.  The  ease  with  which  devices 
may  be  marshaled  would  hardly  tend  to  make 
the  ordinary  reader  appreciative  of  Churchill's 
description  of  himself  as  one 

"  Who    often,   hut    without  success,   had   prayed 
For  apt   alliteration's  artful  aid." 

But  the  couplet  itself  is  a  striking  proof  of  its 
own  truth,  for  it  shows  that  the  poet  did  not 
know  what  alliteration  is :  it  must  be  of  con- 
sonants, not  vowels,  and  even  so  his  a's  are  alike 
only  to  the  eye,  not  the  ear.  All  good  poets 
have  used  it  to  lend  musical  beauty  or  emphasis 
to  their  verse,  though  it  can  be  over-used  or  mis- 
used. Following  are  a  few  from  the  chief 
American  poets : 

"  And  the  spark  struck  out  by  that  steed  in  his  flight 
Kindled   the    land   into   flame    with    its   heat." 

Longfellow. 

"  It    carves   the    bow   of   beauty   there, 
And  the   ripples   in  rhymes  the  oar  forsake." 

Emerson. 
"  Of  wailing  winds,  and  naked  woods."  Bryant. 

"And    /iark!    /low    clear   bold   chanticleer, 
K'armed    with    the    new    wine    of    the    year." 

Lowell. 

"  Stole   with   soft   steps   the   shining   stairway   through." 

Holmes. 

"  What   a    rale    of   ferror     now   their   furbulency   (ells!  " 

Poe. 

"  Across  the  mournful  marbles  play."  Whittier. 

Allium,  a  genus  of  about  250  perennial, 
rarely  biennial,  bulbous  herbs  of  the  natural  or- 
der Liliacea,  mainly  indigenous  to  the  colder 
parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  leaves 
are  generally  long  and  narrow,  often,  however, 
cylindrical  and  hollow;  the  flowers  in  umbels, 
often  with  bulblets  among  them.  Many  of  the 
species  are  economically  important ;  for  instance, 
Allium  cepa,  the  onion;  Allium  sativum,  garlic; 
Allium  porrum,  leek;  Allium  ascalonicum,  shal- 
lot; Allium  scluriwprasum.  chive;  Allium  sco- 
rcdoprasum,  rocambole,  each  of  which  is  treated 
separately  under  its  common  name.  Several  un- 
cultivated members  of  the  genus  are  also  used 
as  food  in  countries  where  they  grow  wild. 
Allium  vineale,  wild  onion  or  wild  garlic,  a  Eu- 
ropean species  introduced  into  the  United  States, 
is  a  troublesome  weed,  especially  in  New  Eng- 
land pastures,  since  it  imparts  a  strong  flavor 
of  garlic  to  the  milk  of  cows  feeding  upon  it. 
(See  Garlic.)  Many  species  are  natives  of  the 
United  States,  but  none  of  them  have  been  cul- 
tivated for  food ;  some,  however,  are  planted  for 
ornament.  Perhaps  the  most  common  eastern 
species  are  Allium  cernuum.  Allium  canadense, 
and  Allium  tricoccum,  the  last  generally  known 
as  the  wild  leek,  a  broad-leaved  species   which 


grows  in  moist  woods,  from  Maine  to  North 
Carolina  and  westward  to  Wisconsin.  Some  of 
the  hardy  species  are  grown  for  ornament  in 
gardens;  for  example,  Allium  moly  and  Allium 
roscum,  from  Europe;  Allium  victorialis,  from 
Siberia;  Allium  acuminatum,  from  the  western 
States.  Others,  especially  Allium  neapolitanum, 
a  tender  European  species,  are  often  grown  in 
greenhouses. 

Allmers,  Hermann  Ludwig,  al-merss, 
her'man  lut'vik,  German  poet  and  author :  b. 
Rechtenfleth,  11  Feb.  1821.  His  'Ic'le  Days  in 
Rome'  (1869;  oth  ed.  1896)  was  widely  read. 
Others  are:  'Captain  Bose'  (1882);  'Fromm 
und  Frei'  (1889),  a  volume  of  religious  poems; 
'From  an  Old  and  Young  Past  Time'  (1895); 
'Collected  Works'    (Oldenburg,  6  vols.  1891-5). 

Allmouth,  a  fish.       See  Goosefish. 

Alloa,  a  river  port  of  Scotland,  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  Forth,  5  m. 
from  Stirling,  and  in  the  county  of  Clackman- 
nan. It  is  irregularly  built,  but  contains  some 
good  streets  and  buildings,  including  the  parish 
church,  the  county  court-house,  the  town-hall, 
and  the  public  baths.  It  carries  on  several 
manufactures,  chief  of  which  are  ale,  whiskey, 
woolen  yarn,  and  bottles.  There  are  some  large 
collieries  in  the  neighborhood.  Alloa  has  an  ex- 
cellent harbor,  from  which  it  exports  coal,  ale, 
and  fire-brick,  and  imports  timber,  hemp,  oak- 
bark,  grain,  etc.  A  new  wet  dock  was  opened 
in  1881.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a  viaduct 
of  the  North  British  Railway.  There  is  an  an- 
cient tower  in  the  vicinity,  once  the  residence  of 
the  Erskine  family.     Pop.   (1901)   11,417. 

Allobroges,  the  name  of  a  people  who 
lived  in  ancient  Gallia  Narbonensis  and  occu- 
pied the  country  below  the  Lake  of  Geneva  and 
the  Rhone,  now  included  in  Savoy  and  the 
French  province  of  Dauphine.  They  long 
struggled  for  their  independence  against  the 
Romans,  but  were  finally  subjugated  by  Fabius 
Maximus. 

Allocution,  an  address,  a  term  particularly 
applied  to  certain  addresses  made  by  the  Pope 
to  the  cardinals. 

Allodium  ("without  vassalage").  Applied 
to  lands,  allodium,  or  allodial  tenure,  signifies  an 
estate  held  by  absolute  ownership,  without  re- 
garding any  superior  to  whom  any  duty  is  due 
on  account  thereof.  The  title  to  land  in  the 
LTnited  States  is  essentially  allodial,  and  every 
tenant  in  fee  simple  has  an  absolute  and  un- 
qualified dominion  over  it :  still,  in  technical 
language,  his  estate  is  said  to  be  in  fee,  a  term 
implying  a  feudal  relation,  although  such  a  re- 
lation has  ceased  to  exist  in  any  form,  while  in 
many  of  the  States  of  the  Union  the  lands  have 
been  declared  to  be  allodial. 

Allopathy.    See  Therapeutics, 

Al'lophane,  al'6-fan;  from  the  Greek 
alios,  "other,"  and  phonos,  "appearing,"  in  allu- 
sion to  its  change  of  appearance  before  the 
blowpipe,  a  native  silicate  of  aluminum,  hav- 
ing the  formula  AUSiOt  +  5H,0,  and  occurring 
in  thin,  amorphous,  brittle  incrustations,  with  n. 
hardness  of  3.  and  a  specific  gravity  of  about 
1.87.  It  is  found  in  a  great  variety  of  colors, 
due  to  the  presence  of  other  minerals.  In  the 
United  States  it  occurs  in  Massachusetts,  Con- 
necticut, Pennsylvania,  and  Tennessee. 


ALLOSAURUS  —  ALLOY 


Allosaurus,  an  extinct  carnivorous  dino- 
saur of  gigantic  size,  inhabiting  North  America 
during  the  Jurassic  Period.  It  was  one  of  the 
largest  of  llesh-eating  animals,  exceeding  30 
feet  in  length,  and  comparable  with  an  elephant 
in  hulk.  The  animal  was  a  biped  with  long 
hind  legs,  small  fore  legs  not  reaching  the 
ground,  and  long  massive  tail.  The  jaws  are 
three  feel  long,  with  pointed,  sharp-edged  teeth, 
and  the  toes  armed  with  large  sharp  claws, 
those  of  the  fore  foot  being  especially  powerful. 
Tin-  hind  feet  somewhat  resemble  those  of 
birds.  Fn--.il  skeletons  of  herbivorous  dino- 
saurs frequently  show  deep  scratches  and  scor- 
ings on  the  softer  edges  of  the  bone,  and 
broken-off  teeth  of  Allosaurus  are  very  often 
found  associated  with  them,  showing  that  this 
animal  preyed  on  the  carcasses  of  his  huge 
herbivorous  contemporaries;  it  was  well  adapt- 
ed also  by  its  teeth  and  claws  to  attack  them 
when  alive,  and  was  probably  their  especial  foe. 
See  Dinosaur 

Allotropy,  a-lot'ro-pi,  or  Allotropism 
(from  the  Greek  alios,  "another,"  and  tropos, 
"manner"),  the  property  exhibited  by  certain 
substances  of  existing  in  two  or  more  different 
states  distinguished  from  each  other  by  differ- 
ent properties.  The  most  familiar  case  of  allot- 
ropy is  afforded  by  carbon,  which  exists  in  a 
number  of  allotropic  modifications,  of  which 
charcoal,  graphite,  and  the  diamond  are  famil- 
iar examples.  Allotropy  is  not  exhibited  by  the 
metals  to  any  marked  degree  ( see,  however, 
Silver).  Sulphur  exhibits  many  allotropic 
forms,  of  which  the  following  are  the  best 
known:  (1)  It  occurs  in  rhombic  crystals,  hav- 
ing a  sp.  gr.  of  2.07,  melting  at  235°  F.,  and 
soluble  in  carbon  disulphid;  (2)  in  monoclinic 
crystals,  having  a  sp.  gr.  of  I.g6,  melting  at 
2430  F.,  and  soluble  in  carbon  disulphid ;  (3)  in 
an  amorphous  plastic  stale,  insoluble  in  car- 
bon disulphid ;  (4)  immediately  above  its  melting- 
point  it  is  thin,  clear,  and  amber-colored ;  (5) 
at  about  4000  F.  it  becomes  thick  and  dark ;  and 
(6)  at  about  6500  F.  it  is  again  thin,  but  re- 
mains  dark. 

Ozone  is  a  familiar  allotropic  form  of  oxy- 
gen, produced  when  the  silent  electric  discharge 
is  allowed  to  act  upon  oxygen.  It  is  known 
that  the  molecule  of  oxygen  contains  two  atoms, 
and  that  the  molecule  of  ozone  contains  three 
atom*  This  suggests  that  allotropy,  in  all 
cases,  may  be  due  to  a  similar  change  in  the 
number  of  atoms  present  in  a  molecule,  but  so 
little  is  known  of  the  ultimate  structure  of  sol- 
ids and  liquids  that  speculation  of  this  sort  is 
of  no  great  value. 

Mot  .if  the  non-metallic  elements  have  allo- 
tropic modifications,  and  remarkable  cases  of 
allotropy  are  observed  among  chemical  com- 
pounds. In  the  case  of  a  compound,  two  states 
of  a  substance  having  the  same  chemical  compo- 
sition are  said  to  be  isomeric  when  their  con- 
Stituents  are  combined  by  different  modes  of 
atomic  linkage ;  and  they  are  said  to  be  allo- 
tropic when  the  kind  of  atomic  linkage  is  the 
same  in  both  cases.     See   ISOMERISM. 

Allouez,  a-16-a',  Claude  Jean,  French 
Jesuit  missionary:  b.  France,  1620;  d.  Indiana, 
1600.  He  explored  portions  of  the  valley  of  the 
Mississippi  and  the  Lake  Superior  region, 
founding   the   Mission    of   the   Holy   Ghost    on 


I-ake  Superior  in  1665,  and  continuing  at  Kas- 
kaskia  the  mission  established  there  by  Mar- 
quette. Sec  autobiography  included  in  the 
'Jesuit  Relations'    (1900). 

Alloway,  Thomas  Jefferson,  a  Canadian 
surgeon:  b.  1847;  was  graduated  at  the  Medi- 
cal Department  of  McGill  University  in  1869; 
spent  a  year  in  advance  study  in  London  ;  served 
time  years  in  the  British  navy;  and  in  1894 
became  gynxcologist-in-chief  to  the  Montreal 
General  Hospital  and  assistant  professor  of 
gynaecology  in  McGill  University.  Dr.  Alloway 
has  made  a  world-wide  reputation. 

Al'loway,  a  parish  of  Scotland,  now  in- 
cluded in  Ayr  parish.  Here  Burns  was  born 
in  1759,  and  the  "auld  haunted  kirk"  near  his 
birthplace  was  the  scene  of  the  dance  of 
witches  in  'Tarn  o'  Shanter*. 

Alloxan,  a-lok'san,  a  substance  produced 
by  the  action  of  dilute  nitric  acid  upon  uric 
acid,  and  having  the  formula  GH.NsGY  It  is 
freely  soluble  in  water  and  crystallizes  in  the 
trimetric  system  when  a  saturated  solution  is  al- 
lowed to  cool,  and  in  monoclinic  prisms  when 
deposited  by  evaporation  from  a  warm  solution. 
It  is  converted  into  alloxantin  (CnH.N.ft)  by 
the  action  of  SnClj  and  other  reducing  agents, 
and  into  alloxanic  acid  (C.H.NjO:.)  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  fixed  alkalis.  Ammonia  combines 
with  it  to  form  murexid,  a  substance  that  was 
used  about  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  for 
dyeing  silk  and  wool  purple  and  red,  but  which 
was  soon  displaced  by  the  aniline  colors. 

Alloy'  (Latin,  ad  to,  and  ligare,  to  bind), 
an  intimate  and  apparently  homogeneous  mix- 
ture of  different  metals,  usually  prepared  by 
combining  the  constituents  in  a  slate  of  fusion. 
From  the  earliest  times  alloys  have  been  used 
for  coins,  implements,  and  works  of  art;  but 
notwithstanding  this  fact  no  general  and  de- 
tailed theory  of  their  nature  and  properties  has 
yet  been  given.  There  is  some  evidence  that 
certain  metals  form  definite  chemical  combina- 
tions with  one  another  when  mixed  in  proper 
proportions,  and  until  recently  it  was  thought 
that  alloys  consist  of  certain  definite  com- 
pounds of  this  sort  mixed  with  more  or  less 
of  one  or  more  of  the  constituent  metals  in 
the  free  state.  While  this  may  be  the  case,  the 
modern  tendency  is  strongly  toward  regarding 
alloys  as  solutions  of  metals  in  one  another. 
See  Solution. 

Some  metals  will  not  mix  when  melted,  or 
will  not  mix  in  all  proportions;  and  even  when 
a  desired  mixture  can  be  obtained  in  a  state  of 
fusion  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  a  more 
or  less  complete  separation  of  the  constituent 
metals  occurs  at  the  moment  of  solidification. 
Attempts  have  therefore  been  made  to  prepare 
alloys  by  other  methods.  In  some  cases  it  has 
been  found  possible  to  obtain  true  alloys  by 
mixing  the  constituents  in  a  pulverized  or  finely- 
ground  state,  and  then  consolidating  them  under 
great  pressure.  In  other  cases  alloys  can  be 
formed  by  the  simultaneous  electro-deposition  of 
their  constituents,  or  by  the  electro-deposition 
of  alternate  thin  layers  of  those  constituents. 
The  success  of  this  latter  method  depends  upon 
the  known  fact  that  a  metal  deposited  electro- 
lytically  often  penetrates,  to  a  measurable 
depth,  the  one  upon  which  it  is  deposited.  At 
the  present  time   the  alloys  used  in  the  arts  are 


ALL  SAINTS*  BAY;  ALL  SAINTS'  DAY 


produced  almost  exclusively  by  fusion ;  the  va- 
rious other  methods  that  are  known  being  con- 
fined  to    the   laboratory. 

The  physical  properties  of  alloys  can  seldom 
be  inferred  from  those  of  their  constituent 
metals.  Thus  speculum  metal  is  brittle,  like 
glass,  although  both  copper  and  tin  (which  are 
its  sole  constituents)  are  ductile.  A  very  small 
change  in  the  composition  of  an  alloy  will  often 
make  a  marked  difference  in  its  physical  proper- 
ties;  and  such  apparently  trifling  circumstances 
as  the  order  in  which  the  components  are  added 
are  also  frequently  of  the  greatest  importance. 
The  melting  point  of  an  alloy  is  usually  lower 
than  the  melting  points  of  its  constituents  would 
appear  to  indicate ;  but  even  this  is  not  an  in- 
variable rule.  If  all  possible  combinations  are 
made  by  fusing  together  a  given  pair  (or 
group)  of  metals  in  all  proportions,  by  a  con- 
stant method  of  manipulation,  it  is  commonly 
found  that  there  is  one  particular  alloy  that  has 
a  lower  melting  point  than  any  other  combina- 
tion of  the  same  metals.  The  alloy  having  this 
property  is  known  as  the  "eutectic"  alloy  of  the 
metals  that  it  contains. 

By  a  similar  systematic  variation  in  the  pro- 
portion of  the  components  we  can  find  out  what 
alloy  of  any  given  metals  possesses  any  particular 
physical  attribute  to  a  maximum  or  mini- 
mum degree.  Thus  Thurston  has  made  an  elab- 
orate investigation  of  the  strength  of  the  copper- 
tin-zinc  (or  "kalchoid")  alloys,  and  has  shown 
that  the  strongest  of  these  contains  57  per  cent 
of  copper,  1  per  cent  of  tin,  and  42  per  cent 
of  zinc.  An  alloy  having  56  per  cent  of  copper, 
2  per  cent  of  tin,  and  42  per  cent  of  zinc  has 
nearly  the  same  strength,  however,  and  is  more 
generally  useful  because  of  its  greater  ductility. 
Thurston  has  called  the  compositions,  copper,  58 
to  54;  tin,  yz  to  2y2;  zinc,  44  to  40,  the  "maxi- 
mum bronzes."  Tobin  bronze,  containing  58.22 
per  cent  of  copper,  2.30  per  cent  of  tin,  and  39.48 
of  zinc,  belongs  in  this  class,  and  has  shown  a 
tenacity  as  high  as  66,500  pounds  per  square  inch 
of  original  sectional  area.  Like  Thurston's 
"maximum  bronze,"  Tobin's  alloy  can  be  forged 
or  rolled  at  a  low  red  heat,  or  worked  cold. 
When  cold-rolled  its  tensile  strength  may  be 
raised  to  104,000  pounds  per  square  inch  without 
any  serious  corresponding  loss  of  ductility. 

Properly  speaking,  neither  Tobin's  alloy  nor 
Thurston's  is  a  "bronze."  Strictly,  bronze  is  an 
alloy  of  copper  and  tin,  and  brass  is  an  alloy  of 
copper  and  zinc;  but  in  practice  small  amounts 
of  zinc  are  often  added  to  the  bronzes,  and 
small  amounts  of  tin  to  the  brasses,  so  that 
there  is  no  longer  any  hard  and  fast  line  be- 
tween the  two. 

Guillaume,  of  the  International  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Measures,  has  recently  obtained 
some  remarkable  results  with  alloys  of  nickel 
and  iron,  which  afford  excellent  illustrations  of 
the  fact  that  little  can  be  safely  inferred  concern- 
ing the  properties  of  an  alloy  from  those  of  its 
constituents.  Thus  it  was  found  that  an  alloy 
containing  about  25  per  cent  of  nickel  is  prac- 
tically non-magnetic,  being  as  insensible  to  the 
action  of  a  magnet  as  copper,  although  iron  and 
nickel  are  the  two  most  magnetic  substances 
known.  Alloys  containing  24  per  cent  (or  less) 
of  nickel  are  magnetically  irreversible,  in  the 
sense  that  they  do  not  lose  and  regain  their 
magnetism  at  the  same  temperature.     Thus  alloy 


containing  24  per  cent  of  nickel  loses  its  mag- 
netism at  a  cherry-red  heat,  and  does  not  be- 
come magnetic  again  until  it  has  been  exposed  to 
a  temperature  in  the  neighborhood  of  32°  F. 
Equally  remarkable  results  were  obtained  in 
studying  the  coefficients  of  expansion  of  nickel- 
steel.  It  was  found,  for  example,  that  an  alloy 
containing  36  per  cent  of  nickel  has  a  coefficient 
of  expansion  which  is  almost  negligible,  even 
in  refined  scientific  work.  This  particular  alloy 
has  been  called  "invar,"  because  its  length  is 
so  nearly  invariable  under  the  influence  of  heat. 
Nearly  every  pendulum  clock  that  is  made  in 
Germany  to-day  has  its  pendulum  rod  made  of 
invar,  except  possibly  some  of  the  cheapest 
grades.  (For  further  information  concerning 
nickel-steel  alloys  see  the  'Engineering  Maga- 
zine,' October  1901,  page  79;  and  the  'American 
Machinist,'  8  Jan.  1903,  page  67.)  The  gen- 
eral composition  of  some  of  the  commoner  al- 
loys is  given  in  the  following  table,  but  it  should 
be  remembered  that  these  proportions  (which 
are  expressed  in  percentages  by  weight)  are 
variable  in  practice    to  a  certain  extent : 

COMPOSITION    OF    COMMON    ALLOYS. 


Nan 


V 

T) 

ffl 

0. 
0 

H 

.-J 

0 

Other 

Metals 


Gun    metal 

Bell     metal 

Phosphor   bronze. 
Aluminum   bronze. 

Valve    metal 

Brass    (common)  . 
Muntz    metal.  ... 

Delta    metal 

Brazing   metal 

(soft) 
Brazing   metal 

(medium) 
Brazing   metal 

(hard) 
German   silver.  .  .  . 
Speculum    metal.  . 
Common    solder... 

Fine   solder 

Babbitt    metal.  .  .  . 

Pewter    

Britannia    metal .  . 

Type    metal 

Aich    metal 

Dutch  metal.  . .  . 
Newton's  metal. 
Rose's    metal.  .  .  . 


91 

9 

75 

25 

92% 

7 

16 

10 

bb% 

33M 

60 

40 

5o 

42 

bo 

\2'A 

37  a 

5° 

50 

75 

25 

60 

20 

67 

33 

50 

50 

bb* 

3lK 

3 

89 

80 

20 

90 

80 

59 

39 

85 

i5 

19 

31 

2b 

25 

Yz  phosphor. 
10  aluminum 


jo    nickel 


S   antimony 

10  antimony 
20  antimony 
iron 

50  bismuth 
50  bismuth 


Both  the  gold  and  the  silver  coins  of  the 
United  States  contain  90  per  cent  of  pure  metal. 
The  silver  coins  contain  10  per  cent  of  copper, 
and  the  gold  coins  contain  10  per  cent  of  copper 
alloy,  not  more  than  one  tenth  of  which  can  be 
silver. 

(See  Thurston's  'Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Oth- 
er Alloys,'  New  York  1893,  for  valuable  and 
extensive  information  on  alloys  containing  cop- 
per, zinc,  lead,  and  tin.  For  alloys  of  nearly 
constant  electrical  resistance  see  RESISTANCE, 
Electrical. 

All  Saints'  Bay,  or  Bahia  de  Todos  os 
Santos,  a  bay  on  the  coast  of  the  State  of 
Bahia  in  Brazil,  forming  an  excellent  natural 
harbor.  On  its  east  side  stands  the  port  of  Ba 
hia.  The  neighboring  country  is  well  adapted 
for  the  cultivation  of  rice  and  sugar-cane. 

All  Saints'  Day,  a  festival  instituted  by 
Pope  Boniface  IV.,  early  in  the  7th  century, 
on  the  occasion  of  his  transforming  the  Roman 


ALL  SORTS  — ALL'S  WELL 


heathen  Pantheon  into  a  Christian  temple  or 
church,  and  consecrating  it  to  the  Virgin  Miry 
and  all  the  martyr';  It  is  kept  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  and  bj  churches  in  communion 
with  the  Church  ol  England  on  i  November, 
and  by  the  Greek  Church  on  the  Sunday  after 
Whitsunday.  It  is  designed,  as  its  name  implies, 
to  honor  all  departed  saints,  and  was  formerly 

called  All  hallows.  In  many  American  churches 
a  custom  has  grown  up  of  making  the  Sunday 
nearest  i  November  the  occasion  of  a  service  in 
memory  of  those  who  have  died  during  the 
year. 

All  Sorts  and  Conditions  of  Men,  a  novel 
by  Sir  Walter  Besant.  The  famous  People's 
Palace  of  East  London  had  its  origin  in  this 
story;  and  because  of  it  Besant  was  knighted. 
The  story  concerns  chiefly  two  characters, — 
the  very  wealthy  orphan,  Angela  Messenger,  and 
Harry  Goslett,  ward  of  Lord  Joscclyn.  Miss 
Messenger,  after  graduating  with  honors  at 
Newnham,  resolves  l>)  examine  into  the  con- 
dition of  the  people  of  Stepney  Green,  in  the 
Whitechapel  region,  where  she  owns  great  pos- 
sesions. To  indicate  to  the  working  women 
of  East  London  a  way  of  escape  from  the  mean- 
ness, misery,  and  poverty  of  their  lives,  she 
sets  up  among  them  a  co-operative  dressmaking 
establishment,  she  herself  living  with  her  work- 
girls.  Her  goodness  and  wealth  hring  happi- 
ness to  many.  The  hook  ends  with  the 
opening  of  the  People's  Palace,  and  with  the 
heroine's  marriage  to  Harry  Goslett. 

All  Souls'  College,  Oxford,  was  founded 
in  14.17  by  Henry  Chichele,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury,  for  a  warden,  40  fellows,  2  chaplains, 
and  clerks.  The  present  arrangement  of  fel- 
lowships was  fixed  by  statutes  which  came  into 
operation  in  1882. 

All  Souls'  Day,  the  day  on  which  the 
Catholic  Church  commemorates  all  the  faithful 
deceased.  It  was  tirst  enjoined  in  the  nth 
century  by  Odile.  Abbot  of  Cluny,  on  the 
monastic  order  of  which  he  was  the  head,  and 
soon  afterward  came  to  be  adopted  by  the 
Church  generally.  It  is  observed  on  2  No- 
vember. 

Allspice,  or  PlMENTA,  is  the  dried  berry  of 
a  West  Indian  species  of  myrtle  (Myrtus  pi- 
mento) which  grows  to  the  height  of  20  feet 
and  upward,  and  has  somewhat  oval  leaves 
about  4  inches  long,  of  a  deep  shining  green 
color,  and  numerous  branches  of  white  flowers, 
each  with  four  small  petals.  This  tree  is  by 
some  botanists  referred  to  the  genus  Eugenia 
and  called  E.  pimento.  Others  again  constitute 
a  genus  Pimento,  the  present  species  being  P. 
officinalis.  In  the  whole  vegetable  creation 
there  is  scarcely  any  tree  more  beautiful  or  more 
fragrant  than  a  young  pimenta-tree  about  the 
month  of  July.  Branched  on  all  sides,  richly 
clad  with  deep  green  leaves,  which  are  relieved 
by  an  exuberance  of  white  and  richly  aromatic 
flowers,  it  attracts  the  notice  of  all  who  ap- 
proach it.  About  the  month  of  September,  and 
not  long  after  the  blossoms  have  fallen,  the  ber- 
ries are  in  a  fit  state  to  be  gathered.  At  this 
time,  though  not  quite  ripe,  they  are  full  grown 
and  about  the  size  of  peppercorns.  They  are 
gathered   by   hand.     The   berries   are   spread   in 


the  sun  to  be  dried,  an  operation  that  requires 
great  care,  from  the  necessity  of  keeping  them 
entirely  free  from  moisture.  By  the  drying  they 
their  green  color  and  become  a  reddish 
brown;  the  process  is  known  to  be  complete  by 
their  change  of  color  and  by  the  rattling  of  the 
seeds  within  the  berries.  They  are  then  packed 
into  bags  or  hogsheads  for  the  market.  When 
the  berries  are  quite  ripe  they  are  of  a  dark  pur- 
ple color  and  filled  with  a  sweet  pulp.  Pimcnta 
is  thought  to  resemble  in  flavor  a  mixture  of 
cinnamon,  nutmegs,  and  cloves,  whence  it  has 
obtained  the  name  allspice.  For  its  use  in  medi 
cine  see  Condiments. 

Allston,  Margaret.  Sec  Bergengren,  Anna  ; 
Fahquhak,  Anna. 

Allston,  Theodosia  Burr.    See  Burr,  The- 

ODOSIA. 

Allston,  Washington,  American  painter 
and  author:  b.  Waccamaw,  S.  C,  5  Nov.  1779; 
d.  Cambridge,  Mass.,  9  July  1843,  He  graduated 
at  Harvard,  1800;  studied  art  in  Europe,  1801-y; 
n  sided  in  England,  1811-18;  and  opened  a  studio 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  1818.  His  painting  'The 
Dead  Man  Revived  '  was  awarded  a  prize  of  200 
guineas.  Other  well-known  works  are,  'The 
Prophet  Jeremiah' ;  'Spanish  Girl';  'Spalatro's 
Vision  of  the  Bloody  Hand':  ( Belshazzar's 
Feast,'  and  portraits  of  Benjamin  West,  Cole- 
ridge, and  himself,  lie  has  a  high  reputation 
as  a  colorist  and  has  been  called  the  "American 
Titian."  His  writings  comprise,  'The  Sylphs 
of  the  Seasons'  (1813);  'Monaldi,'  a  romance 
of  Italian  life  (1841),  and  'Lectures  on  Art, 
and  Poems'  (1850).  See  Ware's  'Lectures  on 
the  Works  and  Genius  of  W.  Allston'  (1852), 
and  the   'Life'   by   Flagg   (1892). 

All's  Well  that  Ends  Well,  a  play  by 
Shakespeare,  the  story  of  which  came  to  the 
poet  from  Boccaccio  through  Paynter's  '  Palace 
of  Pleasure.'  It  tells  how  Helena  de  Narbon 
forced  her  love  on  a  handsome  and  proud  young 
French  nobleman,  Bertram  de  Rousillon,  with 
whom  she  had  been  brought  up  from  childhood. 
It  is  a  talc  of  husband-catching  by  a  curious 
kind  of  trick ;  but  Shakespeare  endows  Helena 
with  such  virtues  that  we  excuse  and  applaud 
her  action.  Hence  all's  well  that  ends  well. 
She  heals  the  king,  asks  for  and  accepts  Ber- 
tram as  her  reward,  and  is  married.  But  the 
proud  boy  flies  to  the  Florentine  wars  on  his 
wedding-day,  leaving  his  marriage  unconsum- 
mated.  Helena  returns  sorrowfully  to  Rousil- 
lon, and  finds  there  a  letter  from  her  husband 
to  the  effect  that  when  she  gets  his  ring  upon 
her  finger  and  shows  him  a  child  begotten  of  his 
body,  then  he  will  acknowdedge  her  as  his 
wife.  She  undertakes  to  outwit  him  and  re- 
claim him,  and  leaving  Rousillon  on  pretense  of 
a  pilgrimage  she  has  it  reported  that  she  is  dead. 
In  reality  she  goes  to  Italy  and  becomes  Ber- 
tram's wife  in  fact,  and  not  mere  name,  by  the 
substitution  of  herself  for  the  pretty  Diana  with 
whom  he  has  an  assignation  arranged.  There  is 
an  entanglement  of  petty  accidents  and  incidents 
connected  with  an  exchange  of  rings,  etc.  But 
finally  Helena  makes  good  before  the  king  her 
claim  of  having  fulfilled  Bertram's  conditions; 
and  she  having  vowed  obedience,  he  takes  her 
to  his  heart.  Shakespeare  has  followed  his 
original  closely,  hut  the  Countess,  the  Clown 
Lafen,  and  Parolles  are  creations  of  his  own. 


ALLUVION  — ALMA  COLLEGE 


Alluvion,  the  legal  designation  of  land 
gained  from  the  water  by  gradual  changes  in 
the  shore  line.  In  English  law  the  form  of  the 
word  generally  used  is  alluvion,  and  in  Scotch 
law  alluvio.  In  both  of  these  the  enactment  is, 
that  if  an  "eyott,"  or  little  island,  arise  in  a 
river  midway  between  the  two  banks,  it  belongs 
in  common  to  the  proprietors  on  the  opposite 
banks;  but  if  it  arise  nearer  one  side  it  then  be- 
longs to  the  proprietor  whose  lands  it  there  ad- 
joins. If  a  sudden  inundation  cut  off  part  of 
a  proprietor's  land,  or  transfer  the  materials  to 
that  of  another,  he  shall  be  recompensed  by  ob- 
taining what  the  river  has  deposited  in  another 
place;  but  if  the  process  be  a  gradual  one  there 
is  no  redress.  In  the  United  States  the  proprie- 
tor of  the  bank  increased  by  alluvion  may  law- 
fully claim  the  addition,  this  being  regarded  as 
the  equivalent  for  the  loss  he  may  sustain  from 
the  encroachment  of  the  water  upon  his  land. 
Sea-weed  which  is  thrown  upon  a  beach,  as  par- 
taking of  the  nature  of  alluvion,  belongs  to  the 
owner  of  the  beach.  2  Johns.  N.  Y.  322.  But 
sea-weed  below  low-water  mark  on  the  bed  of 
a  navigable  river  belongs  to  the  public.  9  Conn. 
38.     See  Accretion  ;  Avulsion. 

Alluvium,  a  word  formerly  applied  to  the 
gravel,  mud,  sand.  etc..  deposited  by  water  sub- 
sequently to  the  Noachian  deluge.  It  was  op- 
posed to  diluvium,  supposed  to  be  laid  down  by 
the  deluge  itself,  or,  in  the  opinion  of  others,  by 
some  great  wave  or  series  of  waves  originated 
by  the  sudden  upheaval  of  large  tracts  of  land 
or  some  other  potent  causes,  different  from  the 
comparatively  tranquil  action  of  water  which 
goes  on  day  by  day. 

Now  alluvium  is  especially  employed  to  des- 
ignate the  transported  matter  laid  down  by  fresh 
water  during  the  Pleistocene  and  Recent  periods. 
Thus  it  indicates  partly  a  process  of  mechanical 
operation  and  partly  a  date  or  period.  It  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  former  has  gone  on 
through  all  bygone  geological  ages  and  has  not 
been  confined  to  any  one  time.  Many  of  the 
hardest  and  most  compact  rocks  were  once 
loosely  cohering  debris  laid  down  by  water. 
The  most  typical  example  of  alluvium  may  be 
seen  in  the  deltas  of  the  Nile.  Ganges,  Missis- 
sippi, and  many  other  rivers.  Some  rivers  have 
alluviums  of  different  ages  on  the  slopes  down 
into  their  valleys.  The  more  modern  of  these 
belong  to  the  Recent  period,  as  do  the  organic  or 
other  remains  which  they  contain,  while  the 
older  (as  those  of  the  Somme,  Thames,  Ouse, 
etc.),  which  are  of  Pleistocene  age,  enclose  more 
or  less  rudely  chipped  flint  implements,  with 
the  remains  of  mammals  either  locally  or  every- 
where extinct.  Though  in  many  cases  it  is  pos- 
sible clearly  to  separate  alfciviums  of  different 
ages,  yet  the  tendency  of  each  new  one  is  to 
tear  up,  redistribute,  and  confound  all  its  prede- 
cessors. 

Volcanic  alluvium  is  sand,  ashes,  etc..  which, 
after  being  emitted  from  a  volcano,  come  under 
the  action  of  water  and  are  by  it  redeposited, 
as  was  the  case  with  the  materials  which  en- 
tered and  filled  the  interior  of  houses  at  Pom- 
peii. 

Marine  alluvium  is  alluvium  produced  by 
inundations  of  the  sea,  such  as  those  which  have 
from  time  to  time  overflowed  the  eastern  coast 
of   India. 


Allyl,  in  chemistry,  the  radical  CHi:CH. 
CH2,  or  GHo.  (The  isomeric  radical  CHa.CH : 
CH  is  called  propenyl.)  Allyl  forms  many  com- 
pounds, of  which  the  most  important  is  per- 
haps allyl  alcohol,  C3H5.OH,  which  is  produced 
when  glycerin  is  distilled  with  oxalic  acid. 

Al'lyn,  Robert,  American  clergyman  and 
educator:  b.  Ledyard,  Conn.,  25  Jan.  1817;  d.  7 
Jan.  1894.  Educated  at  Wesleyan  University, 
Middletown,  Conn.,  he  entered  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  ministry.  He  was  appointed  commis- 
sioner of  public  instruction  for  Rhode  Island  in 
1854,  and  served  three  terms  in  the  legislature 
of  that  State.  He  was  president  of  the  Wesley- 
an Female  College,  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  1850-63, 
and  of  McKendree  College,  Illinois.  1863-73. 

Al-Mamun,  ma-mon',  a  caliph  of  the 
Abasside  dynasty,  son  of  Harun  al-Rashid :  b. 
786 ;  d.  833.  Under  him  Bagdad  became  a  great 
centre  of  art  and  science. 

Alma,  Mich.,  a  town  in  Gratiot  County,  38 
m.  W.  of  Saginaw,  on  Pine  River,  and  Ann 
Arbor  and  Pere  Marquette  R.R.'s ;  founded 
1854 ;  inc.  1872.  It  manufactures  flour,  lumber, 
and  beet  sugar ;  has  water  works  and  electric 
lighting.  It  contains  Alma  College  (q.v.),  and 
Alma  Sanitarium,  widely  reputed.  It  has  one- 
year  mayoralty  and  a  council  of  six.  Pop. 
(1000)  2.047. 

Alma,  a  river  in  the  Crimea,  rising  at  the 
foot  of  the  Tchadir  Dagh,  and  flowing  W.  into 
the  Bay  of  Kalamita,  about  half  way  between 
Eupatoria  and  Sebastopol.  On  the  steep  banks 
of  the  stream,  through  the  channel  of  which 
the  British  troops  waded  amid  a  shower  of 
bullets,  a  brilliant  victory  was  won  20  Sept.  1854. 
by  the  allied  armies  of  England,  France,  and 
Turkey,  led  by  Lord  Raglan  and  Marshal  St. 
Arnaud.  over  the  Russian  army  commanded  by 
Prince  Menschikoff.  It  was  the  first  battle  of 
the  Crimean  war. 

Almack's,  the  name  formerly  given  to  cer- 
tain assembly-rooms  in  King  Street,  St.  James's, 
London,  derived  from  Almack.  a  tavern-keeper, 
by  whom  they  were  built,  and  whose  real  name 
is  said  to  have  been  M'Call.  and  transformed 
into  Almack  by  reversing  the  syllables.  The 
premises  are  now  known  as  "Willis's  Rooms." 
First  opened  20  Feb.  1765,  they  soon  became 
famous  for  the  extreme  exclusiveness  displayed 
by  the  lady  patronesses  in  regard  to  the  ad- 
mission of  applicants  for  tickets.  These  fair 
arbiters  composed  a  board  of  six.  which  held 
its  sittings  every  Monday  evening  during  the 
London  season,  and  issued  those  fiats  which 
were  supposed  to  affect  so  conclusively  the 
claims  of  the  received  or  rejected  applicant, 
as  the  case  might  be.  to  occupy  the  upper 
circles  in  the  fashionable  world.  To  have 
danced  at  Almack's  became  almost  proverbial 
as  indicative  of  exalted  social  position.  The 
name  was  also  given  to  a  gambling  club  estab- 
lished by  the  same  Almack  in  1763,  to  which 
such  men  as  Charles  James  Fox,  William  Pitt, 
and   Gibbon   belonged. 

Alma  College,  a  co-educational  institution 
in  Alma.  Mich.,  organized  1887  under  Presby- 
terian control ;  reported  in  1899:  Professors  and 
instructors.  20:  students.  254:  volumes  in  li- 
brary. 17,000:  grounds  and  buildings  valued  at 
$60,000:  productive  funds,  $220,000;  income 
$155,000;  graduates,  213. 


ALMADA  —  ALMANAC 


Almada,  a  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Estremadura,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Tagus.  opposite  Li-bon.  It  is 
built  upon  a  height,  in  a  well-cultivated  country, 
and  has  long  been  celebrated  for  its  figs.  It  has 
a  strong  castle  on  a  rock,  a  hospital  for 
British  seamen,  a  Latin  school,  several  depots 
for  wine,  and  a  mineral  spring.     Pop.  7,000. 

Almaden,  Cal.,  a  town  in  Santa  Clara 
County,  noted  for  its  mines  of  mercury  and  its 
mineral  springs.  It  was  named  alter  the  Span- 
ish town  mentioned  below  on  account  of  its  four 
quicksilver  mines,  the  New  Almaden,  Provi- 
dence, Enriquita,  and  Guadelupe.  Large  quan- 
tities of  mercury  have  been  distilled  from  the 
ore  (cinnabar),  and  the  existence  of  this  de- 
posit has  been  of  immense  benefit  to  the  Pacific 
State-.      Pop    (  1000)    1.599- 

Almaden,  or  Almaden  del  Azogue  (mine 
of  quicksilver),  a  town  in  Spain  50  m.  S.W.  of 
the  town  of  Ciudad-Real  in  the  province  of 
the  same  name.  It  is  widely  known  for  its  rich 
quicksilver  mines  which  have  been  worked 
F01  centuries,  and  in  which  some  4,000  miners 
are  employed.  Since  1645  the  mines  have  been 
the  property  of  the  Crown.  The  town  contains 
a  ruined  castle  of  tin-  Moorish  period  and  a 
school  of  mines.     Top.  (1900)  7.45'). 

Almagest.  The  usual  appellation  of  the 
'Syntaxis'  of  Ptolemy,  derived  from  an  Arabic 
term  signifying  "the  greatest."  This  celebrated 
work  was  written  about  the  middle  of  the  2d 
century  of  our  era,  and  comprises  an  exposition 
of  the  ancient  system  of  astronomy,  so  elaborate 
and  thorough  as  to  have  made  it  a  standard  for 
13  centuries.  It  contains  the  most  ancient 
known  catalogue  of  the  stars,  with  observa- 
tions of  the  motion  of  the  planets,  and  determi- 
nations of  their  periods.  Several  editions,  one 
in  Greek  and  others  in  Latin,  appeared  in  Europe 
between  1500  and  1 700.  The  most  recent  ac- 
cessible edition  is  that  of  the  Abbe  Halma, 
which  is  in  Greek  and  French  (2  Vols.  Paris 
1814-15). 

Almagro,  Diego,  one  of  the  companions 
of  Pizarro  in  the  conquest  of  Peru,  was  a 
foundling,  and  the  exact  date  of  his  birth  is  not 
known;  d.  1538.  He  engaged  with  Pizarro  and 
Fernando  de  Lugue  in  the  long  and  arduous  ex- 
pedition in  which  they  made  the  discovery  of 
Peru  (1524-27),  took  part  in  the  conquest 
of  the  country  and  the  treacherous  murder  of 
Atahualpa  (1533),  and  after  frequent  disputes 
with  Pizarro  about  their  respective  shares  in 
their  conquests  he  led  an  expedition  against 
Chile,  of  which  he  was  appointed  governor. 
Having  failed  to  conquer  his  new  province  he 
returned  to  find  Cuzco  in  possession  of  the 
Indians,  who  had  expelled  Pizarro.  He  re- 
conquered it  and  made  himself  governor,  but, 
Pizarro  returning,  a  struggle  took  place  between 
the  two  parties  in  which  Almagro  was  finally 
overcome,  taken  prisoner,  strangled,  and  after- 
ward beheaded.  He  was  avenged  by  his  son, 
who  raised  an  insurrection  in  which  Pizarro  was 
assassinated  in  1541.  The  younger  Almagro 
was  put  to  death  in  1542  by  De  Castro,  the 
new  viceroy  of  Peru.  Almagro  showed  himself, 
like  most  of  the  Spaniards  engaged  in  the  con- 
quest of  the  Xew  World,  capable  of  enduring 
great  privations   with   heroic  constancy,  and  of 


effecting  wonderful  achievements  by  undaunted 
valor,  but  cruel,  rapacious,  and  unscrupulous 
in  success. 

Almagro,  a  town  in  Spain  in  the  province 
of  Ciudad-Real,  12  m.  from  the  city  of  Ciudad- 
Real,  in  the  midst  of  an  elevated  sterile  plain. 
Its  streets  are  wide  and  well  paved  and  there 
is  a  large  open  public  square.  Lace  is  made 
here  to  a  considerable  extent,  as  well  as  soap, 
brandy,  and  coarse  pottery.  It  is  best  known, 
however,  as  the  centre  of  Valdepenas  district. 
Pop.    (1900)   8,015. 

Almalee,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the 
river  Myra.  25  in.  from  its  mouth,  and  50  m. 
W.S.W.  of  Adalia.  It  is  beautifully  situated  in 
a  kind  of  natural  amphitheatre  enclosed  by  lofty 
mountains.  It  has  thriving  manufactures  and  a 
considerable    trade.      Pop.    12,000. 

Alma  Mater,  a  term  familiarly  applied  by 
those  who  have  attended  a  university  to  the 
particular  university  they  have  attended.  The 
adjective  altHUS  in  Latin  means  cherishing,  fos- 
tering, dear. 

Almanac,  a  table  or  calendar,  in  which  are 
set  down  the  revolutions  of  the  seasons,  the 
rising  and  setting  of  the  sun.  the  phases  of  the 
moon,  the  most  remarkable  conjunctions,  posi- 
tions, and  phenomena  of  the  heavenly  bodies, 
for  every  month  and  day  of  the  year;  also  the 
several  fasts  and  feasts  to  be  observed  in 
the  Church  and  State,  etc.  The  history  of  the 
almanac,  and  even  the  etymology  of  the  word, 
are  involved  in  considerable  obscurity.  It  is 
generally  derived  from  the  Arabic  article  al, 
and  the  verb  manach,  to  count.  The  modern 
almanac  answers  to  the  fasti  of  the  ancient 
Romans.  Almanacs  became  generally  used  in 
Europe  within  a  short  time  after  the  invention 
of  printing;  and  they  were  very  early  remark- 
able, as  some  are  now  in  England,  for  the 
mixture  of  truth  and  falsehood  which  they 
contained.  In  1579  their  effects  in  France  were 
found  so  mischievous,  from  the  pretended  pro- 
phecies which  they  published,  that  an  edict  was 
promulgated  by  Henry  III.  forbidding  any  pre- 
dictions to  be  inserted  in  them  relating  to  civil 
affairs,  whether  those  of  the  State  or  of  private 
persons.  No  such  law  was  ever  enacted  in 
England.  It  is  singular  that  the  earliest  English 
almanacs  were  printed  in  Holland  on  small 
folio  sheets;  and  these  have  occasionally  been 
preserved  from  having  been  pasted  within  the 
covers  of  old  books.  In  the  reign  of  James  I. 
letters  patent  were  granted  to  the  two  universi- 
ties and  the  Stationers'  Company  for  an  exclu- 
sive right  of  printing  almanacs.  These,  in  1775, 
were  declared  to  be  illegal.  During  the  civil 
wars  of  Charles  I.,  and  thence  onward,  English 
almanacs  were  conspicuous  for  the  unblushing 
boldness  of  their  astrological  predictions  and 
their  determined  perpetuation  of  popular  errors. 
The  Stationers'  Company,  who  had  managed 
to  retain  a  monopoly  notwithstanding  the  inva- 
lidity of  the  letters  patent  in  their  favor,  were 
guided  merely  by  commercial  principles  in  sup- 
plying the  market,  and  accordingly  adapted  their 
almanacs  to  the  taste  of  the  public,  which,  on  one 
occasion,  when  the  trial  was  actually  made, 
refused  to  purchase  them  without  the  predic- 
tions. Gradually,  however,  a  better  taste  began 
to  prevail,  and  in  1828  the  Society  for  the  Dif- 
fusion  of  Useful   Knowledge  had  the  merit  of 


ALMANDITE  —  ALMA-TADEMA 


taking  the  lead  in  the  production  of  an  unexcep- 
tionable almanac  in  Great  Britain.  The  example 
thus  set  has  been  almost  universally  adopted. 
Almanacs,  from  their  periodical  character  and 
the  frequency  with  which  they  are  referred  to, 
are  now  more  and  more  used  as  vehicles  for 
conveying  statistical  information.  Regiomon- 
tanus  was  the  first  person  in  Europe  who  pre- 
pared almanacs  in  their  present  form,  without 
the  predictions,  which  were  in  all  probability 
introduced  into  Europe  from  the  Persians. 
Once  they  were  almost  entirely  filled  with  sub- 
jects of  a  religious  character.  At  another  time 
they  overflowed  with  astrological  calculations 
and  predictions.  In  the  time  of  Napoleon  an 
almanac  was  published  in  France,  in  which,  to 
every  day,  an  achievement  of  the  emperor,  or 
something  else  relating  to  him,  was  added. 
Almanacs,  in  the  petty  principalities  of  Germany, 
exhibit  the  endless  genealogical  tables  of  the 
princes.  Some  almanacs  in  modern  Greek,  print- 
ed at  Venice,  where  formerly  all  books  in  this 
la'nguage  were  published,  are  quite  full  of  astro- 
logical superstition  and  matters  relating  to  the 
Greek  Church.  A  modern  Persian  almanac  con- 
tains a  list  of  fortunate  days  for  certain  pur- 
poses; as,  for  example,  to  buy,  to  sell,  to  take 
medicine,  to  marry,  etc. ;  and  predictions  of 
events,  as  earthquakes,  storms,  political  affairs, 
etc.  One  of  the  most  curious  almanacs  is  an 
Italian  one,  exhibiting  Italian  vivacity  in  a 
striking  manner.  To  the  entry  30  July  is  added, 
Sudano  ancora  le  ossa!  (Even  the  bones  sweat)  ; 
to  11  August,  Oh!  die  noia!  (Oh!  how  distress- 
ing!) ;  to  12  July,  Cascano  le  braccia  (The  arms 
fall)  ;  to  2  January,  Stivali  e  ombrellol  (Leggings 
and  umbrellas!)  In  Germany,  almanack  is  the 
name  given  to  annuals  like  those  which  used  to 
appear  in  England  and  the  United  States  under 
the  names  of 'Souvenir,'  'Forget-me-not,' etc.  In 
France  a  work  once  appeared  annually,  entitled 
'Almanach  des  Gourmands,'  which  was  con- 
ducted with  much  spirit  and  is  in  high  repute 
among  epicures.  Some  of  the  almanacs  that 
are  regularly  published  every  year  are  extreme- 
ly useful,  and  are  indeed  almost  indispensable 
to  men  engaged  in  official,  mercantile,  literary, 
or  professional  business.  Such  in  Great  Britain 
are  'Oliver  &  Boyd's  Edinburgh  Almanac,' 
'Thorn's  Official  Directory,'  and  the  'British  Al- 
manac,' with  its  'Companion.'  'Whitaker's  Al- 
manac' is  also  known  as  a  very  comprehensive 
and  valuable  compendium.  The  '  Almanach  de 
Gotha,'  which  has  appeared  at  Gotha  since  1764, 
contains  in  small  bulk  a  wonderful  quantity  of 
information  regarding  the  reigning  families  and 
governments,  the  finances,  commerce,  population, 
etc.,  of  the  different  States  throughout  the  world. 
It  is  published  both  in  a  French  and  in  a  Ger- 
man edition.  'The  Nautical  Almanac'  is  an 
important  work  published  annually  by  the  Brit- 
ish government,  two  or  three  years  in  advance, 
in  which  is  contained  much  useful  astronomical 
matter,  more  especially  the  distances  of  the 
moon  from  the  sun,  and  from  certain  fixed 
stars,  for  every  three  hours  of  mean  time, 
adapted  to  the  meridian  of  the  Royal  Observ- 
atory, Greenwich.  By  comparing  these  with 
the  distances  carefully  observed  at  sea  the 
mariner  may  with  comparative  ease  infer  his 
longitude  with  sufficient  accuracy,  in  case 
he  has  no  chronometer  for  keeping  Greenwich 
time.     This    almanac    was    commenced    in    1767 


by  Dr.  Maskelyne,  astronomer  royal.  The 
French  'Connaissance  des  Temps'  is  published 
with  the  same  views  as  the  English  '  Nautical 
Almanac '  and  nearly  on  the  same  plan.  It 
commenced  in  1679.  Of  a  similar  character  is 
the  'Astronomisches  Jahrbuch,'  published  at 
Berlin.  The  'American  Ephemeris  and  Nautical 
Almanac'  is  issued  annually  since  1855  by  the 
United  States  government. 

The  first  American  almanac  was  that  of 
William  Pierce  of  Cambridge,  published  in  1639. 
The  most  famous  of  American  almanacs  was 
'Poor  Richard's'  published  in  Philadelphia  by 
Benjamin  Franklin  under  the  pseudonym  of 
"Richard  Saunders.''  This  almanac  was  probably 
imitated  from  tl.at  of  Thomas,  of  Dedham, 
Mass.,  which  was  kept  for  a  good  many  years 
and  contains  many  pleasant  and  witty  verses, 
jests,  and  sayings.  The  information  printed  in 
these  almanacs  seems  to  have  been  the  only 
means  of  carrying  news  to  the  more  distant 
parts  of  the  country.  'The  American  Almanac' 
appeared  between  1830-61,  and  a  second  publica- 
tion under  the  same  name  was  edited  for  several 
years  by  Ainsworth  R.  Spofford.  Several  of  the 
largest  newspapers  in  the  United  States  now 
issue  almanacs  which  are  marvels  of  condensed 
information.    See  Calendar. 

Al'mandite,  or  Al'mandine,  a  variety  of 
the  garnet  (q.v.). 

Alman'sa,  a  town  of  southeastern  Spain 
(Murcia),  near  which  was  fought  (25  April 
1707)  a  decisive  battle  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish 
Succession,  when  the  French,  under  the  Duke  of 
Berwick,  defeated  the  Anglo-Spanish  army  un- 
der the  Earl  of  Galway.     Pop.  8.000. 

Alman'zur,  or  Almansur,  a  caliph  of  the 
Abasside  dynasty,  reigning  754-775.  He  was 
cruel  and  treacherous  and  a  persecutor  of  the 
Christians,  but  a  patron  of  learning. 

Alma-Tadema,  Laurenz,  Dutch  painter:  b. 
West  Friesland,  Holland,  8  Jan.  1836.  He  was 
educated  at  the  Antwerp  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
under  the  artist  Leys  and  obtained  a  medal  at  the 
Paris  Salon  of  1864  and  another  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1867.  He  went  to  England  to 
live  in  1870,  exhibiting  at  the  Royal  Academy 
that  same  year  (Un  Amateur  Romain,'  and 
'Un  Jonglier,'  which  attracted  immediate  at- 
tention. He  became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  1879.  and  in  1899  was  knighted. 
His  especial  field  is  the  portrayal  of  Greek  and 
Roman  life,  and  all  his  work  is  marked  by  the 
most  careful  attention  to  archxological  details. 
He  is  scholarly  in  execution,  his  coloring  ac- 
curate, and  his  artistic  feeling  rarely  at  fault, 
but  while  his  canvasses  attract  the  eye  and 
delight  the  intellect  they  seldom  touch  the 
heart.  Among  his  more  noted  pictures  are 
'The  Vintage  Festival'  ;  'The  Four  Seasons'  ; 
'Antony  and  Cleopatra'  ;  'The  Women  of  Am- 
phissa'  :  'An  Audience  at  Agrippa's'  ;  and  'A 
Reading  from  Homer.'  See  Zimmern's  'L. 
Alma-Tadema:  His  Life  and  Work'  (1886). 

Alma-Tadema,  (Miss)  Laurence,  English 
novelist :  b.  in  England.  She  is  the  second 
daughter  of  the  noted  artist,  L.  Alma-Tadema 
(q.v.)  and  has  published  'Love's  Martyr'  ;  'The 
Wings  of  Icarus'  ;  'The  Crucifix.'  a  collection 
of  tales:  'Realms  of  Unknown  Kings.'  a  book 
of  verse:  'The  Fate  Spinner'  (1900);  'The 
Unseen  Helmsman'    (1901). 


ALMOND  —  ALOYSIUS 


Almond, the  tree  and  nut  of  Amygdalus  com- 
munis of  the  natural  order  Rosacea!,  supposedly 

a  native  of  the  Mediterranean  region  and  of 
southwestern  Asia,  but  so  long  in  cultivation 
that  its  origin  is  a  matter  of  conjecture.  In 
habit  of  growth  the  tree,  which  reaches  a  height 
of  20  or  30  feet,  is  like  the  peach,  with  which 
some  botanists  surmise  that  it  was  formerly 
identical,  but  from  which,  by  selection,  it  has 
become  differentiated,  the  hard,  inedible  pulp  of 
its  fruit  (a  drupe),  which  splits  at  maturity  and 
and  exposes  the  pit  or  "almond"  of  commerce, 
being  replaced  by  the  edible  fleshy  part  prized 
in  the  peach.  Varieties  of  almonds  are  classed 
as  bitter  or  sweet.  The  former,  little  grown 
outside  the  Mediterranean  region,  furnish  prus- 
sic  acid  and  oil  of  bitter  almonds  used  in  per- 
fumery and  culinary  preparations ;  the  latter, 
grown  extensively  in  California  and  southern 
Europe  and  in  similar  climates,  furnish  one  of 
the  most  agreeable  of  nut  fruits.  The  sweet 
almonds  are  divided  into  hard-  and  soft-shelled 
varieties,  the  former  little  grown,  the  latter  ex- 
tensively. Some  specially  thin-shelled  sorts  are 
known  as  paper-shells.  The  kernels,  particu- 
larly of  sweet  almonds,  are  rich  in  a  mild  fixed 
oil  which  is  expressed  for  medicinal  and  other 
purposes,  but  the  nuts  are  chiefly  used  for  des- 
sert, either  directly  or  in  some  prepared  form, 
such  as  confectionery. 

The  almond  succeeds  best  upon  light,  thor- 
oughly drained  soil  so  situated  that  early  frosts, 
which  destroy  the  fertility  of  the  blossoms,  need 
not  be  feared.  The  trees,  which  are  generally 
propagated  by  budding  the  desired  varieties 
upon  bitter  almond  seedlings,  are  set  about  25 
feet  apart,  different  varieties  that  blossom  si- 
multaneously being  planted  in  each  other's 
proximity  to  ensure  cross-pollenation,  self-steril- 
ity being  characteristic  of  many  varieties.  If 
trees  are  properly  trained  during  their  first  three 
or  four  years  they  demand  little  severe  pruning 
afterward.  Cultivation  docs  not  differ  materially 
from  that  of  other  tree-fruits.  In  California  the 
nuts  are  harvested  from  August  to  October, 
dried  for  several  days,  and  if  discolored,  as  is 
often  the  case  where  the  air  is  very  humid,  they 
are  lightly  sprayed  with  water  and  then  treated 
with  sulphur  fumes  to  bleach  the  shells  some- 
what. Nuts  that  are  too  badly  discolored  to 
respond  to  this  treatment  are  cracked  by  ma- 
chinery and  the  karnels  sold  largely  to  confec- 
tioners. Because  frost  and  self-sterility  have 
been  often  overlooked,  almond-growing  in  Cali- 
fornia has  been  remarkable  for  failures ;  many 
orchards  have  been  cut  down  for  firewood.  But 
when  and  where  conditions  are  favorable  the 
crop  is  a  profitable  one.  In  1897  218  carloads 
\vre  shipped  from  California;  in  1898  only  25. 
Planting  in  that  State  is  practically  at  a  stand- 
still. Attention  has  been  drawn  to  parts  of 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico  as  probably  adapted 
to  the  almond,  and  some  orchards  have  been 
planted.  About  $1,000,000  worth  of  almonds  are 
imported  annually.  The  almond  is  attacked  by 
a  vegetable  fungus  which  appears  first  as  a  yel- 
low rust  on  the  leaves.  This  often  leaves  the 
tree  bare  of  foliage  as  early  as  15  July.  Spray- 
ing is  the  only  remedy.    See  Fungicides. 

As  an  ornamental  tree  the  almond,  like  the 
peach,  is  often  planted  even  in  localities  unfavor- 
able to  fruit-production.  But  its  relative,  the 
dwarf  almond  (Amygdalus  nana),  a  native  of 
southern  Russia,  is  hardy  and  is  recommended 


as  an  ornamental  shrub  by  nurserymen  for 
northern  climates. 

Aloe,  a  genus  of  succulent-leaved  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Liliacea;,  natives  of  warm 
countries.  The  numerous  species  range  in 
height  from  a  few  inches  to  25  feet  or  more. 
Some  arc  valued  for  their  fibre,  which  is  used 
for  cord-,  net-,  and  fabric-making :  others  for 
the  medicinal  qualities  ascribed  to  them.  Chief 
among  the  latter  are  several  arborescent  species, 
Aloe  succotrina,  A.  spicata,  A.  purpurascens, 
and  A.  arborescent,  from  which  Cape  aloes  is 
mainly  derived,  and  Aloe  vera,  an  East  and 
West  [ndian  species  found  also  on  certain  is- 
lands of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  in  Italy, 
which  yields  Barbadoes  or  hepatic  aloes,  Aloe 
Perryi  furnishes  Zanzibar  or  Socotrina  aloes, 
also  a  transparent  pigment  valued  in  miniature- 
painting,  and  a  rich  violet  dye. 

Aloes,  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  leaves 
of  a  number  of  species  of  Aloe,  a  genus  of  the 
lily  family  of  over  100  species,  widely  distrib- 
uted in  warm  arid  regions.  The  leaves  are  long, 
thick,  and  succulent,  and  the  juice  that  yields 
aloes  is  thin  and  flows  readily  from  the  cut 
leaf.  This  is  then  thickened  (inspissated)  by 
natural  or  by  artificial  drying,  and  there  results 
a  yellow  to  brownish  to  blackish,  or  greenish, 
mass  of  a  tarry,  waxy,  or  glassy  consistency. 
The  aloes  that  is  used  in  the  United  States  is 
either  Barbadoes  aloes,  from  Aloe  vera,  or  Soco- 
trina aloes,  from  Aloe  Perryi. 

As  a  medicine  aloes  has  been  used  for  cen- 
turies. It  is  a  powerful  cathartic,  acting  par- 
ticularly on  the  large  intestine,  its  active  prin- 
ciple being  termed  aloin.  Its  action  is  extremely 
variable,  and  in  large  doses  it  has  been  known 
to  induce  abortion.    See  Cathartics. 

Aloes  Wood  (sometimes  called  also  eagle 
wood,  calambac,  paradise  wood,  or  agallochum), 
the  inner  part  of  Aquilaria  ovata  and  Aloes  agal- 
lochum, trees  of  the  order  Aquilariacee,  natives 
of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia,  and  supposed  to 
be  the  aloes  or  lignaloes  of  the  Bible.  They 
are  large,  spreading  trees.  Aloes  wood  contains 
a  dark-colored,  fragrant,  resinous  substance, 
and  is  much  prized  in  the  East  as  a  medicine  and 
for  the  pleasant  odor  it  diffuses  in  burning. 

Alopecia,  a  partial  or  complete  loss  of  hair 
in  large  quantities.  This  is  due  to  a  number  of 
causes  and  frequently  leads  to  baldness  (q.v.). 
Alopecia  is  of  two  main  kinds :  primary  or  sec- 
ondary. In  primary  alopecia  there  may  be  ( 1 ) 
a  congenital  lack  of  hair  (this  is  rare)  ;  (2) 
senile  alopecia,  due  to  the  advent  of  old  age ; 
(3)  premature  baldness,  this  may  be  a  natural 
product,  or  it  may  be  the  result  of  a  chronic 
seborrhea,  or  dandruff  (q.v.). 

Aloysius  Gonzaga,  Saint:  b.  in  Lombardy 
1568.  At  the  age  of  17  he  transferred  his  in- 
heritance and  right  of  succession  to  his  brother 
Rudolph  and  immediately  set  out  for  Rome. 
Here  he  entered  the  novitiate  of  the  Society  of 
Jesus,  and  shortly  after  began  his  studies  in 
the  Roman  College.  While  nursing  the  victims 
of  a  contagion  then  ravaging  the  city  he  con- 
tracted the  disease,  which  carried  him  off  in  his 
25th  year.  His  brief  career  was  characterized 
by  such  extraordinary  virtue  that  he  was  canon- 
ized a  saint  by  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  in  1726,  and 
is  now  recognized  by  the  Catholic  Church  as  the 
Patron  of  Young  Students.  His  feast  day  is 
celebrated  June  21. 


ALPACA— ALPHABET 


Alpaca,  nr  Paco  (Ar.  al,  the :  Peruv.  paca), 
a  semi-domesticated  animal  (Lama  pacos),  na- 
tive to  the  Andes  and  valued  for  its  wool.  It  is 
a  cameloid  mammal,  closely  allied  to  three  oth- 
ers of  the  same  region,  the  vicuna,  the  llama, 
and  the  guanaco ;  but  it  much  resembles  a  sheep, 
except  in  the  length  and  erect  carriage  of  its 
head.  The  natural  growth  of  its  thick  woolly 
hair  would  be  about  two  feet,  but  it  is  clipped, 
the  annual  growth  being  about  eight  inches. 
In  color  the  wool  varies  from  pale  yellowish 
brown  or  gray  to  black;  its  fibre  is  straighter 
than  that  of  sheep  wool,  and  very  fine,  glossy, 
and  elastic.  The  animal  is  now  seldom  seen  in 
an  entirely  wild  state.     See  Llama. 

Alp-Arslan  ("strong  lion"),  the  greatest 
ruler  of  the  Seljuk  Turks:  b.  Turkestan,  1028; 
d.  Berzern  1072.  He  succeeded  his  uncle  Togrul 
1063,  consolidated  his  realm  into  one  kingdom, 
and  then  proceeded  to  a  career  of  conquest  in- 
terrupted only  by  his  death.  He  conquered 
central  Asia  to  the  Oxus ;  and  invading  Armenia 
and  Georgia,  in  August  107 1.  he  overthrew  and 
captured  the  Emperor  Romanus  IV7.  (Diogenes* 
in  a  bloody  battle  near  Malaskerd.  between  Van 
and  Erzerum,  and  only  released  him  on  payment 
of  a  vast  ransom.  He  was  assassinated  while 
invading  Turkestan  and  was  buried  at  Merv. 

Alpena,  Mich.,  a  city  and  the  county-seat  of 
Alpena  County,  no  miles  north  of  Bay  City;  on 
the  west  side  of  Lake  Huron,  at  the  head  of 
Thunder  Bay,  on  the  Detroit  and  Mackinaw 
Ry.    It  is  divided  in  two  by  Thunder  Bay  River. 

Industries,  etc. —  There  are  extensive  manu- 
factures of  paper  from  wood-pulp,  and  of  cement 
from  limestone  and  clay.  Further  establishments 
include  two  large  tanneries,  large  extract  works 
(hemlock)  for  export  trade,  two  foundries  and 
machine  shops,  five  saw-mills,  20  shingle-mills, 
two  veneer-mills,  a  woolen-mill,  two  flour-mills, 
three  large  sash  and  blind  factories,  two  large 
excel  sior-mills,  quarries,  and  two  stave  and 
heading  factories.  The  harbor  facilities  are 
excellent. 

Public  Institutions.  Buildings,  etc. —  There  is 
a  public  library  and  a  park  system.  Lutherans 
have  three  church  edifices;  Catholics,  three; 
Methodists,  two;  Congregationalists.  one;  Pres- 
byterians, one;  Episcopalians,  one;  Baptists,  one; 
Seventh  Day  Adventists,  one ;  Jews,  one ;  Free 
Methodists,  one ;  Church  of  Latter  Day  Saints, 
one;  and  Non-Sectarians,  one.  The  three  banks 
have  a  combined  capital  of  $250,000,  with  an 
annual  business  of  $2,500,000. 

History  and  Government. — Alpena  was  settled 
in  1835,  and  was  incorporated  in  1871.  It  is 
governed  under  a  revised  charter  of  1897  by  a 
mayor,  biennially  elected,  and  a  council  of  12 
members,  elected  annually.  The  mayor  has  no 
power  of  appointment.     Pop.   (1904)    12,400. 

Michael  O'Briex. 

Alphabet  (from  alpha  and  beta,  the  first 
two  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet),  the  ordinary 
series  of  the  letters  or  syllables  (in  syllabic 
alphabets)  of  a  language.  For  an  account  of 
what  is  known  or  conjectured  of  the  origin  of 
alphabetic  and  other  systems  of  writing,  see 
Writing.  The  English  alphabet,  like  the  most 
of  those  of  modern  Europe,  is  derived  directly 
from  the  Latin,  but  owes  its  ultimate  origin  to 
the  Phoenician,  which  gave  birth  also  to  the 
ancient    Greek,    the    Etruscan,    the    Gothic,    etc. 


According  to  tradition  the  Phoenician  Cadmus 
introduced  writing  into  Greece,  the  letters  first 
used  being  the  same  as  the  Phoenician,  but  after- 
ward undergoing  changes  both  in  sound  and 
form.  It  would  appear  that  the  Phoenicians 
themselves  borrowed  their  alphabet  from  the 
hieratic  alphabet  of  Egypt,  whence  also  the  He- 
brews may  have  obtained  theirs  during  their 
long  stay  in  that  country,  though  it  is  more 
probable  that  like  others  they  were  content  to 
receive  it  at  second-hand  from  the  Phoenicians. 
The  Hebrew  alphabet  now  employed  is  not  the 
original  one,  but  has  an  Aramaic  origin,  hav- 
ing been  adopted  some  time  after  the  Captivity. 
The  Hebrew  alphabet  proper,  as  we  find  it  on 
ancient  coins,  is  evidently  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Phoenician  inscriptions.  The  names  of  the 
letters  in  Phoenician  and  Hebrew  must  have 
been  almost  the  same,  for  the  Greek  names, 
which,  with  the  letters,  were  borrowed  from  the 
former,  differ  little  from  the  Hebrew.  By 
means  of  the  names  we  may  trace  the  process 
through  which  the  Egyptian  characters  were 
transformed  into  letters  by  the  Phoenicians. 
Some  Egyptian  character  would,  by  its  form, 
recall  the  idea  of  a  house,  as  for  example,  in 
the  Phoenician  or  Hebrew  beth.  This  char- 
acter would  subsequently  come  to  be  used  wher- 
ever the  articulation  b  occurred,  whether  in  the 
beginning,  middle,  or  end  of  a  word.  Its  form 
might  be  afterward  simplified,  or  even  com- 
pletely modified,  but  the  name  would  remain, 
as  beth  still  continues  the  Hebrew  name  for  b, 
and  beta  the  Greek.  Our  letter  m,  in  Hebrew 
called  mini,  water,  has  still  a  considerable  re- 
semblance to  the  zigzag  wavy  line  chosen  to 
represent  water,  as  in  the  zodiacal  symbol  for 
Aquarius.  The  letter  o,  of  which  the  Hebrew 
name  means  eye,  was  originally  intended  to 
represent  that  organ.  From  the  ancient  Greek 
alphabet  are  generally  derived  in  a  direct  line 
the  ordinary  Greek  alphabet,  the  Latin,  and  the 
Etruscan,  though  the  last  may  have  been  di- 
rectly derived  from  the  Phoenician.  The  later 
Greek  alphabet  furnished  elements  for  the  Cop- 
tic, the  Gothic,  and  the  old  Slavic  alphabets. 
The  Latin  characters  are  now  employed  by  many 
nations,  such  as  the  Italian,  the  French,  the 
Spanish,  the  Portuguese,  the  English,  the  Dutch, 
the  German,  the  Hungarian,  the  Polish,  etc., 
each  having  introduced  such  modifications  or 
additions  as  are  necessary  to  express  the  sound 
of  the  language  peculiar  to  it.  The  Greek  alpha- 
bet originally  possessed  only  16  letters,  though 
the  Phoenician  had  22.  These  were  the  five 
vowels,  a,  e,  t,  0,  v,  (a.  e.  i,  o,  u.  as  in  French), 
and  the  n  consonants,  ft  7,  S,  k,  X,  p,  v,  ic,  p,  a,  t 
(b,  g,  d,  k.  I.  in.  n.  p.  r,  s,  /).  According 
to  one  tradition,  Palamedes,  a  contemporary  of 
the  Trojan  war,  invented  f  (.r)  and  the  three 
aspirates  0,  <P,  x  (th.  ph.  eh  guttural).  To 
Simonides  was  attributed  the  invention  of  the 
double  consonants  ?  and  <P  (ds  or  c.  and  ps) 
and  the  two  long  vowels  17  and  o>  {e  and  o), 
which  completed  the  Greek  alphabet  of  24  let- 
ters as  still  used.  Besides  these,  there  was 
anciently  the  digamma,  a  character  correspond- 
ing pretty  nearly  to  v,  which  afterward  slipped 
out  of  the  Greek  alphabet ;  and  the  character 
representing  an  aspirate  at  the  beginning  of 
words.  The  original  Latin  alphabet,  as  it  is 
found  in  the  oldest  inscriptions,  consisted  of  21 
letters;  namely,  the  vowels  a.  e.  i.  0.  and  11 
and  the  consonants  b,  c,  d,  f,  z,  h,  k,  I,  m,  n,  p. 


ALPHONSINE  TABLES  — ALPS 


<7,  r,  s,  t,  x.  7.  slipped  out  at  an  early  period, 
and  g  took  its  place.  To  these  we  might  also 
add  the  characters  a  and  <r.  representing  the 
Greek  dipthongs  oi  and  01.  The  letters  i  and 
m.  it  must  in-  remarked,  had  a  double 
that  of  a  vowel  and  that  of  a  consonant.  In  the 
latter  case  they  were,  after  the  introduction  of 
printing,  changed  frequently  into  /  and  v.  I  he 
i  consonant,  as  in  inventus  (youth),  had  a  sound 
resembling  that  of  y  in  English  or  /  in  German; 

u,  consonant,  as  in  uespa  (vespa),  a  wasp,  had 
a  sound  much  like  the  English  w  —  wespa.  (  At 
least  this  opinion  appears  best  supported  by  the 
evidence.)  No  genuine  Latin  word  contains 
either  y  or  :.  these  being  used  in  foreign  (chief- 
ly Greek)  words  adopted  into  the  language; 
and  A-  is  found  in  classical  Latin  only  in  Ka- 
lends. While  the  alphabets  of  the  west  ol  Eu 
rope  are  derived  from  the  Latin,  the  Russian 
and  other  Slavonic  alphabets  of  the  East  come 
from  the  Greek.  The  modern  Russian,  consist- 
ing of  35  letters,  is  a  modification  and  simplifica- 
tion 'if  the  ancient  Cyrillic  alphabet,  invented  by 
Cyril  in  the  9th  century  in  order  to  translate 
the  Gospels  into  the  language  of  the  Slavs  of 
Bulgaria  and  Moravia.  It  was  formed  of  Creek 
letters,  together  with  some  borrowed  from  the 
Armenian  and  Coptic  alphabets,  themselves  de- 
scended from  the  Greek.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
alphabet  (see  Anglo-Saxons)  had  two  letters 
for  the  two  sounds  of  th.  which  appear  to  have 
come  from  the  Greek  through  the  Mccso-Gothic. 
and  which  were  unfortunately  not  retained  in 
later  English.  It  wanted  the  letters  /.  Ic.  q.  v,  :, 
hut  it  had  the  sound  <r.  The  German  alphabet 
consists  of  the  same  letters  as  our  own.  the 
common  German  characters  being  mere  modi- 
fications of  the  Roman,  but  the  sounds  of  some 
of  them  are  different.  Anciently  certain  char- 
called  Runic  (q.v.)  were  made  use  of 
in  Germany  and  Scandinavia,  to  which  some 
would  attribute  an  origin  independent  of  the 
Greek  and  Latin  alphabets.  Among  Asiatic 
alphabets  the  Arabian  has  played  a  part  ex- 
actly analogous  to  that  of  the  I^atin  in  Europe. 
the  conquest  of  Mohammedanism  having  im- 
posed it  on  the  Persian,  an  Aryan  language: 
the  Turkish,  a  Tatar  language;  the  Hindustani, 
also  an  Aryan  language  ;  and  even  the  Malay. 
It  consists  of  z8  letters,  and  appears  to  derive 
its  origin  from  the  Sinaitic  alphabet,  employed 
during  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
and  found  in  inscriptions  in  the  Sinaitic  penin- 
sula, at  Pctra.  in  the  ITauran.  etc.  The  Sanskrit 
or  Devanagari  alphabet  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable alphabets  of  the  world.  As  now  used 
it  has  14  characters  for  the  vowels  and  diph- 
thongs, and  33  for  the  consonants,  besides  two 
other  symbols.  The  vowel  17  short  is  to  be 
understood  after  every  consonant,  unless  ex- 
■1  by  another  vowel  immediately  attached 
to  the  consonant.  (See  Sanskrit;  also  arti- 
cles on  the  various  languages  and  letters.) 
Our  alphabet  is  by  no  means  a  perfect  in- 
strument for  what  it  has  to  perform,  but  is 
both  defective  and  redundant.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  are  42  sounds  in  the  language,  and 
only  26  letters  to  represent  them.  A,  to  begin 
with,  has  to  do  duty  for  at  least  four  different 
sounds,  as  in  far.  fat,  fall,  and  fame;  0  has  three 
sounds,  as  not,  note,  and  move;  e  has  a  long 
sound  and  a  short,  as  in  mete  and  met.  C  is  a 
useless    letter    altogether,    since    it    has    always 


either  the  sound  of  s  or  of  k.  Others  of  the 
consonants  encroach  upon  each  other's  prov- 
inces ;  g,  for  example,  sounds  sometimes  like  ;', 
as  in  digest;  f  sounds  v  in  of;  s  sometimes 
usurps  the  sound  of  :.  as  in  raisin,  sometimes 
that  of  zli  or  sh,  as  in  pleasure. 

Alphonsine  Tables.    See  Alfonso  X. 

Alphonsus  dei  Liguori,  Saint:  b.  Naples 
of  noble  parents  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century. 
At  the  age  of  16  he  took  his  degree  of  Doctor  in 
Civil  and  Canon  Law  m  the  University  of  Na- 
ples and  immediately  entered  the  legal  prt 
sion.  This  he  soon  abandoned  in  order  to  bc- 
1  ime  a  priest  and  to  dedicate  his  life  to  the 
service  of  the  poor  in  the  villages  of  southern 
Italy.  To  assist  him  in  these  labors  of  teaching 
the  poor  peasants,  he  founded  the  Congregation 
(  f  the  Holy  Redeemer,  whose  members  arc  com 
mi  Illy  known  to-day  in  the  United  States  as 
"Redemptorists."  He  was  made  bishop  of  Saint 
Agatha  by  Clement  XIII.  After  25  years 
of  fruitful  labor  in  this  field,  he  returned  to  his 
monastery  at  Nocera,  where  he  died  in  1787. 
His  virtues  and  learning  have  made  him  one  of 
the  best  known  saints  in  the  Catholic  Church. 
He  was  canonized  in  1839  by  Gregory  XVI., 
and  in  1871  was  proclaimed  by  Pius  IX.  a  Doc- 
tor of  the  Universal  Church.  His  writings  deal 
chiefly  with  moral  theology  in  theory  and  prac- 
tice.    His  feast  is  celebrated  on  2  August. 

Bibliography. — The  first  authoritative  work 
on  Saint  Alphonsus  was  written  by  one  of  his 
scholars.  P.  Tannoiaand,  and  is  entitled  'Vita 
ed  Instituto  del  Vencrabile  Servo  di  Dio'  (3 
vols.,  Naples  1802).  In  French,  an  exhaustive 
work  in  4  vols  by  Cardinal  Villecourt,  'Vie  et 
institut  de  Saint  Alphouse  de  Liguori'  (1863)  ; 
in  English,  vid  Puller's  'Lives  of  the  Saint-,' 
and  'Life'  by  Bishop  Mullock. 

Alpine  Clubs,  organizations  for  the  ex- 
ploration and  study  of  mountains.  The  original 
club  is  the  famous  Alpine  Club  of  England,  or- 
ganized in  1858,  which  publishes  the  'Alpine 
Journal.'  The  first  American  Alpine  Club  was 
organized  in  1873.  There  are  in  the  United 
States  the  "Mazamas"  and  Sierra  clubs  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  the  Appalachian  Club  on  the 
Atlantic.     See  Mountain  Climbing. 

Alpine  Plants,  plants  indigenous  to  high 
altitudes.  The  most  striking  features  common 
to  them  all  are  adaptations  to  rigorous  climate 
such  as  the  dwarfing  of  the  stems  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  but  not  of  roots  or  flowers,  which  may 
even  be  increased  in  size  over  similar  plants 
grown  in  milder  places;  gnarled  and  crooked 
habit ;  horizontal  or  creeping  rather  than  up- 
right growth  (the  height  of  the  taller  species 
indicating  the  approximate  depth  of  snow)  ;  and 
the  development  of  structures  that  tend  to  check 
evaporation.  Of  these  last  a  thickened  epider- 
mis, as  in  conifers,  and  epidermal  hairs,  as  in 
edelweiss,  are  the  most   striking. 

Alps,  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting 
system  of  mountains  in  Europe.  It  covers  a 
great  part  of  northern  Italy,  several  depart- 
ments of  France,  nearly  the  whole  of  Switzer- 
land, and  a  large  part  of  Austria,  while  its  ex- 
tensive ramifications  in  Italy.  Germany,  Turkey, 
with  its  principalities,  and  Greece,  connect  it 
with  nearly  all  the  mountain  systems  of  Europe. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Celtic  alb,  which 
by  some  is  made  to  signify  white,  by  others 
height.     In  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the 


ECYPTIAN 

GREEK                           LATIN 
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ALPS 


mountains  alp  has  a  peculiar  meaning,  and  sig- 
nifies one  of  the  high  pastures  for  which  the 
Alps  are  distinguished.  This  great  congeries  of 
mountains  may  be  said  to  be  included  between 
lat.  440  and  480  N. ;  and  Ion.  5°  and  180  E. 
The  culminating  peak  of  the  whole  system  is 
Mont  Blanc,  15,781  feet  high,  though  the  true 
centre  is  St.  Gothard,  or  rather  the  mountains 
between  the  sources  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Inn, 
and  the  Swiss  cantons  Valais,  Bern,  Uri,  and 
Grisons  on  the  north;  and  canton  Tessin,  and 
Lombardy  and  Sardinia  on  the  south.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  its  great  central  mass  is  nearly 
equidistant  from  the  pole  and  from  the  equator. 
From  its  slopes  flow,  either  directly  or  by  af- 
fluents, the  great  rivers  of  central  Europe,  the 
Danube,  Rhine,  Rhone,  and  Po.  Round  the 
northern  frontier  of  Italy  the  Alps  form  a  re- 
markable barrier,  shutting  it  off  at  all  points 
from  the  mainland  of  Europe,  so  that,  except  in 
the  valley  of  the  Adige,  where  a  remarkable 
break  occurs  in  the  chain,  or  at  the  opposite 
extremity  at  Nice,  it  can  only  be  approached 
from  France,  Germany,  or  Switzerland,  through 
high  and  difficult  passes.  Accordingly  nearly 
all  the  great  passes  of  the  Alps  are  connected 
with  roads  from  the  northern  kingdoms  into 
Italy. 

As  usual  with  mountain  systems  of  great 
altitude,  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Alps  arc 
reached  by  a  gradual  ascent  through  a  succes- 
sion of  outer  ranges  and  elevated  intermediate 
valleys.  The  total  width  of  the  system  is  there- 
fore always  great  and  can  hardly  anywhere  be 
measured  with  precision,  opinion  varying  as  to 
the  points  at  which  the  outer  limits  should  be 
fixed.  Toward  the  east,  however,  the  system, 
while  it  diminishes  in  height,  becomes  more 
widely  extended,  some  of  the  transverse  valleys 
extending  to  150  miles,  while  that  of  the  Drave 
reaches  200.  From  Bellinzona,  in  the  canton 
of  Tessin,  to  Altorf,  in  that  of  Uri,  the  distance 
is  50  miles.  The  outer  range  is  called  by  the 
Italians  Pre-alpi,  by  the  Germans  Voralpen. 
The  main  chain  of  the  Alps,  which  commonly 
determines  the  watershed  of  the  countries 
through  which  it  passes,  contains  some  of  the 
highest  peaks ;  but  at  several  points  there  are 
extensive  ramifications  of  the  system  proceeding 
at  various  angles  from  the  main  chain,  and 
more  or  less  connected  with  it,  and  which  some- 
times exceed  in  mass  and  altitude  the  cor- 
responding parts  of  the  principal  chain.  Such 
are  the  Alps  of  Dauphine  and  Savoy,  and  the 
Bernese  Alps.  The  principal  valleys  of  the  Alps 
run  mostly  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  with 
the  principal  ranges,  and  therefore  east  and  west. 
The  transverse  valleys  are  commonly  shorter. 
In  the  section  called  the  Lepontine  Alps,  how- 
ever, long  ranges  run  north  and  south,  forming 
valleys  transverse  to  the  dividing  line  of  the 
waters,  and  terminating  in  the  great  Italian 
lakes.  The  slopes  toward  the  south  are  more 
precipitous  than  toward  the  north,  and  as  most 
of  the  collateral  ranges  lie  to  the  north  of  the 
main  chain  the  great  valleys  are  mostly  to  be 
found  in  the  intervals  between  them.  The  trans- 
verse valleys  of  the  Alps  frequently  lead  up 
through  a  narrow  gorge  to  a  depression  in  the 
main  ridge  between  two  adjacent  peaks.  These 
are  the  passes  or  cols,  which  are  found  by 
tracing  a  stream  which  descends  from  the  moun- 
tains up  to  its  source.     The  col  is  usually  found 


to  receive  the  drainage  of  the  neighboring  peaks, 
and  when  it  is  of  sufficient  extent  a  small  lake 
is  generally  formed,  from  which  a  stream  flows 
down  on  each  side.  When  the  one  stream  has 
been  traced  up  to  its  source  the  passage  across 
the  mountains  is  completed  by  following  the 
course  of  the  other.  The  principal  passes,  now 
well  known,  are  more  than  50  in  number;  but 
there  are  many  others  more  difficult  and  dan- 
gerous which  have  never  had  more  than  a  local 
reputation. 

The  common  divisions  of  the  Alps  have  been 
taken  from  the  Romans,  whose  acquaintance 
with  the  Alps  as  the  northern  boundary  of  Italy 
was  considerable,  yet  their  classification,  being 
formed  mostly  for  practical  purposes,  was  far 
from  complete.  Several  modern  divisions  have 
been  added.  The  Romans  were  acquainted  with 
many  of  the  best  passes,  to  which  from  their 
altitude  they  gave  the  name  of  Mons.  Before 
noticing  these  divisions  a  glance  may  be  taken 
at  the  general  direction  of  the  main  chain.  The 
most  convenient  starting-point  is  on  the  Medi- 
terranean coast,  near  Nice.  Eastward  the 
chain  proceeds  along  the  coast  till  it  forms  a 
junction  with  the  Apennines,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  one  extremity  of  the  system.  In  the 
opposite  direction  it  proceeds  northwest,  and  af- 
terward north  on  the  boundaries  of  France  and 
Italy  to  Mont  Blanc :  it  then  turns  northeast  and 
runs  generally  in  this  direction  to  the  Gross 
Glockner,  in  central  Tyrol,  between  the  Drave 
and  the  Salza,  where  it  divides  into  two 
branches,  the  more  northerly  of  which  proceeds 
northeast  toward  Vienna.  The  southern  chain 
subdivides  again,  one  branch  running  in  a  south- 
erly direction,  connects  itself  with  the  mountains 
of  Dalmatia,  and  by  a  southeasterly  continuation 
with  the  Balkans  and  the  mountains  of  Greece; 
the  middle  branch  proceeds  toward  the  Drave 
and  Danube.  With  these  continuations,  which 
lose  themselves  insensibly  in  other  ranges,  the 
Alps  may  be  considered  to  terminate. 

The  Maritime  Alps. —  The  first  great  division 
of  the  Alps  extends  from  their  junction  with 
the  Apennines  to  Monte  Viso,  a  distance  of 
about  100  miles.  This  mountain  is  the  nost 
prominent  object  from  the  basin  of  the  Po,  wher- 
ever the  Alps  are  visible.  The  division  of  the 
Alps  from  the  Apennines  has  been  variously 
fixed  at  Col  di  Tende  and  Col  d'Altare.  near 
Savona.  The  northern  limit  of  the  Maritime 
Alps  is  to  the  south  of  Monte  Yiso.  The  cul- 
minating-points  are  the  Aiguille  de  Chambeyron, 
11,155  feet,  and  the  Grand  Rioburent.  11,142  feet. 
The  principal  pass  is  the  Col  di  Tende  (6,158 
feet),  which  was  made  practicable  for  carriages 
by  Napoleon.  It  leads  from  Nice  to  Turin. 
The  road  is  dreary,  but  commands  a  view  of 
the  Alps  from  Col  d'Iseran  to  Monte  Viso. 
There  are  carriage  roads  over  the  Col  di  San 
Bernardo  and  Col  di  Nava.  Numerous  tributa- 
ries of  the  Po  and  the  Durance  with  the  Var 
and  other  lesser  rivers  rise  in  the  Maritime 
Alps. 

The  Cottian  Alps. —  Anciently  named  after  a 
chief  of  the  district,  and  extending  from  Monte 
Viso  to  Mont  Cenis  —  consist  of  numerous 
mountain  masses  irregularly  grouped,  the  main 
line  running  northeast,  and  the  principal  rami- 
fications to  the  west  of  it.  The  length  is  about 
60  miles.  Modern  geographers  have  distinguished 
a  separate  group,  divided  from  the  main  chain 


ALPS 


by  the  valley  of  the  Durance,  which  are  called 
the  Dauphine  Alps.  These  contain  loftier  peaks 
than  the  main  chain.  Principal  peaks  of  the 
Cottian  Alps:  Monte  Viso,  [2,605  ft-i  Char- 
donnet,  12,373;  Ciamarclla,  12,081;  of  the  Dau- 
phinese  Alps:  Pic  des  Serins,  13,462;  La  Meije, 
13,081  ;  Pelvoux,  12.973.  There  is  a  carriage 
road  hy  Mont  Genevre  (6.102  feet)  between  the 
valleys  of  the  Durance  and  the  Dora  Ripaira, 
and  by  the  Col  de  Sestrieres  (6,33s  feet)  from 
Cesanne  to  Pignerolo.  The  road  hy  the  former, 
Ccsanne  to  Briancon,  was  constructed  by  order 
of  Napoleon.  The  difficult  pass  of  Col  de  la 
Roue,  Rardonneche  to  Modane,  is  that  sup- 
posed to  have  been  traversed  hy  Caesar  in  order 
to  attack  the  Helvetians.  The  Durance  and 
the  Dora  Ripaira  rise  in  the  Cottian  Alps. 

The  Graian  Alps. —  From  Mont  CenistO  Mont 
Blanc  (50  miles  long).  This  group  has  exten- 
sive ramifications  in  Savoie  and  Piedmont.  The 
principal  peaks  are.  in  the  main  chain.  Aiguille 
de  la  Sassiere,  12,326  feet;  in  the  Piedmontese 
group.  Grand  Paradis,  13,300;  in  the  Savoie 
group,  Grande  Casse,  12,780.  Mont  Cenis 
(6.765  feet),  the  most  frequented  of  all  the 
Alpine  passes,  was  crossed  by  Pepin  to  attack 
the  Lombards.  A  carriage  road  over  it  was 
constructed  by  Napoleon  in  1803-10,  leading 
from  the  valley  of  the  Arc  to  Turin,  and  unit- 
ing with  the  road  from  Mont  Genevre  at  Susa. 
A  railway  now  passes  through  the  mountain  by 
a  tunnel  nearly  eight  miles  long.  (See  Cenis.) 
The  pass  of  Little  St.  Bernard  (7,192  feet) 
lies  between  the  valleys  of  the  Isere  and 
Aosta.  It  was  made  practicable  for  cars  by 
Augustus,  but  is  now  only  available  for  mules. 
It  appears  to  have  been  the  road  taken  by  Han- 
nibal. The  Col  de  Bonhomme  (8,195  feet)  com- 
municates with  the  Col  de  la  Seigne  (8,327  feet) 
in  the  Pennine  Alps.  They  lead  by  a  mule  path 
from  Contamines  to  Courmayeur.  The  Stura, 
and  Orca,  and  the  Arc  and  Isere,  rise  in  the 
Graian  Alps. 

The  Pennine  Alps  (Celtic,  pen  or  ben,  a 
hill)  is  the  loftiest  range  of  the  whole  system, 
having  Mont  Blanc  at  one  extremity  and  Monte 
Rosa  at  the  other  (60  miles).  Here  also  begin 
the  most  extensive  ramifications  of  the  system, 
some  of  the  collateral  ranges  rivaling  or  ex- 
ceeding in  mass  and  altitude  the  main  chain. 
The  Alps  of  Haute  Savoie  form  a  northwestern 
continuation  of  this  range.  The  northern  boun- 
dary of  the  Pennine  Alps  is  the  Valais,  or  upper 
valley  of  the  Rhone.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
this  valley,  and  nearly  parallel  with  the  main 
chain,  runs  the  great  range  of  the  Bernese  Alps. 
Here  the  grandest  panoramas  of  Alpine  scenery 
are  exhibited.  The  great  peaks  of  the  two  vast 
ranges  are  only  about  20  miles  apart,  and  be- 
tween them  run  transverse  ranges  presenting 
innumerable  secondary  heights.  From  the  Mat- 
terhorn  (Mont  Cervin),  between  Mont  Corn- 
bin  and  Monte  Rosa,  a  series  of  great  heights, 
including  the  Weisshorn  and  the  Gabelhorn, 
run  to  the  north.  The  main  range  contains 
Mont  Blanc,  Monte  Rosa,  and  Mont  Cervin, 
three  of  the  highest  peaks  in  Furopc.  On  the 
west  the  Bernese  Alps  are  connected  with  the 
Jura  range.  The  principal  heights  of  the  Pen- 
nine Alps  are  Mont  Blanc.  15,781  feet;  Monte 
Rosa,  15,217;  Mischabelhc'irner  (Dom),  14.935; 
Lyskamm,  14,889 ;  Weisshorn,  14,804 ;  Matter- 
horn,  14,780.     In  the  Bernese  Alps  are  the  Fin- 


steraarhorn,  14,026;  Aletschhorn,  13.803;  Jung- 
frau.  13.071.  There  are  bridle  passes,  the  Col 
de  la  Seigne,  already  mentioned,  and  the  Col  de 
Ferret  (8,320  feet  ).  on  each  side  of  Mont  Blanc. 
The  pass  of  Great  St.  Bernard  is  celebrated  for 
its  hospice.  (See  Bernard,  Great  St.)  It  was 
crossed  by  Napoleon  in  1800,  but  it  is  not  prac- 
ticable for  carriages.  There  are  several  passes, 
as  the  Col  du  Cervin.  the  Schwarzthor,  and 
the  Col  du  I.ys.  from  10.000  to  14.000  feet  in 
height.  The  mosl  easterly  pass  is  the  Simplon, 
6,595  feet,  from  Brieg  to  Domo  d'Ossola.  It 
has  a  carriage  road  made  by  Napoleon.  This  is 
about  36  miles  long  and  25  feet  wide  through- 
out, and  is  carried  over  steep  precipices  and 
through  six  galleries  hewn  in  the  rock.  The 
Grande  Galerie  is  683  feet  long.  A  double  rail- 
way tunnel,  the  longest  in  the  world  (12^2 
miles),  is  being  driven  through  the  Simplon. 
Numerous  tributaries  of  the  Rhone  rise  in  the 
valley  between  the  mountains,  and  on  the  Italian 
side  the  Dora  Baltca,  Scsia,  and  other  rivers. 

The  Le pontine  Alps  form  the  continuation  ,  >f 
the  main  chain  on  the  south  side  of  the  great 
valley  or  depression  stretching  from  Martigny 
in  the  Valais  to  Coire  in  the  Grisons,  the  west- 
ern portion  of  which  forms  the  basin  of  the 
Rhone,  the  eastern  that  of  the  Vorderrhein. 
From  this  chain  branch  the  northern  and  eastern 
extensions  of  the  Swiss  Alps  beyond  the  Bernese 
range,  the  eastern  boundary  of  which  is  fixed 
at  t he-  defile  of  the  Devil's  Bridge,  near  Ander- 
matt,  crossed  by  the  Reuss.  The  Lepontine  range 
extends  to  the  Splugen  Pass.  The  line  of  wa- 
tershed is  generally  parallel  to  the  valley  of 
the  Vorderrhein ;  but  here,  as  already  noticed, 
some  of  the  principal  ranges  run  transverse  to 
it,  terminating  in  the  great  valleys  in  which  lie 
the  lake';  Maggiorc.  Como,  etc..  fed  by  numerous 
tributaries  from  this  and  the  following  division 
of  the  Alps.  This  division  forms  the  great 
water-parting  of  the  whole  system.  Within  a 
radius  of  a  few  miles  from  the  St.  Gothard 
Pass  rise  the  Rhone,  the  Aar,  the  Reuss,  the 
Vorderrhein,  the  Ticino,  the  Toccia,  and  the 
Maggia.  The  principal  pass  is  the  St.  Gothard 
(6,936  feet),  over  which  pass  is  a  carriage  road 
from  Bellinzona  to  Altorf.  Through  this  moun- 
tain mass  a  railway  tunnel  more  than  nine  miles 
long  was  opened  in  1882.  The  Grics  Pass  (8,050 
feet  )  conducts  from  Obcrgestelen  to  Formazza. 
The  Bernardin  Pass  (6.71*)  feet),  constructed 
by  the  Swiss  government,  leads  from  Coire  to 
Bellinzona.  The  road  from  Coire  to  the  Splii- 
gen  is  the  same  as  leads  to  the  Splugen  Pass 
(6,945  feet),  through  which  it  proceeds  to  Lake 
Como.  This  route  commands  the  finest  views 
of  Swiss  scenery  in  the  Grisons.  Previous  to 
the  construction  of  the  present  road  by  the 
Austrian  government  in  1823  it  was  difficult 
and  dangerous.  Marshal  MacDonald,  who 
crossed  it  in  1800,  lost  a  large  number  of  men 
by  avalanches  at  a  gorge  in  the  passage  of  the 
Cardinello,  which  the  new  road  avoids.  The 
carriage  road  over  the  Furka  Pass  from  Obcr- 
gestelen to  Andermatt.  completed  in  1867,  af- 
fords a  fine  view  of  the  Schreckhorn  and  Fin- 
steraarhorn.  The  peaks  here  are  of  less 
elevation.  The  highest,  Monte  Leone,  is  11,696 
feet;  the  Piz  Valrhein  is  11.14S  feet,  and  several 
are  above  10.000.  Of  the  northern  ranges  Todi 
is  11.887;  Bifertenstock,  11.237:  Scheerhorn, 
11,132,  and  there  are  many  above  10,000. 


ALPS 


The  Rkatian  Alps  extend  from  the  Spliigen 
to  Dreiherrnspitz,  on  the  borders  of  Salzburg 
and  Tyrol.  The  Engadine,  or  valley  of  the  Inn, 
divides  them  into  two  portions.  The  chain  is 
also  broken  by  the  valley  of  the  Adige.  To  the 
south,  separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Adda,  are 
the  Lombard  Alps,  while  the  more  northerly 
continuations  embrace  the  Tyrolese  and  Bava- 
rian Alps.  In  the  main  range  are  the  Piz  Ber- 
nina,  13,294  feet;  Piz  Roseg,  12,936;  Orteler- 
spitze,  12,814;  in  the  Lombard  Alps,  Monte 
Adamello,  11,832;  Presanella,  11,688;  and  Care 
Alto,  11,352.  The  other  ranges  are  inferior  in 
height.  Good  roads  now  become  more  numer- 
ous. The  Malloya  Pass  (5,942  feet)  leads  from 
Chiavenna,  by  the  valley  of  the  Inn,  to  Inns- 
bruck, and  communicates  with  the  road  over  the 
Julier  Pass  (7,503  feet)  to  Coire.  The  Pass  of 
Glurns  (4.400  feet),  from  the  valley  of  the  Inn 
to  the  Adige,  is  the  lowest  pass  over  the  main 
chain.  It  joins  the  road  to  Milan  by  the  Val- 
telline,  the  highest  part  of  which  is  9.174  feet. 
This  is  a  carriage  road  constructed  by  the  Aus- 
trian government  for  communication  with  their 
Lombard  dominions.  The  Brenner  Pass  (4.588 
feet)  leads  from  Verona  to  Innsbruck.  The 
Brenner  is  crossed  by  a  railway.  The  northern 
ranges  are  intersected  by  the  Septima,  Julier, 
Albula,  and  other  passes.  The  Adda,  Oglio, 
Adige,  Hinterrhein,  Inn,  and  other  rivers,  rise 
in  this  part  of  the  chain. 

Noric  Alps. —  The  main  chain  of  the  Alps 
here  divides  into  different  sections,  as  already 
mentioned.  The  northern  part  of  the  chain  ex- 
tending to  Vienna  was  anciently  called  the  Noric 
Alps,  while  the  southern  continuations  were 
known  as  the  Carnian  and  Julian  Alps,  the 
names  Venetian,  Dalmatian,  and  Pannonic  Alps 
being  also  in  use.  The  culminating  peak  of  the 
northern  range  is  the  Gross  Glockner,  12,405 
feet.  Farther  east  the  heights  are  of  much  less 
elevation.  In  Carinthia  and  Styria  two  parallel 
branches  called  the  Styrian  Alps  enclose  the  up- 
per valley  of  the  Mur.  In  this  group  is  the 
Hafnereck,  10.044  feet.  In  south  Tyrol  and 
Venetia  several  peaks  rise  above  10,000  feet. 
The  Carnic  Alps  run  from  the  frontiers  of  Tyrol 
and  Venetia  to  the  frontier  of  Carinthia.  They 
are  separated  from  the  northern  range  by  the 
Gailthal.  The  height  of  the  southeastern  con- 
tinuations of  the  Alps  rapidly  diminishes,  and 
they  k>se  themselves  in  ranges  having  nothing 
in  common  with  the  great  mountain  masses 
which  distinguish  the  centre  of  the  system. 
Mount  Terglou,  near  the  northwestern  extrem- 
ity of  the  Julian  Alps,  has  a  height  of  9,371  feet. 
The  name  Dinaric  Alps  is  given  to  a  continua- 
tion from  Mount  Klek  through  Croatia  and 
along  the  borders  of  Dalmatia  and  Herzego- 
vina. 

There  are  various  points  of  vantage  from 
which  extensive  views  of  Alpine  scenery  are 
commanded  at  the  expense  of  a  moderate 
amount  of  climbing.  The  Rigi,  which  can  now 
be  ascended  by  railway,  is  one  of  these.  There 
are  hotels  at  the  top,  5.905  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  and  4.468  above  the  Lake  of  Lucerne. 
A  favorite  view  from  hence  is  to  watch  the  sun 
rise  over  the  Bernese  Alps.  The  Faulhorn 
(8,799  feet),  southeast  of  Lake  Brienz,  com- 
mands a  near  view  of  the  same  range.  The 
Becca  di  Nona  (8.415  feet),  south  of  Aosta, 
gives,  according  to  some  authorities,  the  finest 

Vol.  I— 11 


panoramic  view  to  be  obtained  from  any  summit 
of  the  Alps.  From  the  Corner  Grat  (to  which 
there  is  now  a  railway  from  Zermatt),  and  va- 
rious points  in  the  valley  of  Chamonix,  par- 
ticularly the  Montanvert,  which  is  visited  to 
see  the  Mer  de  Glace,  views  of  various  interest 
are  obtained.  The  most  accessible  Alpine  gla- 
ciers are  those  of  Aletsch,  Chamonix,  and  Zer- 
matt. 

Climate. —  In  the  lower  valleys  the  mean  tem- 
perature ranges  from  500  to  60°.  Half-way  up 
the  Alps  it  averages  about  32° —  a  height  which, 
in  the  snowy  regions,  where  snow  always  lies, 
the  average  does  not  attain.  But  even  here 
the  solar  radiation  produced  by  the  rocks  and 
snow  is  often  so  great  as  to  raise  the  barometer 
to  1200  and  even  higher.  The  exhilarating  and 
invigorating  nature  of  the  climate  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  Alps  during  summer  has  been 
acknowledged  by  all  who  have  perambulated 
these  romantic  scenes.  The  freshness  of  the 
breeze  as  it  comes  from  the  snowy  peaks  tem- 
pered by  the  rays  of  a  southern  sun,  enables 
the  traveler,  without  weariness,  to  perform  dis- 
tances on  foot  that  at  home  he  would  have 
shrunk  from  attempting.  Notwithstanding,  how- 
ever, the  invigorating  nature  of  the  climate,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  higher  valleys  are  often  af- 
flicted with  goitre  and  cretinism. 

Botany  and  Zoology. —  In  respect  to  vegeta- 
tion the  Alps  have  been  divided  into  six  zones. 
The  limits  of  these  depend  not  on  absolute 
height,  but  on  height  modified  by  exposure  and 
local  circumstances.  The  lowest  is  the  olive 
zone.  This  tree  flourishes  better  on  sheltered 
slopes  of  the  mountains  than  on  the  plains  of 
northern  Italy.  The  vine,  which  bears  a  greater 
winter  cold,  distinguishes  the  second  zone.  On 
slopes  exposed  to  the  sun  it  flourishes  to  a  con- 
siderable height.  The  third  is  the  mountainous 
zone  or  region.  Cereals  and  deciduous  trees 
form  the  distinguishing  features  of  its  vegeta- 
tion. The  mean  temperature  about  equals  that 
of  Great  Britain,  but  the  extremes  are  greater. 
The  fourth  region  is  the  sub-Alpine  or  conif- 
erous. Here  are  vast  forests  of  pines  of  various 
species,  which  have  in  many  places  been  incon- 
siderately cut  down,  the  result  being  that  the 
valleys  have  been  deprived  of  shelter  and  de- 
nuded of  soil.  Most  of  the  Alpine  villages  are 
in  the  two  last  regions.  On  the  northern  slopes 
pines  grow  to  6.000,  and  on  the  southern  slopea 
to  7,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Thii 
is  also  the  region  of  the  lower  or  permanent 
pastures  where  the  flocks  are  fed  in  winter.  Tht 
fifth  is  the  pasture  region,  the  term  alp  being 
used  in  the  local  sense  of  high  pasture  grounds. 
It  extends  from  the  uppermost  limit  of  trees  to 
the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  The  landscape  is 
adorned  with  numerous  shrubs ;  rhododendrons, 
junipers,  bilberries,  and  dwarf  willows  being 
among  the  distinctive  forms  of  vegetation.  The 
sixth  is  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  The  line 
of  snow  appears  from  a  distance  to  be  con- 
tinuous at  a  limit  which  varies,  according  to 
seasons  and  localities,  from  8,000  to  9.500  feet, 
hut  on  approaching  this  apparently  continuous 
line  it  is  found  to  be  broken  up  and  crossed  by 
patches  of  brilliant  vegetation,  the  limit  of  which 
appears  to  be  want  of  soil  rather  than  severity 
of  climate.  Few  flowering  plants  extend  above 
10,000  feet,  but  they  have  been  found  as  high 
as    12,000    feet.     At    this    great    elevation 


ALSACE-LORRAINE 


species  of  quadrupeds  may  be  seen,  the  bou- 
quetin  or  wild  goat,  and  the  chamois,  whicn 
delight  in  heights  inaccessible  to  man.  The 
bouquetin,  which  has  become  very  rare,  scales 
the  most  elevated  peaks,  while  the  chamois  is 
generally  found  rather  lower,  but  is  never  seen 
in  the  plains.  In  summer  the  high  mountain 
pastures  are  covered  with  large  flocks  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats,  which  in  winter  are  removed 
to  a  lower  and  warmer  level.  The  marmot,  and 
white  or  Alpine  bare,  inhabit  both  the  snowy 
and  the  woody  regions.  Lower  down  are  found 
the  mole,  the  wildcat,  the  fox,  the  lynx,  the 
bear,  and  the  wolf;  but  the  last  two  are  now 
extremely  rare.  The  vulture,  eagle,  and  other 
birds  of  prey  frequent  the  rugged  Alpine  rocks, 
and  "the  snowy  ptarmigan"  seeks  food  and  shel- 
ter among  the  diminutive  plants  that  border 
upon  the  snow-line.  Other  kinds  of  game,  in- 
cluding the  grouse,  woodcock,  and  partridge, 
may  be  found  from  the  upper  limit  of  the  woods 
to  the  more  level  and  habitable  parts  below. 
Several  kinds  of  water-fowl  frequent  the  higher 
lakes,  where  excellent  trout  and  other  fish  are 
found ;  but  those  situated  at  the  greatest  ele- 
vation are,  from  their  low  temperature,  en- 
tirely destitute  of  fish. 

Geology  and  Minerals. — -The  geological 
structure  of  the  Alps  is  highly  involved,  and  is 
far,  as  yet,  from  being  thoroughly  investigated 
or  understood.  In  general  three  zones  can  be 
distinguished,  a  central,  in  which  crystalline 
rocks  prevail,  and  two  exterior  zones,  in  which 
sedimentary  rocks  predominate.  The  rocks  of 
the  central  zone  consist  of  granitic  gneiss  of  va- 
rious forms,  seldom  pure  granite,  gneiss,  horn- 
blende, mica  slate,  and  other  slates  and  schists. 
In  the  western  Alps  there  are  also  considerable 
elevations  in  the  central  zone  that  belong  to  the 
Jurassic  (Oolite)  and  Cretaceous  formations. 
From  the  disposition  of  the  beds,  which  are 
broken,  tilted,  and  distorted  on  a  gigantic  scale, 
the  Alps  appear  to  have  been  formed  by  a  suc- 
cession of  disruptions  and  elevations  extending 
over  a  very  protracted  period.  The  large  beds 
of  calcareous  rock  which  overlie  the  older  rocks 
both  to  the  east  and  west  appear  to  have  been 
ruptured  and  rolled  back  by  the  upheaval  of 
the  central  mass.  Mining  is  not  carried  on  to 
an  extent  proportionate  to  the  magnitude  of  the 
mountain  range.  Iron  and  lead,  however,  are 
found  in  considerable  abundance,  and  the  Blei- 
berg  (lead  mountain)  mine,  in  Carinthia,  fur- 
nishes the  purest  lead  in  Europe.  Rock-salt  is 
abundant  toward  the  north  of  the  chain,  and  the 
salt-works  of  Bex  in  Canton  de  Vaud,  of  Hall 
in  Tyrol,  of  Hallein  and  of  Berchtesgaden  in  the 
vicinity  of  Salzburg,  are  of  note.  Mercury  ex- 
ists chiefly  in  the  east  part;  the  richness  of  the 
mine  of  Idria,  northwest  of  Trieste,  is  well 
known.  Besides  those  principal  products,  gold, 
silver,  copper,  zinc,  alum,  and  coal  are  wrought 
to  some  extent. 

Alsace-Lorraine,  al-sas-16-ran'  (German, 
Elsass-Lothringen) ,  a  district  occupying  the 
extreme  southwest  corner  of  Germany,  bounded 
west  by  France,  east  by  Baden,  and  south  by 
Switzerland.  Its  length  from  north  to  south  is 
12.3  miles;  its  breadth  varies  from  22  to  105 
miles;  and  its  area  is  5,580  square  miles,  of 
which  1,353  belong  to  Upper  Alsace  (in  the 
south),  1,844  to  Lower  Alsace  (northeast),  and 
2,383  to  Lorraine  (northwest).  Pop.  (iooo) 
1,717,451,   of   whom   76   per   cent    were    Roman 


Catholics,  and  more  than  80  per  cent  spoke  Ger- 
man—  mainly  the  vernacular  Alsatian,  a  dialect 
of  Alemannian.    The  most  populous  districts  in 

their  order  are  Lower  Alsace.  Lorraine,  and  Up- 
per Alsace.  The  French-speaking  population  is 
mainly  in  the  larger  towns  and  in  Lorraine. 
The  Rhine  flows  115  miles  north  by  east,  along 
all  the  eastern  border,  and  receives,  below 
Strasburg,  the  111  from  Alsace,  127  miles  long. 
Other  rivers  are  the  Moselle,  flowing  through 
Lorraine  past  Metz,  and  its  affluent,  the  Saar. 
Along  the  Rhine  is  a  strip  of  level  country,  9  to 
17  miles  broad  and  declining  from  800  to  450 
feet  above  sea-level.  Westward  of  this  rise  the 
Vosges  Mountains,  culminating  at  a  height  of 
4,677  feet  ;  while  Lorraine,  rather  hilly  than 
mountainous,  rarely  attains  1,300  feet.  About 
48.5  per  cent  of  the  entire  area  is  arable,  11.6 
meadow  and  pasture,  and  30.8  under  wood. 
Alsace-Lorraine  produces  much  wine,  grain,  and 
tobacco;  it  is  rich  in  mines,  iron  and  coal;  and 
manufactures  iron,  cotton,  wool,  silks,  chemicals, 
glass,  and  paper.  It  contains  the  important 
cities  of  Strasburg  (pop.  igoo,  150,268);  Muhl- 
hauscn  (pop.  1890,  27,538);  Metz  (pop.  1890, 
60,186);  Colmar  (pop.  1890,  30,411).  As  a 
French  province,  Alsace  was  divided  into  the 
departments  of  Haut-Rhin  and  Bas-Rhin.  Lor- 
raine fell  into  the  departments  of  Meuse, 
Moselle,  Meurthe,  and  Vosges  (parts  of  all 
which  still  remain  French).  The  lieutenant- 
governor  (Statthalter) ,  representing  the  im- 
perial government,  resides  at  Strasburg,  and  is 
assisted  by  a  ministry  of  five  departments  and 
a  council  of  state. 

From  the  10th  century  Alsace-Lorraine 
formed  part  of  the  German  empire  till  a  part  of 
it  was  ceded  to  France  at  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia (1648),  and  by  the  Peace  of  Ryswick 
(1697)  the  cession  of  the  whole  was  ratified. 
German  never  ceased  to  be  the  chief  language 
of  the  people,  and  all  newspapers  were,  during 
the  whole  period  of  the  French  possession, 
printed  in  both  languages.  In  1871,  after  the 
Franco-Prussian  war,  Alsace  and  German  Lor- 
raine were,  by  the  Treaty  of  Frankfort,  incor- 
porated in  the  new  German  empire.  The  great 
mass  of  the  population  was  strongly  against  the 
change,  and  160,000  elected  to  be  French,  though 
only  50,000  went  into  actual  exile,  refusing  to 
become  German  subjects.  Since  the  era  of  the 
Revolution  Alsace  in  sentiment  was  wholly 
French.  To  Prance  she  gave  the  bravest  of  her 
sons  —  Kcllcrman,  Richer,  and  many  another 
hero.  Strasburg  first  beard  the  'Marseillaise'  ; 
and  MM.  Erckmann-Chatrian,  Lorrainers  both, 
have  faithfully  represented  their  countrymen's 
love  of  La  Patrie  in  the  days  of  the  second  as 
of  the  first  Napoleon.  Of  late  it  is  claimed  by 
the  Germans  that,  through  the  emigration  of  the 
irreconcilables  and  the  immigration  of  German 
settlers,  the  tendency  of  the  old  natives  to  ac- 
cept the  inevitable,  and  the  rising  up  of  a  new 
generation,  to  whom  the  French  connection  is  a 
tradition,  the  situation  has  slowly  but  steadily 
changed  in  favor  of  Germany  and  the  existing 
firm  but  fair  administration.  The  irritating 
passport  system,  a  special  grievance  not  in  force 
elsewhere  in  Germany,  was  withdrawn  in  1873. 
On  9  May  1902,  Emperor  William  directed  that 
a  bill  be  laid  before  the  Federal  Council  abol- 
ishing paragraph  10  in  the  imperial  constitution, 
which  imposed  practically  a  dictatorship  on  the 
reichsland  of  Alsace-Lorraine. 


ALSOP  — ALTON 


Alsop,  Richard,  poet:  b.  Middletown, 
Conn.,  23  Jan.  1 761  ;  d.  Flatbush,  L.  I.,  20  Aug. 
1815.  He  studied  at  Yale,  but  did  not  complete 
his  course.  He  formed  the  literary  group 
known  as  the  "Hartford  Wits,"  which  includes 
Benjamin  Trumbull,  Lemuel  Hopkins,  and 
Theodore  Dwight.  Alsop  was  largely  responsi- 
ble for  the  'Echo'  (1791— 5) ,  a  series  of  traves- 
ties and  burlesques  on  current  fads  and  liter- 
ature (pub.  in  book  form  1807).  He  wrote 
( Monody  on  the  Death  of  Washington'  (1800)  ; 
the  'Enchanted  Lake  of  the  Fairy  Morgana' 
(1808). 

Altai  (al'tl)  Mountains,  a  mountain  range 
of  central  Asia,  extending  from  the  desert  of 
Gobi  in  a  northwesterly  direction  along  the  boun- 
dary of  Mongolia  and  Sungaria.  After  pass- 
ing the  Russian  frontier  it  gradually  falls  off 
in  altitude  and  merges  into  the  steppes.  The 
rivers  of  this  region  are  mostly  head  waters  of 
the  Obi  and  Irtysh.  The  mountain  scenery  is 
generally  grand  and  interesting.  The  highest 
summit  is  Baluka,  about  17,500  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  area  covered  by  snow  and  glaciers  is 
large.  The  mountains  have  a  severe  climate, 
but  agriculture  is  carried  on  to  some  extent  in 
the  larger  valleys.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly 
Russians  and  Kalmuks. 

Altaic  Languages,  a  family  of  languages 
occupying  a  portion  of  northern  and  eastern 
Europe,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  northern  and 
central  Asia,  together  with  some  other  regions, 
and  divided  into  five  branches,  the  Ugrian  or 
Finno-Hungarian,  Samoyedic,  Turkic,  Mongolic, 
and  Tungusic.  Also  called  Ural-Altaic  and 
Turanian. 

Altar,  the  structure  on  which  sacrifices 
are  offered  or  incense  burned  as  an  act  of  wor- 
ship. In  the  Catholic  Church,  the  sacred  table 
on  which  is  offered  the  Sacrifice  of  the  Mass. 
The  earliest  altars  were  of  wood,  but  Pope  Sil- 
vester, at  the  beginning  of  the  4th  century, 
decreed  that  the  altar  should  be  made  of  stone, 
or  at  least  that  part  of  it  on  which  the  chalice 
and  host  are  placed.  The  ritual  of  the  Catholic 
Church  commands  that  the  altar  must  be  con- 
secrated by  a  bishop  or  a  mitred  abbot  who  has 
received  the  faculties  and  the  relics  of  a  saint  to 
be  enclosed  in  the  altar  stone,  which  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  table  of  the  altar. 

Altgeld,  John  Peter,  American  politician: 
b.  Germany,  Dec.  1847;  d.  12  March  1902. 
Brought  to  Mansfield,  Ohio,  in  infancy,  he  re- 
ceived a  public-school  education ;  served  in  the 
Civil  War  as  a  private  in  the  Union  army, 
1864-65 ;  taught  school  in  Missouri ;  became  a 
lawyer  there  and  county  attorney  of  Andrew 
County  in  1874.  Removing  to  Chicago  in  1875 
he  became  prominent  in  the  Democratic  party. 
An  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Congress  in  1884, 
he  was  judge  of  the  Chicago  Superior  Court 
1886-91.  Elected  governor  in  1892,  one  of  his 
first  official  acts  was  to  pardon  three  anarchists, 
imprisoned  since  1887  ( two  for  life  and  one 
for  15  years)  for  complicity  in  the  bomb-throw- 
ing which  killed  seven  policemen  in  Chicago, 
4  May  1886  (see  Anarchism  ;  Haymarket 
Massacre).  It  should  be  said  that  many  leading 
United  States  citizens  had  petitioned  for  their 
release  on  the  ground  of  insufficient  evidence, 
an  assumption  which  Judge  Gary  (q.v.)  has 
vigorously   repelled.     Altgeld   was   governor   till 


1897.  He  was  a  prominent  champion  of  free 
silver  and  an  active  supporter  of  Bryan  for  the 
Presidency  in  1896  and  1900,  and  was  defeated 
as  independent  candidate  for  mayor,  1899.  He 
was  an  able  speaker,  an  efficient  advocate  of 
prison  reform,  and  appears  to  have  been  moved 
chiefly  by  sympathy  with  the  working  class.  He 
wrote  'Our  Penal  Machinery  and  Its  Victims.' 
'Live    Questions,'    etc. 

Althaea.    See  Hollyhock;  Marsh  Mallow. 

Althorp,  Lord.      See  Spencer. 

Altiscope,  an  instrument  consisting  of  an 
arrangement  of  mirrors  in  a  vertical  framework, 
by  means  of  which  a  person  is  enabled  to  over- 
look an  object  (a  parapet,  for  instance)  inter- 
vening between  himself  and  whatever  he  desire^ 
to  see,  the  picture  of  the  latter  being  reflected 
from  a  higher  to  a  lower  mirror,  where  it  in 
seen  by  the  observer. 

Altitude,  in  mathematics,  denotes  the  per- 
pendicular height  of  the  vertex  of  any  plane 
or  solid  body  above  the  line  or  plane  of  its  base ; 
thus  the  altitude  of  a  triangle  is  measured  by  a 
perpendicular  let  fall  from  any  one  of  its  angles 
upon  the  base,  or  upon  the  base  produced ;  there- 
fore the  same  triangle  may  have  different  alti- 
tudes, accordingly  as  we  assume  one  side  or  an- 
other for  its  base.  Again,  the  altitude  of  a  cone 
or  pyramid,  whether  right  or  oblique,  is  meas- 
ured by  a  perpendicular  let  fall  from  the  vertex 
to  the  plane  of  its  base.  Similar  remarks  apply 
to  other  solids.  In  astronomy  altitudes  are 
measured  or  estimated  by  the  angles  subtended 
between  the  object  and  the  plane  of  the  horizon: 
and  this  altitude  may  be  either  true  or  apparent. 
The  apparent  altitude  is  that  which  is  obtained 
immediately  from  observation ;  and  the  true  al- 
titude that  which  results  from  correcting  the 
apparent  altitude,  by  making  allowance  for 
parallax,  refraction,  etc.  The  altitude  of  a  ter- 
restrial object  is  the  height  of  its  vertex  above 
some  horizontal  plane  assumed  as  a  base. 

Alton,  111.,  city  in  Madison  co.,  on  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  on  the  Chicago  &  A., 
the  Cleveland,  C,  C.  &  St.  L.,  the  St.  Clair,  M. 
&  St.  L,  the  St.  Louis,  C.  &  St.  P.,  and  the 
St.  Louis,  K.  &  N.  W.  R.R's ;  about  four  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri  River  and  15 
miles  north  of  St.  Louis.  Its  river  lines  of 
transportation  include  the  Eagle  Packet  Com- 
pany line,  the  Diamond  line,  the  St.  Louis  & 
Clarkson,  and  the  St.  Louis,  Naples  &  Peoria. 
Alton  was  settled  early  in  the  century,  but  was 
not  incorporated  as  a  city  until  1837.  The  city, 
built  upon  a  high  limestone  bluff,  has  very  pic- 
turesque surroundings.  The  Mississippi  River 
is  spanned  here  by  a  railroad  bridge,  and  the 
city  is  connected  by  electric  railway  with  Upper 
Alton,  two  miles  to  the  northeast,  where  is  lo- 
cated Shurtleff  College  (q.v.).  Monticello  Sem- 
inary (q.v.)  is  located  at  Godfrey,  four  miles 
from  Alton,  on  the  Chicago,  A.  &  J.  R.R.. 
Alton  has  in  addition  to  an  extensive  river  and 
railroad  trade,  large  manufacturing  interests. 
The  Illinois  Glass  Company,  manufacturer  of 
glass  bottles,  is  located  here,  and  gives  employ- 
ment to  3,200  persons.  The  company  owns  and 
operates  a  railroad  and  uses  Yx  of  the  output  of 
a  large  coal  mine.  Some  of  the  other  manu- 
factures are  flour,  shovels  and  picks,  foundry 
and  machine-shop  products,  and  shoes.  Among 
the  prominent  public  buildings  are  the  Hayne's 


ALTON  LOCKE  — ALUM 


Memorial  Public  Library,  a  Home  for  Aged 
Women,  the  St.  Joseph's  Hospital,  tbc  Ursuline 

I'omenl  and  id  churches.  I  he  city  is  governed 
by  a  mayor  and  common  council  elected  every 
two  years  by  the  people.  There  are  two  na- 
tional banks,  two  savings  banks,  three  daily 
newspapers,  trolley  systems  and  electric  light. 
In  1837,  Elijah  P.  Lovcj.w  i.|.v.),  the  aboli- 
tionist, was  murdered  here.  A  monument  to 
his  memory  was  nan.. I  in  180;.  Pop  (1900) 
[4,210;  including  North  and  Upper  Alton, 
18,000.  I).    K.   Sparks, 

Pres.  of  the  Sparks  Milling  Co.,  Alton. 

Alton  Locke,  a  story  by  Charles  Kingsley, 
published  in  1850.  It  was  Ins  first  novel,  and 
displayed  the  author's  broad  sympathy  for  the 
condition  of  the  English  working  classes.  It 
excited  immediate  attention,  and  was  an  impor- 
tant (actor  in  arousing  the  upper  classes  to  a 
realization  of  their  responsibilities  toward  the 
less  fortunate.  The  altruism  of  Locke  and  his 
friends,  Crossthwaite,  Mackaye,  Lady  Ellcrton, 
and  Eleanor,  forms  an  admirable  and  inspiring 
feature  of  the  book. 

Altoona,  Pa.,  city  in  Blair  County,  on  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad,  118  m.  E.  of  Pittsburg. 
It  has  an  elevation  of  1,182  feet  above  the  sea; 
situated  in  the  midst  of  a  most  picturesque 
mountain  region,  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains.  For  many  years  Altoona  has 
been  regarded  as  the  most  typical  of  American 
railroad  towns,  for  here  are  located  the  immense 
repair  shops  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  and 
over  10,000  workmen  are  engaged  in  manufac- 
turing and  repairing  locomotives,  passenger 
coaches,  and  freight  cars.  There  are  other 
large  and  important  manufactories  here,  of  ma- 
chinery, agricultural  implements,  coal-mining 
machinery,  etc.  It  is  also  the  business  centre  of 
a  considerable  agricultural  region.  The  city  con- 
tains a  public  library  building,  high  school, 
several  hospitals,  and  numerous  churches  and 
private  schools.  The  famous  Horseshoe  Bend, 
on  the  line  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad,  is  lo- 
cated near  the  city,  and  Lakemont  Park  is  a 
well-known  pleasure  ground  within  the  city 
limits.  The  municipal  government  is  vested  in 
a  mayor,  city  council  and  subordinate  adminis- 
trative officials,  who  are  elected  annually. 
The  city  owns  the  waterworks  plant,  which 
was  acquired  in  1872  at  a  cost  of  $680,000,  and 
upon  which  $20,000  is  expended  annually.  The 
city's  expenses  aggregate  $250,000  yearly,  of 
which  amount  nearly  $100,000  is  expended  for 
schools.  The  city  was  founded  in  1850  by  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company.  It  was  first 
incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1854,  and  chartered 
as  a  city  in  1868.  During  the  great  railroad 
strike  of  1877,  Altoona  was  the  centre  of  the 
disturbed  section  and  troops  were  ordered  out  to 
protect  railroad  property  here.  It  is  a  growing, 
thriving  city.  There  arc  three  daily  and  nu- 
merous weekly  newspapers.  Pop.  (1880)  19,- 
710;  (1890)  30,337;  (1900)  38,973.  and  esti- 
mated  (1903)   41,600. 

Altoona,  or  Allatoona  Pass,  a  mountain 
pass  in  northern  Georgia,  the  scene  of  a  sharp 
engagement  between  the  Federal  troops  under 
Gen.  Corse  and  the  Confederates  commanded  by 
Gen.  French,  on  s  Oct.  1864.  The  losses  on  each 
side  were  about  equal. 

Altrices,  birds  whose  young  come  out  of 
the  egg  in  a  helpless  condition  and  are   reared 


and  fed  in  the  nest.  All  the  higher  birds,  as 
thrushes  and  sparrows,  arc  of  this  kind.  The 
term  is  opposed  to  i'recoics,  a  name  applied  to 
birds  whose  young  arc  able  as  soon  as  batched 
to  take  care  of  themselves,  as  in  the  cases  of 
game-  and  shore-birds. 

Altruism,  a  term  in  psychology  and  ethics 
to  denote  disposition  and  conduct  directed  to- 
ward the  well-being  of  others.  It  is  contrasted 
with  egoism,  or  self-seeking  disposition  and  con- 
duct. It  is  essential  to  altruism,  as  well  as  to 
egoism,  that  the  good  of  others,  or  of  self, 
should  be  consciously  and  intentionally  pursued. 
Actions  and  dispositions  which  are  instinctive, 
such  as  maternal  instinct,  arc  not,  properly 
^i.aking,  altruistic,  nor  are  the  opposite  ego- 
istic. It  is  only  when  the  consciousness  of  self 
is  sufficiently  developed  in  the  child  to  give  rise 
to  a  contrast  between  self  and  the  "other"  {al- 
ter), that  the  conscious  pursuit  of  the  interest  of 
one  of  them  is  possible.  This  is  covered  by 
psychologists  by  saying  that  real  altruism  and 
egoism  arc  always  "reflective.8  Altruism  is  also 
applied  to  the  type  of  ethical  theory  which  bases 
morality  upon  generous  or  altruistic  disposition 
or  conduct   (in  the  sense  defined  above). 

Altsheler,  Joseph  Alexander,  American 
author  and  journalist:  b.  Three  Springs,  Ky.,  jo 
April  1862.  lie  studied  at  Vanderbilt  Univer- 
sity and  has  been  connected  with  the  Louisville 
Courier-Journal  and  the  New  York  World.  His 
novels  are  chiefly  on  American  historical  sub- 
jects: 'The  Sun  of  Saratoga';  'In  Hostile 
Red'  ;  <A  Soldier  of  Manhattan'  ;  'The  Last 
Rebel';  'In  Circling  Camps';  'The  Herald  of 
the  West';  'My  Captive';  'The  Wilderness 
Road';   'The  Candidate'    (1905). 

Al'um,  in  chemistry,  a  general  name  for  a 
large  class  of  substances,  which  may  be  defined 
as  double  sulphates  or  sclenates,  in  which  one 
of  the  bases  is  aluminum,  chromium,  manga- 
nese, iron,  indium,  or  gallium,  and  the  other  is 
sodium,  potassium,  rubidium,  caesium,  am- 
monium, silver,  or  thallium.  The  alums  all 
crystallize  in  cubes  or  octahedra,  with  24  mole- 
cules of  water,  and  are  all  isomorphous,  so  that 
when  in  solution  together  they  cannot  be  sepa- 
rated by  crystallization.  In  naming  them  alu- 
minum is  understood  to  be  one  of  the  metals 
present  unless  the  contrary  is  expressly  indi- 
cated. Thus  "potash  alum"  is  the  alum  whose 
formula  is  AI,(SO,)»  +  K,SO.  +  24H-O.  If  alu- 
minum is  not  present,  the  metal  that  replaces  it 
is  stated;  thus  "iron-sodium  alum"  is  the 
alum  whose  formula  is  Fe;(SO()j  +  Na3SO. + 
24H2O.  When  selenium  replaces  the  sulphur  in 
one  or  both  of  its  positions,  the  alum  is  most 
clearly  identified  by  giving  its  formula.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  true  alums  a  class  of  substances 
known  as  "pseudo-alums"  exists.  These  also 
crystallize  with  24  molecules  of  water,  but  they 
are  not  isomorphous  with  the  true  alums.  Mn» 
(SOOs  +  MgSO, +  24HX)  is  an  example  of 
this  class. 

All  the  alums  are  soluble  in  water,  and  it  is 
probable  that  all  are  resolved,  at  least  par- 
tially, into  their  constituents,  by  solution.  It  is 
known  that  in  certain  cases  (in  silver  alum,  for 
example)  the  separation  is  absolute.  _  All  of  the 
alums  give  an  acid  reaction  when  in  solution, 
all  have  an  astringent  taste,  and  all  lose  their 
water  of  crystallization  when  heated. 


ALUMBAGH  —  ALUMINUM 


The  alum  of  commerce  is  supposed  to  be 
potash  alum,  the  formula  of  which  has  been  al- 
ready given.  Ammonia  alum  is  sometimes  sub- 
stituted, however,  owing  to  the  cheapness  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  is  now  obtained  as 
a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  illuminating 
gas.  Sodium  alum  is  probably  not  substituted 
for  potash  alum  to  any  great  extent. 

The  alums  are  largely  used  in  the  arts,  es- 
pecially in  dyeing  and  tanning,  and  in  the  puri- 
fication of  water.  Bread  made  from  flour  con- 
taining a  small  amount  of  alum  is  said  to  be 
very  white,  and  partly  for  this  reason  and  partly 
on  account  of  the  cheapness  of  the  substance, 
ammonia  alum  has  been  largely  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  baking-powders.  This  practice 
has  been  condemned  and  pronounced  detrimental 
to  health,  however,  by  nearly  all  the  authorities 
who  have  written  on  the  subject. 

Alums  may  be  formed  by  crystallization  from 
the  mixed  sulphates,  or  by  roasting  "alum-stone" 
(see  Alunite).  Some  of  them  occur  native. 
(See  Mendozite;  Tschermigite.) 

Alum  Poisoning. —  This  poisoning  may  be 
acute  or  chronic,  the  latter  being  much  more 
common.  In  the  acute  variety,  often  the  result 
of  accidental  drinking  of  a  gargling  solution, 
the  symptoms  are  nausea,  vomiting,  purging, 
cold  clammy  skin,  small  thready  pulse,  thirst, 
muscular  tremor,  followed  by  a  rise  in  tempera- 
ture in  those  that  have  recovered.  The  treat- 
ment pursued  in  the  case  of  alum  poisoning  is 
to  wash  out  the  stomach  and  use  the  white  of 
eggs  as  a  chemical  antidote. 

Alum  being  so  widely  employed  as  a  pre- 
servative, as  a  means  of  clarifying  water,  and 
as  an  adulterant  in  baking-powders,  the  question 
of  chronic  alum  poisoning  becomes  of  great 
importance.  The  symptoms  that  have  been  most 
frequently  observed  in  such  poisoning  are  dis- 
turbances of  digestion  and  constipation.  The 
question  as  to  its  harmful  action  on  the  kidneys 
is  not  yet  decided,  but  it  would  seem  to  be  harm- 
ful rather  than  the  reverse. 

Alumbagh,  a  domain  in  India  formerly 
belonging  to  one  of  the  princes  of  Oudh,  about 
4  m.  S.  of  Lucknow,  near  the  road  to  Cawnpore. 
It  comprised  a  beautiful  palace,  a  mosque,  a 
temple,  and  other  buildings  surrounded  by  a 
garden,  all  in  the  centre  of  a  magnificent  park 
enclosed  by  a  lofty  wall  with  turrets  at  each 
angle.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Indian  mutiny 
this  place  was  occupied  by  the  revolted  Sepoys 
and  converted  into  a  fort.  On  23  Sept.  1857 
it  was  captured  by  the  British,  then  on  their  way 
to  relieve  Lucknow.  Leaving  a  garrison  of  300 
European  troops,  together  with  the  sick  and 
wounded  and  about  4,000  native  camp-followers, 
the  main  body,  under  Outram,  Havelock,  and 
Neill,  pushed  on  to  Lucknow.  These  generals 
were  unable  to  send  reinforcements,  but  at  the 
end  of  November  the  place  was  relieved  by  Sir 
Colin  Campbell.  The  latter  left  Sir  James  Out- 
ram, with  a  force  of  3,500  men,  to  hold  the 
Alumbagh,  a  task  which  he  successfully  accom- 
plished, though  repeatedly  attacked  by  over- 
whelming numbers  of  the  rebels.  In  March 
1858  the  garrison  was  finally  relieved.  At  the 
foot  of  a  tree  within  the  grounds  Sir  Henry 
Havelock  was  buried. 

Alumina  (AlsO.),  the  only  oxid  of  the 
metal  aluminum.     As  found  native,  crystallized, 


it  is  only  second  to  the  diamond  in  hardness. 
The  transparent  varieties  are  the  sapphire  and 
ruby,  the  opaque  are  corundum  and  emery,  only 
the  corundum  being  pure.  In  combination  with 
silica  it  is  one  of  the  most  widely  distributed 
of  substances,  ranking  in  this  respect  next  to 
oxygen  and  silicon.  It  enters  in  large  quantity 
into  the  composition  of  granites,  traps,  slates, 
schists,  clays,  loams,  and  other  rocks.  The  hy- 
drated  oxid,  ALO3.H2O,  occurs  as  diaspore,  and 
with  ferric  oxid  as  bauxite.  Various  aluminates 
occur  in  certain  gems,  as  in  spinel  and  chryso- 
beryl.  Alumina  may  be  obtained  by  adding  a 
solution  of  ammonium  hydrate  to  purify  alum 
dissolved  in  20  parts  of  water,  thoroughly  wash- 
ing the  very  gelatinous  precipitate  formed,  and 
then  drying  it  carefully.  It  may  also  be  pre- 
pared by  igniting  powdered  aluminum  in  air  or 
oxygen.  Alumina  is  a  white  powder,  without 
taste  or  smell,  and  infusible  except  in  the  oxyhy- 
drogen  flame.  It  is  the  basis  of  porcelain,  pottery, 
bricks,  and  crucibles :  and  it  has  a  strong  affin- 
ity for  oil  and  coloring  matter,  which  causes  it 
to  be  employed  in  the  state  of  clays  as  a  cleansing 
powder,  and  in  a  state  of  purity  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  colors  called  lakes,  in  dyeing  and 
calico-printing.  It  combines  with  the  acids,  and 
forms  numerous  salts,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  sulphate  (see  Alum)  and  the 
acetate.  The  latter  salt  is  formed  by  digesting 
strong  acetic  acid  (vinegar)  with  the  newly  pre- 
cipitated earth ;  but  for  the  use  of  the  manufac- 
turer, by  decomposing  alum  with  acetate  of  lead 
(sugar  of  lead),  or  more  economically  with 
acetate  of  lime,  a  gallon  of  which,  of  the  specific 
gravity  1.050,  is  employed  for  every  2j4  pounds 
of  alum.  The  sulphate  of  calcium  formed  falls 
to  the  bottom,  and  the  acetate  of  aluminum  re- 
mains in  solution  with  an  excess  of  alum,  which 
is  necessary  to  prevent  its  decomposition.  It  is 
of  extensive  use  in  calico-printing  and  dyeing, 
as  a  mordant,  and  is  employed  in  the  place  of 
alum,  to  which  it  is  generally  preferred. 

Aluminite,  a  mineral  having  the  composi- 
tion of  a  hydrous  aluminum  sulphate,  Al-Oj. 
S  O3.  9  H20,  occurring  in  white  reniform  con- 
cretions in  beds  of  clay  in  Germany,  England 
and  other  European  countries.  It  is  opaque,  of 
earthy  luster  and  fracture,  is  soft  and  light. 

Alumino-Thermics.  The  new  science 
called  Alumino-Thermics  is  based  on  the  dis- 
covery that  by  producing  in  a  suitable  man 
ner  the  chemical  combination  of  oxygen  and 
aluminum  a  temperature  may  be  created 
equal  to  that  of  the  electric  arclight.  When 
this  mixture  is  ignited  in  one  spot  the  com- 
bustion continues  throughout  the  whole  mass 
in  a  very  short  time  without  any  supply  of 
heat  from   outside. 

In  the  crucible  after  the  reaction  there 
are  two  layers.  The  bottom  one  is  pure 
metal  of  equal  weight  to,  but  occupying  only 
one-third  of  the  space  of,  the  top  layer, 
which  is  now  oxide  of  aluminum,  so-called 
corundum.  These  two  layers  whilst  still 
liquid  are  poured  rapidly  over  the  rim  of 
the  crucible.  It  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish 
between  the  slag  which  (lows  first  and  the 
brightly   glittering    overheated    metal. 

\l">nt  50  years  ago,  attempts  were  made 
to  apply  the  reducing  properties  of  alumi- 
num.    Without   exception   the   experimenters 


ALUMINO-THERMICS 


heated  their  compounds  externally.  The  re- 
action was  always  so  violent  that  they  could 
only   operate   with    very    small    quantities.      It 

will  easily  be  seen  that  to  arrive  at  alumino- 
thermics  on  a  commercial  scale  from  such  a 
Starting  point  required  patient  study  and  as- 
siduous work.  The  recipes  for  gunpowder 
or  dynamite  sound  fairly  simple,  but  it  re- 
quires more  than  a  mere  mixture  of  the  in- 
gredients to  obtain  any  effect  sufficient  for 
industrial   development. 

Tn  all  exothermic  processes  the  physical 
properties  of  the  ingredients,  in  this  case  par- 
ticularlv  tlmse  of  the  oxides,  need  consider- 
ing. Then  the  methods  of  manufacture  have 
to  be  worked  out  for  each  case.  The  appli- 
cations may  be  roughly  divided  into  two 
main  divisions,  the  one  concerning  the  metal- 
lurgist.  the  other  the  engineer.  The  latter 
application  may  be  summarized  in  the  word 
"welding."  The  study  of  the  metallurgical 
application  preceded  that  of  the  other  by  a 
few  years. 

Among  the  pure  metals  produced  by 
the  alumino-genetic  reaction  may  be  men- 
tioned in  the  first  instance  chromium  free 
of  carbon.  It  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
particular  qualities  of  chromium  steel  with  a 
limited  percentage  of  carbon,  and  nowadays 
hardly  any  high-speed  tool  steel  is  made 
without  it.  Pure  manganese  also  produced 
by  this  process  finds  employment  in  copper 
and  nickel  manufacture,  and.  furthermore,  in 
the  production  of  particular  sorts  of  manga- 
nese steel  of  great  strength  and  great  elas- 
ticity with  12  to  14  per  cent,  manganese,  used 
particularly  for  bolts  of  machinery  exposed 
to  great  strains.  Pure  molybdenum  and 
ferro-vanadium  have  also  lately  been  put  on 
the  market.  Ferro-titanium  has  been  in  use 
with  a  number  of  steel  works  for  quite  a 
considerable  time. 

Considering  the  innumerable  details  con- 
nected with  the  application  of  so  new  and 
practically  unknown  a  force,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  only  since  a  Jew  years  the  proc- 
ess has  been  introduced  on  a  large  and  com- 
mercial scale.  The  most  important  of  these 
welding  processes  is  the  one  by  which  a  con- 
tinuous rail — a  necessity  of  modern  trolley- 
road  construction  —  is  simply,  cheaply  and 
effectively  obtained.  The  marked  advantage 
enjoyed  by  this  system  is  the  absence  of  any 
bulky  equipment:  a  crucible,  a  mould  box, 
and.  in  some  rare  instances  where  a  complete 
butt  weld  of  the  head  of  the  rail  is  desired. 
a  rail-clamp  is  all  that  is  required.  All  these 
materials,  including  the  necessary  quantity 
of  thermit,  can  easily  be  moved  on  a  hand 
truck.  Each  weld,  according  to  the  section, 
requires  from  is  to  20  pounds  of  thermit, 
and  the  metal  welded  around  the  joint  will 
only  weigh,  therefore,  from  S  to  10  pounds. 

The  thermit  reaction  takes  place  in  a 
crucible  which  rests  on  a  simple  iron  stand, 
that  can  be  attached  to  the  rails  or  rail- 
clamps  where  such  are  used.  The  crucible 
consists  of  a  sheet-iron  mantle  lined  with 
magnesia  or  corundum  slag,  which  is  tamped 
round  a  sheet-iron  conns  suspended  in  its 
middle.  The  bottom  is  formed  by  a  hard 
magnesia   stone   provided   with   an   exchange- 


able outlet  which  will  stand  9  or  10  runs. 
The  life  of  the  crucible  itself  is  about  25 
reactions;  the  wear  and  tear  will  amount, 
therefore,  to  only  a  few  cents  per  joint. 
The  crucible  is  plugged  by  inserting  two 
asbestos  washers  covered  by  a  metal  disk 
nver  the  outflow  or  thimble.  In  the  latter 
is  suspended  a  piece  of  iron  wire,  the  lower 
end  of  which  projects  below  the  base  of  the 
crucible.  This  is  driven  up  by  a  sort  or 
spade  and  so  "taps"  the  crucible.  The  heat 
nf  the  thermic  reaction  might  in  spite  of  the 
asbestos  washers  burst  through  the  plugging 
material.  To  prevent  this  the  metal  disk  is 
further  covered  by  a  layer  of  magnesia  sand. 
The  thermic  is  then  poured  into  the  crucible 
from  bags  containing  the  necessary  amount 
for  each  section.  After  the  charge  in  tin' 
crucible  has  been  ignited  in  the  usual  way 
the  reaction  takes  its  course  and  the  crucible 
is  tapped  to  allow  the  liquid  steel  to  flow 
into  the  mould. 

The  mould  is  made  according  to  a  special 
design  for  each  section.  Its  two  parts,  one 
on  each  side,  exactly  tit  and  firmly  enclose 
the  rail.  It  must  be  dry  and  porous.  On  a 
large  scale  moulds  can  be  made  by  manu- 
facturers of  refractory  earthenware  or  by 
railway  lines,  according  to  their  require- 
ments, in  their  own  shops,  by  tamping  an 
ordinary  mixture  of  loam  and  sand  in  equal 
parts  into  a  sheet-iron  case  placed  over  the 
model.  This  sand  mould  must  be  dried  dur- 
ing a  couple  of  hours  at  a  temperature  of 
alii  nit  too"  C.  Before  placing  the  mould 
round  the  joint,  the  rail  ends  must  be 
cleaned  of  dirt  and  rust  with  a  wire  brush 
and  slightly  warmed.  In  case  the  tops  of 
the  rails  are  to  be  butt-welded  the  sections 
must  be  filed.  The  great  heat  of  the  liquid 
thermit  steel  literally  melts  and  amalgamates 
the  ends  of  rails  projecting  into  the  moulds, 
making  them  as  one,  so  that  when  cool  it 
leaves  a  continuous  rail.  The  joint,  if  any- 
thing, is  stronger  than  an  equal  section  of 
the  rail,  from  the  fact  that  a  shoe  or  collar 
is  left  around  the  rail  at  the  joint  of  thermit 
steel. 

As  the  whole  heating  of  the  rail  ends  :s 
a  uniform  one,  and  the  same  is  done  without 
exposure  to  the  atmosphere;  and  as  the  final 
cooling  is  done  under  the  same  conditions 
as  that  under  which  a  rail  is  made,  it  has 
been  found  that  there  are  no  changes  in  the 
ingredients  or  temper  of  the  steel  in  the  rail, 
and  it  is  left  just  as  it  was,  except  that  the 
ends  are  melted  together  up  to,  and  generally 
a  little  above  the  bottom  of  the  tread  of  the 
rail.  If  the  alignment  and  surface  of  the  rail 
at  the  joint  was  perfect  before  making  the 
weld,  it  will  be  found  to  be  the  same  after, 
except  that  a  slight  longitudinal  expansion 
has  taken  place,  caused  by  the  heat:  and  all 
of  this  is  to  the  benefit  of  the  joint,  for  with 
the  heat  it  tends  to  butt-weld  the  heads;  in 
fact,  it  does  so  if  the  rail  ends  touch  each 
other  when  the  weld  is  made. 

The  cost  of  relining  crucibles  and  moulds 
amounts  to  but  a  few  cents  per  joint,  and 
experience  shows  that  the  item  of  labor  per 
joint  should  not  run  over  15  cents.  The  sys- 
tem can   be  applied   on   short  lines  with  the 


ALUMINO-THERMICS 


same  economy  as  on  long  ones,  for  it  is  only 
a  question  of  the  number  of  men,  and  con- 
sequently the  number  of  joints  required  per 
day.  It  is  especially  an  ideal  system  for  re- 
pairing old  worn  joints,  for  but  little  paving 
need  be  taken  up  (sufficient  to  take  off  the 
old  fishplate),  and  in  a  few  minutes  a  joint 
may  be  raised  and  welded,  and  that  would 
prolong  the  life  of  an  old  track  for  many 
years.  The  strength  of  the  weld  is  about 
80  per  cent,  of  the  strength  of  the  original 
material.  The  shoe  welded  on  to  the  foot  of 
the  rail  not  only  makes  up  for  the  remaining 
20  per  cent.,  but  materially  strengthens  the 
rail  at  the  joint. 

The  so-called  third  rail  is  also  welded  by 
this  means.  The  skin  resistance  of  copper 
bonds  increases  with  time,  and  frequent  re- 
pairs are  necessitated  thereby.  Welding 
obviates  these  repairs.  It  can  be  done  in 
two  ways.  The  first  is  identical  with  the  one 
described  (but  without  the  use  of  clamps), 
and  is  now  in  extensive  operation.  The 
second  consists  in  welding  a  small  bridge  of 
thermit  iron  between  the  feet  on  one  side  of 
the  rail.  The  other  side  of  the  ioint,  where 
there  is  no  thermit-welded  bridge,  is  me- 
chanically strengthened  by  an  ordinary  light 
fishplate.  In  this  case  the  crucible  is  super- 
flous.  The  welding  portion  of  about  three 
pounds  only  is  placed  directly  into  the  upper 
part  of  the  mould,  which  is  prolonged  by  a 
piece  of  gas  pipe. 

The  question  of  the  continuous  rail  with 
exposed  T  rails  on  railroads  is  not  solved  at 
present  for  want  of  sufficient  tests.  Of 
course,  welding  is  the  only  means  by  which 
a  continuous  rail,  properly  speaking,  can  be 
obtained  with  exposed  rails.  That  it  is  prac- 
ticable within  certain  limits  and  that  it  is  de- 
sirable to  have  greater  lengths  of  exposed 
track  welded  together  is  admitted  by  per- 
manent-way engineers.  The  question  is  be- 
ing investigated  at  present,  but  some  time 
must  elapse  before  a  definite  opinion  can  be 
arrived  at.  In  any  case  exposed  rails  can 
undoubted! v  be  welded  without  any  risk  in 
tunnels  and  subways,  where  differences  of 
temperature  are  very  slight,  and  contraction 
and  expansion  therefore  only  minimal. 

Steel  girders  for  construction  work  ca::, 
of  course,  be  welded  in  the  same  way  as  rails. 
For  really  solid  jointing  equal  to  the  strength 
of  the  girder  itself,  welding  is  necessarily 
cheaper  than  riveting.  Considerable  work  of 
this  kind  has  already  been  done  in  Germany, 
but  in  Europe  there  are  few  of  the  wonder- 
ful steel-girder  constructions  which  so 
greatly  impress  the  European  on  his  arrival 
in  this  country.  There  is  a  wide  field  for 
this  work  in  the  United  States  as  soon  as  the 
preparatory  experiments  and  calculations 
have  been  made  and  officially  sanctioned. 

The  result  of  the  reaction  in  the  crucible 
is  a  liquid  iron,  which  sinks  to  the  bottom, 
and  an  aluminum  slag  that  swims  on  the 
top.  Whoever  has  a  supply  of  thermit  and 
ignition  powder  has  a  supply  of  liquid  mild 
steel,  which,  on  account  of  its  low  contents 
of  carbon.  o.T  per  cent.,  is  very  malleable 
and  ductile.  Foundries  can  correct  faulty 
eastings,    machine    shops    can    mend    broken 


or  worn  out  parts,  and  last,  but  not  least. 
marine  engineering  works  can  repair  large 
steel  castings,  such  as  crank  shafts,  and  par- 
ticularly broken  sternposts.  The  weld  can 
either  be  effected  by  running  the  thermit 
iron  round  the  ends  of  the  piece  in  the  shape 
of  a  ring,  or  by  both  running  it  between  and 
around  at  the  same  time. 

The  mould  must  be  made  of  sand  and 
loam  in  equal  parts,  or  one-third  sand  and 
two-thirds  china  clay.  It  must  be  absolutely 
dry.  Thermit  steel  being  much  hotter  than 
steel  out  of  a  furnace,  the  mould  must  have 
no  trace  of  moisture.  Dry  first  gradually 
and  then  in  the  furnace  to  dull  red  heat. 
The  quality  of  the  thermit  steel  may  be 
adapted  to  various  requirements  by  mixing 
small,  clean  iron  punchings,  or  the  like,  into 
the  thermit  powder.  For  5  to  10  pounds  or 
more  an  admixture  of  5  to  10  per  cent,  of 
punchings  will  not  make  the  overheated 
steel  lose  the  property  of  melting  and 
fusing  with  the  metal  with  which  it  comes 
in  contact.  The  proportion  of  punchings 
may  be  increased  considerably  (even  20  to 
25  per  cent.)  for  larger  operations.  Iron  or 
steel  punchings  will  moderate  the  temperature 
of  the  reaction,  and  increase,  of  course,  the 
quantity  of  the  metal  available  for  the  weld. 

The  most  startling,  and  at  the  same  time, 
the  most  effective  work  done  in  the  way  of 
repairs  by  the  thermit  is  in  connection  with 
marine  engineering.  To  weld  broken  stern- 
post  of  large  trans-Atlantic  liners,  or  crank- 
shafts, or  similar  pieces,  crucibles  of  six  feet 
in  height,  with  a  capacity  of  seven  to  eight 
cwt,  have  been  constructed.  The  reaction  in 
these  hardly  takes  longer  than  in  a  small 
crucible.  The  enormous  advantage  offered 
to  steamship  owners  by  such  repairs  will  be 
apparent  when  it  is  remembered  that  a 
broken  sternpost  would  otherwise  have  to  be 
replaced  by  a  new  one.  Besides  this  ex- 
pense, the  one  incurred  through  loss  of  time, 
the  steamer  being  laid  up  in  dry  dock  for 
many  weeks  in  order  to  have  the  new  part 
fitted   in,  is  very  heavy  indeed. 

In  nearly  all  experiments  the  thermit  is 
ignited  in  a  crucible  so  as  to  allow  the 
liquid  steel  to  flow  out  independently  from 
the  much  lighter  slag.  The  slag  is  not  used 
in  welding  solid  pieces,  except  as  an  addi- 
tional reservoir  of  heat.  The  slag,  however, 
has  the  peculiar  property  of  adhering  in- 
stantly in  a  thin  layer  to  any  cold  metal  ob- 
ject with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  Were 
thermit  to  be  ignited  directly  on  a  piece  of 
metal,  the  slag  would  get  in  between  the 
liquid  steel  and  the  object  to  be  operated 
upon,  and  would  prevent  the  fusion  of  the 
two  metals,  which  is  essential  for  a  good 
weld. 

An  application  where  thermit  may  be  ig- 
nited on  the  object,  is  in  repairs  of  broken 
roll  bosses.  The  roll  is  firmly  fixed  so  that 
the  welding  surface  lizes  horizontally.  The 
mould  carries  on  its  inside,  suspended  by  an 
overlapping  rim,  an  iron  ring  of  one-half 
inch  diameter.  After  this  mould  and  ring 
are  firmly  fixed  one-half  inch  of  liquid  cast 
iron  or  cast  steel  is  poured  on  the  welding 
surface.      On    this    the    thermit    powder    is 


ALUMINO-THERMICS  —  ALUMINUM 


poured  and  ignited.  About  30  to  40  pounds 
arc  taken  for  the  superficial  foot.  This  will 
soften    the   metal   to   a   depth   of   about   two 

inches.  As  soon  as  the  reaction  is  finished 
the  thermit  must  be  well  stirred.  The  slag, 
on  account  of  its  low  specific  gravity,  will 
thus  be  driven  to  the  surface,  and  will  cling 
to  the  iron  ring  which  i-  suspended  111  the 
mould.  After  a  few  minutes  more  liquid 
steel  is  added  from  the  ladle  held  in  rcadi- 
ness,  and  after  thoroughly  stirring  the  con- 
tents of  the  mould  the  iron  ring  is  lifted  out, 
and  all  the  slag  will  be  found  adhering  to  it. 
This  repair  is  in  common  use  with  the 
largest  works  in  Germany. 

The  property  of  the  slag  of  adhering  in 
a  thin  refractory  layer  to  any  metal  surface 
leads  to  an  application  of  the  thermic  process 
where  it  plays  the  leading  part  —  that  is,  in 
welding  wrought-iron  pipes.  Of  course,  the 
heat  of  the  iron,  if  applied  direct,  would 
destroy  the  thin  walls  of  any  pipe.  But  as 
the  slag  is  absolutely  refractory  to  liquid 
steel,  it  replaces  in  a  way  the  steel  for  the 
purpose  of  welding.  The  modus  operandi  is 
changed  in  some  essential  particulars.  The 
reaction  takes  place  in  a  crucible  with  a  solid 
bottom:  a  small  quantity  of  thermit  only  is 
ignited  at  first,  and  to  this  more  is  added 
as  the  mass  subsides,  and  finally  the  contents 
are  poured  over  the  lip  of  the  crucible  in 
order  to  direct  the  slag,  and  not  the  iron, 
onto  the  thin  walls  of  the  pipe.  To  butt- 
weld  the  pipes,  the  ends  must  be  made  to 
fit  accurately  on  to  each  other,  and  must  be 
made  bright  with  a  file  or  emery  paper.  The 
two  pipes  are  then  firmly  pressed  together 
by  the  clamping  apparatus,  and  the  sheet- 
iron  mould,  well  surrounded  with  moist  sand, 
is  attached.  Welding  temperature  will  take 
place  within  a  minute  or  two  after  pouring. 
The  clamps  then  want  tightening  one  turn 
of  the  screw,  and  the  weld  is  completed. 
The  mould  box  is  removed  almost  at  once, 
and  can  be  used  several  times. 

The  surrounding  mass,  containing  the  iron  be- 
tween layers  of  slag,  like  the  yolk  in  the  white 
of  an  egg,  is  easily  removed  with  a  hammer. 
Such  welds  will  stand  pressure  of  hundreds  of 
atmospheres  —  as  a  matter  of  fact,  as  much  as 
the  pipe  itself.  About  30.000  to  40,000  pipe 
joints  have  been  welded  by  this  method,  the 
advantages  of  which  are,  shortly,  that  the  opera- 
tion can  take  place  anywhere  without  removing 
the  pipe  from  its  position,  and  that  it  is  cheaper 
than  a  solid  flanged  joint.  The  dimensions  of 
the  mould  have  been  carefully  worked  out  and 
tabulated  for  every  size  of  wrought-iron  pipe 
up  to  six  inches  diameter.  The  thermit  used 
for  pipe  welding  is  of  slightly  different  compo- 
sition to  the  one  for  welding  solid  pieces.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  two  other  kinds  of  thermit, 
chiefly  distinguished  by  the  greater  plasticity  of 
their  slag.  One  of  these,  so-called  "white  ther- 
mit," is  used  for  annealing  locally  the  plates  of 
armor-clads,  which  are  hardened  to  such  an  ex- 
tent by  carburization  as  to  prevent  any  tools 
being  used  on  them.  Such  armor  plates  can  be 
easily  softened  by  applying  to  the  hardened  sur- 
face a  layer  of  thermit  slag  with  thermit  steel 
at  the  back  of  it. 

For    cast    iron,    and    in    some    cases    for 
steel,  a   special   thermit  is   used  which   gives 


an  alloy  of  iron  and  titanium  so  that  the 
titanium  enters  the  liquid  metal.  This  is 
introduced  below  the  surface  of  the  bath  by 
fastening  the  box  containing  the  thermit  to 
a  -hank  and  holding  it  down  on  the  bottom 
of  the  ladle.  The  reaction  takes  place  all 
through  the  contents  of  the  ladle  and 
thoroughly  stirs  them  up  in  the  space  of  a 
minute  or  two.  Gases  and  particles  of  slag 
are  driven  upwards,  so  that  the  fluidity 
of  the  iron  is  increased.  The  proportion  of 
added  thermit  is  only  one-quarter  to  one- 
sixteenth  per  cent,  ^i  the  total  content-  of 
the  ladle.  The  effect  of  the  titanium  is  10 
bind  small  quantities  of  nitrogen  to  increase 
the  fluidity  of  the  cast  iron,  and  to  produce 
a  liner  grain. 

Another  application  of  the  "box-reaction" 
is  important  for  steel  castings,  and  especially 
for  easting  large  steel  ingots,  to  prevent  the 
familiar  phenomenum  of  piping.  In  the  heads 
of  such  blocks  hollow  spaces  are  found  which 
mostly  cause  30  to  40  per  cent,  of  loss.  The 
thermit  process  as  used  for  this  purpose  con- 
sists in  introducing  a  box  of  anti-piping 
thermit  into  a  block  with  aid  of  an  iron  rod. 
The  box  is  introduced,  of  course,  only  after 
the  piping  has  been  formed.  The  head  layer, 
which  has  already  become  solid,  is  broken 
through  for  this  purpose.  Immediately  after 
the  reaction  is  completed,  steel  which  is  held 
in  readiness  for  this  purpose  is  poured  into 
the  open  hole.  The  method  is  really  very 
simple,  and  one  learns  very  quickly  at  which 
time  to  introduce  the  box.  Moreover,  it  is 
very  cheap,  only  about  10  pounds  of  thermit 
being  required  for  blocks  of  20  tons  weight. 

The  simplest,  and  at  the  same  time,  most 
effective  application  of  thermit  in  foundry 
practice  is  the  following:  Wrap  thermit  in 
a  paper  parcel  and  throw  it  on  the  liquid 
metal  as  it  rises  in  the  riser.  The  liquid 
metal  will  be  revived  at  the  point  where  it 
is  most  liable  to  chill,  and  the  well-known 
troublesome  shrinkage  cavities  will  be 
avoided.  When  applied  to  cast  iron  the 
paper  must  contain  some  ignition  powder  at 
the  bottom;  with  steel  this  is  unnecessary. 
Edward  S.  Farrow, 

Consulting  Railroad  and  Mining  Engineer. 

Alu'minum,  a  lustrous,  nearly  white  metal, 
widely  used  in  the  arts.  Its  existence  was  rec- 
ognized by  Davy,  although  he  did  not  succeed 
in  isolating  the  metal.  Davy  gave  it  the  name 
"alumium,"  and  afterward  "aluminum." 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
alumen,  signifying  "alum";  but  the  Romans  and 
the  Greeks  had  no  very  exact  knowledge  of 
chemistry,  and  alumen  and  its  Greek  equivalent 
were  used  to  designate  a  variety  of  substances 
whose  one  common  property  is  an  astringent 
taste.  The  substance  now  called  alum  was  in 
all  probability  included  among  them,  for  it  was 
well  known  to  Geber.  Alum  was  long  believed 
to  be  of  the  same  nature  as  the  vitriols,  until 
Paracelsus  announced  that  the  vitriols  contain 
metals,  while  alum  (he  said)  does  not  contain  a 
metal,  but  derives  its  properties  from  an  "inter- 
mixture of  the  earths."  It  was  long  believed 
that  the  earth  contained  in  alum  is  of  a  calcare- 
ous or  lime-like  nature:  but  in  the  17th  century 
it  was  noticed  that  an  alum  may  be  obtained  by 
treating    clay    with    sulphuric    acid,    and    in    a 


ALUMINUM 


treatise  published  in  1746  Pott  stated  that  the 
earth  forming  the  base  of  alum  is  of  an  argilla- 
ceous or  clay-like  nature.  Eight  years  later,  in 
1754,  Marggraf  announced  that  alumina,  the 
earth  (now  called  the  oxid)  of  alum,  is  en- 
tirely different  from  lime,  and  that  it  exists  in 
clay,  combined  with  silica.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  19th  century  alumina  was  generally  admitted 
to  be  the  oxid  of  some  metal  and  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  and  other  chemists  endeavored  to  decom- 
pose it  and  obtain  the  metal  itself.  They  were 
unsuccessful,  however,  and  the  isolation  of  alu- 
minum was  first  accomplished  by  Wohler  in 
1827,  by  heating  the  chloride  of  alumina  with 
metallic  potassium.  The  potassium  abstracted 
the  chlorine  and  thereby  set  the  aluminum  free. 
Paracelsus  was  wrong  in  asserting  that  the  base 
of  common  alum  is  not  a  metal,  but  his  error 
was  due  to  his  pardonable  ignorance  of  the  fact 
that  all  the  so-called  "earths"  are  oxids  of 
metals. 

The  new  metal  proved  to  be  most  remarkable. 
Although  it  had  so  powerfully  resisted  all  the 
earlier  attempts  to  separate  it  from  the  oxygen 
with  which  it  was  combined,  yet,  when  the  sepa- 
ration had  once  been  effected,  it  was  found  that 
the  metal  exhibits  no  very  marked  tendency  to 
oxidize,  even  when  heated  in  oxygen.  It  is 
nearly  white,  but  has  a  slightly  bluish  tinge.  It 
is  about  as  hard  as  silver  and  is  very  malleable 
and  ductile.  It  can  readily  be  drawn  out  into 
wire  or  beaten  into  leaf.  It  takes  a  good  polish, 
especially  when  alloyed  with  about  three  per 
cent  of  silver.  It  has  a  tensile  strength  about 
equal  to  that  of  copper,  and  a  specific  gravity 
of  only  about  2.6.  It  melts  at  about  1,300°  F., 
its  specific  heat  is  0.221,  its  coefficient  of  ex- 
pansion (Fahrenheit  scale)  is  0.00129,  and  its 
atomic  weight  is  27.1.  Bars  of  the  metal  emit 
a  very  musical  sound  when  struck,  but  it  is 
said  that  a  bell  made  of  it  "sounds  like  a  cracked 
pot."  Aluminum  is  very  feebly  magnetic.  It  is 
scarcely  affected  by  nitric  acid,  though  hydro- 
chloric and  sulphuric  acids  will  dissolve  it,  and 
it  is  entirely  unaffected  by  sulphur,  except  at 
high  temperatures.  Solutions  of  caustic  potash 
or  soda,  however,  dissolve  it  readily,  with  evolu- 
tion of  hydrogen. 

Aluminum  is  exceedingly  abundant  in  nature, 
for  next  to  oxygen  and  sHica  it  is  the  chief 
component  of  the  earth's  crust.  Feldspar  and 
mica  contain  it  in  considerable  quantities,-  as 
well  as  common  clay,  which  is  formed  by  the 
disintegration  of  feldspar.  The  oxid  of  alu- 
minum occurs  in  many  beautiful  forms,  giving 
us  the  ruby  and  the  sapphire,  besides  forming  an 
essential  part  of  the  garnet,  topaz,  turquoise,  and 
emerald.  Corundum  and  emery,  which  are  al- 
most indispensable  for  grinding  and  polishing 
purposes,  are  also  forms  of  the  oxid.  Kaolin, 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  is  a  very 
pure  silicate  of  aluminum.  The  beautiful  lapis- 
lazuli  contains  a  considerable  proportion  of  alu- 
minum :  and  ultramarine  blue,  formerly  obtained 
by  pulverizing  lapis-lazuli,  is  now  prepared  ar- 
tificially from  kaolin,  together  with  other  sub- 
stances. The  red  color  of  the  ruby  is  due  to  a 
trace  of  certain  chromium  salts,  and  the  blue 
of  the  sapphire  is  probably  due  to  a  trace  of 
some  compound  of  cobalt.  By  melting  oxid  of 
aluminum  in  the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe  flame, 
adding  a  slight  amount  of  certain  metallic  oxids, 
and  cooling  again,  artificial  rubies  and  sapphires 


have  been  made  which  are  indistinguishable 
from  the  natural  gems,  except  to  the  eye  of  an 
expert. 

Although  aluminum  is  far  more  abundant 
than  tin,  copper,  lead,  zinc,  or  iron,  it  can  be  ex- 
tracted from  the  minerals  in  which  it  occurs 
only  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  Until  very 
recently  the  aluminum  of  commerce  has  been 
prepared  by  substantially  the  method  first 
given  for  its  isolation  by  Wohler,  the  chief  dif- 
ference, aside  from  matters  of  practical  detail, 
being  the  substitution  of  metallic  sodium  for  the 
more  expensive  potassium.  At  the  present  time, 
however,  practically  all  of  the  aluminum  that  is 
produced  is  obtained  by  electrolysis.  Prof.  C. 
F.  Chandler  describes  the  Hall  process  (which 
differs  from  the  Heroult  process  only  in  its 
details)  as  follows:  "It  was  a  remarkable  fact, 
after  all  the  attention  that  had  been  devoted  to 
the  subject  of  aluminum  by  St.  Claire  Deville 
and  other  chemists,  that  it  remained  for  a 
young  graduate  of  Oberlin  College,  Charles  M. 
Hall,  to  devise  the  process  by  which  all  the  alu- 
minum in  the  world  is  now  manufactured.  It 
occurred  to  young  Hall,  whose  attention  was 
drawn  to  the  subject  while  he  was  still  a  col- 
lege student,  that  some  way  might  be  found  for 
extracting  aluminum  by  electrolysis.  Satisfied 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  employ  an  aqueous 
solution,  he  sought  for  other  solvents,  and 
finally  discovered  that  a  melted  bath  of  the 
double  fluorides  of  aluminum  and  metals  more 
electro-positive  than  aluminum  (such  as  sodium 
or  calcium)  is  a  perfect  solvent  for  alumina, 
taking  it  up  as  promptly  as  hot  water  takes  up 
sugar,  and  dissolving  as  much  as  25  per  cent  of 
its  weight.  Having  thus  found  an  anhydrous 
solvent  for  alumina,  the  next  step  was  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  solution  would  yield  up  the 
aluminum  promptly  to  electrolysis."  The  most 
gratifying  success  attended  these  further  experi- 
ments, and  the  practical  details  of  the  process 
were  worked  out  at  Kensington,  Pa.  The  ves- 
sels or  pots  employed  in  the  making  of  alumi- 
num by  this  method  are  rectangular  iron  boxes, 
thickly  lined  with  carbon,  which  constitutes  the 
cathode.  The  anodes  consist  of  40  cylinders  of 
carbon,  each  about  3  inches  in  diameter  and 
18  inches  long  when  new.  These  are  supported 
above  the  pot,  dipping  into  the  bath  of  melted 
fluorides.  No  external  heat  is  employed,  the 
heat  developed  by  the  resistance  to  the  current 
being  sufficient  to  maintain  fusion.  Alumina 
is  added  from  time  to  time  as  required,  and  the 
process  goes  on  quietly.  The  resistance  of  the 
bath  is  low  when  charged  with  alumina,  but  it 
increases  fourfold  the  moment  the  alumina  is  ex- 
hausted. An  incandescent  lamp,  connected  with 
each  bath  in  parallel,  emits  no  light  while  the  re- 
sistance of  the  bath  is  low,  but  the  moment  the 
resistance  is  increased  by  the  exhaustion  of 
the  alumina  the  lamp  begins  to  shine  and  tin 
workmen  hasten  to  stir  in  a  fresh  supply  of 
alumina.  The  process  is  continuous,  and  it  i* 
only  necessary  to  keep  the  baths  supplied  with 
alumina  and  to  draw  off  the  metallic  aluminum 
from  the  bottom  of  the  pot  from  time  to  time. 
Each  pot  produces  about  100  pounds  of  alu- 
minum, 99  per  cent  pure,  per  day  of  24  hour- 

The  electric  resistance  of  aluminum  is  about 
twice  that  of  copper,  but  owing  to  the  lightness 
of  aluminum  and  its  constantly  diminishing 
price  (about  30  cents  a  pound  in'  1902")    it  bids 


ALUM-ROOT  —  ALVA 


fair  to  be  a  serious  rival  of  copper  in  the  trans- 
mission of  electricity.  Many  long  lines  of  alu- 
minum wire  have  been  installed  in  the  West.  One 
of  the  most  interesting,  in  the  East,  is  a  line  used 
to  transmit  power  to  Hartford,  Conn.,  from  a 
point  on  the  Farmington  River,  about  12  miles 
distant.  Three  aluminum  cables  are  used,  con- 
taining over  00,000  pounds  of  metal.  The  line 
was  designed  for  20,000  volts,  and  it  is  said  that 
in  this  instance  the  use  of  aluminum  instead  of 
copper  has  proved  an  entire  success,  both  electri- 
cally and  financially. 

The  most  valuable  property  of  aluminum  is 
perhaps  the  facility  with  which  it  alloys  with 
most  other  metals  except  lead.  It  has  been 
alloyed  with  bismuth,  calcium,  copper,  chromium, 
gold,  iron,  magnesium,  manganese,  mercury, 
molybdenum,  nickel,  platinum,  silver,  sodium, 
tin,  titanium,  tungsten,  and  zinc.  Some  of  its 
alleys  with  gold  are  very  beautiful,  and  it  has 
been  proposed  to  use  one  of  them  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  coins.  An  alloy  with  nickel  called 
"nickel  silver,®  promises  to  be  useful  in  the  fu- 
ture, as  it  is  strong  and  easily  worked  and  has 
a  beautiful  white  lustre  that  will  not  tarnish. 
The  most  useful  alloys  of  the  metal  at  present 
are  those  with  copper,  which  are  known  as 
"aluminum  bronzes."  The  alloy  containing  3 
per  cent  of  copper  is  whiter  than  aluminum;  and 
that  containing  from  90  to  95  per  cent  of  copper 
has  a  color  resembling  gold.  Aluminum  bronze 
is  hard  and  elastic  and  is  not  easily  affected  by 
chemical  reagents.  It  is  much  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  articles  of  all  kinds,  from  cheap 
jewelry  to  heavy  bearings  for  machinery.  (For 
information  concerning  the  working  of  alu- 
minum and  other  technical  points  consult  J.  \Y. 
Richards,  'Aluminum,  Its  Properties,  Metal- 
lurgy, and  Alloys.'   Philadelphia,  1890.) 

Notwithstanding  the  abundance  of  aluminum 
in  nature,  it  is  not  taken  up  by  plants  save  by 
a  few  cryptogams.  The  ash  of  Lycopodium 
ehamecypartssus  sometimes  contains  ^,7  per  cent 
of  alumina,  while  the  ash  of  oaks,  figs,  and 
birches,  grown  in  the  same  soil,  contains  none. 

Alum-root,  the  name  given  in  the  United 
States  to  two  plants  on  account  of  the  remark- 
able astringency  of  their  roots:  (1)  Geranium 
maculatum,  or  spotted  cranesbill,  is  a  native  of 
North  America  from  Canada  to  North  Caro- 
lina :  it  has  an  angular,  downy  stem,  3-5-parted 
leaves  with  deeply  toothed  lobes,  obovate  entire 
petals,  the  filaments  scarcely  ciliated  at  the  base; 
the  color  of  the  flowers  is  a  pale  lilac.  It  is  em- 
ployed successfully  as  a  remedy  in  dysentery 
among  children  :  the  tincture  is  recommended  in 
cases  of  ulcerated  sore  throat,  soreness  of  _ the 
gums.  etc.  The  plant  contains  large  proportions 
of  gallic  acid  and  tannin.  (2)  Heuchera  antrri- 
Cana  (natural  order  Saxifragaceir)  is  a  downy 
plant  with  rough  scapes  and  leaves,  the  latter 
bring  on  long  petioles,  5-7-lobed.  toothed;  the 
calyx  is  5-cleft.  petals  undivided,  five  stamens; 
the  styles  are  remarkably  long.  It  contains 
tannin  and  is  used  in  preparing  a  wash  for 
wounds,  ulcers,  etc. 

Alum-shale,  a  slaty  rock  of  different  de- 
grees of  hardness;  color  grayish,  bluish,  or  iron- 
black;  often  possessed  of  a  glossy  or  shining 
lustre.  It  is  chiefly  composed  of  clay  (silicate 
of  alumina),  with  variable  proportions  of  sul- 
phid  of  iron   (iron  pyrites),  lime,  bitumen,  and 


magnesia.  It  is  found  abundantly,  and  from  it 
is  obtained  the  largest  part  of  the  alum  of  com- 
merce. 

Alunite,  al'u-nit,  a  native  subsulphate  of 
aluminum  and  potassium,  having  the  formula 
K(A10),(SO,)»  +  3H.(|.  and  occurring  both 
massive  and  in  rhombohcdral  crystals  resembling 
S.  It  is  white  with  a  vitreous  lustre,  with 
a  hardness  varying  from  3.5  to  4,  and  a  specific 
gravity  of  about  2.6.  It  has  been  found,  in  the 
United  States,  in  California  and  Colorado.  Ac- 
cording to  Dana  it  was  first  called  "aluminilitc.1' 
a  name  afterward  abbreviated  to  the  present 
form.  Alum  may  be  obtained  from  it  by  re- 
peated roasting  and  lixiviation.  (Also  called 
alum-stone  and  alum-rock.) 

Alun'no,  Niccolo  (real  name  Niccolo  di 
Liberatore),  an  Italian  painter  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury, the  founder  of  the  Umbrian  School:  b. 
in  Foligno  about  1430;  d.   1502. 

Alunogen,  a-lu'no-jen,  a  native  hydrous 
sulphate  of  aluminum,  having  the  formula  An 
(S0,)j  +  18H2O.  It  occurs  massive,  as  an  in- 
crustation  in  mines  and  quarries,  and  also  in 
delicate  fibrous  forms.  Its  hardness  varies  from 
1.5  to  2,  and  its  sp.  gr.  is  about  1.7.  It  occurs 
in  large  quantities  in  Jackson  County,  N.  C,  and 
near  Silver  City,  N.  M. ;  and  it  is  found  in 
many  other  parts  of  the  United  States  in  small 
amounts. 

Aluredus,  an  English  historian:  b.  about 
1 100.     See  Alfred  of  Beverley. 

Alva,  or  Alba,  Ferdinand  Alvarez  de 
Toledo,  Duke  of,  Spanish  statesman  and  gen- 
eral:  b.  1508;  d.  Thomar,  12  Jan.  1582.  He  was 
educated  by  his  grandfather,  Frederick  of  Tole- 
do, who  instructed  him  in  military  and  political 
science.  He  commanded  unoer  Charles  V.  in 
Hungary,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Tunis 
and  in  the  expedition  against  Algiers.  His  cau- 
tious character  and  his  inclination  for  politics 
at  first  led  men  to  believe  that  he  had  but  little 
military  talent;  and  his  pride  being  touched  at 
the  low  estimation  in  which  he  was  held,  his 
genius  was  roused  to  the  performance  of  ex- 
ploits deserving  remembrance.  He  won  in  1547 
the  battle  of  Miihlberg  against  John  Frederick, 
elector  of  Saxony,  and  in  1555  was  commis- 
sioned to  attack  the  French  in  Italy,  and  Pope 
Paul  IV.,  the  irreconcilable  enemy  of  the  em- 
peror. When  Charles  V.  resigned  the  govern- 
ment to  his  son.  Philip  II.,  Alva  received  the 
supreme  command  of  the  army  and  conquered 
the  states  of  the  Church  and  frustrated  the  ef- 
forts of  the  French.  Philip,  however,  compelled 
him  to  contract  an  honorable  peace  with  the 
Pope,  whom  Alva  wished  to  humble.  He  ap- 
peared in  1559  at  the  French  court  in  order  to 
marry  Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Henry  II.,  by 
proxy,  for  his  sovereign  ;  she  had  been  at  first 
destined  for  the  crown-prince,  Don  Carlos. 
About  this  time  the  Netherlands  revolted,  and 
Alva  was  entrusted  with  a  considerable  army 
and  unlimited  power  to  reduce  the  rebellious 
provinces.  Scarcely  had  Alva  reached  Flanders 
at  the  end  of  August  1567,  when  he  established 
the  Council  of  Blood,  at  the  head  of  which  stood 
his  confidant,  Juan  de  Vargas.  This  tribunal 
condemned,  without  discrimination,  all  those 
whose  opinions  were  suspected  and  whose 
riches  excited  their  avarice.  The  present  and 
absent,  the  living  and  the  dead,  were  subjected 


ALVARADO  —  ALWAR 


to  trial,  and  their  property  confiscated.  The 
cruelty  of  Alva  was  increased  by  the  defeat  of 
his  lieutenant,  the  Duke  of  Aremberg,  and  he 
caused  the  Counts  of  Egmont  and  Hoorn  to  be 
executed.  He  afterward  defeated  the  Count  of 
Nassau  on  the  plains  of  Gemmingen.  Soon  af- 
ter, the  Prince  of  Orange  advanced  with  a  pow- 
erful army,  but  was  forced  to  withdraw  to 
Germany.  The  Duke  stained  his  reputation  as 
a  general  by  new  cruelties,  his  executioners 
shedding  more  blood  than  his  soldiers.  The 
pope  presented  him  with  a  consecrated  hat  and 
sword,  a  distinction  previously  conferred  only 
on  princes.  Holland  and  Zealand,  however,  still 
resisted  his  arms.  A  fleet  fitted  out  at  his  com- 
mand was  annihilated,  and  he  was  everywhere 
met  with  insuperable  courage.  This,  and  per- 
haps the  fear  of  losing  the  favor  of  the  king, 
induced  him  to  request  his  recall.  Philip  will- 
ingly granted  it,  as  he  perceived  that  the  resist- 
ance of  the  Netherlands  was  rendered  more  ob- 
stinate by  these  cruelties,  and  was  desirous  of 
trying  milder  measures.  In  December  1573  Alva 
proclaimed  an  amnesty,  resigned  the  command 
of  the  troops  to  Louis  de  Requesens,  and  left 
the  land  in  which  he  had  executed  18,000  men, 
as  he  himself  boasted,  and  kindled  a  war  that 
burned  for  68  years,  cost  Spain  $800,000,000,  its 
finest  troops,  and  seven  of  its  richest  provinces 
in  the  Low  Countries.  Alva  led  an  army  into 
Portugal,  gained  two  battles  in  three  weeks, 
drove  out  Don  Antonio,  and  reduced  all  Portu- 
gal, in  1581,  to  subjection  to  his  sovereign.  He 
made  himself  master  of  the  treasures  of  the 
capital  and  permitted  his  soldiers  to  plunder  the 
suburbs  and  surrounding  country  with  their 
usual  rapacity  and  cruelty.  It  is  said  of  him 
that  during  60  years  of  warfare  he  never  lost 
a  battle  and  was  never  taken  by  surprise. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de,  a  Spanish  soldier  of 
fortune,  the  companion  and  lieutenant  of  Cor- 
tez:  b.  Badajoz  about  1499;  d.  1541.  He  was 
of  good  family,  his  father  being  a  knight  of 
the  order  of  St.  James.  In  1518  he  accompanied 
Grijalva  in  a  small  expedition  sent  by  Velasquez, 
governor  of  Cuba,  to  explore  the  American 
coast.  A  considerable  amount  of  the  precious 
metals  was  obtained  by  barter,  and  Alvarado 
was  despatched  to  Cuba  with  this  treasure  and 
with  a  report  of  the  regions  which  had  been 
explored.  When  Cortez  was  called  away  to 
meet  Narvaez,  who  had  been  sent  by  Velasquez 
with  a  superior  force  to  supersede  him  in  com- 
mand, he  left  the  capital  and  his  royal  captive, 
Montezuma,  in  Alvarado's  charge,  and  in  1523 
was  sent  with  a  considerable  force  to  reduce  the 
tribes  of  Indians  in  the  direction  of  Guatemala. 
Having  beaten  off  all  opponents  he  founded  a 
city  now  called  Guatemala  la  Vieja,  and  es- 
tablished a  port  on  the  Pacific,  which  he  called 
Puerto  de  la  Posesion.  Embarking  for  Spain, 
he  was  received  with  great  honor  by  the  em- 
peror Charles  V.,  who,  in  acknowledgment  of 
his  services,  made  him  governor  of  Guatemala. 
He  shortly  returned  to  America  with  a  numer- 
ous band  of  knights  and  kinsmen,  and  Guatemala 
speedily  became  a  prosperous  citv.  An  attempt 
which  he  subsequently  made  on  Quito,  but  which 
he  was  induced  to  relinquish,  was  resented  by 
Pizarro  as  an  intrusion  within  the  boundaries  of 
his  command,  and  he  embarked  a  second  time  for 
Spain  to  vindicate  his  conduct  to  the  emperor. 


Alverstone,  Sir  Richard  Everard  Webster, 
first  baron  A;  British  Lord  Chief  Justice:  b.  22 
Dec.  1842.  He  was  educated  at  King's  College, 
the  Charterhouse  Schools,  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge.  In  1868  he  was  called  to  the  bar 
and  became  Q.  C.  ten  years  after.  He  was  ap- 
pointed attorney-general  in  June  1885  in  the 
Conservative  Government,  and  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  he  never  held  the  position  of  solicitor- 
general  and  did  not  at  the  time  occupy  a  seat 
in  Parliament.  He  was  elected  for  Launceston 
in  the  following  month  and  later  exchanged  his 
seat  for  the  Isle  of  Wight  which  he  continued 
to  represent  until  his  elevation  to  the  House  of 
Lords.  Except  under  the  brief  Gladstone  ad- 
ministration of  1886  and  the  Gladstone- Rose- 
bery  Cabinet  of  1892-5.  Sir  Richard  Webster 
was  Attorney-General  from  1885  to  1899.  In 
1893  he  represented  Great  Britain  in  the  Bering 
Sea  arbitration,  and  five  years  later  he  dis- 
charged the  same  function  in  the  matter  of  the 
boundary  between  British  Guiana  and  Vene- 
zuela. In  1899  he  succeeded  Sir  Nathaniel  Lind- 
ley  as  Master  of  the  Rolls,  at  the  same  time  be- 
ing raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Alverstone. 
In  October  of  the  same  year  he  was  elevated  to 
the  office  of  Lord  Chief  Justice  upon  the  death 
of  Lord  Russell  of  Killowen. 

Alvey,  Richard  Henry,  American  ju- 
rist: b.  1826.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1849:  was  a  member  of  the  Maryland  State  Con- 
stitutional Convention;  chief  judge  of  the 
Fourth  Judicial  Circuit,  and  a  judge  of  the 
Maryland  court  of  appeals  in  1867-83 ;  chief- 
justice  of  the  latter  court  in  1883-93;  became 
chief-justice  of  the  court  of  appeals  of  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  in  1893,  and  one  of  the  Ven- 
ezuela boundary  commissioners  in  1896. 

Alvord,  Benjamin,  American  soldier:  b. 
Rutland,  Vt.,  8  Aug.  1813 ;  d.  17  Oct.  1884.  Re- 
ceived a  military  education  at  West  Point,  and 
after  serving  in  the  second  Seminole  war,  and 
in  the  Mexican  war  also,  was  paymaster  of  the 
Department  of  Oregon,  1854-62.  He  was  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers,  1862-65,  retiring 
from  the  service  in  1881  with  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general. He  published  'Tangencies  of  Cir- 
cles and  of  Spheres'  (1855);  and  <The  Inter- 
pretation of  Imaginary  Roots  in  Questions  of 
Maxima  and  Minima'    (i860). 

Alvord,  Henry  Elijah,  American  soldier: 
b.  Greenfield,  Mass.,  11  March  1844.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1862  and  had  risen  to  the  rank  of 
major  in  1865.  He  was  a  cavalry  captain  in  the 
regular  army  1866-72,  and  chief  engineer  on 
Gen.  Sheridan's  staff  1868-69.  From  1886  to 
1888  he  was  professor  of  agriculture  in  the 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  College,  and  was 
president  of  the  Maryland  Agricultural  College 
1888-92.  He  has  for  many  years  been  prominent 
as  an  authority  on  agricultural  questions. 

Alwar,  a  town  of  Hindustan,  capital  of 
state  of  same  name,  situated  at  the  base  of  a 
rocky  range  of  quartz  and  slate,  80  m.  S.S.W.  of 
Delhi.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  mud  wall,  of  which 
the  gates  only  are  flanked  by  bastions,  and  it  is 
very  poorly  built.  The  only  edifices  worth  notice 
are  the  rajah's  palace,  which  is  of  a  cubical  form 
and  has  its  walls  pierced  with  numerous  small 
windows  and  decorated  with  rude  and  glaring 
paintings;  a  pavilion  of  white  marble,  built  by 
the  late  Rao  Rajah,  near  a  very  deep  tank  which 
he  had  executed,  and  displaying  no  small  degree 


AMADIS  —  AMALGAM 


of  taste;  and  several  Hindu  temples,  in  a  style 
imitated  from  Mohammedan  structures.  A  fort, 
crowning  the  lofty  mountain  which  overhangs 
the  town,  is  highly  ornamented  and  serves  the 
rajah  both  as  a  summer  palace  and  as  an  asylum 
in  times  of  danger.     Pop.  (1901)  56,750. 

Amadis,  a  name  appearing  frequently  in 
tin  chivalric  poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages.    Of  the 

numerous  romances  that  may  be  grouped  under 
it,  that  winch  narrates  the  adventures  of  Amadis 
of  Gaul  is  at  once  the  most  ancient  and  the  best. 
Ii  is  believed  that  the  earliest  forms  of  the 
story  were  a  lost  Castilian  version,  ahout  1250, 
and  a  Portuguese  version,  also  lost,  composed 
ahout  1370  by  Vasco  de  Lobeira  of  Porto.    Very 

likely  these  earlier  versions  may  have  heen  in 
verse.  Instead  of  these  we  have  a  Spanish 
prose  version  written  by  Garcia  Ordonez  de 
Montalvo  about  1465,  but  first  printed  in  1508. 
This  romance  is  one  of  the  three  spared  by  the 
licentiate  and  the  barber  at  the  burning  of  Don 
Quixote's  books,  and  the  barber's  reason  is 
that  "it  is  the  best  of  all  the  books  of  this  kind." 

The  Spanish  Amadis  romances  consist  of  12 
books,  of  which  the  first  four  contain  the  history 
of  Amadis  of  Gaul.  The  earliest  existing  ver- 
sion of  this  is,  as  has  heen  said,  that  of  Montal- 
vo, and  the  earliest  edition  now  in  existence  is 
dated  1508.  He  himself  added  a  fifth  book  con- 
taining the  adventures  of  Esplandian  (1510), 
the  eldest  son  of  Amadis  and  Gloriana ;  later 
writers  have  multiplied  the  posterity  of  the  old 
hero.  Already  in  1510  appeared  a  sixth  book 
with  the  history  of  Florisando,  his  nephew  ;  in 
1514,  1526,  and  1535,  respectively,  a  seventh, 
eighth,  and  ninth  book,  with  the  wonderful 
histories  of  Lisuarte  of  Greece,  a  son  of  Esplan- 
dian, and  Perion  of  Gaul,  and  the  still  more 
wonderful  history  of  Amadis  of  Greece,  a  great- 
grandson  of  the  Gallic  hero.  Then  follow  Don 
Florisel  of  Niquea  and  Anaxartes,  son  of  Li- 
suarte, whose  history,  with  that  of  the  children 
of  the  latter,  fills  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
books.  Lastly,  the  twelfth  hook,  printed  in  1546, 
narrates  the  exploits  of  Don  Silves  de  la  Selva, 
son  of  Amadis  of  Greece  and  Finistea.  A 
French  translation  appeared  in  1540,  an  Italian 
in  1546,  an  English  in  1588,  while  a  version  in 
German  was  published  in  1583.  The  French 
translators  increased  this  series  of  romances 
from  12  to  24  books;  the  German,  to  30.  Lastly, 
a  Frenchman,  Gilbert  Saunier  Duverdier,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century,  arranged  all  these 
romances  into  a  harmonious  and  consecutive 
series,  and  with  his  compilation  in  seven  vol- 
umes, the  'Roman  des  Romans,'  brought  the 
history  of  Amadis  and  the  series  of  about  50 
volumes  to  a  close.  A  version  in  French  was 
published  by  Creuze  de  Lesser  in  1813;  in  Eng- 
lish, by  William  Stewart  Rose,  in  1803. 

Amador,  Manuel,  first  president  of  the 
Republic  of  Panama :  b.  1841 ;  was  for  many 
years  minister  of  France  in  Panama.  He  is  a 
soldier,  statesman,  scholar  and  diplomat,  and 
was  largely  instrumental  in  forming  the  new 
Republic  of  Panama   (q.v.). 

Amalgam,  an  alloy  in  which  mercury  is 
an  important  constituent.  Silver  and  gold  amal- 
gams occur  in  nature  to  a  limited  extent,  but 
most  of  the  amalgams  are  of  artificial  origin. 
Four  general  methods  of  forming  them  may 
be    noted.     (1)   By    direct    contact    of    mercury 


with  the  metal  to  be  amalgamated.  Amalgams 
of  antimony,  arsenic,  bismuth,  cadmium,  gold, 
lead,  magnesium,  potassium,  silver,  sodium,  tel- 
lurium, thorium,  tin,  and  zinc  may  be  obtained 
in  tins  way.  The  different  elements  mentioned 
combine  with  the  mercury  with  varying  mani- 
festations of  affinity,  the  amalgamation  of  sodium 
being  attended  with  the  production  of  heat  and 
light,  while  in  the  case  of  zinc  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  bring  the  zinc  and  mercury  together 
in  the  presence  of  dilute  acid  before  they  will 
combine  evenly  and  smoothly.  (2)  By  immers- 
ing the  metal  to  he  amalgamated  in  a  solution 
of  a  salt  of  mercury.  Copper,  gold,  platinum, 
and  silver  can  he  amalgamated  in  tins  way. 
(3)  By  reversing  the  process  last  described,  and 
bringing  mercury  in  contact  with  a  salt  of  the 
metal  whose  amalgam  is  desired.  The  mercury, 
in   certain   cases,    will    partially    replace   the   metal 

in  solution,  the  portion  so  replaced  combining 
with  the  mercury  with  the  production  of  the 
desired    amalgam.     A    valuable    modification    of 

this  method  consists  in  substituting  for  the 
metallic  mercury  an  amalgam  of  zinc  or  of 
sodium,  the  zinc  or  sodium  changing  places 
with  the  metal  in  solution.  Amalgams  of  bis- 
nmili.  calcium,  chromium,  iridium,  iron,  magne- 
sium, manganese,  osmium,  palladium,  and  stron- 
tium may  he  prepared  by  the  use  of  sodium 
amalgam.  (4)  By  electrolysis,  the  metal  whose 
amalgam  is  desired  being  used  as  the  cathode 
in  a  solution  of  a  mercurial  salt.  (The  cathode 
may  also  be  metallic  mercury,  and  the  electro- 
lyte a  salt  of  the  metal  whose  amalgam  is  de- 
sired.) This  process  is  in  commercial  use  for 
the  production  of  sodium  hydrate,  a  solution  of 
sodium  chloride  (common  salt)  being  electro- 
lyzed  with  a  mercury  cathode.  The  cathode 
absorbs  the  sodium  with  the  formation  of  so- 
dium amalgam,  which  is  subsequently  decom- 
posed by  contact  with  water.  In  practice  the 
process  is  continuous,  a  part  of  the  mercury 
cathode  being  exposed  to  the  electrolytic  hath, 
while  another  part  is  simultaneously  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  water. 

In  the  formation  of  amalgams  there  is  usual- 
ly hut  little  thermal  effect.  In  the  case  of 
sodium  and  potassium,  however,  a  very  con- 
siderable amount  of  heat  is  evolved;  and  in 
the  formation  of  amalgams  of  bismuth,  lead,  and 
tin,  heat  is  absorbed. 

There  is  considerable  evidence  in  favor  of  the 
view  that  many  amalgams  contain  definite  com- 
pounds of  mercury  and  the  other  constituent 
metals.  Thus  when  certain  amalgams  are  heated 
(say)  to  the  boiling  point  of  sulphur,  the  ex- 
cess of  mercury  present  appears  to  he  volatilized, 
so  as  to  leave  a  body  behind  that  has  a  definite 
chemical  composition.  In  this  way  Son/a  ob- 
tained amalgams  having  the  apparent  composi- 
tion Au»Hg,  Agi,Hg.  Cui«Hg,  Na  Hg,  and  K.llg. 
the  last-mentioned  being  silvery  in  appearance 
and  crystalline  in  structure.  But  it  is  said  that 
all  these  amalgams,  as  well  as  many  others, 
continue  to  lose  mercury  slowly  when  the  tem- 
perature is  maintained  high;  and  this  fact,  while 
not  disproving  the  existence  of  a  definite  com- 
pound of  mercury  and  the  metal,  lessens  its 
probability.  Amalgams  having  the  composition 
CuHg,  AgHg.  FeHg.  Zirllg.  PfcHg,  and  I'tllg, 
have  also  been  prepared  by  expelling  the  excess 
of  mercury  from  amalgams  richer  in  that  metal 
by  exposure  to  a  pressure  of  70  tons  to  the 
square  inch. 


AMANA  — AMARNA  LETTERS 


One  of  the  most  interesting  amalgams  from 
the  standpoint  of  chemical  theory  is  the  amal- 
gam of  the  hypothetical  radical  "ammonium,1' 
which  is  descrihed  under  Ammonia. 

The  affinity  of  mercury  for  gold  is  put  to 
practical  use,  in  mining,  for  the  recovery  of  small 
particles  of  gold  from  auriferous  gravel  or 
crushed  quartz.  The  details  of  the  process  vary 
somewhat  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ma- 
terial from  which  the  gold  is  to  be  extracted; 
but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  pulverized 
gold-bearing  quartz  or  gravel  is  washed,  in  a 
finely  divided  state,  over  a  plate  of  amalgamated 
copper,  to  which  the  gold  particles  adhere. 
From  time  to  time  the  gold  amalgam  is  scraped 
from  the  copper  plate,  and  more  mercury  is 
added.  The  presence  of  sulphur  (from  py- 
rites) seriously  interferes  with  this  process,  by 
causing  the  formation  of  a  sulphid  of  mercury 
which  destroys  the  efficiency  of  the  amalga- 
mated plate.  The  mercury  is  then  said,  in 
miners'  parlance,  to  become  "sick."  To  prevent 
this,  the  ore,  if  originally  rich  in  pyrites,  is 
roasted  to  expel  the  sulphur  before  being  sub- 
mitted to  amalgamation.     See  Gold. 

Mirrors  are  silvered  by  amalgams.  One  of 
the  simplest  of  those  so  used  is  composed  of  I 
part  of  tin  to  3  of  mercury.  A  superior  amal- 
gam for  this  purpose  contains  2  parts  of  bis- 
muth, one  part  each  of  lead  and  tin,  and  4  parts 
of  mercury.  In  dentistry  the  "silver  filling" 
used  for  closing  the  cavities  in  teeth  is  an 
amalgam.  Its  composition  varies  somewhat,  but 
a  preparation  containing  2  parts  of  mercury  and 
I  part  of  pulverized  zinc  gives  excellent  results. 
It  hardens  quickly,  and  expands  slightly  in 
solidifying,  thus  filling  the  cavity  tightly.  Amal- 
gams of  copper,  silver,  lead,  and  tin  have  a 
volume  smaller  than  the  sum  of  the  volumes  of 
their  constituents.     See  Battery. 

Amana,  Iowa,  a  town  in  Iowa  co.,  28  m. 
W.  of  Iowa  City,  the  site  of  a  German  commu- 
nistic religious  colony  founded  in  1885.  It  in- 
cludes the  seven  villages  of  Amana,  the  oldest 
and  largest ;  East  Amana ;  Middle  Amana  ;  High 
Amana ;  West  Amana ;  South  Amana ;  and 
Homestead.  The  society  is  governed  by  a  pres- 
ident and  a  board  of  13  directors,  and  each  vil- 
lage is  controlled  by  seven  or  more  elders  ap- 
pointed by  the  board  of  directors.  Family  life 
is  kept  up,  but  in  every  village  are  from  four  to 
sixteen  "kitchen-houses"  where  meals  are  pre- 
pared and  served.  The  community  owns  and 
operates  woolen,  flour,  and  saw  mills,  dye  shops, 
machine  shops,  and  other  industrial  establish- 
ments,  and  agriculture  is  extensively  followed. 
The  inhabitants  dress  plainly  and  in  sober  col- 
ors. The  community  is  primarily  a  religious 
organization,  and  the  sect  itself  dates  its  found- 
ing from  Eberhard  Gruber,  in  Wurtemberg,  in 
1714.  By  its  members  it  is  known  as  "The 
Community  of  True  Inspiration."  Pop.  (1901) 
1,767. 

Amanita,  a  genus  of  fungi  nearly  related 
to  the  genus  Agaricus,  to  which  the  common 
mushroom  belongs,  and  for  which  two  of  its 
poisonous  members  (see  below)  are  sometimes 
mistakenly  eaten.  A.  muscaria,  the  fly  mush- 
room, so  called  from  its  use  as  a  decoction  in 
milk  for  killing  flies,  is  commonest  in  the  birch, 
beech,  and  pine  woods  of  Europe  and  America. 
It  has  a  variously  colored  cap  —  white,  yellow, 
orange,    red,    etc. —  usually    warted    above    and 


sometimes  four  or  more  inches  in  diameter ; 
white  or  occasionally  yellow  gills ;  and  a  long 
white  stem  with  bulbous  base.  Though  univer- 
sally considered  poisonous  it  is  said  to  be 
used  by  certain  Old  World  peoples  to  produce  a 
kind  of  intoxication.  A.  phalloides,  death-cup, 
deadly  agaric,  deadly  amanita,  is  commonly 
found  in  woods,  especially  in  damp  weather, 
from  early  summer  until  mid-autumn.  It  is 
usually  white,  sometimes  light  yellow  or  gray- 
ish ;  its  cap  is  seldom  as  large  as  four  inches  in 
diameter ;  its  gills  white ;  its  stem  hollow  and 
slender  above,  solid  and  bulbous  at  the  base, 
which  is  surrounded  by  a  cup  which  has  sug- 
gested one  of  its  common  names.  A.  verna,  a 
supposed  variety  of  A.  phalloides,  which  it 
greatly  resembles,  appears  in  spring  and  sum- 
mer. With  reasonable  caution  on  the  part  of 
the  collector  none  of  these  species  should  be 
mistaken  for  the  common  mushroom,  because 
all  three  grow  singly  in  woods  and  have  white 
gills  and  white  spores ;  whereas  the  mushroom 
grows  in  clumps  in  pastures  and  upon  lawns, 
occasionally  in  grassy  open  woods.  Its  gills 
are  pink  in  young  specimens  and  darker  in  old 
ones ;  its  spores  dark-colored  and  it  has  no  cup 
at  the  base  of  the  stem. 

Aman'itin,  a  strongly  basic  ptomaine  (or 
perhaps  leucomaine)  occurring  in  the  poisonous 
fungus  Amanita  muscaria  (Agaricus  muscarius), 
or  fly  agaric.  Amanitin  is  not  poisonous,  but 
is  converted  by  oxidation  into  muscarin  (q.v.), 
to  which  the  deadly  effects  of  the  fly  agaric  are 
due.  Amanitin  is  believed  to  be  identical  with 
cholin,  neurin,  and  sincalin.    See  Neurine. 

Amapa'la,  a  seaport  of  Honduras  on  the 
north  shore  of  the  island  of  Tigre,  in  the  bay 
of  Fonseca.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor  and 
carries  on  an  important  exporting  trade.  It 
was  founded  in  1838.     Pop.  1,100. 

Amaranthus,  the  typical  genus  of  herba- 
ceous plants  of  the  natural  order  Amaranthacea?. 
This  order  consists  of  apetalous  plants  chiefly 
inhabiting  tropical  countries,  and  remarkable 
for  the  white  or  reddish  scales  of  which  their 
flowers  are  composed.  These  preserve  their  ap- 
pearance after  they  are  plucked  and  dried,  and 
on  this  account  poets  make  the  plant  an  emblem 
of  immortality.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek, 
meaning  "not  withering,"  and  was  originally 
Amarantus.  The  natural  order  contains  about 
500  species,  some  of  which,  as  love-lies-bleeding, 
prince's  feather,  and  cockscomb,  are  common 
garden  plants.  In  the  wild  state  they  are  mostly 
troublesome  and  unsightly  weeds,  of  which  the 
tumbleweed  (A.  albus)  and  pigweed  are  well- 
known  American  examples.  Some  of  the  for- 
eign plants  are  cultivated  as  pot  herbs,  and 
others  for  their  medicinal  properties.  Their 
chief  commercial  value  is  as  decorative  plants, 
for  which  purpose  immense  quantities  are  used 
in  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  where  they  arc 
employed  to  ornament  the  churches  when  fresh- 
grown  blooms  are  not  procurable.  Plants  of 
this  order  are  almost  entirely  annuals. 

Amarna  Letters,  a  collection  of  several 
hundred  cuneiform  clay  tablets  discovered  in 
1887  at  Tel-el-Amarna,  a  village  on  the  Nile  in 
Middle  Egypt,  on  the  site  of  a  city  built  by 
Amennphis  IV.  They  comprise  the  correspond- 
ence of  the  Egyptian  court  about  1400  B.C..  and 
with  but  three  exceptions  are  in  the  Babylonian 
language.       Some    of    them     were     written     by 


AMARYLLIDACE.7E  —  AMATEUR 


Amcnophis  III.  and  Amenophis  1\'.,  and  other 
royal  personages  contemporary  with  these,  but 
the  majority  are  by  Egyptian  officials  and  allies 
in  Syria.  Their  discovery  has  thrown  much 
light  not  only  on  the  history  of  Egypt  itself, 
but  upon  the  condition  "f  the  lb.lv  Land  prior 
to  the  Hebrew  invasion.  An  English  translation 
of  the  letters,  by  Metcalfe,  with  the  title  "The 
Tel-el-Amarna  Letters,'  appeared  in  1896. 

Amaryllidaceas,  or  Amaryllideae,  a  natural 
order  of  monocotyledonous  plants,  generally 
bulbous,  sometimes  fibrous-rooted,  occasionally 
with  a  tall,  cylindrical,  woody  stem.  Their 
characteristics  are  a  highly-colored  flower,  six 
stamens,  and  an  inferior  three-celled  ovary. 
They  are  natives  chiefly  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope;  but  species  are  found  in  the  warmer  parts 
of  Europe,  in  every  part  of  America  and  trop- 
ical Asia,  and  a  few  species  in  Australia.  To 
this  order  belong  the  snowdrop,  the  snow- 
flake,  the  daffodil,  the  belladonna-lily,  the  so- 
called  Guernsey  lily  (probably  a  native  of 
Japan),  the  Brunsvigias,  the  bloodflowcrs 
(TL-emanthus)  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  dif- 
ferent species  of  Narcissus,  Amaryllis,  Galan- 
thus,  Crinum,  Agave  (American  aloe),  Atamasco 
lily,  star-grass,  spider  lily,  etc. ;  many  of  the 
family  are  very  poisonous.  The  agave  and  sisal 
(q.v.)  are  of  considerable  commercial  value, 
but  the  order  as  a  whole  is  chiefly  ornamental. 

Amaryllis,  the  name  of  a  shepherdess  in 
the  Thcocritean  'Idyls'  and  the  Virgilian 
'Eclogues'  ;  also  of  a  character  in  Spenser's 
'Colin  Clout's  Come  Home  Again'  ;  of  the 
shepherdess  in  love  with  Pcrigot,  in  Fletcher's 
pastoral  'The  Faithful  Shepherdess'  ;  and  of  a 
character  in  Buckingham's  comedy  'The  Re- 
hearsal.' 

Amasa  (more  correctly  Ammishai),  the 
nephew  of  David,  king  of  Israel.  He  was  com- 
mander-in-chief of  Absalom's  rebel  army,  and 
after  its  defeat  received  from  David  a  promise  of 
the  same  post  in  his  own  army  in  place  of  Joab. 
On  the  renewal  of  the  revolt  under  Sheba, 
Amasa  was  assigned  the  task  of  collecting  the 
men  of  Judah ;  as  he  did  not  appear  when  due 
(perhaps  knowing  too  much  about  the  dis- 
turbance), Abishai  was  sent  in  his  place,  and 
Joab's  company  took  part  without  commission. 
Amasa  met  them  at  Gibeon,  and  under  pretense 
of  a  salute  Joab  stabbed  his  cousin  and  rival 
(2  Sam.  xx.  9). 

Ama'sia,  a  city  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  prov- 
ince of  Anatolia,  335  m.  E.  of  Constantinople, 
famed  as  the  ancient  capital  of  Pontus  and 
as  the  birthplace  of  the  historian  Strabo.  It 
is  built  almost  entirely  of  stone  and  contains 
a  massive  citadel  and  a  notably  fine  mosque. 
Silk  is  made  here,  and  salt  wine,  wheat,  and 
cotton  are  also  exported.    Pop.  about  30,000. 

Ama'sis  I.,  an  Egyptian  king,  the  first 
monarch  of  the  18th  dynasty.  His  rule  lasted 
for  sonic  20  yens  following  1600  B.r.  He  ex- 
pelled the  Shepherd  Kings  from  Egypt  and  laid 
Palestine  and   Phoenicia  under  tribute. 

Amasis  II.,  an  Egyptian  king:  b.  570;  d. 
526  B.C.  He  cultivated  friendly  relations  with 
the  Greeks,  and  established  Greek  commerce  at 
Naucratis.  Pythagoras  and  Solon  are  said  to 
have  visited  him.    He  greatlv  enriched  Memphis 


Amateur.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century  this  now  ever-recurring  word  was  used 
exclusively  to  define  those  who  for  the  love 
of  the  arts,  and  not  for  the  profit  to  be  de- 
rived from  the  exercise  of  them,  painted,  or 
engraved,  or  sang.  In  such  of  the  recrea- 
tions and  sports  as  were  then  in  vogue,  and 
which  some  men  engaged  in  for  pleasure  and 
others  for  pay,  the  phrase  used  to  distinguish 
the  two  classes  varied.  If  a  man  of  means 
rode  a  horse  in  a  race  or  a  steeplechase  for  the 
pure  love  of  equestrianism,  while  others  rode 
for  fees,  the  one  was  called  a  "gentleman 
rider,"  and  the  rest  were  "jockeys."  So  again 
in  cricket,  those  who  participated  in  matches 
were  designated  by  two  titles :  "gentlemen," 
denoting  those  who  participated  con  amorc, 
and  "players,"  those  who  played  for  pay.  It 
was  always  easy  to  recognize  one  from  the 
other,  for  in  the  list  of  published  names  one 
class  was  always  designated  "Mr.,"  as  "Mr. 
Somcrville,"  while  the  "players"  would  lack 
that  prefix   and   appear  as   "Thomas    Sadler." 

Golf  of  that  period  was  more  democratic; 
neither  the  word  amateur  nor  any  other  dis- 
tinguishment  had  appeared;  cobbler  and  prince 
played  together,  and  for  stakes  too,  without 
a  thought  of  one  or  the  other  losing  caste. 
James  II.,  king  of  England,  while  still  Duke 
of  York,  chose  an  Edinburgh  shoemaker  as  his 
golfing  partner  to  play  two  Scotch  peers  for  a 
goodly  stake  of  money  which  he  and  the  cob- 
bler won.  The  prince  did  the  honorable  thing  by 
giving  up  his  half  of  the  stake  to  the  shoemaker, 
with  which  and  his  own  share  the  latter  bought 
a  house  in  the  Cripplegate  of  the  city. 

Football  at  that  period  was  largely  in  abey- 
ance, except  among  schoolboys,  and  the  need  of 
definitions  had  not  arisen. 

The  word  amateur  in  sports  first  appears  in 
connection  with  rowing.  Up  to  the  year  1835 
such  rowing  contests  as  had  taken  place  had 
been  on  the  one  hand  confined  to  watermen, 
who  at  that  time  had  to  serve  apprenticeships 
and  could  not  ply  their  trade  without  :  and  on 
the  other  hand  to  inter-collegiate  and  inter-uni- 
versity crews.  Neither  class  needed  definitions. 
But  at  that  time  an  open  regatta  was  organized 
at  Henley,  in  which  it  would  have  been  man- 
ifestly unjust  to  allow  watermen  and  others 
who  had  bad  a  lifetime's  experience  and  of 
hardened  training  to  enter  and  compete  against 
those  for  whom  the  regatta  was  really  intended, 
that  is,  those  who  loved  aquatic  sport  for  its 
own  sake  and  followed  it  only  as  a  recreation 
at  seasonable  times.  Hence  rules  were  form- 
ulated and  have  ever  since  been  in  operation 
which  distinguished  the  professional  from  the 
amateur  and  precluded  the  possibility  of  the 
one  contesting  against  the  other.  So  strong 
is  this  feeling  still  in  rowing  at  Henley  that  in 
1002  a  further  restriction  was  made  against 
the  entry  of  any  crew  that  had  within  a  month 
from  its  entry  been  trained  by  a  professional. 

When  track  athletics,  about  1850,  first  crys- 
talled by  the  impulse  given  it  by  colleges  and 
clubs,  similar  conditions  existed.  The  only 
representative  of  this  form  of  recreation  at 
that  time  was  the  old  and  hardened  trotter- 
around-the-track,  sometimes  for  the  gate  money 
derived  from  it,  sometimes  for  the  benefit  of 
the  betting  men.  Ostensibly  it  would  have 
been    unfair    to    handicap    young    collegians    by 


AMATI  —  AMAZON 


permitting  their  intermingling,  even  if  for  eth- 
ical reasons  it  had  not  been  desirable.  Rules 
were  here  again  formulated  which  had  the  ef- 
fect of  barring  the  professional  and  defining 
the  amateur.  The  rule  of  the  Amateur  Ath- 
letic Association  of  Great  Britain  may  be  quoted 
as  expressing  the  then   prevalent  feeling: 

"  An  amateur  is  one  who  has  never  competed  for  a 
meney  prize  or  staked  bet,  or  with  or  against  a  pro- 
fessional for  any  prize,  or  who  has  never  taught, 
pursued  or  assisted  in  the  practice  of  athletic  exer- 
cises as   a   means   of    earning  a  livelihood." 

Football  added  another  temptation  on  account 
of  its  possibilities  in  city  centres  of  attracting 
large  numbers  and  much  gate  money.  Here, 
too,  the  barrier  was  raised,  in  both  the  associa- 
tion and  the  Rugby  games,  along  lines  which 
America  has  followed.  But  the  United  States 
authorities  in  all  recreations  have  gone  a  great 
deal  farther  in  the  strictness  of  their  definition 
of  the  word  amateur,  and  in  safeguarding 
against  persons  who  receive  any  portion  of  their 
traveling  or  hotel  expenses:  a  notable  example 
of  this  occurred  in  1902,  when  the  National  Golf 
Association  precluded  from  the  amateur  ranks 
any  player  who  participated  in  the  generosity 
of  railroad  companies  or  hotel  proprietors. 

It  would  seem  an  easy  thing,  from  the  fore- 
going facts,  to  be  able  to  formulate  a  phrase 
which  should  generically  and  yet  accurately  de- 
scribe an  amateur,  but  it  is  not,  as  the  story 
of  the  endless  definitions  adopted  and  aban- 
doned, or  amended,  though  made  by  experts, 
attests. 

The  spirit  is  the  old  spirit  "for  the  love  of 
the  art  or  game  and  not  for  personal  gain" ; 
even  if  a  present  literal  definition  were  at- 
tempted, it  might  be  rendered  obsolete  by  new 
legislation  in  a  short  time.  Those  who  are 
purposing  to  enter  any  particular  recreative 
contest  in  which  the  status  of  the  amateur  is 
material  must  consult  the  last  rules  of  the  or- 
ganization governing  it. 

Ama'ti,  an  Italian  family  of  Cremona, 
celebrated  for  their  skill  in  making  violins. 
Andrea  Amati  (b.  about  1520;  d.  1570)  was  the 
earliest  member  to  follow  the  art,  but  few  of 
his  instruments  remain.  His  younger  brother, 
Nicola,  made  basses.  Andrea's  sons,  Antonio 
(b.  about  1555)  and  Geronimo  (b.  1556;  d. 
1630),  worked  after  their  father's  manner,  but 
Geronimo's  son  Nicolo  (b.  3  Dec.  1596;  d.  12 
Aug.  1684)  excelled  all  others  of  his  family, 
and  in  his  hands  the  art  of  the  Cremonese 
school  reached  its  perfection.  His  most  fa- 
mous pupils  were  Antonio  Stradivarius  and 
Guarnari.  The  line  ended  with  his  son  Ge- 
ronimo, whose  violins  were  of  inferior  quality. 

Amatitlan,  or  Amatitan,  a  Central  Amer- 
ican town  in  the  republic  of  Guatemala,  20  m. 
S.W.  of  Guatemala  City.  The  houses  are  low 
and  built  of  mud.  There  are  hot  springs  in  its 
vicinity  and  salt  and  alum  wells  also.  The 
occupation  of  the  people  consists  chiefly  in  the 
production   of  cochineal.      Pop.    about   8,600. 

Amaurosis,  a  disease  of  the  retina  or  its 
nervous  connections,  resulting  in  partial  or 
complete  blindness.  It  usually  begins  with  con- 
fused vision ;  there  may  then  be  the  appearance 
of  a  black  spot  in  the  centre  of  an  object  looked 
at,  and  graded  dimness  of  sight  develops.  See 
Amblyopia. 


Amau'ry  I.,  a  king  of  Jerusalem:  b.  1135; 
d.  11  July  1 173.  He  was  the  son  of  Baldwin 
II.,  and  reigned  from  1168  to  1173,  in  succes- 
sion to  his  brother,  Baldwin  III. 

Amau'ry  II.,  sometimes  known  as  Amau'- 
ry de  Lusignan,  titular  king  of  Jerusalem: 
b.  1 144;  d.  at  Acre,  1205.  He  was  king  of  Cy- 
prus 1 194-1205,  succeeding  his  better  known 
brother,  Guy  de  Lusignan. 

Amaxichi,  or  Leokas,  a  Greek  town,  the 
capital  of  Santa  Maura,  or  Leucadia,  one  of 
the  Ionian  Islands.  A  Greek  archbishop  re- 
sides here.  It  is  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  island 
and  possesses  a  small  harbor.     Pop.  6,000. 

Amazi'ah,  king  of  Judah  about  797-779 
B.C. ;  son  of  Joash.  He  punished  his  father's 
murderers  and  reconquered  the  Edomites :  but 
according  to  2  Kings  xiv.  was  so  puffed  up  by 
his  victory  over  these  Bedouin  that  he  chal- 
lenged Joash,  king  of  Israel,  an  incomparably 
more  powerful,  civilized  foe,  to  a  war.  Joash 
retorted  with  stinging  contempt,  wishing  to 
avoid  the  contest,  but  Amaziah  insisted,  and 
Joash  routed  his  army  and  captured  him, 
stormed  and  sacked  Jerusalem,  destroyed  a  part 
of  thewall,  and  carried  away  to  his  capital  of 
Samaria  hostages,  and  a  large  amount  of  spoil, 
including  gold  and  silver  treasure  and  temple 
utensils.  Amaziah,  after  his  release  and  15 
years  further  of  reign,  was  killed  by  conspirators 
at  Lachish   (2  Kings  xiv.  19). 

Am'azon,  a  river  of  South  America,  once 
called  the  Orellana  after  its  Spanish  explorer. 
Its  source  is  found  in  the  Peruvian  Andes,  its 
headwaters,  the  Maranon  and  Ucayale  rivers, 
uniting  in  about  Ion.  740  W.  From  Ion.  700  its 
course  is  wholly  in  Brazil,  and  its  entire  course 
from  the  source  of  the  Ucayale  to  its  mouth  is 
about  4,000  miles,  its  width  increasing  from  over 
a  mile  at  the  Peruvian  frontier  to  150  miles. 
The  Amazon  receives  the  waters  of  about  200 
tributaries,  100  of  which  are  navigable,  and 
17  of  them  1,000  to  2,300  miles  in  length.  From 
the  north  it  receives  the  Santiago,  Morona, 
Pastaza,  Tigre,  Napo,  Putumayo,  Japura.  Rio 
Negro  (a  branch  of  which,  the  Cassiquiare, 
strangely  enough  connects  it  with  the  Orinoco), 
Uatama,  Trombetas,  etc. :  from  the  south  the 
Huallaga,  Ucayale,  Yavari,  Jutahy,  Junta,  Teffe. 
Coary,  Purus,  Madeira,  Tapajos,  Xingu,  etc. 
The  depth  varies  much.  From  the  sea  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro,  about  750  miles  in  a 
straight  line,  the  depth  is  nowhere  less  than  30 
fathoms;  higher  up  it  varies  from  10  to  12,  and 
up  to  the  junction  of  the  Ucayale  there  is  depth 
sufficient  for  the  largest  vessels.  The  rapidity 
of  the  stream  is  considerable,  especially  during 
the  rainy  season  (January  to  June),  when  it 
is  subject  to  great  floods,  being  on  the  average 
iY\  miles  per  hour ;  in  some  places  it  is  4, 
or  even  more,  and  in  others  as  low  as  1  mile. 
The  river  is  perceptibly  affected  by  the  tides 
up  as  far  as  the  town  of  Obidos,  400  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  phenomenon  of  the  bore,  or  as 
it  is  called  on  the  Amazon  the  pororoca,  oc- 
curs at  the  mouth  of  the  river  at  spring  tides 
on  a  grand  scale.  The  waters  of  the  ocean 
rush  into  the  river  in  the  form  of  huge  waves 
10  to  15   feet  in  perpendicular  height,  three  or 


AMAZON  AS  —  AMBATO 


four  of  which  follow  each  other  with  irresistible 
force.  The  waters  of  the  Amazon  swarm  with 
alligators,  tunics,  and  a  great  variety  of  fish, 
of  which  Agassiz  in  1866-7  discovered  1,163 
species.  The  country  through  which  it  flows 
is  covered  with  immense  and  impenetrable  for- 
ests, affording  homes  for  a  vast  variety  of  an- 
imals, including  birds  of  the  most  gorgeous 
plumage.  The  area  drained  by  the  Amazon 
and  its  tributaries  is  estimated  at  3,000,000 
square  miles.  This  region  produces  an  immense 
variety  of  vegetable  substances,  including  a 
great  many  drugs,  dyewoods,  and  valuable  tim- 
ber trees.  The  products  it  might  be  made  to 
yield  by  cultivation  are  almost  innumerable, 
among  the  chief  being  cotton,  sugar,  indigo, 
coffee,  cocoa,  and  tobacco.  The  Amazonian  wa- 
ter system  affords  some  16,000  miles  of  river 
suitable  for  navigation.  Steamers  began  to  ply 
on  the  river  in  1853,  and  latterly  the  navigation 
was  opened  up  to  all  nations.  Para  is  the  chief 
seat  of  the  trade  on  the  river,  and  Manaos,  sit- 
uated about  1,000  miles  up,  is  also  a  place  of 
active  trade.  About  40  river,  coasting,  and 
ocean  steamers  now  ply  regularly  between  Para 
and  Manaos  every  month,  a  number  of  them  be- 
ing British.  The  mouth  of  the  Amazon  was 
discovered  by  Yafiez  Pinzon  in  1500,  but  the 
stream  was  not  navigated  by  any  European 
till  1540,  when  Francis  Orellana  descended  it. 
The  river  has  been  explored  in  later  times  by 
La  Condamine  (1743-4),  Humboldt  (i799)> 
Prince  Adalbert  of  Prussia  (1842),  Herndon 
(1850),  Ave  Lallemant  (1858),  Bates  (1861), 
Marcoy  (1866),  Agassiz  (1866-7),  and  others; 
and  its  tributaries  by  Hartte,  Chandless,  Abend- 
roth,  etc.  See  Herndon,  'Exploration  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Amazon*  (1853);  Bates,  'The 
Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazons'  (1864)  ; 
Wallace,  'Narrative  of  Travels  on  the  Ama- 
zon and  Rio  Negro'  (1870;  second  edition, 
1889)  ;  Matthews,  'Up  the  Amazon  and  Ma- 
deira Rivers'  (1879)  ;  Guillaume,  'Amazon 
Provinces  of  Peru'  (1888)  ;  Schutz-Holzhausen, 
'Der  Amazonas'  (1895).    See  South  America. 

Amazo'nas,  or  Alto  Amazona,  the  largest 
of  all  the  Brazilian  States  and  the  farthest 
north  :  bounded  N.  by  Dutch  and  British  Guiana 
and  Venezuela;  E.  by  the  State  of  Para;  S.  by 
Bolivia  and  the  State  of  Matto  Grosso ;  W.  by 
Colombia,  Ecuador  and  Peru.  Its  area  is  732,- 
460  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  three  and  a  half  times 
that  of  France,  and  except  for  mountain  ranges 
on  the  Venezuelan  border  it  is  an  alluvial  plain. 
Its  capital  is  Manaos.  Population  of  the  State 
(1900)  207,600.  (See  Temple,  'The  State  of 
Amazonas.' )  The  name  Amazonas  is  al.so  borne 
by  a  territory  of  Venezuela  with  a  population  of 
about  20,000,  and  a  department  of  Peru  with 
a  population  of  about  35,000. 

Am'azons,  in  Greek  legends  a  nation  of 
female  warriors.  They  were  fabled  to  have 
cut  off  their  right  breasts  in  order  not  to  inter- 
fere with  their  use  of  the  bow,  and  variously  to 
have  expelled  men  from  their  country  or  kept 
them  in  subjection  for  the  continuance  of  the 
race.  The  earliest  traditions  locate  them  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  relate  their  appearance  at  the 
siege  of  Troy  under  their  queen  Penthesilea. 

Amazonstone,  a  beautiful  green  or  blue 
feldspar.  It  is  a  variety  of  the  mineral  mi- 
crocline  and  occurs  in  magnificent  crystals 
in    granite    near    Pike's    Peak,    Col.      Inferior 


crystals  occur  in  New  Jersey,  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains and  many  other  localities.  Large  quan- 
tities of  green,  cleavablc  amazonstone  have  been 
obtained  :it  Amelia,  Ya.,  and  have  been  worked 
up  as  semi-precious  and  decorative  stones. 

Ambala,  or  Umballa,  the  name  of  a  dis- 
trict of  N.  India  and  its  capital.  The  latter  was 
the  scene  of  a  treaty  between  the  governor- 
general  of  India,  Lord  Mayo,  and  the  Emir 
Shcre  Ali  of  Afghanistan  in  1869.  The  town 
contains  several  important  churches,  a  dispen- 
sary, hospital,  and  a  leper  asylum.    Pop.  80,000. 

Ambale'nia,  Colombia,  a  city  in  the  de- 
partment of  Tolima,  on  the  Magdalena  River,  50 
111.  W.  of  Bogota.  It  is  the  trade  centre  of  a 
rich  agricultural  region,  exporting  large  quanti- 
ties of  excellent  tobacco.     Pop.  8,500. 

Ambari  Hemp.    Sec  Hibiscus. 

Ambarv'alia,  a  Roman  festival  in  honor  of 
Ceres,  which  was  observed  in  May.  The  bless- 
ing of  the  goddess  was  then  besought  on  the 
wished-for  harvest 

Ambassador  (from  the  Medixval  Latin 
Atnbasciator,  an  agent),  a  diplomatic  officer  of 
the  highest  rank,  the  representative  of  one  na- 
tion at  the  court  of  another.  In  this  capacity 
he  is  expected  to  support  the  interests  and  dig- 
nity of  his  own  State.  Ambassadors  are  ordi- 
nary when  they  reside  permanently  at  a  foreign 
court,  or  extraordinary  when  sent  on  a  special 
occasion.  When  ambassadors-extraordinary  are 
vested  with  full  powers,  as  of  concluding  peace, 
making  treaties  and  the  like,  they  are  called 
plenipotentiaries.  Ambassadors  are  often  loose- 
ly styled  ministers.  Envoys  are  ministers  em- 
ployed on  special  occasions,  and  are  of  less  dig- 
nity than  ambassadors.  Until  1893  the  United 
States  had  been  represented  at  foreign  courts 
by  persons  with  the  rank  of  ministers-resident, 
accredited  in  the  care  of  the  great  powers  as 
envoys-extraordinary  and  ministers-plenipoten- 
tiary. In  that  year,  however,  an  act  of  Con- 
gress was  passed  allowing  the  President  to 
accredit  ambassadors  as  United  States  represent- 
atives at  several  of  the  more  important  Euro- 
pean courts.  When  acknowledged  as  such,  am- 
bassadors are  exempted  absolutely  from  all 
allegiance  and  from  all  responsibility  to  the 
laws  of  the  country  to  which  accredited.  Should 
they  be  so  regardless  of  their  duty,  however, 
and  of  the  object  of  their  privilege,  as  to  in- 
sult or  openly  to  attack  the  laws  of  the  govern- 
ment, their  functions  may  be  suspended  by  a 
refusal  to  treat  with  them,  or  application  can 
be  made  to  their  own  sovereign  for  their  recall; 
or  they  may  be  dismissed  and  required  to  de- 
part within  a  reasonable  time.  An  ambassador 
is  considered  as  if  he  were  out  of  the  territory 
of  the  foreign  power,  by  fiction  of  law,  and  it  is 
an  implied  agreement  among  nations  that  the 
ambassador,  while  he  resides  in  the  foreign 
state,  shall  be  considered  as  a  member  of  his 
own  country,  and  the  government  has  exclusive 
cognizance  of  his  conduct  and  control  of  his 
person.  Ambassadors'  children  born  abroad 
are  held  not  to  be  aliens.  (7  Coke,  18  a.)  The 
persons  of  ambassadors  and  their  domestic  ser- 
vants are  exempt  from  arrest  on  civil  process. 
(3  Burr.  401,  1731.) 

Amba'to,  a  town  of  Ecuador,  on  the  slope 
of  Chimborazo,  70  m.  S.  of  Quito.  It  has  a 
flourishing  trade  in  grain,  sugar,  and  cochineal. 
Pop.  12,000. 


AMBER— AMBITIOUS  WOMAN 


Amber,  one  of  the  most  important  and 
valuable  of  the  fossil  resins.  It  is  one  of  the 
oxygenated  hydrocarbons  and  its  mineralogical 
name,  succinite,  emphasizes  one  of  its  distin- 
guishing characteristics,  namely,  the  presence  of 
from  S  to  8  per  cent  of  succinic  acid.  Its  com- 
position is  represented  by  the  formula  GoHM0«. 
It  occurs  in  irregular  masses,  usually  of  small 
size  but  sometimes  weighing  up  to  15  or  18 
pounds.  It  has  a  yellow  color,  resinous  lustre 
and  conchoidal  fracture.  Its  hardness  is  2  to  2.5 
and  specific  gravity  1.05  to  I.I.  Along  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  especially  in  East 
Prussia,  mining  for  amber  has  been  carried  on 
for  two  centuries.  In  this  region  shafts  are 
sunk  through  a  superficial  stratum  of  marl  and 
sand,  a  bed  of  lignite  with  light  sands  and  gray 
clays,  and  finally  a  layer  of  green-sand,  50  to  60 
feet  thick. 

All  of  these  strata  contain  amber,  but  in 
the  lower  portion  of  the  green-sand  there  is 
a  stratum  4  to  5  feet  thick  of  "blue  earth" 
in  which  amber  nodules  occur  so  abundantly  that 
50  or  60  square  rods  yield  several  thousand 
pounds.  This  "blue  earth"  stratum  extends  out 
under  the  sea  and  there  the  amber  is  freed  and 
cast  upon  the  shores  by  the  waves,  especially 
after  the  autumnal  storms.  Numerous  other 
localities  are  known,  but  none  are  so  prolific. 
In  the  United  States  amber-like  resins  have 
been  found  in  the  green-sand  formation  of 
Martha's  Vineyard,  Harrisonville,  N.  J.,  and 
elsewhere. 

Pliny  declared  amber  to  be  <{an  exudation 
from  trees  of  the  pine  family,"  a  conjecture 
that  proves  to  be  correct.  The  fact  that  it 
was  at  one  time  fluid  or  nearly  so  is  established 
by  its  occasional  inclusion  of  insects ;  and  its 
antiquity  is  also  established  by  the  fact  that 
most  of  the  species  of  insects  so  included  are 
now  extinct. 

Amber  becomes  strongly  electrified  when 
rubbed,  and  the  power  that  it  then  possesses, 
of  attracting  light  bodies  to  itself,  was  proba- 
bly considered  by  the  ancients  to  be  the  out- 
ward sign  of  the  mysterious  virtues  that  they 
attributed  to  the  mineral.  It  was  greatly  es- 
teemed for  ornaments  and  charms,  and  Pliny 
says  that  among  women  uit  had  been  so  highly 
valued  as  an  object  of  luxury  that  a  very  di- 
minutive human  effigy,  made  of  amber,  had  been 
known  to  sell  at  a  higher  price  than  living  men, 
even  in  stout  and  vigorous  health."  He  also 
says  that  a  necklace  of  amber  beads  was  con- 
sidered to  protect  the  wearer  from  secret 
poisons,  and  to  be  efficacious  as  a  counter-charm 
against  sorceries  and  witchcraft.  In  the  time 
of  Nero  an  expedition  sent  from  Rome  to  the 
Prussian  amber-beds  returned  with  13,000 
pounds   of  the   precious   substance. 

In  modern  times  amber  is  chiefly  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  mouthpieces  for  tobacco 
pipes  and  for  the  preparation  of  a  kind  of  var- 
nish. The  attractive  power  exhibited  by  amber 
when  rubbed  was  the  first  electrical  phenome- 
non observed  by  man,  and  the  word  "electricity" 
was  derived  from  electrum,  the  Greek  name  for 
amber. 

Amber-fish,  any  one  of  a  genus  of  fishes 
(Scriola)  related  to  the  pilot-fishes,  many  spe- 
cies of  which  are  found  along  our  coasts,  the 
most  of  which  are  known  by  other  names.  The 
great   amber-fish,   or  amber-jack,  is  a   food-fish 


of  some  importance  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  West  Indies,  reaching  a  weight  of  100  pounds. 
Others  in  that  region  are  more  commonly 
known  as  madregals ;  and  a  species  of  the  Pa- 
cific Coast  is  the  highly-prized  yellow-tail  (q.v.). 
The  name  refers  to  the  prevailing  color. 

Am'berg,  the  ancient  Bavarian  capital  of 
the  upper  Palatinate,  is  situated  on  both  sides 
of  the  Vils,  in  the  midst  of  numerous  iron- 
works. It  is  well  built,  and  on  the  site  of  its 
former  walls  are  shaded  walks.  Glass,  iron 
wares,  stoneware,  tobacco,  beer,  vinegar,  and 
arms  of  good  quality  are  manufactured  here. 
The  principal  buildings  are  a  Gothic  church  of 
the  15th  century,  the  royal  palace,  the  town- 
house,  and  the  Old  Jesuits'  College,  and  it  pos- 
sesses a  gymnasium  and  a  large  library.  At 
Amberg  the  Archduke  Charles  defeated  the 
French  general,  Jourdan,  on  24  Aug.  1796.  Pop. 
(1900)  22,000. 

Amber  Gods,  The,  a  story  by  Harriet 
Prescott  Spofford,  published  1863.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  superb  depth  and  richness  of  color, 
like  a  painting  by  Titian.  An  amber  amulet  or 
rosary  possessing  mysterious  influences  gives 
the  title  to  the  story. 

Am'bergris,  a  gum-like  substance  of  great 
value  in  the  making  of  perfumes,  obtained  from 
the  intestinal  canal  of  the  sperm  whale,  or  found 
floating  in  pieces  of  various  sizes  on  the  surface 
of  the  sea.  It  is  a  product  of  cetacean  di- 
gestion, and  often  contains  the  beaks  of  cuttle- 
fish, a  fact  which  conclusively  proves  the  place 
of  its  origin,  until  recently  much  in  doubt. 
When  first  extracted  from  the  alimentary  canal 
it  has  the  feeling  and  consistency  of  thick 
grease,  and  chemically  seems  to  be  of  the  nature 
of  cholesterin,  but  after  exposure  to  the  air 
hardens  and  acquires  its  characteristic  sweet 
earthy  odor.  Some  odd  stories  were  told  by  the 
old  writers  to  account  for  its  origin,  of  which 
the  least  absurd  was  that  it  was  the  excrement 
of  the  whale.  It  was  held  by  the  ancients  to 
be  of  great  value  in  certain  diseases,  but  is 
now  used  entirely  in  connection  with  perfumery, 
and  is  worth  about  $20  a  pound.  The  name  is 
also  given  to  a  barren  island  on  the  coast  of 
Yucatan,  on  account  of  the  quantities  of  am- 
bergris gathered  along  its  shores. 

Amber  Insects.  The  great  majority  of  the 
fossil  insects  of  the  Oligocene  (Tertiary)  period 
have  been  obtained  from  the  amber  of  the  Bal- 
tic shores  of  Prussia,  upon  which  they  had 
rested  in  life,  stuck  fast  and  then  been  over- 
flowed. The  most  fragile  and  delicate  flies, 
moths,  and  many  other  insects,  besides  spiders, 
mites,  centipedes  and  Crustacea,  are  preserved 
in  this  gum  or  resin,  which  was  evidently  formed 
in  the  same  manner  as  gum  copal,  also  a  late 
tertiary  or  quaternary  gum. 

Ambitious  Woman,  An,  a  novel  by  Edgar 
Fawcett  (1883).  It  is  a  keen  yet  sympathetic 
analysis  of  an  American  female  type  whose 
dominant  trait  is  social  ambition.  Claire  Twi- 
ning is  reared  in  the  ugly  poverty  of  a  Brook- 
lyn suburb,  but  is  clever  and  capable,  with 
strong  aspirations  for  the  luxuries  of  life. 
Through  the  good  offices  of  a  schoolmate  she 
gains  a  social  foothold.  If  Claire's  transforma- 
tion seems  a  little  sudden,  there  is  genuine 
strength  in  the  story  and  much  truthful  obser- 
vation of  city  life  in  New  York. 


AMBLER  — AMBOYNA 


Ambler,  James  Markham  Marshall,  sur- 
geon ami  Arctic  explorer:  b.  Virginia,  30  Dec. 
1848;  (1.  in  the  Lena  Delta,  Siberia,  3]  Oct.  1881. 
Educated   at    Washington   and    Lee    University 

and  the  Medical  College  of  the  University  of 
Maryland,  he  practiced  medicine  in  Baltimore 
1870-4;  entered  the  navy  as  assistant  surgeon 
1874;  and  was  selected  as  volunteer  for  that  post 
to  the  Jeannette  arctic  expedition  under  George 
W.  De  Long,  1879.  When  their  vessel  sank,  13 
June  [881,  he  accompanied  his  chief  along  the 
Lena  and  was  alive  at  the  date  of  the  last  entry 
in  De  Long's  journal,  30  Oct.  1881,  but  probably 
died  the  following  day.  His  remains  were  dis- 
covered by  Chief  Engineer  Melville  23  March 
1882.  Upon  his  body  were  found  memoranda 
on  'Ice  Formed  by  Sea  Water.'  and  'Remarks 
on  Snow  Crystals,'  published  in  De  Long's 
'Journal'    (Boston  1883). 

Ambleside,  a  town  in  the  English  lake 
district,  Westmoreland,  the  home  of  Harriet 
Martineau,  and  near  which  Wordsworth  and 
Dr.  Arnold  resided.  The  chief  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  coarse  woolen  goods.  Pop. 
(1901)    2,536. 

Ambleteuse,  a  French  village  on  the  Eng- 
lish Channel  (>  miles  north  of  Boulogne,  noted 
as  the  landing-place  of  James  II.  on  his  flight 
from  England  1689.  In  1805  Napoleon  erected 
a  monument  here  to  the  Grand  Army.  Pop. 
(1901)   685. 

Amblydactyla.      See  Amblypoda. 

Amblygonite,  am-blig'6-nit  (from  the 
Greek  amblygonios,  "obtuse-angled"),  a  min- 
eral crystallizing  in  the  triclinic  system,  and 
having  the  chemical  formula  AlPO.-LiF.  The 
lithium  is  often  partially  replaced  by  sodium, 
and  the  fluorin  by  hydroxyl  (OH).  Its  hard- 
ness is  6,  and  its  specific  gravity  about  3.05.  It 
is  translucent  and  white,  or  more  or  less  tinged 
with  various  colors.  It  occurs  in  certain  locali- 
ties in  Saxony.  Norway,  France,  and  Peru ;  and 
in  the  United  States  it  has  been  found  in  Maine 
and  Connecticut.     It  is  a  valuable  lithia  ore. 

Amblyopia,  defective,  weak,  or  blunted 
vision,  a  word  now  widely  employed  instead  of 
the  term  amaurosis,  meaning  blindness  (q.v.), 
since  the  modern  methods  of  examination  of  the 
retina  have  made  known  the  more  exact  char- 
acter of  the  affections  of  this  part  of  the  eye. 
Defective,  weak,  or  blunted  vision  due  to  dis- 
order of  the  retina  usually  may  be  attributed  to 
the  following  main  causes:  (1)  certain  poisons, 
notably  alcohol,  wood  alcohol  in  particular,  to- 
bacco, lead,  and  urxmic  poisoning  of  Bright's 
disease;  (2)  certain  functional  or  reflex  dis- 
turbances, as  in  hysteria;  (3)  changes  in  and 
about  the  optic  nerve,  as  pressure  of  inflamma- 
tions, or  of  tumors,  leading  to  optic  neuritis; 
(4)  cerebral  changes,  such  as  hemorrhages,  tu- 
mor of  the  brain,  localized  injury  of  the  brain, 
usually  leading  to  localized  types  of  amblyopia 
(hemianopsia)  ;  (5)  defective  cerebral  devel- 
opment, causing  congenital  amblyopia. 

Amblyop'sidae,  a  family  of  fresh-water 
fishes  closely  allied  to  the  cyprinodonts  and  re- 
markable for  living  altogether  in  caves,  except 
one  species  found  in  the  ditches  of  the  rice- 
fields  of  South  Carolina.  Among  many  pecu- 
liarities may  be  noted  the  facts  that  the  vent 
is  at  the  throat  instead  of  in  the  usual  position 


behind  the  ventral  fin,  and  that  all  of  the  under- 
ground species  are  blind.  See  Cave-dwelling 
Animals. 

Amblypo'da,  an  extinct  order  of  hoofed 
mammals  found  in  the  Eocene  formations  of 
North  America  and  Europe.  They  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  primitive  pattern  of  teeth  and 
short  post-like  feet  resembling  those  of  ele- 
phants. The  chief  types  are  Pantolambda,  Cory- 
phodon  and  Uintatherium   (qq.v.). 

Amblys'toma,  a  genus  representing  a  sub- 
family (Atnblysto matinee)  of  salamanders  of 
North  and  Central  America,  and  northern  Asia. 
The  parasphenoid  bone  is  toothless.  A  com- 
mon American  species  is  the  spotted  salamander 
(./.  tigrinum)  whose  young  in  certain  Mexican 
lakes  never  reach  the  adult  condition,  and  are 
known  as  "axolotls."  See  Axolotl;  Salaman- 
der. 

Am'bo,  a  reading-desk  or  pulpit,  which 
in  early  churches  was  placed  in  the  choir.  The 
epistle  and  gospel  were  read  from  the  ambo, 
and  sermons  sometimes  preached  from  it.  It 
had  two  ascents  —  one  from  the  east  and  the 
other  from  the  west.  In  many  churches  there 
were  two  ambos,  one  on  each  side  of  the  choir, 
from  one  of  which  the  gospel  was  read,  and 
from  the  other  the  epistle.  The  earliest  are  at 
Ravenna  in  the  cathedral  and  the  Church  of 
Saint  Apollinare,  and  are  of  carved  marble. 
(See  Pulpit.)  The  name  ambo  was  also  given 
to  an  eagle-shaped  reading-desk,  now  usually 
termed   a  lectern. 

Amboise,  am'bwaz,  Aimeric  d\  a  famous 
French  admiral,  brother  of  Georges  d'Amboise 
(q.v.)  ;  d.  1512.  He  became  in  1503  Grand 
Master  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  in  Rhodes, 
and  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Sultan  of 
Egypt  in   1510. 

Amboise,  Bussi  d\      See  Bussi. 

Amboise,  Georges  d\  a  French  cardinal 
and  minister  of  state:  b.  at  Chaumont-sur-Loire 
1460:  d.  1510.  He  became  successively  bishop 
of  Montauban,  and  archbishop  of  Narbonne  and 
of  Rouen,  and  in  1498  Louis  XII.  made  him 
prime  minister.  He  failed  in  his  attempt  to 
secure  the  papacy,  but  his  policy  toward  France 
was  wise  and  statesmanlike.  He  reformed  the 
Church,  remitted  the  people's  burdens,  and  con- 
scientiously labored  to  promote  the  public  happi- 
ness. 

Amboise,  a  French  town  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Indrc-et-Loire.  on  the  Loire.  15  miles 
by  rail  east  of  Tours.  It  lies  in  a  rich  vineyard 
district  and  has  been  called  "the  Garden  of 
France."  The  town  is  memorable  as  the  scene 
of  the  conspiracy  of  the  Huguenots  against  the 
Guises  (1560).  It  contains  a  beautiful  chateau 
dating  from  the  time  of  the  Renaissance.  Pop. 
(1001)  4,600. 

Amboy'na,  or  Amboina,  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  Molucca  Islands,  being  the  seat  of 
their  government  and  the  centre  of  the  com- 
merce in  nutmegs  and  cloves;  greatest  length,  33 
miles;  greatest  breadth,  10  miles;  area,  about 
260  square  miles.  It  is  composed  of  two  un- 
equal peninsulas  united  by  an  isthmus  about 
a  mile  broad,  the  larger  known  as  Hitu,  the 
smaller  as  Leitimor.  Its  general  aspect  is  at- 
tractive and  its  climate  salubrious.  It  is  cov- 
ered almost  throughout  with  forests,  affording 


AMBOYN A  — AMBROSIA  BEETLE 


a  great  variety  of  beautiful  wood  for  inlaying 
and  ornamental  work.  Sugar  and  coffee  are 
cultivated.  The  surface  is  generally  rugged  and 
hilly,  sometimes  rising  into  mountains  of  gran- 
ite. The  soil  in  the  valleys  and  along  the  shores 
is  very  fertile,  but  a  large  portion  remains  un- 
cultivated. In  1605  Amboyna  was  taken  by  the 
Dutch  from  the  Portuguese,  and  shortly  after- 
ward some  English  factories  were  erected  there: 
but  in  1623  the  Dutch  seized  the  English  fort, 
tortured  frightfully  Capt.  Towerson  and  nine 
others  to  obtain  a  confession  of  conspiracy,  and 
put  them  to  death  —  a  performance  famous  as 
"The  Massacre  of  Amboyna."  Pop.  30,000. 
Amboyna  is  also  the  name  of  one  of  the  resi- 
dencies into  which  the  Molucca  Islands  are 
divided,  including  Buru,  Caram,  Aru  Islands, 
the  Bandas,  and  others.     Pop.  95,000. 

Amboyna,  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  resi- 
dency of  that  name  situated  on  the  northwest 
shore  of  the  peninsula  of  Leitimor  and  defended 
by  Fort  Victoria.  The  houses,  built  in  Dutch 
fashion,  are  generally  of  one  story,  owing  to 
the  frequency  of  earthquakes,  one  of  great  se- 
verity occurring  in  January  1898.  It  contains 
a  governor's  palace,  town-house,  two  Protes- 
tant churches,  several  mosques,  an  orphan  hos- 
pital, a  theatre,  and  a  large  covered  market- 
place. The  streets  are  wide,  and  are  planted  on 
each  side  with  rows  of  fruit-trees.  Pop.  about 
10,000. 

Ambriz,  am-brej',  a  seaport,  capital  of  a 
district  of  the  same  name  in  the  Portuguese 
colony  of  Angola,  west  Africa.  Originally  the 
capital  of  Quibanza  it  was  taken  by  the  Por- 
tuguese, who  in  1855  built  a  fort,  a  custom- 
house, and  a  church  which  formed  the  nucleus 
of  the  present  town.  It  has  a  number  of  fac- 
tories and  a  trade  in  india-rubber,  coffee,  and 
palm  oil.     Pop.  about  3,000. 

Ambros,  am'bros,  August  Wilhelm,  a  not- 
able Austrian  writer  on  music:  b.  17  Nov.  1816 
in  Mauth,  Bohemia ;  d.  Vienna  28  June  1876. 
He  was  trained  for  the  civil  service  and  served 
in  it  with  distinction ;  but  his  tastes  led  him 
elsewhere,  and  he  rose  to  eminence  as  the 
author  of  (The  Limits  of  Music  and  Poetry,' 
besides  numerous  essays  and  studies  connected 
with  art.  His  masterpiece,  'The  History  of 
Music*  (1862-8)  a  work  which  cost  him  many 
years  of  labor,  was  carried  only  to  the  fourth 
volume.  A  fifth,  completing  the  work,  was 
added  by  Langhaus. 

Ambrose,  Saint,  a  celebrated  Latin  father 
of  the  Church :  b.  333,  or  according  to  other  ac- 
counts, 334,  probably  at  Treves  (the  ancient 
Augusta  Trevirorum),  where  his  father  resided 
as  pretorian  prefect  of  Gallia  Narbonensis:  d. 
Milan.  4  April  397.  It  is  told  that  a  swarm  of 
bees  covered  the  eyes  of  the  boy  while  slumber- 
ing in  the  court  of  his  father's  castle,  and  the 
nurse  was  astonished  to  perceive  the  bees  going 
in  and  out  of  his  mouth  without  doing  him  any 
injury.  His  father,  possibly  recalling  a  similar 
wonder,  mentioned  of  Plato,  prophesied  future 
greatness  for  his  son.  Ambrose  studied  law  at 
Rome  under  Anicius  Probus  and  Symmachus. 
and  then  went  to  Milan  and  began  to  plead 
causes  while  yet  a  youth.  His  pleadings  were 
so  eloquent  and  skilful  that  in  a  short  time  Pro- 
bus,  the  prefect  of  Italy,  chose  him  a  member 
of  his  council ;  and  in  369,  with  the  approval  of 


the  Emperor  Valentinian,  appointed  him  gov- 
ernor of  the  provinces  of  Liguria  and  /Emilia 
(North  Italy).  In  374  he  was  called  to  the 
bishopric  of  Milan  by  the  unanimous  voices  of 
Arians  and  Catholics.  Ambrose  long  refused 
to  accept  this  dignity,  but  in  vain.  He  fled  by 
night,  and  thought  himself  on  the  way  to  Pavia, 
but  unexpectedly  found  himself  again  before  the 
gates  of  Milan.  At  length  he  yielded,  received 
baptism,  for  he  had  hitherto  been  only  a  cate- 
chumen, and  eight  days  after  was  consecrated  a 
priest.  The  7th  of  December  is  still  celebrated  by 
the  Church  on  this  account.  On  his  elevation  to 
the  bishopric  he  bestowed  all  his  wealth  on  the 
Church  and  among  the  poor,  resolving  to  live 
as  simply  as  possible,  and  at  the  same  time  t^j 
exercise  his  functions  as  an  ecclesiastical  ruler 
with  firmness  and  vigor.  He  was  employed  by 
the  court  to  negotiate  with  Maximus,  then 
threatening  Italy,  whose  advance  he  succeeded 
for  a  time  in  arresting  (383).  Four  years  later 
he  was  sent  on  a  like  mission,  but  his  conduct 
on  this  occasion  so  offended  Maximus  that  he 
had  to  return  to  Milan,  having  accomplished 
nothing.  In  his  struggles  against  the  Arian  her- 
esy he  was  opposed  by  Justina,  mother  of  Va- 
lentinian II.,  and  for  a  time  by  the  young  em- 
peror himself,  together  with  the  courtiers  and 
the  Gothic  troops.  Backed  by  the  people  of 
Milan,  however,  he  felt  strong  enough  to  deny 
the  Arians  the  use  of  a  single  church  in  the 
city,  although  Justina,  in  her  son's  name,  de- 
manded that  two  should  be  given  up.  He  was 
commanded  to  quit  the  city,  but  this  he  refused 
to  do,  being  still  supported  by  the  people. 
About  this  time  Ambrose,  instructed  by  a 
dream,  searched  for  and  found  the  relics  of 
two  martyrs,  Gervasius  and  Protasius.  The 
people  crowded  to  see  these  bones,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Ambrose  himself,  the  eyes  of  the 
blind  were  opened  and  devils  were  cast  out 
by  touching  them.  Although  the  court  derided 
these  miracles  they  were  accepted  by  the  people, 
2nd  the  triumph  of  orthodoxy  was  secured.  He 
had  also  to  oppose  paganism.  In  390,  after  the 
massacre  at  Thessalonica,  he  refused  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius  entrance  into  the  church  of 
Milan  for  a  period  of  eight  months,  only  re- 
storing him  after  a  public  penance.  (See  The- 
odosius.) The  later  years  of  his  life  were  de- 
voted to  the  more  immediate  care  of  his  see. 
His  writings  (the  best  edition  is  by  the  Bene- 
dictines, two  vols,  folio,  1686-90),  bear  marks 
of  haste,  and  show  his  theological  knowledge 
to  have  extended  little  beyond  an  acquaintance 
with  the  works  of  the  Greek  fathers,  from 
whom,  especially  Origen.  he  borrowed  consider- 
ably. The  "Ambrosian  Chant9  or  (<Te  Deum 
Laudamus"  has  been  ascribed  to  him,  but  was 
written  a  century  later.  He  may  he  considered 
the  father  of  the  hymnology  of  the  Latin  Church. 
He  is  the  patron  saint  of  Milan,  which  observed 
his  15th  centenary  in  1897. 

Ambro'sia,  in  the  Greek  mythology,  a 
balsamic  juice  which  formed  the  food  of  the 
gods  and  preserved  their  immortality.  It  was 
used  also  as  an  ointment.  Mortals  permitted  to 
partake  of  ambrosia  received  an  increase  of 
beauty,  strength,  and  swiftness,  becoming  in  some 
measure  assimilated  to  the  gods. 

Ambrosia  Beetle.  See  Wood-boring  Bee- 
tles. 


AMBROSIAN    CHANT  —  AMERICA 


Ambrosian  Chant.     Sec  Gregorian  Chant. 

Ambrosian  Library,  public  library  in  Mi- 
lan: founded  by  the  Cardinal  Archbishop  Fed- 
erigo  Borromeo,  a  relation  of  St.  Charles  Ror- 
romeo,  and  opened  in  1609.  It  now  contains 
over  175,000  printed  books  and  8,400  MSS. 

Amelan'chier,  a  genus  of  shrubs  or  small 
trees  of  the  natural  order  Rosaces,  natives  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  The  species,  which 
are  few  in  number  and  closely  related,  have  al- 
ternate, simple,  deciduous  leaves,  numerous 
racemes  of  white  showy  flowers  appearing  in 
early  spring  often  before  the  leaves,  and.  in 
summer,  edible  spherical  or  oblong  red  or  dark 
purple  berries  with  more  or  less  bloom.  They 
are  ornamental,  hardy,  succeed  upon  many  soils 
and  in  many  climates,  and  are  readily  propagat- 
ed by  seeds  or  muckers. 

Ame"lie-les-Bains.     Sec  Arles. 

Amendment,  in  law,  the  correction  of  any 
mistake  discovered  in  a  writ  or  process.  At 
common  law,  amendments,  in  the  absence  of 
any  statutory  provision  on  the  subject,  arc  in 
all  cases  in  the  discretion  "f  the  court  for  the 
furtherance  of  justice.  The  power  of  amend- 
ment is  regarded  as  incidental  to  the  exercise 
of  all  judicial  power.  Amendments  are  very 
liberally  allowed  in  all  formal  and  most  substan- 
tial matters  under  statutes  in  modern  practice. 
They  are  allowed  cither  without  costs  to  the 
party  amending,  or  upon  such  terms  or  condi- 
tions as  the  court  may  see  proper  to  impose. 

In  legislative  proceedings,  a  clause,  sentence, 
or  paragraph  proposed  to  be  substituted  for  an- 
other, or  to  be  inserted  in  a  bill  before  Con- 
gress, and  which,  if  carried,  actually  becomes 
part  of  the  bill  itself.  As  a  rule  amendments 
do  not  overthrow  the  principle  of  a  bill.  The 
Senate  of  the  I'nited  States  may  amend  money- 
bills  passed  by  the  House  of  Representatives, 
but  cannot  originate  such  bills.  The  Constitu- 
tion of  the  I'nited  States  contains  a  provision 
for  its  amendment.     (U.  S.  Const.  Art.  5). 

America:  a  brief  account  of  the  derivation 
and  meaning  of  the  word.  The  name  Amalric 
(in  Old  High  German  Amalrich  or  Amel- 
rich;  Gothic  Amala-reiks  or  -reikis;  variants 
Am-el,  Am-ul,  and  Am-il-rih,  -rich,  or  ric) 
originated  among  the  Goths  in  Northern  and 
Central  Europe;  was  adopted  by  other  nations 
of  the  Teutonic  stock  before  the  great  migra- 
tion of  those  kindred  peoples;  and  was  carried 
into  all  West  European  countries. —  even  to 
England  and  the  Mediterranean  coasts  —  by  the 
Northern  conquerors  between  the  fifth  and 
twelfth  centuries.  The  famous  East  Gothic 
dynasty  of  the  Amala  received  its  name,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  from  a  national  hero  whose 
mighty  labors  had  earned  for  him  the  title  Amal, 
which,  as  wc  shall  presently  explain,  was  a 
purely  democratic  term,  connoting  personal 
character  and  achievement,  without  the  slightest 
implication  of  social  rank. 

From  the  dynastic  name,  the  Goths  as  a  race, 
or.  more  narrowly,  the  East  Goths,  were  famil- 
iar!' Die  Amelungen;  the  Amal  king 
in  the  fourth  century  ruled  from  the  Baltic  to 
the  Black  Sea ;  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century  a  king  of  the  West  Goths  in  Spain  and 
France,  a  grandson  of  Thcodorich  the  Great, 
was  called  Amalarich.    The  word  of  democratic 


meaning  thus  spread  through  a  few  lands  was 
destined  to  live,  in  the  centuries  that  followed, 
united  inseparably  with  the  other  short  word 
which  appears  in  the  name  of  the  West-Gothic 
king. 

The  signification  of  the  compound  is  of  ex- 
traordinary' interest.  Its  second  member  appears 
in  Old  English  (for  example,  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  epic  of  Beowulf)  as  ric,  meaning  power- 
ful,  or,  when  a  substantive,  control,  domain, 
or  empire  —  the  modern  German  Reich.  Ac- 
cording to  von  Humboldt  ('Examen  Critique,' 
vol.  iv)  and  Professor  von  dcr  Hagen,  the 
fundamental  meaning  of  the  first  member  (its 
root,  am,  often  occurring  in  the  dialects  of 
Iceland  and  Scandinavia  in  the  forms  aina, 
ambl,  etc.)  is  labor,  endurance  of  great  toil. 
Accepting  this  view,  we  find  that  the  title 
of  the  Gothic  national  hero,  Amal.  expressed 
popular  appreciation  of  "the  man  of  great  or 
laborious  enterprises."  Simply  that.  In  order  to 
show  that  Amal,  when  uniting  with  the  aristo- 
cratic monosyllable,  retained  its  original  value, 
so  characteristic  of  the  people  who  used  it 
every  day ;  that,  at  least,  they  never  thought 
it  meant  "the  mighty,"  as  some  authorities  have 
asserted  recently ;  we  need  only  point  to  the 
facts  that  they  prefixed  it  to  ric.  which  itself 
signified  "mighty,"  and  that  folk  stories  served 
to  remind  them  constantly  of  the  primitive 
meaning  of  the  first  member.  Amalric.  then,  was 
the  name  which  compacted  the  old  ideal  of 
heroism  and  leadership  common  to  all  Germanic 
tribes,  the  ideal  that  stands  out  most  clearly  in 
the  character  of  Beowulf  —  the  Amal  of 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Saxon  England.  The 
compound  plainly  meant  what  the  North  Euro- 
pean hero-stories  described:  The  man  who 
ruled  because  he  labored  for  the  benefit  of  all. 

In  France,  this  name  was  softened  to  Atnaury. 
Thus,  a  certain  theologian  who  was  born  in  the 
12th  century  at  Bene,  near  Chartres,  is  called 
indifferently  Amalric  of  Bene  or  Amaury  of 
Chartres.  England,  in  the  13th  century,  could 
show  no  more  commanding  figure  than  Simon 
of  Montfort-/'.-l»iaiiry,  Earl  of  Leicester,  to 
whom  King  Henry  once  said,  "If  I  fear  the 
thunder,  I  fear  you,  Sir  Earl,  more  than  all 
the  thunder  in  the  world."  A  Norman  Amalric 
was  that  Earl  Simon,  creator  of  a  new  force, 
and  a  democratic  one,  too,  in  English  politics. 
"It  was,"  says  the  historian  Green,  "the  writ 
issued  by  Earl  Simon  that  first  summoned  the 
merchant  and  trader  to  sit  beside  the  knight 
of  the  shire,  the  baron,  and  the  bishop  in  the 
parliament  of  the  realm."  In  Italy,  after  the 
Gothic  invasion,  the  Northern  name  suffered 
comparatively  slight  euphonic  changes,  which 
can  be  easily  traced.  As  borne  by  a  bishop  of 
Como  in  865  it  became  Amelrico  or  Amclrigo. 
But  the  juxtaposition  of  the  two  consonants 
/  and  r  presented  a  difficulty  in  pronunciation 
which  the  Italians  avoided :  they  changed  //-, 
first,  to  double  r.  and  then  to  a  single  r.  Still.  600 
years  after  Bishop  Amelrigo  died,  the  Floren- 
tine merchant,  explorer,  and  author  usually  re- 
tained the  double  r  in  his  own  signature,  writ- 
ing sAmerrigo  Vespucci,"  and,  by  the  way, 
accenting  his  Gothic  name  on  the  penultimate 
(Amerigo,  not  Amerigo).  In  Spain  the  name 
must  have  been  rare,  since  it  was  often  used 
alone  to  designate  the  Florentine  during  his 
residence    in    that    country.      There    was,    ap- 


AMERICA 


parently,  no  other  Amerigo  or  Amerrigo  in 
the  Spanish  public  service  early  in  the  16th 
century.  We  must  again  look  toward  the  North 
for  the  scene  of  the  next  important  change, 
and  among  the  men  of  a  Northern  race  for 
its  author. 

Martin  Waldseemiiller,  a  young  German  geog- 
rapher at  St.  Die,  in  the  Vosgian  Mountains, 
whose  imagination  had  been  stirred  by  reading 
Amerigo's  account  of  voyages  to  the  new  world, 
bestowed  the  name  America  upon  the  conti- 
nental regions  brought  to  light  by  the  Floren- 
tine. It  is  not  enough  to  say,  with  Mr.  John 
Boyd  Thacher  ('Columbus,'  vol.  3;  compare 
also  his  interesting  'Continent  of  America'), 
that  Waldseemiiller  "suggested"  this  designa- 
tion. As  editor  of  the  Latin  work,  the  'Cos- 
mographiae  Introductio'  (5  May,  1507),  he 
stated  most  distinctly,  with  emphatic  reiteration, 
his  reasons  for  this  name-giving;  placed  con- 
spicuously in  the  margin  the  perfect  geographi- 
cal name,  America,  and  at  the  end  of  the  volume 
put  Vespucci's  narrative.  Further,  on  a  large 
map  of  the  world,  separately  published,  he  drew 
that  fourth  part  of  the  earth  which  was  the 
'Introductio's'  novel  feature  —  marking  it 
firmly,  "America."  It  is  impossible  to  adopt  the 
suggestion  of  Prof,  von  der  Hagan,  that  Wald- 
seemiiller was  distinctly  conscious  of  giving 
the  new  continent  a  name  of  Germanic  origin. 
"Quia  Americus  invenit,"  says  the  'Introductio,' 
"Americi  terra  sive  America  nuncupare  licet." 
But  the  case  stands  otherwise  when  we  ask 
why  Europeans  generally  caught  up  the  word. 
Its  association  with  so  many  men  before  Ves- 
pucci certainly  commended  it  to  Northern  taste. 
Marrion  Wilcox, 
Author  of  'History  of  War  with  Spain,1  etc. 

America,  the  second  in  size  of  the  isolated 
land  masses  of  the  globe;  containing  about 
three  tenths  of  the  total  land  surface  and 
perhaps  half  the  cultivable  area,  but  less  than 
one  tenth  the  population.  The  name  was  origi- 
nally used  only  for  central  Brazil,  and  was  fairly 
enough  applied  in  honor  of  the  Italian,  Amerigo 
Vespucci  (q.v.),  who  discovered  it.  It  was 
first  employed  for  the  entire  known  Western 
world  by  Mercator  in  1541,  and  is  usually  but 
not  properly  understood  to  include  Greenland, 
which  is  physically  a  part  of  Europe. 

The  extreme  points  marking  the  limits  of 
this  vast  continent  are:  N.,  the  point  of  Boothia 
Felix,  in  the  Strait  of  Bellot,  hit.  71  °  55'  N., 
Inn.  i)4°  34'  W. :  (in  Alaska,  Point  Barrow,  lat. 
7'°  23'  31"  N.,  Ion.  i^6°  21'  40"  W.)  S.,  Cape 
Froward,  lat.  53°  53'  45"  S.,  Ion.  71  °  18'  30"  W., 
or,  if  the  archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  is 
included,  Cape  Horn,  lat.  55°  59'  S.,  Ion.  670 
(6'  W.  ;  W..  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  lat.  650  33' 
N.,  Ion.  1670  59'  W. ;  and  E.,  the  Point  de 
Guia,  lat.  7°  26'  S„  Ion.  340  47'  W.  Its  total 
area  is  not  far  from  16,000,000  sq.  m.,  with- 
out Greenland  or  the  polar  archipelago  (which 
comprise  perhaps  1.000,000  more),  of  which 
North  America  with  Central  America  and  the 
West  Indies  contains  some  8,700.000  and  South 
America  7,300,000.  There  can  be  no  pretense 
of  exactness  about  these  figures,  however :  Alas- 
ka and  polar  Canada  are  not  thoroughly  sur- 
veyed, and  good  recent  authorities  differ  by 
250,000  miles  or  more  even  as  to  accessible  lands 
like  South  America.  The  total  population  is 
over   150,000,000. 


Nominally  one  "continent,"  it  is  really  two 
if  not  three  sections,  geologically  independent 
in  origin.  The  northern,  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
to  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  in  Mexico  on  the 
west  (where  the  last  slopes  of  the  Anahuac  plat- 
eau of  the  Rocky  Mountains  sink  to  the  plain, 
and  the  Guatemalan  highlands  are  not  in  sight) 
and  Florida  on  the  east,  is  connected  with  the 
southern  by  two  great  parallel  ridges.  One  of 
these,  called  Central  America,  is  continuous, 
joining  South  America  at  the  west  side,  and 
'  dwindling  to  28  miles  across  at  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama ;  the  other  submerged,  consisting  of 
Haiti,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Lesser  Antilles, 
joining  at  the  eastern  side ;  the  two  united 
transversely  by  Cuba  and  Jamaica  and  the 
projection  of  Yucatan,  and  enclosing  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  1,500  miles  from  end  to  end.  The 
continental  mass,  8,700  miles  from  Alaska  on  the 
northwest  and  Boothia  Felix  on  the  northeast 
to  the  south  end  of  Patagonia,  is  prolonged  by 
a  vast  archipelago  of  arctic  islands  up  from 
Hudson  Bay,  ending  suddenly  like  a  drift  line 
about  1250  W.  Ion.,  and  at  Grant  Land  about 
83°  N.  lat.,  and  by  another  at  the  south  called 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  on  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  to 
a  total  of  some  9.600,  nearly  four  fifths  the  dis- 
tance from  pole  to  pole.  But  as  with  the 
eastern  continent,  some  force  has  massed  the 
land  chiefly  at  the  north :  two  thirds  of  the  con- 
tinent is  north  of  the  equator;  the  extreme  point 
of  the  continuous  northern  islands  reaches  to 
a  few  hundred  miles  from  the  pole,  the  last  of 
the  southern  is  2,350  miles  from  it ;  Alaska  is 
1. 100  from  the  north  pole,  Argentina  is  3.400 
from  the  south.  The  same  causes  make  it  form 
part  of  a  nearly  solid  ring  on  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
the  northwest  projection  of  Alaska  being  sepa- 
rated from  the  northeast  of  Kamchatka  by  only  40 
miles  of  strait,  and  the  continent  being  connected 
with  Europe  by  a  series  of  islands  one  to  two 
hundred  miles  apart,  while  the  immense  though 
widely  unequal  gulfs  of  the  Pacific  west  and  the 
Atlantic  east  separate  the  habitable  portions. 

The  axial  dimensions  of  the  continent  are 
not  very  dissimilar  to  those  of  the  eastern.  Its 
length  is  about  the  same  as  the  breadth  of  the 
other  from  China  to  England,  its  greatest 
breadth  about  the  depth  of  the  other  from  the 
Arctic  to  the  Indian  Ocean-;  but  its  relative 
slenderness  gives  it  less  than  half  the  area.  It 
is  in  fact  an  immense  peninsula  slightly  severed 
from  the  main  mass,  with  the  shape  and  the 
southerly  direction  of  the  majority  of  penin- 
sulas. From  nine  to  ten  thousand  miles  long,  it 
is  little  over  3.000  across  its  main  north  and 
south  lines,  from  Labrador  to  British  Columbia, 
or  from  Peru  to  Brazil;  about  2.100  from  Sa- 
vannah to  San  Diego,  a  few  hundred  across 
Mexico,  1,725  at  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  just 
above  Rio  Janeiro,  750  from  Buenos  Ayres  to 
Valparaiso,  and  so  on  southward.  Moreover, 
as  shown  by  its  configuration  relatively  to  that 
of  the  opposite  shores  of  the  eastern,  and  the 
differences  of  the  northern  and  southern  con- 
tinents, it  is  a  strip  rent  from  the  eastern  mass 
by  a  tremendous  geological  convulsion,  the  At- 
lantic being  the  channel  thus  left.  That  ocean 
is  relatively  small  and  of  regular  breadth  from 
Labrador  and  Brazil  to  England  and  Liberia, 
compared  with  the  immense  abyss  of  the  Pacific 
and  its  sweeping  arch  from  the  Bering  Sea  to 
Australia    and    Chile;    from    Newfoundland    to 


AMERICA 


Ireland  is  but  1,900  miles,  from  Cape  St.  Roque 
in  Brazil  to  Cape  Palmas  in  Liberia  but  1,700; 
while  from  San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  is  5,500, 
from  Quito  to  Singapore  (almost  exact  antip- 
odes) 12,500,  and  from  Valparaiso  to  Sydney 
8.000.  But  a  still  more  striking  proof  is  that 
the  continents  fit  together  almost  as  accurately 
as  the  blocks  of  a  dissected  map,  allowance 
being  made  for  the  long  period  since  their  sepa- 
ration. The  great  eastern  projection  of  North 
America  is  toward  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  that  of 
South  America  toward  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  the 
great  western  projection  of  Africa  toward  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The 
same  closure  (about  450)  which  would  bring 
Newfoundland  against  Brittany,  and  Labrador 
against  the  British  Isles,  would  make  the  Congo 
empty  against  the  Brazilian  coast  and  the  West 
Indies  surround  Senegambia.  In  physical  char- 
acter also  the  northern  and  southern  portions  of 
each  are  akin:  northeastern  North  America  has 
the  broken  island-fringed  peninsular  coasts  and 
the  gigantic  inlets  and  inland  seas  of  Europe, 
while  South  America  has  the  solid  coast-wall 
and  the  absence  of  lakes  characteristic  of  west- 
ern Africa.  Not  to  mention  the  great  polar 
archipelago  or  Hudson's  Bay,  and  allowing  the 
archipelago  at  the  south  end  of  Chili  to  set  off 
against  the  Alexander  Archipelago  along  the 
south  Alaskan  coast,  there  is  no  parallel  in 
South  America  to  oceanic  bodies  like  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  or  lesser  ones  like  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  northeast  to  Puget  Sound  northwest, 
or  the  Gulf  of  California  southwest ;  or  the 
mass  of  sheltered  bays  and  sounds  along  the 
eastern  coast  to  the  Great  Lakes ;  to  islands 
like  those  around  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
or  to  Vancouver's,  or  peninsulas  like  Nova 
Scotia,  Florida,  and  Lower  California.  It  must 
be  said,  however,  that  the  rent  between  the 
eastern  and  western  continental  bodies  must 
have  taken  place  very  early,  for  there  are  strong 
physical  differences  between  South  America  and 
Africa:  the  chief  mountain  ranges  of  the  former 
being  on  the  west,  of  the  latter  on  the  east ;  the 
African  rivers  are  less  copious,  and  mostly  have 
cataracts  above  their  mouths. 

Apart  from  this,  the  structural  characteris- 
tics of  the  northern  and  southern  continents 
have  striking  similarities,  largely  nullified  for 
human  use  by  the  difference  in  location  already 
mentioned.  Each  is  a  rather  slender  triangle 
with  the  vertex  to  the  south.  Each  is  joined  to 
the  next  northern  portion  of  the  globe  by  a 
northwestern  peninsula,  the  trend  of  the  whole 
as  far  south  as  Bolivia  being  regularly  south- 
east from  Bering  Strait,  just  as  that  of  the 
Asiatic  coast  to  the  Philippines  is  southwest ; 
so  that  the  north  Pacific  is  a  semicircular  gulf. 
Each  has  to  the  north  an  immense  archipelago 
and  a  vast  island-ringed  inland  sea.  Each  has  a 
framework  of  mountain  and  plain  correspondent 
in  general,  though  with  some  important  differ- 
ences. In  each,  according  to  the  law  that  the 
largest  continental  mountain  chain  is  on  the 
side  of  the  largest  ocean,  there  is  a  western 
range  of  immense  height  and  mass,  hundreds 
of  miles  broad  and  split  into  parallel  sections 
sometimes  connected  by  transverse  spurs, 
stretching  its  entire  length ;  quite  recent  in 
origin,  and  the  volcanic  action  which  raised  it 
still  energetic  in  parts.  The  Andes  in  South 
America    thus    correspond    to    the    Rockies    in 


North  America;  but  the  current  idea  that  they 
form  part  of  one  continuous  system  is  erro- 
neous,—  the  Andes  end  in  Venezuela,  and  the 
Rockies  arc  of  different  genesis.  Each  con- 
tinent has  on  the  east  a  much  shorter  chain, 
much  older  and  therefore  much  lower,  from  the 
erosion  through  geologic  ages,  and  its  volcanic 
fires  long  since  spent ;  and  as  the  highest  points 
are  worn  down  earliest,  each  is  now  rather  a 
broad  plateau  with  some  elevations  than  a 
mountain  wall.  The  Alleghany-Appalachian 
system  in  the  United  States  corresponds  to  the 
Brazilian  chain,  which  has  no  one  distinctive 
title.  Each  continent  has  also  a  lateral  range 
beginning  in  the  north  centre,  turning  first  south 
and  then  east  till  it  ends  somewhat  north  of 
the  eastern  vertical  chain,  and  cut  in  its  course 
by  the  chief  river  running  northeastward  ;  and 
in  each  it  is  much  the  oldest  part  of  the  con- 
tinent. The  Laurentian  chain  in  North  Amer- 
ica, crossed  by  the  Saskatchewan,  is  a  trivial 
counterpart  to  the  great  lateral  ranges  of  Vene- 
zuela and  the  Guianas,  crossed  by  the  mightier 
Orinoco. 

In  each  continent  the  two  main  ranges  are 
connected  by  an  almost  uninterrupted  plain 
many  hundreds  of  miles  broad,  sloping  south- 
ward to  the  ocean,  and  drained  by  three  im- 
mense hydrographic  systems  with  slight  and 
sometimes  non-existent  divides:  one  running 
east  and  emptying  just  north  of  the  eastern  ver- 
tical range,  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  St.  Law- 
rence in  the  north  corresponding  in  position  to 
the  oceanic  Amazon  in  the  south ;  the  second 
running  south  and  discharging  a  little  south  of 
the  same  range,  which  thus  forms  one  side  of 
a  huge  triangle  of  which  the  rivers  form  the 
other  two, —  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  in 
North  America  comparable  to  the  Parana  and 
Paraguay  which  form  the  La  Plata  in  South 
America ;  a  third  running  northeast  and  dis- 
charging into  the  northern  ocean,  the  Saskatche- 
wan, with  the  Red  River  of  the  North  and 
Lakes  Winnepeg  and  Manitoba,  corresponding 
to  the  Orinoco.  Besides  these,  each  has  a  river 
following  the  eastern  side  of  a  spur  from  the 
main  range  up  to  the  northern  ocean,  the  Mack- 
enzie in  the  arctic  regions  and  the  Magdalena 
in  Colombia,  though  the  former  is  the  drainage 
of  a  great  arctic  plain  while  the  latter  is  con- 
fined between  two  ridges.  With  regard  to  the 
watersheds,  those  of  North  America  lie  within 
a  few  miles  of  each  other  in  Minnesota;  the 
headwaters  of  the  Illinois  in  the  Mississippi 
basin  lie  within  a  half  mile  of  the  Chicago  in 
the  St.  Lawrence  system,  and  the  two  have  now 
been  connected ;  the  Amazon  and  Plata  systems 
are  only  three  miles  apart ;  and  those  of  the 
Amazon  and  Orinoco  are  actually  connected  by 
the  so-called  "river8  Cassiquiare,  a  deep  and 
broad  natural  channel  about  150  miles  long, 
running  either  way  according  to  circumstances. 

These,  however,  by  no  means  exhaust  the 
large  drainage  systems  of  North  America, 
though  in  South  America  the  closeness  of  the 
western  chain  to  the  ocean  throws  the  whole 
burden  on  the  east.  The  Pacific  slope  of  the 
north  is  drained  in  the  semi-arctic  regions  by 
the  immense  Yukon,  one  of  the  great  rivers  of 
the  globe.  On  the  eastern  side  the  great  mass 
of  the  arctic  moors  sends  its  drainage  through 
a  network  of  small  streams,  and  sinks 
like   Great    Bear,    Great    Slave,   and   Athabasca 


~\ 


; 


AMERICA 


Lakes,  by  the  Mackenzie  to  the  northern  ocean, 
the  Great  Fish  River  taking  the  east  arctic 
waters.  Farther  south  the  Pacific  drainage  is 
by  the  Fraser  into  Puget  Sound,  and  by  the 
Columbia  into  the  Pacific.  The  smaller  Sacra- 
mento drains  central  California.  The  Great 
Basin  between  two  arms  of  the  Rockies  sends 
its  scanty  and  precarious  rainfall  into  the  Gulf 
of  California  by  the  Colorado.  East  of  the 
range  in  the  south  the  Rio  Grande  has  a  long 
course  and  forms  the  boundary  between  the 
United  States  and  Mexico,  but,  despite  its  im- 
pressive name,  is  not  of  great  volume.  Between 
this  and  the  Mississippi  system  several  consid- 
erable streams  drain  the  Texas  region ;  the 
Colorado,  Brazos,  Sabine,  etc.  East  of  the 
Appalachian  system  a  number  of  fair-sized  and 
beautiful  rivers  flow  to  the  Atlantic  —  the  St. 
John's,  Penobscot,  and  Kennebec,  the  Con- 
necticut, Hudson,  Delaware,  and  Susquehanna, 
the  Potomac,  James,  Cape  Fear,  Savannah,  etc. 
In  South  America  the  large  rivers  of  the  eastern 
slope  are  the  San  Francisco  and  the  Paranahiba 
of  northern  Brazil ;  but  between  this  range  and 
the  Amazon  system  a  great  plain  is  drained  by 
the  huge  Tocantins,  which,  though  emptying 
only  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  is  really  a 
part  of  its  basin. 

The  drainage  systems  of  America  have  no 
parallel  on  the  globe.  The  Amazon  discharges 
more  water  into  the  sea  than  the  eight  largest 
rivers  of  Asia  together,  and  the  Mississippi 
more  than  all  the  streams  of  Europe  large  and 
small.  The  navigable  waters  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence, Mississippi,  Amazon,  Orinoco,  and  Plata 
systems  together  amount  to  over  100,000  miles 
in  length.  The  five  Great  Lakes  of  America 
alone,  excluding  large  bodies  like  Winnipeg, 
Manitoba,  Champlain,  etc.,  and  the  polar  lakes, 
make  up  an  area  of  89,000  square  miles,  or  con- 
siderably more  than  England  and  Scotland  to- 
gether. 

Another  physical  similarity  between  the  two 
continents  might  be  found  in  the  relations  of 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  northern  continent 
and  the  great  Argentine  plain  to  the  southern : 
both  lie  in  the  same  position  with  regard  to  the 
eastern  and  western  mountain  chains,  though  the 
one  is  submerged. 

But  the  differences  are  also  great.  The  main 
drainage  system  of  the  central  plain  in  North 
America  is  to  the  south,  by  the  Mississippi ;  that 
in  South  America  is  to  the  east,  by  the  Amazon; 
while  the  Great  Lakes  are  scarcely  a  drainage 
system  at  all  for  anything  but  the  melting  snows 
of  the  Rockies,  which  supply  them  through  deep 
rock  fissures.  They  are  hollows  in  the  oldest 
rock  elevation  of  the  continent,  with  the  ground 
sloping  away  from  them  in  every  direction  not 
far  from  their  shores ;  not  a  single  considerable 
stream  flows  into  them,  nor  even  into  the  St. 
Lawrence  west  of  Montreal.  But  the  most  vital 
difference  structurally  is  due  to  the  position  of 
the  western  chain.  In  North  America  the  chief 
height  is  on  the  eastern  flank  a  thousand  miles 
from  the  Pacific,  the  gradually  lessening  slopes 
leaving  space  for  an  empire  along  that  ocean, 
and  their  drainage  forming  great  rivers.  In 
the  southern  continent  it  hugs  the  ocean  so 
closely  that  not  a  stream  of  any  size  flows  into 
the  sea,  and  the  cultivable  area  is  but  a  petty 
strip  on  the  coast.  More  than  half  the  whole 
western  side  of  South  Ametica   is  occupied  by 


one  state,  some  1,500  miles  long  by  50  or  60 
wide,  which  even  so  finds  none  too  much  terri- 
tory with  its  slender  width  and  partly  barren 
soil.  The  northern  continent  has  also  an  im- 
mense advantage  in  the  character  of  its  coast 
line :  what  with  its  archipelagoes,  sounds,  and 
river-mouths  in  the  north,  and  the  sheltered  in- 
dentations farther  south,  it  is  well  fitted  for 
commerce,  while  the  whole  South  American 
coast  has  only  one  or  two  good  harbors  above 
Patagonia.  The  greatest  differences  in  the 
civilized  destiny  of  the  two  continents,  however, 
are  due  to  the  northward  massing  of  the  land 
heretofore  mentioned.  All  the  United  States 
and  southern  Canada  lie  in  the  temperate  re- 
gions :  the  largest  and  most  fertile  part  of  South 
America  lies  in  the  tropics.  The  narrow  south- 
ern part  of  North  America  lies  in  the  warm 
semi-tropic  ocean ;  that  of  South  America  in  the 
south-polar  sea.  A  quarter  of  all  North  Amer- 
ica is  a  worthless  polar  waste,  but  perhaps  as 
large  a  space  of  South  America  is  an  uninhabit- 
ed and  pestilential  tropic  jungle;  and  the  im- 
provements in  food  production  and  means  of 
warmth  which  push  back  the  reign  of  the  one 
are  perhaps  balanced  by  the  hygienic  inventions 
and  commercial  uses  tending  to  reclaim  the 
other.  Certainly  the  northern  part  has  much 
more  arable  land  and  much  less  miasmatic  or 
enervating  climate  than  the  other,  nothing  what- 
ever that  compares  with  the  pestilential  coasts 
and  inland  swamps  of  the  southern.  The  Mis- 
sissippi valley,  the  largest  continuous  body  of 
agricultural  land  on  the  earth,  is  not  only  of 
immensely  greater  value  than  the  grassy  steppes 
of  the  temperate  southern  plain  of  South  Amer- 
ica, but  the  prairies  of  the  north,  which  cor- 
respond in  position  to  the  Amazonian  forests 
in  the  south,  are  a  still  more  striking  contrast. 
Commercially  the  north  is  equally  favored  in 
comparison.  From  the  nearness  of  the  conti- 
nent to  Europe  relatively  to  Asia,  and  from  the 
structure  of  the  continent  throwing  the  mass  of 
population  and  production  east  of  the  great 
mountain  chain,  the  chief  commercial  relations 
of  America  must  always  be  with  the  western 
side  of  the  other  continent.  Bui.  North  Amer- 
ica is  directly  opposite  Europe,  the  commercial 
head  of  the  world  ;  while  South  America's  east- 
ern neighbor  is  barbaric  Africa,  and  most  of  its 
harbors  are  either  along  the  miasmatic  northern 
and  northeastern  coast,  unfit  for  great  cities,  or 
the  semi-polar  shores  of  Patagonia. 

(For  general  works  on  American  geography 
and  topography  see  the  (Ncw  Universal  Ge- 
ography,' translated  by  Keane  and  Ravenstein 
from  Elisee  Reclus'  French  work,  1890-4 ;  Daw- 
son's 'North  America,  Canada,  and  Newfound- 
land,' 1897;  Keane's  'Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica,' 1901  ;  Shaler's  'Nature  and  Man  in 
America,'  1891 ;  Wright's  'Ice  Age  in  North 
America,'  1889;  Powell's  'Physiographic  Re- 
gions of  the  United  States,'  in  "National  Ge- 
ographic Monographs,'  Vol.  I.  1895.) 

Physical  and  Climatic  Conditions. —  In  a  con- 
tinent practically  spanning  the  entire  space  from 
pole  to  pole,  every  variety  of  climate  may  be 
inferred;  and  with  every  elevation  from  sea- 
line  to  everlasting  ice  even  in  the  tropics,  each 
latitude  is  sure  to  contain  as  endless  varieties 
in  itself.  In  both  North  America  and  Asia  the 
western  side  is  both  warmer  and  of  more  even 
temperature   than    the   eastern,   owing  to   ocean 


AMERICA 


currents  generated  in  the  tropics  and  flowing 
eastward,  the  Guli  Stream  through  the_  Atlantic, 

the     Kuro    Sliiwo    through    the     Pacific.     1  lie 
Rockies,  however,  give  a  peculiar  character  to 
western   North  America,  to  be  mentioned  later, 
and  even   in   interior  Alaska  the  isotherms  rise, 
—  the  parallel  of   Dawson  City  in  the   Klondike 
is  that  of  the  north  end  of  Hudson  Bay  and  far 
into  south  Greenland.    The  eastern  side  of  both 
continents    lias   about    the   same   climatic   belts: 
China  corresponds  fairly  to  the  United  States, 
and    Peking   has   a   climate   not    unlike    Boston. 
But  if  we  compare  eastern  North  America  with 
Europe,    and    to   a    less    extent    South    America 
with   the   East,   the   leading  trait   is    its  greater 
cold  in  every  /one  from  just  below  Great  Bear 
Lake;   St.   Petersburg  and  Christiania  are  on  a 
level  with  the  southern  tip  of  Greenland.     Sitka 
has  much   the   same  parallel   as  Aberdeen;   Co- 
penhagen   and     Moscow,    Glasgow    and    Edin- 
burgh, correspond  with  central  Labrador,  north- 
ern   James    Bay,    and    some    distance    north    of 
Lake   Winnipeg.     All   the   British    Isles,  all   the 
Netherlands,  and  the  greater  part  of  Germany, 
are  north  of  the  city  of  Winnipeg,  which  itself 
is  about  on  the  parallel  of  Paris ;  St.   Paul  and 
Ottawa    correspond    to    Bordeaux,    Turin,    and 
Bucharest,    centres   of   wine  and   roses;   Boston 
and   Chicago  to   Rome,   New   York  to   Naples; 
Philadelphia   is  south   of  Madrid  and   Constan- 
tinople; Washington  corresponds  to  Lisbon  and 
Corfu,  St.  Louis  to  Athens.     The  thirtieth  par- 
allel   is    about    that    of    New    Orleans    and    the 
Isthmus  of  Suez  ;  the  twentieth  passes  through 
the  heart  of   Mexico,   also  just   below   Calcutta 
and  Mecca,  and  through  the  Sudan  and  Sahara; 
the  tenth  through  Venezuela,  also  through  Gui- 
nea    and     just     above     Ceylon.    The     equator 
touches   Quito  and   the   mouth  of  the  Amazon, 
and  also  divides  Sumatra  and  Borneo  and  Lake 
Victoria   Nyanza ;  the  Amazon   and  the  Kongo 
traversing  about  the   same  zones.     Even  allow- 
ing for  the  elevation  of  the  Mexican  plateau,  the 
temperatures    of    India   and    of    the    deserts    of 
Arabia  and  Africa  cannot  be  paralleled  even  on 
our   tropical    coasts.     The   difference    is   due   to 
environing    conditions     and    internal     structure 
combined.     Above  the  European  mass  is  a  par- 
tially thawed  sea ;  above  that  limit  in  America 
lie  many  hundred  miles  of  ice-clad  land  masses, 
while   to  the  northeast   is  the  continental   mass 
of  ice-capped  Greenland,  piercing  deep  into  the 
eastern    side    the   polar    inlet    of    Hudson    Bay. 
But  a  partial  cause  is  the  mountain  framework 
which  in  Europe  lies  mainly  east  and  west     and 
in    America     north    and    south.     In    the    latter, 
therefore,    what    is    practically    one    long    plain 
stretches  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  the  polar  winds  finding  no  obstruction 
as  they  sweep  southward.     There  is  not  a  spot 
in  North  America  east  of  the  Rockies  absolutely 
secure   from   intense   frosts ;   and  there  are   no 
definite  north-and-south  climatic  belts,  the  only 
sharp  divisions  being  those  east  and  west  of  the 
Rockies.     In  Europe  and  west  Asia,  on  the  con- 
trary,   where   the   mountains   cut   off   the    polar 
winds,  the  climate  will  often  vary  from  north- 
temperate  to  semi-tropic  within  a  score  of  miles. 
This    isolation    of    different    parts,    giving    the 
most  varied  lives  and  habits  time  to  grow  into 
deep-set    racial    distinctions,    has    produced    by 
their  varied  strains  and  interaction  the  splendid 
civilization    of   the    Western    world ;    while   the 


two  great  plains  which  fill  the  centre  of  each 
continent,  linked  by  a  fertile  and  temperate 
plateau,  in  itself  the  must  tempting  of  all,  gave 
no  opportunity  for  differentiation,  and  the  tin- 
diversified  monotony  of  a  single  racial  stock 
and  culture  was  one  of  the  influences  which 
kept  progress  at  a  spot  reached  by  European 
races  thousands  of  years  before. 

Geology.—  The  great  western  chain  of  both 
continents,  which  would  seem  to  be  the  chief 
formative  base  of  both,  is  in  fact  very  much  the 
newest  section  in  each  case,  though  each  is  of 
independent  origin  as  shown  by  the  energy  of 
still  remaining  volcanic  action  in  both,  while 
the  uplift  of  the  eastern  side  has  so  long  ceased 
that  erosion  has  worn  them  down  many  thou- 
sands of  feet,  trenching  immense  valleys,  and 
building  up  vast  plains  to  the  west  by  their 
detritus. 

The  Archaean  portion  of  North  America,  the 
first  in  order  of  appearance  above  the  water, 
is  the  northeastern  part:  the  elevation  in  which 
the  Great  Lakes  and  Hudson  liay  are  hollows, 
the  Laurentian  system  of  Canada,  the  Adiron- 
dacks  of  northern  New  York,  and  a  southern 
tongue  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  The  line  of 
forces  thenceforth  acted  steadily  to  the  west- 
ward, the  surface  formations  regularly  growing 
more  recent  in  that  direction.  This  portion  is 
not  merely  the  oldest  of  the  western  continent, 
but  one  of  the  oldest  on  the  globe,  the  "New 
World"  being  new  only  from  the  standpoint  of 
European  history,  not  of  geology  or  ethnology. 
This  and  the  polar  archipelagos  are  composed 
of  Azoic  or  Palaeozoic  rocks  of  extreme  an- 
tiquity. The  mountain  escarpment  skirting 
Labrador  and  extending  north  and  west  is 
mainly  granite  and  other  archaic  rocks.  To  the 
west  stretches  the  vast  pre-Silurian  plateau 
called  by  Suess  the  "Canadian  buckler."  By 
erosion  this  has  been  almost  denuded  of  its 
upper  Palaeozoic  strata,  and  the  whole  of  Hud- 
son Bay  excavated  to  a  slight  depth  on  the 
surface  of  its  eastern  section.  The  eastern  part 
of  the  Appalachian  system  is  mostly  Silurian; 
its  western  plateau  and  the  bases  of  most  of  the 
Mississippi  valley  are  Carboniferous;  while  as 
we  go  westward  we  encounter  in  succession 
Triassic,  Cretaceous,  and  Tertiary  formations. 

The  Rocky  Mountain  system  shows  the 
greatest  activity  of  volcanic  forces  at  its  ends, 
in  Alaska  and  Mexico.  In  the  old  portions  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada  there  are  no 
active  volcanoes;  and  the  strength  of  eruptive 
force,  greatest  in  the  Aleutian  Islands,  steadily 
diminishes  eastward  and  southward,  occasional 
eruptions  occurring  on  the  southwestern  coast, 
while  Mount  Wrangell  is  semi-eruptive  only. 
In  Mexico,  Popocatapctl  and  others  indicate  the 
beginning  of  the  equatorial  belt  of  volcanic 
forces  exhibited  in  Central  America  and  the 
Antilles.  But  all  the  Cordilleran  system  is 
relatively  of  recent  elevation,  though  old  enough 
for  heavy  erosions  to  have  taken  place,  exposing 
strata  of  every  age  as  they  were  tilted  up,  cre- 
ating some  valleys  and  filling  up  others.  In  the 
region  from  California  to  Puget  Sound  the  sur- 
face over  many  thousand  square  miles  is  lava, 
the  valley  of  the  Snake  and  Columbia  for  Ion? 
distances  being  cut  through  lava  beds,  and  field? 
of  black  scoriae  forming  a  peculiar  feature  in 
the  northern  Pacific  States  and  Pacific  Canada. 
To  the  south  of  the  Appalachian  system,  along 


NORTH  AMERICA 

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Scale 


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Dark  Drown  indicates  highest  land 
Dark  Blue  indicates  deepest  water 


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AMERICA 


the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf,  the  flooring  is  Cre- 
taceous and  Tertiary,  therefore  of  recent  up- 
lift. 

In  South  America  the  eastern  highlands  are 
also  of  enormous  antiquity,  as  shown  hy  their 
archaic  composition,  with  a  sandstone  cap  not 
since  submerged,  their  horizontal  layers,  deep 
erosions,  and  detritus  plains,  indicating  no  up- 
lift since  the  earliest  times  and  a  great  height 
of  the  original  chain.  The  Andes  (q.v.)  are 
quite  recent,  and  full  of  volcanoes  still  or  but 
recently  active,  but  they  are  not  all  of  a  single 
age,  however,  and  show  successive  uplifts.  The 
plains  between  have  Tertiary  bases  under  their 
alluvial  surface. 

Much  of  the  erosive  action  on  these  primi- 
tive elevations  and  the  uplifts  between  them  has 
been  due  to  a  vast  glacial  ice  cap,  the  so-called 
Laurentian  glacier,  which  at  an  uncertain  but 
relatively  recent  period,  ending  probably  from 
50.000  to  100,000  years  ago,  covered  all  North 
America  from  the  polar  regions  down  to  Phila- 
delphia and  the  Ohio  and  as  far  west  as  the 
Missouri,  leveling  hills  and  hollows,  creating 
soils,  excavating  lake  beds,  changing  the  courses 
of  streams  and  the  outlets  of  gigantic  lakes, 
cutting  out  and  blocking  up  fiords  and  harbors, 
and  depositing  enormous  masses  of  rock  and 
gravel  moraines.  To  this,  among  other  things, 
is  due  the  creation  of  New  York  harbor  and 
Niagara  Falls,  and  the  turning  of  the  Great 
Lakes  through  the  rocky  St.  Lawrence  valley 
instead  of  the  Mohawk  and  Hudson.  This  ice 
cap  has  by  no  means  wholly  disappeared  yet : 
the  immense  glaciers  on  the  northwest  coast 
and  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  heights,  some  of 
them  hundreds  of  square  miles  in  extent,  are 
remnants  of  the  one  great  glacier  of  ancient 
times  which  still  covers  entirely  the  turtle-back 
conformation  of  Greenland.  South  America  too 
has  had  its  glacial  periods,  spreading  from  the 
south-polar  regions  and  producing  the  same 
effects  as  in  its  northern  neighbor.  The  great 
height  of  the  Andes  keeps  them  still  existent  up 
to  and  beyond  the  equator,  and  on  the  south 
they  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 

The  Cordilleran  System. —  The  two  great 
axial  chains  which  form  the  western  base  of 
the  double  continent,  though  (as  said)  of  in- 
dependent origin,  have  strong  similarities  and  a 
like  relation  to  the  remainder  of  the  surface, 
and  may  conveniently  be  treated  together.  For 
their  detailed  composition  and  characteristics, 
see  Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains.  It  should  be 
noted  that  these  are  not  mere  dividing  walls,  but 
vast  formative  elements  of  the  continental  mass- 
es, and  themselves  of  continental  volume.  With 
their  foothills  and  spurs  they  amount  in  South 
America  to  at  least  1,000,000  square  miles  in 
area,  and  in  North  America  to  some  2.500.000, 
or  toward  a  third  of  the  entire  surface.  They 
include  almost  every  possible  character  of  soil 
and  climate  and  natural  product,  and  suitability 
for  every  employment, —  agriculture,  manufac- 
tures, or  mining.  They  make  climates  of  their 
own,  so  that  no  inference  can  be  drawn  from 
that  on  one  side  to  that  on  the  other,  and  the 
two  may  have  the  difference  of  five  degrees  of 
latitude  or  five  thousand  miles  of  distance:  one 
side  may  be  a  sponge,  the  other  a  rainless  desert, 
one  a  glacier,  the  other  a  garden.  They  make 
the  difference  between  Puget  Sound  and  Labra- 
dor, and  on  the  other  hand  between  the  Mexican 


plateau  and  the  Nicaraguan  plains,  between  Peru 
and  Caracas.  They  enclose  fertile  provinces 
and  deserts  of  rock  and  sand  each  large  enough 
for  an  empire,  and  have  great  lakes  and  consid- 
erable rivers  entirely  their  own. 

As   the   development   is   better    studied   from 
the  south,  we  shall  begin  with  South  America, 
whose   Cordilleras   descend   by   steep   short   ter- 
races to  the  seashore,   or  to  a  narrow   belt   of 
level  land  immediately  adjoining  it,  form  regu- 
lar   chains,    display    the    loftiest    masses    of   all 
America,  and  send  out   only   short  branches  to 
the  eastern  plains ;  whereas  the  North  American 
Cordilleras   lean,   in   the   west,   on   elevated   pla- 
teaus,  so   as   to   favor   a   large   development    of 
rivers,   are   less  vertical   in   their   structure   and 
less  high,  and  send  to  the  east  more  extensive 
ramifications.     The  names  of   particular  groups 
of  the  Andes  are  taken   from  the  countries  to 
which  they  more  especially  appertain ;  thus,  pro- 
ceeding from  south  to  north,  we  have  the  Cordil- 
leras of  Chile,  Bolivia,  Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Co- 
lombia.    This  is  the  highest  mountain  mass  on 
the   globe,   and   except   the   Himalayas    has   the 
highest     peaks.     Beginning     among     the     rock 
islands    of    the    Fuegian    archipelago,    it    runs 
through  Patagonia   as  a  low  single  range  with 
summits    of    perhaps    8.000    feet;    rises    swiftly 
through  Chili,  growing  at  once  higher  and  more 
multiplied,  with  summits  of  12.000  to  18,000  feet, 
till    it   culminates   in  the   stupendous  ncvado   of 
Aconcagua,  from  23,000  to  24,000  feet  high,  the 
loftiest    elevation    on    the    western    hemisphere. 
Beyond  this  it  divides  into  two  enormous  paral- 
lel arms  with  a  high  plateau  between,  and  lower 
ranges  to  the   east  in   Argentina   increasing  its 
complexity.     Thence  to  the  Isthmus  it  is  not  a 
ridge,   but   a    rock   continent   200   or  300    miles 
wide,  with  a  great  number  of  peaks  from  19,000 
to   21.000   and   even   22,000   feet   high,   and   the 
very  "passes"    over  them    15.000  or   16,000  feet 
above    the    sea,    terrific    and    nearly    impassable 
gorges   above   the   highest    summits   in   Europe. 
Sometimes    it    contains    three    or    four   parallel 
ranges,  with  two  and  even  three   immense  till- 
able  valleys   on   the    same   base.     It   attains    its 
greatest  breadth  at  about  lat.  180  S.,  in  central 
Bolivia,  where  it  is  some  300  miles  wide,  with 
three   main   ranges ;    and   at   this   point,    in   the 
northern  part  of  the  province  of  Tacna,  taken  by 
Peru    from    Bolivia,    it    and    the    correspondent 
coast  curve  northwest  as  far  as  5°,  its  course  in 
this  direction  being  exactly  coincident  with  the 
limits  of  Peru.     On  these  plateaus  was  situated 
the  empire  of  the  Incas.     just  northeast  of  the 
turn  it  holds  the  great  Lake  Titicaca,  some  1,800 
miles    in    area,    on    a    high    plateau    12,645    feet 
above   the   sea.     This   part   is   called   the   Royal 
Cordillera,    and    contains    several    peaks    above 
20.000  feet,  Ancohuma   (21,490)   being  the  high- 
est.    At   the   Gulf  of   Guayaquil    it  again    turns 
north,  with  a  gradual  trend  east  to  about  lat.  4 
N.,  when  it  curves  north  and  west  to  meet  the 
Isthmus,    forming    a    large    but    nameless    gulf. 
Near  the  equator,  in  Ecuador,  are  a  number  of 
very   lofty    volcanic    summits,    the    two    highest 
and    most    famous    of    which    are    Chimborazo, 
20,498   feet,  and   Cotopaxi,   19,613   feet.     Thence 
to   the   Caribbean   the   height   decreases,  and   in 
Colombia    it    divides    into    three,    two    running 
north  and  the  third  extending  well  into  Vene- 
zuela, the  true  end  of  the  Andean  system. 


AMERICA 


Central  America  is  hardly  a  part  of  cither 
great  system.  The  Isthmus  is  a  low  plateau, 
succeeded  by  highlands  rather  than  mountains 
in  Costa  Rica  ;  then  conns  the  depression  near- 
1\  ("died  by  Lake  Nicaragua,  the  largest  inland 
body  of  water  south  of  the  Great  Lakes,  where 
the  elevation  sinks  to  less  than  too  feet  above 
the  sea.     The  mountains  begin  in  northern  Nica- 

iia  and  occupy  the  entire  breadth  of  Hon- 
duras, Guatemala,  and  Salvador,  from  ocean  to 

in,  but  they  arc  not  of  great  height  and 
consi-t  of  several  detached  ranges  with  active 
or  extinct  volcanic  peaks.  These  sink  to  the 
broad  plain  at  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec, 
forming  the  dividing  line  between  the  mass  of 
North  American  and  South  American  organic 
species,  though  zoologically  the  central  plateau 
is  a  northern  tongue  thrust  into  two  lines  of 
tropic    territory    along    the    Gulf    and     Pacific 

The  Rocky  Mountain  system,  or  northern 
Cordillera,  begins  with  the  plateau  of  Anahuac 

which  the  City  of  Mexico  is  situated,  the 
seat  of  the  original  culture  overthrown  by  Cor- 
tes.  It  is  from  4.000  to  7.000  feet  high,  and  is 
flanked  by  mountain  ranges  and  isolated  vol- 
canic peaks,  active  or  quiescent,  the  highest 
summits  in  Mexico.  Orizaba,  the  loftiest,  is 
[8,250  feet  high,  but  the  most  remarkable  and 
imposing  is  Popocatapetl.  rising  17,520  feet  from 
the  floor  of  the  valley,  the  highest  peak  of 
the  world  in  practical  isolation,  its  whole  height 
visible  from  sea  level.  At  this  point  the  main 
ridge  of  the  Rockies  (the  Mexican  section  is 
known  also  as  the  Sierra  Madre,  which  prop- 
erly is  the  name  of  the  northeastern  spur)  sud- 
denly turns  far  eastward  from  the  Pacific,  and 
for  the  remaining  3.500  miles  of  its  course  keeps 
hundreds  of  miles  from  it.  so  that  the  broad 
western  slope  is  drained  by  very  large  rivers, 
as  the  Columbia  and  Fraser,  and  in  the  extreme 
north  the  mighty  Yukon,  one  of  the  great 
streams  of  the  whole  globe.  But  it  throws  out 
lesser  arms  to  the  west  nearly  to  the  ocean. 
Between  the  main  range  and  the  great  Sierra 
Nevada  arm  is  enclosed  the  desert  Great  Basin 
of  L'tah  and  Nevada  and  northern  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico:  a  waste  of  alkaline  earth  and 
naked  rocks,  of  river  courses  dry  except  in  the 
infrequent  rains,  and  roaring  torrents  then  for 
a  few  hours  or  minutes;  of  the  great  canons, 
gulleys  cut  sometimes  a  mile  deep  into  the  solid 
by  the  swift  sand-laden  currents.  It  is 
drained  to  the  Gulf  of  California  by  the  only 
real  stream  of  water  of  any  size  in  the  whole 
region,  the  Colorado.  The  Sierra  Nevada  has 
for  its  crowning  summit  Mount  Whitney,  in 
California.  14.898  feet  high.  Still  farther  west 
it  throws  out  the  Coast  Range,  running  through 
California,  Oregon,  and  Washington  up  to 
Pugct  Sound.  The  Sierra  Nevada  is  continued, 
through  independenl  volcanic  action,  by  the  Cas- 
cade Range  of  Oregon,  Washington,  and  British 
Columbia,  with  Mount  Shasta.  14.310  feet,  in  the 
south,  and  Mount  Rainier  or  Tacoma,  14,526 
feet,  in  Washington.  The  system  as  a  whole, 
across  from  California  and  Oregon  to  Colorado 
and  Wyoming,  is  1.000  miles  wide,  with  a 
number  of  north-and-south  ranges  rising  from 
a  plateau  from  5.000  to  10,000  feet  high,  and 
with  a  large  number  of  peaks  between  14.000 
and  15.000  feet  high.  The  main  range  in  Colo- 
rado has  for  its  chief  divisions  the  Front,  San- 


gre  de  Cristo,  Park,  Sawatch,  and  San  Juan 
ranges;  Long's  and  Pike's  Peaks,  Blanca  Peak, 
Mounts  Lincoln  and  Harvard,  and  Uncom- 
pahgre  Peak  are  the  best  known  of  the  sum- 
mits. 

The  system  follows  the  coast  around  nearly 
to  Asia,  rising  in  leaks  all  along  the  Aleutian 
Island,  the  chief  being  the  noble  Shishaldin, 
8,000  feet  high ;  and  north  of  Yakutat  Bay,  a 
great  landmark,  where  the  coast  turns  west  and 
the  greatest  glaciers  begin,  the  place  where  the 
temperate  zone  properly  gives  place  to  the  semi- 
arctic.  A  branch  continues  straight  on,  runs 
far  north  to  the  Yukon  watershed,  then  turns 
west  again  and  rejoins  the  other  in  southwest 
Alaska.  In  the  course  of  the  latter  it  throws 
up  mighty  peaks,  the  monarchs  of  the  northern 
continent,  including  Mount  St.  Elias,  18,024 
feet,  and  Mount  Wrangell,  a  great  isolated  semi- 
active  volcano,  17,524  feet;  the  altitude  rising  as 
it  goes  west,  it  culminates  in  Mount  McKinley, 
20,464  feet,  the  highest  elevation  in  North 
America. 

The  Eastern  Mountains  and  tl\c  Plains. — 
In  North  America  the  backbone  and  nucleus  of 
the  continent  is  locally  known  as  the  Alleghany 
system  in  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  Appalachian  in  the  southern ;  but  for 
scientific  purposes  the  latter  name  is  commonly 
extended  to  the  whole.  It  extends  from  Gaspe 
peninsula,  between  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  and 
Chaleur  Bay,  below  Quebec,  through  the  United 
States  to  north  Alabama  and  north  Georgia, 
where  the  mountains  sink  down  to  the  great 
coastal  plain  which  girdles  the  United  States 
from  fifty  to  a  hundred  miles  back  from  the  coast 
shore.  Between  the  mountain  and  plain  is  a 
foothill  region  usually  known  as  the  Piedmont 
region.  The  mountains  are  a  plateau  from 
50  to  200  miles  wide  and  averaging  1,500  to 
3.000  feet  high,  but  with  peaks  rising  to  6,204 
feet  in  Mount  Washington  (New  Hampshire) 
and  6,707  feet  in  Mount  Mitchell  (North  Caro- 
lina). The  range  has  many  local  names  for 
the  different  divisions,  as  the  White  and  Green, 
the  Adirondacks,  the  Taconic,  Iloosac,  and 
Catskill,  the  Alleghany,  the  Blue  Ridge  and 
South   Mountain,   the   Black  and  Smoky,   etc. 

On  the  west  they  slope  through  rolling  up- 
lands to  the  most  peculiar  feature  of  the  North 
American  surface,  entirely  unlike  any  other  part 
of  the  globe,  the  prairies,  called  savannahs  in 
English  books,  but  never  in  American  speech : 
a  block  of  undulating  plains  of  enormous  extent 
in  the  centre  of  the  Mississippi  basin,  com- 
posed mainly  of  dark,  rich  loam  from  a  foot 
to  several  feet  deep  over  a  bottom  of  clay,  and 
of  such  composition  that  tree-growth  is  entirely 
absent  naturally  and  very  difficult  artificially, 
even  where  rainfall  is  plentiful,  though  grass 
and  other  crops  grow  abundantly.  Often  this 
will  be  as  level  as  a  floor  for  scores  of  miles 
together,  and  the  eye  sweeps  uninterruptedly 
over  a  grassy  ocean  to  the  horizon.  On  the 
west  of  this  extend  to  the  Rockies  lands  often 
as  flat  as  the  prairies,  but  lacking  their  individ- 
ual trait  and  called  plains  instead.  The  same 
features  are  repeated  in  northwest  Canada  from 
Manitoba  to  the  Rockies. 

In  South  America  the  eastern  chain  is  simi- 
larly formed  of  several  parallel  ranges  follow- 
ing the  Brazilian  coast,  on  a  wide  plateau,  a  re- 
duced copy  of  it  running  through  the  Guianas. 


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The  whole  centre  is  an  immense  plain  sloping 
sharply  up  to  the  Andes;  but  in  place  of  the 
vast  treeless  flats  of  the  northern  continent 
there  is  the  most  enormous  forest  of  the  world, 
two  and  a  half  millions  of  miles  in  extent,  a 
swampy  jungle  inhabited  only  by  a  unique  tropic 
fauna  and  the  few  savages  who  wander  through 
its  intricate  paths.  North  of  this,  however,  are 
considerable  plains  along  the  Orinoco  called 
llanos.  Below  the  range  the  country  is  a  great 
grassy  steppe,  rather  ill-watered  and  infertile, 
called  pampas,  and  extending  through  Argen- 
tina and   Patagonia. 

(See  reports,  bulletins,  and  monographs  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey ;  reports  of 
the  Canada  Geological  and  Natural  History  Sur- 
vey; Suess'  (Das  Antlitz  der  Erde'  (The  Face 
of  the  Earth),  Prague  1883-8;  Felix  and  Lank, 
'Geologie  und  Palaontologie  der  Republik  Mex- 
ico,' Leipsic  1890;  Steinmann,  'Sketch  of  Ge- 
ology of  South  America,'  in  'American  Na- 
turalist,' Vol.  XXV.,  1891.) 

Climate,  Rainfall,  and  Natural  Sections. — 
The  habitability  of  a  land  outside  of  arctic  re- 
gions depends  first  upon  its  water  supply  and 
secondly  upon  its  disposition.  The  trade  winds 
which  supply  the  rainfall  of  all  countries  by 
the  ocean  vapors  they  carry  blow  nearly  east 
and  west,  the  easterly  called  specifically  "trades," 
the  westerly  "anti-trades."  The  eastern  con- 
tinent has  its  greatest  length  in  this  direction 
and  a  great  mountain  wall  on  the  east ;  hence 
much  of  central  Asia  lying  beyond  the  reach 
of  vapors  remains  a  permanent  desert. 
America,  from  its  narrowness  and  its  sides  be- 
ing toward  these  winds,  is  much  more  easily 
supplied.  The  Great  Lakes  add  to  the  rainfall 
in  their  region;  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  as  will  be 
demonstrated,  turns  the  whole  east  centre  from 
a  potential  desert  to  a  garden :  and  the  only 
entire  deserts  are  between  two  arms  of  the 
western  range  in  the  northern  part,  and  some 
portion  of  the  strip  along  the  western  coast  of 
the  southern. 

In  the  polar  regions  the  cold  and  physical  con- 
formation make  the  water  supply  of  little  avail. 
Northern  Alaska  and  northern  Canada  are  flat, 
spongy  moors  but  half  reclaimed  from  the  ocean, 
with  permanently  frozen  subsoil,  thawing  slight- 
ly in  the  brief,  intense  summer  (sometimes  of 
120°),  and  developing  a  few  mosses,  grasses,  and 
weeds,  with  dwarfed  shrubs  and  clouds  of 
mosquitoes.  (See  Alaska.)  But  the  distance 
southward  to  which  arctic  conditions  extend  is 
far  greater  on  the  eastern  coast  than  the  west- 
ern, owing  to  the  effect  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
wall  in  breaking  the  force  of  the  polar  winds, 
and  of  the  warm  ocean  vapors ;  the  latter  also 
make  the  temperature  far  more  equable.  The 
midwinter  arctic  temperature  of  50°  and  below 
has  no  representative  on  the  western  coast.  The 
Labrador  coast,  latitude  for  latitude,  is  20° 
colder  than  the  Alaskan  in  me3n  annual  tempera- 
ture, about  20°  against  40°  even  in  the  extreme 
northwest ;  and  its  mean  midwinter  temperature 
300  colder,  — 25°  against  5°.  Even  from  the  in- 
terior to  the  western  coast  the  isotherms  rise 
astonishingly :  that  of  north  Virginia  at  lat.  400 
N.  is  that  of  British  Columbia  at  500.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  range  of  temperatures  is  much 
greater  on  the  east,  the  temperature  rising 
pretty  steadily  as  we  go  southward,  to  8o°  mean 
annual  on  the  Mexican  Gulf  coast,  a  range  of 


60°  from  semi-arctic  to  semi-tropic,  while  in 
the  corresponding  part  of  southern  California 
it  is  only  70°,  a  range  of  30".  The  midwinter 
range  is  over  100°  on  the  east  coast,  not  above 
50°  on  the  west;  the  midsummer  is  400  in  the 
east,  not  over  20°  on  the  whole  coast  from 
southern  California  to  Bering  Sea.  Much 
greater  extremes  still  are  found  in  the  Cordil- 
leran  region,  where  the  mean  annual  embraces 
a  scale  of  6o°,  and  the  mean  midsummer  runs 
from  400  to  950  in  southern  Arizona  and  north- 
ern Mexico,  while  the  thermometer  rises  to 
120°  at  times,  as  at  Fort  Yuma  and  similar 
places. 

From  about  lat.  52°  N.  to  perhaps  44°  in  the 
interior  and  east,  the  climate,  though  not  quite 
fatal  to  civilized  energies,  is  very  severe,  with 
winters  of  seven  or  eight  months,  and  summers 
at  best  but  short  and  not  always  calculable, 
though  rising  to  100°  and  over  in  waves ;  with 
sudden  intense  "northers"  and  "blizzards"  of 
intense  cold  with  fine  dry  snow  sometimes  par- 
alyzing business  activities  for  days.  The  dry 
atmosphere,  however,  makes  it  less  trying  than 
the  damper  though  somewhat  warmer  eastern 
weather ;  it  has  developed  great  cities  and  popu- 
lous States  in  the  LTnited  States  and  flourish- 
ing communities  in  Canada  above  50°  ;  and  the 
industrial  and  intellectual  future  of  the  region 
is  as  promising  as  that  of  any  part  of  the  con- 
tinent. There  is  not  much  difference  between  the 
central  and  eastern  parts  in  this  respect,  Duluth 
and  Quebec,  St.  Paul,  and  Ottawa,  correspond- 
ing closely  in  parallels  and  nearly  in  climate. 
Northwestern  Canada  and  the  northern  cen- 
tral States  of  the  LTnited  States  form  the  great 
cattle  and  wheat  district  of  North  America ;  and 
this  on  both  sides  of  the  Rockies  is  the  chief 
timber  section.  South  of  this  is  the  great  "tem- 
perate" section,  shading  into  the  semi-tropic  by 
imperceptible  degrees,  but  which  in  the  United 
States  may  be  roughly  divided  by  the  basin  of 
the  Ohio.  The  northern  portion  has  summers 
and  winters  of  the  same  general  character  as 
the  former,  but  less  intense  at  either  extreme, 
neither  hot  waves  nor  cold  waves  usually  last- 
ing long;  the  weather  damper  than  in  the  farther 
north.  It  is  the  chief  region  of  Indian  corn 
and  apples,  hay  and  potatoes,  etc.  The  southern 
half  shows  the  beginnings  of  tropic  elements  in 
the  seasons,  which  are  not  so  much  winter  and 
summer  as  wet  and  dry ;  in  the  luxuriance  of 
vegetation  and  characteristically  tropic  varie- 
ties; in  the  less  bracing  atmosphere,  and  in 
the  bottom  lands  its  languorous  oppressiveness ; 
in  the  domestic  architecture,  where  the  obviouj 
desire  is  to  escape  heat  rather  than  to  ward 
off  cold ;  and  in  the  productions,  such  as  cotton 
and  tobacco,  rice  and  sugar,  sweet  potatoes  and 
oranges  in  the  far  south. 

The  Pacific  slope,  however,  is  an  exception 
to  this,  its  climate  resembling  the  western  coast 
of  Europe  much  more  than  the  eastern  of  its 
own.  All  the  isothermal  lines  curve  sharply 
northward  west  of  the  mountains.  From  Puget 
Sound  to  San  Diego  there  is  no  extreme  range 
of  climate,  no  such  division  into  quasi-arctic 
and  quasi-tropic  as  on  the  eastern  slope ;  though 
the  northern  part  from  its  heavy  rains  is  the 
greatest  timber  region  of  the  continent  north, 
and  the  southern  a  great  country  of  vineyards, 
almond  orchards  and  other  south-temperate 
products.     California    reaches    from    about    the 


AMERICA 


parallel  of  Boston  to  that  of  north  Georgia 
and  Mississippi,  hut  has  neither  the  raw,  harsh 
New  England  climate  nor  the  heavy  southern 
atmosphere,  and  southern  California  is  a 
noted  warm  sanatorium.  The  high  arid 
plateau  of  north  Mexico  experiences  ex- 
treme alternations  of  temperature,  from  950  to 
400 ;  but  on  the  coasts  and  below  the  great  Ana- 
huac  table-land  the  region  becomes  semi-tropic. 
Sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  coffee  now  ascend  to 
the  lower  mountain  regions,  and  in  their  place, 
at  sea-level,  appear  pineapples,  bananas,  etc. 
Central  America  from  its  narrowness  and  low 
elevation  has  an  island  climate,  tropic  and  pesti- 
lential on  the  shores  and  along  the  streams, 
moderate  and  healthful  on  the  higher  ground  in 
the  interior.  This  and  the  Antilles  are  the  re- 
gion of  sugar,  indigo,  cochineal,  ginger,  va- 
nilla, capsicum,  etc.  South  America,  lying  on 
both  sides  of  the  equator,  has  in  the  central  and 
eastern  parts  a  much  less  range  of  climate  than 
North  America,  the  greatest  in  a  single  section 
being  found  in  Argentina,  where  it  is  some  300; 
over  the  whole  continent  the  mean  annual  tem- 
perature ranges  from  8o°  to  400,  the  midwinter 
(our  midsummer)  from  8o°  to  35°,  and  the 
midsummer  from  85°  to  50';  north  Argentina, 
the  Cordilleran  section,  having,  as  before,  the 
greatest  alternations.  The  southern  west  An- 
dean slopes  are  cooled  and  equalized  by  the  west 
winds  from  the  ocean;  the  northern  parts  are 
a  tropic  desert ;  but  on  the  different  levels  of 
the  range  are  found  every  climate  of  the  earth 
from  tropic  to  arctic.  The  tropic  productions 
and  characteristics  south  of  the  equator,  ex- 
cept as  deflected  by  local  conditions,  are  much 
like  those  north  of  it.  The  zone  reaching  south 
as  far  as  lat.  400  S.  has  a  mean  temperature  of 
71  °  in  the  warmest  and  53°  in  the  coldest 
month.  There  the  palm  still  thrives  on  the 
lower  basin  of  the  La  Plata  beside  the  mulberry 
and  indigo ;  the  pampas  and  the  west  coasts  of 
Chile  are  characterized  by  beautiful  araucarias 
(the  pine  of  the  southern  hemisphere),  by 
beeches  and  oaks,  the  potato  and  the  arrow- 
root. The  plants  in  cultivation  are  a  curious 
blending  of  the  vegetation  of  the  northern  and 
southern  United  States:  wines,  olives,  oranges, 
hemp,  flax,  tobacco,  wheat,  Indian  corn,  and  bar- 
lev.  The  southern  limit  of  the  periodical  rains 
reaches  as  far  as  lat.  480  S.,  when  the  mean  tem- 
perature of  5Q°  in  the  warmest  and  39°  in  the 
coldest  month  still  favors  the  growth  of  cereals, 
and  on  sheltered  spots  of  the  west  coast  the 
growth  even  of  the  vine  and  the  finer  fruits. 
The  zone  reaching  to  the  southern  extremity 
0!  America  shows  comparatively  little  difference 
between  the  warmest  and  coldest  month,  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  one  being  41°  and  of 
the  other  250  ;  but  the  low  degree  of  summer 
warmth  produces  a  marked  change  in  the  form 
of  vegetation,  which  now  presents  only  a  few 
trees,  as  the  beech  and  birch,  and  an  extraor- 
dinary abundance  of  mosses  and  ferns.  As  in 
passing  from  the  equator  to  the  pole  the  region 
of  the  vegetable  world  gradually  declines,  so 
in  climbing  from  the  tropical  shores  to  the  ice- 
covered  mountain  summits  three  different  cli- 
mates have  been  distinguished  by  the  names  of 
tierra  caliente,  temp  lade  and  fria  ("hot,  temper- 
ate, frigid).  Of  these  the  templada  extends 
over  those  healthy  and  beautiful  regions  where 
a   kind  of  perpetual  spring  prevails,  and  green 


pastures  and  noble  forest  trees  are  found  united 
with  the  fantastical  and  gigantic  forms  of  the 
tropics. 

The  question  of  rainfall  is  difficult  to  group 
systematically  with  that  of  climate.  The  mass 
of  the  northern  continent  is  in  the  region  of 
the  anti-trades  or  prevailing  westerly  winds. 
The  Japanese  Black  Current,  the  Gulf  Stream 
of  the  Pacific,  running  northeast  and  striking 
the  polar  currents  and  the  cold  shores,  ice- 
bound for  many  hundreds  of  miles,  sends  up  a 
great  steam  of  fog  which  is  blown  against  the 
wall  of  the  Rockies  and  sent  back  by  them  upon 
their  western  slope  in  a  rainfall  from  50  inches 
up  to  100  or  even  more,  that  makes  the  northern 
coast  from  southern  Alaska  to  northern  Califor- 
nia one  gigantic  forest  of  immense  timber.  The 
rainfall  on  Puget  Sound  is  from  75  to  over  100 
inches  in  winter,  and  the  annual  average  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  Alaska  is  90  inches.  In 
the  southern  part,  along  southern  and  Lower 
California,  the  Cordilleran  region  above  the 
Gulf,  and  west  Mexico,  the  same  winds  blow  ; 
but  the  land  is  too  warm  to  cool  and  precipitate 
the  vapors  to  the  same  extent  ;  and  such  pre- 
cipitation as  there  is  takes  place  mostly  on  the 
crests  of  the  coast  ranges,  the  Cordilleran  re- 
gion being  mostly  semi-desert  or  wholly  so. 
In  the  summer  the  coast  ranges  are  too  warm 
to  retain  all  the  moisture  of  the  vapors,  which 
therefore  give  a  little  at  these  seasons,  10  to 
20  inches  in  all  to  the  interior  regions. 

The  Mississippi  valley  is  saved  from  becom- 
ing the  most  tremendous  desert  on  earth,  a  sec- 
ond Sahara,  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the 
western  wall  combined.  If  it  had  to  rely  on  the 
Pacific  winds  it  would  be  utterly  rainless;  but 
these  westerly  winds  in  the  Gulf  region  set  up 
whirls  of  cyclonic  disturbance  which  make  an 
easterly  eddy,  carrying  saturated  currents  in 
that  direction ;  and  these,  striking  against  the 
Rockies,  are  turned  northeastward  through  the 
central  and  eastern  valley,  giving  it  abundant 
water.  This  eastward  set,  however,  leaves  the 
western  valley  only  the  edge  of  its  course;  the 
far  western,  as  in  western  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
being  rainless  for  considerable  periods  and 
scantily  supplied  at  best.  The  rainfall  ranges 
from  60  inches  on  the  coast  to  30  around  the 
Great  Lakes,  which  add  something  to  the  mois- 
ture of  their  district.  The  same  cyclonic  move- 
ment makes  the  same  easterly  eddy  in  the  At- 
lantic, and  the  Atlantic  coast  receives  its  40  to 
50  inches  a  year  from  that  source. 

Central  America  is  in  the  region  of  the 
trades  or  easterly  winds,  and  is  so  narrow  that 
its  climate  is  that  of  a  semi-tropic  island.  In 
this  region  the  rainfall  is  enormous,  creating 
heavy  tropic  vegetation  and  increasing  to  200 
inches  at  Panama  and  the  northwestern  shores 
of  South  America,  short  rivers  like  the  Atrato 
carrying  almost  a  continental  volume  of  water. 
All  tropical  South  America  is  within  the  trade- 
wind  belt,  its  moist  warm  climate  creating  the 
enormous  forests  of  the  Amazon  basin,  the 
oceanic  volume  of  that  "river8  (rather  a  huge 
set  of  parallel  drainage  channels  in  one  vast 
swamp)  and  its  tributaries,  and  the  lesser  but 
still  mighty  Orinoco.  On  the  western  slope  of 
the  Andes  this  portion  receives  no  vapor  and  is 
a  desert  down  to  north  Chili.  But  in  central 
and  south  Chile  and  Argentina  the  anti-trades 
begin  once  more,  and  North  American  conditions 


1 


• 


r 


AMERICA 


are  repeated :  the  westerly  winds  giving  to  that 
coast  a  mild,  equable  temperature  and  heavy 
rainfall,  while  the  Andes  bar  nearly  all  the 
moisture  from  the  east,  and  the  great  southern 
plains  or  pampas  are  a  relatively  arid  steppe. 

Taking  the  continent  as  a  whole,  the  rainy 
zone  is  disproportionately  extended  in  America; 
and  as  it  stretches  over  all  the  zones,  the  vege- 
tation is  remarkably  diversified,  from  the  lowly 
moss  of  the  north  to  the  lordly  banana  of  the 
tropics.  The  giant  chain  of  the  Andes  every- 
where rises  above  the  snow-line.  From  the 
sterile  Peruvian  coast,  burned  by  tropical  heats, 
one  can  look  up  to  summits  covered  with  perpet- 
ual snow  and  ice ;  and  one  may  climb  from  the 
gigantic  equatorial  vegetation  of  Quito  to 
heights  where  only  the  condor  testifies  to  the  ex- 
istence of  organic  life  as  he  wings  his  flight  over 
snow-fields  and  glaciers.  In  Peru  the  culture 
of  cereals  is  carried  on  at  the  height  of  12,000, 
and  near  Quito  at  9,000  feet.  The  north  and 
south  of  America  have  the  same  length  of  day; 
but  in  the  seasons  which  depend  not  merely  on 
astronomical  but  on  a  variety  of  local  causes, 
the  analogy  does  not  hold  and  very  remarkable 
discrepancies  appear.  Thus,  for  example,  the 
east  coast  of  Brazil  has  the  rainy  season  from 
March  to  September,  while  Peru,  lying  under 
the  very  same  latitude,  has  it  from  November 
to  March.  Within  the  tropics  the  transition 
from  the  rainy  to  the  dry  season  takes  place 
almost  instantaneously;  but  in  receding  from 
the  tropics  on  either  side,  the  change  of  seasons 
becomes  more  and  more  gradual  till  at  last,  in 
the  polar  zones,  nature,  bound  in  icy  chains, 
affords  for  living  existence  only  a  short  awaken- 
ing out  of  a  long  winter  sleep. 

(See  publications  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau,  the  Canadian  Meteorological 
Office,  and  the  Mexican  Weather  Service ; 
Greely's   'American  Weather,'    1888.) 

Flora. —  The  sections  of  cultivation  have  been 
dealt  with  already  and  we  shall  consider  here 
only  the  indigenous  features.  From  north  to 
south  the  general  succession  is  as  follows : 

The  surface-thawed  arctic  tundra  bears  only 
reindeer-moss,  blossoming  weeds  in  its  brief 
hot  summer,  and  dwarf  willows.  From  about 
the  Arctic  Circle  to  the  southern  coast  of 
Alaska,  James  Bay  and  the  North  Saskatche- 
wan, we  find  shrubby  plants,  most  of  them  yield- 
ing berries ;  then  the  universal  wood-of-all- 
work,  the  famed  "Alaska  spruce,*  with  clumps 
of  birch  and  alder:  these  at  first  sparsely,  then 
forests  of  conifers, —  larger  spruces,  pine,  hem- 
lock, and  fir.  This  coniferous  growth  extends 
in  enormous  volume  down  the  cool  wet  Pacific 
slope  to  central  California ;  the  giant  redwoods 
and  sugar-pines,  etc.,  and  the  huge  sequoia,  the 
largest  and  oldest  plant  on  the  earth,  being  fa- 
mous everywhere.  Eastern  Canada  is  forested 
with  similar  coniferous  species ;  so  is  the  Unit- 
ed States  through  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
west  to  Minnesota,  to  southern  Missouri  and 
northwestern  Arkansas,  and  to  northeastern 
Texas  and  the  Indian  Territory.  The  central 
United  States  has  predominant  deciduous 
(hardwood)  trees,  such  as  the  oak  of  many 
varieties,  the  beech,  maple,  elm,  chestnut,  black 
walnut,  hickory,  ironwood,  pepperage,  red  mul- 
berry, etc.  In  the  southern  States  the  yellow 
pine  holds  foremost  place.  The  characteristic 
forms  of  the  southern  States  are  the  magnolia, 


palmetto,  tulip-tree,  plane-tree,  pecan,  etc.,  with 
the  cypress  everywhere  in  the  swamps.  The 
Cordilleran  woods  are  chiefly  conifers,  and  on 
the  mountains ;  on  the  plains  and  in  the  valleys 
are  the  yucca,  cactus,  etc.,  whose  dense,  thorny 
growth  is  termed  chaparral.  The  wild  pictur- 
esqueness  and  even  grotesqueness  of  the  cactus 
forms  is  noted ;  and  it  furnishes  food  for  ani- 
mals that  would  otherwise  starve  on  the  arid 
steppes.  The  north  Mexican  plateau  has  little 
wood  except  on  the  mountains.  Southward 
vegetation  blends  with  the  tropical  forms,  and 
in  Central  America  and  the  Antilles  the  most 
valuable  trees  are  the  mahogany  and  boxwood, 
and  of  vegetable  products  vanilla  and  ginger. 

In  South  America  there  is  no  arctic  region ; 
but  the  great  differences  in  altitudes  and  the 
water  supply  give  it  a  wide  range  of  native  pro- 
duction. The  immense  rainfall  and  steady 
tropic  heat  of  the  north  shore  along  the  Carib- 
bean and  in  the  Magdalena  valley  create  a  pro- 
fuse tropical  flora  on  the  lowlands,  changing  to 
palms,  bamboos,  tree-ferns,  etc.,  on  the  higher 
levels,  and  coniferous  trees  on  the  mountains. 
Along  the  Orinoco  the  llanos,  plains  with  im- 
mensely tall  grasses  and  great  single  trees,  take 
the  place  of  forests.  The  vast  selvas  or  swamp 
forests  of  the  Amazon  occupy  the  heart  of  the 
continent.  These  colossal  tropic  jungles,  often 
formed  into  an  almost  impenetrable  web  by 
multitudes  of  creeping  and  climbing  plants,  con- 
tain an  almost  unexploited  variety  of  magnifi- 
cent trees  with  the  most  beautiful  ornamental 
woods,- — as  rosewood,  cocabola,  etc., — products 
like  india-rubber,  brazilwood  for  dyeing,  cin- 
chona for  medicine,  etc.  Dense  forests  of 
cinchona  overshadow  the  mountain  terraces 
of  Quito.  South  of  the  selvas  are  the  forests  of 
Matto  Grosso,  the  great  Brazilian  province  east 
of  Bolivia ;  south  of  this  again,  and  of  the  Bo- 
livian Cordillera,  is  the  Gran  Chaco,  or  "great 
round-up,"  from  the  Paraguay  to  the  Andes, — 
a  region  of  three  to  five  hundred  thousand 
square  miles,  largely  plains,  but  with  heavy  for- 
ests including  the  wax-palm,  and  with  tree-like 
thistles  on  the  lower  plains.  Now  begin  the 
pampas  of  the  lower  La  Plata,  which  are  fine 
grassy  plains  in  the  northern  part,  but  in  south 
Argentina  and  Patagonia  become  semi-arid 
steppes.  The  western  strip  has  already  been 
dealt  with. 

(Gray's  'Synoptical  Flora  of  North  America,' 
1886-97;  Heller's  'Catalogue  of  North  Ameri- 
can Plants  North  of  Mexico,'  1900;  Sargent's 
'Silva  of  North  America,'  1 890- 1  ;  Britton  and 
Brown's  'Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern 
United  States,  Canada,  and  the  British  Posses- 
sions,' 1896-8;  Berg's  'Physiognomy  of  Tropi- 
cal Vegetation  in  South  America,'  1894;  Rus- 
by's  'Enumeration  of  Plants  Collected  in  South 
America,'  in  'Torrey  Botanical  Club  Bulletin,' 
Vols.  XV,  XX.,  XXII.,  XXV.,  XXVII.). 

Fauna. —  The  distribution  of  animal  life  in 
America  proves  by  itself  what  was  probable  on 
geologic  and  physiographic  grounds,  that  the 
proper  division  between  the  two  continents  is 
not  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  but  at  either 
Nicaragua  or  Tehuantepec,  and  that  the  junction 
was  relatively  late.  Zoologically  considered 
South  America  includes  also  not  only  Central 
America  and  the  Antilles,  but  the  Mexican 
plains  and  coasts  east,  west,  and  south  of  the 
plateau  of  Anahuac.     The  faunae  of  the  two  con- 


AMERICA 


tincnts  have  almost  no  common  feature.  Fur- 
thermore, the  North  American  species  are  in 
many  respects  closely  allied  to  the  North  Asi- 
atic, while  the  South  American  mammalia  and 
hirds  have  hut  slight  affinities  to  those  of  any 
other  section  of  the  world,  and  those  of  the 
most  general  kind;  fully  four  fifths  of  its  spe- 
cies heing  unknown  outside  its  own  limits. 
North  America,  with  this  proviso,  in  Sclater's 
and  Wallace's  classification,  is  Palaearctic  in 
the  arctic  regions  and  for  some  distance  south 
of  the  northern  ocean  and  west  of  Hudson 
Bay,  and  Nearctic  through  the  rest  of  its 
hulk;  while  South  America,  thus  extended,  is 
Neotropic.  Some  authorities,  however,  from  the 
close  affinities  of  the  first  two,  group  them  to- 
gether into  '"e  as  Holarctic  or  Triarctic. 

In  North  America,  for  instance,  the  fur 
animals  arc  not  very  different  from  the  Siberian 
kinds  ;  the  reindeer,  moose  (called  elk  in  Europe), 
and  bighorn  are  closely  akin  to  Asiatic  con- 
geners: the  bison  belongs  to  the  buffalo  family; 
the  cat  family  is  represented  by  the  panther  and 
wildcat  :  the  wolf  family  by  various  classes  of 
wolves,  and  probably  by  the  Eskimo  dog ;  the 
bear  family  by  several  distinct  sorts.  The  white 
goat  has  close  foreign  relatives;  so  have  the 
beaver,  marmot,  rabbit,  squirrel,  and  most  of  the 
other  rodentia.  the  weasels,  insectivora,  bats, 
and  others.  The  birds,  reptiles,  and  amphibia 
are  nearly  all  identical  in  family  with  Old 
World  groups,  and  often  in  species.  The  fresh- 
water fish  and  mollusks  of  the  cold  regions  of 
both  arc  generally  akin,  and  sometimes  the 
same,  though  in  the  great  rivers  of  the  southern 
half  many  new  form-;  have  developed,  the  river 
mollusks  being  much  more  numerous  and  spe- 
cialized in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  But  there  are  very  notable 
individual  forms.  The  North  American  "great 
cat,"  variously  called  panther,  catamount, 
cougar,  puma,  mountain  lion,  American  lion, 
etc.,  has  long  been  specialized  in  this  region ; 
the  musk-ox  and  the  skunk  are  our  own,  as 
are  the  pronghom  and  the  gopher.  And  there 
are  still  more  striking  absences  where  all 
analogy  would  lead  us  to  expect  strong  repre- 
sentation. The  horse,  camel,  and  rhinoceros 
originated  in  North  America  as  late  as  Ter- 
tiary times,  but  have  entirely  disappeared. 
There  is  but  one  marsupial,  the  opossum,  no 
antelopes,  and  but  one  genus  of  native  swine,  in 
Texas  and  Arkansas. 

South  America  shows  a  new  world.  Out 
of  10  orders  of  mammalia  with  33  families 
which  it  contains,  13  families  are  confined  ex- 
clusively to  it.  All  its  families  in  two  orders, 
the  Primates  (monkeys)  and  Edentates  (arma- 
dillos, sloths,  and  ant-eaters),  are  its  own.  and 
five  of  its  nine  families  of  rodents;  while  of  the 
Chiroptcra  (bats),  one  family,  the  Phyllostomi- 
dcr.  which  includes  the  vampire  bats  or  blood- 
suckers, is  peculiar  to  it.  Its  deficiencies  are 
equally  notable,  though  less  so  in  some  re- 
spects than  of  the  northern  continent,  as  it  lacks 
none  which  originated  there.  The  horse  family 
group  is  represented  only  by  the  tapir,  the 
ruminants  only  by  the  llama,  and  the  bears  only 
by  the  Andean  bear  of  Chile  and  Peru.  There 
are  no  Ungulates  but  a  small  deer  and  one  genus 
of  swine,  no  members  of  the  weasel  or  civet 
families,  and  only  two  small  genera  of 
insectivores.     The    birds,    instead    of    having   a 


wider  range  as  might  be  thought,  are  still 
more  individual :  23  families,  including  hundreds 
of  genera,  are  exclusively  South  American, 
while  only  three  out  of  its  118  genera  of  hum- 
ming-birds, one  of  its  43  genera  of  tanagcrs, 
eight  of  its  70  genera  of  tyrant  flycatchers,  one 
of  its  14  genera  of  macaws,  four  of  its  13 
genera  of  pigeons,  one  of  its  12  genera  of 
Cracidcc  (curassows,  etc.),  two  of  its  It  species 
of  goatsuckers,  etc.,  have  any  habitat  beyond 
itself.  Of  its  wading  and  swimming  birds, 
18  of  its  24  genera  are  peculiar  to  it.  The 
reptiles  are  much  less  specialized,  only  four  out 
of  60  genera  being  entirely  individual,  and  those 
of  lizards ;  the  species,  however,  are  more  pe- 
culiar than  this  would  indicate,  the  boas  and 
scytales  being  distinctively  South  American,  and 
the  iguana  practically  so,  though  known  some- 
what north  of  this  region.  The  waters  nat- 
urally are  much  less  specialized.  Of  the  am- 
phibians only  three  out  of  16  genera  are  local. 
The  fishes  have  four  families  and  17  genera,  of 
which  one  family  with  its  one  genus,  and  a  genus 
of  another,  are  peculiar  to  the  South  American, 
the  resemblances  being  mainly  to  the  African 
families.  The  sirenoids  represent  extremely  an- 
cient forms.  The  insects  are  also  not  so  differ- 
ent in  form  as  might  be  anticipated.  But  this 
view  understates  the  specific  variations,  for  on 
the  whole  South  America  is  a  zoological  land 
apart. 

(See  'The  Standard  Natural  History,'  Bos- 
ton, 1885;  Alfred  Russel  Wallace,  (The  Geo- 
graphic Distribution  of  Animals,'  1876;  Mer- 
riam's  'Geographic  Distribution  of  Life  in 
America,'  in  Vol.  VIII.  of  'Proceedings  of  the 
American  Biological  Society.'  For  special  por- 
tions, Cope's  'Crocodiles,  Lizards,  and  Snakes 
of  North  America,'  in  United  States  National 
Museum  Report,  1898;  Apgar's  'Birds  of  the 
United  States,'  1898;  Goode's  'American 
Fishes.'  1888;  Edwards'  'Butterflies  of  North 
America.'    1868-88.) 

Political  Dit/isions.—  Xhe  independent  States 
of  both  North  and  South  America  are  all  re- 
publican in  government,  though  it  was  only  in 
1889  that  Brazil  became  a  republic.  The  con- 
tinent is  politically  divided  as  follows: 

Independent  Republics. 
North    America  — 

Capitals.         Sq.  m.  Pop.  1000. 

U.   S.   Proper   Washington. ..  3,025,600  76,303,387 

Alaska Sitka   590,884  63,592 

Hawaii    Honolulu 6,449  I54,ooi 

Porto   Rico    San   Juan    ....         3,530  953.243 


Total 3,636,463 

Mexico    Mexico 767,316 

Central    American   States  — 

Guatemala New  Guatemala 

Honduras Tegucigalpa.  . . 

Salvador San    Salvador. . 

Nicaragua Managua 


46.774 

46,250 

7,225 

49.: 


77.474.-'23 
■  3,570,545 


,574.340 
420,000 
9'5.5I2 

407,000 
309.683 


Costa  Rica    San  Jose 22,996 

Total 172,445  3.626,535 

41,655  1.572,797 

10.204  1,211,625 

18,045  700,000 


Cuba Havana 

Haiti Port  au   Prince 

San  Domingo San  Domingo.. 


South   America  — 

Colombia Bogota 504,773  4,600,000 

\'ene;uela Caracas 593.943  2,444,816 

Ecuador    Quito 125,000  1,271,000 

Peru    Lima 695.733  4,609.999 

Bolivia    La    Paz 567.430  2,300.000 

Chile Santiago 290.829  2,712,145 

Argentine  Republic.  Buenos   Ayres.  1,113,849  4,794. '49 


air:     _  j 


Copyright,  iqoj,  by  Rand,  McXally  £-  I 


Copyright,  1993,  ty  J\anJ,  McNally  &*  Comp^nf 


AMERICA,  DISCOVERY  AND  COLONIZATION 


Uruguay Montevideo.  .  .        72,210 

Paraguay    Asuncion   157,000 

Brazil    Rio  Janeiro. ...  3,218,130 


900,600 
660,000 

18,386,815 


Total 7.338,897     4-.679.524 


European   Dependencies  and  Possessions 


British  — 

Capitals. 
Dom.  of  Canada.  ...Ottawa 

Ontario Toronto    

Quebec Quebec 

New   Brunswick . .  r  redericton   . . . 

Nova  Scotia Halifax 

Prince  Edward  I.Charlottetown   . 

Manitoba    Winnipeg 

Assiniboia    Regina    

Saskatchewan ....  Prince  Albert .  . 

Alberta Calgary 

British    Columbia.  Victoria 

Unorganized     Territories 

Newfoundland    ....  St.  Johns 

Labrador    (dep.    Newf*.) 

Bermudas Hamilton    

British  Honduras  . .  Balize 

Bahamas Nassau   

Barbados Bridgetown 

Jamaica      (including 

Turk's   Island.  ..  .Kingston 

Windward  Islands.. St.    George's 

Grenada     and 

Grenadines St.    George's. . . 

St.   Vincent Kingstown 

St.    Lucia Castries 

Leeward   Islands.  .  ..St.   John's 

Antigua  (i  n  c. 
Barbuda  and 
Redonda) St.   John's 

Virgin    Islands 

Dominica    Roseau 

St.         Christopher 

(St.   Kitts) Basseterre    

Nevis    Charlestown. . . 

Anguilla 

Montserrat Plymouth   

Trinidad Port  of   Spain . 

Tobago    Scarborough. .  . 

British  Guiana   ....  Georgetown .  .  . 
Falkland    Islands.  .  .  Stanley 


Sq.  m. 

219,650 
344.450 
28,100 
20,550 
2,000 
64,066 
89.340  I 
108,000  > 
99.255  ) 
383.300 
2, 141 ,289 
42,200 
120,000 
20 

7.562 

5.450 

166 


145 
132 
233 


Total . 


170 

58 

291 

65 

50 

35 

32 

'.754 

114 

120,000 

6,500 

3,809,401 


Pop. 

2,167,978 
1,620,974 

331.093 
459,116 
103,258 
246,464 

145,000 

1 ')". .» 

74.484 

210,000 
4.200 
■6,423 
35.226 
53.000 

192,000 

745.104 


72,000 
4'. 054 
48,650 


39,000 

4.639 

26,841 

32,000 
15,000 
4,100 
13,000 
260,517 
21,400 

283,278 
1.789 


French  — ■ 

St.  Pierre St.  Pierre 10 

Miquelon St  Pierre 83 

Guadeloupe,  etc ....  Rasse-Terre ...  583 

Martinique. Fort  de  France.  381 

French  Guiana  ....Cayenne    30.450 


7.457.588 

5.7O0 
550 

165,899 

187,692 

30,300 


Total 3 1 ,507 

Danish  — 

Greenland   (as  colony) 46,740 

Danish  West  Indies.. Charlotte  Ama- 
lie 
St.  Croix  or  San- 
ta  Cruz    Christiansted. .  84 

St.  John Charlotte  Ama- 

lie 21 

St.  Thomas Crux  Bay 33 

Total 

Dutch  — 

Curacao Willemstad. . . 

Dutch  Guiana  or  Su- 
rinam   Paramariho. . 


10,516 


10,783 

984 
14.389 


46,878 

403 
46,060 


4S.672 

Si.524 
66,490 


Total 46,463 


Total    North    and    South    America    settled    or    under 
government,  sq.   m.    15.919.274;  pop.   148,846,664. 

Forrest  Morgan, 
Connecticut  Historical  Society. 

America,  Discovery  and  Colonization  of. 
The  effective  discovery  of  America  was  a 
gradual  process,  made  possible  by  the  first  west- 
ward voyage  of  Columbus  across  the  Atlantic 
and  developed  by  attempts  to  determine  the  rela- 
tion of  the  lands  thus  encountered  to  the  Asiatic 


continent.  The  body  of  legends  concerning 
European  or  Asiatic  contact  with  America  prior 
to  the  15th  century  bears  witness  only  to  a 
vague  impression  of  or  conjecture  at  the  exist- 
ence of  land  in  the  western  part  of  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean,  which  led  to  nothing  effective  in  the 
way  of  confirmation  of  such  conjecture  or  occu- 
pation of  the  territory.  The  contact  by  the 
Norse  colony  in  Greenland  in  the  nth  century 
with  the  shores,  probably  of  New  England,  which 
the  Northmen  knew  by  the  name  of  Vinland, 
led  to  nothing  more  than  occasional  resort  to 
certain  of  its  facilities  such  as  timber,  and 
cannot  be  regarded  as  a  discovery  in  any  com- 
plete sense.  Nothing  can  detract  from  the 
unique  distinction  of  the  expedition  of  Colum- 
bus in  1492.  The  cosmography  of  his  time  was 
in  error  as  to  the  size  of  the  earth  and  conse- 
quently underestimated  the  distance  intervening 
between  the  western  limit  of  Europe  and  the 
eastern  shores  of  Asia.  But  this  error  could  in 
the  nature  of  things  only  be  brought  to  light  by 
an  actual  test  by  a  westward  voyage  across  the 
Sea  of  Darkness.  This  test  it  is  the  sufficient 
glory  of  Columbus  to  have  furnished  and  its  im- 
portance for  cosmography  cannot  be  overesti- 
mated. Nevertheless,  in  its  relation  to  America 
alone,  discovery  in  the  complete  sense  was  rather 
made  possible,  than  achieved  by  Columbus. 

It  was  under  the  auspices  of  the  Atlantic 
States  of  Europe  that  development  of  the  results 
of  this  voyage  was  carried  on,  and  of  these 
Atlantic  States,  Spain  and  Portugal  at  first  took 
the  leading  part.  At  the  time  of  Columbus' 
great  voyage,  Portugal  had  nearly  completed  the 
development  of  the  possibilities  of  an  eastward 
maritime  route  to  the  Oriental  trade  regions,  the 
goal  of  maritime  endeavor.  The  Spanish  patron- 
age of  Columbus  naturally  led  the  Spanish 
Crown  to  claim  for  the  westward  approach  to 
the  Indies,  thus  made  possible  under  its  auspices, 
the  same  advantages  which  papal  action  had 
secured  for  Portugal  in  connection  with  the 
eastward  route.  By  a  papal  bull  of  25  Septem- 
ber 1493,  superseding  those  on  the  subject  pre- 
viously issued,  enterprise  upon  the  ocean  was 
declared  open  to  both  Spain  and  Portugal,  with 
the  understanding  that  Spain  should  refrain 
from  infringement  upon  the  Portuguese  mo- 
nopoly of  the  African  coast  by  using  only  the 
westward  approach  to  the  Indies.  By  the  Con- 
vention of  Tordesillas,  7  June  1494.  the  line  370 
leagues  west  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  was  set 
by  the  two  nations  themselves  as  a  division  be- 
tween their  respective  areas  of  maritime 
activity. 

Spanish  voyages  between  1493  and  1502  now 
skirted  most  of  the  island  and  continental  shores 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
without,  however,  making  much  progress  in 
elucidating  the  connection  between  these  regions 
and  the  Asiatic  continent,  with  which  they  were 
still  somehow  supposed  to  be  connected.  In 
the  meantime,  by  the  Cabral  voyage  to  Brazil 
in  1500  and  those  of  the  Cortereals  to  Labrador 
and  Newfoundland  in  1500-1502,  Portugal  found 
an  interest  in  westward  voyages,  for  she 
claimed  that  not  only  Brazil,  hut  also  the  regions 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  fishing  grounds  in  the 
north  were  east  of  the  line  of  demarcation. 
The  expeditions  of  Vespucius.  Coelho  and 
Jaques,  1501-1503,  not  merely  satisfied  Portu- 
guese curiosity  as  to  the  extent  of  their  posses- 
sions   accessible    by    the    westward    voyage,    by 


AMERICA,  DISCOVERY  AND  COLONIZATION 


establishing  the  southwestern  trend  of  the  Bra- 
zilian eoast,  but,  what  was  very  much  more  im- 
portant, by  establishing  the  continuance  of  this 
land  mass  to  a  point  as  far  south  as  the  latitude 
of  the  southernmost  point  of  Africa,  practically 
ensured  the  conviction  that  here  was  a  New 
World.  This  was  a  land  mass,  insular  or  penin- 
sular in  its  connection  with  Asia  on  the  north, 
of  such  extent  as  practically  to  constitute  a  part 
of  the  world  co-ordinate  with  Europe,  Africa, 
and  Asia.  It  was  to  the  New  World,  as  thus 
conceived,  that  the  name  America,  perhaps  a 
little  more  than  halt  seriously,  was  proposed  by 

friends  of  Amerigo  \  c-pucci  ill  1507,  to  be  ap- 
plied, and  the  name  thus  applied  was  but  very 
gradually  extended,  as  the  truth  became  known, 
to  the  whole  double  continent.  Spain's  great 
efforts  in  exploring  voyages  as  distinguished 
from  land  expeditions  into  the  interior,  were 
now  concentrated  upon  the  search  for  a  strait 
through,  or  a  passage  to  the  south  of,  the  lands 
revealed  by  the  voyages  since  1492.  This  was  in 
ise  to  the  epoch-making  voyage  of  da 
Gama  in  1407.  More  accurate  acquaintance  with 
the  extent  of  the  Asiatic  continent  developed 
by  Portuguese  activities  in  the  Far  East  subse- 
quent to  the  voyage  of  da  Gama  was  a  favorable 
condition  for  such  attempts  as  the  Spaniards 
were  making,  and  the  voyage  of  Magalhaes  in 
the  service  of  Spain  in  1519-22  to  the  south  of 
the  New  World  revealed  the  extent  of  the 
waters  lying  between  it  and  the  Asiatic  conti- 
nent. This  was  a  fundamental  fact,  knowledge 
of  which  was  in  large  outline  logically  sufficient 
to  establish  the  separate  continental  character 
of  the  territory  brought  to  knowledge  since 
1492.  Appreciation  of  this  significance  of 
.Magalhaes'  voyage  was  slow  in  developing,  how- 
ever, and  not  until  after  exploring  con- 
quests of  the  western  shores  of  the  continent 
from  bases  on  the  eastern  shore,  like  the  con- 
quests of  Mexico  and  Peru  by  Cortez  and 
Pizarro  in  1519-21  and  1531-33,  Almagro's  and 
Valdivia's  Chilian  expeditions  in  1535-40, 
and  expeditions  like  those  of  Cortez  and  Alar- 
con  and  Coronado  to  Lower  California  and  up 
the  Colorado  River  in  1526-40,  that  the  outline 
of  the  continent  on  its  western  shore  was  traced 
out  as  far  as  Southern  California.  The  coast 
north  of  this  region  was  only  reached  and 
effectively  made  known  by  a  succession  of  voy- 
ages covering  a  considerable  space  of  time  and 
headed  by  representatives  of  different  nations. 
Most  prominent  in  this  enterprise  were  the  expe- 
ditions of  Drake  in  1577-80,  which  probably 
ed  the  northern  California  coast;  Bering, 
the  Russian,  in  the  strait  bearing  bis  name  and 
on  the  Alaskan  coast,  in  1741,  and  Vancouver 
on  the  coast  of  what  is  now  British  Columbia  in 
1792.  The  eastern  shore  of  the  continent  — 
unless  we  include  the  voyage  of  Gomez  from 
Labrador  to  Florida  in  1525,  which  was  not  fol- 
lowed  up  —  was  outlined  by  Spain  only  as  far 
north  as  Chesapeake  Bay,  the  remainder  being 
the  scene  of  French  and  English  activity  after 
the  Spanish  power  was  becoming  embarrassed 
in  Europe. 

After  the  voyage  nf  Magalhaes  in  1522.  Span- 
ish interest  in  the  Xew  World  concerned  itself 
rather  with  the  task  of  exploring  the  interior 
of  the  regions  whose  boundaries  Spanish  voy- 
ages had  skirted,  than  with  further  extension 
of  the  lines  of  inclusion.  The  glittering  suc- 
cess of  Cortez  in  Mexico  in  1519-21  was  respon- 


sible for  many  attempts  in  imitation  of  such  an 
achievement,  and  in  the  course  of  these  attempts 
much  knowledge  was  attained  of  the  conditions 
in  the  interior  of  the  continent.  Pizarro's  con- 
'jii-  St  of  Peru  led  011  to  the  exploration  and 
attempted  conquest  of  Chile  and  to  the  crossing 
of  the  Andes  and  the  descent  of  the  Amazon  by 
Orellana  in  1541.  The  La  Plata  system  was 
explored  by  Sebastian  Cabot  and  Hugo  (iarcia 
in  1527-30.  In  the  northern  continent.  Florida 
had  been  discovered  by  IN  nice  de  Leon  in  1512 
and  proved  a  part  of  the  continent  b)  Pineda, 
who  also  made  acquaintance  with  the  Mississippi 
in  1519.  In  the  course  of  the  wandering  of 
such  parties  as  those  led  by  de  Leon,  Narvaez, 
Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  Coronado  from  1512  to  tin 
middle  of  the  century,  much  of  the  interior  was 
seen  as  far  north  as  the  Missouri  and  Ohio 
systems,  but  only  the  extreme  southeast  and 
southwest  portions,  that  is,  California  and  Flor- 
ida, saw  any  attempt  by  Spain  to  occupy  the 
territory  thus  wandered  over.  The  task  of  ad- 
ministering and  exploiting  what  she  already  had 
was  sufficient  to  absorb  what  energy  could  be 
spared  from  European  occupations. 

France  and  England,  in  the  meantime,  were 
becoming  less  and  less  inclined  to  respect  the 
claims  of  Spain  in  any  direction  not  hacked  up 
by  present  physical  force,  and  more  and  more 
inclined  to  take  up  a  line  of  aggression  in  mari- 
time endeavor,  not  only  for  the  sake  of  weaken- 
ing the  general  position  of  Spain,  but  also  be- 
cause of  the  stirrings  of  individual  enterprise 
within  their  own  populations.  It  was  only 
under  these  circumstances  that  England  began 
to  make  use  of  the  claim  based  upon  the  Cabot 
voyages  of  1497-98.  Conditions  inclining  the 
government  to  a  policy  of  respect  for  the  claim 
of  either  Spain  or  the  Pope  were  now  wholly 
changed,  and  as  against  any  right  to  territory 
west  of  the  line  of  Tordesillas,  England  pursued 
the  policy  that  occupation  must,  within  a  reason- 
able time,  be  added  to  discovery  to  constitute  a 
valid  title  to  territory  in  the  New  World. 
According  to  this  criterion,  the  achievements 
of  England  and  France  in  the  16th  century  can 
only  be  regarded  as  preliminary  or  preparatory 
in  character.  In  each  case  internal  strife  at 
home  and  the  exigencies  of  the  European  situ- 
ation prevented  the  achievements  of  discovery 
and  incipient  settlement  from  being  followed  up. 
Nevertheless  they  served  to  reveal  in  an  effective 
way  that  portion  of  the  continent  in  which  condi- 
tions for  transplantation  of  European  institu- 
tions and  life  were  most  favorable.  The  stretch 
of  shore  left  unoccupied  was  comparatively 
small  and  the  great  work  of  France  was  exten- 
sive, and  rapidly  spread  over  the  interior 
accessible  by  water-routes  from  the  shore. 
While  England's  great  work  was  the  permanent 
and  slow-expanding  settlement  of  the  strip  be- 
tween the  coast  and  the  mountain-barrier  of  the 
Alleghanies. 

In  1524  Verrazano,  a  Florentine  in  the  service 
of  France,  coasted  from  North  Carolina  to 
Newfoundland,  and  in  1534-41  the  first  French 
attempt  at  settlement  was  made  under  Cartier 
and  Roberval,  and  though  it  was  not  at  this  time 
maintained,  the  foundation  was  thus  laid  for  the 
French  claim  to  the  territory  of  the  Saint  Law- 
rence system.  Attempts  to  invade  the  un- 
doubted sphere  of  Portugal  by  Villegagnon  in 
Brazil  in  1555.  and  of  Spain  by  Ribaut  and  I.au- 
donnierc  in  Florida  and  South  Carolina  in  1562, 


AMERICA,  DISCOVERY  AND  COLONIZATION 


were  promptly  suppressed.  So  that  when,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century  Frenchmen  were 
in  a  position  to  take  up  transatlantic  activity 
once  more,  the  Saint  Lawrence  basin  naturally 
became  the  scene  of  their  endeavors.  From 
Port  Royal  in  Nova  Scotia  in  1603,  headquarters 
were  shifted  in  1607  to  Quebec,  and  once  estab- 
lished at  one  end  of  the  great  interior  waterway 
system,  and  headed  off  from  southward  expan- 
sion by  the  hostility  of  the  Iroquois,  the  line  of 
least  resistance  led  naturally  to  the  interior 
by  the  west.  These  circumstances,  coupled  with 
the  character  of  the  emigrating  population, 
account  for  the  most  signal  achievement  of  the 
French  in  the  New  World  —  exploration  of  the 
continental  interior.  This  went  on  coincidently 
with  the  process  of  colonization  and  thereby  a 
fundamental  characteristic  of  New  France  on  the 
mainland  was  illustrated  —  the  attempt  by  the 
government  to  nourish  a  true  colony  in  eastern 
Canada,  while  the  adventurous  population,  mis- 
sionary, and  fur-trader,  overran  the  surface  of 
the  great  interior.  Trails  were  made  by  Nicol- 
let in  1634  as  far  as  the  Illinois  country  by  the 
Lakes  and  the  Fox  River  route,  by  Radisson 
and  Groseilliers  in  1658-59  as  far  as  Lake 
Superior  and  the  Hudson's  Bay  region,  by  Joliet 
and  Marquette  in  1673  to  the  Mississippi.  And 
by  1682  La  Salle  had  opened  up  the  connection 
between  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  at  the  Mississippi's 
mouth  and  the  Gulf  of  Saint  Lawrence.  By 
1699  a  French  settlement  was  planted  in  Louisi- 
ana and  in  1718  New  Orleans  was  founded. 

With  England,  the  order  of  proceedings  was 
different.  Exploration  of  new  regions  was  a 
preliminary  to  their  filling  up  with  settlers  and 
bursts  of  exploring  activity  occurred  in  the  in- 
tervals of  the  great  stages  in  the  process  of 
colonization.  The  Cabot  voyages  gave  her  the 
basis  of  the  claim  to  the  continental  shore 
to  the  north  of  Florida,  but  her  first  ex- 
ploring activities  were  in  connection  with 
the  search  for  the  northwest  passage  to 
the  Orient  by  such  commanders  as  Davis 
and  Frobisher  in  1576-78  and  with  the 
attempt  to  occupy  Newfoundland  by  Gilbert  in 
T579-  With  the  career  of  Raleigh,  the  English 
maritime  enterprise  takes  definite  beginning  in 
the  colonizing  line  with  the  attempt  at  Roanoke 
in  1585,  and  from  then  till  well  into  the  18th 
century  English  exploring  activity  was  mainly 
concerned  with  the  coast  between  Florida  and 
Newfoundland,  the  basis  of  her  colonies  on  the 
main.  This  was  as  characteristic  of  the  English 
career  in  the  New  World  as  the  French  method 
of  rapid  and  extensive  spread  from  an  unde- 
veloped base.  In  the  course  of  occupation  of 
the  coast,  the  English  found  themselves  pre- 
ceded in  the  strategic  regions  of  the  Hudson  and 
Delaware  valleys  by  the  Dutch,  and  falling  back 
on  the  principle  of  prior  discovery  alone,  which, 
as  against  Spain,  she  had  disregarded,  made  con- 
quest of  the  New  Netherlands  settlement  in 
1664,  as  an  invasion  of  the  right  to  the  whole, 
claimed  by  virtue  of  the  Cabot  voyages.  British 
interest  in  the  interior  awoke  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury, and,  mostly  under  colonial  leaders,  British 
hinterland  was  extended  to  a  hostile  contact 
with  the  French  claims  to  the  interior  based  on 
discovery  and  exploration  of  the  Saint  Lawrence 
system.  This  being  settled,  by  the  elimination 
of  New  France  from  the  continent  in  1763,  Eng- 
lish exploring  activity  found  its  scene,  after  the 
Vol.   1—23 


separation  of  the  seaboard  colonies  with  their 
westward  extensions  to  the  Mississippi,  in  the 
extreme  northern  part  of  the  continent,  with 
the  territory  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  as 
the  base.  Here  in  the  later  years  of  the  18th 
century  the  early  expedition  of  Verendrye  to  the 
Canadian  Rockies  by  the  Saskatchewan  in  1741 
through  the  interior  of  the  Canadian  Northwest 
was  followed  up  by  Hearne  in  1770  and  Alexan- 
der Mackenzie  in   1789. 

The  areas  in  the  New  World  within  which 
the  colonizing  activities  of  the  European 
Atlantic  States  were  carried  on  conformed  in 
a  general  way  to  the  scenes  of  their 
earliest  contact  and  activity.  Portuguese  colo- 
nization in  the  New  World  was  limited  to 
Brazil,  the  only  portion  of  the  continent  within 
the  limits  marked  out  by  the  line  of  Torde- 
sillas.  Spanish  activity  radiated  from  the  Carib- 
bean archipelago  in  all  directions  and  included 
the  greater  part  of  habitable  South  America, 
Central  America,  and  the  southern  portion  of 
the  North  American  continent.  French  colonies 
were  to  be  found  among  the  West  Indies,  but 
the  greatest  extent  of  French  settlement  was 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Saint  Lawrence  sys- 
tem, while  the  English,  late  comers  as  they 
were,  occupied  strategic  points  among  the 
islands  and  stretched  along  the  continental  shore 
from  Florida  to  the  Kennebec. 

In  the  list  of  participators  in  the  work  of 
colonizing  the  New  World  there  must  be  added 
to  the  European  Atlantic  States  already  men- 
tioned as  conspicuous  in  discovery  and  explora- 
tion, Holland  and  Sweden.  But  the  brevity  of 
the  duration  of  these  attempts  hardly  entitles 
them  to  a  place  of  equal  significance  with  the 
other  four  as  colonizers  in  America.  The  Swed- 
ish colony  founded  in  1637  on  the  banks  of  the 
Delaware  was  regarded  by  the  Dutch  as  an 
intrusion  on  their  rights  and  fell  victim  to  Dutch 
conquest  in  1655.  The  Dutch  enterprise  on  the 
Hudson  and  Delaware  was  in  turn  held  by  the 
English  as  equally  an  intrusion  on  English 
North  America  and  the  Dutch  were  disposst- 
in  1664  by  the  same  means  as  they  had  them- 
selves employed  upon  the  Swedes.  During  their 
development  of  New  Netherlands  the  Dutch 
were  not  successful  in  planting  the  colony  firmly 
on  an  agricultural  basis,  the  fur  trade  proving 
attractively  profitable.  A  system  of  colonial 
government  in  too  close  dependence  upon  a 
clumsily  working  confederate  government  at 
home  and  a  system  of  local  government  which 
repressed  individual  initiative  retarded  the  de- 
velopment of  the  colony.  A  few  islands  in  the 
West  Indies  and  a  small  stretch  of  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  the  South  American  continent 
still  remained  —  and  do  yet  —  as  Dutch  colonies 
in  the  New  World. 

Portugal  began  her  American  colonization 
in  1531  in  Brazil,  but  was  unable  to  give  it  the 
requisite  attention  until  the  iSth  century.  In 
the  meantime  the  comparative  freedom  from  re- 
straint enjoyed  by  the  colonizing  population  had 
exercised  a  developing  effect,  and,  putting  in 
practice  lessons  in  regard  to  the  exploitation  of 
a  tropical  colony  learned  elsewhere.  Portugal 
developed  a  colonial  establishment  stable  enough 
to  afford  a  refuge  for  the  House  of  Braganza 
during  the  period  of  Napoleonic  occupation  of 
the  Iberian  peninsula.  In  1821.  the  Brazilians 
with  the  concurrence  of  their  regent,  himself  of 
the  royal   house   of   Portugal,   proclaimed   their 


AMERICA,  DISCOVERY  AND  COLONIZATION 


independence  from  the  Crown  of  Portugal,  and 

tins  independence  was  subsequently  ratified  by 
treaty. 

The    Spaniards    began    colonizing    with    the 

second  voyage  of  Columbus  and  the  islands  of 
the  Caribbean,  particularly  Haiti  and  Cuba,  be- 
came the  serins  of  .in  .  cploitation  of  the  super- 
ficial riches  of  the  tropics  which  served  as  bases 
tor  exploring  conq  the  territory  of  the 

mainland.  The  policy  of  Spain  towards  her 
wide  domain  in  the  New  World,  as  worked 
Out  in  the  loth  century,  not  in  abstract  theory,  but 
in  combination  of  theory  with  practice,  was  but 
little  more  illiberal,  but  considerably  less  intelli- 
gent than  that  of  other  States,  But  the  climate 
of  the  part  of  the  New  World  falling  to  them 
was  not  conducive  to  the  steady,  strenuous  per- 
sistence necessary  for  the  building  up  of  perma- 
nent wealth-producing  communities.  Nor  were 
the  original  characteristics  of  the  colonizing 
population  calculated  to  make  success  in 
such  a  career  likely.  The  natives  were  not 
able  to  offer  stubborn  resistance  to  the 
rapidly  moving  enterprises  of  the  conquista- 
dores.  A  certain  tendency  to  amalgamate  with 
the  natives  —  a  tendency  which  weakened  the 
stronger  without  strengthening  the  weaker  race 
—  did  not  prevent  the  evasion  of  the  laws  in- 
tended to  protect  the  natives  from  the  rapacity 
of  their  conquerors  and  to  keep  the  two  oppo- 
nents of  the  official  class  in  balance  against  each 
other.  The  too  rapid  early  successes  in  the 
realm  of  military  conquest  and  the  easily  won 
response  to  the  search  for  the  precious  metals 
still  further  unfitted  the  Spaniard  for  what  mod- 
ern colonizing  peoples  are  finding  the  most  dif- 
ficult of  tasks  —  the  intelligent  exploitation  of 
the  possible  economic  resources  of  a  tropical 
region  where  the  available  labor  supply  is  for 
various  reasons  inefficient  according  to  Euro- 
pean standards.  Nevertheless,  though  the  Span- 
ish dominance  over  such  a  great  part  of  the 
Xew  World  could  not  guarantee  prosperity  to 
this  Empire,  it  was  rather  the  shock  given  by 
the  Napoleonic  attack  on  the  mother  country 
and  its  consequences  on  Spanish  internal  war- 
fare than  the  inherent  strength  of  the  separate 
divisions  of  Spanish-America,  that  accounts  for 
the  revolt  of  the  greater  part  of  this  Empire  in 
the  first  three  decades  of  the  19th  century. 
And  at  the  same  time  that  political  separation 
was  taking  place.  Spain  in  Europe  stood  in  such 
need  of  political  help  from  England  that  a  com- 
mercial invasion  of  Latin-American  markets 
could  not  be  prevented.  With  this  once  accom- 
plished and  llie  Napoleonic  danger  passed,  the 
influence  of  England  was  publicly  and  privately 
used  to  obstruct  all  attempts  from  Spain  to 
re-unite  the  scattered  fragments  of  the  once 
mighty  power  in  America.  The  sluggish  de- 
velopment, to  call  it  by  no  worse  a  name,  which 
characterized  what  remained  to  Spain  of  do- 
minion in  America  between  the  Latin-American 
revolts  and  the  wresting  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 
by  the  intervention  of  the  United  States  in  1898 
illustrates  the  degree  of  effectiveness  of  Spanish 
colonial  policy  according  to  modern  economic 
standards. 

French  colonization  in  America  received 
much  attention  from  the  home  government  and 
the  French  temperament  was  one  adapted  to 
success  in  dealing  with  the  natives,  and  in  amal- 
gamation with  them  in  preserving  the  elements 
of  strength.     But  on  the  other  hand  the  over- 


zealous  and  intemperate] v  exercised  interference 
from  home  frequently  nullified  all  the  good  that 
the  lavish  furnishing  of  assistance  in  materials 
and  in  military  protection  did  to  the  fortunes 
Of  the  colony.  The  climate  was  as  excessive 
in  its  rigor  as  that  of  New  Spain  was  in  the 
<  ippi  -site  direction.  '1  he  hostility  of  the  Iroquois, 
fiercest  of  all  the  native  tribes,  obstructed  ex- 
pansion to  a  m. ire  favorable  clime  and  made 
extensive  use  of  a  vast  forest  domain  for  the 
fur-trade  a  more  easy  and  attractive  program 
than  the  jog-trot  business  of  intensive  agricul- 
ture and  the  development  of  permanent  com- 
munities on  tin-  frontier  for  which  latter  task 
lack  of  the  habits  of  initiative  in  self-govern- 
ment unfitted  the  colonizing  population.  The 
only  colonizing  material  in  the  French  people 
ca[iable  of  developing  such  traits  —  the  Hugue- 
nots—  was  peremptorily  excluded  from  New 
France.  So  that  when  the  English  expansion 
had  at  length  come  into  collision  with  the  bor- 
ders of  the  French  forest  preserve  in  the  interior, 
New  France  on  the  continent  was  capable,  by 
reason  of  the  feudal  and  military  force  pervading 
its  population,  of  effective  resistance  against  the 
superior  numbers  of  the  English  settlements  co- 
operating but  clumsily  with  each  other.  As 
between  the  French  and  British  empires  as 
world-units,  however,  there  was  soon  no  ques- 
tion of  superiority,  and  France  was  definitively 
excluded  from  the  continent  as  the  result  of  the 
Seven  Years'  war  (q.v.).  The  French  posses- 
sions in  the  West  Indies,  acquired  in  various 
ways  during  the  17th  century,  remain  to  her,  and 
make  of  her  to  that  extent  an  American  power. 

The  colonizing  work  of  England  in  America 
belongs  to  the  colonial  period  of  United  States 
history  (q.v.).  In  broad  outline,  her  policy  to- 
ward her  American  domain  was  one  which, 
whether  with  design  or  not,  allowed  wide  scope 
for  individual  and  local  initiative.  The  English 
population  afforded  good  colonizing  material. 
The  Indians  gave  no  such  serious  trouble  as 
did  the  Iroquois  in  the  case  of  the  French  in  the 
early  stages  of  their  colonizing.  Defense  against 
European  attacks  upon  the  colonies  was  effective. 
As  builders  of  settlements  in  the  New  World, 
the  English  were  eminently  successful.  In  de- 
vising, or  at  any  rate,  applying  a  system  of 
political  connection  between  the  home  govern- 
ment and  the  colonies,  the  English  reached  an 
unfortunate  place  in  their  internal  political  rie- 
velopment  coincidently  with  a  critical  stage  in 
the  relations  of  colonies  and  mother  country. 
The  strain  at  that  time  and  under  those  cir- 
cumstances brought  upon  colonial  loyalty  proved 
too  great  and  by  the  separation  of  the  13  Atlantic 
sealward  colonies,  Great  Britain's  power  in  the 
Xew  World  was  cut  down  to  control  of  certain 
important  West  India  islands  and  the  area  so 
recently  wrested  from  France.  Under  the  new 
spirit  of  the  British  Empire  which  appeared  i 
the  19th  century,  these  possessions  have  been  3 
developed  and  bound  ill  sentiment  to  the  inter 
ests  of  the  mother  country  that  Great  Britain 
stands  second  only  to  the  United  States  as  an 
American  power. 

Consult:  Winsor,  'Narrative  and  Critical 
History':  Fiske,  'Discovery  of  America'; 
Payne,  'Cambridge  Modern  History'  (Vol.  I.)  ; 
Morris,  'The  History  of  Colonization'  ;  Roscher, 
'The   Spanish   Colonial    System.' 

Chari.es  Worthen  Spencer, 
Professor  of  History,  Colgate  University. 


AMERICA,  UNITED  STATES  OF 


America,  United  States  of.  Half  of 
the  entire  land  area  of  the  world,  estimating  it 
at  51,410,700  square  miles,  is  in  the  possession 
of  four  nations,  one  of  these  four  being  the 
United  States  of  America  (q.v.).  The  territory 
of  this  nation  covers  3,846,595  square  miles.  Each 
of  the  three  other  nations  possesses  a  greater 
area,  the  British  empire  (q.v.)  covering  8.964,884 
square     miles;     Russia     (q.v.),     8,660,395;     and 


for  $15,000,000,  a  territory  covering  875,025 
square  miles.  Oregon,  288,689  square  miles, 
was  acquired  under  what  is  known  as  the 
Florida  treaty  (q.v.)  in  1819;  and  the  same 
year  witnessed  Spain's  cession  of  Florida,  70,107 
square  miles,  for  a  consideration  of  $5,000,000. 
Texas,  an  independent  republic  with  389.795 
square  miles  of  territory,  was  peacefully  annexed 
in  1845.     Mexico  ceded  523,802  square  miles  of 


States,  2,718,744  Sq. 

HUM 

Colonial  Possessions 
147,730  Sq    Miles 

Territories 
880.121  Sq    wiles 

China  (q.v.),  4,277,170.  The  territory  of  the 
United  States  is  all  contiguous,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  outlying  insular  possessions.  That 
of  the  British  Empire  is  widely  scattered.  Rus- 
sia and  China  have  each  the  advantage  of  con- 
tiguity of  territory,  but  Russia  is  one  of  the 
least  developed  of  civilized  nations,  while  China 
as  yet  has  scarcely  begun  the  march  of  modern 
progress.  The  history  of  the  United  States  has 
been  marked  by  a  territorial  expansion  (see 
United  States  —  Territorial  Expansion) 
which  is  wonderful  on  account  of  its  rapidity 
and  the  fact  that  it  is  the  result,  almost  entirely, 
of  peaceful  acquisition,  a  very  large  proportion 
of  the  acquired  territory  having  been  ceded  by 
other  nations,   as   in   the  case   of  the   Louisiana 


territory  in  1848,  for  a  consideration  of  $15,000,- 
000,  and  the  payment  of  claims  held  by  Ameri- 
can citizens  against  the  Mexican  government, 
amounting  to  $3,250,000.  By  the  Gadsden  Pur- 
chase (q.v.)  of  1853,  so  called  because  it  was 
negotiated  by  James  Gadsden,  United  States 
minister  to  Mexico,  36,211  square  miles,  forming 
the  southern  part  of  the  present  territories  of 
Arizona  (q.v.)  and  New  Mexico  (q.v.),  were 
purchased  from  Mexico  for  $10,000,000.  Thus, 
down  to  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  of  1861-5. 
the  area  of  the  United  States  had  been  increased 
by  240  per  cent.  The  aggregate  amount  paid  for 
ceded  territory,  including  $499,768  interest  on  the 
$5,000,000  paid  for  Florida,  was  $48,749,768. 
After  the  Civil  War  Russia  ceded  Alaska  (q.v.) 


Original  Thirteen   State 5 
909,060  Sq.  Miles 

Eatenalon  Prior  to  the  Civil  War 
2,183,629  Sq.  Mils. 

Extension  Since  Civil  War 
763,906  Sq.  Wiles 

Purchase  in  1803,  and  of  the  Alaska  purchase 
in  1867,  the  first  of  which  nearly  doubled  the 
area  of  the  country  at  that  period.  The  13  Brit- 
ish colonies  which  began  the  war  for  independ- 
ence in  1776,  and  which  Great  Britain  was 
forced  to  recognize  as  the  United  States  of 
America  in  1783,  comprised  a  territory  of  909.050 
square  miles.  Briefly  told,  the  story  of  expan- 
sion follows:  By  the  Louisiana  Purchase  (q.v.) 
in  1803  the  United  States  acquired  from  France, 


in  1867,  and  the  United  States  secured  599-446 
square  miles  for  $7,200,000.  The  Republic  of 
Hawaii  (q.v.)  declared  for  annexation  in  1897 
and  now  forms  part  of  the  United  States  as  one 
of  the  territories.  Its  area  is  6.740  square  miles. 
Following  the  nation's  success  in  the  Spanish- 
Vmerican  war  of  180S  it  acquired  in  that  year  the 
island  of  Porto  Rico,  6,740  square  niile^:  Pine 
Island,  882  square  miles :  and  Guam  Island.  i~5 
square  miles.     In  1899  ,ne  Tutuila  group  of  the 


AMERICA.  UNITED  STATES  OF 


Sanioan  Islands,  73  square  miles,  was  acquired ; 
and  Spain  ceded,  in  consideration  of  $20,000,000, 
the  archipelago  known  as  the  Philippine  Islands 
(q.v.),  which  has  an  aggregate  area  of  143,000 
square  miles.  The  total  extension  of  United 
States  territory  during  the  century  amounted  to 
2,937,535  square  miles,  a  territorial  growth  of 
{23.14  per  cent,  at  a  cost  for  ceded  territory  of 
$75,949,768. 

Multiplication  of  constituent  States  has  been 
fully  as  rapid  as  extension  of  territory,  the  vast 
regions  acquired  being  opened  up  to  settlement 
under  conditions  inviting  large  immigration. 
The  first  of  the  new  States,  however,  was  Ver- 
mont, whose  territory  had  been  claimed  for 
years  by  New  York  and  several  of  the  New 
England  Slates.  Vermont  was  admitted  to  the 
Union  in  1791.  Two  other  States  have  been 
created    within    the    territory    covered    by    the 


Washington,  1889;  Idaho,  1890;  Wyoming,  1890; 
Utah,   1896. 

Growth  of  population  rather  than  acquisition 
of  territory  has  been,  of  course,  the  occasion 
for  the  creation  of  States.  With  a  few  excep- 
tions all  of  the  States  admitted  to  the  Union 
were  primarily  organized  with  territorial  govern 
nutUs,  responsible  to  the  federal  authority  at 
Washington,  and  remained  territories  until  pos- 
sessed of  population  sufficiently  large  to  justify 
statehood.  The  first  census  of  the  United 
States,  taken  in  1700,  showed  a  total  population 
of  3,926,214,  which  exceeds  by  less  than  half 
a  million  the  population  of  New  York  city,  as 
shown  by  the  census  of  1900,  and  which  is  prob- 
ably exceeded  by  the  population  of  that  city  in 
the  present  year  —  1904.  The  total  population 
of  the  country  in  1900  was  76,305.387.  The  in- 
crease,   as    shown    by    each    decennial    census, 


original  13,  namely,  Maine,  detached  from  Mas- 
sachusetts and  admitted  in  1820;  and  West  Vir- 
ginia, formerly  included  in  Virginia,  which  State, 
already  divided  physically  into  two  sections  by 
the  Alleghany  Mountains,  was  divided  in  senti- 
ment at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  the 
western  section  adhering  to  the  Union  cause, 
and  receiving  recognition  as  a  State  in  1863. 
The  full  list  of  States  added  to  the  original  fed- 
eration, together  with  the  respective  dates  of 
admission,  follows:  Vermont.  1791  ;  Kentucky. 
1702:  Tennessee,  1796;  Ohio,  1803;  Louisiana, 
1812;  Indiana.  1S1O;  Mississippi,  1817;  Illinois, 
[818;  Alabama,  1819;  Maine,  1820;  Missouri, 
1821 ;  Arkansas,  1836;  Michigan,  1837:  Florida, 
1845;  Texas,  1845;  Wisconsin.  1848:  California, 
1850;  Minnesota,  1858;  Oregon,  1859:  Kansas, 
1861 J  West  Virginia,  1863:  Nevada,  1864:  Ne- 
braska, 1867;  Colorado,  1876;  North  Dakota, 
1889;     South    Dakota,     1889;     Montana,     1889; 


ranged  between  36.4  per  cent  and  20.7  per  cent, 
the  general  tendency  being  toward  a  reduced 
percentage  as  the  country  grows  older  and 
becomes  more  thickly  settled.  The  average  de- 
cennial increase  from  1790  to  1900  is  30.9  per 
cent.  Following  are  the  figures  showing  the 
population  at  the  close  of  each  decade:  1790, 
3,926,214;  1800,  5,308,483;  1810,  7,239,881:  1820. 
9,638,453;  1830,  12,866,020;  1840,  17,069,453: 
1850,  23,191,876;  i860,  31,443,321;  1870, 
38,558.371:  1880,  50.189.209;  1890,  63,069,756; 
1000.  76.305,387.  The  population  in  1004,  as  es- 
timated, is  about  84.000.000. 

Immigration  from  foreign  countries  has  nat- 
urally been  a  large  factor  in  the  increase  of  pop- 
ulation. During  the  period  from  1821  to  1850 
the  total  number  of  immigrants  arriving  in  this 
country  was  2.455.812.  Of  this  number 
1,038,824,  or  42.3  per  cent,  were  from  Ireland, 
while    Great    Britain    sent    367,933,    making   the 


AMERICA,  UNITED  STATES  OF 


total  contribution  from  the  United  Kingdom 
something  more  than  57.2  per  cent  of  the  entire 
foreign  addition  to  the  population  of  the  United 
States.  The  great  tide  of  German  immigration 
began  during  the  same  period,  the  number  of 
German  immigrants  being  593.841.  There  was 
also  a  considerable  influx  of  the  Scandinavian 
element,   Norway,   Sweden  and   Denmark   send- 


ing 16,966.  Italy  had  made  a  small  beginning 
with  4,531 ;  and  there  was  a  mere  driblet  of 
r>393  from  Russia  and  Poland.  Canada  (q.v.) 
and  Newfoundland  (q.v.),  which  have  supplied 
a  large  and  valuable  element  of  the  population, 
began  their  contributions  during  this  period  with 
57,624.  Of  the  2,598,214  immigrants  who  ar- 
rived during  the  decade,  1851-60,  Queen  Vic- 
toria's subjects  constituted  51.5  per  cent,  not 
counting  the  59,303  who  came  from  Canada  and 
Newfoundland;  there  were  914,119  from  Ire- 
land and  423,974  from  Great  Britain.  Germany 
outnumbered  Ireland  in  her  representatives, 
sending  951,667.  The  Scandinavian  countries 
sent  24,680;  Italy,  9,231;  and  the  Sclavonic  coun- 
tries, 1,621.     During  the  ten  years  from  1861  to 

1870  the  tide  of  immigration  fell  off  to  2,314,824, 
owing  largely  to  the  conditions  existing  here  as 
a  result  of  the  Civil  War.  The  quota  from 
England  and  Scotland,  however,  showed  a  very- 
large  increase,  the  figures  being  606,896 ;  Can- 
ada and  Newfoundland  sent  153,871,  as  against 
59.303  during  the  preceding  decade ;  the  Scan- 
dinavians numbered  126,392,  an  increase  of  more 
than  500  per  cent ;  the  Italians  made  a  note- 
worthy increase  with  11,728,  while  Russia  and 
Poland's  contingent  increased  to  4,536.  This 
decade  brought  the  first  perceptible  wave  of  the 
large  tide  which  has  flowed  from  Austria-Hun- 
gary, the  number  from  that  country  being  7,800. 
While  the  German  and  Irish  immigrants  were 
greatly  decreased  in  number  they  constituted  a 
very  large  proportion  of  the  whole,  the  Ger- 
mans leading  the  list  of  nationalities  with 
787,468,  and  the  Irish  coming  third  with  435.778. 
An  increase  of  nearly  half  a  million  immigrants 
is  shown  by  the  record  for  the  ten  years  from 

1871  to  1880,  the  number  for  that  decade  being 
2,812,191.  Germany  continued  in  the  lead,  but 
with   a   further   reduction    in   her   figures.    The 


German  immigrants  numbered  718,182.  Ireland 
was  a  trifle  better  represented  than  in  the  previ- 
ous decade,  sending  over  436,871,  while  Great 
Britain  fell  off  to  548,043.  The  tide  from  Can- 
ada and  Newfoundland  was  more  than  doubled, 
with  383,269  as  the  actual  figures.  Scandinavian 
immigrants  numbered  243,016,  or  nearly  double 
the  number  for  the  preceding  ten  years,  while 
Austria-Hungary,  Italy,  Russia  and  Poland  all 
made  an  immense  increase  in  their  representa- 
tion, Austria-Hungary  sending  over  to  this 
country  72,960  persons ;  Italy,  55,759,  and  the 
Sclavic  countries,  52,254.  Immigration  touched 
high-water  mark  in  the  record  for  the  perioc  in- 
cluding the  years  1881-1890.  The  figures  wire 
5,246,613.  Germans  led  the  list  with  1.452,970. 
The  immigration  from  other  countries,  in  the 
order  of  the  larger  figures  was :  Great  Britain, 
8o".357;  Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark. 
656,494;  Ireland,  655.482:  Canada  and  New- 
foundland, 392,802:  Austria-Hungary,  353.719; 
Italy,  307,309;  Russia  and  Poland,  265.088. 
Something  more  than  half  of  the  immigration 
for  the  decade  ending  with  1890  was  from  Italy, 
Russia  and  Poland,  and  Austria-Hungary,  in  the 
order  named.  The  Italians  numbered  651,899; 
Russians  and  Poles,  602,010 ;  Austrians  and 
Hungarians,  592,707.  Germany  supplied  505,152; 
the  Scandinavian  countries,  371,512;  Ireland, 
300,179;  Great  Britain,  207,019;  and  Canada  and 
Newfoundland  only  3,064.  Besides  the  coun- 
tries named  other  countries  have  supplied  from 
i8o:355  to  374.703  immigrants  for  each  of  the 
periods,  but  those  named  have  been  selected  for 
mention  because  of  the  influence  which  their 
emigrants  must  necessarily  wield  in  determining 
the  general  character  of  the  present  population 
of  the  United  States.  The  proportion  of  for- 
eign born  people  to  the  entire  population  as 
shown  by  each  census  during  the  period  covered 
is  as  follows :     1850,  9.7  per  cent ;  1860,  13.2  per 


cent;  1S70.  14.4  per  cent:  1S80,  13.3  per  cent; 
1890,  14.8  per  cent:  1900,  13.7  per  cent.  The 
proportion  of  those  native  born,  but  of  foreign 
parentage,  can  be  shown  only  from  1870.  as  fol- 
lows :  1870,  28.2  per  cent :  1880.  29.8  per  cent ; 
1890.  33.0  per  cent;  1900.  34.3  per  cent.  See 
Immigration  to  the  United  States. 


AMERICA,  UNITED  STATES  OF 


By  far  the  wealthiest  country  in  the  world, 
the  United  States  possesses  30.S  per  cent  of  the 
world's  entire  wealth,  nearly  double  Great  Brit- 
ain's share,  nearly  two  and  a  half  times  that  of 
France,  and  more  than  three  times  that  of  Ger- 
many. The  amount  possessed  by  this  country 
is.  in  round  numbers,  127,625  millions  of  dol- 
lars, divided  as  follows :  Farms,  $20,710,000,000; 
railways,  $11,300,000,000;   buildings,  $22,230,000,- 

000;     furniture,     $8,000,000,000;     merchandise, 

$7,815,000,000;  bullion,  $1,175,000,000;  sundries, 
$19,695,000,000.     The    wealth    per    capita    of    the 

tion  is  $1,519.34;  that  of  the  entire  world 
being  $302.78;  and  that  of  other  countries  than 
the  United  States,  $225.12.  The  annual  produc- 
tion of  wealth  as  shown  by  the  census  of  1900 
is  $18.161, 189,533,  the  manufacturing  industries 
producing  more  than  70  per  cent.  The  figures 
are:     Mineral     products,     $1,257,732,261;     farm 

ts,  $3. 7' >J.  177,706;  manufactures.  $13,030,- 
279,566.     There    is   a   large    surplus    production, 


extensions.  There  are  70  canals  in  all,  including 
the  new  Illinois  and  Mississippi  Canal,  begun 
in  [902,  but  .not  completed  in  i'W4.  The  total 
length  of  these  artificial  waterways  is  3,627 
miles.  Most  of  the  canals  arc  intended  for 
boats,  barges  and  other  light  craft.  Some  of 
them  have  not  been  in  use  during  recent  years, 
but  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  they  will  be 
abandoned,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  desirability  of  canal  improvement  has  re- 
ceived   recognition  and  the  work  of  canal  con- 


Weatth    per  Capita 

foreign  Countrli; 

1223.12 


Wealth  par  Capita 

The  World 

•302.78 


Wealth  por  Capita 

United  Statea 

$1,619.34 


tin  preponderating  element  of  which  consists  of 
cotton,  breadstuffs  and  provisions,  this  finding 
a  ready  market  in  foreign  countries  and  making 
the  balance  of  trade  very  large  111  favor  of  this 
country.  The  total  exports  of  merchandise  for 
the  fiscal  year  ended  30  June  190.3  were 
$1420,138,014,  including  foreign  merchandise  re- 
shipped  abroad  to  the  amount  of  $27,906,377. 
Breadstuffs  and  provisions  constituted  about  35 
per  cent  of  the  total  value,  and  represented 
about  13  per  cent  of  the  farm  product  of  the 
country.  The  total  imports  of  merchandise  for 
the  same  year  were  $1,025,751,538,  the  balance  in 
favor  <'f  the  United  States  being  $394,386,476. 
See  United  States  —  Commercial  Develop- 
1  of  the;  United  States  —  Economic  De- 
velopment of  the. 


Struction  continues.  The  most  important  canal 
undertaking  of  all  history  is  that  of  uniting  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans  by  cutting  through 
the  isthmus  connecting  North  and  South  Amer- 
ica, a  work  which  the  United  States  government 
proposes  to  carry  out  with  the  most  expedition 
possible.     See  Panama  Canal. 

No  country  is  the  world  possesses  so  many 
and  so  far-reaching  railway  systems  as  those  of 
the  United  States.  Statistics  for  1900  show 
that  of  the  entire  length  of  railways  in  all  parts 
of  the  world  this  country  has  considerably  mote 
than  one-third  —  39.3  per  cent;  in  fact,  the  esti- 
mated number  of  miles  of  railway  in  operation 
in  the  United  States  in  1904  is  210,000.  More 
than  half  of  this  mileage  has  been  put  in  opera- 
tion since  1880.     The  story  begins  with  23  miles 


RA.ILWAY8  OF  THE  WORLD  IN  1900 


United  Statei,  311,287  Kilometer. 


Other  Countries,  479.283  Kllometen 


Total,  790,570  KH. 


Canals  (q.v.)  were  an  important  factor  in  the 
early  development  of  the  country,  and  although 
they  have  been  very  largely  superseded  by  the 
railways,  they  continue  to  assist  materially  the 
vast  domestic  commerce,  and  constitute  a  con- 
siderable element  in  transportation  interests.  Of 
the  many  canals  which  have  been  constructed  in 
the  United  States  23  are  ship  canals,  several  of 
these  being  designed  to  make  more  available 
certain    natural    waterways    of    which    they    are 


of  railway  in  1830 ;  and  the  additions  have  been 
as  follows,  by  decades:  1840,  2,795  miles;  1850, 
6,203  miles;  i860,  21.605  miles;  1870,  22,296 
miles;  1880,  40.340  miles;  1890,  73.392  miles; 
1900.  27,680  miles;  1901-4,  15.500  miles,  esti- 
mated. The  capital  stock  of  the  various  railway 
companies  aggregated,  in  1904.  $6,355,207,335  ; 
the  gross  earnings  were  $1,908,857,826;  the  net 
earnings  were  $592,508,512;  and  the  total 
amount  of   dividends  declared  was  $190,674,415. 


AMERICA,  UNITED  STATES  OF 


The  number  of  miles  run  by  passenger  trains 
was  429,014,1 16;  the  number  of  passengers  car- 
ried was  696,949,925:  and  the  total  movement  of 
passengers  was  20,895,606.421.  The  number 
of  miles  run  by  freight  trains  was  548,680,595; 
the  freight  carried  aggregated  1,306,628,858 
tons;  and  the  total  freight  movement  was 
17,292,198,079.  Among  speed  records  made  the 
highest  was  4.08  miles  in  2  minutes,  40  seconds, 
on  18  Feb.  1901,  near  Screven,  Ga.  This  is  a 
speed  of  107.09  per  hour.  A  train  maintaining 
this  rate  of  speed  could  make  a  complete  circuit 
of  the  globe  at  the  equator  in  about  6^2  days. 
See  American  Railroads. 

Means  of  communication  bear  as  important 
a  relation  to  the  material  development  and  pros- 
perity of  a  country  as  do  means  of  transporta- 
tion (see  Railway  Transportation),  and  in 
the  magnitude  of  telegraph  and  telephone  inter- 
ests the  United  States  holds  a  leading  position, 
while  the  post-office  department  of  the  govern- 
ment renders  service  which  is  excelled  in  only 
a  few  particulars  by  that  of  one  or  two  foreign 
governments.  On  the  other  hand  the  postal  af- 
fairs of  the  United  States  have  their  own  points 
of  excellence,  and  are  subjected   from  time  to 

RAILROAD  EXTENSION   BY  DECADES 


year  ended  30  June  1903,  shows  a  public  con- 
venience maintained  at  an  almost  constant  ex- 
pense to  the  government  in  excess  of  the  rev- 
enue derived  from  it.  In  the  entire  period  the 
revenue  exceeded  the  expenditures  in  twelve 
years  only,  namely,  in  1837,  1838,  1839,  1840, 
1842,  1843,  1844,  1845,  1849,  1850,  1851,  and  1866. 
The  revenue  has  grown  from  $4,945,668.21  to 
Si  34.224,443. 24;  and  the  expenditures  from 
$3,288,319.03  to  $138,784,487.97-  While  the  ser- 
vice is  conducted  at  a  loss  which  has  to  be 
made  up  from  the  general  revenues  of  the  gov- 
ernment, it  must  be  remembered  that  the  gov- 
ernment itself  employs  it  to  a  very  large  extent, 
free  of  postage,  and  thus  the  apparent  loss  is 
made  up  in  large  degree,  if  not  altogether.  For 
instance,  the  number  of  pieces  of  first  class  mat- 
ter carried  free  for  the  government  in  the  year 
1902-3  was  153.233,677,  which,  at  the  minimum, 
represents  $3,064,670.06  in  postage.  It  is  safe  to 
add  25  per  cent  to  this  sum,  which  would  make 
the  amount  $3,830,837.57,  or  within  $729,207  of 
the  deficiency  for  that  year.  The  number  of 
post-offices  in  the  United  States  is  74,169,  which 
number  does  not  include  the  branch  post-offices 
and  sub-stations  in  large  cities,  of  which  there 


1830  -3  miles  °*  railroad  In  operatic* 


1850 


6.203  mltea  added 


21.608  miles  added 


22,296  miles  added 


40.340  m.ies  added 


73,392  rmlea  added 


27,680  miles  added 


,15,500  miles  ad 


time  to  such  improvement  as  study  and  experi- 
ence suggest.  For  the  telegraph  service  of  the 
country  there  existed  in  1901  systems  using 
1,156,998  miles  of  wire,  stretched  over  219,938 
miles  of  country.  These  afford  means  of  in- 
stant communication  with  every  part  of  the  con- 
tinent, and,  by  connection  with  the  thousands 
of  miles  of  submarine  cable,  with  every  country 
in  the  world.  The  number  of  messages  trans- 
mitted in  1901  was  83,555,122.  For  telephone 
service  there  are  1,354,202  miles  of  wire,  ar- 
ranged in  508,262  circuits.  They  connect  1,348 
exchanges  and  1,427  branch  offices.  In  addition 
to  the  public  telegraph  and  telephone  wires 
there  is  a  large  mileage  of  wires  for  both  tele- 
graph and  telephone  service  which  are  the  prop- 
erty of  railway  and  other  corporations,  firms  and 
individuals.  The  increasing  use  of  the  tele- 
phone has  had  an  effect  upon  the  growth  of  the 
telegraph  interest,  which  nevertheless  has  a 
large  share  in  the  general  increase  which  is  felt 
by  all  enterprises  identified  with  public  con- 
venience. 

The    history    of    the    postal    service    of    the 
United  States  from  1837  to  the  close  of  the  fiscal 


are  several  thousands.  The  force  employed  is 
immense,  the  free  delivery  in  cities  alone  em- 
ploying 19,542  carriers,  and  the  rural  free  deliv- 
ery routes  an  additional  15,119.  The  estimated 
number  of  pieces  of  matter  passing  through 
the  mails  during  the  year  1902-3  included 
4,262,933,677  pieces  of  first  class  matter; 
770,657,590  postal  cards;  2,615,685,614  pieces  of 
second  class  matter,  or  newspapers  sent  out 
from  the  offices  of  their  publication ; 
1.053,637,057  pieces  of  fourth  class  matter,  such 
as  books,  pamphlets,  circulars,  etc. ;  93.380,005 
pieces  of  fourth  class  matter,  consisting  of  mer- 
chandise, etc. ;  60,001.332  pieces  of  first  class 
matter  sent  to  foreign  countries;  and  31,171,413 
pieces  of  all  other  matter  sent  to  foreign  coun- 
tries ;  making  a  grand  total  of  8,887.467.048 
pieces.  These  figures  are  beyond  ordinary  com- 
prehension, but  their  vastness  may  be  appre- 
ciated by  estimating  the  size  of  each  piece  of 
matter  mailed  as  that  of  an  ordinary  letter  en- 
velope. They  would  cover  a  plain  about  seven 
miles  square,  or  larger  than  any  ordinary  town 
or  city.  If  laid  in  a  belt  along  the  equator  they 
would  encircle  the  globe  with  a  girdle  112  feet 


AMERICA  — AMERICAN  AS  OFFICIAL  DESIGNATION 


wide,  or  twice  the  width  of  an  ordinary  street. 
See  Postal  Service  in  Commerce. 

The  care  and  transfer  of  money  is  a  matter 
of  stupendous  importance  in  a  country  of  such 
vast  wealth  and  productiveness.  It  rests  mainly 
with  the  banking  interest,  as  a  matter  of  course, 
and  this  is  another  of  the  immense  interests  of 
the  country.  A  great  amount  of  money  is  trans- 
ferred, however,  through  the  money  order  de- 
partment of  the  post-office,  as  well  as  through 
the  express  companies  which  constitute  another 
very  large  interest,  and  through  the  telegraph 
companies.  The  amount  of  money  transferred 
through  the  money  order  department  of  the 
post-office  during  the  fiscal  year  1902-3  was 
$353,627,648.03  aggregate  represents  main- 

ly small  transactions,  and  bears  only  a  small 
proportion  to  the  exchange  business  of  the 
bank-.  I  he  total  number  of  banks  in  the  United 
Suites  in  1903  was  18,514,  divided  as  follows: 
State  banks  and  trust  companies,  8,545;  private 
bank-.  3,002;  savings  bank-,  8.(4:  national  banks, 
5,223.  The  total  capital  of  these  institutions 
w  as  $1,652,700,362;  and  the  total  deposits  were 
$11,246,266,227.  See  Banks  and  Banking; 
Money. 

In  this  presentation  of  the  area,  population, 
wealth  and  productiveness  of  the  United  States 
there  is  seen  the  largest  development  of  material 
resources  ever  known  under  any  form  of  gov- 
ernment, and  it  is  due  in  a  great  measure  to  the 
beneficial  influence  of  that  republican  form  of 
government  under  which  the  United  States  has 
grown  to  be  one  of  the  most  powerful  as  well 
as  the  most  prosperous  of  nations.  The  great 
interests  of  which  mention  has  been  made  have 
been  fostered  and  guarded  by  a  government 
chosen  by  the  voice  of  the  people,  and  returning 
to  the  people  at  comparatively  short  intervals 
for  a  renewal  of  the  authority  confided  to  it. 
I  he  character  of  the  people  becomes  therefore  a 
matter  worthy  of  study.  As  already  shown  the 
growth  of  population  has  been  considerably  ac- 
celerated by  immigration  from  other  countries. 
The  incoming  element-,  have  been  widely  dis- 
tributed, and  absorbed  and  assimilated  to  a 
marked  degree,  especially  in  the  succeeding  gen- 
eration. Compulsory  education  (q.v.)  of  the 
young  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  this  work, 
and  the  privileges  of  citizenship  together  with 
religious  freedom  (see  United  States  —  Civil 
and  Religious  Liberty  in  the)  have  had  a  full 
share  in  it.  There  is  no  country  in  the  world 
where  churches  of  every  denomination  are  found 
in  greater  proportion  to  the  population,  and 
there  is  no  country  where  so  many  large  and 
self-supporting  congregations  of  every  denom- 
ination exist.  White  there  is  no  government 
support  given  to  any  church,  nor  any  legal 
enactments  which  interfere  with  a  free  choice 
of  any  religion  or  no  religion,  there  is  not  only 
full  protection  for  the  peaceful  worshipper,  but 
also  a  recognition  in  law  ef  the  sacredness  of 
the  name  of  the  Deity  and  of  the  day  in  each 
week  set  apart  for  worship.  If  more  interest 
is  taken  in  education  than  il  religion  it  is  be- 
cause all  intelligent  classes  regard  education  as 
an  element  of  growth,  while  the  religious  class, 
to  a  large  extent,  regard  it  as  a  part  of  religion. 
Census  reports  show  in  their  tables  relating  to 
illiteracy  a  reduction  of  illiterates  for  each  de- 
cade since  1880.  the  proportion  of  illiterates 
falling  off  steadily  among  the  native  born  popu- 
lation,   including    colored    people    and    Indians. 


Between  1890  and  1900,  however,  there  was  in- 
crease in  the  proportion  of  illiterates  among  the 
foreign-born  population,  which  can  be  easily 
traced  to  the  changed  character  of  immigration 
(q.v.).  The  percentage  of  illiteracy  to  the  total 
population,  even  since  the  acquisition  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  and  the  coming  of  more  ig- 
norant classes  of  immigrants,  is  much  less  than 
in  any  other  country.  For  complete  account  of 
the  history  and  development  of  the  United 
States  see  under  United  States. 

Frederick  W.  Webber,  M.A. 

America,  the  American  national  hymn, 
written  in  1832  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Francis 
Smith.  The  air  to  which  it  is  sung  is  that  of 
the  English  national  hymn,  'God  Save  the 
King,'  the  composition  of  Henry  Carey  in  1742. 
See  National  Hymns. 

America,  the  name  of  the  schooner  yacht 
winning  the  international  yacht  race  of  [851. 
The  prize  obtained,  a  silver  tankard,  has  since 
been  known  as  the  "America's  Cup."  Sec 
Yachts  and  Yachting. 

America,  Prehistoric.        Sec     ARCHEOLOGY, 

American. 

American  Academy  of  Medicine,  an  or- 
ganization formed  in  1876  to  encourage  the 
proper  educational  preparation  of  physicians. 
Membership  about  1,000. 

American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  an  organization  formed  in 
1889  to  promote  scientific  study  of  the  social 
sciences. 

American  Allspice.     See  Calycanthus. 

American  Aloe.     See  Agave. 

American  Antiquarian  Society,  an  asso- 
ciation organized  in  1812  at  Worcester,  Mass. 
The  object  of  the  society  is  the  study  and  pres- 
ervation of  the  antiquities  of  America,  and  the 
advancement  of  art  and  science  throughout 
the  world.  Its  library  includes  over  100,000 
volumes,  including  a  large  number  of  the  rarest 
Americana,  very  complete  files  of  American 
newspapers,  and  a  rich  collection  of  manuscripts, 
and  its  '  Proceedings'  have  been  published 
semi-annually  since  1849.  It  maintains  an  im- 
portant museum  of  antiquities,  gathered  in  all 
parts  of  North,  South  and  Central  America. 

American  Anti-Slavery  Society,  The.  See 
Anti-Slavery  Society,  the  American. 

American  Art.     Sec  Art.  American. 

American  Asiatic  Association,  an  organi- 
zation formed  in  1898  to  foster  and  safeguard 
the  commercial  interests  of  the  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  and  others  associated  therewith, 
in  Asia  and  the  East.     Membership  280. 

American  as  Official  Designation.  In 
June  1004  an  order  was  issued  by  Secretary  of 
State  Hay  that  on  all  new  record-books,  seals, 
etc.,  used  by  representatives  of  the-  United 
States  in  foreign  countries  there  should  appear 
the  words  "American  Embassy,"  "American  Le- 
gation/' etc.,  in  place  of  "Embassy  of  the  I'nilcd 
States."  "Legation  of  the  United  States,"  etc., 
previously  employed.  The  usage  thus  applied  to 
all  diplomatic  establishments  and  consular  offi- 
cers had  been  followed  by  Secretary  Hay  when 


AMERICAN  ASSOCIATION  FOR  SCIENCE AMERICAN  BUREAU  OF   MINES 


ambassador  to  England,  his  position  being  that 
all  countries  composed  of  "United  States,"  for 
example,  Mexico,  Brazil,  Colombia,  etc.,  were 
described  by  the  geographical,  not  the  political 
name  of  the  country. 

American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,  a  society  originally  known 
as  the  Association  of  American  Geologists, 
founded  at  Philadelphia  in  1840.  In  1842  it 
added  Naturalists  to  its  name  and  was  known 
by  this  title  until  1847,  when  the  present  organi- 
zation was  formed.  During  the  past  50  years 
the  names  of  practically  all  the  leaders  of 
American  science  have  been  on  the  register  of 
the  association,  and  the  52  volumes  of  its  "Pro- 
ceedings' contain  many  of  the  most  important 
contributions  to  scientific  literature  published  in 
this  country.  The  association  numbers  about 
4,000  (1903)  members,  including  in  its  list 
of  active  Fellows  such  well-known  scientific  men 
as  Newcomb,  Barker,  Brush,  Young,  Lesley, 
Morse.  Langley,  Mendenhall.  Goodale,  Prescott, 
A.  Hall,  Harkness.  Morley.  Gibbs,  Gill,  Putnam, 
Gilbert,  Woodward,  and  Minot.  Among  promi- 
nent educators  who  are  members  and  have  taken 
active  interest  in  its  work  are  ex-President 
Gilman  and  President  Remsen  of  Johns  Hop- 
kins, ex-President  Low  of  Columbia,  President 
Schurman  of  Cornell,  President  Jordan  of  Stan- 
ford, President  Drown  of  Lehigh,  President 
Pritchett  of  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, ex-President  Mendenhall  of  Worcester 
Polytechnic  Institute,  and  President  Dabney  of 
the  University  of  Tennessee.  Many  names 
prominent  in  the  professions  and  in  business  are 
found  on  the  list  of  members.  The  yearly  meet- 
ings, held  in  different  centres,  occupy  a  full 
week,  and  as  the  work  is  now  so  extensive,  the 
different  sections  hold  separate  meetings.  The 
'Proceedings*  are  published  in  an  annual  vol- 
ume, and  members  receive  the  publication  "Sci- 
ence.' 

American  Association  of  China,  a  branch 
of  the  American  Asiatic  Association,  organized 
in  1898  and  located  in  Shanghai.  Membership 
IOO;  office  of  the  secretary,  Shanghai,  China. 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union,  The, 
a  missionary  organization  of  the  Baptist  Church, 
formed  in  Philadelphia  18  May  1814  as  "The 
General  Missionary  Convention  of  the  Baptist 
Denomination  in  the  United  States  for  Foreign 
Missions.9  The  Southern  Baptists  withdrew  in 
1845  because  of  differences  on  the  slavery 
question,  and  the  society  assumed  its  present 
name  in  1846.  The  headquarters  were  estab- 
lished at  Boston  in  1826.  The  sole  object  of 
the  Union  is  the  diffusion  of  the  gospel  by 
means  of  missions  throughout  the  world.  Any 
church  which  has  made  a  contribution  to  the 
Union  during  the  year  may  appoint  one  annual 
member,  and  one  annual  member  for  every'  $50 
contributed  above  the  first  $50,  provided  that  no 
church  be  entitled  to  more  than  10  annual  mem- 
bers. Anyone  may  become  an  annual  member 
on  payment  of  $10  during  tlrfe  preceding  financial 
year.  At  every  annual  meeting  the  Union  elects 
a  president,  two  vice-presidents,  a  recording  sec- 
retary, and  one  third  of  a  board  of  managers. 
I  he  board  of  managers  consists  of  75  persons, 
at  least  one  third  of  whom  shall  not  be  ministers 
of  the  gospel.  The  board  of  managers  electa  an 
executive   committee,   with  chairman,   recording 


secretary,  corresponding  secretaries,  assistant 
secretary,  treasurer,  and  auditing  committee. 
For  the  year  ending  31  March  1902  the  L'nion 
had  481  missionaries  and  3.325  native  helpers. 
Receipts  were  $680,518.79,  appropriations  $621,- 
853-71- 

American  Bar  Association,  a  society 
organized  in  1878,  with  a  present  (1903)  mem- 
bership of  about  1,800. 

American  Bible  Society,  The,  organized  in 
New  York  in  1816,  to  encourage  the  wider  cir- 
culation of  the  Bible.  Its  officers  are  a  president 
and  26  vice  presidents.  The  88th  annual  report 
for  1903  shows  that  the  society  printed  and  pur- 
chased in  the  coarse  of  the  year  2,058,989  Bibles, 
of  which  1,993.358  were  issued  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  statistician  of  the  society  also  states 
in  the  report  that  since  its  organization  the  so- 
ciety has  issued  more  than  72,000,000  Bibles. 
The  total  number  of  Bibles  issued  in  the  United 
States  in  the  year  ended  31  March  1903,  was 
746,423,  of  which  New  York  received  225,735, 
Pennsylvania  135,938,  and  Illinois  62,878.  Wy- 
oming received  only  56  copies,  and  Arizona  87, 
while  the  Philippine  Islands  stand  charged  with 
11,774  copies.  Among  the  "sales  and  grants"  to 
foreign  lands  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  Cuba 
received  20,398.  Africa  6,725,  China  1,425  and 
Canada  only  218. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for 
Foreign  Missions,  The,  a  missionary  organ- 
ization of  the  Congregational  Church,  formed 
at  Bradford,  Mass.,  29  June  1810,  "for  the  pur- 
pose of  devising  ways  and  means  and  adopting 
and  prosecuting  measures  for  promoting  the 
spread  of  the  gospel  in  heathen  lands."  Nine 
commissioners  were  then  chosen,  five  from  Mas- 
sachusetts and  four  from  Connecticut.  A  char- 
ter was  not  obtained  from  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  until  20  June  1812.  The  first  annual 
meeting  was  held  at  Farmington,  Conn.,  5  Sept. 
1810.  At  the  close  of  its  ninth  decade  (1891- 
1900)  the  Board  had  20  missions,  97  stations, 
1,209  out-stations,  167  ordained  missionaries, 
and  a  total  of  544  American  laborers.  Native 
helpers  numbered  in  all  3.483.  There  were  505 
churches  with  50,892  members,  and  120  high 
schools  and  colleges.  For  the  nine  decades 
2,347  missionaries  had  been  sent  out,  the  aggre- 
gate receipts  were  $32,845,372.49,  and  157,658 
members  were  received  into  the  churches  in 
care  of  the  Board.  The  Board  is  a  corporate 
body,  limited  to  350  active  members,  selected  by 
ballot,  at  least  one  third  being  clergymen  and 
one  third  laymen.  Honorary  members  (who 
become  such  on  payment  of  $100.  or,  if  clergy- 
men, $50)  may  participate  in  all  the  delibera- 
tions of  the  Board,  but  do  not  vote. 

American  Bureau  of  Mines,  an  organiza- 
tion incorporated  under  the  laws  of  the  State  of 
Xew  York,  with  headquarters  in  New  York  city. 
The  objects  of  the  association  are  to  reform 
and  encourage  the  mineral  industry  of  the 
United  States  ;  to  discountenance  popular  error 
as  to  the  financial  and  industrial  conditions  of 
mineral  interests  :  and  to  effect  mutually  benefi- 
cial relations  between  capitalists  and  men  of 
practical  science.  Facts  bearing  upon  economic 
and  statistical  science  which  demonstrate  the 
importance-  and  general  utility  of  these  branches 
of  knowledge  are  stored;  trustworthy  informa- 


AMERICAN  BUREAU  OF  SHIPPING  —  AMERICAN  COLLEGE 


tion  as  tn  sound  mining  ami  other  mineral  en- 
terprises i-  supplied,  while  such  a^  arc  unsub- 
stantial or  spurious  arc  exposed;  and  the  services 
of  an  organized  and  permanent  faculty  of  ex- 
perts arc  provided.  A  Museum  of  Metallurgy 
and  Practical  Geology  for  the  illustration  of 
ores  and  mineral  products,  and  of  mining  and 
metallurgical  constructions  and  appliances,  and 
a  library  and  reading-room  have  been  and  are 
important  sections  of  the  organization's  equip- 
ment. 

American  Bureau  of  Shipping,  a  maritime 
association  established  in  New  York  in  1867,  for 
the  purpose  of  collecting  and  disseminating  in- 
formation upon  subjects  of  marine  or  commer- 
cial interest,  of  encouraging  and  advancing 
worthy  and  well-qualified  commanders  and 
other  officers  of  vessels  in  the  American  mer- 
chant service,  and  of  promoting  the  security  of 
life  and  property  on  the  seas. 

American  Chemical  Society,  an  associa- 
tion established  in  1S76  for  the  support  and  en- 
couragement of  chemical  research.  Membership 
about  2,200. 

American  Civic  Association,  an  organiza- 
tion formed  10  June  1904  by  the  consolidation 
of  the  American  League  for  Civic  Improvement 
and  the  American  Park  and  Outdoor  Associa- 
tion, its  objects  being  the  cultivation  of  higher 
ideals  of  civic  life  and  beauty  in  America,  the 
promotion  of  city,  town,  and  neighborhood  im- 
provements, the  preservation  and  development 
of  landscape,  and  the  advancement  of  outdoor 
art. 

The  Association  marks  a  distinct  epoch  in 
American  development.  ■  Stockbridge  and  New- 
ton Center,  two  Massachusetts  towns,  both  of 
which  have  town  improvement  associations 
more  than  half  a  century  old,  lay  claim  to  the 
first  organized  effort  in  the  United  States  for 
the  preservation  of  natural  beauties  and  the  gen- 
eral improvement  of  the  village  surroundings, 
but  the  movement  which  the  association  repre- 
sents first  began  to  assume  large  proportions 
in  southwestern  Ohio,  where  a  number  of  man- 
ufacturers, publishers,  and  real  estate  men  awoke 
to  a  realization  of  the  fact  that  improved  sur- 
roundings made  better  workmen,  caused  men 
to  buy  homes,  and  led  people  to  become  inter- 
ested in  good  literature.  The  beginnings  of  the 
movement  were  along  modest  lines.  The  term 
"hack  yard  improvers,"  first  applied  to  its  pro- 
moters in  derision,  was  accepted  as  a  watch- 
word, and  the  progress  made  has  been  such  that 
now  the  Association  represents  men  who  have 
undertaken  all  kinds  of  effort  for  public  beauty 
and  improvement,  no  matter  how  extensive. 
For  some  years  there  were  two  bodies  working 
in  this  field —  The  American  Park  and  Outdoor 
Art  Association  and  the  American  League  for 
Civic  Improvement.  A  consolidation  was  ef- 
fected at  a  joint  meeting  in  Saint  Louis  in  June 
1904.  and  the  result  of  this  merger  —  The  Amer- 
ican Civic  Association  —  represents  about  480 
local  improvement  organizations.  The  work  of 
the  Association  is  divided  into  the  following 
various  departments:  Women's  Outdoor  Art 
League;  Parks:  Arts  and  Crafts;  Children's 
Gardens:  City-making:  Outdoor  Art:  Factory 
Betterment;  Libraries:  Public  Nuisances;  Pub- 
lic Recreation  :  Railroad  Improvement ;  School 
Extension;   Social   Settlements;  and   the   Press. 


An  active  propaganda  is  carried  on  by  means  of 

department  leaflets,  clipping  sheets,  and  other 
methods.     Membership  consists  of  life  members, 

sustaining  members,  members,  and  affiliated 
members.  Tbe  head  offices  of  the  Association 
are  in  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

American  Climatological  Association,  a 
medical  organization  founded  in  New  York  city 
in  1884  "for  the  study  of  Climatology,  Hydrol- 
ogy, and  Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  and  Respi- 
ratory Organs."  Candidates  for  membership 
must  have  contributed  something  to  the  litera 
ture  of  the  subjects  before  election,  this  insur- 
ing a  select  membership,  which  the  roll  ■-hows 
to  be  very  generally  distributed  among  the  med 
ical  profession  throughout  the  United  States, 
with  distinguished  honorary  and  corresponding 
members  in  England,  Canada,  Mexico,  South 
America,  South  Africa,  and  Australia  and  other 
parts  of  the  world.  Annual  meetings  have  hern 
held  since  the  foundation,  at  which  papers  con 
fined  strictly  to  the  objects  mentioned  in  the 
constitution  of  the  organization  are  read  and 
discussed  and  afterward  published  in  the  'Trans- 
actions' of  the  Association:  20  volumes  have 
already  appeared,  and  copies  are  sent  annually 
to  the  principal  libraries  throughout  the  world 
The  title  of  some  recent  contributions  showing 
the  value  and  wide  scope  of  this  association  are: 
'The  Advantages  of  Southern  California  in  the 
Treatment  of  Tuberculosis'  ;  'The  Climate  and 
Waters  of  Hot  Springs,  Va.';  'Something  of 
the  Geography  of  Croupous  Pneumonia';  'Re- 
cent American  Contributions  to  the  Methods  of 
Prevention  and  Treatment  of  Pulmonary  Tu- 
berculosis' ;  'Climatology  as  a  Study  in  the 
Medical  Schools'  ;  'The  Climate  of  Santa  Bar- 
bara, California':  'The  Climatology  of  Mus 
koka,  Ontario,  Canada';  'The  Climates  and 
Diseases  of  Central  America  and  Panama.' 
The  head  offices  are  in  Philadelphia  ;  the  organ- 
ization must  not  be  confounded  with  a  similar 
important  and  co-friendly  society,  "The  National 
Association  for  the  Study  and  Prevention  of 
Tuberculosis,"  with  headquarters  in  New  York 
city. 


American     College. 

American. 


See    College,    The 


American  College  of  Heraldry  and  Gene- 
alogical Registry,  an  institution  similar  in 
character  to  the  British  "Herald's  College," 
founded  in  i860  and  incorporated  under  the  laws 
of  the  State  of  New  York.  Its  objects  are  to 
gather  genealogies,  or  family  records  and  family 
history,  for  perpetuation  to  posterity;  the  gene- 
alogical department  recording  births,  marriages, 
and  deaths:  the  historical,  obtaining  the  deriva- 
tion and  compiling  the  history  of  families;  and 
the  heraldic,  ascertaining,  emblazoning,  depict- 
ing, and  engraving  family  coats-of-arms,  crests, 
mottoes,  etc.     See  Heraldry. 

American  College  in  Rome,  Italy.  This 
pontifical  college  was  founded  8  Dec.  1859  by 
Pope  Pius  IX.  for  the  purpose  of  training  young 
men  for  the  Catholic  priesthood  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  By  a  pontifical  decree  it 
was  placed  under  the  direction  of  the  Congrega- 
tion of  the  Propaganda,  the  students  being 
obliged  to  attend  the  courses  of  lectures  given 
at  tiie  University  of  the  Propaganda.  The  reg- 
ular course  embraces   two  years  of  philosophj 


AMERICAN   COMMERCE  — AMERICAN   DIPLOMACY 


and  four  years  of  theology,  while  preparatory 
classes  are  held  for  students  who  have  not 
completed  the  college  course  in  their  own  coun- 
try. The  American  College  opened  with  twelve 
students,  three  of  whom  afterward  became 
archbishops:  Michael  Corrigan,  of  New  York; 
Patrick  Riordan,  of  San  Francisco ;  and  Robert 
Seton,  titular  of  Heliopolis.  Ruben  Parsons, 
the  historian,  was  also  one  of  the  original 
twelve.  The  College  has  trained  many  distin- 
guished churchmen  during  its  existence  of  less 
than  50  years,  giving  to  the  United  States  17 
bishops,  among  whom  are  the  present  Arch- 
bishops Farley,  of  Xew  York,  and  Moeller,  of 
Cincinnati.  It  has  likewise  supplied  the  Catho- 
lic University  at  Washington  with  its  present 
rector,  Rt.  Rev.  Mgr.  O'Connell,  and  with  sev- 
eral professors ;  and  two  of  the  recently  ap- 
pointed bishops  to  the  Philippine  Islands, 
Denis  Dougherty,  of  Philadelphia,  and  Fred- 
crick  Rooker,  of  Albany,  are  among  its  alumni. 
The  College  has  at  present  about  100  students. 
Rev.  Eugene  Donnelly, 
Graduate  of  the  American   College,  Rome. 

American  Commerce.  The  growth  of  a 
nation  largely  depends  upon  the  development 
of  its  economic  resources,  and  the  success  of 
the  commercial  and  industrial  institutions  is  to 
a  great  extent  determined  by  the  wisdom  of 
the  laws  under  which  they  operate,  as  enacted 
by  the  national  legislative  body. 

In  the  early  days  of  American  commerce, 
the  domestic  industries  did  not  aggregate  in 
value  many  millions  of  dollars,  and  included 
mainly  the  manufacture  of  textiles,  lumber, 
furniture,  wagons,  harness,  hats,  ships,  meat 
products,  and  a  few  others  of  minor  import- 
ance. Against  this  in  1900  may  be  placed  the 
following  statistics  :  Manufacturing  establish- 
ments, 640,056;  capital,  $9,858,205,501;  proprie- 
tors and  firm  members,  708,623 ;  wage-earners, 
average,  5.370,814;  yearly  wages,  $2,323,055,634; 
miscellaneous  expenses,  $1,030,110,125;  cost  of 
materials  used,  $7,363,132,083;  and  value  of 
yearly  product,  $13,058,562,917.  In  addition, 
farm  lands  and  products  were  valued  at 
$20,439,901,164  and  $4,739,118,752,  respectively; 
minerals  and  their  resultants  produced  in  1902 
were  valued  at  $1,260,000,000;  the  exports  in 
1903  were  valued  at  $1,420,141,679,  and  the  im- 
ports aggregated  $1,025,719,227.  In  1903  the 
merchant  marine  registered  24,425  vessels  of 
6,087,345  tons,  including  canal  boats  and  barges  ; 
there  being  registered  12,836  sailing  vessels  of 
1,965,924  tons,  exclusive  of  canal  boats  and 
barges,  and  8,054  steam  vessels  of  3.418.088 
tons.  In  the  coasting  trade  the  tonnage  of  ves- 
sels registered  was  5,141,0:7,  and  in  the  for- 
eign trade  and  whale  fisheries,  888,776  tons.  In 
1004  the  total  mileage  of  railroads  was  212,349. 
representing  liabilities  of  $14,289,259,959  and 
cost  of  road  and  equipment  of  $11,233,311,285. 
During  the  year  715.654.951  passengers  were 
rarried  and  1.27;. 321,607  tons  of  freight  moved. 
The  total  traffic  and  other  earnings  were 
$1,008,343,310.  In  1003  the  national  debt 
amounted  tn  $025,011,637,  after  deducting  the 
treasury  cash  balance ;  the  government  receipts 
ordinary  were  $?o6. 196,674.  and  expenditures, 
$477o42.6:;S ;  post-office  receipts.  $134,224,443. 
Tn  1904  the  money  in  circulation  amounted  to 
*2,5I9.I42.86b;  the  bank  deposits  were  about 
$10,000,000,000;      the      bank      clearings      were 


$102,150,313,931;    and    the   estimated    wealth   of 
the  country   was  over  $125,000,000,000. 

For  details  see  Alaska,  Commercial; 
America,  United  States  of;  American  Man- 
ufactures; American  Railroads;  American- 
Merchant  Marine;  American  Mines;  Banks 
and  Banking;  Commerce;  Commerce,  Inter- 
state; Commercial  Organizations;  Exports 
and  Imports;  txpoRTs  and  Imports  of  the 
Latin-American  Countries;  Finance;  For- 
eign Trade;  Industrial  Corporations;  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  Products  of;  Trusts;  United 
States  —  Foreign  Commerce  of  the;  Indus- 
tries of  the;  History  of  the  Tariff;  Reci- 
procity; Commercial  Development;  Economic 
Development;  and  the  articles  on  the  various 
industries    in    this    encyclopedia. 

American  Commonwealth,  The,  an  im- 
portant study  of  American  political,  social,  and 
economic  conditions  by  James  Bryce,  the  emi- 
nent historian  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire. 
Part  I.  treats  of  the  Federal  government.  Part 
II.  considers  the  State  governments  (including 
rural  and  city  governments),  their  departments, 
constitutions,  merits,  and  defects.  Part  III.  is 
devoted  to  the  political  machinery  and  the  party 
system.  Part  IV.  discusses  public  opinion, —  its 
nature  and  tendencies.  Part  V.  gives  concrete 
illustrations  of  the  matters  in  the  foregoing 
chapters.  Part  VI.  is  concerned  with  non-politi- 
cal institutions.  The  work  is  lucidly  written 
and  as  easy  for  the  laity  to  comprehend  as  for 
those  familiar  with  the  practical  workings  of 
our  government.  The  chapters  dealing  with 
the  professional  and  social  sides  of  American 
life,  and  especially  those  devoted  to  the  Ameri- 
can universities,  have  been  enthusiastically  re- 
ceived by    \mericans. 

American  Conflict,  The,  an  account  of  the 
American  Civil  War  and  its  causes,  by  Horace 
Greeley.  It  is  a  great  magazine  of  materials 
for  the  political  history  of  the  United  States 
with  regard  to  slavery. 

American  Cousin,  Our,  a  well-known 
play  by  the  English  dramatist,  Tom  Taylor 
(  1858).  It  was  very  popular  in  the  sixties,  and 
it  was  while  present  at  its  representation  in 
Ford's  Theatre  in  Washington  that  President 
Lincoln  was  assassinated. 

American  Dialect  Society,  an  association 
organized  in  1888  for  the  study  of  words  in 
American  English  differing  in  pronunciation 
and  use  from  the  accepted  usage.  Membership 
300.  A  bulletin  of  'Dialect  Notes'  is  published 
yearly.  Office  of  the  secretary,  Western  Re- 
serve  University,   Cleveland,   Ohio. 

American  Diplomacy.  It  may  be  justly 
claimed  that  the  United  States,  in  its  brief  ex- 
istence as  a  nation,  has  exercised  a  greater 
influence  in  the  same  period  in  molding  inter- 
national law  than  any  other  nation ;  and  it  has 
done  much  to  raise  the  standard  of  diplomatic 
practice.  From  the  beginning  it  has  stood  as 
the  champion  of  a  freer  commerce,  of  respect 
for  neutral  and  private  property  in  war.  and  of 
the  most  elevated  ideas  of  national  rights  and 
justice. 

When   the   United   States  entered  the   family 
of  nations,  there   existed  a  marked  contrast  be- 
tween  the    state    of   law    which    controlled    the 
rights  and  intercourse  of  nations  and  that  v  ' 
enforced  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  individual 


AMERICAN  DIPLOMACY 


inhabitants  of  the  respective  nations.  The  civil 
law,  which  was  in  force  in  most  of  the  countries 
of  continental  Europe  and  their  colonies,  was 
the  accepted  product  of  the  ripened  experience 
of  many  centuries  of  Roman  jurisprudence. 
The  common  law  which  prevailed  in  England 
and  its  colonies  had  been  brought  into  an  estab- 
lished system  through  the  careful  study  and 
practical  application  of  successive  generations 
of  renowned  jurists.  But  the  law  erf  nations 
was  then  in  its  infancy.  Only  one  century  had 
ed  since  Grotius,  who  has  been  styled  the 
father  of  international  law,  had  compiled  his 
treatise  on  the  'Rights  of  War  and  Peace'  ;  and 
Vattel  had  but  recently  published  his  'Law  of 
Nations,'  and  the  principles  he  enumerated  were 
far  from  being  an  accepted  code.  International 
law  was  still  in  a  formative  state  when  the 
United  States  began  its  career.  The  latter  had 
scarcely  entered  upon  its  organized  life  when 
the  wars  consequent  upon  the  French  Revolu- 
tion forced  it  to  consider  its  rights  and  dirties 
as  a  neutral  power.  It  soon  learned  that  there 
were  no  established  principles  which  warring 
nations  respected.  In  referring  to  its  early  his- 
tory, a  secretary  of  state  in  1853  said  to  the 
British  minister  for  foreign  affairs:  "From  the 
breaking  out  of  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion to  the  year  1812,  the  United  States  knew 
the  law  of  nations  only  as  the  victim  of  its 
systematic  violation  by  the  great  maritime  pow- 
ers of  Europe." 

The  first  effort  on  its  part  toward  the  main- 
tenance of  international  rules  of  conduct  was 
in  President  Washington's  neutrality  proclama- 
tion of  1793,  which,  within  less  than  a  genera- 
tion, brought  about  a  complete  change  on  this 
important  subject.  The  proclamation  was  a 
simple  announcement  of  the  neutral  attitude  of 
the  government,  and  a  warning  to  American 
citizens  to  observe  it.  But  the  significance  of 
the  act  was  in  the  strict  impartiality  of  its 
enforcement,  and  the  resulting  legislation  of 
Congress,  which  became  a  model  for  all  other 
nations. 

The  power  of  the  President  to  issue  such 
a  proclamation  based  solely  upon  the  principles 
of  international  law,  without  any  dorncstic  leg- 
islation respecting  offenses  against  neutrality, 
was  seriously  questioned,  and  in  1794  an  act  was 
passed  defining  what  were  offenses  against  neu- 
trality and  affixing  penalties  therefor.  During 
the  revolt  of  the  Spanish-American  colonies  so 
much  trouble  was  occasioned  thereby  to  the  Uni- 
ted States  authorities  that  the  law  was  carefully 
revised  in  1818,  and  it  has  since  practically  re- 
mained unaltered.  Hall,  one  of  the  latest  Eng- 
lish authorities  on  international  law,  says:  "The 
policy  of  the  United  States  in  1793  constitutes 
an  epoch  in  the  development  of  the  usages  of 
neutrality.  ...  It  represented  by  far  the  most 
advanced  existing  opinions  as  to  what  the 
obligations  [of  neutrality]  were.  ...  In  the 
main  it  is  identical  with  the  standard  of  con- 
duct which  is  now  adopted  by  the  community 
of  nations." 

Tlie  American  colonies,  in  assuming  their 
independence,  established  a  diplomatic  service 
similar  to  that  of  the  European  countries  and 
it  has  continued  to  be  so  maintained.  But  the 
question  has  often  been  raised  in  and  out  of 
Congress  whether,  in  the  existing  conditions  of 
the  world,  the  system  is  necessary  and  its  util- 
ity   justifies    its    expense.     With    many    in    the 


country  the  diplomatic  service  is  regarded  as  a 
purely  ornamental  branch  of  the  government 
and  its  maintenance  a  useless  expenditure  of 
public  money.  But  whenever  the  question  has 
been  made  the  Subject  of  inquiry  by  ' 
the  various  Presidents  and  secretaries  of  state 
have  given  their  opinions  in  favor  of  the  utility 
and  necessity  of  the  service,  and  Congress  has 
continued  to  authorize  it ;  and  it  has  come  to 
be  accepted  as  a  permanent  branch  of  the  gov- 
ernment. 

While  the  United  States  has  adopted  the 
European  system  of  a  diplomatic  and  consular 
service,  in  one  important  particular  the  general 
practice  of  other  nations  lias  not  been  followed. 
The  service  is  not  made  a  life  career,  and  no 
examination  is  required  for  admission  to  it, 
either  as  consul,  secretary  of  legation,  minister, 
or  ambassador.  Appointments  are  made  of  per- 
sons usually  from  civil  life,  and  without  any 
previous  diplomatic  experience.  The  two  sys- 
tems have  their  advantages.  It  docs  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  because  a  young  man  can 
pass  a  successful  examination,  he  is  destined  to 
make  an  able  minister  or  ambassador.  The  Brit- 
ish and  other  governments  have  frequently 
found  it  necessary  to  appoint  to  the  highest 
posts  in  the  diplomatic  service  persons  from 
other  branches  of  the  administration  or  from 
civil  life.  On  the  other  hand,  the  system  fol- 
lowed by  the  United  States  exposes  the  gov- 
ernment to  mistakes  and  sometimes  to  morti- 
fication and  ridicule  because  of  the  inexperience 
or  inaptness  of  its  representatives.  But  ap- 
pointments to  the  higher  posts  are  generally 
of  persons  who  have  served  and  gained  distinc- 
tion in  legislative  bodies  or  in  the  professions, 
and  although  not  experienced  in  the  arts  of 
diplomacy,  they  are  usually  able  to  cope  with 
their  colleagues  on  all  subjects  where  great 
principles  are  involved.  There  is  a  growing 
sentiment,  however,  in  the  country  in  favor 
of  at  least  placing  the  consular  service  upon 
a  permanent  basis. 

Up  to  recent  years  the  highest  grade  in  the 
diplomatic  service  of  the  United  States  has  been 
that  of  minister  plenipotentiary,  but  these  rep- 
resentatives sometimes  complained  that  they 
were  often  humiliated  and  their  usefulness  some- 
times impaired  by  the  lower  positions  to  which 
they  were  assigned  in  the  diplomatic  corps. 
The  remedy  suggested  was  to  raise  the  rank  to 
that  of  ambassador.  Secretary  Marcy  declined 
to  make  the  recommendation  to  Congress  in 
1856.  A  similar  position  was  taken  by  Secre- 
tary Frelinghuysen  in  1884,  who  said  it  would 
be  an  injustice  to  the  ministers  to  give  them 
higher  rank  without  increasing  their  salaries, 
and  that  Congress  would  not  vote  the  allow- 
ance commensurate  with  the  mode  of  life  of 
an  ambassador.  Later  Secretary  Bayard  claimed 
that  serious  inconveniences  would  arise  from 
introducing  "into  our  simple  social  democracy 
.  .  .  an  extraordinarily  foreign  privileged 
class." 

Notwithstanding  these  objections,  in  1893 
Congress  authorized  the  appointments  of  am- 
bassadors to  countries  whose  governments 
would  reciprocate  in  such  grade,  and  ambassa- 
dors are  now  sent  by  the  United  States  to 
London,  Paris,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  Vienna, 
Rome,  and  Mexico.  Soon  after  the  reception 
of  ambassadors  in  Washington  the  question  was 
raised  whether  they  should  have  precedence  over 


AMERICAN  DIPLOMACY 


the  Vice-President,  but  it  has  been  decided 
against  them.  The  "inconveniences"  anticipated 
by  Secretary  Bayard  have  been  experienced 
on  more  than  one  occasion,  but  the  innovation 
seems  to  be  permanently  established. 

The  fiction  of  international  law  that  ambas- 
sadors represent  the  person  of  their  sovereign 
in  a  greater  degree  than  ministers  was  created 
at  an  epoch  when  there  was  a  recognized  dis- 
tinction between  empires  and  monarchies,  and 
between  these  two  grades  and  republics.  All 
distinction  between  sovereign  nations  has  been 
abolished,  and  they  now  stand  on  an  equality, 
but  the  ambassadorial  pre-eminence  is  still  rec- 
ognized, even  in  the  American  democracies. 

The  diplomatic  dress  or  uniform  of  an  Amer- 
ican representative,  although  an  apparently  trivial 
matter,  has  occasioned  considerable  discussion 
and  a  varied  action  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment. In  the  early  years  of  its  history,  the 
diplomatic  representative  was  left  without  any 
instruction  upon  the  subject,  but  when  the 
commissioners  to  negotiate  peace  with  Great 
Britain  in  1814  went  to  Europe  a  simple  uni- 
form was  adopted,  and  by  a  circular  of  the 
department  of  state  in  1817  this  uniform  was 
prescribed  for  the  diplomatic  representatives 
at  foreign  courts.  This  order  continued  in 
force,  with  some  modification  during  the  admin- 
istration of  Jackson,  up  to  the  advent  of  Secre- 
tary Marcy,  who  prided  himself  on  his  attach- 
ment to  republican  simplicity.  In  1853  he  issued 
a  circular  which  became  famous  in  diplo- 
matic annals,  in  which  the  representatives  of 
the  United  States  were  advised  to  appear  on 
public  occasions  "in  the  simple  dress  of  an 
American  citizen"  unless  such  costume  was  ob- 
jected to  by  the  court  to  which  the  represent- 
ative was  accredited.  The  circular  was  much 
criticised,  but  its  spirit  was  practically  approved 
by  Congress  in  the  passage  of  an  act  in  1867 
prohibiting  officials  in  the  diplomatic  sen-ice 
from  wearing  any  uniform  or  official  costume 
not  previously  authorized  by  Congress.  As  by 
law  only  officers  who  have  served  in  the  army 
or  navy  are  authorized  to  wear  a  uniform  in 
the  diplomatic  service,  the  great  body  of  the 
corps  come  under  this  prohibition. 

From  the  time  of  Dr.  Franklin,  the  first  min- 
ister to  France,  American  diplomatic  represent- 
atives have  sought  to  be  distinguished  by  en- 
tire frankness  and  straightforward  conduct. 
This  is  indicated  in  the  instruction  to  John 
Jay  when  he  was  sent  abroad  on  an  important 
mission  by  President  Washington.  The  secre- 
tary of  state  wrote:  "It  is  the  President's  wish 
that  the  characteristics  of  an  American  minister 
should  be  marked  on  the  one  hand  by  a  firm- 
ness against  improper  compliances,  and  on  the 
other  by  sincerity,  candor,  and  prudence,  and 
by  a  horror  of  finesse  and  chicanery." 

Much  is  said  in  disparagement  of  the  Amer- 
ican diplomatic  representatives  abroad,  and  it  is 
not  to  be  disguised  that  under  the  system  of 
appointments  some  unfit  and  uncultured  persons 
have  been  found  in  the  service  who  have  re- 
flected little  credit  on  the  country.  But  their 
discreditable  acts  have  been  out-done  by  the 
misconduct  of  the  representatives  of  foreign 
governments  accredited  to  Washington.  This 
misconduct  has  embraced  flagrant  violations  of 
international  law  and  practice,  intermeddling 
with  domestic  politics,  and  official  and  social 
improprieties  of  various  kinds.     Within  the  first 


century  after  the  organization  of  the  govern- 
ment, a  list  has  been  created  of  foreign  diplo- 
mats dismissed  by  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  or  recalled  in  disgrace,  which  embraces 
three  British  ministers,  two  French,  two  Span- 
ish, one  Russian,  and  one  Austrian  minister. 
No  such  record  of  dishonor  can  be  compiled 
against  American  representatives  as  that  made 
at  the  seat  of  government  of  the  United  States 
by  the  representatives  of  the  most  polished  na- 
tions of  »he  Old  World. 

The  War  of  1812,  undertaken  by  the  United 
States  against  Great  Britain,  was  pre-eminently 
a  struggle  on  the  part  of  the  former  to  main- 
tain and  enforce  correct  principles  of  interna- 
tional law.  It  involved  the  claim  by  Great 
Britain  of  the  right  of  visitation  of  neutral 
vessels  and  the  impressment  of  such  of  their 
crews  as  the  visiting  party  saw  fit ;  the  doctrine 
that  free  ships  make  free  goods,  or  the  exemp- 
tion of  innocent  neutral  commerce  from  seizure 
in  time  of  war ;  and  the  paper  blockades  which 
were  sought  to  be  enforced  by  the  warring 
powers.  None  of  these  questions  were  settled 
by  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  But  the  con- 
tention of  the  United  States  as  to  all  of  them 
has  come  to  be  accepted  by  all  the  nations  of 
the  world,  and  by  none  of  them  more  heartily 
than  by  Great  Britain.  The  right  of  visitation 
and  search  of  vessels  was  a  frequent  subject  of 
negotiations,  but  while  the  British  government 
relaxed  the  enforcement  of  its  alleged  right 
after  the  war,  its  claim  was  not  finally  aban- 
doned until  1858,  when  it  formally  accepted  the 
contention  of  the  United  States.  A  strange 
incident  in  connection  with  this  question  oc- 
curred soon  after  that  date.  During  the  Civil 
War,  the  commander  of  a  United  States  naval 
vessel  arrested  a  British  mail  steamer,  the  Trent, 
on  the  high  sea,  visited  her  with  an  armed 
force,  and  carried  away  as  prisoners  two  Con- 
federate diplomatic  agents  en  route  to  Europe. 
In  the  United  States  the  naval  commander  was 
hailed  as  a  hero,  but  in  England  the  act  was 
regarded  as  an  insult  to  the  British  flag  and  a 
just  cause  of  war.  A  hostile  conflict  was  avoid- 
ed by  the  prompt  surrender  of  the  Confederate 
agents  and  a  disavowal  of  the  act,  as  in  direct 
contradiction  to  the  attitude  of  the  government 
consistently  maintained  from  its  foundation  of 
the  immunity  of  the  vessel  carrying  the  Ameri- 
can flag. 

The  claim  of  the  right  of  impressment  (q.v.) 
was  connected  with  the  subject  of  naturalization 
and  expatriation,  which  has  been  the  occasion 
of  much  diplomatic  correspondence  and  contro- 
versy on  the  part  of  the  United  States  with 
European  powers.  From  the  beginning  of  its 
existence,  the  former  has  encouraged  immigra- 
tion ;  liberal  laws  for  the  naturalization  of  for- 
eigners have  been  passed ;  and  the  right  of 
expatriation  has  been  maintained.  In  this 
branch  of  international  law  this  attitude  has 
had  a  marked  effect  upon  the  practice  of  na- 
tions. One  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  War 
of  1812,  it  has  been  seen,  was  because  of  the 
impressment  of  seamen,  naturalized  citizens  of 
I'.ritish  birth,  taken  from  American  vessels.  The 
old  common  law  doctrine  was  that  no  British 
subject  could  denationalize  himself,  and  that 
he  owed  perpetual  allegiance  to  the  crown  ;  but 
the  persistent  claim  of  the  United  States  was 
finally    recognized    by    Parliament    in    the    nat- 


AMERICAN  DIPLOMACY 


uralization  act  of  1870.  The  doctrine  of  ex- 
patriation is  now  generally  accepted  by  the 
nations,  and  the  L'nited  States  has  succeeded 
in  having  it  embodied  111  many  of  us  treaties. 

The  subject  of  free  ships  was  given  much 
prominence  through  the  armed  neutrality  during 
the  Revolutionary  War.  was  one  of  the  unset- 
tled issues  of  the  War  of  1812,  and  was  finally 
recognized  as  a  principle  to  be  incorporated  into 
the  international  code  by  the  great  powers  of 
Europe,  as  embodied  in  the  Declaration  at  Paris 
of  1856.  This  declaration  consisted  of  four 
rules,  which  were,  briefly  stated,  (1)  the  aboli- 
tion of  privateering:  (2 )  the  exemption  from 
seizure  of  an  enemy's  goods  under  a  neutral 
flag  ;  (3)  .1  like  exemption  of  neutral  goods 
under  an  enemy's  Hag:  and  (4)  that  a  blockade, 
in  order  to  he  valid,  must  be  effective.  All 
of  these  but  the  first  had  been  long  advocated 
by  the  United  States,  and  even  the  first  had 
been  incorporated  in  its  treaty  with  Prussia  of 
1785.  The  latter  was  plainly  in  the  interest 
of  nations  having  a  strong  navy.  Nevertheless, 
the  United  States  was  ready  to  accept  them  all 
as  rules  for  the  government  of  nations,  but  Sec- 
retary Marcy  proposed  to  the  great  powers 
that  they  go  one  step  further  and  declare  that 
private  property  of  belligerents  at  sea  be  exempt 
from  capture.  As  private  property  of  belliger- 
ents on  land  has  been  exempted  by  the  rules 
of  war,  there  would  seem  to  be  no  sufficient  rea- 
son why  the  same  treatment  should  not  be  ap- 
plied to  like  property  at  sea.  President  McKin- 
ley  instructed  the  American  representatives  at 
The  Hague  Conference  of  1899  to  advocate  it, 
but  they  were  not  successful.  President  Roose- 
velt continued  to  urge  upon  the  nations  this 
advanced  measure  to  mitigate  the  ravages  of 
war,  but  it  has  not  yet  been  inserted  in  the 
international  code. 

The  fourth  rule  of  the  Paris  Declaration  was, 
in  effect,  a  formal  recognition  of  one  of  the 
principles  contended  for  in  the  War  of  1812, 
that  there  can  be  no  blockade  by  mere  procla- 
mation. Its  application  bore  heavily  upon  the 
l'nited  States  during  the  Civil  War,  but  it 
consistently  observed  the  principle  by  making 
its  blockade  of  the  southern  ports  effective.  An 
effort  has  been  made  of  late  years  to  establish 
what  is  known  as  a  pacific  blockade,  by  which 
one  or  more  States  seek  to  bring  constraint 
upon  another  State  by  closing  its  ports  without 
a  declaration  of  war.  In  the  case  of  the  block- 
ade of  Crete  by  the  great  powers  of  Europe  in 
1897,  the  Uniled  States  declined  to  concede  the 
right  as  applicable  to  its  commerce ;  and  when  a 
similar  attempt  was  made  in  1902  of  a  pacific 
blockade  of  Venezuelan  ports  by  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  the  objection  of  the  United 
States  to  its  interference  with  American  vessels 
led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  project,  and  to  the 
establishment  of  a   real  war  blockade. 

The  subject  of  neutrality  assumed  an  im- 
portant phase  during  the  War  of  the  Rebel- 
lion, and  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  a 
neutral  state  were  the  occasion  of  a  heated 
controversy  with  the  British  government.  Al- 
though the  latter  had  incorporated  in  its  laws 
the  substantial  provisions  of  the  United  States 
statutes  of  1818,  it  dissented  from  the  position 
asserted  by  the  United  States  as  to  its  duties  in 
the  practical  application  of  its  acts  of  Parliament 
and  the  recognized  principles  of  international 
law.    The  construction  of  Confederate  cruisers 


in  British  ports  and  the  aid  afforded  them  in 
such  ports  was  held  to  be  a  failure  on  the  part 
of  that  government  to  discharge  its  duties  as  a 
neutral  power,  and  for  these  acts  the  United 
States  made  grave  complaint  and  filed  a  large 
claim  for  pecuniary  damages.  Alter  much  dis- 
cussion the  matter  was  submitted  to  the  arbitra- 
tion of  a  tribunal,  which  met  at  Geneva.  (See 
Geneva  Tribunal.)  In  the  treaty  providing 
for  the  arbitration  there  were  inserted  three 
rules  as  to  neutrality  which  were  to  govern  the 
arbitrators  in  their  decision.  These  rules  were 
based  upon  the  American  statute  and  mainly 
followed  the  contention  of  the  United  States. 
The  result  was  a  decision  in  favor  of  the  latter, 
with  a  large  award  in  damages.  The  two  gov- 
ernments had  agreed  in  the  treaty  that  they 
would  submit  the  rules  to  the  other  maritime 
powers  for  their  acceptance,  but  this  was  never 
done,  chiefly  because  of  the  extreme  construc- 
tion placed  upon  some  of  their  clauses  in  the 
opinions  of  the  neutral  arbitrators.  The  gen- 
eral consensus  of  publicists  is  that  these  rules 
are  a  correct  statement  of  existing  international 
law. 

One  of  the  conspicuous  features  of  the  rela- 
tions of  the  United  States  with  foreign  nations 
is  its  readiness  to  accept  arbitration  for  the 
settlement  of  questions  that  do  not  prove  sus- 
ceptible of  adjustment  by  diplomatic  methods. 
It  has  been  one  of  the  foremost  of  the  nations 
in  advocating  this  method  of  arranging  inter- 
national complications,  and  in  preserving  peace 
by  means  of  treaties  of  arbitration.  The  first 
treaty  negotiated  after  the  organization  of  the 
government  under  the  Constitution  —  the  Jay 
Treaty  (q.v.)  of  1794  —  was  made  with  Great 
Britain  to  avert  war  which  was  then  immi- 
nent. It  contained  provisions  for  the  adjust- 
ment of  three  of  the  most  irritating  of  the 
questions  in  controversy  by  a  reference  to  arbi- 
tration, and  three  separate  commissions  were 
created  for  that  purpose.  The  year  following, 
the  second  treaty  negotiated  by  the  new  gov- 
ernment, that  with  Spain  of  179S,  also  contained 
a  provision  for  arbitration.  The  country  was 
not  so  fortunate  in  its  second  controversy  with 
Great  Britain.  The  questions  at  issue  were  of 
such  grave  character  that  it  did  not  seem  pos- 
sible at  that  day  to  settle  them  by  any  other 
method  than  a  resort  to  war;  but  by  the  treaty 
of  peace  of  1814  four  boards  of  arbitration  were 
created  to  settle  boundary  questions.  These  all 
related  to  the  frontier  with  Canada,  which  ever 
since  the  independence  had  been  a  source  of 
almost  constant  discussion,  often  of  angry  con- 
troversy, and  more  than  once  has  brought  the 
countries  to  the  brink  of  war.  But  in  every 
instance  when  the  usual  method  of  diplomacy 
failed,  arbitration  has  been  resorted  to  with  suc- 
cess. 

During  the  two  generations  which  followed 
the  War  of  1812  all  questions  of  controversy 
with  foreign  powers,  with  one  exception,  have 
been  settled  by  peaceful  methods.  In  that  period 
the  United  States  created  many  courts  and  com- 
missions of  arbitration.  The  most  of  these  have 
been  with  Great  Britain,  but  more  than  20  of 
them  have  been  with  other  nations  of  Europe 
and  America.  The  controversy  growing  out  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  British  government 
enforced  the  neutrality  laws  during  the  Civil 
War,  for  a  i'me  threatened  the  peaceful  rela- 
tions of  the  two  countries.     When  the  offer  of 


AMERICAN  ECONOMIC  ASSOCIATION  —  AMERICAN  FARM  IMPLEMENTS 


the  United  States  to  adjust  the  question  by  arbi- 
tration was  made,  the  British  government  in 
the  first  instance  assumed  the  position  that  its 
national  honor  was  involved,  and  that  that 
could  not  be  submitted  to  arbitration.  But  bet- 
ter counsels  prevailed,  and  the  Tribunal  of  Ge- 
neva was  created  to  adjust  the  controversy.  It 
was  the  most  important  arbitration  in  which 
the  United  States  ever  engaged,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  august  and  imposing  ever  held  in  the 
world.  It  involved  questions  of  supreme  impor- 
tance and  pecuniary  claims  of  great  magnitude ; 
but  its  special  significance  was  in  the  spectacle 
of  two  great  nations  being  able  to  compose 
weighty  matters,  which  had  awakened  the  pas- 
sions of  their  people  to  a  high  state  of  bitter- 
ness, by  an  appeal  to  reason  and  the  arbitrament 
of  friendly  powers  in  place  of  war. 

Next  in  importance  for  the  United  States  to 
the  Geneva  arbitration  was  that  relating  to  the 
protection  of  fur  seals  in  Bering  Sea,  held  in 
Paris  in  1893.  The  decision  of  the  tribunal  was 
against  the  contention  of  the  United  States,  and 
as  a  result  it  had  to  pay  about  half  a  million 
of  dollars  in  damages  and  sustained  a  heavy 
loss  in  its  annual  income  from  the  seal  islands. 
Disappointment  was  felt  over  the  result,  but 
the  mature  judgment  of  the  country  is  that  it 
was  a  wiser  settlement  of  the  questions  at  is- 
sue than  to  push  them  to  the  extreme  of  war. 

One  feature  of  the  many  arbitrations  in 
which  the  country  has  engaged  is  worthy  of 
special  notice.  A  spirit  of  equity  and  fair 
dealing  has  alwfays  marked  the  conduct  of  the 
government  in  cases  where  any  suspicion  of 
fraud  or  exaggerated  damages  has  attached  to 
arbitral  decisions.  The  commissions  with  Ven- 
ezuela, Haiti,  Mexico,  and  other  countries  might 
be  cited  in  illustration.  They  show  that,  though 
the  government  is  sometimes  misled  by  design- 
ing claimants  or  by  the  unwise  action  of  its 
diplomatic  agents,  it  has  not  hesitated  when  fully 
possessed  of  the  facts  to  undo  any  injuries  in- 
flicted upon  friendly  powers  by  means  of  in- 
ternational commissions,  and  that  fraud,  once 
exposed,  cannot  reap  the  benefit  of  its  iniquity 
under  the  cover  of  the  finality  of  an  award. 

The  Alaskan  Boundary  Tribunal  of  1903  is 
an  instance  of  the  settlement  of  a  question  not 
possible  of  adjustment  by  diplomacy  and  not 
deemed  appropriate-  for  reference  to  arbitra- 
tion. A  court  was  constituted,  composed  of 
three  members  from  each  country,  and  they  were 
empowered  to  judicially  settle  the  questions  sub- 
mitted to  them.  The  danger  feared  was  that 
there  would  be  an  equal  division  of  the  court. 
but  in  this  case  the  matter  was  settled  by  an 
award  rendered  by  a  majority  of  the  members 
which  has  been  accepted  by  both  governments. 

This  brief  review  shows  that  in  its  short 
career  the  United  States  has  had  an  important 
part  in  molding  the  code  of  international  law. 
The  chief  actors  in  the  work  done  by  this 
country  have  been  the  secretaries  of  state  and 
its  diplomatic  representatives  abroad.  But  they 
have  had  worthy  coadjutors  in  giving  this  code 
shape  and  permanence.  The  exposition  of  the 
law  of  nations,  as  set  forth  in  the  decisions 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States, 
has  had  a  great  influence  in  molding  that  law. 
and  its  opinions  are  recognized  as  of  the  high- 
est authority  by  foreign  publicists.  Among  au- 
thors   in    this    department    of    law    none    carry- 


greater  w-eight  throughout  the  world  than  Story, 
Kent,  Wheaton,  Halleck,  Woolsey,  Wharton, 
and  other  American  writers.  When  the  services 
are  recalled  of  these  diplomatic,  judicial,  and 
scholastic  representatives  of  the  United  States, 
it  is  just  to  say  that  no  body  of  men  in  any 
country  have  done  as  much  to  improve  and  en- 
large the  principles  of  international  law.  or 
have  exercised  a  more  salutary  influence  on  the 
affairs  of  the  globe.  See  also  Diplomacy;  In- 
ternational Law;  United  States  —  the  Di- 
plomacy of.  j0hn   \V.   Foster. 

American  Economic  Association,  a  society 
organized  in  1885  for  promoting  free  discussion 
of  economic  questions  and  the  publication  of 
monographs.  Membership  1,000.  Office  of  the 
secretary,   Ithaca,   N.   V. 

American  Electro-Therapeutic  Associa- 
tion, a  society  formed  in  1892  for  the  promo- 
tion of  knowledge  in  whatever  relates  to  the  ap- 
plication of  electricity  in  medicine  and  surgery. 
Membership  200.  Office  of  the  secretary,  New 
Haven,  Conn. 

American  Embargo.      See   Embargo. 

American  Entomological  Society,  an  asso- 
ciation established  in  1859  for  scientific  investi- 
gation of  insect  life.  Membership  125.  Office 
of  the  secretary,   Philadelphia,   Pa. 

American  Farm  Implements.  The  pro- 
duction of  food  and  fibre  absorbs  about  three 
fourths  of  the  labor  of  the  male  workers  of  the 
world.  In  the  United  States,  during  the  early 
decades  of  the  19th  century,  about  80  per  cent 
of  the  male  workers  of  the  nation  were  em- 
ployed on  the  farm.  During  the  past  century, 
however,  farm  implements  and  machines  have 
come  into  use  which  have  so  increased  the 
efficiency  of  labor  that  about  35  per  cent  of  the 
male  workers  of  the  United  States  produce 
the  food  and  fibre  of  the  nation,  and  furnish  an 
enormous  surplus  which  is  exported  to  other 
countries.  Nowhere  else  in  the  history  of  hu- 
man industry  can  so  striking  an  illustration  be 
found  of  the  influence  of  inventions  upon  the 
welfare  of  mankind.  From  time  immemorial, 
until  the  19th  century,  agriculture  was  carried 
on  by  hand  labor.  Horses  or  oxen  were  used 
for  plowing  and  harrowing,  but  the  labor  of 
seeding,  planting,  cultivating  and  harvesting  the 
crops  was  performed  by  the  exertion  of  human 
muscle.  Wheat  was  sown  broadcast  by  hand, 
reaped  by  hand  with  a  sickle,  and  separated 
from  the  straw  and  chaff  by  hand  labor.  Corn 
was  planted  by  hand  with  a  hoe,  and  cultivated 
with  a  hoe,  and  was  gathered  and  shelled  by 
hand.  Grass  was  cut  with  a  scythe  and  raked 
and  handled  with  hand  rakes  and  forks.  Pro- 
duction was  so  limited  by  these  primitive  meth- 
ods that  people  who  wished,  like  the  pioneers 
of  America,  to  enjoy  an  abundance  of  food  and 
other  simple  comforts  of  life,  were  compelled, 
of  necessity,  to  live  on  the  farm,  where  they 
could  be  assured,  by  their  own  efforts,  of  a 
proper  supply.  The  farmer  was  unable  to  pro- 
duce a  surplus  that  would  feed  a  large  urban 
population.  Manufacturing  industries  were  not 
only  limited  by  the  lack  of  food  to  sustain  cities, 
but  were  also  limited  by  the  lack  of  a  market 
for  factory  products,  for  an  agricultural  country 
which  could  not  produce  a  surplus  for  sale  was 
unable  to  buy  the  products  of  urban  industries. 


AMERICAN  FARM   IMPLEMENTS 


The  farmer  of  the  North  lived  in  a  log  cabin, 
wore  homespun,  and  sent  his  children  to  a  log 
schoolhouse.  The  only  section  where  agriculture 
was  conducted  on  a  commercial  basis  was  the 
South,  where  the  planters  profited  by  -lave  labor. 
It  is  generally  assumed  thai  the  railroads 
brought  prosperity  to  the  people,  by  affording 
the    pioneer    fanner    the    means    to    market    his 

products.  Government  statistics  throw  an  in- 
teresting light  on  this  subject.  Railroad  con- 
struction  in  the  United  States  began  in  1828,  and 
continued  at  the  average  rate  of  about  300  miles 
per  year  until  1X40.  For  a  few  years  the  com- 
merce of  the  country  made  substantial  growth, 
but  tlie  period  from  [837  to  1846  was  one  of 
great  depression,  which  the  railroads  were  unable 
to  relieve.  Bank  resources,  which  showed  but 
little  loss  in  the  year  following  the  panic  of 
[837,  shrunk  to  a  remarkable  degree  from  1840 
to  1843,  tin  only  period  in  the  past  seventy  years 
when  there  was  a  serious  loss  in  bank  capital. 
The  railroads  did  not  stimulate  the  production 
of  wheat  during  this  period,  for  a  large  amount 
was  imported  from  Europe  in  1837,  and  the 
census  reports  show  that  the  crop  of  1839 
amounted  to  only  4.97  bushels  per  capita,  which 
was  not  enough  to  supply  the  people  with 
wheaten  bread.  From  1800  to  1846  exports  of 
Hour  amounted  to  an  average  of  about  a  million 
barrels  per  year,  and  showed  no  material  in- 
crease, while  exports  of  wheat  were  actually  less 
from  1830  to  1840  than  in  the  first  decade  of  the 
century. 

If  the  tirst  15  years  of  the  railroad  be  com- 
pared with  the  first  15  years  of  the  reaper,  a 
most  remarkable  contrast  is  found.  The  reaper 
was  first  placed  on  the  market  successfully  for 
the  harvest  of  1845.  In  1847  exports  of  wheat 
and  flour  leaped  to  $32,178, 161,  about  five  times 
the  average  of  the  preceding  forty  years,  and 
grew  rapidly  from  1850  to  i860.  The  wheat 
crop,  which  had  not  increased  as  rapidly  as 
population  from  1839  to  1849,  gained  more  than 
70  per  cent  from  1849  to  1859,  the  largest  in- 
crease that  is  shown  in  any  census  decatle.  In 
1880.  after  35  years  of  the  reaper,  exports  of 
wheat  and  flour  amounted,  in  one  year,  to 
$225,879,502.  Prior  to  1850  corn  was  used  ex- 
tensively for  bread,  because  the  supply  of  wheat 
was  deficient,  hut  since  1850  the  L'nitcd  States 
has  produced  for  exportation  a  surplus  of  about 
five  billions  of  bushels  of  wheat.  Railroad  con- 
struction, which  had  averaged  only  300  miles 
per  year  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  reaper, 
made  remarkable  gains  in  1847  and  1849,  and 
progressed  at  the  rate  of  about  2,000  miles  per 
year  from   1 850  to  i860. 

A  broad  examination  of  the  subject  shows 
that  railroad  construction  and  agricultural  in- 
ventions have  gone  hand  in  hand  in  the  develop- 
ment of  agriculture  in  America.  Railroads 
could  not  be  operated  profitably  in  the  agricul- 
tural States  without  the  traffic  that  is  produced 
for  them  by  labor-saving  inventions  on  the  farm: 
and.  on  the  other  hand,  there  would  be  little 
demand  for  these  inventions  if  the  railroads 
were  not  available  to  market  large  commercial 
crops.  The  fanner  of  a  century  ago.  without 
these  inventions  and  the  railroads,  was  a  peasant 
who  toiled  with  his  hands  to  produce  a  living 
for  his  family.  The  farmer  of  to-day  is  a  ma- 
chine operator  who  rides  on  a  comfortable  spring 
seat  and  uses  labor-saving  inventions  to  produce 


commercial  crops.  American  inventions  have 
made  agriculture  a  commercial  business  in  which 
a  man,  without  employing  help,  can  support  a 
family  comfortably  ami  produce  wealth.     Amen 

can  farmers  enjoj  a  greater  average  of  comfort 

and    wealth    than    any    other    class    of    people,    of 

equal  numbers,  in  the  world. 

The    reaper,    invented    in     1X31    by    Cyrus    II 
McCormick    (q.v.),  of  Rockbridge  County,  Va„ 

and  patented  by  him  in  [834,  was  the  first  im- 
portant step  in  developing  the  implements  and 
machines  of  modern  agriculture,  Wheat  niu-t 
be  harvested  within  a  few  days  after  it  ripens, 
or  the  crop  will  be  damaged  or  destroyed  by  the 
weather.  When  wheat  was  cut  with  sickles  a 
man  could  only  harvest  three  to  five  acres,  in 
an  average  season,  and  this  limitation  accounts 
for  the  small  production  of  wheal  prior  to  the 
introduction  of  the  reaper,  which  broadened 
production  by  enabling  a  given  number  of  men 
to  harvest  a  larger  acreage.  Tin-  McCormick 
reaper  of  1X31  was  used  successfully  for  several 
seasons,  hut  the  facilities  for  manufacturing  a 
complex  machine  like  a  reaper  were  s(,  limited 
at  that  time  that  it  was  not  until  1X45  that  the 
invention  was  made  a  commercial  success.  The 
McCormick  reaper  embodied  the  foundation 
principles  of  modern  harvesting  machines.  I  he 
machine  was  balanced  on  two  wheels,  like  a 
cart,  one,  the  master  wheel,  being  geared  to 
furnish  power  for  the  mechanism.  The  plat 
form  extended  between  the  two  wheels,  and  on 
its  front  edge  was  the  cutting  mechanism,  a 
reciprocating  knife,  operated  by  a  crank,  and 
moving  over  fixed  fingers.  The  most  notable 
feature  of  the  McCormick  reaper  was  the  divider 
and  the  revolving  reel,  which  separated  the  grain 
to  be  cut  from  the  standing  grain,  and  laid  the 
flowing  Swath,  by  a  positive  delivery,  on  the 
platform,  so  that  the  straws  would  lie  in  parallel 
order  and  make  a  compact  sheaf  when  bound. 
It  was  the  reel  and  the  divider  that  made  the 
McCormick  invention  a  commercial  success,  be- 
cause grain  in  all  the  ordinary  conditions  of  har- 
vest could  be  handled  successfully.  The  great- 
est problem  in  reaping  is  not  to  cut  the  grain, 
but  to  make  it  lie  down  peaceably  on  the 
platform  after  it  is  cut,  especially  since  a  large 
proportion  of  the  wdieat  crop  becomes  more  or 
less  lodged  and  blown  down  by  winds  and  rains 
before  it  is  cut.  A  score  or  more  of  inventors 
had  anticipated  McCormick  in  efforts  to  design 
or  construct  reapers,  but  while  some  of  them 
had  machines  that  would  cut  the  grain,  they  had 
no  practical  devices  for  delivering  it  in  gavels 
so  it  could  be  bound  into  sheaves.  Robert  Mc- 
Cormick, the  father  of  Cyrus  H.,  made  a  ma- 
chine in  1816  with  a  revolving  scythe,  and  in  the 
papers  of  Thomas  Jefferson  is  found  a  copy  of 
a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  an  inventor,  com- 
menting on  the  design  of  a  machine  of  the  same 
character.  None  of  these  numerous  designs  of 
American  and  English  inventors  proved  prac- 
tical, and  it  remained  for  Cyrus  II,  McCormick, 
who  inherited  the  problem  from  his  father,  to 
bring  together  the  four  essential  elements  of 
modern  harvesters:  the  reel,  the  divider,  the 
reciprocating  knife  and  the  platform.  A  few 
years  after  the  reaper  was  made  a  commercial 
success,  the  self-raking  attachment  took  tin- 
place  of  the  man  who  had  raked  off  the  gavels 
by  hand.  In  [858  C  \Y  and  W.  W.  Marsh,  of 
Illinois,  patented  a   notable  improvement  which 


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AMERICAN  FARM  IMPLEMENTS 


led   the    way    to    the   modern    binder.     In    their 
machine  endless  toothed  belts  carried  the  grain 
from  the  platform  over  the  master  wheel,  and 
deposited    it    in    a    receptacle.     Two   men    stood 
on  a  footboard  or  platform  outside  the  master 
wheel,  and,   taking  gavels  alternately   from   the 
receptacle,  bound  the  sheaves  on  tables  attached 
to  the  machine.     In  1873  the  first  automatic  sheaf 
binding  harvester,  the  invention  of  Sylvanus  D. 
Locke,   was   placed   on   the   market,  and   a   year 
or  two  later  other  machines  of  the  same   type, 
using  wire  to  bind  the  sheaves,  were  successfully 
introduced.     About  the  time  the  wire  binder  had 
become  settled  on  the  market,  a  new  invention, 
the  twine  binding  mechanism,  upset  all  the  calcu- 
lations of  harvesting  machine  manufacturers,  as 
the  farmers  preferred  twine  to  wire,  which  be- 
came scattered  over  the  fields  from  the  threshed 
straw  and  proved  a  nuisance.     The  foundation 
patents   on   the   twine  binding   mechanism   were 
issued  in  1875  to  Marquis  L.  Gorham,  of  Rock- 
ford,    111.     After    he    had    tested    his    invention 
in  the  field,  but  before  he  had  perfected  it   for 
the  market,   death  cut   short  his  career,  and   it 
remained  for  John  F.  Appleby,  of  Beloit,  Wis., 
to  complete  the  development  of  the  twine  binder. 
More   than   twenty  manufacturers  took  licenses 
under    the    Gorham    and    Appleby    patents,    and 
twine  binders  were  placed  on  the  market  in  1880, 
since    which    time    the    business    has    grown    to 
large  proportions.     Fully  a  million  binders  are  in 
use  on  American  farms,  and  a  large  export  busi- 
ness has  grown  up.     Through  the  use  of  Amer- 
ican   harvesting    machines,    Russia,    the    Argen- 
tine and  Australia  have  become  large  exporters 
of  wheat,  and  single  cargoes  of  American  ma- 
chines, which  are  shipped  to  European  countries, 
contain  more  machines  than  the  entire  output  of 
any  European  manufacturer  in  this  line. 

In  any  humid  climate  it  is  necessary  to  bind 
the  wheat  in  sheaves  and  let  the  straw  and  grain 
dry  out  in  the  shock  before  threshing,  but  in 
many  of  the  western  States  the  harvest  season  is 
dry,  so  that  a  more  economical  method  can  be 
followed.  In  western  Kansas  and  Nebraska, 
and  other  States  farther  west,  headers  are  used 
successfully.  The  header  is  a  wide  cut  machine, 
usually  taking  twice  as  wide  a  swath  as  a  binder, 
and  cutting  just  below  the  heads,  which  are 
elevated  into  a  wagon  and  hauled  to  stacks  or 
ricks  to  await  the  thresher.  In  California, 
Oregon  and  Washington  the  combined  harvester 
carries  a  threshing  attachment,  which  is  operated 
by  the  traction  wheel,  so  that  a  wide  swath  is 
cut  and  threshed  and  delivered  in  bags  as  the 
machine  is  drawn  across  the  field  by  horses  or  a 
traction  engine.  The  combined  harvester,  how- 
ever, can  only  be  used  where  the  harvest  season 
is  very  dry,  and  where  the  straw  grows  stiff, 
so  that  the  wheat  can  stand  until  it  is  dry  enough 
to  thresh. 

The  mowing  machine,  the  corn  planter  and 
the  two-horse  corn  cultivator,  distinctively 
American  inventions,  have  served  the  same  pur- 
pose in  promoting  the  production  of  meat  in 
the  United  States  as  the  reaper  in  promoting 
wheat  growing.  Farmers  were  not  able  to  pro- 
duce live  stock  and  dairy  products  on  a  large 
commercial  scale  until  they  had  been  provided 
with  labor-saving  inventions  for  the  cheap  pro- 
duction of  hay  and  corn.  Obed  Hussey  was  the 
inventor  of  the  foundation  features  of  the  mow- 
ing machine,  but  his  work  was  not  completed 

Vol.  1 — 24 


until    the   hinged  or   floating  bar  had   been   in- 
vented  by   Lewis   Miller.     Hussey's   first  patent 
was  taken  out  in  1833  on  a  reaper  which  he  had 
made  near  Cincinnati,  Ohio,   that   year.     Owing 
to   the   fact  that  he   obtained   his  patent  on   an 
improvement  in  reaping  machines,  and  the  fur- 
ther fact  that  it  was  issued  a  few  months  before 
tlie  first  McCormick  patent  on  the  reaper,  many 
writers  have  given  to  Hussey  the  credit  for  the 
invention    of    the    reaper.     The    two    machines, 
however,  were  essentially  different.     The  Hussey 
machine  had  no  reel  or  divider,  and  while  the 
cutting  mechanism  worked  well,  it  was  never  a 
commercial  success  as  a  reaper,  because  it  could 
only  be  used  when  the  wheat  stood  up  straight. 
The    McCormick   reaper   was   balanced   on   two 
wheels,  like  all  modern  harvesters.     The  Hussey 
machine  had  four  wheels,  two  in  the  same  posi- 
tion  as   the   wheels   of   a   modern   mower,   and 
besides  these   a  grain   wheel,   at   the  grainward 
end  of  the  platform,  and  a  castor  wheel  at  the 
rear.     Dropping  the  two  superfluous  wheels  and 
the  platform,  the  machine  embodied  the  founda- 
tion   features    of    a    mower.     In    1847    Hussey 
patented,   as    an    improvement   on    his   machine, 
the   open    back   guard   or   finger,    which   proved 
a  vital  feature  of  successful  mowing  machines. 
1  he  upper  part  of  the  finger,  through  which  the 
knife  moved,  was  cut  away  at  the  rear,  so  that 
grass  and  trash  which  were  drawn  into  the  slot 
by  the  knife  were  swept  away  to  the  rear  by  the 
pressure    of    the    grass    passing    over    the    bar. 
Curiously    enough,     Hussey    never    made    any 
serious  effort  to  develop  his  machine  as  a  mower. 
He  believed  all  his  life  that  he  was  the  inventor 
of    the    reaper,    and    for    twenty-five    years    he 
worked  incessantly  but  unsuccessfully  to  estab- 
lish his  machine  on  the  market  as  a  reaper.     The 
only  financial  reward  that  he  ever  reaped,  how- 
ever,   was   in    1858,   near   the  close   of  his   life, 
when  a  syndicate  of  mowing  machine  manufac- 
turers, who   were  operating  under  license  from 
him,  paid  him  $200,000  for  his  patents.     A  few 
years   before,    he   had    made   application    to   the 
Court  of  Claims  at  Washington   for  a  financial 
reward  from  Congress  for  his  inventions,  stating 
that  he  was  not  worth  at  that  time  more  than 
$500   above    his    liabilities.     He    worked    all    his 
life,  the  greater  part  of  the  time  in  poverty,  in 
efforts  to  establish  his  invention  as  a  reaper,  and 
did  not  know  that  his  patents  covered  the  foun- 
dation features  of  the  mower,  a  machine  second 
only  to  the  reaper  in  its  importance  to  agricul- 
ture.    It  remained  for  practical  licensees  under 
his  patents  to  recognize  their  value  and  pay  him 
for   them   a  price   far   in   excess   of  the   reward 
that  he  had  hoped  to  obtain  from  Congress.     In 
1856  and  1858  the  most  important  patents  on  the 
hinged    or    floating   bar    were    issued    to    Lewis 
Miller,  of  Canton,  Ohio,  who  was  identified  with 
the    leading  firm   in    the    syndicate   that   bought 
the    Hussey   patents.     Miller's    improvement    al- 
lowed  the  bar  to  float  freely  over  the  ground, 
and  to  rise  or  fall  at  either  end  so  as  to  conform 
with  the  inequalities  of  the  surface. 

While  the  mower  was  the  most  important 
hay-making  invention,  because  it  enabled  the 
farmer  to  harvest  a  larger  acreage  of  hav,  manv 
other  inventions  have  been  of  vast  service  in 
promoting  the  cheap  production  of  forage.  Steel 
sulky  rakes  made  short  work  of  gathering  the 
hay  into  windrows,  and  the  hav  tedder,  which  is 
used  after  the  mower  to  shake  up  the  hav  so  it 


AMERICAN  FARM   IMPLEMENTS 


will  dry  quickly,  makes   il   possible  to  put  the 

hay  in  the  barn  or  stack  within  a  few  hours  after 
it  i-  cut     Hay  loaders  are  now  used  extensively, 

taking  the  hay  from  the  swath  or  windrow  and 
loading  it  on  the  wagon.  Barns  are  equipped 
with  hay  carriers  and  forks,  operated  by  a  horse, 
which  take  the  hay  from  the  wagon  and  save  the 
hard  labor  of  pitching  it  by  hand.  The  same 
equipment  is  also  used  for  stacking  in  the  field. 
On  western  ranches,  very  wide  sweep  rakes  are 
used  to  gather  the  hay  and  drag  it  up  to  the 
stack,  where  a  stacker,  operated  by  a  horse,  ele- 
vates it  from  the  ground  to  the  stack. 

Xext  to  harvesting  machines,  the  threshing 
machine  is  undoubtedly  the  most  important  fea- 
ture of  the  mechanical  equipment  of  modern 
agriculture.  Early  in  the  19th  century  the 
'ground  hog"  thresher  came  into  use.  This 
was  a  -imple  machine,  operated  by  a  tread  power, 
threshing  with  a  spiked  cylinder  which  revolved 
over  a  spiked  concave.  It  had  no  mechanism  for 
cleaning  the  grain.  The  straw  was  forked  or 
raked  away  from  the  tail  of  the  machine  by  hand, 
and  the  pile  of  chaff  and  grain  was  afterwards 
cleaned  by  running  it  through  a  hand  fanning 
mill.  These  machines,  however,  found  but  little 
use  so  long  as  the  crop  was  limited  to  the 
amount  that  a  man  could  reap  with  a  sickle. 
as  the  farmer  could  store  his  small  crop  in  the 
barn  and  thresh  it  out  in  winter,  either  with 
horses  on  the  barn  floor,  or  with  the  Rail,  a 
long,  jointed  club.  The  first  English  separator, 
combining  a  threshing  cylinder  with  fanning  and 
screening  devices,  was  made  in  1800,  but  this 
was  a  stationary  machine,  like  many  other  in- 
ventions of  that  period,  designed  to  be  set  up 
in  a  mill,  to  which  the  grain  must  be  brought. 
Hiram  A.  and  John  A.  Pitts,  of  Winthrop, 
Maine,  were  the  inventors  of  the  first  portable 
threshing  machine  with  cleaning  devices.  They 
were  engaged  in  making  horse  powers  for  oper- 
ating "ground  hog"  threshers,  and  in  1837  they 
patented  a  machine  which  combined  the  threshing 
cylinder  with  an  endless  belt  and  beaters,  which 
separated  the  grain  from  the  straw  and  chaff. 
George  Westinghouse  (q.v.),  the  father  of  the 
inventor  of  the  air  brake,  began  making  thresh- 
ing machines  at  Fonda,  N.  Y.,  about  1840.  later 
removing  to  Schenectady,  and  he  patented  a 
number  of  practical  improvements  in  separating 
and  cleaning  devices.  After  1850.  when  farmers 
began  to  raise  wheat  for  market,  a  large  number 
of  inventors  and  manufacturers  of  threshing 
machines  entered  the  field,  and  machines  of  the 
endless  apron  or  grain  belt  type  soon  came  into 
general  use.  Soon  after  the  Civil  War.  however, 
these  machines  gave  way  to  the  "vibrator"  type 
of  separator.  The  endless  apron  or  grain  belt, 
in  spite  of  all  the  beaters  and  shaking  attach- 
ments that  were  used  with  it,  allowed  a  little 
grain  to  go  through  with  the  straw  and  be 
wasted.  Cyrus  Roberts,  of  Belleville.  111.,  pat- 
ented in  1852  and  1856  the  chief  features  of  the 
modern  separating  mechanism,  which  consist-  of 
a  series  of  vibrating  rakes  over  which  the  straw 
passes  from  the  cylinder.  The  most  notable  im- 
provement of  recent  years  is  the  "wind  stacker  " 
The  tail  of  the  machine  is  closed,  and  the  straw 
is  blown  by  a  revolving  fan  through  a  large 
steel  pipe.  This  invention  saves  the  labor  of  all 
the  men  who  were  formerly  needed  on  the  straw- 
stack.  Automatic  band  cutting  and  feeding  at- 
tachments, and  automatic   grain  weighers,  have 


also  come  into  general  use.  The  horse  power 
was  succeeded  in  the  decade  following  the  CivD 

War  by  the  portable  engine,  and  this  in  turn 
by  the  traction  engine,  which,  for  countries 
where  coal  is  scarce,  is  fitted  to  burn  straw. 

The  grain  drill  was  one  of  the  latest  of 
modem  implements  to  come  into  general  use,  as 
the  farmers  found  it  more  economical,  until  well 
past  the  middle  of  the  century,  to  sow  their 
wheat  broadcast  by  hand.  English  inventor- 
began  patenting  grain  drills  in  the  18th  century, 
and  many  American  patents  were  issued  prior 
to  1X50,  but  the  grain  drill  did  not  become  a 
practical  implement  until  it  was  provided  with 
a  force  feed,  which  would  regulate  exactly  the 
amount  -own.  The  lir-t  patent  on  a  practical 
force  feed  was  issued  in  1851  to  Foster,  Jessup 
&  Brown,  of  Palmyra,  X.  Y.  ;  but  it  was  not 
until  farmers  began  sowing  commercial  fertiliz- 
ers that  drills  replaced  broadcast  seeding  in  the 
East.  In  the  West,  the  "hoe"  or  pointed  tube 
of  the  early  types  of  grain  drills  could  not  be 
used  successfully  in  prairie  soil,  and  the  farmers 
sowed  their  grain  by  hand,  or  used  simple 
broadcast  seeders,  until  the  drill  manufacturers 
had  borrowed  the  shoe  from  the  corn  planter. 
In  late  years  disc  drills  have  become  popular. 

The  first  patent  on  a  practical  corn  planter 
was  issued  in  1853  to  George  VV.  Brown,  of 
Illinois.  This  implement  was  not,  as  many 
writers  have  supposed,  an  adaptation  of  the  grain 
drill.  The  function  of  the  grain  drill  is  to 
spread  the  seed  as  much  as  possible,  so  the  crop 
will  cover  the  ground  and  prevent  the  growth 
of  weeds.  Corn,  however,  does  not  thrive  unless 
each  hill  has  at  least  a  square  yard  of  clear, 
cultivated  soil  around  it,  and  hence  corn  is 
planted  in  hills,  and  the  hills  are  placed  in  check, 
so  they  can  be  cultivated  both  ways.  The  Brown 
invention  planted  two  rows.  It  was  operated  bj 
two  men,  or  a  man  and  a  boy,  one  of  whom 
drove  while  the  other  sat  in  front  and  operated 
the  dropping  lever.  It  was  customary,  before  the 
introduction  of  the  check  rower,  to  mark  the 
field  by  driving  across  it  with  a  sled  which  had 
two  or  more  runners,  making  marks  at  the 
proper  distance  apart  for  the  hills.  The  planter 
was  then  driven  at  right  angles  across  the 
marks,  and  the  operator  of  the  dropping  lever 
would  aim  to  drop  the  hills  even  with  the  marks, 
so  they  would  be  in  alignment  across  the  field, 
as  well  as  in  the  rows  following  the  planter. 
The  check  rower,  which  was  invented  and  intro- 
duced by  George  D.  Haworth,  of  Illinois,  as  an 
improvement  on  the  planter,  operated  the  drop- 
ping mechanism  automatically.  A  wire  is 
stretched  across  the  field,  anchored  at  each  end, 
and  as  the  planter  is  driven  forward  the  wire 
draw-  through  it,  and  buttons  or  links  at  suit- 
able intervals  operate  the  dropping  device.  The 
Haworths  were  the  practical  inventors  of  this 
device,  and  placed  it  on  the  market,  but  did 
nol  obtain  a  clear  patent  on  it,  as,  technically, 
it  had  been  anticipated  by  a  prior  inventor, 
whose  patent  was  assigned  to  them  and  reissued. 
The  most  ingenious  and  original  feature  of  the 
George  W.  Brown  patents  on  the  corn  planter 
was  the  planting  shoe,  which  was  shaped  like 
a  scimeter,  so  it  would  cut  through  or  rise  over 
any  trash  on  the  surface  of  the  field.  The  seed 
dropped  through  a  channel  in  the  heel  of  the 
shoe,  and  was  covered  by  a  wheel  which  fol- 
lowed. 


I 


AMERICAN  FEDERATION   OF  LABOR 


So  many  inventors  have  contributed  useful 
features  to  the  two-horse  straddle-row  cultivator 
that  it  would  be  difficult  to  name  any  one  who 
is  entitled  to  pre-eminent  credit.  Cultivators 
are  made  in  a  greater  variety  of  forms  and 
styles  than  any  other  implement  in  extensive 
use,  but  the  basic  idea  of  all  modern  cultivators 
is  to  utilize  two  horses  and  straddle  the  row. 
Two  wheels,  with  an  arched  axle,  support  the 
frame  work  and  the  seat  for  the  operator.  The 
cultivating  shovels  or  points  are  attached  to 
two  gangs  or  frames,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
row,  which  swing  freely  and  are  held  in  the 
proper  position  by  the  operator,  by  means  of 
stirrups  in  which  he  holds  his  feet.  Walking 
wheeled  cultivators  are  still  used  to  some  extent, 
but  the  prevailing  demand  is  for  riding  imple- 
ments. 

Harvesting  the  corn  crop  is  a  problem  that 
has  engaged  the  attention  of  American  inventors 
since  1850,  but  it  was  not  until  1895  that  a  prac- 
tical corn  binder  was  placed  on  the  market. 
This  machine  was  patented  in  1892  by  A.  S. 
Peck,  of  Illinois,  but  did  not  prove  practical 
until  many  improvements  had  been  made  by 
inventors  of  the  McCormick  experimental  staff. 
A  binding  attachment,  much  like  the  mechanism 
of  a  grain  binder,  stands  in  a  vertical  position 
in  the  machine,  and  the  corn  is  carried  into  it 
by  gathering  chains  while  the  machine  travels 
forward  astride  the  row.  A  later  type  of  this 
machine  is  the  corn  shocker,  which  holds  the 
corn  erect  in  a  frame,  without  binding  it  in 
bundles,  until  a  shock  is  collected,  when  the 
frame  and  shock  are  raised  by  a  crane  on  the 
machine  and  swung  around  to  the  ground,  the 
shock,  meantime,  being  tied  at  the  top  by  the  op- 
erator. The  latest  successful  type  of  machine  for 
harvesting  corn  is  the  corn  picker,  which  travels 
along  the  row  in  the  field  and  picks  and  husks 
the  ears  without  cutting  the  stalks.  The  portable 
corn  husker  and  fodder  shredder,  which  is 
operated  like  a  threshing  machine,  has  also 
proved  a  successful  invention,  and  many  thou- 
sands of  machines  of  this  type  are  now  in  use, 
especially  in  the  dairy  States,  where  the  farmers 
want  to  save  the  fodder  and  shred  it  for  feeding. 
Power  corn  shelters  have  been  in  use  since  i860, 
and  are  indispensable  wherever  corn  is  grown 
for  shipment  to  market.  The  first  successful 
machine  of  this  type  was  invented  by  Augustus 
Adams,  of  Sandwich,  111. 

For  the  preparation  of  the  soil  a  multitude  of 
implements  are  used.  The  subject  of  Plows 
has  been  considered  in  a  separate  article.  Har- 
rows are  made  in  many  forms,  including  the 
disc  harrow,  which  is  used  extensively  in  place 
of  the  plow,  to  prepare  stubble  land  for  seeding. 
The  steel  disc  has  made  its  appearance  in  grain 
drills,  and  in  planters,  and  has  even  endeavored 
to  supplant  the  moldboard  in  the  plow.  Potato 
planters,  spraying  implements  and  digging  ma- 
chines have  placed  the  potato  crop  on  a  com- 
mercial basis.  Cotton  planters  are  used  success- 
fully, but  disappointment  has  been  the  only- 
reward  of  inventors  who  have  sought  to  devise 
a  cotton  harvester.  The  greatest  service  which 
the  inventor  could  render  to  the  cotton  grower 
was  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  by  Eli 
Whitney  (q.v.).  While  the  gin  is  not  strictly 
speaking  a  farm  implement,  since  it  is  not  used 
on  the  farm,  it  made  a  great  commercial  crop  of 


an  obscure   plant   that  had  been  of  little  or  no 
value  to  the  farmer.  R.  L.  Ardrev, 

Chicago,  III. 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  a  national 
organization  of  American  trade-unions,  in  which 
the  rights  of  the  constituent  units  are  preserved 
intact.  As  in  the  Federal  government,  all  pow- 
ers not  expressly  granted  in  the  written  consti- 
tution are  reserved  to  the  subordinate  bodies : 
but  still  further,  as  in  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation, it  has  not  power  of  compulsion  ( ex- 
cept to  suspend  or  expel  a  union),  and  any 
union  can  override  its  decisions  as  far  as  its 
own  action  goes.  To  this  is  due  its  steady 
growth  and  harmony.  What  every  union  fears 
most  of  all  is  being  controlled  in  matters  per- 
taining to  its  own  trade  by  persons  outside  that 
trade ;  and  a  minority  regularly  coerced  on  its 
own  ground  will  eventually  secede. 

It  originated  in  1881.  Its  predecessors  had 
been  the  National  Labor  Union,  1866-72,  which 
ended  its  career  by  entering  politics  and  nom- 
inating a  candidate  ("David  Davis)  for  the  Pres- 
idency ;  and  a  number  of  sectional  orders,  of 
which  the  chief  was  the  Knights  of  Labor 
(1869).  The  latter  were  generally  hostile  to 
trade-unions,  holding  them  based  on  "false  and 
selfish  principles  of  temporary  advantage,  to  the 
sacrifice  of  the  general  interests"  of  labor,  and 
the  Knights  attempted  to  break  down  trade 
barriers  in  workmen's  action  by  organizing  local 
assemblies  of  miscellaneous  laborers.  This  an- 
tagonized those  who  believed  that  only  members 
of  a  given  craft  had  a  right  or  the  proper  know- 
ledge to  direct  its  action ;  and  on  2  Aug.  1881 
representatives  from  trade-unions,  the  Amal- 
gamated Labor  Union  (a  split  from  the  Knights 
of  Labor)  and  the  Knights  of  Industry,  both 
secret  orders,  held  a  conference  at  Terre  Haute, 
Ind.,  ostensibly  to  establish  a  national  labor 
congress,  but  in  reality  (as  stated)  to  form  a 
new  order  to  supplant  the  Knights  of  Labor. 
This  was  defeated,  and  the  conference  issued  a 
call  for  a  convention  at  Pittsburg  in  November, 
where  the  Federation  of  Organized  Trades  and 
Labor  Unions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
was  constituted.  On  8  Dec.  1886  this  fused  with 
a  separate  trade-union  congress,  and  changed 
its  name  to  the  American  Federation  of  Labor ; 
and  in  1889  acknowledged  the  continuity  of  ex- 
istence by  dating  its  proceedings  to  [881.  Its 
membership  is  of  local  unions,  central  unions  of 
cities.  State  federations,  national  and  interna- 
tional trade-unions.  As  a  local  union  may  thus 
belong  to  three  different  superior  bodies,  with  a 
possible  conflict  of  jurisdictions,  the  Federation 
takes  charge  of  these  mutual  relations.  It  rec- 
ognized the  national  and  international  unions 
as  having  supreme  jurisdiction,  but  it  approves 
and  urges  State  and  central  bodies  as  helpers 
in   gaining  the  common   objects. 

These  objects,  as  stated  in  its  constitution, 
are:  (1)  "The  encouragement  and  formation 
of  local  trade  and  labor  unions,  and  the  closer 
federation  and  combination  of  such  bodies,  to 
secure  legislation  in  the  interest  of  the  working 
masses."  (2)  'The  establishment  of  national  and 
international  trade-unions,  based  upon  a  strict 
recognition  of  the  autonomy  of  each  trade." 
etc.  (3)  "An  American  Federation  of  all  na- 
tional and  international  trade-unions,  to  aid  and 
assist  each  other."  and  "the  sale  of  union-label 
goods,  and  to  secure  national  legislation  in  the 


AMERICAN   FOLK-LORE  SOCIETY  — AMERICAN  INSTITUTE 


interest  of  the  working  people,  and  influence 
public  opinion  by  peaceful  and  legal  methods  in 
favor  of  organized  labor."  (4;  "To  aid  and 
encourage  the  labor  press  of  America." 

Its  executive  organization  at  first  was  a  sec- 
retary and  a  legislative  committee,  and  it  an- 
nounced that  it  would  have  no  salaried  officials; 
but  for  efficient  working  it  has  been  compelled 
to  modify  this   rule.     It  has  a  salaried  president 

and  secretary,  a  treasurer,  and  six  vice-presi- 
dents, who  together  form  the  executive  council, 
which  meets  quarterly.  The  president  for  many 
years  lias  been  Samuel  Gompers. 

The  funds  are  derived  from  a  per  capita  tax 
of  6  cents  per  year  from  each  member  of  an 
affiliated  trade  union,  and  $10  each  from  central 
unions  and  State  federations.  Until  18S7  it 
could  not  grant  money  in  aid  of  strikes;  but  in 
that  year  a  revised  constitution  gave  the  execu- 
tive council  the  right  to  call  on  the  unions  for 
financial  aid  to  such  strikes  as  it  approved.  This 
voluntary  aid  was  insufficient,  and  in  1889  an- 
other amendment  permitted  it  to  levy  a  compul- 
sory tax  of  2  cents  a  week  on  each  member  of 
an  affiliated  union,  for  not  over  five  weeks,  in 
aid  of  strikes  or  lock-outs. 

The  policy  of  the  Federation  is  fixed  in  open 
conventions  held  in  a  different  city  in  November 
of  each  year.  The  affiliated  organizations  are 
entitled  to  but  one  delegate  until  their  member- 
ship reaches  4,000,  two  delegates  up  to  8,000, 
three  delegates  up  to  16.000,  four  delegates  up 
to  32,000,  and  so  on.  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
largest  affiliated  organization,  the  United  Mine 
Workers  of  America  —  having  a  membership  of 
fully  225,000  —  will  send  seven  delegates,  and 
is  entitled  to  no  more. 

The  chief  rival  of  the  American  Federation 
has  been  the  Knights  of  Labor ;  but  it  has  prac- 
tically supplanted  that  from  the  superior  ration- 
ality of  its  basis.     The  Knights  admitted  anyone 
to  membership  except  lawyers,  bankers  and  sa- 
loon-keepers:  the   Federation  confines   member- 
ship to  workingmen,  not  admitting  even  farmers 
who  are  employers  of  labor  on  their  farms.     The 
Knights    were    a    centralized    society    based^  on 
lodges  established  by  the  central  union;  the  Fed- 
eration is  based  on  its  unions'  individuality.    But 
chief  of  all,  the  Knights  assumed  that  organiza- 
tions of  all  classes  of  workers  in  one  union  in 
each  locality  would  bring  about  the  best  result-, 
wdiile   the    Federation   realized   the   organization 
of  each  trade  in  its  particular  union  and  the  affil- 
iation of  all  unions  in  a  comprehensive  federation 
was  sure  to  strengthen  each  and  bring  advantage 
to  all.     The  Knights  confounded  all  distinctions 
and  potentially  overruled  each  trade  by  the  vote 
of  outsiders.     By  recognizing  the  common-sense 
principle  that  each  interest  can  manage  its  own 
affairs  best,   the    Federation   has   grown   till,   on 
1    Oct.    100.?,    it    had    in   affiliation    national   and 
international    union-,    112;    State    federations,  29; 
central  unions,  529:  and  local  unions,  1,725.    'I  he 
total  membership  of  unions  is  estimated  at  about 
1,750,000,  of  whom  more  than  half  have  joined 
since   1897.     It   does  not  contain  all  the  trade- 
unions,    a    considerable    section    still    remaining 
outside,  as  the  great  railroad   federation  of  five 
unions,  and  the   Bricklayers'  Union;  but  it  con- 
tains the  United  Mine  Workers  of  America  fits 
largest   body),   the    International   Typographical 
Union   of   North   America,   the   Brotherhood   of 
Carpenters  and  Joiners,  the  Cigar  Makers'   In- 
ternational Union,  etc. 


Its  activity  in  securing  favorable  and  defeat- 
ing unfavorable  legislation  for  laborers  has  been 
very  great  and  very  successful.  These  are  too 
many  to  detail;  but  it  may  be  said  that  its  first 
convention  of  1881  demanded  a  national  eight- 
hour  day  for  government  employees,  and  exclu- 
sion of  Chinese  and  contract  laborers;  and  all 
these  were  granted  by  1886.  It  also  secured  the 
establishment  by  law  of  Labor  Day.  Since  then 
11  ha-  steadily  favored  shorter  hours,  non-em- 
ployment of  children,  better  sanitary  conditions, 
regulation  of  convict  employment,  abolition  of 
"government  by  injunction,"  etc.;  and  in  1893 
pronounced  decisively  for  free  coinage.  It  began 
in  1X04  the  publication  of  'The  American  Fcd- 
cralionist.'  an  official  monthly  magazine.  Con- 
sult: Aldrich.  'American  Federation  of  Labor,' 
Vol.  III.  of  Economic  Studies  (1898)  ;  Gompers, 
'The  Labor  Movement':  McGuire,  'The  Amer- 
ican Federation  of  Labor'  ;  and  annual  reports 
of  the  Federation.  Samuel  Gompers, 

President  American  Federation  of  Labor. 

American  Folk-lore  Society,  an  associa- 
tion founded  in  1888  for  the  collection  and  publi- 
cation of  the  folk-lore  of  North  America.  Mem- 
bership 410.  Office  of  the  president,  Field 
Columbian    Museum,   Chicago,   111. 

American  Forestry  Association,  a  society 
organized  in  1882  and  incorporated  1897.  It  aims 
to  promote  a  business-like  and  conservative 
treatment  of  the  forest  resources  of  this  conti- 
nent ;  the  advancement  of  educational,  legisla- 
tive, and  other  measures  tending  toward  this 
end;  the  diffusion  of  knowdedge  regarding  the 
conservation,  management,  and  renewal  of  for- 
ests, the  proper  utilization  of  their  products, 
methods  of  reforestation  of  waste  lands,  the 
planting  of  trees  for  ornament,  and  cognate  sub- 
jects of  arboriculture.  Membership  2,000.  Its 
official  organ  is  'Forestry  and  Irrigation.'  Of- 
fice of  secretary,  Washington,  D.   C. 

American  Geographical  Society,  an  asso- 
ciation established  in  1852  and  aiming  to  en- 
courage geographical  exploration  and  discovery ; 
to  investigate  and  disseminate  new  geographical 
information  by  discussion,  lectures,  and  publi- 
cations; to  establish  in  the  chief  maritime  city 
of  the  country,  for  the  benefit  of  commerce,  nav- 
igation, and  the  great  industrial  and  material  in- 
terests of  the  United  States,  a  place  where  the 
means  will  be  afforded  of  obtaining  accurate 
information  for  public  use  of  every  part  of  the 
globe.  It  has  a  geographical  library  of  30,000 
volumes  and  a  large  and  very  valuable  collection 
of  maps,  charts,  and  atlases  relating  to  every 
part  of  the  world.  It  publishes  a  'Bulletin,'  and 
co-operates  and  interchanges  information  with 
200  domestic  and  foreign  geographical  and  other 
scientific  societies.  Membership  1,200.  Office, 
15  West  81  st  Street,  New  York. 

American  Historical  Association,  a  so- 
ciety organized  in  1884  and  incorporated  by  an 
act  of  Congress  in  1889  for  the  encouragement 
of  historical   research.     Membership   1,100. 

American  Indians.    See  Indians,  American. 

American  Institute  of  Architects,  an  asso- 
ciation organized  in  1857  for  the  advancement 
of  the  art  or  profession  of  architecture.  It  has 
published  its  'Proceedings'  annually  since  1867. 
Its  permanent  headquarters  are  in  its  own  build- 
ing, the  "Octagon,"  Washington  D.  C.  Mem- 
bership 800. 


O 

o 


n 


a 


o 


AMERICAN  INSTITUTE —AMERICANISMS 


American  Institute  of  the  City  of  New 
York,  an  organization  founded  in  1828  for 
the  promotion,  by  exhibitions  and  fairs,  of  agri- 
cultural, commercial,  manufacturing,  and  artistic 
interests  throughout  the  Union.  It  is  now  di- 
vided into  five  sections :  The  Farmers'  Club, 
the  Henry  Electrical  Society,  the  Horticultural 
Section,  the  Photographic  Section,  and  the  Poly- 
technic Section.  It  has  a  scientific  library  of 
15,000  volumes. 

American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers, a  society  established  in  1884  for  the 
advancement  of  electrical  engineering.  It  pub- 
lishes volumes  of  its  'Transactions.*  Member- 
ship 1,600. 

American  Institute  of  Homceopathy,  a 
society  organized  in  1844.     Membership  2,000. 

American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers, 
an  organization  founded  in  1871  to  promote  the 
arts  and  sciences  connected  with  the  economical 
production  of  the  useful  minerals  and  metals, 
and  the  welfare  of  those  employed  in  these  in- 
dustries, by  means  of  meetings  for  social  inter- 
course and  the  reading  and  discussion  of  pro- 
fessional papers,  and  to  circulate,  by  means  of 
publications  among  its  members  and  associates, 
the  information  thus  obtained.  Membership 
3,500. 

American  Ipecac.     See  Gillenia. 

American-Irish  Historical  Society,  founded 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  20  Jan.  1897,  to  make  better 
known  the  Irish  chapter  in  American  history. 
The  organization  draws  no  creed  lines  and  is 
non-political.  It  has  published  a  number  of 
books  and  pamphlets  along  its  chosen  line  of 
work.  The  society  is  national  in  its  scope,  and 
has  members  throughout  the  country.  The  or- 
ganization holds  its  annual  gathering  in  New 
York  city,  and  publishes  yearly  a  bound  volume 
called  the  'Journal'  of  the  society.  The  mem- 
bership is  about  1,000.  In  addition  to  the 
national  officers,  there  is  a  vice-president  for 
each  State. 

Americanisms,  in  language,  are  words  or 
phrases  peculiar  to  the  English  speech  of  the 
United  States  or  of  British  America.  They  may 
be  (1)  forms  originating  in  America;  or  (2) 
forms  that  have  emigrated  from  Britain  and  that 
have  continued  in  use  here  while  they  are  obso- 
lete there;  or  (3)  that  have  undergone  here  an 
essential  change  of  signification.  Examples  of 
words  originating  here  or  at  least  first  intro- 
duced here  into  the  vocabulary  of  the  English 
language  are  Buncombe,  Caucus,  Gerrymander; 
of  words  here  in  current  use  but  now  antiquated 
in  England  we  have  Fall  (the  season),  Wilt 
(verb),  Whittle;  and  of  words  with  changed 
signification  we  have  Corn  (maize),  Partridge 
(quail  or  ruffed  grouse),  Store  (in  England 
shop).  These  three  processes  of  new  word 
coinage,  of  survival  of  meanings  in  one  prov- 
ince of  the  language  which  in  another  province 
have  become  obsolete,  and  of  essential  change  of 
signification,  are  inherent  in  all  languages,  and 
can  be  traced  in  a  comparison  of  two  counties  as 
clearly  as  in  two  countries.  Americanism  ex- 
presses the  character  of  English  speech  in 
America:  it  does  not  imply  anv  inferiority  of 
American  English  to  British  English ;  nor  is 
American  English  subject  to  correction  by  the 
laws  that  British  English  prescribes  for  itself : 
Americanism  and   Briticism  in  speech   are  mu- 


tually on  an  equal  footing;  unlike  Gallicisms, 
Germanisms,  or  even  Scotticisms,  Americanisms 
are  not  aliens  in  English,  but  natives.  Among 
the  Americanisms  to  to  be  noted  in  what  follows 
are  many  words  or  phrases  which  belong  to  the 
vocabulary  and  phraseology  of  slang,  and  are 
universally  regarded  as  vulgarisms  and  sole- 
cisms and  vicious  growths  of  the  vernacular 
speech  of  America;  as  such  they  are  "Ameri- 
canisms," but  they  are  no  more  part  of  legitimate 
American  speech  than  is  costermongers'  English 
part  of  the  English  language  of  the  home  coun- 
try. 

In  the  front  rank  of  Americanisms  must  be 
classed  those  which  are  most  racy  of  the  soil 
and  that  could  not  have  been  evolved  in  any 
social  or  physical  environment  other  than  was 
and  is  presented  in  this  new  world.  The  first 
settlers  had  to  clear  the  boundless  forest  which 
covered  the  land,  and  constantly  to  guard  their 
lives  and  their  possessions  against  the  forays  of 
the  savages :  they  went  always  armed  to  their 
day's  work.  Such  words  and  phrases  as  Going 
on  the  war  path.  Digging  up  the  hatchet,  Bury- 
ing the  hatchet,  Scalping,  Tomahawking,  recall 
the  hero-tales  of  American  pioneering;  and 
from  the  same  period  come  Shanty,  Blazing  out, 
Clearing,  Backwoods  (in  Canada,  "the  Bush"). 
They  "took  to  the  woods"  or  "to  the  timber" 
for  refugeat  the  approach  of  the  redskins  in 
overwhelming  force.  In  the  sparsely  peopled 
settlements  the  necessity  for  neighborly  help  in 
gathering  in  the  harvest  or  in  erecting  a  log 
cabin  or  in  providing  comforts  for  the  winter 
led  to  the  custom  of  the  Raising-bee  or  Build- 
ing-bee, the  Quilting-bee,  the  Husking-bee: 
the  origin  of  the  word  Bee  in  this  sense  is  un- 
known ;  the  custom  itself  survives  in  rural  dis- 
tricts, and  a  few  years  ago  a  new  sort  of  Bee  — 
the  Spelling-bee  had  great  vogue ;  and  that  was 
followed  by  the  Definition-bee ;  these  "bees" 
met  with  much  popular  favor  in  England.  Log- 
rolling is  another  example  of  co-operation 
among  backwoodsmen,  when  neighbors  associ- 
ate to  collect  each  other's  logs  for  the  winter 
fires.  Logrolling  came  early  into  use  as  a  term 
of  the  art  of  practical  politics  to  signify  the  co- 
operation of  members  of  a  legislative  body  to 
promote  one  another's  schemes.  Literary  Log- 
rolling is  when  authors  combine  to  create  a 
market  for  each  other's  productions  by  mutual 
puffery.  Salt  springs  to  which  the  big  game 
used  to  resort  were  Salt  Licks ;  the  spaces  be- 
tween stretches  of  water  over  which  the  pio- 
neers had  to  carry  their  canoes  were  Portages. 
As  settlers  began  to  seek  homes  in  the  West  on 
government  lands,  the  distribution  of  the  public 
domain  became  a  business  of  vast  proportions 
and  "a  Land-Office  business"  became  a  superla- 
tive term  of  comparison.  A  Section  of  land  is  a 
square  mile  or  640  acres ;  a  very  usual  subdivi- 
sion is  the  Quarter  section,  160  acres.  In  the 
nearer  West,  as  in  the  East,  bodies  of  land  were 
Farms :  in  the  farther  West,  Ranches ;  in  the 
South.  Plantations.  The  verb  to  Deed  is  a  pure 
Americanism :  the  phrase  "To  convey  by  deed" 
was  too  slow.  A  settler  who  acquired  land  from 
the  government  "blazed  out"  his  grant  by  cut- 
ting with  his  axe  marks  on  the  bark  of  trees: 
the  word  is  from  the  French  blazon,  a  term 
of  heraldry.  A  Lot  of  ground  is  any  distinct 
portion  of  land,  and  in  towns  and  cities  is  a 
piece  of  ground  with  a  definite  frontage, 
usually  25  feet.     The  use  of  the  word  lot  in  the 


AMERICANISMS 


sense  of  a  parcel  of  land  seems  to  have  origi- 
nated  with  the  Puritans  in  Massachusetts:  for 
this  they   had   scriptural   authority,  Joshua   xv. 

To  go  Across  hits  is  to  take  the  shortest  route; 
l)ii  t  to  make  a  Bee  line  toward  a  place 
is  to  ha^tr  to  it  in  a  straight  line.  Im- 
migrant    is     an     Americanism,     and     it     is     the 

urately  tit  word  to  signify  one  who 
conies  to  a  country  as  a  settler.  lender- 
foot,  a  most  expressive  American  slang  word 
to  designate  the  newcomer  into  a  newly  opened 
gold  or  silver  mining  district,  is  current  coin  no 
less  in  Australia  than  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
In  California,  in  the  early  days,  many  words 
came  into  use  and  have  since  remained  in  gen- 
eral circulation,  for  example,  Placer,  Prospect- 
ing, Diggings,  I'ay  Dirt,  Gulch.  Bonanza  is  of 
later  introduction.  Crevasse  is  a  breach  in  the 
embankment  of  a  river;  the  word  is  of  French 
origin  in  the  province  of  Louisiana  and  specially 
denotes  the  effect  of  a  flood  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  Of  like  origin  is  the  word  used  to 
designate  the  embankment  of  the  Mississippi, 
Levee.  I  he  word  is  also  used  to  designate  a 
river  front  of  towns  situate  on  othei  rivers  in 
the  Mississippi  valley  which  are  naturally  con- 
fined  within  their  own  banks.  In  English  usage 
Levee  is  accented  on  the  first  syllable,  but  in 
the  United  States  the  accent  falls  usually  on 
the  last.  Incidentally  it  may  be  remarked  of 
another  American  usage  of  the  word  Levee  to 
signify  an  evening  reception  of  visitors  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  "the  President's 
Levee,"  that  it  is  a  rank  solecism,  and  means  in 
effect  (i  morning  reception  in  the  evening. 
Freshet,  in  obsolete  English  usage,  meant  a 
stream  of  fresh  water :  in  the  sense  of  an  inun- 
dation it  is  an  Americanism.  Blizzard,  signify- 
ing a  violent,  blinding  storm  of  wind,  snow,  and 
sleet,  is  a  word  of  unascertained  origin.  Prairie 
is  as  distinctly  American  as  Veldt  is  South 
African  or  as    Tundra  is   Russian  and  Siberian. 

In  the  vocabulary  of  politics,  besides  Log- 
rolling, already  mentioned,  we  have  Gerryman- 
der, to  make  an  unfair  distribution  of  electoral 
districts  for  party  ends :  this  American  political 
trick  is  called  by  the  English  political  philos- 
opher Jerrymandering;  and  one  of  the  English 
dictionaries  gives  as  an  alternative  spelling  Jer- 
rymander, while  in  Gerrymander  it  makes  the  g 
soft:  thus  pronounced,  the  word  Gerrymander 
is  a  Briticism.  What  for  the  British  is  a  political 
canvass  is  for  us  a  Campaign,  and  a  Campaign 
is  conducted  to  a  considerable  extent  in  accord- 
ance with  the  tactics  and  strategy  of  real  war. 
The  successful  party  is  the  Victor,  and  to  him, 
under  the  ancient  laws  of  war,  belongs  the  spoil. 
Speaking  from  the  Stump,  Taking  the  stump, 
were  originally  literal  expressions  of  fact.  Bun- 
combe, or  Bunkum,  seems  to  be  authentically 
derived  from  the  name  of  a  county  of  North 
Carolina,  whose  representative  in  Congress, 
when  begged  not  to  weary  the  House  with  his 
oratory,  replied  that  though  he  was  addressing 
the  House  he  intended  his  speech  for  the  good 
people  of  Buncombe.  The  derivation  of  the 
word  Caucus  from  Calkers  is  plausible.  In  1770 
the  calkers  and  ropemakers  of  Boston  held  fre- 
quent meetings  to  denounce  the  British  govern- 
ment and  its  local  agents,  and  those  meetings 
were  called  by  the  Tories  Calkers'  meetings.  The 
Caucus,  a  preliminary  meeting  held  for  the  pur- 
pose of  selecting  a  candidate  for  office,  or,  in 
case  of  a  legislative  body,  to  decide   upon  the 


policy  to  be   supported  by  members  of  a   party 
in  the  open  sessions,  is  an  American  invention; 

of  late  it  has  been  introduced  in  England. 
Spread-Eagle  oratory  has  its  name  from  the  ex- 
travagant style  of  stump  orators  and  Indcpcnd 
ence  Day  spouters  when  they  glorify  the  Bird  of 
Freedom.  Highfalutin,  a  word  that  cannol  he 
traced  to  its  original  source,  denotes  turgid, 
bombastic  oratory.  To  Enthuse  is  unqui  tion 
ably  an  Americanism,  and  it  is  base  coin  formed 
from  the  word  enthusiasm,  which,  whether  in 
Greek  or  English,  has  no  corresponding  active- 
transitive  verb  form.  Of  party  names  and  nick- 
names may  be  mentioned  Wine  and  Tory,  of 
the  pre-revolutionary  era,  Federal  and  Republi- 
can of  the  period  after  independence,  then  Whig 
again,  and  instead  of  Republican  either  Dcnm 
cratic  Republican  or  simply  Democrat,  with 
the  nickname  (about  1835)  Locofoco  (giv- 
en first  to  a  body  of  radicals  who,  in 
Tammany  Hall,  New  York,  after  a  111. 1  1 
ing  was  officially  dissolved  and  the  lights 
put  out,  produced  locofoco  matches,  te- 
kindled  the  lights  and  continued  the  meeting: 
the  locofoco  match,  or  locofoco  cigar  was  intro- 
duced in  1834,  'he  word  meaning  '  substitute  for 
fire" — 111  loco  foci.  It  was  a  cigar  with  friction- 
match  attached).  Other  party  names  and  nick- 
names are  Republican,  Silver-grays,  Copperhead, 
Carpet-baggers,  Lily  Whites.  The  man  in  any 
political  organization  who  possesses  or  is  be- 
lieved to  possess  authority  to  dictate  the  party's 
policies  is  the  Boss.  The  word  is  the  Dutch 
baas  and  is  the  usual  designation  of  an  employer 
or  overseer  of  workmen.  A  few  years  ago  po- 
litical terrorism  in  the  South,  designed  to  bar  to 
negroes  access  to  the  polls,  was  known  as  Bull- 
dozing, a  word  which  cannot  be  traced  to  its 
origin  with  certainty,  and  which  is  no  longer  in 
use.  Roorback  is  a  false  and  injurious  report 
set  afloat  in  the  crisis  of  a  political  campaign, 
usually  a  very  short  time  before  the  canvass  is 
closed,  so  that  it  may  have  damaging  effect  be- 
fore contradiction  or  refutation  can  be  made. 
The  phrase  "a  good  enough  Morgan  till  after 
election"  recalls  an  incident  in  the  history  of 
New  York  politics.  William  Morgan,  author  of 
a  book  purporting  to  reveal  the  secrets  of  Free- 
masonry, was  kidnapped,  and  the  anti-Masonry 
party  charged  the  Freemasons  with  having  mur- 
dered him.  To  counteract  this  charge,  which 
was  credited  largely  by  public  opinion,  the 
Masonic  society,  or  rather  its  friends  in  the 
Whig  and  Democratic  parties,  spread  reports  of 
the  finding  of  the  missing  man;  whether  true  or 
false,  these  reports  furnished  "a  good  enough 
Morgan  till  after  election." 

Right,  as  equivalent  to  very,  is  by  some 
writers  classed  among  Americanisms ;  but  that 
is  an  error,  though  undoubtedly  the  word  is 
more  commonly  used  in  that  way  here  than 
among  the  English.  In  the  style  Right  Rev- 
erend, Right  Worshipful,  etc.,  Right  has  the 
meaning  of  very  :  in  Tyndale's  Bible  occur  such 
phrases  as  Right  sorry.  Right  humble,  and  in 
writers  of  the  14th  century  the  same  usage  is  to 
be  seen.  But  Right  here,  Right  now,  Right 
away.  Right  off  are  Americanisms  and  are  not 
found  in  the  colloquial  speech  of  Britain.  In 
British  English  of  these  latter  days  Sickness  is 
hardly  used  save  in  the  sense  of  nausea  ;  but  the 
best  British  authors  do  not  countenance  that 
restriction  of  meaning.  In  the  United  States, 
outside  the  circles  in   which  the  time  o'  day  is 


AMERICANISTS 


given  from  London,  the  words  Sick  and  Sickness 
have  the  same  signification  they  have  had  in  the 
general  language  at  least  from  the  14th  century, 
when  mind-sick,  mind-sickness,  were  current 
phrases ;  and  in  the  King  James  version  of  the 
Bible  sick  and  sickness  have  the  same  purport 
which  they  have  in  the  American  vernacular. 
Ugly,  in  the  sense  of  cross-grained,  ill-natured, 
is  an  Americanism,  though  English  usage  has 
the  nearly  parallel  phrase,  an  ugly  customer.  An 
American  can  ride  in  a  coach ;  but  an  English- 
man, if  he  is  to  ride  at  all,  must  go  on  horseback 
or  be  borne  on  the  back  of  some  other  animal. 
British  restriction  of  the  meaning  of  Ride  is 
inconsistent  with  the  usage  of  the  translators  of 
the  Bible,  who  make  Joseph,  for  example,  and 
Jehonadab  ride  in  chariots.  The  garment  which 
Americans  style  Vest  is  better  styled  by  the 
English  Waistcoat.  Peart,  pronounced,  and 
often  written,  Peert,  meaning  lively,  brisk, 
sprightly,  without  any  suggestion  of  sauciness 
or  "freshness,"  is  gone  out  of  use,  at  least  of 
literary  use,  in  England:  it  is  an  Americanism, 
but  its  habitat,  so  to  speak,  is  restricted.  A 
special  use  of  Peart  is  to  signify  the  improved 
Jone  of  one  who  is  recovering  from  a  sickness. 

The  place  of  business  at  retail  which  in 
England  is  a  Shoo  is  in  the  United  States  a 
Store.  Of  late  a  tendency  has  appeared  toward 
adoption  of  the  British  usage  of  these  terms. 
In  regions  unaffected  by  this  tendency  Shop  is 
still  what  it  was  50  years  ago  in  this  country,  a 
work-place,  and  a  Store  is  a  place  where  goods 
are  kept  in  store  for  sale.  But  even 
while  Shop  and  Store  retained  their  cis- 
atlantic meanings,  there  were  numerous 
phrases  current  which  are  inconsistent  with 
the  American  meanings  of  Store  and  Shop, 
for  example,  Shop-worn,  Smelling  of  the 
shop,  Shop-boy,  Shopping,  Shopkeeper,  Shop- 
lifter, etc.  The  grocer's  store  or  shop  is 
here  called  a  Grocery,  not-so  in  England :  there 
Grocery  signifies  only  the  wares  sold  by  a 
grocer.  Unquestionably  American  is  the  use 
of  the  word  Drummer  in  the  sense  of  one  who 
solicits  or  touts  for  custom.  The  phrase.  He 
struck  oil,  will  probably  survive  after  all  the  oil 
wells  have  gone  hopelessly  dry. 

What  we  call  Baggage  is  by  the  British 
called  luggage,  though  the  reason  of  the  differ- 
ence can  hardly  be  that  we  travel  with  less  im- 
pedimenta than  they.  The  development  of  our 
railway  systems  has  brought  many  new  words 
into  the  vernacular,  but  none  more  expressive 
than  the  verb  Telescope. 

The  conversational  speech  of  Americans  at 
one  time  seemed  to  be  seriously  threatened  with 
invasion  by  a  host  of  spurious,  illegitimate  word- 
coinages,  especially  of  verbs  made  out  of  nouns, 
as  to  Advantage,  to  Ambition,  and  of  pompous 
verbs  made  out  of  nouns  ending  mostly  in  -ation, 
as  Orate,  Donate ;  but  that  danger  was  happily 
averted.  The  use  of  Transpire  in  the  sense  of 
happen,  occur,  is  of  American  origin,  but  the 
use  quickly  spread  to  England :  the  solecism  was 
promptly  branded  by  scholars,  but  it  still  lives 
and  flourishes.  Balance,  in  the  sense  of  remain- 
der, is  another  Americanism  which  has  attained 
a  currency  which  it  does  not  deserve.  Mad,  in 
the  sense  of  angry,  is  an  Americanism  of  the 
baser  sort.  To  Wilt,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
"provincialism"  in  England,  but  in  America  a 
word  in  universal  use,  is  one  of  the  valuable 
contributions  of  the  American   province   of  the 


English  language  to  the  mother  tongue's  general 
store.  The  proverbial  Whittling  of  the  Yankee 
keeps  alive  an  ancient  native  English  word  for 
knife. 

Among  notable  or  curious  phrases  current  in 
the  United  States  may  be  mentioned  Flying  off 
the  handle, —  losing  self-control  through  pas- 
sion :  one  is  then  like  the  axe-head  which  has 
quit  the  haft.  To  Get  religion,  or  even  to  Take 
religion,  is  a  phrase  constructed  on  the  pattern 
of  "to  take  a  cold"  or  "to  take  the  measles." 
To  be  Posted  plainly  had  its  origin  in  the 
counting-room. 

Bibliograpliy. —  Pickering,  'Vocabulary  of 
Words  and  Phrases  Suffered  to  be  Peculiar  to 
America'  (1816)  ;  Lowell,  introduction  to  'The 
Biglow  Papers'  (1848)  ;  Elwyn,  'Glossary  of 
Supposed  Americanisms'  (1858)  ;  Bartlett,  'Dic- 
tionary of  Americanisms'  (1859)  ;  White, 
'Words  and  their  L'ses.'  chap.  3  (1870)  ; 
Scheie  de  Vere,  'Americanisms'  (1872)  : 
Harris,  'Uncle  Remus'  (1880);  Farmer, 
'Americanisms,  Old  and  New:  a  Dictionary 
of  Words,  Phrases,  and  Colloquialisms  Peculiar 
to  the  United  States,  British  America  and  the 
West  Indies'  (1889);  Norton,  'Political  Amer- 
icanisms'   (1890)  ;  Emerson,  'Dialect  of  Ithaca' 

*  Joseph  Fitzgerald, 

Author  of  '•Word  and  Phrase.'' 

Americanists  (from  Americanistes) ,  all 
those   who   devote   themselves    to   the    study   of 

(1)  the  native  races  of  America  —  their  origin, 
distribution,  history,  physical  characteristics, 
languages,    inventions,    customs,    and    religions ; 

(2)  the  history  of  the  early  contact  between 
America  and  the  Old  World.  The  name  was 
probably  first  given  to  the  members  of  the 
French  Societe  Americaine  de  France,  and 
later  to  students  of  any  nationality  who  are  in- 
terested in  the  archaeology,  ethnology,  and  early 
history  of  the  two  Americas.  Since  1875  such 
students  have  met  at  irregular  intervals  in  an  as- 
sociation known  as  the  Cong-res  International 
des  Americanistes.  This  congress  grew  out  of 
the  Societe  Americaine  de  France,  which  was 
formed  in  1857  by  several  French  students  who 
had  become  interested  in  the  pre-Columbian  civ- 
ilizations of  South  America  and  Mexico;  after 
this  society  had  flourished  for  18  years  its 
members  decided  to  invite  Americanists  of  for- 
eign countries  to  a  congress.  The  first  inter- 
national meeting  was  held  in  1875  at  Nancy, 
France,  where  statutes  were  adopted  and  plans 
laid  for  the  continuance  of  the  organization. 
Since  then  ten  other  meetings  have  been  held 
in  various  European  cities,  and  two  in  America 
(City  of  Mexico,  1895,  and  New  York  city, 
1902).  At  first  the  intention  was  to  hold  bien- 
nial sessions,  but  after  a  few  years  it  was  de- 
cided to  meet  at  irregular  intervals,  the  council 
of  each  congress  determining  the  time  and  place 
of  the  next  session.  The  meetings  have  a  poly- 
glot character,  as  speakers  may  use  either 
French,  German,  Italian.  Spanish,  or  English. 
The  addresses  may  be  either  written  or  oral,  and 
are  limited  to  20  minutes  in  length.  All 
papers  presented  may,  with  the  approval  of  the 
committee,  be  issued  in  the  printed  '  Proceed- 
ings' which  are  usually  in  French  ("Congres  In- 
ternational des  Americanistes,  Comte-Rendu' ), 
and  published  in  two  volumes  for  each  meeting. 
In    addition   to   the   papers   the   reports    contain 


AMERICAN  JEWISH  HISTORICAL  SOCIETY  — AMERICAN  LABOR 


lists  of  the  members  enrolled  and  minutes  of 
the  business  transacted  .it  each  session.  Any 
one  interested  in  the  subjects  discussed  may 
become  a  member  of  any  congress  by  a  subscrip- 
tion (three  dollars,  American  money,  or  an 
equivalent  in  the  currency  of  the  country  where 
the  congress  meets),  which  entitles  him  not  only 
to  take  part  in  the  sessions  but  to  receive  the 
reports  of  the  congress  and  all  other  publications 
issued  by  it.  The  subjects  considered  at  each 
meeting  range  through  meteorology,  geology, 
archaeology,  and  ethnology  to  comparative 
philology,  the  history  of  the  pre-Columbian  arts 
and  religions,  the  early  discoverers  of  America 
and  its  early  relations  to  European  nations. 
Representatives  from  almost  every  nation,  even 
from  China  and  Japan,  are  found  on  the  lists, 
which  have  included  as  members  (not  neces- 
sarily as  attendants)  many  of  the  most  eminent 
archaeologists,  ethnologists,  and  anthropologists 
in  Europe,  England,  and  America.  For  a  full 
account  of  the  13th  congress,  held  at  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York 
city  20-25  Oct.  1902,  see  'Science,'  New  Series, 
Vol.  XVI.  p.  884.  Previous  meetings  are  re- 
ported in  'Nature,*  Vol.  XIV.  p.  355;  'Popular 
Science  Monthly,*  Vol.  XXXIV.  p.  686;  and 
Vol.  XXXVIII.  p.  685. 

American  Jewish  Historical  Society,  an 
association  organized  in  [892  i<>r  the  purpose 
of  collecting  and  publishing  material  bearing 
on  the  history  of  America.  It  is  a  national  or- 
ganization with  a  membership  of  243.  Presi- 
dent, Dr.  Cyrus  Adler ;  secretary,  Max  J. 
Kohler. 

American  Labor.  According  to  the  census 
of  [900,  the  total  number  of  people  in  the  United 
States  engaged  in  gainful  occupations  of  all 
kinds  was  20,074,11",  of  which  number  23,754,205 
were  males  and  5,319,912  females.  These  figures 
include  wage-earners  and  wage-payers,  employers 
and  employees,  engaged  in  manual  and  profes- 
sional service.  Of  this  number  between  18,500,000 
and  20.000.000  may  be  reckoned  wage-earners. 
And  although  statistics  are  lacking,  we  will  not 
be  far  astray  if  we  estimate  that  the  corre- 
sponding classes  at  the  beginning  of  the  national 
existence  numbered  about  500.000. 

As  to  the  racial  composition  of  this  class,  four 
fifths  of  the  population  of  the  United  States  at 
the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  was  of  Kng- 
lish  descent,  but  at  the  present  time  careful  con- 
sideration would  indicate  that  only  about  one 
half  of  our  population  can  claim  the  English  as 
their  mother  tongue;  and  yet,  during  the  first 
quarter  of  the  19th  century,  immigration  could 
not  have  affected  the  nationality  of  our  working 

pie  to  any  great  extent,  nor  until  1840.  In  1833 
the  largest  number  in  the  first  third  of  the  present 
century  arrived,  being  58,640  immigrants.  Great 
impetus  was  given  in  the  forties  by  the  famine  in 
Ireland  in  1846-7,  and  by  political  causes  in 
Germany.  The  total  immigration  since  the 
Revolutionary  War  and  up  to  July  1901,  was 
20.253.073.  while  the  foreign-born  residing  in  this 
country  at  the  census  of  1900  was  10.460,085, 
being  13.6  per  cent  of  the  whole  population. 
These  large  additions  to  our  population  had  a 
marked  influence  upon  our  industrial  conditions, 
because  in  the  very  nature  of  the  case  their  num- 
bers, almost  en  masse,  went  to  swelling'  the  ranks 
of   labor.     The    manufacturing   and    mechanical 


industries  absorbed  a  much  larger  proportion  of 
the  new  element  than  agriculture,  and  the  tend- 
ency of  our  immigrants  to  assimilate  with  our 
mechanical  industries  increases  the  supply  of 
labor  in  comparison  to  the  demand,  and  at  times 
may  have  lowered  wages  and  crippled  the  con- 
suming power  of  the  whole  body  of  the  popula- 
tion. But  this  was  not  serious,  and  it  may  have 
been  imperceptible,  for  at  the  time  of  the  acceler- 
ated movement  of  immigration  there  was  a  vast 
development  of  the  railroad  interests  of  the 
country,  which  could  not  have  been  carried  on 
so  extensively  and  completely  without  a  large 
body  of  common  laborers.  Immigration  supplied 
this  labor,  but  it  soon  began  to  find  its  way  into 
organized  industry.  As  the  tendency  of  wages 
has  been  constantly  upward  since  the  close  of  the 
18th  century,  it  cannot  be  argued  that  the 
assimilation  of  immigrants  with  our  own  native 
labor  has  reduced  wages,  but  it  can  be  assumed 
that  such  assimilation  may  have  retarded  their 
increase  beyond  what  was  experienced.  During 
the  years  of  depression  after  1893  immigration 
was  checked,  but  with  the  renewal  of  prosperity 
during  the  past  few  years  the  movement  has 
practically  assumed  its  old  proportions  of  nearly 
half  a  million  a  year.  The  character  of  immi- 
gration has  changed,  and  this  change  has  not 
been  for  the  better.  If  immigration  could  be 
left  entirely  to  natural  motives  it  is  quite  evident 
that  the  movement  would  be  retarded  gradually, 
but  it  is  stimulated  by  transportation  companies, 
in  their  desire  to  secure  business,  to  such  an 
extent  that  a  large  body  of  objectionable  immi- 
grants are  brought  here.  When  it  is  known  that 
an  immigrant  can  be  transported  from  Italy  to 
Chicago  for  less  money  than  a  first-class  passen- 
ger can  travel  from  New  York  to  Chicago,  it 
1-  not  strange  that  people  flock  to  the  United 
States;  and  during  this  past  decade  it  is  quite 
certain  that  labor  in  America  has  suffered 
through  this  class  of  immigration,  especially  in 
mining  districts,  where  wages  have  been  kept 
down  and  much  distress  has  prevailed  through 
the  influx  of  cheap  foreign  labor. 

At  the  nation's  beginning  its  labor  was  do- 
mestic, and  working  people  were  engaged  in 
agricultural  pursuits,  the  fisheries,  and  in  the 
clearing  of  forests,  while  a  small  percentage  were 
engaged  in  what  is  known  as  domestic  manufac- 
ture and  in  commerce.  The  factory  system, 
dating  from  1790  as  the  year  of  its  birth,  did  not 
become  influential  until  after  1820.  With  the 
complete  establishment  of  textile  factories,  in 
1813,  at  Waltham,  Mass.,  where  the  first  com- 
plete factory  in  the  world  for  the  manufacture  of 
finished  cloth  was  built,  labor  began  to  find  a  new 
avenue  of  employment,  and  the  young  women  of 
the  rural  districts  were  induced  to  enter  factories 
as  spinners  and  weavers.  Thereafter  growth  of 
the  textile  factory  was  rapid,  both  in  New- 
England  and  the  Middle  States.  Fair  wages  and 
easy  work  attracted  the  women  of  our  own 
country,  and  English  girls,  until  Irish  immigra- 
tion commenced,  and  during  the  last  25  years 
or  more  the  Irish  operative  has  been  giving 
way  gradually  to  the  French-Canadian  and  rep- 
resentatives  of  other   nationalities. 

Of  course,  all  manufacturing  received  a  great 
impetus  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  when 
our  people  were  obliged  to  furnish  their  own 
supplies.  At  the  close  of  the  war  these  efforts 
ceased  or  production  was  greatly  reduced,  and 


AMERICAN  LABOR 


America  was  still  a  subject  of  Great  Britain  in 
respect  to  its  manufacturing  interests,  until  the 
complete  establishment  of  the  factory  system. 
The  old  domestic  or  hand  system  was  not  long 
in  passing,  and  the  regime  of  invention  and 
machinery  holds  full  sway.  Along  with  this 
change  in  the  method  of  production,  mining  has 
been  developed  to  an  enormous  degree,  until 
now  the  United  States  produces  more  iron  than 
Great  Britain.  This  industry  has  brought  into 
employment  a  vast  body  of  skilled  workmen,  and 
the  ramifications  of  the  industry  still  greater 
forces.  Our  large  towns  and  cities  are,  as  a 
rule,  thoroughly  equipped  with  sewers,  and  the 
manufacture  of  pipes  and  mains  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  well  as  the  manufacture  of  gas-pipes 
and  mains  and  plumbing  work  generally,  has 
been  the  result.  These  latter  changes  have 
occurred  within  the  last  60  years. 


be  seen  from  the  accompanying  table.  This 
change  was  largely  brought  about  by  the  factory 
system,  under  which  women  could  attend  light- 
running  machines  with  skill  and  with  fair  remu- 
neration. They  constitute  a  new  economic  factor 
in  industry,  and  being  a  new  economic  factor, 
they  cannot  as  yet  hope  to  receive  liberal  wages. 
It  can  hardly  be  said  that  they  have  displaced 
men,  but  they  have  displaced  boys  and  girls  to  a 
considerable  extent.  The  first  tendency  under  the 
factory  system  was  to  employ  children,  and  the 
number  constantly  employed  increased  from  year 
to  year  until  the  last  25  years,  when  the  number 
has  been  rapidly  on  the  decline.  Public  senti- 
ment voiced  by  legislation,  as  well  as  the  econ- 
omies of  production,  is  driving  the  children  out 
of  our  factories ;  women  are  taking  their  places. 
In  some  industries  men  have  taken  the  places  of 
women,  the  change  of  the  form  of  work  result- 


NUMBER   OF   MALE  AND   FEMALE   WAGE-EARNERS    REPORTED    FOR    PRINCIPAL    OCCUPATIONS    IN    IOXW. 


Occupations 


Agriculture,    Fisheries,  and 

Mining: 
Agricultural  laborers.  . 
Fishermen  and  oystermen 
Lumbermen  and  raftsmen 
Miners  and  quarrymen .  . 
Stock-raisers,  herders  and 

drovers     

Domestic  and  Personal  Ser- 
vice : 

Barbers  and  hair-dressers 

Bartenders    

Engineers  and  firemen 
(not     locomotive) 

Housekeepers  and  stew- 
ards     

Laborers    (not    specified) 

Launderers  and  laun- 
dresses      

Nurses   and  midwives .  .  . 

Servants    and    waiters... 

Watchmen,  policemen, 
and   detectives 

Trade  and    Transportation: 

Agents  (claim,  commis- 
sion, real  estate,  in- 
surance, etc.)  and  col- 
lectors     

Bookkeepers  and  ac- 
countants      

Clerks    and    copyists.... 

Draymen,  hackmen, 
teamsters,    etc 

Hostlers     

Messengers  and  errand 
and    office   boys 

Sailors   and   boatmen .... 

Salesmen  and  saleswomen 

Steam-railroad  employ- 
ees     


Males 


3,747,668 
67.715 
71 ,920 
562.50 

83,056 


125.542 
83.377 

223,318 

8,224 
2,505,287 

335.282 

12,26^ 

276,958 

129,711 


230,606 

180,727 
544.881 

538,029 
64.850 

64.959 

78.253 

461,909 

580,462 


Females 


663,209 

462 

100 

1.365 

1.932 


5.574 
440 


146,929 
'23,975 

50,683 
108,691 
,283,763 


879 


10,556 

74.153 
85,246 

904 

79 

6,663 

'53 

149.230 

1,688 


Total 


4,410,877 

68,177 

72.1  20 

563,866 

84,988 


131,1 16 
88,817 


155.153 
2,629,262 

385,965 

120,956 

'.454. 79' 

130,590 


241,162 

254,880 
630,127 

538,933 
64,929 

71.662 

78,406 

611,139 

582,150 


Occupations 


Street  railway  employees 
Stenographers    ana    type- 
writers   

Telegraph  and  telephone 
operators     

Manufacturing  and  _  Me- 
chanical   Industries: 

Bakers    

Blacksmiths     

Boot  and  shoe  makers  and 
repairers    

Butchers    

Carpenters  and  Joiners.. 

Cotton-mill    operatives... 

Dressmakers    

Iron  and  steel  workers.  . 

Machinists     

Marble  and  stone  cutters 

Masons  (brick  and 
stone)     

Milliners    

Painters,  glaziers,  and 
varnishers    

Plumbers  and  gas  and 
steam  fitters 

Printers,  lithographers, 
and  pressmen 

Saw  and  planing  mill 
employees    

Seamstresses     

Silk-mill     operatives 

Tailors    and   tailoresses.  . 

Textile  mill  operatives 
(not  otherwise  speci- 
fied)     

Tin-plate  and  tinware- 
makers  

Tobacco  and  cigar  fac- 
tory  operatives    

Wood-workers  (not  oth- 
erwise  specified) 

Woolen-mill    operatives.  . 


Males 


68,873 
26,246 

52,459 


74,860 
226,284 

169,393 
"3.578 

:'i'J.7"7 

2,090 
287,241 
282,574 

54.317 

160,638 

".739 

275,782 

97,659 

'39,'66 

161,251 

4.837 

22,023 

160,714 


53.437 

68,730 

87.955 

104,468 
42.566 


Females 


46 
86,118 

22,556 


4,328 
'93 


39.519 

208,912 

378 

113.956 

545 

600,252 

120,216 

246,004 

344.794 

346,884 

3.370 

290,611 

57' 

283,145 

'43 

S4,46o 

'67 

86,120 

'.759 

126 

I5,98l 

373 

146.105 
32-437 
68,935 

51,182 

1.775 

43.497 

6,805 
30,630 


Total 


68,919 
1 12,364 
75.oi5 


79. '88 

226,477 


160,805 

87.859 

-77-54' 

97,785 

155,147 

161,623 

150,942 

54.460 

229,649 

104,619 

70,505 

«3'.452 

I". 273 
73. '96 


Tlie  change  in  the  system  of  work  has  prac- 
tically done  away  with  apprenticeships,  their 
place  being  more  than  filled  by  manual  training 
and  the  work  of  the  trade  schools.  With  the 
establishment  of  the  factory  system  apprentice- 
ships were  less  obligatory.  By  1850  the  resort 
to  them  was  waning,  while  since  the  vast  de- 
velopment of  the  factory  system,  especially  sub- 
sequent to  the  Civil  War,  they  have  been  --till 
less  prevalent.  Another  great  change  which  has 
come  in  the  way  of  industry  is  the  employment 
of  women,  who  were  engaged  only  in  domestic 
labor,  except  in  rare  instances,  in  1789,  but  are 
now  represented  in  almost  all  industries,  as  may 


ing  in  such  displacement.  Laundry  work  is 
practically  factory  work  now  ;  and  the  old  domes- 
tic hand  weavers,  who  were  to  a  large  extent 
women,  have  seen  their  work  transferred  to  the 
factory.  These  industrial  revolutions  have  car- 
ried with  them  other  changes,  which  perhaps 
are  more  ethical  than  economical  in  their  rela- 
tions. For  instance,  under  the  old  system  of 
labor,  employers  had  a  paternal  relation  to  their 
employees,  and  even  in  the  early  cotton-mills  in 
New  England  the  paternal  system  of  caring  for 
employees  was  adopted,  notably  at  Lowell,  and 
later  on  also  in  Manchester,  Conn.,  under  the 
Cheneys'  administration  of  the  silk  works;  but 


AMERICAN  LABOR 


as  the  factory  system  lias  spread,  this  paternal 
care  has  been  lessened,  although  during  the  last 
few  years  there  lias  been  a  great  revival  in  the 
discussion  of  the  usefulness  of  such  paternal 
oversight  The  public  is  considering  this  ques- 
tion, and  great  employers  here  and  there  are 
trying  the  experiment  of  taking  an  interest  in 
the  home  welfare  of  their  employees  as  well  as  in 
their  efficiency. 

The  changes  in  the  industrial  system  have  had 
many  ramifications.  The  labor  movement  in  this 
country  began  with  the  19th  century.  Prior  to 
the  establishment  of  the  factory  system  there 
was  little  organization.  Here  and  there  a  club 
of  skilled  workingmen  existed,  notably  in  the 
Eastern  and  Middle  States.  Since  1825,  however. 
the  movement  has  been  rapid,  and  its  results, 
while  not  always  satisfactory,  are  indicative  of 
real  progress.  In  the  early  years  of  the  labor 
movement  many  arguments  were  advanced 
against  it,  and  the  attempt  made  to  prevent  work- 
ingmen from  joining  in  organization.  The  mer- 
chants and  ship  owners  of  Boston,  at  a  meeting 
held  in  the  Exchange  Coffee  Rooms  on  15  May 
1832,  voted  to  discountenance  and  check  what 
was  called  the  unlawful  combination  formed  to 
control  the  freedom  of  individuals  as  to  the  hours 
of  labor,  and  to  thwart  and  embarrass  those  by 
whom  they  were  employed  and  liberally  paid. 
It  was  held  everywhere  that  labor  ought  to  be 
left  free  to  regulate  itself,  and  that  neither  the 
employee  nor  the  employer  should  have  the 
power  to  control  the  other ;  and  the  stock  argu- 
ment that  organization  would  drive  trade  from 
the  country  was  resorted  to.  Hut  the  condition 
of  labor  as  it  now  exists  is  a  vast  improvement 
upon  its  condition  at  any  other  period.  It  may, 
perhaps,  be  well  simply  to  say  that  wages,  even 
during  the  past  half-century,  have  increased,  on 
the  whole,  something  over  60  per  cent,  while  the 
general  course  of  prices  has  been  downward, 
and  to  such  an  extent  that  the  relative  real  wages 
—  that  is,  wanes  measured  by  wholesale  prices, 
and  showing,  on  this  basis,  the  purchasing  power 
of  money  —  have  increased  over  90  per  cent  since 
i860.  To-day  organized  labor  has  many  de- 
fenders. It  is  looked  upon  with  disfavor  m  some 
quarters,  but  as  a  rule,  employers  are  quite 
willing  that  their  employees  should  organize,  for 
they  have  their  own  organizations  and  do  not 
feel  like  denying  the  right  to  others.  Of  course, 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  working  people  of 
this  country  is  unorganized,  and  I  presume  this 
is  true  of  manufacturers  and  employers  on  their 
side ;  but  as  the  methods  of  production  are 
brought  to  a  larger  and  grander  scale,  organiza- 
tion in  every  direction  will  more  and  more  pre- 
\  .iil.  At  present  organized  labor  is  estimated  at 
2,000,000.  This  is  the  result  of  an  estimate 
based  on  the  claims  of  different  organizations.  I 
am  inclined  to  think  it  is  too  liberal  an  estimate, 
and  yet,  placed  in  comparison  with  18,500,000 
wage-earners,  it  does  not  seem  large;  but,  as  a 
rule,  organized  labor  is  employed  in  the  manu- 
facturing and  mechanical  industries,  and  in  this 
sense  the  percentage  is  high.  The  proportion  of 
organized  manufacturers  to  the  whole  body  is 
probably  much  larger.  As  the  labor  movement 
has  grown,  strikes  have  become  more  frequent, 
and  while  undoubtedly  the  era  of  strikes  is  pass- 
ing away,  yet  it  will  be  some  time  before  the 
downward  scale  is  reached  as  to  numbers  and 
importance.     The   great   strikes   in  the  country 


have  bad  a  marked  influence  in  many  directions. 
They  have  excited  working  people  to  undertake 
other  strikes;  they  have  brought  bitterness  be 

tween  employer  and  employee,  and  yet  on  the 
whole  they  are  bringing  a  new  line  of  thought  to 
the  public  mind,  and  their  study  will  result  in 
good  to  all  classes.  Strikes  are  teaching  the 
public  its  interests  in  industry  as  over  against 
the  personal  and  selfish  interests  of  the  two  par- 
ties immediately  involved. 

The  labor  question  has  met  with  a  great 
change  as  a  result  of  the  Civil  War.  Our  negro 
population  has  lost  some  of  the  old  occupations 
in  which  it  was  engaged  in  the  North  half  a 
century  ago,  but  it  is  gaining  others.  In  the 
South  the  employment  of  the  negro  is  becoming 
more  varied  and  his  condition  more  hopeful  as 
one  of  pecuniary  prosperity.  Negro  labor  is 
abundant,  good,  and  steady  in  certain  lines.  The 
question  is  often  asked,  whether  the  division  of 
employment  lessens  the  quality  of  work.  Prob- 
ably not,  for  the  great  principles  of  modern  in- 
dustry are  association,  concentration,  and 
specialization.  With  the  first  the  second  is 
absolutely  essential,  and  the  third  is  the  result 
of  concentration.  If  these  things  lessen  the 
quality  of  the  work,  then  the  opposite  must  be 
true  —  that  without  them  quality  is  improved. 
This  carries  the  argument  too  far.  If  there  is 
much  truth  in  it,  then  the  .simplest,  humblest 
kind  of  work  is  best  for  the  worker,  and  sawing 
wood  and  paving  streets,  the  most  ordinary 
manual  toil,  would  he  better  for  the  worker  than 
the  employment  of  his  intellect  in  tending  a 
machine. 

\\  •  >rking  people  have  experimented  with  co- 
operation, profit-sharing  schemes,  and  other 
methods  of  increasing  wages.  These  experiments 
have  met  with  varying  success.  They  are  likely 
to  do  some  good,  but  it  will  be  a  long  tune 
before  the  moral  character  of  the  men  involved 
will  permit  successful  management  of  co-opera- 
tive schemes.  The  co-operative  principle  is  that 
of  our  modern  system  of  industry.  Pure  co- 
operation, probably,  cannot  succeed,  from  an  eco- 
nomic point  of  view,  but  the  co-operative  spirit 
can  prevail  to  a  higher  degree  than  it  now  does ; 
and  these  things  have  reduced  the  hours  of  labor 
from  11,  12,  and  13  per  day  to  8,  9,  and  10  per 
day.  These  changes,  however,  came  gradually, 
and  as  the  result  of  improved  methods  of  pro- 
duction. Then  law  stepped  in  and  made  the 
custom  the  public  voice.  The  first  ten-hour  law 
in  this  country,  however,  was  not  passed  until 
1874,  when  the  State  of  Massachusetts  provided 
that  women  and  children  should  not  be  employed 
over  ten  hours  a  day  in  the  textile  factories  of 
the  State.  Another  specific  change  which  has 
come  is  the  frequent  payment  of  employees  for 
their  services.  The  method  in  former  times  was 
to  pay  the  working  people  part  in  cash  and  part 
in  goods,  and  settlements  were  made  at  long 
intervals.  Now  everywhere,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions in  the  West,  where  to  some  extent  the  truck 
system  still  prevails,  cash  payments  at  short 
intervals  are  the  rule.  This  change  has  been 
brought  about  both  by  public  sentiment  and  by 
statutory  enactments. 

One  of  the  greatest  changes  which  has  been 
wrought  by  the  new  system  has  come  through 
corporations.  When  the  century  began,  the 
workingman  and  his  employer  were  practically 
associated.     With  the  establishment  of  the  fac- 


AMERICAN  LABOR 


tory  system  there  came  the  necessity  of  using 
large  capital,  more  than  one  man  or  a  firm  of 
men  contributing ;  so  the  corporation  became  a 
necessary  factor  in  the  development  of  industry. 
The  ethical  relations  between  employer  and  em- 
ployee were  changed  at  once.  In  this  way  the 
organization  of  labor  has  grown  on  the  ground 
that  one  organization  should  deal  with  another; 
that  if  the  stockholders  lose  their  personality  and 
are  represented  by  a  manager,  the  large  body  of 
working  people  lose  their  personality,  and  their 
interests  should  be  represented  by  a  manager  or 
a  committee.  One  of  the  vital  changes  resulting 
from  this  growth  of  corporations  is  the  liability 
of  the  employer  to  the  employee  for  damages 
received  while  in  the  employment  of  the  cor- 
poration. The  old  common-law  rule  relating  to 
the  liability  of  employers  for  accidents  occurring 
to  their  employees  is  that  a  workman  cannot 
recover  damages  for  injuries  received  through 
the  carelessness  or  negligence  of  a  co-employee, 
although  a  stranger  may  recover  for  an  injury 
following  the  same  carelessness  or  negligence. 
This  rule  grew  up  under  the  domestic  system, 
when  employer  and  employee  worked  side  by 
side.  But  when  expanded  methods  are  intro- 
duced this  old  rule  becomes  somewhat  ridiculous. 
Yet,  as  the  common-law  rule  grew  up  before 
great  industrial  enterprises  were  established, 
courts  have  been  governed  by  it ;  but  now  it  is 
being  broken  down  by  statutory  restrictions  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  although  it  still 
holds  good  in  many  States.  There  are  very 
many  other  points  where  changes  in  relationship 
have  been  made  by  the  change  in  system.  Look- 
ing the  field  over  broadly,  the  conclusion  must 
be  reached  that  on  the  whole  the  working  people 
have  been  gainers  during  the  progress  of  the  past 
century  —  gainers  not  only  in  wages,  both  real 
and  nominal,  but  in  their  relations  to  society. 

To  a  very  marked  degree,  as  was  long  ago 
pointed  out  by  De  Tocqueville,  the  American 
nation  consists  of  workers.  Such  wealth-aris- 
tocracy as  there  is  in  the  country  is  almost  al- 
ways traceable  back  by  the  remove  of  a  gener- 
ation or  so  to  a  hard-working  ancestor,  of  "the 
laboring  class."  At  the  present  time  the  younger 
members  of  very  wealthy  families  are  devoting 
their  time  and  service  to  labor  as  assiduously 
as  if  their  subsistence  depended  upon  their  earn- 
ings. In  America,  therefore,  labor  holds  a  more 
honorable  place  in  the  minds  of  all  the  people 
than  it  does  in  any  other  land,  and  individuals 
can  look  forward  to  the  highest  class  of  associa- 
tions, both  social  and  intellectual,  as  a  result  of 
their  application  of  skill,  provided  always  they 
are  ruled  by  integrity,  and  shall  build  up  a  char- 
acter which  will  sustain  itself  under  all  con- 
ditions. A  study  of  conditions,  however,  proves 
that  the  base  of  the  social  structure  is  growing 
narrower  as  time,  as  education,  as  a  wise  altru- 
ism lead  men  out  of  their  lowly  conditions  to  a 
better  plane ;  and  the  American  laborer  every- 
where is  an  active,  earnest,  and,  I  believe,  an 
honest  factor  in  keeping  up  the  struggle  to  secure 
a  higher  standard  of  living. 

Our  18.500,000,  and  over,  of  wage-earners  con- 
stitute a  vast  body  on  whose  prosperity,  intelli- 
gence, and  moral  worth  is  based  the  welfare  of 
the  Republic.  With  their  happiness  goes  the 
happiness  of  the  whole  people.  But  they  demand 
something  more  than  is  indicated  by  content- 
ment, for  their  experience  with  American  inven- 


tions and  educational  system1;  teacher  them  that 
from  rude  instruments  of  toil  they  have  become 
intelligent  factors,  in  both  a  social  and  a  political 
sense.  So  it  is  they  join  in  the  great  struggle 
to  lift  themselves  to  a  higher  plane  of  living.  All 
the  disturbances  which  we  have  seen  during  the 
past  score  of  years,  and  which  seem,  superficially 
considered,  to  indicate  that  we  are  approaching 
an  industrial  war,  are  but  protests  against  fixed 
conditions.  These  disturbances  often  arise  from 
unwise  considerations  and  from  ignorance  of  the 
conditions  of  production,  but  they  all  indicate 
one  grand  trend,  and  must  be  considered  as  a 
part  of  the  progressive  movements  of  our  age. 
These  views  constitute  the  chief  elements  of 
what  is  known  as  the  labor  movement,  in  which 
American  labor  has  actively  participated  for  a 
great  many  years  —  first,  seeking  organization; 
second,  by  organization,  making  its  protests  and 
issuing  its  demands.  Philosophically,  these  pro- 
tests and  demands  must  be  viewed  as  educational 
factors  and  not  as  war  factors. 

"Labor,"  Ruskin  says,  "is  the  contest  of  the 
life  of  man  with  an  opposite ;  the  term  'life'  in- 
cluding his  intellect,  soul  and  physical  power, 
contending  with  question,  difficulty,  trial  or  ma- 
terial force.  Labor  is  of  a  higher  or  lower  order 
as  it  includes  more  or  fewer  of  the  elements  of 
life ;  and  labor  of  good  quality,  in  any  kind,  in- 
cludes always  as  much  intellect  and  feeling  as 
will  fully  and  harmoniously  regulate  the  physical 
force."  So  the  struggle  of  the  wage-earner  be- 
comes of  that  high  order  which  insists  upon 
recognition  as  a  factor  in  securing  to  all  people 
something  beyond  the  mere  wants  of  existence. 
A  man  who  is  working  simply  to  secure  food, 
shelter,  and  raiment,  that  is,  the  conditions  abso- 
lutely essential  to  keep  him  an  efficient  working 
machine,  is  not  the  best  product  of  civilization ; 
but  the  man  who  is  willing  to  work  industriously 
to  secure  these  absolute  necessaries  to  make  his 
services  efficient,  and  then,  over  and  beyond 
them,  something  of  the  spiritualizing  necessaries 
of  life,  is  a  credit  to  our  civilization;  and  these 
spiritualizing  influences  can  be  secured  only 
when,  after  paying  for  the  necessary  lubrication 
of  his  working  muscles,  he  is  able  to  furnish 
himself  and  his  loved  ones  with  elements  of  life 
which  have  heretofore  been  considered  luxuries. 
He  must  be  able  to  secure  something  of  these 
higher  elements,  or  he  loses,  and  retrogression  is 
the  result.  He  must  be  able  to  educate  his 
family,  and  to  give  them  of  the  best  things  of 
life  to  such  an  extent  that  they  become  active 
participants  in  the  results  of  invention,  which 
throw  around  life  everywhere  more  than  could 
be  secured  under  old  conditions. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  clearly 
understood  that  conditions  are  not  always  favor- 
able ;  that  there  are  fluctuations,  business  de- 
pressions, having  their  discouraging  influence, 
and  strikes,  unsettling  the  public  mind.  The 
clash  between  ethical  and  economical  conditions 
leads  to  disruptions  sometimes  in  business  asso- 
ciations, and  arrays,  to  all  appearances,  capital 
on  the  one  side  and  labor  on  the  other,  and  gives 
color  to  the  occasional  prophecy  that  this  clash 
will  lead  to  bloody  strife.  The  causes 
for  this  clash  are  mostly  ethical,  growing  out  of 
the  relations  of  men  and  the  lack  of  appreciation 
of  the  duty  which  is  owed  to  the  public.  Mi 
caulay  said  that  the  evils  arising  from  liberty  were 
only  to  be  cured  with  more  liberty.    So  the  evils 


AMERICAN  LEGION  OF  HONOR  —  AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


which  apparently  surround  US  at  the  present  tune, 
and  which  apparently  grow  out  of  the  industrial 
world,  are  the  results  of  an  intelligence  which 
did  not  exist  in  the  past,  and  the  cure  for  them 
re  intelligence.  Capital  and  labor  are  in- 
telligent enough  to  get  into  difficulty;  they  are  not 
always  intelligent  enough  yet  to  keep  out  of 
difficulty.  It  requires  a  very  high  moral  character 
on  the  part  of  both  employer  and  employee  for 
each  to  recognize  the  rights  and  the  privileges  of 
the  other:  but  with  tl  lition,  quarrels,  as 

such,  will  largely  cease,  and  contests  of  mind 
will  take  the  place  of  those  unhappy  contests 
which  arc  now  so  frequent.  When  the  employee 
recognizes  that  his  highest  social  duty  is  to 
render  the  very  best  service  of  wdiich  he  is  capa- 
ble, and  tin-  employer  recognizes  that  his  Inch- 
est social  duty  is  to  compensate  the  best  service 
with  the  best  wage,  a  vast  deal  of  friction  will 
be  avoided.  Integrity  of  business  involves  both 
the  employing  and  the  employed  elements  of 
society.  Confidence  in  each  other  is  the  surest 
cure  for  many  of  the  difficulties,  and  while  the 
world  is  growing  altruistic,  it  will  not  grow 
altruistic  at  the  expense  of  individual  develop- 
ment ;  but  after  the  rendering  of  the  best  social 
service  there  will  come  a  co-ordinated  force  in- 
volving both  altruism  and  individualism.  Either 
means  destruction  in  a  degree.  Co-ordination 
means  success  and  reasonable  happiness.  The 
ethical  force  cannot  rule  at  the  expense  of  the 
economical,  nor  can  the  economical  force  rule 
at  the  expense  of  the  ethical.  Their  co-ordinaticn 
is  the  true  line  of  progress.  As  American  labor 
comprehends  this  more  and  more  clearly,  and  I 
believe  it  is  comprehending  these  principles,  and 
as  the  employer  comprehends  them  more  and 
more  clearly,  we  may  hope  for  the  adjustment  of 
difficulties  on  a  plane  of  moral  responsibility  not 
yet  reached,  except  incidentally.  The  settlement 
of  labor  controversies  is  one  thing,  their  preven- 
tion another.  If  the  intelligence  of  different 
elements  lias  not  reached  that  degree  whereby 
they  can  be  prevented,  then  there  should  be  some 
recognition  of  that  settlement  and  adjustment 
which  recognize  the  importance  of  each  side  in 
the  success  of  industrial  enterprises. 

Carroll  D.  Wright, 
U.  S.  Couunissioner  of  Labor. 

American  Legion  of  Honor,  a  beneficial 
fraternal  organization  founded  in  1878;  reported 
for  [902:  total  membership,  6,386;  grand  coun- 
cils, 8;  sub-councils,  260;  benefits  disbursed  in 
its  last  fiscal  year,  $628,156. 

American  Literature.  A  hundred  years 
ago  and  for  half  a  century  afterward,  every 
assembly  of  students  in  this  country  was  enter- 
tained by  discussions  on  a  "Possible  Literature" 
of  America, —  how  soon  there  would  be  an 
American  literature  was  a  favorite  question, 
grief  or  complaint  that  there  was  not  an  Amer- 
ican literature  came  in  if  the  speaker  or  writer 
were  of  cynical  vein.  The  introspection  wdiich 
was  thus  developed  among  people  who  were 
born  for  something  better  than  introspection  had 
its  good  results.  Every  printed  word,  one  may 
say.  was  collected,  which  showed  that  between 
1602  and  the  19th  century,  any  man  or  woman 
had  written  anything  in  America.  Such  a  col- 
lection as  Samuel  Kettell's  "Specimens  of  Amer- 
ican   Poetry'    shows  the  eagerness   with   which 


critics  who  were  forecasting  a  glorious  future 
for  our  literature  were  willing  to  preserve  all  the 
crystals  from  the  past  and  eager  to  persuade  us 
that  they  were  jewels.  The  truth  seems  to  be 
that  for  the  17th  and  18th  centuries  there  was 
no  class  of  men  or  women  who  would  now  be 
called  "literary  people."  At  the  same  time, 
the  new  settlers  and  the  nun  and  women  of  half 
a  dozen  generations  which  followed,  said  what 
they  had  to  say,  and  generally  said  it  well. 
For  they  did  not  think  much  about  the  way  of 
saying  it,  they  did  not  talk  much  about  it.  they 
had  no  professional  critics.  There  were  among 
them  those  who  "harked  hack"  to  English 
models.  After  the  establishment  of  newspapers 
(see  Newspapers),  which  runs  back  to  the  year 
1704,  the  sad  necessity  of  journalism  (q.v.) 
compelled  the  press  to  create  every  week  a 
given  number  of  square  inches  of  what  is  called 
"matter."  Thus,  there  appeared  in  the  three 
cities  a  few  of  those  writers  who  have  to  write 
as  much  when  they  have  nothing  to  say  as  when 
they  eagerly  proclaim  something  not  known  to 
the  world  before. 

It  was  not  until  1555  that  in  the  printed 
books  of  England  the  first  fruits  of  the  dis- 
covery of  America  appear.  Richard  Eden  then 
published  his  translation  of  Peter  Martyr's  'Dec- 
ades,' and  he  adds  to  them  some  new  narra- 
tives of  voyages  not  described  in  the  original. 
An  English  translation  of  Rihaut's  'Florida' 
was  printed  in  1563.  In  1576  the  first  edition 
of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert's  plea  for  a  northwest 
passage  appeared,  and  an  account  of  Frobisher's 
voyages  was  published  in  1578.  In  1582  we 
touch  solid  ground  as  we  come  upon  the  name 
of  Hakluyt.  The  Island  of  Roanoke  has  the 
honor  of  furnishing  the  first  original  American 
work  to  English  literature.  The  four  letters 
of  Ralph  Lane,  who  was  the  first  commander  of 
Raleigh's  first  colony,  are  the  oldest  American 
writings  now  extant  of  any  Englishman  and 
were  perhaps  the  first  ever  written.  They  were 
written  12  Aug.  1585  from  what  he  calls  Porte 
Ferdynando.  One  of  them  was  to  the  famous 
Sir  Philip  Sidney.  They  were  printed  in  i860 
for  the  first  time  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
American  Antiquarian  Society.  The  English 
archives  have  now  been  thoroughly  searched 
and  have  probably  yielded  up  all  that  can  be 
found  in  them  of  intercourse  with  America  in 
this  mythical  century.  There  are  two  or  three 
narratives  of  the  adventures  of  sailors  who 
straggled  from  Mexico,  where  the  Spaniards 
had  made  them  prisoners,  to  the  fisheries  of  the 
northeast,  where  they  were  relieved  by  the  fish- 
ermen. The  earliest  of  these  is  dated  in  the 
year  1582.  In  the  collections  of  Hakluyt  and 
Purchas  will  be  found  other  narratives  of  a 
similar  character  which  struggled  into  print 
in  one  way  or  another.  Professor  Tyler  in  his 
admirable  survey  of  the  subject,  places  the  year 
of  the  birth  of  American  literature  in  the  ode 
of  Michael  Drayton,  published  in  1607,  the  year 
always  assigned  as  the  birthday  of  the  nation, 
the  year  of  the  birth  of  Virginia,  the  year  of 
John  Smith   and   Powhatan  and   Pocahontas. 

The  history  and  criticism  which  belong  to 
this  subject  have  been  admirably  handled  by  the 
Messrs.  Duyckinck,  by  Professor  Tyler's  'His- 
tory of  American  Literature  from  Colonial 
Times.'  by  Mr.  Kettell,  who  has  been  named, 
and  by  Professor  Charles  F.  Richardson's 
'American    Literature'     (1607-1885).     It    must 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


be  enough  here  to  say  that  Captain  John  Smith 
in  his  various  accounts  of  Virginia  and  of  his 
voyages  on  the  coast,  created  a  real  interest  in 
that  "brave  new  world  which  hath  such  people 
in  it."  Dr.  Tyler  refers  also  to  George  Percy, 
William  Strachey,  Alexander  Whitaker,  John 
Pory,  and  George  Sandys.  The  original  edi- 
tions of  the  publications  of  these  men  are  now 
among  the  most  interesting  nuggets  of  the 
book  collectors.  The  Hakluyt  Society  has  re- 
published many  of  them  and  has  proved  its  value 
to  the  students  of  our  early  history.  There  is 
one  interesting  tract  of  Strachey 's  which  would 
answer  one  pathetic  question.  He  says,  "Before 
I  have  done  I  will  tell  you  the  story  of  the  lost 
colony."  But  in  nothing  that  has  been  found  of 
Strachey's  is  that  history  told. 

That  school  of  historians  whose  habit  is  to 
draw  a  blue  pencil,  as  the  trade  says,  across 
everything  entertaining  in  history  is  fond  of 
stamping  John  Smith  as  a  liar  wherever  he  goes 
outside  Sandy  Hook  or  Lincolnshire  or  the 
Strand.  It  is  the  fashion  of  to-day  to  throw  the 
story  of  Pocahontas  overboard  and  even  Dr. 
Tyler,  who  is  sympathetic,  calls  it  the  "fable 
of  Pocahontas."  But  this  is  to  be  said,  when 
IOO  men  trained  like  cockneys,  embarked  on  an 
unknown  sea,  explored  an  unknown  bay,  tried 
the  adventure  of  an  unknown  river,  talked  in 
an  unknown  language  with  a  savage  chief  who 
has  never  heard  of  such  people  before,  the  in- 
cidents of  such  acts  when  written  by  them  will 
not  be  exactly  like  those  of  a  London  counting- 
room  or  of  a  college  lecture  room.  The  Hunga- 
rian gentlemen,  I  believe,  find  Smith's  account 
of  Hungary  and  its  Turkish  wars  intelligible 
and  reliable.  Smith's  surveys  of  Massachusetts 
Bay  are  entirely  intelligible  and  show  an  ac- 
curate acquaintance  with  the  region  which  he 
describes.  Now,  it  is  hardly  fair  when  you 
can  verify  an  old  author's  personal  narrative 
in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  to  say  in  the  tenth  case 
that  he  is  a  liar,  simply  because  you  have  no 
material  for  verification,  on  the  one  hand,  or 
contradiction,  on  the  other.  Close  after  the  little 
series  of  Virginian  writers  came  the  series  of 
the  Massachusetts  historians.  They  also  have 
been  most  carefully  edited ;  and  it  is  now  only 
by  a  fortunate  accident  that  a  student  of  to-day 
is  able  to  add  any  anecdote  new  to  other  students 
regarding  the  first  generation  of  New  England. 
The  journal  of  William  Bradford,  one  of  the  first 
governors  of  the  Plymouth  Colony,  has  a  story 
which  is  dramatic.  With  a  fortunate  prescience 
of  the  value  of  every  word  which  related  to  the 
Plymouth  emigration,  William  Bradford  wrote 
the  'History  of  Plymouth  Plantation.1  His 
sons  and  indeed  all  the  people  of  the  old  colony 
knew  of  the  exceeding  worth  of  this  volume. 
It  was  used  by  Morton,  Prince,  and  Hutchin- 
son and  the  others  of  our  earlier  historians.  A 
great  part  of  it  was  copied  and  from  the  copy 
thus  made  it  was  consulted  by  our  historians 
till  the  year  1855.  In  that  year  a  quotation 
from  it,  which  was  not  in  our  copies,  appeared 
in  Bishop  Wilberforce's  history  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church.  On  inquiry  it  proved  that  this 
gentleman  had  consulted  the  original  which 
was  in  the  Library  of  the  Bishop  of  London  in 
Fulham  Palace.  He  immediately  gave  permis- 
sion that  the  whole  should  be  copied  on  the 
request  of  Mr.  Charles  Deane.  Subsequently, 
as  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  Senator  Hoar,  the 
various   authorities    in    England   gave   back   the 


precious  manuscript  to  the  State  of  Massachu- 
setts, and  it  is  now  one  of  the  treasures  most 
sacredly  preserved  in  the  State  House  in  Bos- 
ton. As  Dr.  Tyler  calls  Drayton's  ode  the  be- 
ginning of  American  literature,  the  Massachu- 
setts people  may  well  call  William  Bradford's 
chronicle  the  beginning  of  the  literature  of  New 
England.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  however, 
that  the  letters  containing  the  accounts  of 
Gosnold's  unsuccessful  colony  in  1602  were 
written  before  the  time  when  Bradford  began  to 
write  his  history. 

When  the  larger  colony  of  Massachusetts 
Bay  was  formed  the  general  court  of  that  col- 
ony, according  to  a  very  early  record,  directs 
that  paper  books  shall  be  furnished  for  pre- 
serving all  journals  by  the  first  settlers.  For- 
tunately for  their  successors,  Governor  John 
Winthrop  in  the  midst  of  all  his  other  cares 
used  his  manuscript  books,  and  his  notes  made 
almost  daily  are  now  cited  as  Winthrop's  'His- 
tory of  New  England.'  They  cover  the  period 
from  29  March  1630,  when  he  sailed  from 
England,  to  11  Nov.  1648.  It  is  a  con- 
venient aid  to  memory  that  Winthrop's 
death  followed  close  on  the  execution  of  Charles 
the  First.  Sadly  enough  all  the  other  blank 
books  thus  furnished  seem  to  have  served  other 
purposes  from  that  for  which  they  were  in- 
tended. They  were  perhaps,  used  for  sermons 
now  forgotten,  or  possibly  for  cartridges  so 
soon  as  cartridges  were  invented.  Such  mate- 
rials for  the  early  history  as  have  been  pre- 
served have  generally  been  printed  by  the  care 
of  historical  societies  or  similar  agencies.  There 
is  a  charm  about  them  such  as  belongs  to  all 
fresh  narrative  where  the  writers  are  thinking 
of  the  thing  done  and  not  of  the  methods  of 
expressing  it.  This  charm  which  hangs  around 
Columbus'  'Letters'  ;  Sir  Thomas  More's 
'Utopia'  ;  Defoe's  'Robinson  Crusoe' ;  Swift's 
'Gulliver's  Travels,'  is  the  same  charm  which 
is  to  be  found  in  Purchas  and  Hakluyt  and  the 
early  narratives  of  those  who  wrote  by  the  light 
of  a  pine  knot  with  pens  made  from  a  bird's 
wing.  In  such  simple  utterances  we  are  to  look 
for  the  first  handiwork  of  American  literature. 

The  first  graduates  of  Harvard  College  made 
a  class  of  nine  young  men,  six  of  whom  sought 
their  fortunes  in  Europe.  The  year  of  their 
Commencement  was  1642,  and  the  theses  are 
preserved  in  which  according  to  the  custom  of 
their  time,  they  offered  to  defend  54  propositions 
against  all  comers.  It  has  been  observed  by 
modern  critics  that  all  these  propositions  are 
now  known  to  be  false.  This  is  a  somewhat 
cynical  statement  with  regard  to  them.  But 
when  one  learns  that  these  young  gentlemen 
were  prepared  to  prove  that  Hebrew  is  the 
mother  of  languages,  one  looks  with  caution 
upon  their  courageous  statements  on  other 
points  with  regard  to  the  heavens  or  the  earth, 
the  sea  or  the  skies.  Four  of  the  number  be- 
came clergymen.  The  name  most  distinguished 
in  history  is  that  of  Sir  George  Downing,  who 
did  not  distinguish  himself  for  the  courage  of 
his  convictions. 

As  early  as  1639,  the  government  of  the 
colony  had  cared  for  its  future  education 
hy  the  establishment  at  Cambridge  of  a 
printing  plant.  This  was  done  almost  si- 
multaneously with  the  establishment  of  Har- 
vard College  by  the  same  authority.  And  it 
was  a  good  omen  that  the  first  publication  ac- 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


credited  to  the  new  printing  house  was  the 
'Freeman's  Oath,'  as  ordered  by  the  general 
court,  to  be  taken  by  those  who  were  chosen 
into  the  company.  Universal  suffrage  was  not 
yet  dreamed  of  even  by  Sir  Thomas  More. 
The  first  book  which  can  be  called  a  book  which 
appeared  from  the  press,  was  the  'Bay  Psalm 
Book,'  the  work  of  Thomas  Welde,  John 
Eliot,    and    Richard    Mather. 

John  Eliot  already  looking  forward  to  his 
work  among  the  Indians  was  making  his  first 
studies  of  the  language  of  the  people  for  whom 
he  cared.  The  modern  students  speak  of  this 
language  as  the  Natick  dialect  of  the  Algonquin 
tongue.  Eliot's  work  was  of  the  first  impor- 
tance and  before  he  died  the  publications  in 
that  language  alone  of  books  printed  either  in 
our  Cambridge  or  in  London  makes  a  depart- 
ment in  literature  of  more  than  30  volumes. 
These  books  were  printed  to  be  used  in  wig- 
wams and  log  cabins.  The  copies  which  strayed 
into  libraries  were  but  few  and  those  Indian 
books  of  that  century  which  remain  are  among 
the  rarest  treasures  of  the  collectors.  Of  Eliot's 
'New  Testament'  in  the  first  edition  there 
are  but  14  copies.  Of  the  second  revised  edi- 
tion, published  more  elegantly,  there  are  39 
copies.  The  work  that  Eliot  gave  in  translat- 
ing the  Bible  into  the  Algonquin  tongue  has 
been  spoken  of  more  than  once  as  work  thrown 
away.  But  to  say  this  is  absurd.  Eliot  proved 
himself  to  be  one  of  the  first  philologists  of  any 
period  of  literature.  His  analysis  of  the  Indian 
language  is  to  this  moment  a  guide  to  those 
who  choose  to  study  it.  With  the  progress  of 
discovery  it  has  proved  that  the  Algonquin 
language,  of  which  the  Massachusetts  language 
was  a  dialect,  was  the  language  of  more  than  half 
the  Indians  of  our  part  of  the  Continent.  To 
this  hour  it  is  spoken  by  the  Catawbas  who  are 
living  in  North  Carolina,  the  Pamunkeys  who 
are  living  in  Virginia,  by  the  Delawares  who 
have  been  carried  from  Delaware  Bay  to  Kan- 
sas, by  the  Micmacs,  Penobscots  and  other  In- 
dians of  Maine  and  of  the  northeast,  and  even 
by  the  Arapahoes  in  the  west.  Northward  and 
westward  it  is  spoken  as  far  as  the  tribes  of  the 
great  Ojibwa  family,  far  beyond  Lake  Superior, 
and  often  near  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Of  300,000 
Indians,  more  or  less,  now  in  the  territory  of 
the  United  States,  more  than  half  would  have 
been  understood  in  conversation  by  Massasoit 
and  Philip.  An  admirable  bibliography  of 
Algonquin  literature  has  been  prepared  by  James 
Constantine  Pilling.  It  is  published  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Ethnology.  The 
work  of  devoted  Moravian  ministers  in  Penn- 
sylvania in  the  same  lines  belongs  rather  to  the 
next  century. 

Among  the  early  settlers  of  Massachusetts 
was  Anne  Bradstrect,  a  girl  of  18.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Thomas  Dudley,  who  became 
the  second  governor  of  Massachusetts.  She  was 
the  person  called  the  "Tenth  Muse"  by  Cotton 
Mather.  Her  poems,  many  of  which  were  writ- 
ten before  she  came  to  America,  are  an  interest- 
ing and  curious  memorial  of  the  better  educated 
colonists.  She  lived  for  most  of  her  life 
at  Andover  in  Middlesex  County  in  Mas- 
sachusetts Bay.  The  most  diligent  search  in 
her  poems  shows  hardly  any  reference 
to  the  outward  aspect  of  the  country  in 
which  she  lived.  Her  flowers  and  her 
birds  belong  to  the  flora  and  fauna  of  England 


and  not  of  Middlesex  County.  Between  1642 
and  1700  Increase  Mather  and  Cotton  Mather, 
are  the  names  most  often  referred  to  as  we  lock 
back  on  our  literary  history.  Of  Increase 
Mather  we  have  in  print  85  publications,  mostly 
separate  sermons.  Of  Cotton  Mather  the  col- 
lection is  much  larger,  the  number  of  titles 
being  382.  The  modern  fashion  is  to  speak  of 
the  Mathers  with  a  sneer  as  bigots  and  to  dis- 
miss them  from  the  lofty  consideration  of  our 
time.  But  whoever  remembers  the  duties  to 
which  they  had  to  put  their  hands  is  disposed 
to  regard  them  more  favorably.  There  was  but 
little  subdivision  of  work  for  the  men  who  had 
been  educated  to  be  the  leaders  of  their  country. 
And  certainly  some  allowance  is  to  be  made  for 
ignorance  of  the  laws  of  electricity  when  the 
teacher  whom  you  are  judging  has  to  study  his 
electricity  as  Cotton  Mather  did  while  he  en- 
courages soldiers  for  warfare,  while  he  checks 
the  smallpox  by  inoculation,  while  he  is  writ- 
ing the  history  of  the  past  and  is  caring  for  the 
poverty  of  to-day.  Franklin  says  in  a  letter  of 
his  to  Cotton  Mather's  son,  that  if  he  himself 
had  been  of  any  value  to  the  world,  he  owed 
it  to  Cotton  Mather's  'Essays  to  Do  Good.' 
It  is  rather  hard  to  throw  Cotton  Mather  over- 
board either  as  a  quack  or  a  fanatic  when  such 
a  man  as  Franklin  was  willing  to  write  for 
him  such  an  epitaph.  It  is  fortunate  for  this 
generation  that  at  a  comparatively  early  period 
of  his  life  Mather  brought  together  in  his 
Magnalia  historical  papers  which  he  had  already 
written,  some  of  which  had  been  printed.  The 
date  of  the  first  edition  of  the  Magnalia  is 
1702,  but  the  work  belongs  almost  entirely  to 
the  17th  century.  Cotton  Mather  was  himself 
born  in  the  year  1663,  so  that  a  good  deal  of 
his  record  of  the  history  of  the  first  settlement 
is  put  on  paper  at  second  hand.  Occasionally 
an  unfortunate  error  here  has  puzzled  his 
readers.  For  instance,  before  the  discovery  of 
the  original  Bradford  manuscript,  we  owed 
to  Mather  the  statement  that  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  came  from  Ansterfield  in  the  county  of 
Yorkshire.  This  proved  to  be  the  misprint  of 
the  London  printer  for  Ansterfield.  It  was 
only  on  the  discovery  of  this  error  by  the  late 
William  Hunter  that  the  American  pilgrimages 
to  Scrooby  and  Austerfield  begun.  A  good  deal 
of  injustice  has  been  done  Mather  from  what 
is  in  itself  a  comparative  trifle,  that  his  great 
book  has  not  yet  been  edited  by  any  competent 
editor.  Even  the  detail  that  there  is  no  decent 
index  to  it  has  greatly  diminished  its  usefulness 
to  historians  in  this  generation.  They  ought  to 
remember  that  he  was  but  39  years  old  when  it 
was  printed,  and  the  corrections  to  his  work 
which  a  man  makes  between  39  years  of  age  and 
60  nowhere  appear  in  it.  The  reader  is  referred 
to  the  articles  Mather,  Increase;  Mather. 
Cotton,  and  Mather,  Samuel,  which  in  their 
place  state  what  these  men  did  for  the  growing 
colony  during  the  period  when  it  ceased  to  be 
a  trading  company  and  became,  really  an  inde- 
pendent State. 

Thomas  Hutchinson,  a  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, was  a  man  of  letters.  And  if  he  had 
not  been  the  unfortunate  governor  whose  dis- 
loyalty to  the  State  gained  for  him  the  hatred 
of  those  around  him,  he  would  have  been  re- 
membered with  gratitude  as  such.  He  was  an 
enthusiast  about  the  history  of  the  Pilgrims 
and  of  the  fathers  of  Massachusetts.     The  first 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


volume  of  his  'History  of  Massachusetts'  was 
published  in  Boston  in  1764,  and  the  second 
volume  in  1767.  Alas,  he  was  not  equal  to  the 
duties  of  a  great  crisis,  he  deserted  his  country- 
men, and  by  his  country  was  branded  as  a 
traitor.  But  for  this  he  would  be  named  to-day 
as  the  first  in  the  series  of  distinguished  Ameri- 
can  historians. 

The  assiduous  and  successful  attention 
which  has  been  paid  to  the  century  of  coloniza- 
tion has  very  naturally  given  to  New  England 
readers  a  better  history  of  what  passed  in  the 
17th  century  than  we  have  of  the  first  half  of 
the  18th  century.  During  that  time  the  people 
of  the  United  States  were  involved  in  war  with 
France.  This  meant  for  them  a  frontier  war 
in  which  every  savage  was  commissioned  by 
French  or  Jesuit  authorities  to  descend  upon 
the  borders  of  the  English  settlers.  Excepting 
the  stories  of  frontier  warfare,  there  was  not 
much  to  write  history  about.  There  are  a  few 
exceptions  but  in  general  the  crown  governors 
sent  over  by  William  and  Mary,  Queen  Anne, 
or  by  the  first  Georges  were  but  a  poor  set. 
They  initiated  nothing  and  were  well  pleased 
if  they  could  avoid  a  quarrel  with  the  colonial 
assemblies.  The  one  distinguished  royal  gov- 
ernor is  William  Shirley,  who  filled  so  well  the 
duties  almost  unexpected,  of  a  commander  in 
chief  of  North  America.  So  it  happens 
that  in  reviewing  the  literature  of  the 
country  we  have  no  longer  such  unaffected 
and  simple  narrative.  But  we  find  ourselves 
more  in  the  walks  of  religious  speculation  and 
of  theology.  In  the  front  of  the  writers  on 
such  subjects  is  Jonathan  Edwards,  who  chal- 
lenged the  attention  of  the  learned  in  the  Eng- 
lish-speaking world  by  studies  and  results  which 
have  become  famous.  In  the  penury  of  frontier 
villages,  and  living  day  by  day  in  what  seems 
very  petty  surroundings,  this  distinguished  man 
elaborated  his  studies  on  the  divine  counsels 
and  placed  his  poor  limits  on  the  infinite  in 
methods  and  language  which  will  survive  all 
other  American  literature  of  the  first  half  of  the 
century.  It  is  inevitable  perhaps  that  in  the 
midst  of  such  discussions  of  the  Idea,  there 
shall  appear  on  the  other  side  of  the  horizon 
discussions  of  the  fact,  or  of  those  realities  which 
men  can  see  with  the  eyes  and  hear  with  their 
ears.  And  in  our  case,  Benjamin  Franklin  was 
born  into  the  world  in  the  year  1706.  Before 
he  was  a  man  he  was  well  advanced  in  those 
studies  of  the  English  language  which  gave  him 
afterward  his  power  to  express  himself  to  men. 
Long  before  he  was  a  statesman  and  diplomatist, 
he  was  conducting  his  experiments  on  electricity 
and  when  he  drew  the  lightning  from  the  skies, 
he  attracted  the  attention  of  all  the  learned 
world  of  his  time.  When  we  speak  of  the 
American  authors  of  those  50  years  the  fame 
of  Edwards  and  Franklin  overshadows  all  the 
rest.  With  the  discussions  attendant  on  the 
American  Revolution,  a  new  school  of  author- 
ship began.  It  now  seems  clear  enough  that 
the  more  thoughtful  leaders  of  English  opinion 
were  from  the  very  beginning  amused,  not  to 
say  delighted,  with  the  simple  dignity  with 
which  such  men  as  the  Adamses.  Franklin.  Dick- 
inson, and  the  great  Virginia  statesmen  con- 
ducted the  discussions,  whether  of  matters  of 
trade,  of  taxation,  or  of  government. 

"History,  my  Lord."  said  Lord   Chatham,  in 
his  famous  address  to  the  House  of  Lords,  "has 


been  my  favorite  study.  ...  I  must  avow 
that  in  all  my  reading,  and  I  have  read 
Thucydides  and  have  studied  and  admired  the 
master  states  of  the  world,  for  solidity  of  rea- 
son, force  of  sagacity,  and  wisdom  of  conclu- 
sion, no  nation  or  body  of  men  can  stand  in 
preference  to  the  General  Congress  at  Philadel- 
phia. The  histories  of  Greece  and  Rome  give 
us  nothing  equal  to  it." 

To  this  moment,  indeed,  no  careful  student 
of  constitutional  law  or  of  the  foundations  of 
states  can  go  forward  in  any  intelligent  inquiry 
without  reading  with  care  the  work  of  the 
American  statemen  of  that  time. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  at  the  same 
time,  perhaps  from  the  same  cause,  the  theo- 
logical literature  of  America  becomes  less  and 
less  interesting.  The  mind  and  heart  and  soul 
and  strength  of  the  educated  men  of  America 
was  steadily  drifting  into  an  interest  of  the  pres- 
ent relations  between  God  and  man  and  the 
present  sway  of  the  eternal  law,  much  more 
important  to  men  and  women,  and  among  the 
rest,  of  men  of  letters,  than  theological  expla- 
nations of  the  secrets  of  the  universe.  The 
student  of  to-day  finds  it  worth  while  to  read 
the  publications  of  Thomas  Mayhew,  of  Boston, 
of  Dr.  Witherspoon,  of  Princeton,  of  Dr.  Sam- 
uel Johnson,  of  New  York.  But  this  is  not  be- 
cause he  cares  so  much  for  what  is  called  theol- 
ogy in  its  narrow  definition,  but  because  these 
men  enter  as  champions  of  the  people  into  that 
larger  theology  of  men  who  really  believe  that 
they  themselves  and  all  men  may  be  partakers 
of  the  divine  nature. 

Franklin  with  his  genuine  instinct  for  "To- 
gether'^ did  not  live  long  in  Philadelphia  with- 
out bringing  together  one  and  another  club  of 
men  of  inquiring  disposition.  One  of  these 
clubs  still  exists  in  the  American  Philosophical 
Society  (q.v.).  Another  founded  the  fire  de- 
partment of  Philadelphia.  And,  indeed,  most 
of  the  activities  which  had  given  that  city  dis- 
tinction, even  before  1775,  may  be  traced  to  such 
origins.  Franklin's  own  newspaper,  the  'Even- 
ing Post,'  may  be  spoken  of  as  really  a  literary 
journal.  'Poor  Richard's  Almanac'  (q.v.)  was 
not  only  an  index  of  time  and  weather,  but  it 
was  in  its  way  a  philosophical  treatise.  It  was 
soon  translated  into  French.  Le  Bonhomme 
Richard  was  known  in  French  hamlets  which 
knew  nothing  of  the  tea  tax  or  the  stamp  tax. 
So  soon  as  peace  was  declared  such  institutions 
as  the  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 
as  the  Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  as 
Tammany  in  New  York,  which  was  originally 
a  scientific  and  philanthropic  institution,  came 
into  being.  The  governors  of  the  colleges  took 
new  courage :  and  Commencements  and  the  cele- 
brations which  accompanied  them  gave  good 
occasions  for  such  appeals  or  lamentations  with 
regard  to  an  American  literature,  or  the  want 
of  it,  as  gave  a  healthy  stimulus  to  the  literary 
life  of  the  new  nation. 

A  curious  illustration  of  the  increasing  con- 
fidence in  home  and  the  literature  of  home,  as 
years  went  by.  would  be  found  in  the  series  of 
college  addresses  of  which  the  first  were  pub- 
lished at  Cambridge  in  1796.  The  Phi  Beta 
Kappa  Society,  founded  in  1776  at  William  and 
Mary  College  in  Virginia,  soon  outgrew  its  first 
limitations ;  and  its  annual  exercises  at  Cam- 
bridge and  New  Haven  were  attended  by  grad- 
uate members  who  liked  to  renew  their  college 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


memories.  Brandies  of  it  were  founded  in 
Brown  College  in  Providence,  in  Dartmouth 
College  in  New  Hampshire,  and  as  years  passed 

on,  in  other  similar  institutions.  The  early 
addresses  by  scholarly  men  in  these  societies 
were  almost  uniformly  exhortation  that  the  peo- 
ple of  America  might  pay  more  attention  to 
scholarship  and  literature.  Meanwhile,  and 
under  such  incentives,  there  grew  up  of  course 
in  one  centre  or  another,  small  coteries  of 
literary  men  and  literary  women.  With  an 
amusing  regard  to  tradition  such  men  seemed 
to  have  felt  that  there  could  be  no  literature 
without  an  epic  or  two  on  which  it  should  be 
built  Timothy  Dwight's  'Conquest  of  Canaan,' 
Joel  Barlow's  'Columbiad,'  which  are  all  but 
forgotten,  and  several  others  which  are  forgot- 
ten, were  the  results,  almost  of  a  sense  of  duty 
in  this  regard.     No  one  can  suppose  that  either  of 

e  men  was  inspired  by  any  divine  inrlatus 
of  the  poet.  As  you  read  the  dreary  lines  you 
feci  that  the  writer  thought  that  there  must  be 
an  epic  and  that  because  there  must  be  he  would 
write  it,  with  the  same  feeling  that  a  column 
of  soldiers  storms  a  redoubt.  By  the  side  of 
such  men,  however,  there  came  to  be  naturally 
nun  and  women  who  loved  to  clothe  great 
thoughts  or  charming  with  fitting  dress.  There 
came,  more  and  more,  to  such  men  and  women, 
as  there  were,  more  and  more  readers  to  sym- 
pathize with  them.  And  as  popular  education 
and  wealth  and  leisure,  and  above  all,  freedom, 
brought  upon  the  stage  such  men  and  women, 
the  literature  of  America  such  as  it  is  to-day  was 
born. 

It  is  interesting  to  see  that  almost  all  of  the 
early  books  which  we  should  now  class  as 
"efforts"  in  literature,  were  published  by  sub- 
scription. And  there  is  something  pathetic  in 
the  memoirs  of  the  earlier  literary  men  where 
they  describe  their  personal  visits  from  place 
to  place  as  they  solicited  subscriptions  to  pay 
for  the  printing  of  their  books.  President 
Dwight  himself  visited  the  camp  of  Washing- 
tun  in  1775  and  obtained  the  subscription  of 
Washington  and  the  other  distinguished  men 
around  him  for  the  publication  of  the  'Conquest 
of  Canaan.'  The  reader  must  remember  that 
the  practical  introduction  of  stereotyping  in 
England  or  America  is  as  late  as  the  beginning 
of  the  19th  century.  It  was  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  test  the  market  in  some  way  when  a 
book  was  first  printed,  so  that  the  printer  or 
publisher  or  author  might  know  how  many 
copies  should  be  printed.  It  must  be  remem- 
bered, also,  that  the  printers  had  no  capital 
which  would  enable  them  to  keep  in  type  the 
cumbrous  pages  of  a  book  which  passed  the  size 
of  a  pamphlet.  Paine's  'Common  Sense,'  in 
1776,  was  probably  the  first  hook  which  attained 
at  once  a  circulation  in  the  least  approaching 
the  large  editions  of  to-day.  The  trade,  as  the 
hook-selling  community  still  likes  to  call  itself, 
now  begins  putting  out  as  a  feeler  a  small  edi- 
tion printed  from  stereotypes.  In  our  day  in  a 
vault  in  the  side  of  a  mountain,  or  perhaps 
in  a  vault  under  a  sidewalk  we  preserve  such 
plates  from  which  a  book  has  been  printed,  and 
according  as  the  demand  may  prove,  new  edi- 
tions can  be  issued  at  a  comparatively  small 
expense.  But  up  to  the  year  1813  there  was  no 
such  resource. 

A  great  publisher  is  on  record  as  saying  that 
when  you  have  sold  5,000  copies  of  a  book,  you 


know  ynii  can  sell  ioo.ooo.  But  that  before 
the  book  is  printed  no  man  or  woman  can  do 
more  than  guess  whether  it  will  haw  1,000 
leaders  or  1,000.000.  There  is  a  great  truth  hid- 
den in  this  exaggeration.  See  American  Pub- 
lishing. 

The  pecuniary  poverty  of  the  printers  of  the 
end  of  the  18th  and  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century  caused  many  American  authors  to  go  to 
England  fur  the  printing  of  their  production. 
Barlow's  'Columbiad'  was  printed  in  England 
lrving's  books  appeared  first  in  London.  Indeed 
Irving's  wide  reputation  may  be  said  to  have 
been  English  bed  ire  it  was  American.  And  he 
spent  much  of  his  early  life  in  Europe,  perhaps 
from  the  feeling  that  for  a  man  of  letters  Eu- 
rope was  a  home  while  America  was  a  wilder- 
ness. James  Fenimore  Cooper  made  Europe 
his  home  for  many  years,  feeling  apparently  that 
he  could  not  find  society  of  his  own  kind  in  his 
own  land.  The  same  is  true  of  other  American 
writers  as  far  down  as  the  thirties  of  the  10th 
century.  That  was  the  worse  for  the  infant 
literature  of  the  nation.  Writer-  watched  pain- 
fully for  the  expressions  of  English  criticism, 
and  one  line  from  a  Grub  Street  critic  was 
sweeter  to  them  and  worth  more  than  any  words 
from  their  own  countrymen.  It  is  indeed  im- 
possible to  overstate  the  effect  which  was  even- 
tually produced  by  the  "American  system,"  as  it 
was  called,  in  the  discussions  of  tariff  legisla- 
tion which  followed  the  short  war  with  England. 
From  the  moment  when  the  American  printer 
could  send  out  to  the  world  books  as  well 
printed  as  the  printers  of  England,  one  may 
trace  new  strength  in  American  authorship.  The 
International  Copyright  law  of  1801  compels  the 
publishers  of  all  books  which  claim  American 
copyright  to  print  them  in  America.  In  a  truly 
celebrated  article  in  the  'Edinburgh  Review' 
of  1820,  of  which  no  other  line  is  remembered, 
Sydney  Smith  said,  "Who  reads  an  American 
book?  who  looks  upon  an  American  picture?" 
The  men  who  painted  American  pictures 
were  very  mad,  as  their  vernacular  would  say ; 
and  the  men  and  women  who  wrote  American 
books  were  equally  mad.  The  writers  had  a 
better  chance  to  express  their  anger  than  the 
painters.  The  sneer  implied  was  the  more  cut- 
ting because  for  most  purposes  of  literature 
it  was  true.  Possibly  it  had  some  share  in  the 
growth,  almost  from  that  moment,  of  a  litera- 
ture which  can  fairly  be  called  American.  The 
worst  of  it  was,  perhaps,  that  Sydney  Smith  was 
in  an  advance  guard  of  the  Liberals  of  England. 
He  could  not  be  called  the  product  of  an  "effete 
civilization,"  and  his  words  could  not  be  ascribed 
to  Tory  jealousy.  American  readers  had  known 
how  to  prize  him  and  they  read  his  articles  if 
they  did  not  read  their  own.  But  really  an 
American  author  had  little  right  to  complain  so 
long  as  Mr.  Cooper  called  a  woman  a  female 
simply  because  Walter  Scott  did,  so  long  as  our 
writers  knew  more  of  Robin-red-breasts  and 
bulfinches  than  they  knew  of  bluejays  or  mock- 
ing birds,  so  long  as  their  best  actors  came  from 
England  as  every  play  upon  their  stage  was  Eng- 
lish, and  so  long  as  their  scholarly  men  read  the 
'Edinburgh  Review'  and  the  'London  Quar- 
terly' and  the  'New  Monthly  Magazine'  as  they 
rend  no  American  journal.  The  American  col- 
lege boy  knew  much  more  of  the  loves  and  hates 
of  literary  men  in  England,  one  might  almost  say, 
than    the    English    boy   of    the    same   time    did. 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


The  English  reviews  and  magazines  passed  from 
hand  to  hand  in  the  American  reading  rooms 
while  their  American  rivals  died  a  slow  death 
due  to  the  incompetency  of  most  of  the  writers. 
But  as  the  19th  century  advanced  the  tide 
turned.  Dr.  Holmes  in  a  happy  phrase,  quoted 
as  often  as  Sydney  Smith's  which  has  been  cited, 
fixes  Emerson's  first  Phi  Beta  Kappa  address  as 
"our  intellectual  declaration  of  independence." 
I  heard  the  address  in  1837,  and  half  a  century 
afterward  I  heard  his  second  Phi  Beta  address. 
Whoever  will  compare  the  two  will  see  what 
Dr.  Holmes  means.  To  the  thoughtful  reader 
now  it  seems  impossible  that  Emerson's  first 
address  should  have  seemed  extravagant  or  in 
any  way,  indeed,  out  of  the  common  to  the  men 
of  that  time.     But  it  did  seem  so  then. 

It  is  true  that  ever  since  the  century  began 
such  addresses  on  Commencement  Days  or  on 
other  literary  occasions,  have  still  given  four 
fifths  of  the  time  to  pathetic  appeals  to  young 
men  to  create  an  American  literature.  The 
orators,  generally,  clergymen  or  lawyers,  did  not 
understand  that  such  books  as  Lewis  and 
Clark's  journals  were  American  literature,  that 
Pitkin's  statistics  was  a  book  of  American  litera- 
ture, that  Flint's  'Mississippi,'  or  Pike's  'Ad- 
ventures' were  vigorous  bits  of  proper  national 
literature,  that  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  or  John  Adams'  proposals  for  the  State 
constitutions  were  American  literature,  as  much 
as  the  Waverley  Novels  belong  to  Scotch  litera- 
ture, or  Petrarch's  'Sonnets'  to  Italian  literature. 
But  by  the  middle  of  the  19th  century,  people 
had  found  out  that  literature  is  not  a  thing  by 
itself  to  be  worshipped  and  loved  like  some 
lonely  classical  statue  in  some  separate  shrine 
in  a  gallery,  but  that  literature  is  simply  the 
expression  of  what  is.  In  the  matter  of  Ameri- 
can literature  it  proved  that  Americans  had  to 
state  for  the  world  the  foundation  principles  of 
government.  They  had  to  describe  for  the  world 
physical  features  of  a  continent  of  which  the 
larger  world  knew  nothing.  And  even  the  lan- 
guage in  which  they  spoke  would  bear  the  marks 
of  the  climate,  the  soil,  and  the  history  of  that 
continent.  So  soon  as  we  throw  aside  the  follies 
of  talking  about  literature  as  literature  and  of 
worshipping  it  as  a  separate  idol,  so  soon  Amer- 
ican literature  can  be  spoken  of  as  a  thing 
in  any  sort  distinct  from  the  literature  of  the 
feudal  system  or  other  literature  of  the  ancient 
world. 

To  review  in  the  very  briefest  way  the  lit- 
erary advance  of  the  nation  from  the  era  of 
independence  to  the  9th  of  March  1904,  we  have 
to  look  first  at  the  speeches  and  letters  and 
pamphlets  of  the  statesmen;  and  next  at  the 
reports  of  the  explorers.  There  are  individual 
poems  and  a  few  sporadic  books  in  prose  which 
linger  in  the  remembrance  of  antiquaries, — 
Philip  Frenau's  Revolution  poems,  one  or  two 
sermons,  perhaps  may  be  classed  among  such 
memorials.  To  speak  in  a  broader  sense  the 
first  work  of  Irving  stands  as  the  first  work  in 
the  large  _  calendar  of  our  modern  literature. 
His  amusing  studies  of  early  New  York  were 
known  then,  but  the  'Sketch  Book'  as  it  was 
published  in  London  in  the  years  between  1820 
and  1822  at  once  obtained  a  wide  reputation,  both 
in  London  and  in  America.  Irving  showed 
from  the  first  that  he  could  handle  American 
subjects  with  a  pen  as  light  and  a  fancy  as 
charming    as    gave    life    to    Bracebridge    Hall 

Vol.  I—  15 


or  his  other  English  studies.  In  1825,  when 
Navarrete  first  published  in  Madrid  the  original 
documents  of  Columbus'  voyage,  Alexander  H. 
Everett,  who  was  then  our  Minister  in  Spain, 
called  Irving's  attention  to  these  invaluable 
memoirs  and  suggested  his  work  on  the  life  of 
Columbus.  Irving  went  at  once  to  Madrid  and 
was  attached  to  the  American  Legation  there 
while  he  studied  the  subject  which  is  so  closely 
identified  with  his  name.  And  afterward,  when 
the  Spanish  people  received  him  as  our  Minister 
there,  he  enjoyed  his  well  deserved  fame.  Here 
was  an  American  who  could  meet  English 
writers  on  their  own  terms.  Irving  was  master 
as  well  as  they  of  whatever  is  meant  by  style  or 
method  in  literature,  whatever  secret  of  the 
guild  there  is. 

In  our  time  there  is  no  longer  a  patron  who 
shall  endow  a  book  as  an  emperor  might  endow 
an  opera  house  at  his  capital.  For  a  time  or  a 
nation  without  patrons,  you  must  have  such 
patronage  of  the  public  in  advance  as  Dr. 
Dwight  sought  for  with  his  subscription  book ; 
or,  as  it  has  proved,  in  150  years,  you  must  have 
magazines.  This  means,  if  one  speaks  to  the 
Philistines,  that  you  cannot  have  large  whole- 
sale business,  no,  and  you  cannot  have  manu- 
factures unless  there  be  retail  business.  Dr. 
Johnson  and  Oliver  Goldsmith  had  found  this 
out  when  they  worked  for  Cave  and  the  'Gen- 
tleman's Magazine.'  (See  Periodical  Litera- 
ture.) One  and  another  adventurer  tried  the 
magazine  experiment  in  Boston,  or  Philadelphia 
or  New  York.  But  alas,  the  printers  of  the 
magazines  were  almost  as  poor  as  the  authors 
were.  The  people  of  the  country  also  were  very 
poor  in  other  affairs.  As  late  as  1834  Dr. 
Holmes  wrote  for  the  'New  England  Magazine' 
the  first  papers  in  the  'Autocrat  of  the  Break- 
fast Table.'  But  the  'New  England  Magazine,' 
even  with  such  contributors,  died  for  want  of 
readers.  The  new  series  of  the  Autocrat,  in 
1857,  begins  with  the  words,  "As  I  was  saying 
when  you  interrupted  me."  which  referred  to 
the  death  of  the  first  series  a  quarter  century 
before.  Still,  the  names  of  those  old  magazines 
are  interesting  grave  stones  which  show  the 
roadway  for  a  struggling  national  literature. 
The  'Harvard  Register'  of  1807  is  one  of  the 
earliest.  The  Lyceum  follows  the  Collegian, 
Harvardiana,  and  now  almost  every  university 
gives  this  excellent  field  for  the  tournament  of 
squires  and  even  of  pages  who  look  forward  to 
golden  spurs  of  knighthood.  A  few  lines  of  the 
Harvard  'Lyceum'  of  1810  may  be  worth  copy- 
ing. They  are  from  a  clever  parody  of  Barlow's 
'Columbiad'  and  describe  an  early  steamboat. 
They  are  among  the  boy  amusements  of  Edward 
Everett. 

So  where  high  Hudson  belts  his  hundred  hills, 
Winds  his  wide    wave,   and   York's  broad  bason  fills; 
With  engine  force  the  fluid   fields  to    plough. 
The   mighty    Steam-boat    points   his   sailless    (.row. 
Knees  from  the  winds  no  gales,  the  sea  no  tides. 
Whirls  the  wheel  oar,  and  o'er   the  river   rides. 
l,o  with  what  art  the  nice  machinery  turns. 
With    what    tierce    force    the    pitchy    pine    pole    burns. 
See  the  black  Boiler,  in  whose  darksome  womb. 
The  prison'd   water   vapours  into   fume: 
The   hollow    Cylinder,   whose   shining  side 
Cramps  the  crook'd  Chain,  and  turns  the  densing  tide: 
Etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

Of  those  of  the  magazines  proper  which  were 
manfully  and  loyally  sustained  for  many  years 
is  the  'Knickerbocker'  which  was  published  in 
New    York    monthly    for    several   years.     Most 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


of  the  authors  who  won  distinction  in  the  litera- 
ture of  the  century  made  their  maiden  contribu- 
tions to  its  pages.  In  Boston  a  beginning,  which 
proved  to  be  a  foundation,  was  made  in  the  issue 
of  the  'Monthly  Anthology,'  of  which  the  first 
number  was  printed  in  1809.  It  was  the  work 
of  a  literary  club,  and  it  is  very  creditable  to  the 
literary  life  of  the  day.  Some  original  trans- 
lations from  the  minor  poems  of  the  great  Ger- 
man poets  slipped  in.  And  by  this  time,  Amer- 
ica had  found  out  the  resources  of  the  German 
colleges.  George  Bancroft,  Frederick  Hedge, 
Edward  Everett,  Henry  F.  Quitman,  George 
Ticknor  studied  in  the  German  colleges.  The 
success  of  the  'Anthology'  and  perhaps  a  cer- 
tain jealousy  of  the  literary  tyranny  of  the 
'London  Quarterly'  and  the  'Edinburgh  Re- 
view' led  William  Tudor,  with  the  spirited 
young  fellows  who  wrote  for  the  'Anthology,' 
to  announce  the  'North  American  Review'  of 
which  the  first  number  was  published  in  1815. 
ft  may  be  said  of  the  'North  American  Review' 
that  a  desire  to  imitate  the  English  quarterlies 
weakened  it  for  perhaps  a  quarter  of  a  century. 
But  its  tone  was  always  dignified  and  on  really 
national  questions  it  was  American.  In  the 
earlier  numbers  of  the  'Review'  it  admitted 
poetry  and  some  short  articles  which  did  not 
pretend  to  be  criticism  of  books.  The  suc- 
cessive editors  of  the  'Review'  were  William 
Tudor,  Edward  Tyrrel  Channing,  Edward 
Everett,  Jared  Sparks,  John  G.  Palfrey,  Francis 
Bowen,  Andrew  Preston  Peabody  and  Alex- 
ander Everett,  and  James  Russell  Lowell.  A 
few  years  after  the  Civil  War  it  was  removed 
from  Boston  to  New  York  under  the  direc- 
tion and  charge  of  Allen  Thorndike  Rice.  In 
Philadelphia  what  was  called  the  'American 
Quarterly  Review'  was  published  under  similar 
auspices. 

Meanwhile  what  had  attracted  attention  at 
once  to  a  very  great  extent  was  the  success  of 
Cooper's  novels.  The  later  novels  of  Scott 
were  still  engaging  the  attention  of  readers  when 
Cooper's  earlier  stories  were  published.  He 
had  left  Vale  College  without  a  degree,  disgusted 
with  something  or  other  as  youngsters  are  apt 
to  be  in  colleges,  and  had  joined  the  United 
States  navy.  This  as  it  proved,  was  fortunate 
for  the  literature  of  America.  After  the  short 
war  with  England,  he  was  stationed  on  Lake 
Ontario,  which  was  at  that  time  in  the  wilder- 
ness. At  his  father's  home  he  had  already  made 
acquaintance  with  the  wrecks  of  the  Six  Nation 
Indians  (q.v.).  At  Oswego  he  fell  in  somehow 
with  the  last  of  the  Mohicans.  His  study  of  a 
real  forest  and  his  studies  of  the  forecastle 
of  American  ships  are  both  genuinely  national, 
and  although  he  could  not  resist  the  spell  of  the 
"great  enchanter,"  and  imitated  Sir  Walter  Scott 
whenever  he  got  a  chance,  the  early  Cooper 
novels  have  the  great  charm  of  being  interesting. 
To  this  hour  the  school  boy  reads  them  as  his 
grandfather  read  them  and  regards  them  among 
Ids  best  friends.  In  Cooper's  later  novels  there 
may  be  seen  a  tinge  of  ill  temper  because  be 
fancied  that  be  bad  not  been  esteemed  fairly  by 
bis  own  countrymen.  But  the  early  novels  have 
established  themselves  in  a  well  assured  place 
in  the  literature  of  bis  country.  Few  people 
remember  them,  but  it  is  said  that  the  German 
novels  on  American  subjects  by  Sealsfield  (q.v.) 
were  the  inducement  for  a  time  of  the  great 
German    emigration    which    began    as    soon    as 


these   spirited   books  began  to  be  printed.      His 
German  name  was  Karl  Posted. 

Meanwhile  the  leaders  of  the  nation  had 
found  out  that  a  republic  stands  or  falls  accord- 
ing to  the  education  of  its  people.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  estimate  the  change  produced  by  the 
early  determination  of  the  more  civilized  States 
to  improve  the  education  of  every  child  born  in 
their  borders.  At  the  beginning  of  the  century 
you  might  say  that  there  was  nobody  to  buy 
books,  even  if  angels  or  archangels  had  de- 
scended from  heaven  to  write  them.  But  even 
in  the  middle  of  the  century  an  army  of  readers, 
men  and  women,  had  been  created.  It  began  to 
be  evident  that  a  good  book  in  the  English  lan- 
guage had  more  readers  in  America  than  it  hail 
in  England.  It  began  to  appear  that  the  reputa- 
tions of  English  writers  depended  quite  :is  much 
upon  the  American  readers  as  upon  those  of  the 
British  Islands.  Scott,  Byron,  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  and  Southey,  had  more  readers  "ii 
this  side  of  the  ocean  than  on  their  own.  The 
same  was  true  later  of  Macaulay's  'History' 
and  of  other  books  of  permanent  value.  Disraeli 
said  as  early  as  1845  that  America  was  the  pres- 
ent posterity  for  the  Englishman, —  that  an  Eng- 
lish author  knew  wdiat  posterity  would  think  of 
him  by  learning  what  the  American  of  to-day 
thought  of  him.  The  creation  of  such  a  body 
of  readers  led  to  the  growth  of  a  genuine  Amer- 
ican demand  for  wdiat  could  be  called  an  Amer- 
ican literature.  A  school  of  history  grew  up 
first  in  which  Irving  had  led  the  way  in  which 
the  great  historical  addresses  of  Webster  and 
the  Evcretts  and  other  orators  were  an  essential 
part.  The  subserviency  to  English  critics  di- 
minished as  more  and  more  scholars  came  from 
France  and  Germany.  It  would  be  fair  to  say 
that  Bancroft,  Prescott  and  Motley,  as  histo- 
rians, Emerson  as  a  philosopher,  Longfellow, 
Lowell,  Holmes,  and  Whittier  as  poets,  made  a 
distinct  American  school  after  the  year  1830 
when  Bancroft  announced  his  plan  for  bis  his- 
tory, or  more  definitely  perhaps  in  1833.  So  far 
as  this  was  a  New  England  school  it  was  some- 
what affected  by  the  literature  of  the  Continent 
of  Europe,  but  this  effect  has  been  overstated. 
Emerson  was  not  at  all  indebted  to  Germany 
in  his  work.  Longfellow's  poems  are  distinctly 
American  when  they  are  not  translations. 
Lowell  won  his  English  reputation  by  the  ad- 
mirably national  characteristics  of  the  Biglow 
Papers.  Still  a  distinct  ripple  on  the  tide  of 
literary  advance  may  be  found  in  all  the  sea- 
hoard  States  when  in  the  twenties  of  the  last 
century,  the  Holy  Alliance  (q.v.)  exiled  from 
Germany  Lieber,  Pollen,  Beck,  and  some  other 
young  students  who  had  displeased  Metternich, 
What  is  familiarly  called  the  Lyceum  Sys- 
tem introduced  an  element  of  value  constantly 
increasing  in  the  higher  education.  It  ought  to 
be  remembered  that  the  Lyceum  introduced 
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  to  the  people  of  America 
in  a  much  shorter  time  perhaps  than  any  pub- 
lished writing  would  have  done  without  its  as- 
sistance. Where  the  trustees  and  faculties  of 
colleges  would  have  refused  to  invite  Mr.  Emer- 
son to  speak,  the  students  of  college  societies 
would  gladly  send  him  an  invitation.  (bice 
heard  he  was  of  course  sure  to  be  remembered. 
Not  to  speak  of  other  lecturers  who  were  in- 
structing all  the  northern  states,  arousing  curi- 
ositv  as  to  subjects  on  which  they  hardly  touch- 
ed, Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  when  he  took  up  the 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


work  of  a  prophet  unlimited  by  the  restrictions 
of  the  priesthood  led  the  way  in  a  revelation 
which  has  affected  all  the  literature  of  his  time, 
whether  in  America  or  in  England.  In  the 
smaller  New  England  circle,  Margaret  Fuller, 
afterward  the  Countess  Ossoli,  by  "conversa- 
tions" and  published  essays  called  the  attention 
of  many  young  people  to  the  wider  realms  of 
thought  and  especially  to  the  more  modern 
movements  of  philosophy  and  literature. 

With  the  existence  of  a  sufficient  body  of 
readers  large  circulations  became  possible  for 
magazines.  The  first  which  succeeded  pecuni- 
arily were  those  who  told  the  most  stories,  and 
it  was  on  the  basis  of  story  telling  that  the 
'Southern  Literary  Magazine,'  'Graham's  Maga- 
zine.' the  'Godey's  Ladies'  Book,'  and  the 
'Boston  Miscellany  of  Literature  and  Fashion' 
came  into  being  and  by  their  success  with  the 
public  created  the  literary  magazine  of  to-day. 
When  a  Boston  publisher  could  say  in  1841,  "We 
sell  1,000  copies  every  month  to  the  Lowell  fac- 
tory girls,"  the  word  was  spoken  which  showed 
that  a  sufficient  supply  of  readers  is  necessary 
in  the  creation  of  a  literature,  and  will  in  its 
time  bring  into  being  a  sufficient  number  of 
writers.  The  'Knickerbocker,'  the  'New  Eng- 
land Magazine,'  and  the  'Port-Folio'  had  failed 
to  enlist  anything  like  the  public  support  which 
waited  on  all  decent  magazine  work  after  the 
public  schools  had  created  their  army  of  readers. 
One  and  another  ineffectual  effort  was  made  to 
turn  away  the  current  of  the  English  magazines 
and  to  introduce  an  American  circulation  in  its 
stead.  It  is  interesting  to  see  that  the  early 
numbers  of  'Harper'  were  written  almost 
wholly  by  English  writers  and  large  editions  of 
•Fraser's  Magazine,'  of  the  'Dublin  University 
Magazine,'  and  of  'Blackwood'  still  made  up 
the  popular  reading  of  the  reading  rooms.  But 
in  1857  the  'Atlantic  Monthly'  was  created  with 
such  writers  as  Bancroft,  Prescott,  Motley, 
Holmes,  Lowell,  and  Longfellow  among  its 
very  earliest  contributors,  and  one  may  say, 
on  its  working  staff.  Lowell  was  an  office 
editor  of  the  'Atlantic.'  'Putnam's  Maga- 
zine,' in  New  York,  sprang  full  armed  into 
existence  It  introduced  itself  by  an  article 
which  awakened  curiosity,  and  perhaps  one  may 
say  national  pride,  on  the  question,  "Have  we 
a  Bourbon  among  us?"  From  that  day  to  this, 
magazine  literature  has  held  an  important  part 
in  the  work  of  the  better  literary  men  of 
America. 

The  short  story  had  been  invented  in  Eng- 
land. The  serial  story  as  Dickens  and  Thack- 
eray had  shown,  gave  admirable  opportunities 
for  feeling  the  public  pulse.  It  is  amusing  to- 
day to  read  that  the  publishers  of  the  'Anti- 
slavery  Standard'  doubted  whether  they  should 
pay  James  Lowell  $400  a  year  for  his  contribu- 
tions to  that  journal,  contributions  among  which 
are  some  of  the  best  poems  which  he  ever  wrote. 
This  is  only  one  among  the  many  illustrations 
which  peep  out  from  the  books  of  biography  as 
to  what  Dr.  Johnson  or  Goldsmith  would  have 
called  the  patronage  of  the  readers  of  maga- 
zines and  their  editors.  The  encouragement  to 
authors  was  little  but  it  was  enough.  In  the 
year  1849-5C  the  people  who  read  anti-slavery 
newspapers  began  to  talk  of  the  serial  issues  in 
which  the  story  of  'Uncle  Tom's  Cabin'  was 
going  forward  in  a  newspaper  called  'The  Na- 
tiwnal  Era.'     The  southern  writers  on  the  Civil 


War  ascribe  to  that  book  the  complete  change 
in  American  politics  and  in  the  questions  which 
led  to  the  war  which  belongs  to  the  middle  of  the 
century.  In  1851  the  story  was  published  in 
book  form  and  at  once  became  known  not  simply 
in  America  but  in  England  and  in  all  the  litera- 
ture of  the  civilized  world  by  means  of  transla- 
tions. Its  circulation  in  England,  for  instance, 
was  the  first  circulation  of  a  book  on  what  was 
called  popular  prices.  One  edition  of  it  ap- 
peared in  a  newspaper  issue  at  the  cost  of  one 
penny  a  copy.  Mrs.  Stowe's  supremacy  as  a 
writer  of  fiction  established  itself  at  once  and 
from  that  moment  to  this,  American  literature 
can  make  the  boast  that  it  has  furnished  the 
book  of  which  more  copies  have  been  printed 
than  of  any  other  book  which  originated  in  the 
English  language.  It  is  a  little  curious  that  its 
only  possible  rival,  if  one  considers  simply  the 
number  of  copies  printed,  is  'Robinson  Crusoe.' 
Mrs.  Stowe's  story  is  that  of  a  fugitive  slave ; 
Defoe's  story  is  that  of  a  shipwrecked  slave 
trader.  Since  the  issue  of  'Uncle  Tom's  Cabin' 
no  American  writer  has  cared  to  show  his  ac- 
quaintance with  the  etiquettes  of  marquises  and 
dukes.  The  temptations  of  travel  give  to  the 
American  readers  every  now  and  then  a  good 
book  as  where  'Daisy  Miller'  takes  them  by 
night  into  the  Coliseum,  or  when  husband  and 
wife  stray  together  in  the  gardens  of  a  German 
watering  place.  But  no  American  writer  selects 
a  European  scene  from  any  wish  to  work  for 
the  sympathies  of  European  readers.  On  our 
own  continent  our  historians  find  their  themes, 
our  novelists  their  interests.  With  the  Civil 
War  the  dependence  upon  English  criticism 
and  the  respect  for  it  died  in  a  night.  Up  till 
that  time,  young  America  had  permitted  the  dis- 
tance of  the  writer  to  be  warrant  for  his  edu- 
cation and  his  judgment.  At  that  time  in  the 
nation's  struggle  for  its  existence,  it  received 
no  sympathy  from  the  writers  of  England.  They 
had  been  trained  under  feudal  institutions  and 
they  were  glad  and  pleased  that  democratic  insti- 
tutions were  to  fail.  The  young  men  and  women 
of  America  learned  that  for  the  criticism  or  for 
the  education  which  belonged  to  this  nation,  they 
must  study  their  own  country.  In  truth  the 
society  of  America  is  American  society,  the  laws 
of  America  are  American  laws.  Its  prospects 
and  hopes  are  those  of  a  democracy.  As  the 
strata  of  its  rocks  and  the  growth  of  its  trees 
are  different  from  those  of  England,  so  are  the 
foundations  of  the  state  and  the  customs  of  its 
administration.  It  is  impossible  here  to  consider 
in  the  least  detail  the  methods  of  different 
writers  who  have  won  the  love  and  admiration 
of  their  countrymen  in  the  years  which  have 
followed. 

The  central  observation  is  that  as  soon  as 
America  furnished  readers  enough  a  proper 
American  literature  followed  the  demand.  As 
soon  as  the  system  of  the  country  made  possible 
first-rate  printing  offices  in  rivalry  with  the  best 
printing  houses  in  England,  the  American  de- 
mand for  American  books  could  be  answered  at 
home.  In  naming  Cooper  and  Irving  we  have 
named  the  two  writers  distinctly  American 
whose  published  work  was  first  everywhere 
known.  Other  authors  printed  their  books  which 
were  forgotten.  There  was  perhaps  something 
ludicrous  in  the  effort  to  create  aboriginal  en- 
thusiasms which  did  not  exist.  For  instance,  any 
early   copy    of   the    'North    American    Review' 


AMERICAN  LITERATURE 


will  show  the  standing  advertisement  on  the  cover 
that  the  publishers  had  a  "supply  of  the 
'Yamoyden'  kept  constantly  on  hand."  The 
'Yamoyden'  was  a  poem  on  a  supposed  hero 
or  heroine  of  Algonquin  origin  named  the 
•Yamoyden.*  But  the  publishers  spoke  of  the 
volume  as  a  commission  house  might  speak  of  so 
many  bushels  of  wheat  or  of  barley.  Books  or 
essays  of  purely  American  type  struggled  into 
existence  and  some  of  them  are  still  remem- 
bered. Edgar  Allan  Poe  was  born  in  the  year 
1809  and  died  in  the  year  1849.  Warren  Bur- 
tons 'District  School.'  Mrs.  Oilman's  'New 
England  Housekeeper,'  some  of  James  K. 
Paulding's  sketches  and  essays  were  distinctly 
American.  Mrs.  Sedgwick  and  Miss  Sedgwick 
wrote  admirable  and  unaffected  books.  Ed- 
ward Everett  and  Alexander  H.  Everett 
with  all  the  advantages  of  early  European 
training  were  thoroughly  American  in  their 
orations  and  in  the  work  which  they  did  in  the 
'North  American  Review.'  That  'Review5  it- 
self while  it  imitated  aspects  of  the  English 
quarterlies  always  carried  an  American  chip  on 
the  shoulder  and  defied  all  foreign  travelers  or 
foreign  critics  who  did  not  find  perfection  in 
everything  American.  A  story  of  pure  Amer- 
ican life,  most  instructive  to  the  student  of  that 
older  time  is  Sylvester  Judd's  story  of  '  Mar- 
garet, a  Tale  of  the  Real  and  Ideal,  Blight  and 
Bloom.'  Judd  was  a  poet,  but  this  prose  novel 
has  proved  his  best  work. 

The  exquisite  genius  of  Nathaniel  Haw- 
thorne would  have  worked  its  way  through  any 
difficulties.  In  his  own  nation  his  favorite 
earlier  subjects  drawn  so  largely  from  the  tradi- 
tions of  the  early  centuries,  undoubtedly  had 
their  share  in  introducing  him  to  the  great  body 
of  readers.  So  soon  as  he  traveled  abroad,  he 
showed  that  he  could  handle  any  traditions  and 
was  at  home  in  any  atmosphere.  As  in  all  work 
of  men  of  genius  his  temperament  and  as  he 
says,  the  traditions  of  his  life,  governed  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  his  choice  of  subject.  But  always 
it  is  Hawthorne  who  is  the  master  and  fascinates 
the  reader ;  and  there  is  no  other  Hawthorne. 
In  other  instances  perhaps  a  certain  charm  is 
given  in  English  circles  to  the  naivete  of  what 
one  may  call  the  frontier  habit  of  the  American 
writer.  Walt  Whitman  had  an  affectation  of 
expressing  a  disgust  which  he  did  not  really  feel 
with  all  the  conventionalities  and  institutions 
which  did  not  smell  of  the  pine  knot  or  of  kero- 
sine.  He  is  said  to  be  better  known  in  England 
than  in  America.  This  is  somewhat  as  it  has 
happened  with  an  American  preacher  like 
Moody  and  others  who  could  be  named,  who  has 
won  attention  even  by  the  accent  of  his  voice. 
After  he  had  won  attention  abroad  he  needed 
nothing  more.  We  may  say  again  that  this  is 
no  place  to  enter  into  an  analysis  or  other  dis- 
cussion of  the  work  of  different  American 
authors  and  of  their  hold  upon  the  national 
life.  When  one  remembers  that  no  prose  writer 
of  our  country  is  more  likely  to  be  generally 
read  three  centuries  hence  than  the  despatches 
of  Ulysses  Simpson  Grant,  he  hesitates  before 
he  shall  say  who  are  the  literary  men.  Give 
time  enough  and  Washington  becomes  a  lit- 
erary man,  and  Judge  Marshall.  But 
this  may  be  said,  that  of  the  29  heroes 
in  the  New  York  Hall  of  Fame,  Thomas 
Jefferson,    James    Kent,    Joseph     Story,    Asa 


Gray,     Jonathan      Edwards,      William      Ellery 
Channing,  Horace  Mann,  Henry  Ward  Beecher, 
Ralph   Waldo    Emerson,    Nathaniel   Hawthorne, 
Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow,  and  Washington 
Irving,   would   not   have  been   named  among  the 
most  distinguished  Americans  except   for  their 
work  with  the  pen.     Franklin   might  be   num- 
bered   as    a    naturalist.    Washington    or    Gran) 
as  soldiers;  but  the  12  who  have  been  named 
won   their  place   simply  as  authors.      And   every 
one  who  is  in  any  way  familiar  with  their  work 
understands  that   this   work  is  distinctly  Amer- 
ican.    You  could  not  mistake  it.     If   you   read 
25  pages  from  any  of  these  authors,  you  would 
know  that  he  was  brought  up  under  the  insti- 
tutions  of   a    Republic    and    that    the   width    of 
horizon,  may  one  say.  comes  in  as  a  part  of  the 
atmosphere    to    which     in    the    omnipotence    of 
God  the  American  is  accustomed.     In     naming 
those   to   whom    the   country   owes    the   growth 
of     its     literary     taste,     the     charm     of     gi 
travelers  and  great  historians  should   be  added 
to  the  great   statesmen.     But  the   list  as   far  as 
it  goes  is  not  useless,  for  it  shows  what  is  the 
current    of    average    feeling    of    the    people    of 
America.    The  people  of  America  is   sovereign 
of  America  and  as  everywhere  the  sovereign  is 
the    fountain   of   honor.      We   could   choose   no 
better  instance  of  the   encouragement  given   by 
the  people  to  the  author  of  first-rate  genius  and 
ability   than   is   found   in  the   literary  career   of 
John    Fiske.     Fiske    owed     none    of    his    suc- 
cess to  official  position.     No  distinguished   re- 
view called  attention  to  the  way  a  young  man 
needed  encouragement,  but  simply  Fiske  had  a 
great  deal  to  say  and  he  said  it.     And  by  the 
time   be   said   it   there   was   a   nation   of  people 
who  had  been  educated  to  appreciate  and  enjoy 
what  he  said.     He  used  to  say  that  even  in  his 
young  life  he  was  looking  forward  to  history  as 
the  study  which  he  was  to  pursue  through  his 
life.     The  opportunity  came  for  the  gratification 
of  this  passion.     He  seized  upon  the  opportunity, 
and  the   American  people   recognized  the  hand 
of  a  master.     But  Fiske  was  not  to  be  shut  up 
within  any  narrow  range  of  study  or  of  author- 
ship.     He    had    his    own    views    of    life    and 
duty,   of   ethics   and   of   destiny,    and   he   wrote 
them  down.    He  said  what  he  wanted  to  say  in 
a  form  which  won  the  sympathy  of  all  thought- 
ful people,  and  there  were  enough  readers  trained 
to  careful   thought  to  welcome  the  gifts  which 
in  such  service  he  made  to  the  nation.     Perhaps 
in   speaking  of  this   instance   we   are   speaking 
simply  of  the  step  forward  which  the  conscience 
and  heart  of  the  whole  nation   made  in  obedi- 
ence  to  the   word   of   Ralph    Waldo   Emerson, 
who  gained  a  welcome  in  all  quarters, —  in  the 
miner's   cabin   or   in   the   sanctum   of  kiln-dried 
seminaries.     It  has  been  said  that  of  the  early 
volumes    of    Emerson's     'Essays'     millions    of 
copies  might  be   found  to-day  in  the   hands  of 
the  most  ignorant  or  the  most  learned  men  and 
millions  of  men  who  never  heard  his  name  are 
living   under   the   inspiration   of  his   prophecies. 
It  is  said  by  the  English  critics  that  Mr.  Long- 
fellow's poems  are  better  known  by  the  people 
of  England  than  are  Lord  Tennyson's.    Perhaps 
this  is  true. 

It  has  also  been  curiously  true  that  more 
than  one  English  reputation  has  been  first 
made  in  America.  Carlyle's  first  books  were 
well    known    here    before    the    critics    of    Eng- 


AMERICAN  MANUFACTURES 


land  honored  them  with  their  approval.  The 
English  writers  whined  a  good  deal  so  long  as 
they  had  no  protection  at  American  law  for 
their  copyrights.  This  nation  was  creating  a 
reading  class  at  an  expense  such  as  monarchs 
never  dreamed  of,  such  as  England  has  never 
thought  of,  and  it  was  the  fashion  to  chide 
Americans  because  at  the  outset  they  did  not 
throw  open  the  market  thus  created  to  the 
writers  of  a  nation  where  there  was  not  one 
reader  for  a  hundred  in  America.  The  Inter- 
national Copyright  Act  has  remedied  this  griev- 
ance. But  it  has  not  proved  that  either  the 
English  or  American  author  has  gained  readers 
by  any  of  the  accidents  of  publication.  The 
rule  holds  which  Abraham  Lincoln  laid  down 
so  well  that  the  people  who  like  that  sort  of 
thing  will  read  that  sort  of  thing.  But  so  far 
as  statistics  of  the  trade  in  books  go,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  rank  and  file  of  American  readers 
are  interested  in  American  subjects  treated  by 
writers  who  feel  the  American  impulse  and 
were  early  baptized  in  the  ways  of  democracy. 
It  is  more  necessary  to  say  this  in  this  article 
because  so  much  of  the  less  important  writing 
for  the  American  daily  press  of  this  century' 
is  from  the  pens  of  men  who  are  educated  in 
the  British  Islands  or  on  the  Continent  of  Eu- 
rope. Such  men  do  not  fully  understand  the 
spirit  of  the  life  in  which  they  live  and  neces- 
sarily treat  its  questions  as  foreigners. 

Of  writers  now  living  it  is  hardly  becoming 
to  speak  in  these  pages.  The  first  novelist  of 
this  generation  born  in  Ohio,  cradled  in  the 
midst  of  the  matchless  resources  of  that  empire 
State,  still  lives  young  and  vigorous,  to  delight 
the  readers  of  the  English  language  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  He  has  occasionally  toyed  with 
European  scenery  and  experience,  but  his  work 
is  the  work  of  a  true  democrat  trained  to  know 
that  men  live  for  each  other  and  in  the  20th 
century  each  man  has  to  live  for  each  and  each 
for  all.  After  you  cross  the  Mississippi  River, 
when  you  buy  your  morning  newspaper,  the 
chances  are  that  you  find  no  reference  in  it  to 
any  lands  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic 
or  the  western  side  of  the  Pacific.  The  journal- 
ists of  that  region  also  have  their  affectation 
which  compels  them  to  leave  Europe  and  Asia 
disregarded  as  they  might  disregard  the  govern- 
ments of  Sesostris  or  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  For 
even  the  names  of  the  leading  writers  of  to-day, 
whose  works  are  far  too  numerous  to  be  cata- 
logued here,  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  those 
names  separately  as  they  will  appear  on  differ- 
ent pages  of  this  encyclopedia. 

Edward  Everett  Hale, 

Author  of  '■The  Man  Without  a  Country.^ 

American  Manufactures.  The  12th  census 
marked  the  close  of  the  first  complete  century 
of  manufactures  in  the  United  States.  It  thus 
became  the  most  important  statistical  basis  by 
which  to  measure  the  future  advancement  of 
American  industry.  It  was  with  these  words 
that  the  final  report  of  the  12th  census  on  manu- 
factures began.  It  might  have  been  added  that 
t'ne  12th  census  is  the  first  to  occur  since  the 
United  States  has  become  distinctly  a  manu- 
facturing nation  and  has  produced  a  surplus  of 
manufactured  goods  with  which  it  has  entered 
the  world's  trade  to  acquire  foreign  markets. 

History. —  In  1791,  when  Alexander  Hamil- 


ton submitted  his  celebrated  "Report  on  Manu- 
factures" to  Congress,  he  was  able  to  refer  to 
the  household  system  of  manufacture  by  means 
of  which  each  family  unit  supplied  many  of  its 
own  needs;  and  he  described  the  remarkable  de- 
velopment of  this  type  of  manufacture  in  south- 
ern Xew  England,  where  considerable  quantities 
of  coarse  cloth,  clothing,  and  nails  were  pro- 
duced. In  addition  to  this,  some  twenty  indus- 
tries were  mentioned  which  had  reached  a  con- 
siderable development,  involving  special  build- 
ings, the  division  of  labor,  the  ingathering  of 
raw  materials  from  distant  localities,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  manufactured  articles 
throughout  the  States. 

While  this  was  a  respectable  beginning,  the 
chief  task  of  the  American  people  for  at  least 
five  decades  was  to  push  forward  the  frontier. 
Up  to  1840  this  work  went  on.  By  that  time 
compact  settlement  had  reached  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  the  further  growth  of  population  re- 
quired the  building  of  railways  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  manufactures.  By  1850  the  chief 
forms  of  labor-saving  agricultural  implements  of 
American  origin  were  introduced  and  began 
their  work  of  liberating  an  increasing  proportion 
of  the  population  from  agriculture.  The  Civil 
War  increased  the  need  of  the  country  for  man- 
ufactured articles,  and,  accompanied  as  it  was 
by  a  high  tariff  to  provide  government  revenue, 
provided  a  powerful  impulse  to  develop  home 
manufactures.  Down  to  1880  agriculture  was 
the  chief  source  of  wealth  in  this  country.  The 
last  two  censuses  have  shown  manufacture  to 
be  dominant.  In  1900  the  value  of  agricultural 
products  was  $4,700,000,000;  the  net  value  of 
manufactured  products  was  $5,900,000,000. 

We  may  group  our  industrial  history  into 
periods,    therefore,   roughly   as   follows : 

1609 — 1789     Colonial  period. 

1790 — 1840     Period  of  western  settlement. 

Agriculture     for     home     consumption      except 
cotton. 
1840 — 1880    Period  of  agricultural  dominance. 

Laree  export  of  raw  materials. 
r88o — 1900    Dominance  of  manufactures  for  home  use. 
1900 —  Period  of  foreign  trade  in  manufactures  as  well 

as  raw  materials. 

General  Comparisons. —  To  gather  some  of 
the  chief  results  of  the  recent  census  investiga- 
tion into  a  few  sentences  we  may  say  that  when 
we  speak  of  "American  manufactures"  we  mean 
512.339  establishments,  using  $9,835,086,909  of 
capital,  and  involving  the  labor  of  397,174  offi- 
cials and  clerks  and  5.316,802  wage-earners. 
This  vast  equipment  consumes  $7,348,144,755 
worth  of  raw  materials  annually  and  makes  out 
of  the  same  manufactured  products  worth  al- 
together $13,014,287,498.  These  figures  all  show 
a  healthy  increase  over  those  of  1890.  There 
are  44  per  cent  more  establishments  now  than 
then ;  50  per  cent  more  capital  is  used :  a  fourth 
more  wage-earners  are  employed ;  and  the  an- 
nual value  of  the  gross  product  is  40  per  cent 
more  than  in  1890. 

In  1S10  the  manufactured  goods  produced  in 
this  country  were  worth  $27.58  per  capita  of  the 
population,  or  $165.48  for  the  average  family. 
In  i860  manufactures  were  worth  $60.06  per 
capita,  or  $118.32  for  the  average-sized  family 
of  that  period.  In  iSoo  the  per  capita  value 
was  $140.72.  or,  for  a  family  of  40  persons, 
$733.63.    In  1000  the  per  capita  value  of  manu- 


AMERICAN   MANUFACTURES 


factured  g Is  was  $172.21,  or  $809.39  for  the 

a\ erage  family  ol  4  7  pei  51  ms, 

Classification  of  Establishments. —  There  are 
three  ways  in  which  manufacturing  establish- 
ments may  l>e  classified  : 

1.  According  to  the  general  economic  class 
to  which  they  belong. 

The  512,254  establishments  considered  by  the 
census  as  'manufacturing  establishments,10  in  the 
strict  meaning  of  the  term,  are  divided  into: 

hold  industries  and  repairing 15,6x0 

Manufacturing        ther 296,444 

I  1  these   we   may  add  small   establishments  pro- 
ducing .inn                       valued  at  lessthan  $5">-  127,419 

Government  establishments 138 

Kducaliu11.il,  .  haritable  and  penal  establishments.  383 

2.  The  second  classification  of  establishments 
is  according  to  the  form  of  organization  tin- 
pli  yed.      It  is  as  follows  : 

individual  ownership 372,703 

Partnership K>t7'5 

Company  or  corporation 40,743 

1'  1  hi 1.765 

Miscellaneous 174 

The  corporation  is  the  form  in  which  the 
larger  businesses  are  usually  organized,  and  con- 
trols 59.5  per  cent  of  the  product.  Co-operative 
associations  are  confined  t •  >  the  manufacture  of 
butter,  cheese,  and  condensed   milk. 

3.  Ilie  third  classification  is  according  to  in- 
dustry. The  12th  census  has  given  us  for  the 
in  -t  time  a  carefully  digested  grouping  of  manu- 
factures, as  folli  m  5  : 

{  1  )  Food  and  kindred  products,  (2)  textiles, 
1  ()  iron  and  steel,  (4)  lumber,  (51  leather.  (6) 
paper  and  printing.  (7)  liquor  and  beverages, 
(<S)  chemicals.  (9)  clay,  glass,  and  stone.  (10) 
metals  other  than  iron  and  steel,  (11)  tobacco, 
(12)  vehicles  for  land  use,  (13)  ship-building, 
(14)  miscellaneous,  (15)  hand  trades.  Of  these 
classes  the  most  numerous,  excepting  the  hand 
trades,  is  the  first,  "food  and  kindred  products," 
with  '11.302  establishments.  The  least  numerous 
is  tli.it  of  ship-building,  in  which  there  are  1.116. 

The  Manufacturing  Population. —  The  statis- 
tics show  that  20,000.000  persons  over  10  years 
of  age  are  engaged  in  productive  industry.  A 
little  over  a  third  of  these  arc  in  agriculture,  a 
fifth  are  in  domestic  and  personal  service,  a  tilth 
are  in  trade  and  transportation  (16.4  per  cent* 
and  the  professions  (4.3  per  cent  1  combined, 
and  a  fourth  are  in  manufactures  and  the  me- 
chanical pursuits,  including  mining. 

To  this  latter  fourth  helong  the  5.713,976  per- 
son-, engaged  in  manufacture.  In  the  last  20 
years  the  number  of  persons  in  professions, 
trade,  transportation,  and  manufacture  has 
ed  relatively.  The  number  of  persons  in 
agriculture  has  decreased  relatively.  The  do- 
mestic and  personal  service  class  has  remained 
constant. 

The  proportion  of  men,  women,  and  children 
in  manufacturing  establishments  is  such  that  if 
a  given  establishment  employing  100  persons 
desired  the  typical  division  of  men,  women,  and 
children,  it  would  he  obliged  to  employ  77  men 
over  16  years  of  age.  20  women  over  16  years 
of  age,  and  three  children  under   16. 

Power. —  Half  of  our  manufacturing  institu- 
tions use  power  of  some  sort  to  supplement 
hand  labor.      So  liberally  and  skilfully  is  power 


used  in  the  United  States  that  the  average  out- 
put per  employee  is  between  three  and  ii\e  times 
what  it  is  in  England.  The  most  prominent 
fact  in  the  evolution  of  sources  and  forms  of 
power  i-  the  increase  in  the  use  of  electricity. 

Growth  of  Large  Establishments. —  The  cen- 
sus shows  the  increase  in  the  size  of  plants  by 
showing  that,  while  the  product  of  manufacture 

has  been  increasing  in  almost  all  lines,  the  num- 
ber   of    establishments    has    been    declining    in 

many    of    them,        I  here    was    in    icjoo   a    smaller 

number  of  establishments  than  in  1890  manufac- 
turing agricultural  implements,  hoots  and  shoes, 
carpets,  glass,  iron  and  steel,  leather,  woolens, 
and  the  products  of  slaughtering  and  meat-pack- 
ing;   nevertheless    in    each    of    these    industries 

tin-  average  capital,  the  average  number  of  em- 
ployees, and  the  average  product  per  establish- 
ment increased,  anil  the  total  product  of  each  of 
these  industries  increased. 

A  more  direct  hut  not  more  positive  proof  of 
this  tendency  is  shown  by  the  enumeration  of 
large  establishments.  In  ICjOO  there  were  .152 
plants  in  each  of  which  over  1,000  emploj 
worked.  Of  these  120  ware  m  textile  maniil'ac 
ture  (one  in  New  Hampshire  employing  7.20X 
persons),  [03  were  in  ire"  and  steel  manufacture 
(one  in  Ohio  having  7,477  persons),  4S  were  in 
vehicle  manufacture.  29  in  food  products,  20  in 
metals  other  than  iron  and  steel,  ami  132  in  mis- 
cellaneous lines. 

Turning  to  the  question  of  industrial  com- 
binations we  find  some  interesting  statistics  in 
the  census.  A  list  of  185  such  organizations  is 
presented.  They  controlled  2,040  plains,  po 
sesseel  a  combined  capital  of  $1,436,025,910,  em- 
ployed 400.000  wage-earners  and  24,640  officials, 
and  manufactured  products  annually  valued  at 
$  1  ."67.350.949.  That  is  to  say,  8.4  per  cent  of 
the  wage-earners  engaged  in  manufacturing  in 
America  were  employed  by  these  combinations, 
and  14. 1  per  cent  of  the  value  of  our  manufac- 
tures originated  with  them.  The  census  report 
docs  not  include  the  United  Stales  Steel  Corpo 
ration  or  any  other  combination  organized  dur- 
ing or  since  the  census  year.  The  steel  corpo- 
ration is  largely  covered  by  the  above  figures, 
however,  since  most  of  its  constituent  companies 
rank  as  combinations.  The  great  dividend- 
payers  among  the  "trusts"  in  1900  were  the 
Standard  Oil  Company.  American  Steel  and 
Wire  Company,  Federal  Steel  Company.  Amer- 
ican Sugar  Refining  Company.  Amalgamated 
Copper  Company.  Pullman  Company,  American 
Tobacco  Company.  Continental  Tobacco  Com 
pany,  and  the   United   Stales   Leather   Company. 

Localization  of  Manufactures. —  The  indus- 
tries of  the  United  States  arc  generally 
strongly  localized  in  certain  regions  This  tend- 
ency to  develop  a  territorial  division  of  labor 
has  always  been  marked  in  this  country,  in 
agriculture  as  well  as  in  manufactures.  The 
causes  which  lead  to  the  location  of  industry  in 
certain  places  are  enumerated  by  the  census  : 

t.  Nearness  to  Materials —  This  is  illustrated 
by  the  oyster-canning  of  Baltimore. 

2.  Nearness  to  Market. —  The  agricultural 
implement  manufacturers  of  Chicago  find  their 
best  market  in  the  region  which  is  tributary  to 
that  city 

3.  Water  Power. —  Fall  River.  Mass.  with 
its  textile  manufacture,  Cohoes,  N.  Y.,  with  its 


AMERICAN  MANUFACTURES 


knitting  industry,  and  Niagara  Falls,  with  its 
electro-chemical  industries,  have  resulted  from 
the  utilization  of  water-power. 

4.  Favorable  Climale. —  The  Piedmont  sec- 
lion  of  the  South  attracts  cotton  mills,  not  only 
hecause  of  its  nearness  to  materials  and  its 
water-powers,  but  hecause  of  its  favorable  cli- 
mate. 

5.  Supply  of  Labor. —  The  garment  trades  are 
largely  monopolized  by  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, and  other  large  cities  on  the  coast,  hecause 
there  a  large  population  of  foreign  birth,  with 
low  standards  of  living,  furnish  adequate  sup- 
plies of  cheap  labor. 

6.  Capital  Available  for  Investment  in  Manu- 
facture.—  When  the  whaling  industry  declined. 
New  Bedford,  which  had  become  wealthy  by 
means  of  it  and  was  ranked  as  one  of  the  richest 
cities  in  the  United  States,  put  considerable  of 
its  capital  into  cotton  manufacturing.  The  city 
of  Chicago  was  not  able  to  surpass  Cincinnati 
as  the  centre  of  the  pork-packing  industry  in 
the  West  until  the  local  banks  acquired  enough 
money  to  aid  the  packers  in  carrying  the  enor- 
mous financial  load  of  buying  the  raw  materials, 
which  for  that  business  constitutes  about  75 
per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  finished  product. 

7.  Momentum  of  an  Early  Start. —  Sir  Wil- 
liam Johnston  early  brought  glovers  from  Eng- 
land to  Johnstown,  N.  Y.,  and  started  the  indus- 
try for  which  that  city  and  Amsterdam  and 
Gloversville  are  now  noted.  Had  the  celebrated 
"shoemaker  of  Lynn"  settled  in  a  neighboring 
village,  Lynn  might  not  now  signify  shoes  wher- 
ever the  name  is  heard. 

If  we  examine  a  map  showing  the  location 
of  American  manufactures  we  shall  observe  that 
they  are  markedly  concentrated  along  the  At- 
lantic seaboard,  from  the  middle  of  Maine  to 
the  latitude  of  Baltimore,  and  covering  a  region 
extending  perhaps  100  miles  back  from  the  coast. 
West  of  this  an  irregular  belt  of  country,  in- 
cluding middle  New  York,  western  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  northeastern  Ohio,  stands  out  promi- 
nently. Passing  still  farther  west  we  find  the 
manufactures  not  so  evenly  distributed,  but 
rather  concentrated  at  certain  points,  such  as 
Cincinnati.  Louisville,  the  gas  belt  of  Indiana, 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  St.  Louis,  Minneapolis, 
Kansas  City,  and  Omaha.  The  South  shows  a 
large  number  of  small,  rather  isolated  manufac- 
turing localities.  These  occur  most  frequently 
upon  the  Piedmont  plateau,  from  southern  Vir- 
ginia to  northern  Alabama.  In  the  Rocky 
Mountain  States  and  the  region  west  of  them, 
five  centres  stand  out  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  wide  intervals  of  undeveloped  country. 
They  are  the  middle  portion  of  Colorado,  Salt 
Lake  valley,  the  Butte  region  of  Montana,  the 
Puget  Sound  and  Columbia  River  cities,  and 
San  Francisco,  with  the  adjacent  cities  from 
Sacramento  to  Alameda. 

The  national  centre  of  manufactures  has  been 
fixed  at  a  point  east  of  the  middle  of  Ohio,  about 
25  miles  southeast  of  Mansfield.  It  has  moved 
west  onlv  about  40  miles  in  10  years.  The 
centre  of  population  lies  200  miles  southwest  of 
this,  at  a  point  about  8  miles  from  Columbus, 
Ind. 

California  is  first  in  preserving  vegetables 
and  fruits,  vinous  liquors,  lead  smelting  and  re- 
fining. 


Connecticut  is  first  in  ammunition,  brass- 
ware,  clocks,  corsets,  cutlery,  needles  and  pins, 
and   hardware. 

New  York  is  first  in  31  industries,  among 
which  are  butter  and  cheese,  gloves,  factory- 
made  clothing,  furniture,  chemicals,  hosiery, 
malt  liquors,  lithographing,  printing  and  publish- 
ing, millinery  and  lace  goods,  paper  and  pulp, 
patent  medicines,  soap  and  candles,  sugar  re- 
fining,  cigars  and  cigarettes. 

Illinois  is  first  in  the  manufacture  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  bicycles,  cars,  glucose,  and 
distilled  liquors,  and  in  slaughtering  and  meat- 
packing. 

Wisconsin  is  first  in  lumber  and  timber  prod- 
ucts. 

Minnesota  leads  in  flouring  and  grist-mills. 

Texas  leads  in  cotton-ginning  and  the  manu- 
facture of  products  from   cotton-seed. 

Some  manufactures  are  limited  to  very  re- 
stricted areas,  a  group  of  States  or  a  single  State 
or  even  a  portion  of  a  State  confining  them. 
The  most  highly  concentrated  industry  is  the 
making  of  collars  and  cuffs,  of  wdiich  99.6  per 
cent  is  within  New  York  State  and  85.3  per  cent 
is  in  the  single  city  of  Troy. 

The  tendency  to  centralize  industry  has  given 
rise  to  cities  which  are  chiefly  devoted  to  one 
occupation.  The  city  most  wholly  given  up  to 
one  thing  is  South  Omaha:  89.9  per  cent  of  the 
products  of  this  city  are  the  output  of  the  great 
packing  houses  located  there.  A  list  of  cities 
of  20,000  and  over  in  population,  in  each  of  which 
40  per  cent  or  over  of  the  industrial  products 
belong  to  one  branch  of  manufacture,  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

Shoes  —  Brockton,  Haverhill,  and  Lynn, 
Mass. 

Agricultural  Implements  —  Springfield,  Ohio 

Collars  and  Cuffs  —  Troy,  N.   Y. 

Cotton  Goods  — Warwick,  R.  I,  Fall  River, 
and  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  Lewiston,  Me..  Man- 
chester, N.  1 1. 

Fur  Hats  — Bethel  and  Danbury,  Conn., 
Orange,  N.  J. 

Glass  —  Millville,  N.  J..  Tarentum  and  Char- 
leroi,  Pa. 

Knit  Goods  —  Cohoe-.  N    Y 

Iron  —  Youngstown.       Ohio,       McKeesport, 
Johnstown.     New    Castle,    and    Pittsburg      Pa 
Joliet.  111..  Trenton,  N.  J. 

Jewelry— North  Attlehoro  and  Attleboro 
Mass. 

Gloves  —  Gloversville  and  Johnstown.  N.  Y. 

Pottery — East  Liverpool.  Ohio. 

Silk  —  West  Hohoken  and  Paterson,  N    I 

Slaughtering  and  Meat-packing  —  South 
Omaha.   Kansas  City.  Kan.,  St.  Joseph.  Mo. 

Cities. —  About  one  half  of  the  manufactures 
of  the  United  States  are  turned  out  in  our  100 
largest  cities.  These  cities  contain  23  per  cent 
of  the  population.  About  two  thirds  of  these 
products  come  from  the  209  cities  having  over 
20,000  population.  The  greatest  concentration 
of  a  manufacture  in  cities  is  found  in  the  case 
of  men's  and  women's  clothing,  hats  and  caps. 
cars,  umbrellas  and  canes,  lithographing  and 
engraving.  The  smallest  degree  of  concentration 
is  found  in  the  case  of  flour-  and  grist-mills,  dis- 
tilled liquors,  and  brick  and  rile. 

New  York  city  is  most  cosmopolitan  in  its 
manufactures,  exhibiting  the  greatest  variety  of 


AMERICAN  MATHEMATICAL  SOCIETY  —  AMERICAN   MERCHANT  MARINE 


them,  and  having  a  number  of  establishments 
which  are  the  only  ones  of  their  kind  in  the 
country.  In  1900  there  were  39,776  manufac- 
tories in  New  York  city,  employing  $9,250,000 
capital    and   500,000   i"  ruing   out   goods 

annually  to  the  value  of  $1,. 17 1.000,000.  The 
most   numerous   class  of   1  in   the 

city  was  for  custom  work  and  repairing  of  boots 
and   shoes,  of   which  then-   were  3,341.      There 
were    more    than    1,000   establishments   each    for 
the   manufai  ture   ol    t  igai  -.    women's    clothing, 
rpentering,  men's  clothing,  and 
also  for  plumbing,  painting,  and  blacksmithing. 
mly  one  1  »(  ibli  hment  each  for  the 
of     bells,     felt     goods,     firearms, 
leather-board,  and  car- fare  registers. 

Achievements  and  the  Outlook.—  The  general 
causes  which  have  made  us  a  great  maim 
ing  nation,  and  the  advantages  which   we  now 
havi    been  placed   under  five  headings: 

1.  Agricultural  Resources. 

2.  Mineral  Resources. —  It  is  plain  that  a 
country  which  produces  nine  tenths  of  the 
world's  cotton,  one  third  of  its  coal,  one  fourth 
of  its  iron  ore,  and  one  half  of  its  copper,  and 
a  similar  generous  share  of  many  other  things, 
such  as  lumber,  grain,  hides,  and  petroleum,  has 
a  great  advantage  in  the  matter  of  raw  materials 
upon  which  to  set  labor  and  capital  at  work. 

3.  Transportation  Facilities, —  These  include 
the  remnants  of  a  neglected  canal  system,  a 
magnificent  but  scarcely  used  system  of  naviga- 
ble rivers,  amounting  to  18,000  miles,  and  a 
highly  important  system  of  Great  Lakes,  water- 
ways extending  for  1,000  miles  and  carrying  a 
tonnage  "equal  to  nearly  40  per  cent  of  that  of 
the  entire  railway  system  of  the  United  States." 
Our  railway  system,  constructed  with  great  ra- 
pidity between  i860  and  1880,  is  now  over  a 
third  of  that  of  the  world.  In  1899  the  total 
length  was  189,295  miles,  as  against  172,621  in 
Europe,  and  the  cost  of  moving  goods  was  less 
here  than  in  Europe,  being  on  the  average  less 
than  six  mills  for  carrying  one  ton  a  distance  of 
one  mile. 

4.  Freedom  of  interstate  commerce. 

5.  Freedom  from  tradition 

As  an  example  of  American  ingenuity  we 
may  cite  the  invention  of  the  system  of  inter- 
changeable parts,  which  has  made  possible  the 
use  of  complex  machinery  in  agriculture  or 
other  industries  at  a  distance  from  machine 
shops  or  the  point  of  original  manufacture. 
Activity,  skill,  and  willingness  characterize  the 
best  type  of  American  workmen,  and  this  will- 
ingness is  shown  in  part  by  a  readiness  to 
pack  bag  and  baggage  and  move  to  those  places 
where  manufacture  can  be  carried  on  most  eco- 
nomically, especially  if  it  be  to  a  large  city. 
The  organizing  ability  of  American  capitalists 
cannot  be  doubted.  There  is  scarcely  an  indus- 
try upon  which  the  peculiar  genius  of  the  Amer- 
ican  has  not  wrought  an  effect. 

In  food  manufacture  we  began  with  the 
slowly  revolving  millstone,  but  Oliver  Evans 
originated  the  system  of  automatic  conveyors 
now  in  use.  When  later  this  was  coupled  with 
the  middlings  purifier,  also  of  American  origin, 
and  the  Hungarian  roller  process  in  a  modified 
form,  the  modern  mill  first  became  a  reality. 
Here  the  factory  system  was  first  applied  to  the 
making  of  cheese  and  butter,   resulting  in   the 


factory  and  creamery.      An  instance  of 
.,  «  1  mtlerful  applicatii  in  1  if  machinei 
plex   process   1-   afforded   by   out    slaughtering- 
and  H  ishments. 

In  textile  manufacture  we  are  now  thi 
ation  in  the  wrl  1  in  the  number  of  cotton 
spindles   operated,   and   first  in   the  amount   of 
a  itton  tibi  e  used. 

In  iron  and  steel  manufacture  we  have  | 
our    chief    rival,    Greal    Britain  years 

since,  and   now    English   ironmasters   who   visit 
us  say  that  nowhere  in  the  world  are  I 1 

ing    devices    so    masterfully    designed    and    em 
ployed  as  here.        In  the  using  of  steel  we  are 
quite   as  original.      To   this   the   heavy   rolling 
stock,   rails,   and   bridges   of  American   railways 
testify,      licre  structural  steel  was  first  employed 
in  buildings.     The  structures  into  which  the  first 
went  are  still  standing       1  ooper   Union 
and    Harper's    publishing    house    in    New    York 
city.      An  enormous  demand   for  iron  an 
is  created  foi  agricultural  and  mining  and  manu 
facturing    machinery,    and    also    for    electrical 
equipments  and  gas  and   water  pipe.       Nowhere 
are  stoves  and  ranges  made  so  large  and  beau 
tif nl  as  here,  and  nowhere  is   tin  plate  used  so 
lavishly.      In  lumber,  leather,  paper,  and  other 
lines  the  record  is  similarly  encouraging. 
Edward  D.  Jo 
University  of  Michigan. 

American  Mathematical  Society,  an  asso- 
ciation established  in  1888  as  a  local  organiza- 
tion in  New  York,  and  reorganized  in  1894 
under  its  present  name,  to  encourage  an  active 
interest  in  mathematical  science.  Membership 
400. 

American    Medical    Association,   a    society 
organized  in  1847  to  foster  the  growth  and  dif- 
fusion of  medical  knowledge.     Membership  up 
ward   of    12.000.       Its    chief   publication    is    the 
'Journal'   of  the  association.      Office  of 
tary,  Chicago,  111. 

American  Merchant  Marine,  The.  Inter- 
national commerce  and  communication  between 
nations  by  means  of  ships  have  always  bei  1 
prominent  factors  in  the  development  and 
growth  of  a  nation,  and  by  their  relative  1111 
portance  at  any  period,  the  power  and  position 
of  a  country  among  states  may  be  estimated. 
The  grow  1I1  of  the  mercantile  marine  of  the 
United  Slates  after  independence  bad  been  de- 
clared and  after  the  War  of  1812  affords  ample 
demonstration  of  this  fact,  as  also  does  the 
decadence  that  ensued  consequent  .111  the  Civil 
War,  and  contributory  causes,  the  declining 
point  of  which  is  definitely  located  in  the  decade 
between  1855-65.  Prior  to  this  latter  period, 
and  following  on  Jay's  treaty  of  1794  (q.v.),  the 
mercantile  marine  of  the  United  States  de- 
veloped at  a  conspicuous  rate  With  the  excep- 
tion of  the  United  Kingdom  and  her  colonies, 
this  country  possessed  the  greatest  number  of 
ships  and  the  largest  amount  of  tonnage  among 
the  nations  of  the  world,  and  gave  evidence  at 
one  time  of  a  likelihood  of  surpassing  Great 
Britain  in  becoming  the  most  extensive  carrier 
on  the  universal  ocean.  Statistics  show  that  in 
1850.  66.9  per  cent,  of  the  foreign  commerce  of 
the  United  States  in  imports  and  exports  was 
carried  in  American  vessels.  Six  years  later, 
after  the  Civil   War.  this  had  been  reduced  to 


THE  OLD-TIME  WOODEN   SHIP 


THE   MODERN    IRON   SUIT. 


AMERICAN   MERCHANT  MARINE 


27.5  per  cent.,  and  gradually  decreased  until  in 
1901,  it  reached  8.2  per  cent.,  since  when  there 
has  been  an  increase  to  10.3  per  cent,  in  1904. 
From  second  position,  the  United  States  had 
come  to  rank  third  after  Germany  among  the 
mercantile  powers  of  the  world;  in  marine 
tonnage  being  surpassed  three  to  one,  and  on 
the  ocean  nine  to  one,  by  Great  Britain! 

While  compensation  is  found  in  the  marvel- 
lous internal  progress  of  the  country,  the  de- 
velopment of  the  American  merchant  marine 
also  exhibits,  besides  ordinary  material  growth, 
interesting  phases  which  are  worthy  of  exami- 
nation before  detailing  in  outline  the  carrying 
trade  of  the  United  States  prior  to  the  Civil 
War,  and  its  subsequent  decadence  for  which 
various  measures  of  relief  have  been  recom- 
mended. Before  and  during  the  American 
Revolution  the  international  struggle  for  the 
mastery  of  the  seas  precluded  any  possibility  of 
freedom  of  trade,  and  one  of  the  greatest  op- 
ponents to  the  development  of  any  foreign 
merchant  marine  than  her  own  was  Great 
Britain,  now  in  the  first  decade  of  the  20th 
century,  with  the  United  States  and  Japan  the 
foremost  champions  of  the  principle  of  the 
"open  door"  to  the  whole  trade  of  the  world, 
and  of  freedom  and  noninterference  in  com- 
mercial affairs.  In  maritime  relations.  Great 
Britain  was  still  governed  by  the  navigation 
laws  of  the  16th  century,  which  had  been  formu- 
lated again  Dutch  expansion  and  commerce,  while 
generally  similar  discriminating  and  retaliatory 
measures  were  in  force  among  European  mari- 
time nations  against  rival  merchant  marines. 
Of  this  nature,  illustrating  the  conditions  of  in- 
ternational commercial  jurisprudence  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  19th  century,  were  the  Orders  in 
Council,  directed  against  France  and  the  counter 
attack  of  Napoleon  with  the  Milan  decree. 
Great  Britain's  claim  of  the  right  of  search  and 
impressment,  and  the  refusal  of  the  United 
States  to  recognize  that  right,  was  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  War  of  1812,  and  the  opposition 
of  the  United  States  undoubtedly  inaugurated 
the  era  of  oceanic  commercial  freedom,  together 
with  the  doctrines  of  free  ports  and  open  doors, 
adopted  and  fostered  later  bv  Great  Britain  and 
so  successfully  promulgated  in  the  case  of  China 
during  the  Boxer  agitation  of  1900-01  and  the 
Russo-Japanese  war  of  1004-05  by  the  late 
United  States  Secretary  of  State  John  Hay. 
Great  Britain  materially  assisted,  although  un- 
wittingly, in  sustaining  the  principle  of  the 
freedom  of  the  merchant  marine,  when  protest- 
ing, during  the  Civil  War,  against  the  forcible 
action  of  Captain  Wilkes  of  the  United  States 
ship  San  Jacinto  in  boarding  and  searching  the 
British  steamer  Trent  for  the  Confederate  com- 
missioners James  Murray  Mason  and  John 
Slidell  who  were  made  prisoners.  Secretary  of 
State  Seward  and  President  Lincoln  gracefully 
acceded,  although  against  public  opinion,  to  re- 
leasing the  prisoners,  and  in  so  doing  admitted 
that  the  United  States  had  no  right  to  search  a 
British  vessel,  and  per  contra  Great  Britain  was 
deprived  of  the  weapons  of  search  and  impress- 
ment which,  by  force  majeure,  she  had  so  long 
wielded  against  weaker  nations. 

Meanwhile  the  introduction  of  steam  and  .he 
great  advances  in  all  branches  of  engineering 
during  the  10th  century  had  contributed  largely 
to  the  development  of  the  merchant  marines  of 
the   world,   firstly   by   the   improvement   of   ship 


locomotion,  and  secondly  by  the  adoption  of 
fixed  ocean  routes,  the  building  of  great  ship 
canals,  of  which  the  Suez  and  the  projected 
Panama  canals  are  foremost  examples,  and  by 
the  improvements  in  harbors,  wharves,  dock  ap- 
pliances and  accommodations  at  the  termini  of 
commerce.  Of  equal  importance  were  the  suc- 
cessive changes  from  wooden  to  iron  hulls 
(about  1863),  yielding  larger  and  stronger  ships 
with  better  and  cheaper  service ;  from  iron  to 
steel  hulls,  a  fresh  advantage  in  economy  and 
capacity ;  the  change  from  paddles  to  screws 
about  1850;  from  simple  to  compound  engines 
about  1856,  securing  increased  radius  through 
decreased  expenses  for  steam  coal ;  the  adoption 
of  twin  screws  since  1889,  and  the  development 
of  the  turbine  steamer  since  1895. 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  War  of  the 
Revolution,  the  United  States  merchant  marine 
commenced  its  national  existence.  In  May, 
1789.  James  Madison,  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, stated  that  only  160,907  tons  were 
foreign  of  the  437,641  tons  (including  repeated 
voyages)  registered  as  entered  in  the  ports  of 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Mary- 
land, Virginia,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia. 
"This  circumstance,"  continued  Mr.  Madison, 
"annexed  to  our  capacity  of  increasing  the  quan- 
tity of  our  tonnage,  gives  us  a  favorable  presage 
of  our  future  independence."  On  31  Dec.  1789, 
the  merchant  fleet  of  the  United  States 
amounted  to  201,562  tons,  of  which  123,893  tons 
were  registered  for  foreign  trade,  68,607  tons 
for  coasting  trade,  and  the  remainder  for  fish- 
eries. By  1795  the  tonnage  of  the  United  States 
merchant  fleet  had  increased  to  747.965  tons, 
and  in  1820,  notwithstanding  the  oppressive  in- 
fluence of  the  embargo  acts,  to  1,280,167  tons, 
583.657  tons  of  which  were  in  foreign  trade, 
compared  with  a  tonnage  for  the  entire  British 
empire  of  2,648,593  tons.  Three  years  later  the 
American  tonnage  (including  repeated  voyages) 
entering  the  United  States  from  foreign  ports, 
amounted  to  810.761  tons,  compared  with  119,487 
foreign,  of  which  89.553  tons  were  British. 

In  1850  the  new  ships  built  by  the  United 
States  amounted  to  272.218  tons,  while  those 
built  by  Great  Britain  amounted  to  only  133.695 
tons.  These  relative  positions  changed  in  the 
decade  preceding  the  Civil  War :  in  1S60  our 
new  tonnage  was  214.798.  that  of  Great  Britain 
3°l.535  tons.  In  1855,  the  year  "f  greatest  con- 
struction, the  United  States  built  2,027  vessels, 
of  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  583.450.  of  which  381 
were  full-rigged  ships.  But.  by  [859,  in  a  steady 
and  rapid  decline,  without  equal  in  our  marine 
history,  the  product  of  the  yards  in  four  years 
fell  to  875  vessels,  of  156.602  tons,  of  which  only 
89  were  full-rigged  ships.  In  i860  the  new 
tonnage  rose  to  214.708.  the  steam  fleet  aggre- 
gating 867,937  tons,  of  which  97,296  tons  were 
registered  against  a  total  steam  tonnage  of  only 
500.144  for  the  entire  British  empire.  The  de- 
cline of  1S50  was  not  to  be  attributed  to  the 
substitution  of  steam  for  sail,  this  country,  as 
the  home  of  Robert  Fulton,  easily  taking  and 
maintaining  the  lir^t  rank  in  the  early  years  of 
steam  navigation  But  the  substitution  of  iron 
for  wood  —  the  staple  shipbuilding  material  of 
this  country  at  the  period — -completely  altered 
the  conditions  of  shipbuilding  in  our  own  and 
competing  merchant  marines,  and  gave  the  ad- 
vantage to  Great  Britain  with  its  cheap  produc- 
f  iron  and  lower  cost  of  labor. 


AMERICAN   MERCHANT   MARINE 


Previous  to  the  decline,  however,  these  dis 
advantages,  largely  offset  by  the  superior  '-kill 
and  energ]  of  the  American-,  in  the  building 
and  management  of  ships,  were  also  modified 
by  the  United  States  government  extending  n> 
fostering  can-  over  the  maritime  interests  of  the 
nation  in  the  same  manner  that  other  govern- 
ments did  i"  theirs.  And,  while  our  govern- 
ment pursued  this  course,  our  shipbuilders  were 
enabled  to  produce  ocean  steamers  superior  in 
speed  and  fully  equal  in  any  other  respect  to 
those  built  elsewhere,  while  rapid  progress  was 
being  made  toward  assuming  a  position  in  ocean 
steam  navigation  equal  to  that  held  in  the  days 
of  sailing  vessels.  But  when,  owing  to  internal 
troubles,  the  government's  fostering  care  was 
withdrawn,  while  foreign  governments  adhered 
to  the  policy  of  granting  pecuniary  aid  to  estab- 
lish steamship  lines  with  other  countries,  then 
did  the  United  States  maritime  trade  begin  to 
decline,  until  it  was  comparatively  driven  from 
the  ocean,  but  few  American-built  steamers 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  and  rarely  was  the  Ameri- 
can commercial  flag  seen  in  any  port  in  Europe. 

During  the  Civil  War  a  large  amount  of 
American  shipping  was  sold  to  foreigners,  and 
the  capital  thus  released  was  invested  in  the 
building  of  railroads  under  a  system  of  enor- 
mous land  grants  —  really  subsidies,  which  the 
country  was  ready  to  vote  for  its  immediate  ad- 
vantage, but  denied  to  the  shipping  interests. 
The  subsidies  which  should  be  granted  to  our 
builders  to  create  a  mercantile  navy  superior  to 
any  are.  instead,  paid  to  foreign  shipowners  in 
the  shape  of  freight  money,  to  an  amount  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  $00,000,000  to  $110,000,- 
ooo  per  annum,  the  greater  part  peacefully  ab- 
sorbed by  Great  Britain, 

Confederate  cruisers  almost  annihilated  the 
Union  merchant  marine  during  the  Civil  War, 
capturing  and  burning  most  of  the  ships  which 
had  not  been  sold  or  hastily  transferred  to 
foreign  Rags.  In  l86l  the  merchant  marine  was 
registered  at  S,S39,8l3  tons,  and  it  was  not  until 
41  years  later,  in  lt)02,  that  this  figure  was 
pa  »ed  with  a  total  of  5,797.902  tons.  In  1903 
it  had  reached  -'4.425  vessels  of  6,087,345  tons, 
including  canal  boats  and  barge; :  there  being 
registered  [2,836  sailing  vessels  of  1.065,021  tons, 
exclusive  of  canal  boats  and  barges,  and  8.054 
steam     vessels     of    3,418.088    tons,     distributed 


ton-,    more 
and    whale 

15.541  tons 


among  the  geographical  divisions  of  the  At- 
lantic, Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Pacific,  Northern 
Lakes,  Western  ri\ers,  Porto  Rico,  and  Hawaii. 
In  the  coasting  trade  the  tonnage  of  vessels 
registered   was  5,141,037,  or  282,323 

than  loo-',  and  111  the  foreign  trade 
fisheries  888,776  tons,  an  increase  of 
over  1902. 

.Since  1898,  throughout  the  world  there  lit. 
been  a  period  of  extraordinary  activity  in  ship 
building,  in  which  the  yards  of  the  United 
States  have  shared,  their  average  annual  output 
being  approximately  400,000  gross  tons.  Ibis 
revival  is  due  principally  to  the  construction  of 
the  new  navy.  Ill  anticipation  of  a  steady  run 
of  work  on  government  ships,  new  plants, 
equipped  with  the  most  modern  appliances,  were 
laid   down,   available,   of   course,    for   men  han t 

ships  also.  During  1001  we  built  I.40I  vessels 
of  468,831  gross  tonnage.  Of  1,000  tons  and 
upward  there  were  launched  [6  merchant  ves- 
sels from  _\oj0  to  i_\;(o  tons  each,  05.105  in  all; 
5  steel  ferry,  river,  and  bay  Steamers,  of  5.479 
tons;  vvith  -  square-rigged  vessels  aggregating 
12.336  tons,  21  wooden  schooners  of  36,122  tons, 
and  4  rigged  barges  of  7,,t5o  tons;  total  sea- 
going vessels  of  1,000  tons  and  over,  53,  aggre- 
gating 156.4.11  tons.  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  that  of  the  Great  Lakes  exceeded  it. 
amounting  to  41  vessels  of  [58,63]  tons,  while  in 
1004  there  was  launched  for  service  on  the  Great 
Lakes  the  steamer  "Wolvin,"  560  feet  long,  then 
described  as  the  largest  freshwater  ship  in  the 
world,  but  surpassed  in  1005  by  four  other 
mammoth  fresh-water  steamers,  each  of  over 
12,000  tons,  569  feet  long,  56  feet  beam,  and  31 
feet  depth  ;  these  four  vessels  alone  representing 
a  total  carrying  capacity  equal  to  tin  entire  Beet 
of  the  Great  Lakes  25  years  ago.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fiscal  year  1002-3  there  were 
under  construction  or  contracted  for  in  our 
yards  25  steel  steamships  of  1,000  tons  and  up- 
ward. For  the  transatlantic  trade  there  were 
7  large  vessels  of  76,060  tons;  including  two 
600-foot  ships  for  the  Atlantic  Transport  Line 
of  13.400  tons;  the  Finland  of  12,760  tons,  for 
the  International  Navigation  Company:  the 
Missouri  and  Maine  of  0.S00  tons  each,  for  the 
Atlantic  Transport  Line;  and  for  the  same  line 
two  vessels  of  8,000  tons  each.  For  the  trans 
pacific  trade  there  were  two  immense  vessels  of 


AMERICAN    SHIPriNG    COMPANIES,    1005. 


Name  of  Owners, 


American-Hawaiian  Co 

American    Mail    S.S.   Co 

Atlantic  &  Caribbean   Co 

n    &    Philadelphia   S.S.   Co 

California    Shipping   Co 

Chapman,   I.    I-*.,  &  Co 

S  S     Co 

Cromwell    S.S.    Co 

Empire  Transit    Co 

[nternational    Nav.    Co 

Mallory,  Chas.  II.,  &  Co 

Merchants'   &   Miners'  Co 

N.  Y.  &  Cuba   Mail  S.S.  Co 

Oceanic  S.S.  Co 

OM  Dominion  S.S.  Co 

Pacific  Coast   S.S.   Co 

Pacific    Mail    S.S.    Co 

Sewall.   A  ,8   Co.,  Hath,  Me 

Southern    Pacific   Co 

Standard    <  111    Co 

I'.   S.   &    Port. 1   Rico   S.S.   Co 


No.  of 

Gross 

Vessels. 

Tonnage. 

4 

14,816 

4 

7.540 

s 

6,207 

6 

16.674 

16 

28,851 

6 

11,125 

16 

25.460 

5 

5,084 

2 

10,311 

12 

64.573 

8 

18.671 

0 

M.437 

17 

38.77' 

5 

io,<;i8 

18 

27,800 

1 1 

1  -.S',. . 

1 1 

28.713 

15 

32.342 

'7 

4'.6s8 

3 

9.080 

2 

5.038 

Routes. 


New  York.   San  Francisco,   Honolulu. 

Boston.   Philadelphia.  Jamaica. 

New    York.   I'orto   Rico,  Venezuela. 

Boston.   Philadelphia. 

Pacific  Coast  Ports. 

Foreign  Ports. 

New  York,  Philadelphia.  San  Domingo. 

New  York,  New  Orleans. 

Foreign  and  Domestic  Ports. 

New  York,  Southampton.  Antwerp. 

New  York,  Mobile,  New  Orleans. 

Baltimore,  Boston. 

New  York,  Havana.  Mexican  Ports. 

Honolulu,  Australian  Ports. 

Baltimore,  Boston. 

S.  Francisco,  Mexico.  British  Columbia. 

San  Francisco,  Panama,  Hong  Kong. 

Foreign    Ports. 

New  Orleans,  Havana.  Galveston. 

Furotwrin  Ports. 

New  York,  Porto  Rico. 


AMERICAN  MICROSCOPICAL  SOCIETY  —  AMERICAN    MINES 


20,000  tons  each  building  at  New  London,  Conn., 
for  the  Great  Northern  Steamship  Company; 
same  trade  via  Hawaii,  the  Siberia  of  11,726 
tons,  for  the  Pacific  Mail  Company;  Hawaii 
coasting  trade,  two  of  8,600  tons  each.  For  the 
Atlantic  coasting  trade  there  was  a  9,000-ton 
vessel  for  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  a  6,250- 
ton  for  the  New  York  &  Texas  Steamship  Com- 
pany, and  a  5,252-ton  ship  for  the  Ocean  Steam- 
ship Company;  beside  nine  vessels  from  1,000 
to  4,577  tons. 

Among  notable  modern  passenger  steamers, 
all  steel,  are  the  following: 

The  Kroonland,  12,760  tons,  launched  in  1901 
(as  was  her  sister  the  Finland);  the  largest 
ocean  steamer  ever  built  in  America ;  con- 
structed by  the  Cramps  in  Philadelphia  for  the 
International  Navigation  Company.  Length 
over  all,  580  feet ;  molded  breadth,  60  feet ; 
molded  depth,  42  feet;  displacement,  23,100  tons. 
Speed,  17  knots;  engines,  two  triple-expansion, 
cylinders  32^,  54,  and  89^2  inches,  42-inch 
stroke;  indicated  horse-power,  10,200;  boilers, 
0  single-ended  Scotch,  170  pounds  pressure. 
Passenger  capacity,  364  first  class,  190  second 
class,  1,000  steerage. 

The  Korea,  11,276  tons,  launched  1901  ;  her 
sister,  the  Siberia,  followed  in  1902 ;  they  are 
largest  and  fastest  steamers  of  any  nationality 
running  on  the  Pacific,  the  Korea  the  very  fast- 
est. They  were  built  by  the  Newport  News 
Shipbuilding  Company  for  the  Pacific  Mail 
Steamship  Company,  and  run  between  San  Fran- 
cisco, Japan,  and  China.  Korea's  average  sea 
speed,  17.78  knots ;  on  the  trial  trip  she  made 
the  remarkable  record  of  18  to  19.  Length  over 
all,  572  feet  4  inches;  molded  depth,  41  feet  10 
inches ;  displacement,  18,400  tons  on  27-foot 
draft.  Coal-bunker  capacity,  2,600  tons;  en- 
gines, twin  quadruple-expansion,  vertical  in- 
verted cylinders,  35,  50,  70,  and  100  inches  di- 
ameter, 66-inch  stroke ;  boilers,  6  double  and  2 
single-ended  Scotch,  200  pounds  pressure.  Pas- 
senger capacity,  210  first  class,  steerage  54  white 
and   1,144  Chinese. 

The  Sierra,  built  by  the  Cramps  in  1000  for 
the  Oceanic  Steamship  Company,  one  of  three 
sister  ships  recently  launched,  to  run  from  San 
Francisco  to  Honolulu  (every  10  days),  Samoa, 
Australia,  and  New  Zealand  (every  three 
weeks),  and  Tahiti  (every  month).  The  Sierra 
is  a  very  handsome  twin-screw  ship  of  6,253  tons. 
Length,  400  feet ;  breadth,  50  feet  2  inches ; 
molded  depth  to  spar  deck,  37  feet  2  inches.  En- 
gines, triple-expansion  vertical,  cylinders,  28,  46, 
and  75  inches  diameter,  48-inch  stroke ;  indi- 
cated horse-power,  8,000;  speed,  17  knots;  actual 
speed  for  the  7,200  miles  from  San  Francisco  to 
New  Zealand,  15  knots.  The  three  are  con- 
structed as  auxiliary  cruisers  at  need ;  with 
double  bottom. 

The  Morro  Castle,  built  by  'he  Cramps  in 
1900  for  the  expanding  West  India  trade ;  6,004 
tons  gross  ;  8,280  displacement ;  length,  416  feet ; 
breadth,  50  feet;  molded  depth,  36' j  feet.  She 
has  a  double  bottom  and  seven  steel  bulkheads 
to  the  main  deck.  Engines,  triple-expansion, 
4-cylinder ;  cylinders.  32,  52,  60,  and  60  inches 
diameter,  42-inch  stroke;  indicated  horse-power, 
8,000  at  170  pounds  pressure.  Sea  speed.  17 
knots.  Passenger  capacity,  104  first  class,  60 
intermediate,  44  second  class.     Crew.  117. 

Other  interesting  facts  are  that  the  two 
largest   cargo   steamers   ever  built   in    America, 


the  Shawmut  and  the  Tremont,  both  of  9,606 
tons,  are  plying  regularly  on  their  routes  be- 
tween Puget  Sound,  Japan.  China,  and  Manila; 
that  the  Alaskan,  of  8,716  tons,  built  at  San 
Francisco,  and  now  trading  between  Hawaii 
and  the  Atlantic  coast,  is  the  largest  merchant 
steamer  ever  launched  on  the  Pacific;  while  in 
river  passenger  boats  a  new  vessel  is  being  built 
in  1905  for  service  on  the  Hudson  which  sur- 
passes in  size,  speed,  and  general  equipment  all 
hitherto  constructed,  the  dimensions  of  the  new 
boat  being  length,  400  feet,  breadth,  82  feet, 
with  accommodation  for  5,000  passengers,  and  a 
speed  of  23  miles  an  hour. 

The  year  1902  saw  the  consummation  of  a 
steamship  combine,  by  which  five  of  the  largest 
transatlantic  companies,  the  White  Star,  Do- 
minion, Leyland,  Atlantic  Transport,  and  Ameri- 
can Red  Star,  were  merged  into  a  single  com- 
pany with  nearly  1,000,000  tons  of  shipping  un- 
der its  control.  The  combination  was  formed 
on  strictly  international  lines,  with  a  joint 
American  and  British  control,  the  general  man- 
ager of  the  line  being  an  American  with  resi- 
dence in  this  country.  The  organization  was  so 
arranged  that  the  various  companies  included  in 
the  consolidation  preserved  their  autonomy,  and 
every  consideration  is  shown  their  national  and 
local  surroundings.  The  combination  was  ar- 
ranged to  afford  better  transatlantic  service  at 
decreased  cost,  with  more  uniform  rates,  and  a 
better  distribution  of  traffic  over  the  American 
and  Canadian  seaports.  During  the  year  1902 
both  the  largest  vessel  in  the  world  and  the 
fastest  vessel  at  that  time  were  launched,  the 
Cedric,  of  37,870  tons,  about  1,000  tons  larger 
than  her  sister  ship  the  Celtic,  and  the  Kaiser 
Wilhelm,  with  a  sea  speed  of  24  knots.  In  size, 
although  not  in  speed,  these  vessels  were  sur- 
passed in  1905  by  the  steamship  Amerika ; 
length  over  all,  700  feet;  breadth,  74  feet: 
depth,  53  feet;  displacement,  42.000  tons:  cargo 
capacity,  22,000  tons;  built  at  Belfast,  Ireland; 
wlnle  in  1906  will  be  launched  the  steamship 
Kaiserin  Augitste  Victoria,  length  over  all,  705 
feet;  breadth,  -j-j  feet;  depth,  53.9  feet:  built  at 
Stettin,  Germany.  Innovations  on  these  two 
steamers  include  elevator  service  between  the 
five  passenger  decks,  Turkish  and  electric  baths, 
and  modern  a  la  carte  restaurants. 

Consult:  Bates,  'American  Navigation' 
(1902);  Marvin  'American  Navigation'   (1902) 

American  Microscopical  Society,  an  asso- 
ciation organized  for  the  purpose  of  promot- 
ing microscopical  studies  by  granting  aid  lo 
members  from  invested  funds,  and  by  publi- 
cation. Office  of  secretary,  University  of 
Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Neb. 

American  Mines  and  Mining.  The  adop- 
tion of  new  methods  in  mining  operations  has 
been  justified  by  an  improved  product,  a  reduced 
productive  cost,  or  an  increased  rate  of  produc- 
tion. The  introduction  of  machine  methods  in 
mining  marked  a  revolution  in  this  field  of 
activity,  and  the  history  of  mining  since  that 
time  has  been  largely  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  mining  machinery.  There  is  no  more 
significant  evidence  of  this  fact  than  is  to  be 
found  to-day  in  the  coal  mines  of  this  country. 
In  this  work  the  unusual  conditions  have  been 
met  by  the  development  of  special  types  of 
machines. 

foal    is    to-dav   the   most   powerful    factor   in 


AMERICAN  MUSEUM  — AMERICAN  NEWSPAPERS 


the  industrial  life  of  the  world.  Its  production 
is  the  most  important  industry  of  the  age,  and 
has  made  possible  the  marvelous  devel- 
opment of  the  loth  century.  In  point  of  value, 
coal  exceeds  the  total  production  of  all  other 
minerals.  It  will  be  conceded  that  an  industry, 
which  in  a  few  years  has  overshadowed  all 
others  is  one  to  which  the  best  thought  must 
have  been  given  and  the  highest  skill  applied. 
While  this  is  true  in  every  department  which 
pertains  to  the  handling  of  the  product  from 
the  miner  to  the  consumer,  there  has  not  been 
until  quite  recently  a  corresponding  advance  in 
the  actual  mining  of  the  coal  over  the  crude  and 
laborious  methods  which  obtained  50  years  ago. 

The  rapid  advancement  of  the  American 
mining  industry,  aided  by  modern  and  inexpen- 
sive handling  and  splendid  transportation  facil- 
ities, is  appreciated  when  it  is  noted  that  out 
of  the  world's  annual  production  of  50,000,000 
tons  of  pig  iron,  the  United  States  alone  fur- 
nishes about  20.000,000  tons,  which  if  made  into 
telegraph  wire  one-fifth  of  an  inch  thick,  would 
extend  from  the  earth  to  the  sun.  The  yearly 
valuation  of  this  product  of  pig  or  cast-iron  is 
than  $250,000,000,  while  nearly  $50,000,000 
are  annually  paid  in  wages  to  about  85,000  men 
and  boys  employed  in  its  production. 

Legitimate  mining,  conducted  as  a  business 
•  ui  business  principles,  is  more  certain  of  large 
profit  than  any  mercantile  or  industrial  occupa- 
tion. A  retrospect  of  mining  in  the  United 
States  will  show  that  where  skill  and  economy 
have  figured  in  mining  operations,  the  result  has 
been  to  create  riches  for  companies  and  indi- 
viduals, in  many  instances  beyond  the  dreams  of 
avarice.  The  foundations  of  states  and  pros- 
perous cities  have  been  laid  by  mining  men,  due 
principally  to  the  enormous  profits  that  legiti- 
mate mines  1  if  this  country  have  paid.  Govern- 
ment statistics  show  that  American  mining 
properly  conducted  is  one  of  the  safest  invest- 
ments for  capital,  besides  possessing  the  attrac- 
tion, speculative  to  an  extent,  that  every  ten 
feel  of  shaft  or  tunnel  made  in  a  meritorious 
mine  is  liable  to  strike  a  bonanza  of  still  richer 
ore.  American  mining  has  progressively  gone 
forward  until  the  present  annual  output  in  the 
United  States  exceeds  $1,000,000,000  in  value. 
The  minerals,  including  natural  gas  and  petro- 
]<  11111.  contributing  to  this  aggregate  are  in  great 
variety,  and  may  he  classed  as  follows :  Anti- 
mony, asbestos,  asphaltum  and  bituminous  rock, 
1  rytes,  bauxite,  borax,  buhrstones  and  mill- 
.  cement,  clay,  coal — anthracite  and  bitu- 
minous, e.ipper,  corundum  and  emery,  crystal- 
line quartz,  feldspar,  Hint,  fluorspar,  fullers' 
net,  gold,  graphite,  grindstones  and 
pulpsto  urn,  infusorial  earth,  tripoli  and 

pumice,  iron  ore,  lead  ore,  lithographic  stone, 
limestones  and  dolomites,  lithium  ore,  manga- 
nese ore,  marble,  marl,  mica — sheet  and  scrap, 
mineral  pigments,  monazite,  oilstones,  whet- 
thestones,  ozocerite,  phosphate 
rock,  platinum  and  iridium,  precious  stones, 
quicksilver,  sandstones  and  quartzitcs,  silica 
sand,  siliceous  crystalline  rocks,  silver,  slate, 
sulphur  and  pyrite,  talc  and  soapstone,  tung- 
uranium  and  vanadium,  zinc  ore.  chrome 
ore.  magnesite,  molybdenum,  nickel  and  cobalt, 
and  rutile. 

When  mining  was  in  its  infancy,  the  methods 
of  drawing  were  primitive  and  cruel.     Fir-t   it 


was  done  by  women  and  girls,  who  were  used 
as  beasts  of  burden.  Then  came  the  car  run- 
ning on  wooden  stringers,  which  111  tune  gave 
place  to  iron  rails,  and  finally  dogs,  ponies, 
mules  and  horses  were  substituted  for  hand 
labor  in  hauling.  As  the  mines  became  larger 
in  output  and  more  extensive  in  distance,  the 
need  of  better  methods  became  imperative.  The 
next  improvement  was  the  tail  and  endless  rope, 
which  through  irs  of  service  has  proved 

both  reliable  and  economical.  Sometimes  the 
power  engines  are  at  the  surface,  and  often 
underground,  operated  by  compressed  air.  1  hen 
there  is  the  steam  locomotive,  the  electric  motor, 
the  air  locomotive,  and  the  gasoline  motor,  the 
latter  still  experimental.  Of  these  steam  is 
used  to  a  very  limited  extent,  as  the  legal  and 
mining  conditions  which  admit  of  its  operation 
are  rarely  found.  Electric  power  is  now  suc- 
cessfully applied  to  such  operations  as  hoisting, 
hauling,  drilling  and  cutting,  as  well  as  lighting 
and  the  driving  of  pumps  and  ventilating  ap- 
paratus. Electric  wires  may  be  run  anywhere 
and  under  any  conditions  to  be  found  in  a 
mine;  they  are  easily  and  quicklv  laid,  occupy 
small  space,  and  may  be  readily  tapped  when- 
ever it  is  desired  to  operate  machinery.  In  con- 
trast with  other  means  of  power  transmission. 
electricity  does  not  require  many  isolated  boiler 
and  engine  plants,  with  long,  inflexible  and 
costly  lines  of  piping,  nor  does  it  involve  com- 
plicated and  troublesome  mechanism  which  is 
costly  to  attend  and  maintain,  but  it  makes  pos- 
sible  a  considerable  saving  through  the  utiliza- 
tion of  water-power  or  the  consolidation  of 
independent  steam-power  plants.  See  Mines 
and  Mining.  Edward  S.  Farrow, 

Consulting  Railroad  and  Mining  Engineer. 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History. 
See  Museum. 

American  Newspapers.  The  history  of  the 
printing  of  newspapers  in  America  properly 
begins  on  25  Sept.  1690,  for  it  was  upon  that 
date  that  Richard  Pierce,  of  Boston,  issued  the 
first  number  of  what  was  to  have  been  a  pe- 
riodical publication.  Strange  as  it  may  seem, 
however,  this  first  American  journalist  was  en- 
dowed with  a  sense  of  originality  of  which  even 
the  makers  of  the  modern  sensational  news- 
paper might  find  reason  to  be  proud,  for,  in 
his  salutatory,  he  stated  that  as  there  were  many 
false  rumors  being  circulated  in  the  town  of 
Boston  which  were  constantly  doing  a  great 
deal  of  harm,  he  requested  his  readers  to  fur- 
nish him  with  a  list  of  those  persons  who  were 
starting  such  stories  that  he  might  advertise 
them  in  the  succeeding  issues  of  his  paper.  In 
other  words,  his  plan  was  to  print  a  regular 
weekly  list  of  all  the  liars  in  town,  a  scheme 
which  would  certainly  have  sold  many  copies 
of  the  sheet  bad  not  the  authorities  put  an  end 
to  the  project  by  promptly  suppressing  the  news- 
paper. This  journal  was  to  have  borne  the 
name  of  'Public  Occurrences,  both  Foreign  and 
Domestic.' 

As  only  one  issue  of  this  strange  newspaper 
appeared,  the  historians  of  journalism  have  usu- 
ally failed  to  mention  it.  but,  instead,  have  given 
the  credit  for  the  publication  of  the  first  periodi- 
cal to  John  Campbell,  a  Scotchman,  and  the 
postmaster  at  Boston,  who  issued  the  first  num- 
ber of   'The  Boston  News-Letter,'   on  24  April 


AMERICAN  NEWSFAPERS 


1704.  It  was  printed  on  half  a  sheet  of  pot 
paper,  with  a  small  pica  type,  folio,  and  its 
entire  contents  consisted  of  several  extracts 
from  'The  London  Flying  Post,'  in  relation  to 
the  pretender ;  the  queen's  speech  to  Parlia- 
ment regarding  that  subject;  a  few  items  of 
local  news ;  four  short  paragraphs  of  marine 
intelligence  from  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and 
New  London,  and  a  single  advertisement  —  that 
of  the  proprietor.  This  was  just  82  years  after 
the  appearance  of  the  first  English  newspaper  in 
London,  and  99  years  after  the  first  newspaper 
in  France.  Germany  had  antedated  all  other 
countries,  having  made  several  short-lived  at- 
tempts to  establish  periodical  journals  as  early 
as   the   latter   part   of  the    16th   century. 

For  more  than  15  years  Campbell  had  the 
journalistic  field  entirely  to  himseif,  but,  in  the 
latter  part  of  1719,  another  paper,  called  'The 
Gazette,'  was  started  in  Boston,  and,  in  1721, 
a  third  was  established  by  James  Franklin  un- 
der the  name  of  'The  New  England  Currant.' 
In  the  meantime  there  had  appeared  at  Philadel- 
phia the  first  newspaper  published  outside  of 
New  England.  It  was  called  'The  American 
Weekly  Mercury,'  and  its  first  number  was  is- 
sued by  Andrew  Bradford,  the  son  of  William 
Bradford,  22  Dec.  1719.  The  first  paper  to  be 
printed  in  New  York  was  'The  New  York  Ga- 
zette,' established  in  Oct.  1725,  but  by  1740,  the 
number  of  newspapers  in  the  English  colonies 
in  America  had  increased  to  ir,  three  of  which 
had  been  established  in  Pennsylvania  —  one  be- 
ing printed  in  German  —  one  in  New  York,  one 
in  Virginia,  one  in  South  Carolina,  and  the  re- 
maining five  in  Boston. 

In  the  beginning  the  American  newspaper 
was  a  very  small  affair,  being  little  more  than 
an  abstract  of  such  papers  as  might  chance  to 
arrive  from  Europe  on  or  about  the  date  of 
publication.  In  fact,  little  change  was  made  in 
them  until  after  the  time  of  the  Revolution  when 
the  political  agitators  found  it  convenient  to 
make  use  of  them  in  presenting  their  appeals 
to  the  people.  It  was  largely  for  this  purpose 
that  the  first  daily  newspaper,  'The  American 
Daily  Advertiser,'  was  established  in  Philadel- 
phia by  Benjamin  Franklin  Bache,  in  1774. 
During  the  time  that  the  seat  of  government 
was  at  Philadelphia,  it  was  this  paper  that  was 
used  by  Jefferson  to  oppose  the  Federal  section 
of  Washington's  administration  as  well  as  all 
measures  which  originated  with  Hamilton  or 
his  friends.  In  1802,  Zachariah  Poulson  became 
its  proprietor,  and  the  name  which  he  gave  to  it, 
'Poulson's  Advertiser,'  was  retained  until  1839, 
when  it  was  consolidated  with  'The  North 
American.' 

The  second  daily  newspaper  was  'The  New 
York  Daily  Advertiser,'  first  issued  on  1  Mar. 
'785,  by  Francis  Childs  &  Company.  About  a 
year  later,  29  July  1786,  the  first  newspaper  ap- 
peared west  of  the  Alleghany  mountains.  It  was 
published  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  was  called  'The 
Gazette.'  During  the  early  post-Revolutionary 
days,  Alexander  Hamilton's  special  organ  was 
'The  United  States  Gazette.'  a  paper  established 
in  New  York  in  1789,  by  John  Fenno,  of  Boston. 

The  territory  comprised  within  the  New  Eng- 
land States  had  no  permanent  daily  newspaper 
until  3  Mar.  1813.  when  the  Boston  'Daily  Ad- 
vertiser' was  started  by  William  W.  Clapp. 
Prior    to    that    time    two    distinct    attempts    to 


establish  such  papers  had  been  made.  As  early 
as  6  Oct.  1796,  Alexander  Martin,  an  Irishman, 
started  'The  Polar  Star,'  which  lived  about  six 
months.      It  was  followed,  I  Jan.   1 ,  altb 

P.  Wayne's  'Federal  Gazette,'  which  ceased 
publication  in  less  than  three  months.  Of  the 
hundreds  of  papers  started  in  New  York  be- 
tween 1725  and  1827,  when  the  first  number 
of  'The  Journal  of  Commerce'  appeared,  only 
two  now  survive,  'The  Commercial  Advertiser.' 
now  better  known  as  'The  Globe  and  Commer- 
cial Advertiser,'  and  'The  Evening  Post.' 

The  history  of  the  penny  newspaper  dates 
from  1830,  the  idea  having  been  suggested  by 
the  'Illustrated  Penny  Magazine,'  first  issued  in 
London  during  that  year.  During  the  next  few 
years,  therefore,  several  similar  attempts  to  in- 
troduce cheap  papers  were  made  in  the  United 
States,  notably  at  Philadelphia  and  Boston.  As 
these  publications  were  always  as  small  as  they 
were  cheap,  however,  they  were  but  short-lived, 
and  it  was  not  until  I  Jan.  1833,  when  the  price 
of  'The  Morning  Post,'  was  reduced  to  one  cent 
by  its  publishers.  Dr.  Shepard.  Horace  Greeley, 
and  Francis  V.  Story,  that  any  pretentious  effort 
was  made  to  print  a  cheap  newspaper.  Although 
this  experiment  was  not  a  success  its  failure 
was  due  to  causes  other  than  that  of  the  price, 
so,  when  Benjamin  H.  Day  established  the  New- 
York  'Sun.'  3  September  of  the  same  year,  he 
also  fixed  its  price  at  one  cent,  and  the  day  of 
the  cheap  press  had  come. 

During  the  time  which  elapsed  between  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century  and  the  year  1833 
American  journalism  passed  through  two  of  the 
most  important  transition  periods  in  its  history. 
After  having  served  its  purpose  as  the  mouth- 
piece of  more  or  less  patriotic  agitators,  it  en- 
tered upon  a  period  of  party  conflict,  which, 
while  fierce  enough,  was  not  always  directed 
along  judicious  lines.  Edited  by  adventurers, 
often  brilliant  men  whose  flashing  wit  attracted 
widespread  attention  to  their  utterances,  this 
was  the  time  in  which  the  purpose  of  the  Ameri- 
can press  could  in  no  sense  he  depended  upon. 
It  was  not  until  1815,  or  a  little  later,  that  the 
newspapers  of  the  country  became  pretty 
thoroughly  emancipated  from  the  control  of  these 
politicians.  It  was  still  more  a  political  tract 
than  anything  else,  however;  it  was  narrow  in 
its   field   and   intolerant   in   its   expressions,  but 

DEVELOPMENT     OF     AMERICAN"     JOURNALISM     FROM 
1775    TO     1905. 


1775 
1800 
1810 
182S 
1840 
1S50 
18C0 
1870 
1880 
1880 
1885 
1S90 
1895 
1900 


(USl 

tU  S'. 

(A)... 


254 

387 

574 
9°-) 

1,662 

1.988 


-'.  377 


282 


1,902 
3,*73 
4.295 
8,633 

7.S11 
10.241 
13.562 
15. "06 

15.681 

. 


o2  z; 


100 

95 

280 

622 

96 

1,167 

160 

9?q 

no 

I»9 

260 

2,150 

24  Q 

2.328 

2f~l 

2.550 

2t2 

37 
150 

?6i 

861 
1.403 
2.526 
4-°5i 
5,871 

IK  -,14 
IO,  IOO 
13,304 
17,712 
20,217 


(A)  Ayer's  American  Newspaper  Annual. 
•Tri- weekly. 


AMERICAN   NEWSPAPERS 


still,  ;it  the  same  time,  its  utterances  were  deliv 
ered  with  freedom  and  courage.  It  was  not 
until  1833  that  the  first  real  newspaper  appeared 
This  was  the  New  York  'Sun.*  and  the  success 
of  its  policy  of  publishing  the  news  instead  <>f 
devoting  its  columns  to  the  editor's  personal  and 
en  eccentric  opinions  upon  political  matters 
was  so  immediate  that  it  was  soon  followed  by 
many  rivals.  Tims  commenced  the  last  and 
greatest  period  in  the  development  "f  the  Ameri- 
can press. 

STATISTICS    OF    AMERICAN    NEWSPAPERS 
(Taken  from  Ayer's  American  Newspaper  Annual  for  1905) 


Stale  or  Territory. 


A'ahama 

Alaska 

Arizona  

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Klorida 

<  Seorgia 

1  tawail , 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian  Tei ritory.... 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Mi.  higan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire. . . . 

New  Jersey 

New  Mex  co 

New  York , 

North  Carolina 

North  Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Philippine  Island*... . 

Porto  Rico 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington  

West  Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


23 

3 

IS 

2., 

127 

38 

37 

4 

3 

IQ 

24 

8 

156 
12 

<~9 

65 

30 

»4 
17 
'7 
81 
66 
46 
•4 
84 


'74 
28 


Totals 2,377    16,152  600    2,550    262 


198 

9 

43 

*4S 

474 
286 

97 

27 

24 

u" 

271 

18 

9« 

,185 

58a 

■  74 
8  So 
632 
235 
165 

98 

■  40 
413 
586 
662 
207 
7:5 

79 
5-7 

24 
128 
280 

«3 
,069 
182 
246 
77" 
»95 
170 

8 
9 
39 
"4 
281 
241 
7°5 
56 
84 
163 

173 

57' 
4° 


267 

S9 

3 

9< 

30 

'3 

35 
»7 
142 
7 '5 
61 
9 
"5 
6 
35 


26 
3 

574 
■7 
6 

•33 
it 
•7 

234 


I 

3 

2 

7 

1 

H 

1.1 

6 

2 

2«5 
'4 

61 

2Q2 

-7' 
'71 

35 

66 
1*3 
355 

39 
1 1 1 
".721 
838 
-93 
"1  ~*9 
74- 
iil 
212 
158 
.98 
'.  1  > 
79- 
793 
242 
1,021 
104 
641 

35 
isg 
37" 

73 

2.O.  7 
.63 
26^ 

I,l66 

337 
227 

3- 

'4 
(I, 

■56 

■  1  , 
122 
8'S 

84 
105 
246 
288 
125 
720 

5' 


No  reliable  statistics  nf  newspapers  were  kepi 
prior  to  1810,  at  which  time  there  were  366  pub- 
ins  of  all  classes  in  the  United  States. 
None  of  these  publications  appeared  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  and  only  25  of  them  were 
published  daily.  It  is  interesting  to  compare 
the  number  of  newspapers  published  at  that  time 
with  those  issued  in  1005.  (The  American 
Newspaper  annual  tjives  the  preceding  tables) 
The  comparison  is  given  in  the  tables  at  the  top 
of  the  next  column  : 


Total 

1  lail 

Semi- 
Weekly 

Tri- 
weekly 

Weekly 

1810 

3' 6 
-3.553 

25 
-.457 

3« 

'    1 

■5 

50 

it  ■ 

From   reliable   sources   the   following   list   "f 
newspapers,  which  were  started  prior  t-»  or  dur- 
ing the  year   [800  and  which  are  still  in  exist 
ence,  was  compiled : 


MAINE. 

Port'and Vdvcrtiser 


NKW    HAMF'SIIIKB. 

Keene New  Hampshire  Sentinel . 

Cheshire  Republican 

Portsmouth New  Hampshire  Gazette. 

Journal 


VERMONT, 

Rutland Herald 

Windsor Vermont  Journal , 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Greenfield Gazette  and  Courier 

Haverhill Gazette 

Newburypon. . .  Herald  (  weekly  i 

Northampton        Hampshire  Gazette  (weekly) 

Plttsfield U  rkshirc  County  Eagle  (weekly). 

Sun 

Salem Ga/etie  ami  Mcicury 

Register 

Worcester Spy 


RHODB    ISLAND. 

Newport Mercury 


CONNECTICUT. 

Bridgeport Republxan  Farmer. 

Hartford L'ourant 

New  Haven Connecticut  Herald  and  Journal. 

Nor  walk Gazette 

Norwich Courier 


NEW    YORK. 

Pallston   Spa  ...Journal 

Cambridge Washington  County  Post 

Catskill Recorder 

Hudson Gazette 

New  burg Register 

O  wego Gazette 

Troy Northern  Budget 

Utica Herald  and  Gazette 

N.  Y.  City Commercial  Advertiser 

Shipping    and    Commercial    List    ami 
New  York  Prices-Current 

NEW   JERSPV. 

Newark S' ntinel  of  rreedom 

New  Brunswick  Times 

Trenton State  Gazette 


1785 

■    I  , 
1     1 
S75fi 
1793 

»7'U 
178.J 

1792 

i7y5 

I7QJ 
1786 

17P9 
1800 
1768 
1801 
1770 

1758 


170a 

■764 

I7<-6 

1800 
1756 

1798 

I    I* 

I7Q2 

1785 

171)6 
1800 
"797 

■  793 

■797 

"795 

1796 
17.3 

■  7)2 


PENNSYLVANIA. 

Oiambersburg..  Franklin  Repository 

( rettysburg Star  and  Sentinel 

1  rreensburg Westmoreland  DemiKT.it . 

Lancaster Intelligencer 

Norristown Herald 

Philadelphia.... North  American 

Pittsburg Commercial  Gazette 

Reading Adlcr  (German) 

York Gazette 


DB1  AWAlcK, 

Wilmington Delaware  Gazette  and  Slate  Journal. 

MARYLAND. 

Annapolis Marytand  Gazette 

Baltimore America 


VIRGINIA. 

Alexandria Alexandria  Gazette. 


Augusta Chronicle 

OHIO. 

Cincinnati Commercial  Gazette. 


■  79° 
1800 
1  98 

■  794 
'799 
1784 
Z786 
17'fi 
Z796 

1784 


■745 
'7.1 

1784 
1785 
■  793 


In    point   of   age    the    following   arc    the  ten 
oldest  newspapers   in   the   United   States : 

1.  Annapolis,  Md..  Maryland  Gazette 1745 

2.  Portsmouth,  N.  H  ,  New  Hampshire  Gazette 1756 

3.  Newport,  R.  I.,  Mercury 1758 

4.  Hartford,  Ccnn.,  Courant 1764 

5.  New    Haven,    Conn.,    Connecticut    Hera'd     and 

Journal 17™ 

6.  Salem.  Mass  .  Gazette  and  Mercury i7'8 

7.  Worcester,  Mass.,  Spy "770 


AMERICAN  NEWSPAPERS 


8.  Baltimore,  Md.,  America i;73 

9.  Windsor,  Vt.,  Vermont  Journal 1783 

10.    Alexandria,  Va.,  Alexandria  Gazette 1784 

Prior  to  1810  the  circulation  of  the  most 
widely  read  daily  newspaper  did  not  exceed  900 
copies,  while  there  were  few  publications,  either 
weeklies  or  semi-weeklies,  that  could  boast  of  a 
larger  circulation  than  that  of  600  copies.  Sup- 
posing that  there  were  25  dailies  in  1810,  issuing 
310  times  a  year;  36  semi-weeklies;  seven  tri- 
weeklies, and  290  weeklies,  each  with  a  circula- 
tion of  about  600  copies,  the  aggregate  circu- 
lation for  the  year  would  have  been  considerably 
less  than  2,000.000  copies,  while  the  value  of  the 
paper  used  could  not  have  been  in  excess  of 
$125,000.  Compare  those  figures,  therefore,  with 
these  from  the  United  States  census  report  for 
1900,  when  the  total  sum  invested  in  the  news- 
paper and  periodical  publications  of  the  country 
was  stated  to  be  $192,443,708;  when  there  were 
94,604  persons  employed  in  this  business,  their 
total  wages  for  the  year  amounting  to  $50,- 
333.0SI,  and  when  the  total  value  of  the  news- 
papers and  periodicals  produced  was  fixed  at 
$222,893,569.  During  the  year  1900,  no  less  than 
956,335,921  pounds  of  paper  were  used  by  the 
newspapers  in  producing  their  aggregate  circula- 
tion of  8,168,148,749.  The  cost  of  this  paper 
was  $22,197,060.  During  this  year  the  amount 
received  from  advertising  was  $95,861,127,  while 
the  amount  from  subscriptions  and  sales  was 
$79,928,483.  Enormous  as  these  figures  may 
seem,  however,  they  are  now  far  too  low,  for 
the  five  years  that  have  elapsed  since  the  last 
census  was  taken  has  been  a  period  of  wonder- 
ful growth  in  every  branch  of  the  newspaper 
field.  The  following  table  is  interesting  as 
showing  the  steady  development  in  number  and 
circulation  of  the  industry  of  daily  paper  making 
in   America: 


Ykar 


1850 
i860 
1870 

1  ■'  ■ 
1890 
1900 


Number  of  Dailv 
Papers  Published 

Tot.il  Circulation 
Per    Ksue 

251 

387 

574 

971 

I,(  10 

2,235 

758,454 
1,4:3,435 
2,  box,  5,47 
3. 5^6, 395 
8,387,188 
15,102,156 

To  attempt  to  tell  the  story  of  the  growth 
of  the  American  newspaper  without  relating 
some  particulars  in  regard  to  the  wonderful 
feats  which  it  has  from  time  to  time  performed 
would  be  to  give  but  a  superficial  view  of  the 
subject.  Prior  to  the  days  of  the  telegraph  the 
daily  press  had  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  its 
information  about  current  events  in  other  parts 
of  the  countrv.  To  offset  this  disadvantage 
they  adopted  three  methods  of  quick  communi- 
cation. One  was  by  pony  express ;  another  was 
by  carrier  pigeons,  and,  when  steam  had  been 
sufficiently  developed  to  make  fast  travelling  by 
rail  or  steamboat  possible,  special  trains  and 
boats  were  frequently  chartered  for  special  occa- 
sions. The  New  York  'Herald'  and  the  New 
York  'Journal  of  Commerce'  were  the  first 
papers  to  own  swift  sailing  yachts  which  were 
used  to  obtain  early  information  from  incoming 
European  vessels,  while  A.  S.  Abell,  of  the  Bal- 
timore 'Sun,'  established  his  own  overland 
express  between  New  Orleans  and  Baltimore. 
This  consisted  of  60  blooded  horses,  housed   at 


conveniently  located  relay  stations,  and  the  pro- 
ject was  so  successful  that,  during  the  Mexican 
War,  he  not  only  beat  all  the  other  newspapers 
in  getting  news,  but  he  secured  his  information 
so  far  ahead  of  the  government's  own  despatches, 
that  he  was  able  to  advise  the  officials  at  Wash- 
ington of  important  events,  sometimes  more 
than  30  hours  before  the  reports  of  the  happen- 
ings had  been  received  at  the  War  Office.  An- 
other instance  of  conspicuous  enterprise  was 
shown  by  Henry  J.  Raymond.  While  a  reporter 
for  the  New  York  'Tribune,'  he  was  sent  to 
Boston  to  report  a  notable  speech  by  Daniel 
Webster.  Returning  by  boat,  he  arranged  to 
have  the  necessary  composition  frames  and  cases 
erected  in  his  room,  that,  as  fast  as  he  could 
write,  the  sheets  might  be  put  into  type,  so  that 
all  were  ready  for  publication  the  instant  he 
reached  the  office. 

In  1846,  when  the  entire  country  was  so 
greatly  excited  over  the  Oregon  boundary  dis- 
pute with  Great  Britain,  several  of  the  news- 
papers combined  to  send  a  swift  pilot  boat  to 
England.  There  all  the  important  news  was 
obtained;  the  boat  returned  as  quickly  as  it  went, 
and  the  American  people  were  provided  with 
the  information  they  craved  many  days  before 
it  could  possibly  have  arrived  if  it  had  come  by 
the  ordinary  channels,  the  slow-sailing  vessels 
of  that  day. 

As  so  much  enterprise  was  shown  by  news- 
paper publishers  at  a  time  when  the  means  of 
quick  communication  were  few  and  costly,  it 
was  but  natural  that  they  should  have  hailed 
the  steam  railroad  and  the  electric  telegraph 
with  delight.  During  the  10  years  between  1840 
and  1850,  the  period  in  which  these  inventions 
were  first  generally  extended,  the  circulation 
of  the  American  papers  increased  more  than 
two-fold.  In  fact,  they  seized  upon  the  tele- 
graph with  such  avidity,  that,  to  overcome  the 
inconvenience  and  delay  caused  by  the  manner 
in  which  they  were  crowding  one  another,  the 
press  associations  were  formed,  in  1850.  By 
means  of  these  associations  the  ordinary  news 
which  occurred  in  the  populous  parts  of  the 
country  was  sent,  practically  in  duplicate,  to  all 
the  papers  subscribing  to  the  service,  and  indi- 
vidual papers  were  compelled  to  rely  upon 
special  correspondents  only  for  reports  of  such 
important  events  as  they  might  desire  to  "cover" 
with  more  attention  to  detail.  It  was  the  same 
story  in  the  latter  sixties,  when  the  cable  had 
been  laid,  for  it  was  this  invention  that  made 
it  possible  for  papers  in  the  United  States  to 
obtain  long  reports  of  the  progress  of  the 
Franco- Prussian  War  of  1870.  Although  the 
revision  of  the  New  Testament  was  completed 
at  a  time  when  cable  rates  were  still  very  high, 
W.  W.  Story,  of  the  Chicago  'Times,'  ordered 
that  S.ooo  words  of  the  new  version  should  be 
cabled  to  his  paper,  and,  when  the  complete  work 
arrived  at  New  York  on  the  steamer,  it  was  tele- 
graphed to  him  in  its  entirety,  21  wires  being 
used  for  that  purnosc. 

Owing  to  the  high  rates  at  first  charged  for 
telegraph  and  cable  messages  the  papers  of  those 
days  did  not  get  the  almost  unlimited  news 
service  which  they  receive  to-dav.  Even  as  late 
as  1870  the  night  rate  from  California  to  Boston 
was  10  cents  a  word;  between  Chicago  and  Bos- 
ton it  was  live  cents  a  word,  and  between  Wash- 
ington and   Boston,   two  cents  a   word.      Since 


AMERICAN  NEWSPAPERS 


that  time  the  rates  liav.  I    fully  66 

per  cent,  while  the  tolls  paid  by  press  associa- 
tions is  now  about  14  cents  per  hundred  words, 
irrespective  of  the  number  of  papers  to  which 
the  despatches  arc  delivered.  1  he  original  cable 
rate  was  $100  for  zo  words,  whethei  served  to 
.  to  the  general  public,  while  the 
rate  to  newspapers  1-  now  but  10  cents  a  word, 
either  for  day  or  night  service. 

The  result  of  the  high  tolls  was  shown  in 
the  compact  despatches  published  by  the  news- 
if  that  clay.  For  example,  when  the 
America  won  the  international  yacht  race.  22 
Aug  1851,  no  report  of  the  event  was  received 
by  any  American  paper  until  4  September,  when 
the  news  came  111  the  form  of  a  despatch  from 
Halifax.      On   this   day   the   report   in   the    New 

I.  'Sun'  contained  about  500  words,  the 
'Tribune'  used  but  250  words  about  the  con- 
i.  1.  and  the  '  E veiling  Post'  was  content  with 
200  words.  So,  too,  when  Brooks  assaulted 
Sumner,  the  Senator  from  Masachusetts,  in  1854, 
the  longest  report  sent  to  any  Boston  paper  com- 
I  less  than  half  a  column,  and  this  was 
printed  quite  inconspicuously  at  the  bottom  of 
the  page.  In  1S60,  when  Lincoln  was  nominated 
for  the  Presidency,  at  Chicago,  one  operator 
was  able  to  send  out  all  the  press  matter  that 
was  offered  to  him,  while,  at  recent  conventions, 
the  hundred  and  more  operators  have  had  all 
they  could  do  to  handle  the  millions  of  words  of 
riptive  matter  tiled  with  them  by  corre- 
spondents  representing  every  newspaper  of 
prominence  in  the  country.  When  these  facts 
are  remembered,  however,  it  does  not  seem  so 
strange  that  the  aggregate  number  of  words  of 
pn  -s  matter  that  went  over  the  Western  Union 
wires  in  [870.  was  but  28.000. 000.  whereas  the 
total  number  of  words  contained  in  press 
specials  handled  by  the  same  company  in  recent 
has  leen  no  less  than  10  times  as  great. 

At  the  same  time  there  was  some  excuse  for 
the  lack  of  interest  displayed  in  news  events. 
Those  were  the  days  of  small  and  compact 
papers  and  even  the  best  printing  plants  of  that 
time  would  have  been  Utterly  unable  to  cope 
with  such  an  avalanche  of  nev  a  that  which 
daily  floods  the  modern  newspaper  office.  At 
that  day  stereotyping  had  not  been  discovered, 
es  were  slow,  and  hand-composition  was 
the  only  method  known  to  the  trade.  As  papers 
were  printed  directly  from  the  type,  and  as  even 
the  Hoe  lightning  steam-presses,  patented  in 
1847,  had  a  capacity  which  seems  exceedingly 
ipared  I  1  that  of  presses  to-day, 
newspapers  with  large  circulation  were  com- 
pelled to  go  to  press  much  earlier  than  their 
less  popular  rivals,  a  fact  which  placed  them  at 
great  disadvantage  in  obtaining  late  news.  The 
ities  for  tin-  distribution  of  papers  were  also 
few  and  inadequate,  even  for  those  days. 
Scarcely  more  than  40  years  ago  some  of  the 
most  progressive  journals  in  this  country  de- 
pended solely  •  to  carry  their  papers 
to  their  subscribers,  while  larger  lots,  the  papers 
intended  for  dealers,  were  trundled  through  the 
streets  on  wheelbarrows.  To-day  all  the  news- 
papers have  their  own  systems  of  fast  delivery 
wagons,  and  the  most  progressive  publishers 
charter  "special"  trains,  not  only  for  their  Sun- 
day editions,  hut  frequently  for  other  occasions 
during   the   year. 

The  first  paper  to  begin  the  work  of  stereo- 


typing its  pages  was  the  New  York  'Tribune. 
This  was  111  [861.  Four  years  later  the  Bullock 
perfecting  pre",  made  in  Philadelphia,  made  it 
possible  to  print  a  paper  from  plates,  both  sides 
at  the  same  time,  at  a  rate  of  from  6,000  to 
10,000  an  hour.  The  R.  Hoe  &  Company  per 
fecting  press  appeared  in  1871.  This  printed 
from  10,000  to  12,000  eight-page  papers  an  hour, 
and  it  was  quickly  followed  by  the  other  Hoe 
inventions,  the  double  press,  the  quadruple  press, 
and,  finally,  the  sextuple,  with  its  working 
capacity  of  from  60,000  to  75,000  eight-page 
papers  an  hour,  and  with  attachments  capable  of 
printing  from  4  to  64  pages.  The  latest  inven- 
tions are  the  color  presses,  made  both  by  Hoe 
and  by  Scott,  by  means  of  which  papers  may 
be  printed  in  several  colors  at  once.  As  the 
result,  every  up-to-date  newspaper  office  is  now 
equipped  with  facilities  for  printing  in  almost 
every  hue  of  the  rainbow,  although  it  is  only 
within  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  that  pub- 
lishers have  attempted  to  use  illustrations  of 
any  kind.  During  the  late  seventies  an  attempt 
was  made  to  establish  an  illustrated  daily,  but 
the  publication  had  but  a  brief  existence.  From 
that  day  illustrated  journalism  was  practically 
unknown  in  America  for  many  years.  It  was 
more  than  20  years  ago  when  the  wood-cut 
was  the  only  form  of  illustration  adapted  to 
newspaper  uses,  and  as  it  required  two  or  three 
days  to  make  each  wood-cut  they  were  not  avail- 
able at  short  notice.  Now,  however,  with  all 
our  facilities  for  almost  instantaneous  illustra- 
tion it  is  no  rare  thing  to  find  midnight  happen- 
ings graphically  pictured  in  the  morning  editions 
of  the  daily  newspapers. 

The  invention  of  type-setting  machines  is 
another  innovation  that  has  an  almost  incal- 
culable effect  in  the  development  of  the  modern 
newspaper.  By  the  use  of  such  a  machine  one 
operator  is  capable  of  performing  as  much  work 
as  three  men  could  formerly  do  by  the  old 
method  of  hand  composition.  Some  of  these 
machines  make  a  new  cast  of  type  each  day,  and 
all  of  them  represent  a  marked  increase  of 
product  at  a  great  reduction  in  cost. 

The  growth  of  the  Sunday  newspaper  dates 
from  the  Civil  War,  but  it  was  many  years  after 
the  conclusion  of  that  struggle  before  the  large 
Sunday  editions  began  to  make  their  appearance. 
In  fact,  it  was  less  than  35  years  ago  that  one 
of  the  leading  papers  in  Boston  increased  the 
size  of  its  Sunday  issue  from  four  to  eight 
pages,  ami.  strangely  enough,  the  change  met 
with  all  kinds  of  adverse  criticism.  During  the 
next  few  days  many  of  the  subscribers  to  this 
journal  called  at  the  office  to  protest  that  the 
new  paper  was  much  too  large,  and  this  same 
criticism  has  continued  as  the  great  Sunday 
papers  have  steadily  increased  in  size.  Ii  spite 
of  the  protests  of  these  indignant  critics,  how- 
ever, the  fact  remains  that  the  American  news- 
paper has  simply  kept  pace  with  the  development 
of  the  country.  With  greater  facilities  for 
news  gathering,  and  with  modern  methods  of 
distribution,  the  circulation  of  the  prominent 
newspapers  has  increased  to  a  degree  that  would 
once  have  been  considered  beyond  all  bounds 
of  possibility.  So.  too,  is  this  true  in  regard 
to  advertising.  Whereas,  in  1810,  the  total 
amount  of  advertising  printed  in  all  the  papers 
in  the  United  States  could  scarcely  have  cx- 
ceeded  a  few   hundred  thousand  dollars,  the  in- 


AMERICAN  NOTES  — AMERICAN  PARTY 


come  from  such  sources  to-day  is  now  in  excess 
of  $100,000,000  per  annum.  To  print  all  the 
news  that  the  modern  newspaper  is  required  to 
print,  to  give  space  to  all  the  features  and  special 
articles  that  the  public  has  come  to  demand,  and 
to  find  room  for  all  these  columns  upon  columns 
of  advertisments,  is  certainly  beyond  the  scope 
of  any  small,  compact  sheet.  If  it  is  true,  as  its 
friends  claim,  that  the  newspaper  is  one  of  the 
great  sources  of  education  in  this  country,  upon 
what  does  this  reputation  rest?  Certainly  not 
upon  its  news  alone,  for  the  papers  of  every  land 
describe  the  important  happenings  of  the  day. 
No,  it  is  these  special  features,  the  articles  de- 
scriptive of  travel  and  of  all  the  progress  of  the 
world  in  every  field  of  human  endeavor  —  in 
other  words,  the  "magazine"  articles  that  have 
now  found  wider  circulation  through  the  col- 
umns of  the  daily  newspaper  —  that  have  made 
these  organs  what  they  now  are,  a  great  edu- 
cational factor  which  has  exerted  more  influence 
upon  the  development  of  the  intelligence  of  the 
American  people  than  it  would  be  possible  to 
estimate.  Whatever  the  critics  may  think  or 
say,  therefore,  one  cannot  deny  the  fact 
that  newspapers  are  big  to-day  for  the 
simple  reason  that  they  are  required  by 
the  public,  and  those  who  are  best  acquainted 
with  the  journalistic  situation  find  that  every 
indication  points  to  larger  rather  than  to  smaller 
papers.  Great  as  this  country  is,  it  has  by  no 
moans  reached  the  end  of  its  development,  and, 
as  it  grows  in  population,  and  expands  commer- 
cially, the  demands  upon  the  newspapers  will 
necessitate  a  corresponding  growth  in  this  prod- 
uct of  American  industry. 

Charles  H.  Taylor, 

Editor  ' Boston  Globe.'' 
American  Notes,  a  work  bv  Charles  Dick- 
ens,  published   in    1842  and   embodying  his  im- 
pressions of  the  United  States. 

American  Numismatic  and  Archaeological 
Society,  an  association  organized  1858,  incor- 
porated 1865.  Its  objects  are  the  collection  and 
preservation  of  coins  and  medals,  the  investiga- 
tion of  matters  connected  therewith,  and  the 
popularization  of  the  science  of  numismatoloev; 
also  the  collection,  examination,  and  elucidation 
of  the  antiquities  of  this  and  other  countries. 
Membership  about  300.     See  Numismatics. 

American  Oriental  Society,  an  association 
organized  in  1842  for  the  promotion  of  Oriental 
scholarship.  All  its  publications  are  in  the  semi- 
annual journal  of  the  society  (cited  as  "Jaos"), 
which  for  60  years  has  been  an  authority  on 
Oriental  subjects  and  in  which  appear  mono- 
graphs and  special  articles  of  all  sorts  relating 
to  the  Orient.  The  society  has  numbered  among 
its  presidents  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
scholars  of  the  country- — Hadley,  Woolsey, 
\\  hitney,  etc.,  and  from  its  inception  has  been 
a  medium  of  communication  between  the  East 
and  the  West.  In  age  it  outranks  the  German 
Oriental  Society  and  all  others  except  the  Royal 
Asiatic   Society  of  England.     Membership,  350. 

American  Ornithologists  Union,  an  asso- 
ciation organized  in  1883  for  the  advancement 
of  its  members  in  the  science  of  ornithology. 
Membership,  825.  It  issues  a  quarterly  maga- 
zine, 'The  Auk.'  See  Ornithology. 
Vol.  1 — 26 


American  Party,  the  name  of  three  sepa- 
rate political  organizations  in  the  United  States. 

I.  The  only  one  of  great  importance,  usually 
styled  "Know-Nothings."  The  genesis  of  this 
party  lay  deep  in  the  nature  of  American  set- 
tlement and  history.  The  Constitution  crystal- 
lized political  parties  definitely  into  Federali>ts 
and  Anti-Federalists :  the  one  upholding  firm 
government  on  the  general  European  model, 
with  the  local  aristocracies  in  the  ascendant ; 
the  other  desiring  the  least  possible  govern- 
ment of  any  sort,  and  no  upper-class  ascendancy. 
Immigrants  who  had  left  Europe  because  of 
too  free  indulgence  in  freedom  of  speech, 
thought,  and  action,  allied  themselves  with  the 
Anti-Federalists,  which  led  the  incensed  Fed- 
eralists, on  gaining  power  in  1795,  to  raise  the 
term  for  naturalization  from  two  to  five  years, 
and  in  1798  to  14  years,  besides  passing  the  Alien 
and  Sedition  Laws  (q.v.).  The  Republicans, 
coming  into  power  with  Jefferson  in  1801,  in 
1802  repealed  the  obnoxious  acts  and  restored 
the  term  to  five,  swelling  their  ranks  for  years 
with  a  relay  of  acrid  foreign  democrats.  Six 
members  of  the  Congress  which  declared  the 
War  of  1812  against  Great  Britain  were  mem- 
bers of  the  Society  of  United  Irishmen ;  and 
the  Federalist  Hartford  Convention  of  1814 
brought  forward  a  provision  against  aliens  hold- 
ing office.  Quiescent  for  many  years,  the  move- 
ment revived  (1835)  in  New  York  city,  wdiere 
a  compact  and  clannish  foreign  body  of  immi- 
grants, avid  of  office  and  openly  allying  them- 
selves as  foreigners  against  the  natives,  was 
accumulating;  one  procession  bore  a  transpa- 
rency lettered  <(Americans  shan't  rule  us."  The 
religious  question  was  also  then,  as  since,  a 
formidable  factor  in  the  trouble.  In  1843  the 
Democrats  carried  the  city  by  a  close  vote,  and 
distributed  the  majority  of  the  offices  to  foreign- 
ers, with  the  result  that  in  the  November  elec- 
tion for  State  Senator  an  "American  Repub- 
lican" candidate  polled  nearly  a  fourth  of  the 
vote,  and  the  next  spring  a  "Native  American" 
candidate  defeated  the  Democrat  by  4,000,  and 
the  regular  Whig  party  nearly  vanished  in  the 
city.  The  excitement  spread  to  New  Jersey 
and  Philadelphia ;  riots  between  natives  and 
foreigners  cost  some  lives  and  much  property, 
including  two  Catholic  churches.  The  Whigs 
voted  with  the  Native  party  to  secure  its  vote 
for  Clay;  but  finding  that  it  resulted  in  Native 
local  officials  and  Democratic  presidential  ma- 
jorities, drew  off,  and  by  1847  the  Native  party 
had  pretty  much  disappeared.  Clay  in  1S44 
had  six  Native  American  electoral  votes,  four 
from  New  York  and  two  from  Pennsylvania; 
and  for  some  years  the  Middle  States  cast  small 
votes  for  the  party. 

A  new  birth  came  to  it  about  1852.  The 
Fugitive  Slave  Law  of  1850  had  largely  dis- 
solved and  recombined  both  Whig  and  Demo- 
cratic parties,  and  those  of  the  former  who 
wanted  the  status  quo  on  slavery  without  public 
agitation  cast  about  for  a  new  issue  to  keep 
their  organization  together.  The  Native  Amer- 
ican issue  was  temptingly  at  hand,  and  indeed 
had  never  ceased  to  be  a  sore  in  the  Whig  mind. 
The  tremendous  flood  of  foreign  immigration 
set  going  in  part  by  the  Irish  famine  of  1847, 
in  part  by  the  revolutionary  movements  of 
1848-50  on  the  Continent,  had  kept  a  steady 
stream  of  reinforcements  pouring  into  the 
Democratic    party    which    almost    swamped   the 


AMERICAN  PARTY 


WliiRS  and  made  it  quite  impossible  to  win 
elections  except  by  fusions  that  sacrificed  all 
political  principle  or  consistency;  they  felt  it  a 
genuine  wrong  to  the  native  or  long-resident 
>es,  and  there  was  nothing  in  the  use  to 
winch  the  other  party  put  their  victories  to 
make  them  feel  Otherwise.  They  now  developed 
a  secret  oath-bound  society  whose  real  name 
was  "Soils  of  '76,  or  Order  of  the  Star-Spangled 
Banner9;   but  its   name   or  precise  object    (.of 

course  they  knew  its  general  aim)  was  not  re- 
vealed to  members  till  the  "lodges,"  which  they 
instituted  in  imitation  of  the  Masons,  had  raised 
them  to  the  higher  degrees.  Hence  their  stock 
answer  to  questions  concerning  it  was  "I  don't 
know,"  which  became  the  popular  motto  of  the 
order  and  gave  them  the  nickname  of  "Know- 
Nothings."  Tile  evils  it  "viewed  with  alarm" 
were  the  increasing  power  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church,  the  vast  sudden  lb  "id  of  immigra- 
tion which  was  taking  the  control  of  the  United 
States  out  of  the  hands  of  its  citizens,  and  the 
greed  of  foreigners  for  office  which  greatly 
multiplied  the  danger  from  their  actual  number, 
Its  motto,  or  at  least  the  essence  of  its  princi- 
ples, was  "Americans  must  rule  America," — 
doubtless  with  a  reminiscence  of  the  foreign 
motto  before  mentioned;  and  the  countersign 
at  its  lodges  was  an  order  said  to  have  been 
issued  by  Washington  at  some  unspecified  oeca- 
- 1 ■  mi.  "Put  none  but  Americans  on  guard  to- 
night." It  acted  in  pi. lilies,  not  by  putting  up 
separate  tickets,  which  would  have  kept  tally 
on  it  and  given  the  other  parties  a  clear  target 
and  open  victory,  but  by  indorsing  selected  can- 
didates of  the  ■  ilhers  ill  secret  convention  of 
delegates  from  lodges,  at  which  every  member 
must  vote  or  be  expelled.  This  could  not  be 
known  till  election,  and  hence  made  havoc  of 
all  political  calculations  and  left  the  workers 
beating  the  air.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill, 
which  extinguished  the  Whig  and  created  the 
present  Republican  party,  and  made  the  shivery 
i^sue  one  of  life  or  death,  drove  into  the  KnOW- 
Nothing  party  a  vast  number  of  the  moderate 
section  not  yet  ready  to  oppose  the  South;  it 
now  took  or  was  given  the  name  of  the  Amer- 
ican party,  and  came  into  the  open  field.  In 
1S54  it  carried  Massachusetts  and  Delaware  and 
polled  over  120,000  votes  in  New  York  State. 
Thus  far  it  had  been  almost  wholly  a  Northern 
party;  but  in  1855  it  made  deep  inroads  in  the 
South  as  well,  where  foreigners  were  few  and 
the  issue  was  locally  innocuous.  In  that  year 
it  elected  the  governors  and  legislatures  of  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Con- 
necticut, New  York,  Kentucky,  and  California; 
the  controller  and  legislature  of  Maryland  and 
the  land  commissioner  of  Texas;  and  narrowly 
missed  carrying  the  legislature  of  the  latter, 
and  those  of  Virginia,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Mis- 
sissippi, and  Louisiana.  But  even  at  this  time, 
when  it  was  sweeping  all  before  it,  and  the  con- 
servative of  both  parties  were  crowding  into 
it  panic-stricken  to  avoid  the  real  issues  hurry- 
ing the  country  to  the  precipice,  keen  observers 
saw  its  hollow  ephemerality :  Horace  Greeley  of 
the  New  York  Tribune  said  that  "it  contained 
al  H  nit  as  much  of  the  elements  of  permanence 
as  an  anti-cholera  or  an  anti-potato-rot  society." 
With  1856  it  came  into  the  national  field,  and 
for  slavery  tried  to  substitute  terrific  visions  of 
a  revival  of  the  terrors  of  the  Inquisition;  de- 
nounced  Archbishop    Bedini,   the   papal   nuncio, 


as  an  emissary  of  diabolic  designs;  and  forced 
public  discussions  in  which  all  the  misdeeds 
of  the  mediaeval  Christian  Church  before  ."f\ 
after  15JO  were  recounted.  February  [856  a 
national  nominating  convention  was  held  at 
Philadelphia;  and  its  outcome,  to  the  disgust 
of  the  majority,  turned  on  slavery  aftei  all. 
A  secret  "grand  council"  held  a  session  19-21 
February  to  draft  a  platform;  and  after  three 
days  of  violent  contention  reported  as  par)  ol 
it  this  curious  "straddle,"  in  later  political 
slang:  That  all  public  offices  should  be  given 
to  native-born  citizens,  and  the  term  before 
naturalization  be  21  years;  that  "all  laws"  (that 
is,  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law)  should  be  enforced 
till  repealed  or  declared  unconstitutional;  that 
Tierce's  administration  be  reprobated  for  re- 
pealing the  Missouri  Compromise;  and  that 
State  councils  be  recommended  to  drop  their 
"degrees"  and  Substitute  a  pledge  'if  Imnor  from 
members, —  that  is,  that  it  cease  to  be  a  secret 
terror  to  other  parties  and  be  one  itself,  Hut 
this  meant  (bath,  as  did  its  absurd  attempt  to 
gain  Northern  votes  by  opposing  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill,  and  Southern  votes  by  upholding 
the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.     In  the  open  convention 

of  22  February,  50  Northern  delegates  offered 

a  resolution  that  the  secret  grand  council  could 
not  bind  the  Convention  by  a  platform;  ami  on 
its  rejection  withdrew.  The  convention  then 
nominated  Millard  Fillmore  of  New  York  for 
President,  and  Andrew  Jackson  Donelson  of 
Tennessee  for  Vice-President;  and  the  Whig 
national  convention  later  adopted  the  nomina 
tions,  but  made  no  reference  to  the  platform, 
In  the  spring  of  185(1  the  party  still  increa  ed 
its  power,  there  being  only  local  issues  at  stake; 
New  Hampshire  and  Rhode  Island  elected 
"American"  governors,  making  eight  of  the 
32  States  in  their  hands.  But  the  presidential 
election  showed  what  a  phantom  the  party  was: 
Fillmore  gained  the  electoral  vote  of  but  one 
State.  Maryland,  with  eight  electors;  the  popu- 
lar vote  was  874,534  OUt  UI  a  tnta'  of  4.053»907; 
and  in  New  Hampshire  it  sank  from  32,119  for 
governor  in  spring  to  422  in  face  of  the  real 
issue.  It  elected  15  or  20  Congressmen,  car- 
ried Rhode  Island  and  Maryland  State  elec- 
tions in  1857,  and  in  the  Senate  of  December  bail 
five  members.  In  the  Congress  e>f  1859  it  had 
become  a  Border  State  parly,  with  one  Senator 
from  Kentucky  and  one  from  Maryland,  and 
23  Congressmen, —  three  from  Maryland,  five 
from  Kentucky,  seven  from  Tennessee,  one  from 
Virginia,  four  from  North  Carolina,  two  from 
Georgia,  ami  one  from  Louisiana.  In  the  cam- 
paign of  1800  its  members  largely  made  up 
the  Constitutional  Union  (Bell-Everett)  party, 
which  tried  to  avert  the  war.  The  party  was  by 
no  means  without  its  use:  it  brought  forward 
many  strong  leaders  who  did  good  service  in  the 
real  parties  when  the  issues  had  shown  them- 
selves inevitable. 

2.  A  party  directly  adverse  to  the  first  in 
being  founded  on  opposition  to  secret  societies: 
organized  by  the  National  Christian  Association 
at  the  adjournment  of  its  convention  at  Oberlin, 
Ohio,  in  1872.  Organization  was  completed  and 
the  name  adopted  at  a  convention  in  Syr.  11  11  e, 
N.  Y.,  in  1874.  At  Pittsburg.  9  June  1875,  a 
platform  was  adopted  demanding  recognition  of 
the  Sabbath,  introduction  of  tin'  Bible  into 
public  schools,  prohibition  of  the  sale  of 
liquors,    withdrawal    of    the   charters    of   secret 


AMERICAN   PATRIOTIC   SOCIETIES  — AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


societies  and  prohibition  of  their  oaths,  inter- 
national arbitration,  restriction  of  land  monopo- 
lies, resumption  of  specie  payments,  justice  to 
the  Indians,  and  direct  popular  vote  for  Presi- 
dent and  Vice-President.  James  B.  Walker  of 
Illinois  was  nominated  for  President.  In  1880 
it  again  made  nominations ;  in  1884  S.  C.  Pome- 
roy  was  nominated,  but  withdrew  in  favor  of 
John  P.  St.  John,  the  Prohibition  candidate. 

3.  A  party  organized  at  a  convention  in 
Philadelphia,  16-17  Sept.  1887.  Its  platform  de- 
manded a  14-years'  residence  for  naturalization ; 
exclusion  of  anarchists,  socialists,  and  other 
dangerous  characters ;  free  schools ;  the  building 
of  a  strong  navy  and  coast  fortifications,  and 
internal  improvements ;  prohibition  of  alien  pro- 
prietorship ;  permanent  separation  of  church  and 
state;  and  enforcement  of  the  Monroe  Doc- 
trine. Forrest  Morgan', 

Connecticut  Historical  Socictv. 

American  Patriotic  Societies.  See  Patri- 
otic Societies. 

American  Philological  Association,  a  so- 
ciety inaugurated  by  William  D.  Whitney,  of 
Yale,  at  Pciughkeepsie,  1869  as  an  outgrowth  of 
the  Oriental  Society,  Classical  Section.  Its  ob- 
ject is  the  same  as  that  of  the  British  Philologi- 
cal Society  (q.v.)  :  it  publishes  an  annual 
volume  of  'Transactions'  and  also  'Pro- 
ceedings,' detailing  its  meetings  and  giving 
titles  of  papers  presented.  It  has  a  member- 
ship of  some  600. 

American  Philosophical  Society,  The,  is 
the  oldest  scientific  society  in  America.  Ben- 
jamin Franklin,  in  his  'Autobiography,'  states 
that  in  the  year  1727  "I  united  the  majority  of 
well-informed  persons  of  my  acquaintance  into 
a  club  which  we  called  the  Junto,  the  object  of 
which  was  to  improve  our  understandings."  As 
the  population  of  the  colonies  grew,  Franklin 
saw  the  need  of  a  society  of  larger  scope  and 
usefulness  than  the  Junto;  therefore,  in  1734,  he 
issued  a  circular,  entitled  'A  proposal  for  pro- 
moting useful  knowledge  among  the  British 
plantations  in  America,'  in  which  he  urged 
"that  one  society  be  formed  of  virtuosi  or  in- 
genious men  residing  in  the  several  colonies,  to 
be  called  The  American  Philosophical  Society, 
who  are  to  maintain  a  constant  correspondence. 
That  Philadelphia,  being  the  city  nearest  the 
centre  of  the  colonies,  communicating  with  all 
of  them  northward  and  southward  by  post,  and 
with  all  the  islands  by  sea,  and  having  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  good,  growing  library',  be  the  cen- 
tre of  the  society." 

The  proposition  was  favorably  received,  and 
in  the  following  spring  Dr.  Franklin  wrote  to 
Gov.  Cadwallader  Colden,  of  New  York,  that 
the  Society  "is  actually  formed  and  has  had  sev- 
eral meetings  to  mutual  satisfaction."  He  gave 
a  list  of  the  members,  and  added  that  "there  are 
a  number  of  others  in  Virginia,  Maryland,  Car- 
olina, and  the  New  England  colonies  who  we 
expect  to  join  us  as  soon  as  they  are  acquainted 
that  the  Society  has  begun  to  form  itself." 

In  January  1769  this  society  united  with  an- 
other which  had  been  subsequently  formed  in 
Philadelphia  with  a  similar  object,  and  entitled 
"The  American  Society  held  at  Philadelphia 
for  promoting  Useful  Knowledge,"  and  the 
consolidated  societies  took  the  fused  name 
of  "The  American  Philosophical  Society  held  at 


Philadelphia  for  Promoting  Useful  Knowledge," 
and  elected  Benjamin  Franklin  its  first  presi- 
dent, and  he  held  this  office  by  successive  annual 
reelections  until  his  death  in   1790. 

The  Society  at  once  entered  upon  arrange- 
ments to  carry  out  a  notable  scientific  under- 
taking of  great  magnitude  for  those  days, 
namely,  to  make  observations  of  the  expected 
transit  of  Venus  in  the  following  June  —  a 
rare  phenomenon  which  had  not  occurred  for 
130  years  and  would  not  recur  for  105  years. 
It  erected  three  temporary  observatories  and 
appointed  a  committee,  of  which  David  Kitten- 
house  was  the  head,  to  have  charge  of  the  ob- 
servations on  the  day  of  the  eclipse.  The 
weather  in  northern  Europe  was  cloudy,  but  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Philadelphia  it  was  per- 
fectly clear,  and  a  high  European  authority 
has  said  that  "the  first  approximately  accurate 
results  in  the  measurement  of  the  spheres 
were  given  to  the  world,  not  by  the  schooled 
and  salaried  astronomers  who  watched  from 
the  magnificent  royal  observatories  of  Eu- 
rope, but  by  unpaid  amateurs  and  devo- 
tees to  science  in  the  youthful  province  of 
Pennsylvania."  The  results  of  these  observa- 
tions were  printed  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
Society's  'Transactions,'  which  was  published 
in  quarto  form  in  1771.  The  publication  of  the 
quarto  'Transactions'  still  continues,  and  in 
addition  the  Society  publishes  'Proceedings'  in 
octavo  form. 

Franklin  was  succeeded  in  the  presidency  by 
David  Rittenhouse,  the  eminent  astronomer,  who 
held  the  office  for  five  and  a  half  years,  until  his 
death  in  1796,  and  he  in  turn  was  succeeded  by 
Thomas  Jefferson,  who  held  the  office  until  1815. 
including  the  eight  years  of  his  incumbency  of 
the  Presidency  of  the  United  States.  "The  tran- 
quil pursuits  of  science,"  he  wrote,  were  his 
•'supreme  delight,"  and  the  most  exciting  polit- 
ical duties  could  never  withdraw  him  from  them. 
Jefferson  was  succeeded  in  the  presidency  by 
Dr.  Caspar  Wistar,  the  eminent  anatomist,  and 
subsequent  incumbents  were  Dr.  Robert  Patter- 
son, Chief  Justice  Tilghman,  Peters  S.  Du 
Ponceau,  Robert  M.  Patterson,  Dr.  Nathaniel 
Chapman,  Dr.  Franklin  Bache,  Prof.  Alexander 
Dallas  Bache,  Judge  Kane,  Dr.  George  B.  Wood, 
Frederick  Fraley,  and  Edgar  F.  Smith. 

The  membership  of  the  Society  since  its 
foundation  has  included  names  distinguished  in 
science  on  both  continents.  The  number  of 
members  who  may  be  elected  in  any  one  year 
is  limited  to  15  residents  of  the  United  States 
and  s  foreign  residents.  The  election  of  mem- 
bers is  held  during  the  general  meeting  in  April 
of  each  year.  The  ordinary  meetings  of  the 
Society  are  held  on  the  first  and  third  Friday  of 
each  month,  from  October  to  May  inclusive. 
The  society  possesses  a  library  of  over  40.000 
volumes,  which  is  specially  rich  in  the  files  of 
the  publications  of  the  learned  societies  of  the 
world,  and  is  housed  in  a  fire-proof  building 
erected  in  Independence  Square  on  land  granted 
to  it  by  the  State  of  Pennsylvania  in  1785. 

I.  Minis  Hays, 

Secretary  American    Philosophical  Society. 

American  Political  Issues,  1788-1852.  By 
this  term  is  here  meant  the  issues  which  swayed 
the  voters  in  tin-  Presidential  elections,  and  in  the 
congressional  elections  of  the  Presidential  years. 
These  elections  were  the  "round-up"  or  register 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


of  the  accumulated  drift  during  the  four  years 
previous,  and  formed  one  of  the  influences  de- 
ciding  the  drift  during  the  next  four,  ["hey 
fall  int  1 7X8-1800,  1804-12,  1816— 

20,  iS_>4  40,  1844-52.  In  the  first,  the  Federalists 
are  in  power:  the  controlling  issues  arc  those  of 
strong  v.  weak  government,  and  of  deference  to 
the  educated  classes  v.  the  vox  populi.  In  the 
second,  the  Federalists  are  the  opposition, 
fling  away  the  excuse  fur  their  existence,  and 
after  a  casu;  I  revival  are  extinguished. 

In  the  third,  there  are  no  issues  and  no  party, 
properly  speaking;  the  candidate  is  accepted  by 
inertia  from  the  old  line  of  leaders,  and  the 
administration  is  able  to  grant  the  chief  wishes 
of  both  the  old  sections.  In  the  fourth,  the 
former  Federalist  elements  recombine  under  new 
names,  with  the  basis  of  a  strong  spending  and 
nationalizing  government,  replacing  the  dead  is- 
sue of  a  strong  executive  one.  In  the  fifth,  the 
slavery  question  is  the  central  issue. 

1788. —  The  division  over  candidates  has  usu- 
ally and  naturally  coincided  with  the  division 
over  policies;  but  in  the  first  election,  of  1788, 
it  was  not  so.  There  was  but  one  possible  can- 
didate, Washington;  he  represented  all  parties. 
He  had  seen  the  Revolution  nearly  aborted  first, 
and  the  Confederation  nearly  wrecked  after- 
ward, by  the  weakness  of  the  central  govern- 
ment; this  confirmed  his  natural  bias  as  a 
"nationalizing8  Federalist,  anxious  above  all 
things  for  a  government  which  could  keep  order, 
pay  its  debts,  and  secure  respect  from  other 
nations.  On  the  other  hand,  as  a  Southern 
farmer,  he  commanded  the  confidence  of  that 
section,  which  distrusted  the  Northern  commer- 
cial interests ;  and  as  Washington,  he  was  the 
idol  of  the  masses  everywhere.  Furthermore, 
the  very  basis  of  the  election  had  cut  the  ground 
from  under  the  chief  opposition  party.  The 
overshadowing  issue,  almost  the  only  one,  of  the 
Confederation, —  which  had  no  president  nor 
regular  elections,  but  only  scattering  "by-elec- 
of  congressmen, —  was  whether  it  should 
be  replaced  by  a  stronger  government ;  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Constitution  had  settled  that,  and 
the  Anti-Federalists  were  shut  down  to  voting 
for  the  personnel  to  administer  a  system  they 
disliked  and  dreaded.  Besides  this,  all  their 
ablest  sympathizers  were  Federalists  fur  tin-  time 
being,  not  from  love  of  a  strong  government 
but  experience  of  too  weak  a  one;  so  that 
"Federalist"  for  election  purposes  meant  not 
so  much  a  party  as  almost  every  one  in  the  coun- 
try of  capacity,  experience,  or  business  or  in- 
tellectual standing. 

1792. —  Again  Washington  was  the  unan- 
imous candidate.  The  same  men  substantially 
were  sent  to  Congress ;  indeed,  there  w  ere  few 
deralists  to  send  who  would  not  dis- 
credit and  weaken  the  cause.  But  the  Anti-Fed- 
eralist voters  had  the  less  hesitation,  because 
their  natural  leaders  had  now  begun  to  split 
away  and  lay  the  foundations  of  the  Demo- 
cratic-Republican party.  Jefferson  was  the  first 
to  take  a  stand  against  the  Federalist  policy,  in 
the  matter  of  the  Bank ;  shortly  reinforced  by 
Madison  and  Edward  Randolph. 

1796. —  Washington,  who  could  have  held  the 
office  for  life,  refused  it  further.  There  was  now 
a  contest  over  policies  represented  by  candidates 
identified  with  them,  and  each  representing  a 
section   as    well :     John    Adams    stood    for    the 


Northern  commercial   States,  with  most   to  lose 
from  conflicting  local  impositions  *  >  1 1  commi 

or  foreign  depredations  and  restrictions  which 
a  weak  government  could  not  repel;  Jefferson, 
the  lifelong  champion  of  the  extreme  democratic 
principle, —  the  least  government,  the  cheapest, 
and  the  most  ttnshowy,  possible, —  stood  for  the 
mass  of  fanners,  largely  in  the  South  and  V. 
who  simply  wished  to  be  let  alone  and  have  no 
taxes,  and  thought  commerce  of  no  benefit  or 
concern  to  them.  The  latter  also  formed  a  part 
of  the  rapidly  growing  mass  who  resented  the 
Federalist  claim  that  political  office  needed  any 
superior  ability  or  training,  and  were  eager  to 
pass  it  around  in  rotation.  Quite  as  strong  as 
cither  was  the  sympathy  of  the  masses  for  the 
French  Revolution,  which  the  Federalists  de- 
tested. The  latter  won,  but  only  by  gi 
of  two  Southern  electors  and  in  reality  by  a 
single  vote;  they  lost  save  for  these  the  entire 
South  beyond  Maryland,  and  all  but  one  elec- 
toral vote  of  Pennsylvania  as  well.  In  a  word, 
the  party  had  represented  a  temporary  national 
necessity  which  was  ceasing  to  be  imperative, 
and  a  minority  business  interest  ;  and  as  the 
former  vanished,  it  was  shrinking  to  the  basis 
of  the  latter. 

1800. — ■  For  the  personal  feuds  which  rent  the 
Federalists  in  twain,  see  Adams,  John,  and 
Hamilton,  Alexander;  but  the  influence  of 
these  in  defeating  the  party  is  always  overrated. 
If  Hamilton  had  loved  Adams  like  a  brother, 
and  all  Adams'  cabinet  had  been  loyal  and 
united,  the  general  result  of  the  election  would 
not  have  been  different  ;  unless  we  arc  to  sup- 
pose that  New  York  Federalists  voted  for  Jef- 
ferson because  their  chiefs  hated  each  other,  or 
that  the  party's  recent  policy  had  gained  it 
votes  since  1796,  which  is  notoriously  the  re- 
verse of  truth.  It  had  not  only  angered  the 
Democrats,  but  displeased  many  of  its  own 
moderates,  by  the  Alien  Law  for  deporting  all 
foreigners  politically  disagreeable  to  it,  and  the 
Sedition  Law  to  shut  the  mouths  of  its  oppo- 
nents (see  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws);  the 
Hamilton  wing  had  tried  to  force  through  a  war 
with  France  to  strengthen  its  domestic  policy; 
the  growing  popular  sentiment  now  was  to  tnake 
the  United  States  a  political  island,  severed 
from  all  relations  with  the  rest  of  the  world 
which  would  cause  us  difficulties.  The  election 
was  decided  for  Jefferson  by  the  reversal  of 
New  York's  12  electoral  votes:  local  feuds  had 
something  to  do  with  it,  Burr's  political  "boss- 
ship"  much  ;  but  beyond  all,  the  growth  of  the 
country  was  away  from  Federalism,  and  at  best 
the  party  had  not  one  electoral  vote  to  lose  with- 
out being  displaced. 

1804. —  Had  the  relations  of  the  parties  re- 
mained the  same  as  in  1800,  there  is  still  no 
reason  to  think  there  would  have  been  any  re- 
turn to  a  Federalist  administration.  From  1789 
to  1797  their  programme  had  been  not  merely 
the  best,  but  the  only  one  as  a  whole  possessing 
either  utility,  dignity,  or  even  safety;  yet  the 
disintegrating  forces  were  so  strong,  and  the 
squalor  of  the  Confederation  so  thoroughly  for- 
gotten, that  the  party  barely  escaped  expulsion 
in  the  very  prime  of  its  usefulness.  Even  in  the 
next  four  years,  its  errors  were  trivial  compared 
with  its  services,  especially  in  creating  the  navy; 
yet  it  was  beaten  —  not  very  heavily,  but  with 
incidents    proving   that    its    lost   sections    would 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


not  come  back  to  it.  But  so  far  from  the  issues 
remaining  the  same,  the  Federalist  representa- 
tives, with  that  egregious  blindness  to  the 
sources  of  popular  strength  which  is  never  seen 
except  in  "practical  politicians,"  committed  the 
amazing  folly  of  attempting  to  tie  their  oppo- 
nents' hands  by  borrowing  all  their  discarded 
doctrines.  The  Democrats  in  power  had  at 
once  become  converts  to  a  strong  government 
and  a  liberal  construction  of  the  Constitution ; 
the  Federalists,  instead  of  outdoing  them  and 
claiming  support  as  the  originators  of  the  policy, 
adopted  the  strict-construction  theories  and  the 
decentralizing  policy  of  their  opponents.  The 
Democrats  having  appropriated  the  Federalists' 
strength,  the  latter  revenged  themselves  by  ap- 
propriating their  enemies'  weakness.  This  was 
especially  glaring  in  the  case  of  the  Louisiana 
Purchase,  an  extreme  Federalist  measure,  and 
by  far  the  greatest  title  of  Jefferson  to  the  name 
of  statesman :  it  is  quite  incredible  that  the 
Federalists  should  have  opposed  this,  even  as 
partisans,  or  as  possessing  the  rudiments  of 
political  common-sense.  Their  astute  policy  re- 
ceived its  fitting  reward :  in  1800  Jefferson  had 
won  by  73  to  65  ;  in  1804  he  received  162  to  14. 

1808. —  The  Democrats,  having  had  full  power 
to  put  in  force  their  cherished  theories  of  in- 
sularity and  independence  of  international  ties, 
at  once  proceeded  to  make  a  reductio  ad  absur- 
dum  of  them,  and  hang  them  like  a  sack  of 
stones  about  their  own  necks.  Jefferson  was 
placed  between  the  upper  millstone  of  the  Eng- 
lish right  of  search  and  impressment,  ending  in 
the  bloody  outrage  of  the  Leopard  on  the  Chesa- 
peake (q.v.)i  and  the  nether  of  his  own  resolve 
not  to  fight,  the  disbelief  of  all  parties  alike  in  our 
ability  to  fight  a  naval  war  with  England,  and 
the  determination  of  the  North,  which  pos- 
sessed most  of  the  fighting  resources,  not  to 
use  them  against  England.  He  solved  the  prob- 
lem by  the  Embargo  (q.v.),  which  saved  the 
need  of  fighting  by  sacrificing  the  commerce  he 
did  not  value,  and  the  prosperity  of  a  section  he 
was  quite  resigned  to  see  unprosperous.  The 
moribund  Federalist  party  gained  a  galvanic 
life  from  this,  which  for  the  time  looked  like  a 
real  one :  in  1804  it  had  carried  only  Connecticut 
and  Delaware  and  part  of  Maryland ;  in  1803 
it  carried  all  New  England  but  Vermont  (the 
one  State  which  had  no  commerce  to  lose), 
three  votes  from  North  Carolina  and  Delaware, 
and  the  two  Marylanders  as  before, —  47  in  all. 

1S12. —  The  same  causes  which  had  operated 
during  the  previous  four  years  had  continued 
with  ever  growing  efficacy  during  this  four.  The 
feeling  against  England  among  the  Democrats, 
the  feeling  among  the  Federalists  that  England 
was  fighting  the  world's  battle  against  Napoleon 
and  must  not  be  crippled,  ever  grew  in  intensity; 
the  misery  and  hate  in  New  England  with  its 
hamstrung  commerce  kept  pace  with  either ;  a 
generation  of  youths  was  growing  up  who  never 
saw  the  Revolution, —  the  War  of  1812  was 
officially  determined  by  four  Southerners  be- 
tween 26  and  29;  and  the  conquest  of  Canada, 
instead  of  a  naval  war  where  it  was  universally 
believed  our  entire  fleet  would  be  at  once  seized 
and  impressed  into  the  British  navy,  had  struck 
the  war  party  as  a  happy  resource.  The  politi- 
cal campaign  of  1812  was  made  on  the  issue  of 
war  or  a  repeal  of  the  non-intercourse  act. 
Madison  was  given  a  second  term  on  the  ex- 
press  condition   of   his   approving   the    war;   he 


detested  it  as  strongly  as  Jefferson,  but  as  the 
majority  had  its  teeth  set,  felt  that  he  might  as 
well  head  it  as  any  one  else.  He  secured  it  by 
189  to  89;  the  Federalists  by  a  fusion  had  car- 
ried, besides  their  old  States,  New  York  and 
New  Jersey,  and  more  of  Maryland.  A  new  era 
seemed  coming  for  the  Federalists ;  but  it  was 
an  illusion.  They  had  no  party  principles,  and 
not  even  a  party  candidate  except  a  borrowed 
one  (George  Clinton)  ;  and  their  entire  basis  of 
life  now  was  on  an  issue  by  its  nature  temporary. 

1816-20. —  The  close  of  the  War  of  1812  ex- 
tinguished the  old  issues.  The  mostly  inglorious 
land  war  had  been  forgotten  in  the  blaze  of  New 
Orleans ;  we  had  proved  that  our  navy  not  only 
could  fight  the  queen  of  the  world  on  equal 
terms,  but  would  never  again  be  wantonly  de- 
fied ;  the  people  were  full  of  satisfaction  at  com- 
ing out  so  well,  and  of  anger  at  the  Federalists, 
whose  chief  section  had  carried  opposition  to 
the  point  of  discussing  secession.  Federalism 
was  in  many  minds  tainted  with  treason.  Fur- 
thermore, the  New  England  capital  driven  out 
of  commerce  by  the  embargo  and  the  war  hid 
begun  to  re-embark  in  manufacturing,  wished 
for  a  protective  tariff,  and  could  only  have  it 
from  the  governing  element,  which  was  hope- 
lessly Democratic.  Rhode  Island,  the  first  to 
establish  mills,  was  the  first  of  the  southern  tier 
to  break  away  from  its  old  allegiance.  Massa- 
chusetts, Connecticut,  and  Delaware,  by  small 
majorities,  clung  to  the  ancient  faith  ;  but  in 
1816  the  Democrats  carried  16  States  with  183 
votes,  including  the  rest  of  New  England.  The 
government  had  bid  for  these  votes  by  a  United 
States  Bank  and  a  light  protective  tariff;  and 
in  1820,  the  "Era  of  Good  Feeling,"  or  rather 
of  "No  Issues,"  Monroe  was  elected  unani- 
mously save  for  the  vote  of  one  elector,  disgusted 
with  the  business  "rings"  growing  up  around  the 
administration. 

1824. —  The  administration  still  further  car- 
ried out  Federalist  ideas  by  a  great  system  of 
internal  improvements,  and  by  strengthening  the 
tariff.  In  a  word,  while  nominally  Democratic- 
Republican,  its  policy  had  become  so  Federal- 
ized as  to  have  a  stronger  hold  on  its  new  allies 
than  on  its  old  constituents,  and  the  issue  in 
1824  was  whether  that  policy  should  be  sustained 
or  reversed.  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Henry 
Clay  represented  the  former,  in  different  sec- 
tions ;  Andrew  Jackson  the  reaction  to  old- 
fashioned  Democracy,  with  strict  construction, 
economy,  and  no  intermeddling  with  business  de- 
velopment ;  William  H.  Crawford  the  regular 
Democratic  "machine,"  with  no  ulterior  purpose 
but  office.  Thus  divided,  no  candidate  had  a 
majority.  Jackson  had  the  most;  Adams  was 
elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives,  still 
so  far  dominated  by  educated  politics  as  to  con- 
sider Jackson  an  ignorant  and  pestilent  dema- 
gogue; he  made  Clay  —  who  had  the  lowest 
vote  of  the  four,  but  was  the  Southern  leader 
most  in  accord  with  his  policy,  and  the  most 
of  a  statesman  —  secretary  of  state.  This 
"Coalition"  (q.v.,  No.  2)  was  denounced  by 
the  enraged  Jacksonites  as  a  corrupt  bargain, 
and  the  House  election  as  defeating  the  people's 
will  :  hut  there  is  no  reason  for  assuming,  as 
is  currently  done,  that  the  anger  gained  Jack-.  11 
any  electoral  votes. 

1828. —  The  Democratic  reaction  had  gained 
strength,  and  the  Jackson  enthusiasm  swept  all 
the  factions  into  his  fold,  by  virtue  of  the  State 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


Conventions  which  had  now  assumed  the  office 
of  nominating.  On  that  side  the  issue  was 
much  more  Jackson  than  any  definite  party  pro- 
gramme; but  Jackson  as  representing  the  hatred 
of  the  masses,  especially  the  Southern  and  West- 
ern masses,  for  the  "money  power,"  for  all  ac- 
tivities of  government  beyond  keeping  itself 
alive,  for  tariffs  and  government  subventions, 
and  for  all  claim  of  superiority  in  the  educated 
class,  and  all  political  initiative  except  by  spon- 
taneous popular  movements.  In  short,  Jackson 
was  the  agent  of  a  democratic  revolution,  which 
supported  him  with  a  swarm  of  new  men,  and 
approved  his  policy  of  turning  out  the  trained 
officials  neck  and  heels.  Adams  held  his  vote 
well:  the  stock  reasons  for  his  defeat  —  his  un- 
graciousness, his  refusal  to  employ  patronage, 
his  revival  of  charges  against  the  New  England 
Federalists  —  are  absurd  in  face  of  the  fact  that 
he  had  but  one  vote  less  than  in  1824,  and  of 
Jackson's  enormous  plurality.  No  candidate 
representing  trained  statesmanship,  culture,  and 
a  liberal  government  policy,  could  have  won 
this  election. 

1832. —  The  Democratic  tide  swept  on  over- 
whelmingly. Jackson's  unprecedented  use  of  the 
veto  power  to  defeat  internal-improvement 
schemes  voted  for  by  members  of  his  own  party, 
only  bound  the  majority  more  tightly  to  him; 
his  war  against  South  Carolina  for  attempted 
nullification  cost  him  her  votes,  but  brought 
him  reinforcements  from  the  nationalist  section; 
his  hostility  to  the  Bank  of  the  United  States 
was  a  prominent  issue  in  the  canvass,  and  was 
that  of  his  constituents.  Nothing  better  proves 
the  senselessness  of  accounting  for  great  politi- 
cal results  by  personal  factions  or  squabbles, 
than  the  fact  that  Adams  in  1824  and  1828  had 
more  electoral  votes  than  all  Jackson's  oppo- 
nents  together   in    1832. 

1836. —  The  issues  of  this  year  were  the 
carrying  on  of  Jackson's  policy,  though  its  great 
objects  had  been  accomplished, —  the  deposits 
had  been  placed  in  State  "pet  banks"  instead  of 
the  United  States  Bank, —  and  his  dictation  of 
his  own  successor.  To  oppose  this  dictation, 
one  party  sprung  up  with  the  ardent  Jacksonian 
Hugh  L.  White  as  nominee,  another  as  a 
Georgia  State  Rights  faction, —  though  Jackson 
had  championed  the  Georgia  rights  in  the  mat- 
ter at  issue  (see  Cherokee  Case)  ;  Jackson's 
influence,  however,  was  powerful  enough  to 
nominate  Van  Buren  as  the  "regular"  candi- 
date, and  he  was  elected  by  a  much  reduced  vote 
from  Jackson's. 

1840. —  Few  men  have  had  a  worse  legacy 
than  Van  Buren  received  in  the  Presidency;  and 
few  have  made  a  better  use  of  it.  Almost  his 
entire  term  was  occupied  by  the  panic  of  1837 
and  the  three  years  of  hard  times  which  SUC- 
d  ii  ;  caused  entirely  by  Jackson's  "monkey- 
ing" with  the  currency  of  which  he  knew  noth- 
ing. The  State  banks  which  replaced  the  United 
States  Bank  as  depositaries,  and  were  used  as 
I  democratic  political  machinery,  instead  of  man- 
aging the  funds  with  discretion  as  the  old  bank 
had  done,  issued  masses  of  notes  till  a  tre- 
mendous inflation  of  the  currency  had  created 
a  vast  land  speculation ;  then  he  suddenly  with- 
drew recognition  of  the  paper  currency  and 
brought  the  whole  structure  down  with  a  crash. 
Van  Buren  was  a  politician,  but  he  was  a  sound 
statesman  and  financier  and  an  honorable  public 
man:   he  would   have  no  more  meddling  by  the 


government  with  the  banking  business  for  which 
it  was  unlit,  even  to  extricate  his  own  adminis- 
tration from  a  scrape;  anil  after  three  years' 
struggle  he  established  the  Sub-Treasury  sys- 
tem, to  the  lasting  benefit  of  the  country,  lint 
with  the  customary  popular  perspicacity,  lie  was 
nude  the  scapegoat  for  calamities  which  he  had 
not  caused  and  whose  renewal  he  hail  prevented. 
Furthermore,  the  Whigs  outbid  the  Democrats 
in  avowed  submission  to  the  "popular  man- 
date," their  candidate  Harrison  promising  to 
disuse  the  veto;  they  outdid  them  in  the  "popu- 
lar hero"  line  by  turning  a  useful  but  not  very 
brilliant  Indian  battle  into  a  second  Marathon, 
or  rather  repeating  the  name  without  discussing 
the  details;  capped  their  swarms  of  mythical 
anecdotes  of  Jackson's  homespun  habits  and 
unpretentious  heroism  by  an  equal  number  aboul 
Harrison,  models  of  his  hypothetical  "log  cabin" 
and  bibulous  reproduction  of  his  "hard  cider" 
days;  they  made  bargains  and  absorbed  both 
the  Southern  free-lance  opposition  parties:  and 
by  all  this  and  their  campaign  of  "noise,  num- 
bers, and  nonsense,"  carried  all  but  three  old 
States  and  four  small  new  ones,  234  to  (»■ — a 
majority  which  suggests  that  possibly  the  noise 
and  nonsense  were  not  needed  nor  efficacious, 
and  a  quieter  campaign  of  sensible  argument 
might  equally  have  won,  with  a  real  leader  like 
Clay  and  no  ruinous  bargains. 

1844. —  Harrison  had  barely  survived  his  in- 
auguration; and  the  usual  policy  of  "placating" 
the  strongest  part  of  the  opposition  by  giving 
them  the  Vice-Presidency  (Tyler)  had  produced 
its  usual  and  deserved  fruit  of  turning  the  ad- 
ministration over  for  the  whole  four  years  to  the 
Nullification  party,  except  so  far  as  the  Whigs 
tied  its  hands.  This  under  Clay's  leadership 
they  did,  consolidating  the  party  by  steady  war 
on  Tyler,  and  heartening  themselves  at  last  to 
do  what  they  had  not  before  and  did  but  once 
again  —  put  forth  a  platform.  It  was  a  very 
compact  and  well-expressed  one,  excellent  from 
the  Whig  or  present  Republican  .standpoint;  but 
it  was  displaced  as  an  issue  by  far  more  exi- 
gent and  pungent  practical  ones.  The  tariff  of 
1842,  which  was  almost  weeded  of  protectionist 
features  by  the  joint  efforts  of  Tyler  and  the 
Democrats,  was  made  one  of  the  arguments;  but 
the  decisive  one  was  Texas.  For  years  the  great 
object  of  the  Calhoun  wing  of  the  Democrats 
had  been  to  annex  Texas;  partly  to  increase 
slave  territory  and  balance  Northern  growth, 
partly  with  the  immediate  aim  of  disrupting  tin- 
Whig  party  by  forcing  it  to  take  a  position  which 
would  drive  away  either  the  Northern  or  the 
Southern  wing.  Tyler,  deprived  of  Whig  sup- 
port, again  drew  near  to  the  Calhoun  party  to 
which  he  had  formerly  belonged  ;  in  1844  Cal- 
houn was  made  secretary  of  state;  and  witli 
this  administration  backing,  the  Calhoun  party 
obtained  control  of  the  Democratic  national  con- 
vention, committed  it  to  Texas  annexation,  and 
gave  the  nomination  to  the  Southerner  Polk  in- 
stead of  the  Northerner  Van  Buren.  Clay  was 
asked  to  declare  himself  on  this  point  ;  he  wrote 
an  evasive  letter  which  cost  him  the  support 
of  the  political  abolitionists  (see  Liberty 
Party),  who  nominated  a  ticket  of  their  own 
with  disastrous  results  to  both.  The  three  tick- 
ets were  those  of  Polk,  Clay,  and  Birney;  the 
first  on  the  issues  of  protection,  distribution  of 
land  sales,  cutting  down  Presidential  power,  and 
dodging  all  phases  of  the  slavery  question;  the 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


second  on  the  "re-occupation  of  Oregon  and  the 
rc-annexation  of  Texas"  ;  the  third  on  immediate 
abolition  of  slavery.  The  last-named  cast  only 
62,300  votes ;  but  enough  of  those  were  in  New 
York  and  Michigan  to  turn  the  former's  35  and 
the  latter's  6  electoral  votes  from  Clay  to  Polk, 
electing  the  latter,  bringing  in  Texas,  and  bring- 
ing on  the  Mexican  War. 

1848. —  The  Mexican  War  had  been  the  dom- 
inant issue  for  a  couple  of  years  before,  and  the 
Democrats  had  striven  to  make  it  destructive  to 
the  Whigs  by  forcing  them  into  obnoxious  dec- 
larations of  principle;  but  the  latter  voted  sup- 
plies for  it,  and  evaded  abstract  pronouncements 
as  to  its  righteousness.  The  Wilmot  Proviso 
(q.v.)  was  a  heavier  blow,  for  the  Southerners 
looked  on  it  as  a  primary  touchstone  of  sectional 
loyalty,  which  stood  above  party  loyalty.  The 
one  salvation  was  a  popular  moderate  candi- 
date who  could  be  accepted  by  the  voters  to 
whom  the  Democrats  were  simply  impossible ; 
and  such  a  one  was  found  in  Gen.  Zachary  Tay- 
lor. A  Louisiana  slaveholder,  no  Southerner 
could  suppose  he  would  sign  a  bill  endangering 
his  own  property ;  known  to  dislike  the  veto,  he 
could  be  trusted  by  the  North  to  obey  the  ver- 
dict of  Congress  if  it  passed  the  Proviso;  a  pop- 
ular hero,  he  commanded  the  great  unreflecting 
brute  vote  which  supposes  military  and  civil 
functions  somehow  related.  He  was  elected  by 
reason  of  a  split  in  the  New  York  Democracy, 
the  country  being  about  evenly  divided ;  that  he 
was  elected  at  all,  however,  is  remarkable  proof 
of  the  terror  of  the  conservative  masses  at  hav- 
ing the  slavery  firebrand  thrown  into  politics. 
It  was  this  vote  which  elected  the  Whigs  Clay 
and  Taylor  ( the  former  really  elected  so  far 
as  the  Democratic  competitor  went),  and  the 
Democrats  Pierce  and  Buchanan,  each  in  the 
hope  of  suppressing  the  question  altogether. 

1852. —  Taylor  died  in  16  months,  and  the 
Vice-President  Fillmore  completed  the  term; 
but  all  through  the  four  years  each  of  the  two 
parties  of  unlimited  slavery  extension  and  sla- 
very restriction  was  drawing  its  ranks  together, 
and  forming  into  the  parties  soon  to  contest  the 
final  mastery.  In  place  of  Whig  and  Democrat, 
it  was  increasingly  North  and  South.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  South  was  willing  to  fight  and  the 
North  as  yet  was  not ;  and  the  so-called  Com- 
promise of  1850,  like  most  compromises,  was 
practically  all  on  one  side,  the  Northern  Whigs 
letting  the  measure  go  by  default.  They  did  not 
like  it,  but  the  South  insisted,  and  they  had 
much  more  confidence  in  placating  their  own 
constituents  for  adhering  to  it  than  the  South 
for  not  doing  so ;  once  passed,  therefore,  they 
proclaimed  it  a  sacred  and  irrepealable  decision, 
as  being  a  "compromise."  and  the  Fugitive  Slave 
part  as  being  a  sacred  obligation  to  uphold.  As 
always,  the  "reopening  of  agitation"  was  ex- 
ecuted by  the  Southern  wing:  before  the  Presi- 
dential nominations  were  made,  they  had  de- 
termined to  force  the  Whigs  to  an  absolute 
declaration  of  party  policy,  a  touchstone  of 
legitimate  membership.  First  at  the  Whig  caucus 
of  20  April,  then  at  the  Baltimore  national  con- 
vention of  16  June,  they  insisted  on  the  party 
recognizing  the  Compromise  as  a  finality ;  in 
the  platform,  the  last  article,  of  great  length 
and  minuteness,  made  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law, 
by  name,  a  part  of  the  organic  constitution  of 
the  party.  This  was  death,  and  the  Southern 
Whigs   must   have   so  intended   it.     Gen.    Scott, 


as  a  military  hero,  was  made  the  candidate. 
The  Southern  Whigs,  instead  of  voting  for  him 
on  account  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  plank,  largely 
voted  against  him  because  the  anti-slavery  men 
in  the  convention,  for  no  assignable  reason,  had 
voted  for  him,  and  he  was  said  to  be  partial  to 
Seward;  the  Northern  Whigs  largely  voted 
against  the  platform:  and  the  Whigs  carried 
only  four  States,  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  Ken- 
tucky, and  Tennessee,  and  less  than  a  third  of 
the  next  Congress  even  nominally,  a  third  even 
of  that  being  Southerners  who  soon  became 
Democrats.  The  Whig  party  was  no  more : 
"died  of  an  attempt  to  swallow  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law"  was  the  epitaph  proposed  for  it. 
Forrest  Morgan. 
Connecticut  Historical  Society. 

American  Political  Issues,  1856-1900.  My 
review  will  begin  with  the  year  1856  —  the  year 
in  which  I  cast  my  first  vote,  also  one  in 
which  James  Buchanan  was  chosen  President. 
But  it  must  be  premised  that  each  election 
does  not  represent  a  debate ;  not  infrequently 
it  is  merely  a  stage  in  a  debate.  It  was  so 
in  1856;  it  has  been  so  several  times  since. 
Indeed,  since  1840  —  the  famous  "Log  Cabin 
and  Hard  Cider"  campaign  of  "Coon-Skin 
Caps,"  and  *Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too,"  prob- 
ably the  most  humorous,  not  to  say  grotesque, 
episode  in  our  whole  national  history,  that 
in  which  the  plane  of  discussion  reached  its  low- 
est recorded  level  —  since  1840  there  have  been 
only  six  real  debates,  the  average  period  of  a 
debate  being  therefore  10  years.  These  debates 
were  (1)   that  over  slavery,  from  1844  to  1864; 

(2)  that  over  reconstruction,  from  1868  to  1872; 

(3)  legal  tenders,  or  "fiat  money,"  and  resump- 
tion of  specie  payments  were  the  issues  in  1876 
and  1880:  (4)  the  issue  of  1888  and  1892  was 
over  protection  and  free  trade;  (5)  the  debate 
over  bimetallism  and  the  demonetization  of  sil- 
ver occurred  in  1896;  and,  finally  (6),  imper- 
ialism, as  it  is  called,  came  to  the  front  in  1900. 
Since  1856,  therefore,  the  field  of  discussion  has 
been  wide  and  diversified,  presenting  several 
issues  of  great  moment.  Of  necessity  also  the 
debates  have  assumed  many  and  diverse  aspects, 
ethnical,  ethnological,  legal,  military,  economical, 
financial,  historical.  The  last  is  that  which  in- 
terests us. 

Slavery  Issue. —  The  first  of  the  debates  I 
have  enumerated,  that  involving  the  slavery 
issue,  is  now  far  removed.  We  can  pass  on  it 
historically ;  for  the  young  man  who  threw  his 
maiden  vote  in  i860,  when  it  came  to  its  close, 
is  now  nearing  his  grand  climacteric.  Of  all 
the  debates  in  our  national  history  that  was  the 
longest,  the  most  elevated,  the  most  momentous, 
and  the  best  sustained.  It  looms  up  in  memory; 
it  projects  itself  from  history.  As  a  whole,  it 
was  immensely  creditable  to  the  people,  the  com- 
munity at  large,  for  whose  instruction  it  was 
conducted.  It  has  left  a  literature  of  its  own  — ■ 
economical,  legal,  moral,  political,  imaginative. 
So  far  as  the  historical  aspect  of  that  great  de- 
bate is  concerned,  two  things  are  to  be  specially 
noted.  In  the  first  place  the  moral  and  econom- 
ical aspects  predominated;  and,  in  the  second 
place,  what  may  be  called  the  historical  element 
as  an  influencing  factor  was  then  in  its  infancy. 
The  slavery  debate  was  so  long  and  intense 
that  all  tin-  forces  then  existing  were  drawn 
into    it.      The   pulpit,    for    instance,   participated 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


actively.  The  physiologist  was  much  concerned 
over  ethnological  problems,  trying  to  decide 
whether  the  African  was  a  human  being  or  an 
animal;  and,  if  the  former,  was  he  of  the  family 
of  Cain.  Thus  all  contributed  to  the  discussion ; 
and  yet  I  am  unable  to  point  OUt  any  distinctly 
historical  contribution  of  a  high  order;  though 
on  both  sicks  the  issue  was  discussed  histori- 
cally with  intelligence  and  research.  Especially 
was  this  the  case  in  the  arguments  made  before 
the  courts  and  in  the  Scriptural  dissertations; 
while  mi  the  political  side  the  speeches  of  Sew- 
ard and  Sumner,  of  Jefferson  Davis  and  A.  H. 
Stevens,  have  little  to  be  desired.  The  climax 
was  perhaps  reached  in  the  memorable  joint  de- 
bate between  Lincoln  and  Douglas,  of  which  it 
is  not  too  much  to  say  the  country  was  the  au- 
dit "v. 

Beginning  in  its  closing  stage,  in  December 
1853,  when  the  measure  repealing  the  Missouri 
Compromise  of  1820  was  introduced  into  the 
Sri  late  of  the  United  States,  and  closing  in  De- 
cember 1S60,  with  the  passage  of  its  ordinance 
of  secession  by  South  Carolina,  this  debate  was 
continuous  for  seven  years,  covering  two  Presi- 
dential elections,  those  of  1856  and  i860.  Of 
the  great  slavery  debate  it  may  then  in  fine  be 
said  that,  while  the  study  of  history  and  the 
lessons  to  be  deduced  from  history  contributed 
not  much  to  it,  it  made  history,  and  on  history 
has  left  a  permanent  mark.  Of  the  canvass  of 
1864,  from  our  point  of  view  little  need  be  said. 
There  was  in  it  no  great  field  for  the  historical 
investigator,  the  issue  then  presented  to  the  peo- 
ple being  of  a  character  altogether  exceptional. 
I  he  result  depended  less  on  argument  than  on 
the  iiuteome  of  operations  in  the  field.  Nor  was 
it  greatly  otherwise  in  the  canvass  of  1868.  The 
country  was  then  stirred  to  its  very  depths  over 
the  questions  growing  out  of  the  war.  The 
shattered  Union  was  to  be  reconstructed ;  the 
slave  system  was  to  be  eradicated.  These  were 
great  political  problems ;  problems  as  pressing 
as  they  were  momentous.  For  their  proper 
solution  it  was  above  all  else  necessary  that  they 
should  be  approached  in  a  calm  scholarly  spirit, 
observant  of  the  teachings  of  history.  Never 
was  there  a  greater  occasion ;  rarely  has  one 
been  so  completely  lost.  The  assassination  of 
Lincoln  silenced  reason  ;  and  to  reason  and  to 
reason  only  does  history  make  its  appeal.  1  he 
unfortunate  personality  of  Andrew  Johnson  now 
intruded  itself;  and,  almost  at  once,  what  should 
have  been  a  calm  debate  degenerated  into  a 
furious  wrangle.  Looking  back  over  the  can- 
vass of  1868,  and  excepting  General  Grant's 
singularly  felicitous  closing  of  his  brief  letter 
of  acceptance — "Let  us  have  peace" — I  think  it 
would  be  difficult  for  anyone  to  recall  a  single 
utterance  which  produced  any  lasting  impres- 
sion. 

Reconstruction. —  The  debate  over  recon- 
struction, begun  in  1865,  did  not  wear  itself  out 
till  1876.  In  no  respect  will  it  bear  comparison 
with  the  debate  over  slavery  which  preceded 
it.  Sufficiently  momentous,  it  was  less  sustained, 
less  thorough,  far  less  judicial.  Toward  its 
close,  moreover,  as  the  country  wearied,  it  was 
gravely  complicated  by  a  new  issue ;  for,  in  1867, 
began  that  currency  discussion  destined  to  last 
in  its  various  phases  through  the  lifetime  of  a 
generation.  It  thereafter  entered  in  greater  or 
less  degree  into  no  less  than  nine  consecutive 


Presidential   elections,  two  of  which,   those   of 
1876  and  1896,  actually  turned  on  it. 

Currency  Issue. —  The   currency   debate   pre- 
sented  three  distinct  phases:      first,  the-  pmpi     i 
tion,  broached  in   1807,  known  as  the  greenback 
theory,  under  which   the  interest  bearing   bonds 
of   the    United   States,   issued   during   the   Civil 
War.    were    to    be    paid    at    maturity    in    United 
States     legal    tender    notes,    bearing    no    interest 
at  all.     This  somewhat  amazing  proposition  was 
speedily   disposed  of;   for  early   in   1869,  an  act 
was    passed    declaring    the    bonds    payable    "in 
coin."     But,  as  was  sure  to  be  the  case,  the  so- 
called    "fiat    money"    delusion    had    obtained    a 
firm   lodgment  in  the  minds  of  a   large  part  of 
the  community,  and  to  drive  it  out  was  the  work 
of  time.     It  assumed  too,   all   sorts   of  aspects. 
Dispelled   in  one   form,   it    appeared    in   another. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  what  the  dividing  issue 
of  1876  really  was.    The  country  was  then  slowly 
recovering  from   the  business  prostration   which 
followed  the   collapse   of    1873.     The   living  de- 
bate  was   over  material   questions,    the   cause   of 
the  prolonged  business  depression  and  the  rem- 
edy for  it.     The  favorite  specific  was  at   first  a 
recourse    to    paper    money.      The    government 
printing-press   was  to  be   set   in   motion   in   place 
of  the   mint;   and  even   hard-money   Democrats 
of    the    Jacksonian    school    united    with    radical 
Republicans  of  the  reconstruction  period  in  guar- 
anteeing   a     resultant     prosperity.      Again    the 
teachings  of  history  were  ignored.     What,  it  was 
contemptuously  exclaimed   in   the   Senate,  do   we 
care  for  "abroad!"   From  this  calamity  the  coun- 
try  had   been   saved    by    the    veto   of    I 'resident 
Grant   in    1874;   and  the    following   year   an   act 
was  passed  looking  to  the  resumption  of  specie 
payments    on     1     Jan.     1879.      Seventeen    years 
of   suspension   were   then   to   close.     Over   this 
measure   the   parties   nominally   joined    issue   in 
1876.      The    Republicans,    nominating   Governor 
Hayes  of  Ohio,  demanded  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promise;   the    Democrats,   nominating   Governor 
Tilden    of    New    York,    insisted    on    the    repeal 
of  the  law.     Vet  it  was  well  understood  that  the 
candidate  of  the  Democracy  favored  the  policy 
of  which  the  law  in  debate  was  the  concrete  ex- 
pression.    The  contest  was  thus   in  reality  one 
between  the  "ins"  and  the  "outs." 

But  not  the  less  for  that,  in  the  canvass  of 
1876  a  field  of  great  political  usefulness  was 
opened  up  to  the  historical  investigator;  a  field 
which,  I  submit,  he  failed  adequately  to  de- 
velop. A  public  duty  was  left  unperformed. 
From  time  immemorial  to  tamper  with  the  es- 
tablished measures  of  value  has  been  the  con- 
stant practice  of  men  of  restless  and  unstable 
mind,  honest  or  dishonest,  whether  rulers  or 
aspirants  to  rule. 

The  Tariff  Issue. —  The  administration  of 
President  Hayes  was  curiously  epochal.  During 
it  the  so-called  "carpet-bag  governments"  dis- 
appeared from  the  Southern  States;  the  country 
resumed  payments  in  specie ;  and  on  28  Feb. 
1878,  Congress  passed  over  the  veto  of  the  Presi- 
dent an  act  renewing  the  coinage  of  silver  dol- 
lars, the  stoppage  of  which,  five  years  before, 
constituted  what  was  destined  thereafter  to  be 
referred  to  as  "the  crime  of  1873."  This  issue, 
however,  matured  slowly.  Public  men,  having 
recourse  to  palliatives,  temporized  with  it ;  and 
through  four  Presidential  elections  it  lay  dor- 
mant, except  in  so  far  as  parties  pledged  them- 
selves   to    action    calculated,    in    the    well-nigh 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


idotic  formula  of  politicians,  to  "do  something 
for  silver."  The  canvasses  of  1880  and  1884  are 
therefore  devoid  of  historical  interest.  The  first 
turned  largely  on  the  tariff;  and  yet,  curiously 
enough,  the  single  utterance  in  that  debate  which 
has  left  a  mark  on  the  public  memory  was  the 
wonderful  dictum  of  Gen.  Hancock,  the  can- 
didate of  the  defeated  opposition,  that  the  tariff 
was  a  local  issue,  which  a  number  of  years  be- 
fore had  excited  a  good  deal  of  interest  in  his 
native  State  of  Pennsylvania.  Nor  is  the  rec- 
ollection of  the  debate  of  1884  much  more  in- 
spiring. It  was  a  lively  contest  enough,  under 
Grover  Cleveland  and  James  G.  Blaine  as  op- 
posing candidates,  a  struggle  between  the  "outs" 
to  get  in  and  the  "ins"  not  to  go  out.  But  a 
single  formula  connected  with  it  comes  echoing 
down  the  corridors  of  time,  the  alliterative 
"Rum,  Romanism,  and  Rebellion"  of  the  unfor- 
tunate  Burchard. 

That  of  1888,  presenting  at  last  an  issue,  rose 
to  the  dignity  of  debate.  In  his  annual  message 
of  the  previous  December  the  President,  in  dis- 
regard of  all  precedent,  had  confined  his  atten- 
tion not  only  to  the  tariff,  but  to  a  single  feature 
in  the  tariff,  the  duty  on  wool.  In  so  doing  he 
had,  as  the  well  understood  candidate  of  his 
party  for  re-election,  flung  down  the  gauntlet, 
for  only  three  years  before  the  Republicans,  in 
the  Presidential  platform,  had  laid  particular 
emphasis  on  "the  importance  of  sheep  industry* 
and  "the  danger  threatening  its  future  prosper- 
ity." They  had  thus  pledged  themselves  to  "do 
something"  for  wool,  as  well  as  for  silver,  and 
the  President  now  struck  at  wool  as  "the  tariff- 
arch  keystone."  But,  while  in  this  debate  the 
economist  came  to  the  front,  there  was  no  pro- 
nounced call,  and,  indeed,  small  opportunity  for 
the  historian. 

Three  Great  Issues.—  Returning  to  the  re- 
view of  our  national  debates,  we  find  that  in 
1892  the  shadow  of  coming  events  was  plainly 
perceptible.  The  tariff  issue  had  now  lost  its 
old  significance;  for  the  infant  industries  had 
developed  into  trade-  and  legislation-compelling 
trusts.  These  were  suggestive  of  new  and,  as 
yet,  inchoate  problems ;  but  to  them  the  con- 
stituency was  not  prepared  intelligently  to  ad- 
dress itself.  Populism  was  rife,  with  its  crude 
and  restless  theories;  a  crisis  in  the  history  of 
the  precious  metals  was  clearly  impending  with 
the  outcome  in  doubt ;  indiscriminate  and  un- 
precedented pension-giving  had  reduced  an  over- 
flowing exchequer  to  the  verge  of  bankruptcy. 
The  debate  of  1892  accordingly  dropped  back 
to  the  politician's  level,  that  of  1876,  1880,  and 
1884. 

Of  quite  another  character  were  the  two  can- 
vasses of  1896  and  1900.  Still  fresh  in  memory, 
the  echoes  of  these  have  indeed  not  yet  ceased 
to  reverberate ;  and  I  assert  without  hesitation 
that  not  since  1856  and  i860  has  this  people 
passed  through  two  such  wholesome  and  edu- 
cational experiences.  In  1896  and  in  1900,  as  in 
the  debates  of  40  years  previous,  there  was  a 
place,  and  a  larger  place,  for  the  student, 
whether  investigator  or  philosopher.  Great 
problems,  problems  of  law,  of  economics  and 
ethics,  problems  involving  peace  and  war,  and 
the  course  of  development  in  the  oldest  as  in 
the  newest  civilizations,  had  to  be  discussed  on 
the  way  to  a  solution.  That  the  prolonged  de- 
bate running  through  those  eight  years  was  at 
all  equal  to  the  occasion  I  do  not  think  can  be 


claimed.  Even  his  most  ardent  admirers  will 
hardly  suggest  that  Mr.  Bryan  in  1896  and  19CO 
rose  to  the  level  reached  by  Lincoln  40  years 
before,  nor  do  the  utterances  of  Mr.  Roosevelt, 
Mr.  Depew,  or  Mr.  Hanna  bear  well  a  compari- 
son with  those  of  Seward,  Trumbull,  and  Sum- 
ner. Indeed,  in  the  whole  wordy  canvass  of 
1896  I  now  recall  but  two  instances  of  the  pro- 
fessor or  philosopher  distinctly  taking  the  floor; 
but  both  of  those  were  memorable.  They  im- 
parted an  elevation  of  tone  to  discussion,  im- 
mediately and  distinctly  perceptible,  in  the  press 
and  on  the  platform.  I  refer  to  the  single  utter- 
ance of  Carl  Schurz  before  a  small  audience  at 
Chicago  on  5  Sept.  1896  and  to  the  subsequent 
publications  of  President  Andrew  D.  White,  in 
which,  from  his  library  at  Ithaca,  he  drew 
freely  on  the  stores  of  historical  experience  in 
crushing  refutation  of  demagogical  campaign 
sophistry. 

What  were  the  issues  of  the  last  Presiden- 
tial canvass  ?  On  what  questions  did  its  debate 
turn?  Three  in  number,  they  were,  I  think, 
singularly  inviting  to  those  historically  minded. 
To  the  reflecting  man  the  matter  first  in  im- 
portance was  what  is  known  as  "imperialism," 
the  problem  forced  on  our  consideration  by  the 
outcome  of  the  war  with  Spain.  Next  I  should 
place  the  questions  of  public  policy  involved  in 
the  rapid  agglomerations  of  capital,  popularly 
denominated  trusts.  Finally,  the  silver  issue 
still  lingered  at  the  front,  a  legacy  from  the 
canvass  of  four  years  previous.  The  debate  of 
1900  is  a  thing  of  the  past.  Each  of  those  issues 
can  now  be  discussed,  as  it  might  well  then  have 
been  discussed,  in  the  pure  historical  spirit.  Let 
us  take  them  up  in  their  inverse  order. 

Silver  and  Trusts. — -Shortly  after  1870  the 
policy  of  demonetizing  silver  was  entered  on ; 
and  in  1873  the  United  States  gave  its  adhesion 
to  that  policy.  Thereafter,  in  the  great  system 
of  international  exchanges,  silver  ceased  to  be 
counted  a  part  of  that  specie  reserve  on  which 
drafts  were  made.  Thenceforth  the  drain,  as 
among  the  financial  centres,  was  to  be  on  gold 
alone.  In  the  whole  history  of  man  no  precedent 
for  such  a  step  was  to  be  found.  So  far  as  the 
United  States  was  concerned  the  basis  on  which 
its  complex  and  delicate  financial  fabric  rested 
was  weakened  by  one-half;  and  the  cheaper  and 
more  accessible  metal,  that  to  which  the  debtor 
would  naturally  have  recourse  in  discharge  of 
his  obligations,  was  made  unavailable.  It  could 
further  be  demonstrated  that  without  a  com- 
plete readjustment  of  our  currencies  and  values 
the  world's  accumulated  stock  and  annual  pro- 
duction of  gold,  could  not,  as  a  monetary  basis. 
be  made  to  suffice  for  its  needs.  A  continually 
recurring  contest  for  gold  among  the  greatest 
financial  centres  was  inevitable.  "A  change 
which,"  in  the  language  of  Lccky,  "beyond  all 
others  affects  most  deeply  and  universally  the 
material  well-being  of  man  had  been  unwittingly 
challenged."  The  only  question  was,  Would  the 
unexpected  occur?  Then,  if  it  did  occur,  what 
might  be  anticipated?  Such  was  the  silver  issue, 
as  it  presented  itself  in  1896.  On  the  facts,  the 
weight  of  argument  was  clearly  with  the  ad- 
vocates of  silver. 

Four  years  later,  in  1900,  the  unexpected  had 
occurred.  As  then  resumed,  the  debate  was  re- 
plete with  interest.  The  lessons  of  1892  and 
1896  had  a  direct  bearing  on  the  present,  and 
in  the  light  shed  by  them  the  outcome  could  be 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


forecast  almost  with  certainty;  but  it  was  a 
world  question.  Japan,  China,  Hindustan,  cn- 
tered  into  the  problem,  in  which  also  both  Amer- 
icas were  factors.  It  was  a  theme  to  inspire 
Burke,  stretching  back,  as  u  did,  to  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  involving  the  whole  circling  globe. 
Rarely  has  any  subject  called  for  mure  intelli- 
gent and  comprehensive  investigation;  rarely  has 
one    been     more    Confused    and    befogged    by    a 

denser  misinformation.  The  discoverer  and  sci- 
entist, moving  hand  in  hand,  bad  during  the  re- 
mission of  the  debati ,  l<  i  n  getting  in  their  work, 
and  under  the  touch  of  their  silent  influence  the 

world's  gold  production  rose  by  leaps  and 
bounds.  Less  than  10,000,000  ounces  in  l8y<>, 
in  1899  it  had  nearly  touched  15,000,000;  and  in 
money  value  it  alone  then  exceeded  the  com- 
bined value  of  the  gold  and  silver  production  of 
the  period. 

So  much  for  the  silver  question  and  its  pos- 
sible treatment.  In  the  discussion  of  1900  the 
last  word  in  the  debate  of  1896  remained  to  be 
uttered.  A  page  in  history,  both  memorable  and 
instructive,  was  to  be  turned.  Next,  trusts  — 
those  vast  aggregations  of  capital  in  the  hands 
of  private  combinations,  constituting  practical 
monopolies  of  whole  branches  of  industry,  and 
of  commodities  necessary  to  man.  Was  the 
world  In  I"  subject  to  taxation  at  the  will  of  a 
moneyed  syndicate?  The  debate  over  this  issue, 
if  debate  it  may  be  called,  is  still  very  recent. 
In  it  the  lessons  of  history  were  effectually 
ignored ;  and  yet,  if  applied,  they  would  have 
been  sufficiently  suggestive.  The  historian  was 
as  conspicuous  for  his  absence  as  the  demagogue 
was  in  evidence. 

The  curious  feature  in  the  present  discussion, 
that  which  in  the  mind  of  the  student  of  things 
as  opposed  to  words  imparts  a  special  interest 
to  it,  is  that,  while  the  trust  of  vast  aggregation 
of  capital  and  machinery  of  production  in  the 
hands  of  individuals  intended  to  control  com- 
petition is  in  fact  the  modern  form  of  monopoly, 
is  is  in  its  methods  and  results  the  direct  op- 
posite  of  the  old  time  monopoly;  for.  whereas 
the  purpose  and  practice  of  that  was  to  extort 
from  all  purchasers  an  artificial  price  for  an  in- 
ferior article  through  the  suppression  of  com- 
petitors, the  first  law  of  its  existence  for  the 
modern  trust  is.  through  economies  and  magni- 
tude of  production,  to  supply  to  all  buyers  a  bet- 
ter article  at  a  price  so  low  that  other  producers 
are  driven  from  the  market.  The  ground  of 
popular  complaint  against  them  is  not  that  they 
exact  an  inordinate  profit  on  what  they  sell,  but 
that  they  sell  so  low  that  the  small  manufac- 
turer or  merchant  is  deprived  of  his  trade.  This 
distinction  with  a  difference  explains  at  once  the 
wholly  futile  character  of  the  politician's  outcry 
against  trusts.  It  is  easy,  for  instance,  to  de- 
nounce from  the  platform  the  magnates  of  the 
sugar  trust  to  a  sympathizing  audience;  and  yet 
not  one  human  being  in  that  audience,  his  sym- 
pathies to  the  contrary  notwithstanding,  will 
the  next  morning  pay  a  fraction  of  a  cent  more 
per  pound  for  his  sugar,  that  by  so  doing  he 
may  help  to  keep  alive  some  struggling  manu- 
facturer who  advertises  that  his  product  does 
not  bear  the  trust  stamp. 

As  to  the  outcome  of  conflicts  of  this  char- 
acter history  tells  but  one  story.  They  can  have 
but  one  result,  a  readjustment  of  industries.  A 
single  familiar  illustration  will  suffice.  Any  one 
who  chooses  to  turn  back  to  it  can  read  the  story 


of  the  long  conflict  between  the  loom  and  the 
spindle.  Formerly,  and  not  mi  very  far  back, 
the  distaff  and  spinning-wheel  were  to  be  seen 
in  every  house;  homespun  was  the  common 
wear.  To-day  the  average  man  or  woman  has 
never  seen  a  distaff,  or  heard  the  hum  of  a 
spinning-wheel.  Ceasing  long  since  to  be  a 
commodity,  homespun  would  be  sought  for  in 
vain.  Vet  the  struggle  between  the  loom  of  the 
manufacturing  trust  and  the  old  dame's  spin- 
ning-wheel was,  literally,  for  the  latter  a  tight 
to  the  death.  The  operator's  time  was  worth 
absolutely  nothing  except  at  the  wheel;  she 
must  needs  work  for  any  wage;  on  it  d<  pi 
her  bread.  A  vast  domestic,  industrial  readjust- 
ment was  involved;  one  implying  untold  human 
suffering.  The  result  was,  however,  never  for 
an  instant  in  doubt.  The  trust  of  that  day  was 
left  in  undisputed  control  of  the  field;  and  it 
always  must,  and  always  will  be,  just  so  long 
as  it  supplies  purchasers  with  a  better  article  at 
a  lower  price  than  they  had  to  pay  before.  The 
process  does  not  vary;  the  only  difference  is  that 
each  succeeding  readjustment  is  on  a  larger 
scale  and  more   far-reaching  in   its  effects. 

Such,  stripped  of  its  verbiage  and  appeals  to 
sympathy,  is  the  trust  proposition.  But  the 
popular  apprehension  always  has  been,  as  it  now 
is,  that  this  supply  of  the  better  article  at  a  lower 
price  will  continue  only  till  the  producer,  the 
monopolist,  has  secured  a  complete  mastery  of 
the  situation.  Capital,  it  is  argued,  is  selfish 
and  greedy,  corporations  are  proverbially  soul- 
less and  insatiable;  and,  as  soon  as  competition 
is  eliminated,  nature  will  assert  itself.  Prices 
will  then  be  raised  so  as  to  assure  inordinate 
gains;  and  when,  in  consequence  of  such  profits, 
fresh  competitors  enter  the  field,  they  will  either 
be  crushed  out  of  existence  by  a  temporary  re- 
duction in  price,  or  absorbed  in  the  trust.  All 
this  has  a  plausible  sound;  and  of  it  as  a  theory 
of  practical  outcome  the  politician  can  be  relied 
on  to  make  the  most.  But  on  this  head  what 
has  the  historical  investigator  to  say?  His  will 
be  the  last  word  in  that  debate  also ;  his  ver- 
dict will  be  final.  The  lessons  bearing  on  this 
contention  to  be  drawn  from  the  record  cover  a 
wide  field  of  both  time  and  space;  they  also 
silence  discussion.  They  tend  indisputably  to 
show  that  the  dangers  depicted  are  imaginary. 
The  subject  must,  of  course,  be  approached  in 
an  unprejudiced  spirit  and  studied  in  a  large, 
comprehensive  way.  Permanent  tendencies  are 
to  be  dealt  with;  and  exceptional  cases  must  be 
instanced,  classified,  and  allowed  for.  Attempts, 
more  or  less  successful,  at  extortion  in  a  con- 
fidence of  mastery,  can  unquestionably  be  pointed 
out ;  but  in  the  history  of  economical  develop- 
ment it  is  no  less  unquestionable  that,  on  the 
large  scale  and  in  the  long  run,  every  new  con- 
centration has  been  followed  by  a  permanent 
reduction  of  price  in  the  commodity  affected 
thereby.  The  world's  needs  are  continually  sup- 
plied at  a  lower  cost  to  the  world.  Again,  the 
larger  the  concentration  the  cheaper  the  prod- 
uct ;  till  now  a  new  truth  of  the  market  place 
has  become  established  and  obtained  general  ac- 
ceptance, a  truth  of  the  most  far-reaching  con- 
sequence, the  truth  that  the  largest  returns  are 
found  in  quick  sales  at  small  profits. 

Does  history  furnish  any  instance  of  a  finan- 
cial, an  industrial,  or  a  commercial  enterprise  — 
a  bank,  a  factory,  or  an  importing  company  — 
ever  having  been  powerful  enough  long  to  rcgu- 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


late  the  price  of  any  commodity  regardless  of 
competition  except  when  acting  in  harmony  with 
and  supported  by  governmental  power?  Is  not 
the  monopolist  practically  impotent  unless  he  has 
the  constable  at  his  call?  To  answer  this  ques- 
tion absolutely  would  be  to  deduce  a  law  of  the 
first  importance  from  the  general  experience  of 
mankind.  So  doing  would  call  for  a  far  more 
careful  examination  than  is  now  in  my  power 
to  make,  were  it  even  within  the  scope  of  my 
ability;  but  if  my  supposition  prove  correct  the 
corollary  to  be  drawn  therefrom  is  to  us  as  a 
body  politic  and  at  just  this  juncture  one  of  the 
first  and  most  far-reaching  import.  In  such  case 
the  modern  American  trust,  also,  so  far  as  it 
enjoys  any  power  as  a  monopoly,  or  admits  of 
abuse  as  such,  must  depend  for  that  power  and 
the  opportunity  of  abuse  solely  on  governmental 
support  and  cooperation.  Its  citadel  is  then  the 
custom-house.  The  moment  the  United  States 
revenue  officer  withdrew  his  support  the  Amer- 
ican monopolist  would  cease  to  monopolize,  ex- 
cept in  so  far  as  he  could  defy  competition  by 
always  supplying  a  better  article  at  a  price  lower 
than  any  other  producer  in  the  whole  world. 

The  Issue  of  Imperialism. —  It  remains  to 
pass  on  to  the  third  and  last  of  the  matters  in 
debate  during  1900,  that  known  as  imperialism. 
This  was  the  really  great  issue  before  the  Amer- 
ican people  then ;  and  it  is  the  really  great  issue 
before  them  now.  That  issue,  moreover,  I  with 
confidence  submit,  can  be  intelligently  consid- 
ered only  from  the  historical  standpoint.  In- 
deed, unless  approached  through  the  avenues  of 
human  experience,  it  is  not  even  at  once  ap- 
parent how  the  question,  as  it  now  confronts  us, 
arose  and  injected  itself  into  our  political  ac- 
tion ;  and  accordingly,  it  is  in  some  quarters  even 
currently  assumed  that  it  is  there  only  fortui- 
tously, a  feature  in  the  great  chapter  of  accidents, 
a  passing  incident,  which  may  well  disappear  as 
mysteriously  and  as  suddenly  as  it  came.  Stud- 
ied historically,  I  do  not  think  this  view  of  the 
situation  will  bear  examination.  On  the  con- 
trary, I  fancy  even  the  most  superficial  investi- 
gator, if  actuated  in  his  inquiry  by  the  true  his- 
torical spirit,  would  soon  reach  the  conclusion 
that  the  issue  so  recently  forced  on  us  had  been 
long  in  preparation,  was  logical  and  inevitable, 
and  for  our  good  or  our  evil  must  be  decided, 
rightly  or  wrongly,  on  a  large  view  of  great  and 
complex  conditions. 

Leslie  Stephen,  in  one  of  his  essays,  truly 
enough  says:  "The  Catholic  and  the  Protestant, 
the  Conservative  and  the  Radical,  the  Individu- 
alist and  the  Socialist,  have  equal  facility  in 
proving  their  own  doctrines  with  arguments 
which  habitually  begin,  'All  history  shows.' 
Printers  should  be  instructed  always  to  strike 
out  that  phrase  as  an  erratum,  and  to  substi- 
tute T  choose  to  take  for  granted.'  *  And  else- 
where the  same  writer  lays  it  down  as  a  general 
proposition  that:  "Arguments  beginning  'All  his- 
tory shows'  are  always  sophistical."  What  is 
by  some  known  as  the  doctrine  of  manifest  des- 
tiny is,  I  take  it,  identical  with  what  others,  more 
piously  minded,  refer  to  as  the  will,  or  call,  of 
God.  The  Mohammedans  say :  "God  clearly 
calls  us"  to  this  or  that  work;  and  with  a  con- 
science perfectly  clear  proceed  to  rob,  slay,  and 
oppress.  In  like  manner  the  political  buccaneer 
and  land  pirate  proclaims  that  the  possession  of 
his  neighbor's  territory  is  rightfully  his  by  mani- 
fest   destiny.     The   philosophical   politician   next 


drugs  the  conscience  of  his  fellowmen  by  declar- 
ing solemnly  that  "all  history  shows"  that  might 
is  right;  and  with  time,  the  court  of  last  appeal, 
it  must  be  admitted  possession  is  9  points  in 
the  law's  10.  It  cannot  be  denied,  also,  that 
quite  as  many  crimes  have  been  perpetrated  in 
the  name  of  God  and  of  manifest  destiny  as  in 
that  of  liberty.  That,  at  least,  "all  history 
shows."  But,  all  the  same,  just  as  liberty  is  not- 
withstanding a  good  and  desirable  thing,  so  God 
does  live  and  will,  and  there  is  something  in 
manifest  destiny.  As  applied  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  races  inhabiting  the  earth  it  is,  I 
take  it,  merely  an  unscientific  form  of  speech ; 
the  word  now  in  vogue  is  evolution,  the  phrase 
"survival  of  the  fittest."  When  all  is  said  and 
done  that  unreasoning  instinct  of  a  people  which 
carries  it  forward,  in  spite  of  and  over  theories 
to  its  manifest  destiny,  amid  the  despairing  out- 
cries and  long-drawn  protestations  of  theorists 
and  ethical  philosophers,  is  a  very  considerable 
factor  in  making  history;  and  consequently  one 
to  be  reckoned  with. 

In  plain  words,  then,  and  Mr.  Stephen  to  the 
contrary  notwithstanding,  "all  history  shows" 
that  every  great,  aggressive,  and  masterful  race 
tends  at  times  irresistibly  toward  the  practical 
assertion  of  its  supremacy,  usually  at  the  cost 
of  those  not  so  well  adapted  to  existing  condi- 
tions. In  his  great  work  Mommsen  formulates 
the  law  with  a  brutal  directness  distinct!}'  Ger- 
manic: "By  virtue  of  the  law  that  a  people  which 
has  grown  into  a  state  absorbs  its  neighbors 
who  are  in  political  nonage,  and  a  civilized  peo- 
ple absorbs  its  neighbors  who  are  in  intellectual 
nonage  —  by  virtue  of  this  law,  which  is  as  uni- 
versally valid  and  as  much  a  law  of  nature  as 
the  law  of  gravity  —  the  Italian  nation  (the  only 
one  in  antiquity  which  was  able  to  combine  a 
superior  political  development  and  a  superior 
civilization,  though  it  presented  the  latter  only 
in  an  imperfect  and  external  manner)  was  en- 
titled to  reduce  to  subjection  the  Greek  States 
of  the  East  which  were  ripe  for  destruction,  and 
to  dispossess  the  peoples  of  lower  grades  of  cul- 
ture in  the  West  —  Libyans,  Iberians,  Celts.  i;tr- 
mans  —  by  means  of  its  settlers;  just  as  England 
with  equal  right  has  in  Asia  reduced  to  subjec- 
tion a  civilization  of  rival  standing,  but  politically 
impotent,  and  in  America  and  Australia  has 
marked  and  ennobled  and  still  continues  to  mark 
and  ennoble  extensive  barbarian  countries  with 
the  impress  of  its  nationality." 

The  following  quotation  I  must  commend  to 
the  thoughtful  consideration  of  those  classified 
in  the  political  nomenclature  of  the  day  as  Anti- 
Imperialists.  A  most  conscientious  and  high- 
minded  class,  possessed  with  the  full  courage 
of  their  convictions,  the  efforts  of  the  Anti-Im- 
perialists will  nut  fail,  we  and  they  may  rest  as- 
sured, to  make  themselves  felt.  They  enter  into 
the  grand  result.  Nevertheless,  for  them  there 
is  food  for  thought,  perhaps  for  consolation,  in 
this  other  general  law,  laid  down  in  1862  by 
Richard   Cobden : 

"From  the  moment  the  first  shot  is  fired,  or 
the  first  blow  is  struck,  in  a  dispute,  then  fare- 
well to  all  reason  and  argument :  you  might  as 
well  attempt  to  reason  with  mad  dogs  as  with 
men  when  they  have  begun  to  spill  each  other's 
blood  in  mortal  cnmb.it.  I  was  so  convinced  of 
the  fact  during  the  Crimean  War.  which,  you 
know,  I  opposed,  I  was  so  convinced  of  the  utter 
uselessness  of  raising  one's  voice  in  opp 


AMERICAN  POLITICAL  ISSUES 


to  war  when  it  was  once  begun  that  I  made  up 
my  mind  that  as  long  as  1  was  in  political  life, 
should  a  war  again  break  out  between  England 
and  a  great  power,  I  would  never  open  my 
mouth  on  the  subject  from  the  time  the  first 
gun  was  fired  till  the  peace  was  made,  because 
when  a  war  is  commenced  it  will  only  be  by  the 
exhaustion  of  one  party  that  a  termination  will 
be  arrived  at.  If  you  look  back  at  our  history 
what  did  eloquence  in  the  persons  of  Chatham 
or  Burke  do  to  prevent  a  war  with  our  first 
American  colonies?  What  did  eloquence  in  the 
persons  of  Fox  and  his  friends  do  to  prevent 
the  French  Revolution,  or  bring  it  to  a  close? 
And  there  was  a  man  who  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Crimean  War  opposed  it  in  terms  of 
eloquence,  in  power,  and  pathos,  and  argument 
equal  —  in  terms,  1  believe,  fit  to  compare  with 
anything  that  fell  from  the  lips  of  Chatham  and 
Burke — I  mean  your  distinguished  townsman, 
my  friend  Mr.  Bright  —  and  what  was  his  suc- 
cess? Why,  they  burnt  him  in  effigy  for  his 
pains?' 

Turning  from  the  authorities  and  the  lessons 
by  them  deduced  from  the  record  called  history, 
let  us  now  consider  the  problem  precipitated  on 
the  American  people  by  the  Spanish  war  of  1898. 
The  first  and  most  important  lesson  is  one 
which,  in  theory  at  least,  is  undisputed ;  though 
t .  1  live  up  to  it  practically  calls  for  a  courage 
of  conviction  not  yet  in  evidence.  That  a  de- 
pendency is  not  merely  a  possession,  but  a  trust, 
a  trust  for  the  future,  for  itself,  and  for  human- 
ity, is  accepted  by  us  in  this  debate  as  a  postu- 
late. Accordingly,  our  dependencies  are  in  no 
wise  to  be  exploited  for  the  general  benefit  of 
the  alien  owner,  or  that  of  individual  components 
of  that  owner,  but  they  are  to  be  dealt  with  in 
a  large  and  altruistic  spirit  with  an  unselfish 
view  to  their  own  utmost  development,  materi- 
ally, morally,  and  politically.  And,  through  a 
process  of  negatives,  "all  history  shows"  that  only 
when  this  course  is  hereafter  wisely  and  con- 
secutively pursued,  should  that  blessed  consum- 
mation ever  be  attained,  will  the  dominating 
power  itself  derive  the  largest  and  truest  benefit 
from  its  possessions.  As  yet  no  American  of 
any  character,  much  less  of  authority,  has  come 
forward  to  controvert  this  proposition.  But,  as- 
suming the  correctness  of  the  proposition  I  have 
just  formulated,  a  corollary  follows  from  it.  A 
formidable  proposition,  I  state  it  without  limita- 
tions, meaning  to  challenge  contradiction,  I  sub- 
mit that  there  is  not  an  instance  in  all  recorded 
history,  from  the  earliest  precedent  to  that  now 
making-,  where  a  so-called  inferior  race  or  com- 
munity has  been  elevated  in  its  character,  or 
made  self-sustaining  and  self-governing,  or  even 
put  on  the  way  to  that  result,  through  a  condition 
of  dependency  or  tutelage.  I  say  "inferior  race8  ; 
but,  I  fancy,  I  might  state  the  proposition  even 
more  broadly.  I  might  without  much  danger  as- 
sert that  the  condition  of  dependency,  even  for 
communities  of  the  same  race  and  blood,  always 
exercises  an  emasculating  and  deteriorating  in- 
fluence. I  would  undertake,  if  called  on,  to  show 
also  that  this  rule  is  invariable  —  that  from  the 
inherent  and  fundamental  conditions  of  human 
nature  it  has  known  and  can  know  no  excep- 
tions. This  truth,  also,  I  would  demonstrate 
from  well-nigh  innumerable  examples,  that  of 
our  own  colonial  period  among  the  number.  In 
our  case  it  required  a  century  to  do  away  in 
our  minds  and  hearts  with  our  dependential  tra- 


ditions. The  Civil  War  and  not  what  we  call 
the  Revolution  was  our  real  war  of  independ- 
ence. And  yet  in  our  time  of  dependency  you 
will  remember  we  were  not  emasculated  into  a 
resigned  and  even  cheerful  self-incapacity  as  the 
natural  result  of  a  kindly,  paternal,  and  protec- 
tive policy;  but,  as  Burke  with  profound  insight 
expressed  it,  with  us  the  spirit  of  independence 
and  self-support  was  fostered  "through  a  wise 
and  salutary  neglect."  But,  for  present  pur- 
poses, all  this  is  unnecessary,  and  could  lead  but 
to  a  poor  display  of  commonplace  learning. 
The  problem  to-day  engaging  the  attention  of  the 
American  people  is  more  limited.  It  relates 
solely  to  what  are  called  "inferior  races";  those 
of  the  same  race,  or  of  cognate  races,  we  as 
yet  do  not  propose  to  hold  in  a  condition  of  per- 
manent dependency ;  those  we  absorb  or  assim- 
ilate. Only  those  of  "inferior  race,"  the  less  de- 
veloped or  decadent,  do  we  propose  to  hold  in 
subjection,  dealing  with  them,  in  theory  at  least, 
as  a  guardian  deals  with  a  family  of  wards. 

It'luit  History  Teaches. —  My  proposition  then 
broadens.  If  history  teaches  anything  in  this 
regard  it  is  that  race  elevation,  the  capacity  in 
a  word  for  political  self-support,  cannot  be  im- 
parted through  tutelage.  Moreover,  the  milder, 
the  more  paternal,  kindly,  and  protective  the 
guardianship,  the  more  emasculating  it  will 
prove.  A  "wise  and  salutary  neglect"  is  the 
more  beneficent  policy ;  for,  with  races  as  with 
individuals,  a  state  of  dependency  breeds  the 
spirit  of  dependency.  Take  Great  Britain,  for 
instance.  That  people,  working  at  it  now  con- 
secutively through  three  whole  centuries,  after 
well-nigh  innumerable  experiences  and  as  many 
costly  blunders,  Great  Britain  has,  I  say,  de- 
veloped a  genius  for  dealing  with  dependencies, 
for  the  government  of  "inferior  races";  a  genius 
far  in  advance  of  anything  the  world  has  seen 
before.  Yet  my  contention  is  that,  to-day,  after 
three  rounded  centuries  of  British  rule,  the  Hin- 
dus, the  natives  of  India,  in  spite  of  all 
material,  industrial  and  educational  improve- 
ments—  roads,  schools,  justice,  and  peace — ■ 
were  in  1900  less  capable  of  independent  and 
ordered  self-government,  than  they  were  in  the 
year  1600,  the  year  when  the  East  India  Com- 
pany was  incorporated  under  a  patent  of  Eliza- 
beth. The  native  Indian  dynasties,  those  natural 
to  the  Hindus,  have  disappeared ;  accustomed  to 
foreign  rule,  the  people  have  no  rulers  of  their 
own,  nor  could  they  rule  themselves.  The  rule 
of  aliens  has  with  Hindustan  thus  become  a 
domestic  necessity.  Remove  it  —  and  the  high- 
est and  most  recent  authorities  declare  it  surely 
will  some  day  be  removed  —  chaos  would  inevi- 
tably ensue.  What  is  true  of  India  is  true  of 
Egypt.  Schools,  roads,  irrigation,  law  and 
order,  and  protection  from  attack,  she  has  them 
all  — 

'*  But  what  avail  the  plow  or  sail. 
Or  land  or  life,  if  freedom  fail?" 

The  capacity  for  self-government  is  not  acquired 
in  that  school. 

But  of  this  England  itself  furnishes  an  ex- 
ample in  its  own  history,  an  example  well-nigh 
forgotten.  In  fundamentals  human  nature  is 
much  the  same  now  as  20  centuries  back.  During 
the  first  century  of  the  present  era  the  Romans, 
acting  in  obedience  to  the  law  laid  down  by 
Mommsen  —  the  law  quoted  by  me  in  full,  and 
the  law  of  which  Thomas  Carlyle  is  the  latest  and 


AMERICAN  PRINTING  TRADE 


most  eloquent  exponent,  the  law  known  as  the 
Divine  Right  of  the  most  Masterful  —  acting 
in  obedience  to  that  law  the  Romans  in  the  year 
of  grace  43  crossed  the  British  channel,  over- 
threw the  Celts  and  Gauls  gathered  in  defense 
of  what  they  mistakenly  deemed  their  own,  and, 
after  reducing  them  to  subjection,  permanently 
occupied  the  land.  They  remained  there  four 
centuries,  100  years  longer  than  the  English 
have  been  in  Calcutta.  During  that  period  they 
introduced  civilization,  established  Christianity, 
constructed  roads,  dwellings  and  fortifications. 
Materially,  the  condition  of  the  country  vastly 
improved.  The  Romans  protected  the  inhabi- 
tants against  their  enemies;  also  against  them- 
selves. During  hundreds  of  years  they  benevo- 
lently assimilated  them.  Doubtless  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tiber  the  inhabitants  of  what  is  now  Eng- 
land were  deemed  incapable  of  self-government. 
Probably  they  were ;  unquestionably  they  became 
so.  When  the  legions  were  at  last  withdrawn, 
the  results  of  a  kindly  paternalism,  secure  pro- 
tection, and  intelligent  tutelage  became  apparent. 
The  race  was  wholly  emasculate.  It  cursed  its 
independence ;  it  deplored  its  lost  dependency. 
As  the  English  historian  (Green)  now  records 
the  result :  "They  forgot  how  to  fight  for  their 
country  when  they  forgot  how  to  govern  it." 

Man  is  always  in  a  hurry ;  God  never !  is  a 
familiar  saying.  Certainly,  nature  works  with 
a  discouraging  indifference  to  generations.  Each 
passing  race  of  reformers  and  regenerators  does 
indisputably  love  to  witness  some  results  of  its 
efforts ;  but,  in  the  case  of  England,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  emasculation  incident  to  tutelage 
and  dependency  on  a  powerful,  a  benevolent,  and 
beneficent  foreign  rule,  after  that  rule  ended  — 
as  soon  or  late  such  rule  must  always  end  — 
throughout  the  lives  of  18  successive  generations 
emasculated  England  was  overrun.  At  last, 
with  some  half  dozen  intermediate  rulers,  the 
Normans  succeeded  the  Romans.  They  were 
conquering  masters ;  but  they  domesticated 
themselves  in  the  British  Islands,  and  in  time 
assimilated  the  inhabitants  thereof,  Saxons,  Picts, 
and  Celts,  benevolently  or  otherwise.  But,  as 
nearly  as  the  historian  can  fix  it,  it  required  800 
years  of  direst  tribulation  to  educate  the  people 
of  England  out  of  that  spirit  of  self-distrust  and 
dependency  into  which  they  had  been  reduced  by 
four  centuries  of  paternalism,  at  once  Roman 
and  temporarily  beneficent.  Twelve  centuries  is 
certainly  a  discouraging  term  to  which  to  look 
forward.  But  steam  and  electricity  have  since 
then  been  developed  to  a  manifest  quickening  of 
results.  Even  the  pace  of  nature  was  in  the  19th 
century  vastly  accelerated. 

Briefly  stated  then,  the  historical  deduction 
would  seem  to  be  somewhat  as  follows :  Where 
a  race  has  in  itself,  whether  implanted  there  by 
nature  or  as  the  result  of  education,  the  ele- 
vating instinct  and  energy,  the  capacity  of  mas- 
tership, a  state  of  dependency  will  tend  to  edu- 
cate that  capacity  out  of  existence ;  and  the  more 
beneficent,  paternal,  and  protecting  the  guardian 
power  is,  the  more  pernicious  its  influence  be- 
comes. In  such  cases  the  course  most  bene- 
ficial in  the  end  to  the  dependency,  now  as  a 
century  ago,  would  be  that  characterized  by  "a 
wise  and  salutary  neglect."  Where,  however,  a 
race  is  for  any  cause  not  possessed  of  the  innate 
saving  capacity,  being  stationary  or  decadent,  a 
state  of  dependency  while  it  may  improve  ma- 
terial conditions,  tends  yet  further  to  deteriorate 


the  spirit  and  to  diminish  the  capacity  of  self- 
government  ;  if  severe,  it  brutalizes,  if  kindly, 
it  enervates.  Chari.es  Francis  Adams, 

Historian  and  Diplomat. 

American  Printing  Trade.  Although  the 
printing  trade  had  its  inception  in  America  con- 
siderably prior  to  the  Revolutionary  War,  it 
was  not  until  some  time  after  the  conclusion  of 
that  struggle  for  liberty  that  it  began  to  assume 
the  proportions  of  a  national  industry.  In  the 
year  1775,  lor  example,  there  were  less  than  100 
printing  establishments  upon  American  soil,  and 
these  were  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the 
coast  towns.  Even  as  late  as  the  year  1810  there 
were  but  35  printing  shops  scattered  about 
throughout  the  interior  of  the  country,  while,  in 
1/75,  with  the  exception  of  the  two  or  three 
offices  that  were  located  in  Massachusetts  and 
Pennsylvania,  the  art  of  printing  had  no  inland 
representation.  A  few  years  later  a  printing 
establishment  was  opened  at  Lexington,  Ky. ; 
another  soon  followed  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  the 
third  office  was  finally  located  at  Cincinnati, 
Ohio.  In  almost  every  instance  these  printing 
offices  were  established  for  the  primary  object 
of  printing  newspapers,  although  each  of  them 
not  only  possessed  the  necessary  facilities  for 
the  production  of  jobwork.  but  were  also  able 
to  print  and  bind  books  on  the  rare  occasions 
upon  which  such  contracts  presented  themselves. 
From  the  earliest  days  in  the  history  of  the 
printing  trade  in  America.  Xew  York,  Phila- 
delphia, and  Boston  have  been  the  three  great 
centers  of  this  industry.  Other  seaport  towns 
had  their  local  shops,  but  the  bulk  of  their  busi- 
ness was  small.  In  fact,  during  the  first  50 
years  in  the  life  of  the  new  nation  it  was  Phila- 
delphia that  took  the  lead  in  every  branch  of  the 
printing  industry,  and,  by  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century  the  Quaker  City  presses,  of  which 
there  were  no  less  than  no  constantly  in  opera- 
tion, were  producing  more  English  publications 
than  any  city  in  the  world,  with  the  single  ex- 
ception of  London.  It  was  here  that  Matthew- 
Carey,  the  first  great  American  publisher,  r^iali- 
lished  his  plant,  and  with  all  its  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers,  and  its  book-printing  and 
binding  establishments,  Philadelphia  was  indeed 
the  most  important  center  of  the  American 
printing  trade. 

Gradually,    however,     as    the    demands    for 
printed  works  increased,  other  cities  came  into 
line,    Albany,    Hartford,    and    Worcester    l>emg 
among  those  that  developed  a  comparative  large 
trade.     Their  chief  industry   was  111  the  printing 
of  pamphlets.     The  newspapers  of  that  day  con- 
tained   so    little    matter    that    they    were    easily 
read,   and,   as    they   were   passed    from    man   to 
man,  their  numerical  circulation  was  extremely 
small.     As  the  result,  therefore,  little  effort  \\ 
made   to    enlarge    them,    and    persons    who,    like 
the  politicians,  wished  t<>  reach  the  general  p 
lie  were  compelled  to  address  themselves  to  the 
people  through   the   medium  of  pamphlets 
far    as    actual     literature    was    concerned    the 
countrv  was  practically  devoid  of  authors,  and 
the  books   which   were   printed   upon    American 
prr-ves  wen-  almost  exclusively  those  which 
been    pirated    from    English    publishers.      Later 
some  religious  and  technical  hooks  appeared,  but 
it  was  many  year*  before  general  literature  began 
to  display  any  marked  degree  of  development 
In   the   beginning   everything    that    was    used 


AMERICAN  PRINTING  TRADE 


in  the  art  of  printing  was  imported  from  Eng- 
land. The  American  printers  had  English 
presses.  It  was  from  England  that  they  ob- 
tained  tluir  type.  Even  the  better  qualities  of 
printer's  ink  was  imported,  for  the  ink  that  was 
produced  in  this  country  was  of  such  an  in- 
ferior grade  that  it  could  be  used  only  in  the 
roughest  kinds  of  jobs.  From  time  to  time  va- 
rious American  printers  made  some  slight  im- 
provements upon  the  old  presses,  but  no  great 
evidence  of  progress  was  shown  until  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  permanent  type  foundry. 

Although  it  was  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century  before  there  was  any  permanent  estab- 
lishment for  the  making  of  type  in  this  country, 
several  attempts  had  previously  heen  made  to 
introduce  such  an  innovation  in  the  printing 
trade.  As  early  as  1775  Benjamin  Franklin  had 
sent  the  complete  equipment  for  a  type  foundry 
from  Paris,  but  the  attempt  to  establish  this 
branch  of  the  industry  was  not  a  financial  suc- 
cess, and  it  was  accordingly  soon  discontinued. 
Some  ten  years  later  a  Scotch  firm  opened  a 
foundry  in  Philadelphia,  but  it'  did  not  thrive, 
and  the  few  other  scattered  efforts  that  were 
made  to  provide  American  workmen  with 
American-made  type  met  with  the  same  fate. 
In  [796,  however,  two  Scotchmen  opened  a  type 
foundry  in  Philadelphia  under  the  firm  name  of 
Binny  X-  Ronaldson,  and.  as  the  time  now 
seemed  ripe  for  such  an  establishment,  they  were 
sufficiently  successful  to  be  able  to  continue 
operations.  In  1805  another  foundry  was  opened 
by  the  firm  of  Wing  &  White,  in  Hartford,  but 
they  found  themselves  unable  "to  compete  with 
the  Philadelphia  foundry  until,  in  1810,  the 
establishment  was  removed  to  New  York.  Two 
years  later  the  firm  of  David  &  Georg-  Bruce 
established  a  stereotyping  plant  in  New  York, 
and,  when  the  already  established  foundries  re- 
fused t"  supply  them  with  type  for  their  opera- 
tions, they  began  to  cast  it  for  themselves,  and 
si M.11  became  one  of  the  most  successful  lypc- 
making  houses  in  America.  Their  success,  in 
fact,  as  much  as  the  increasing  demau  1  f  >r  type, 
inspired  others  to  follow  their  example.  In  1S16 
a  foundry  was  established  in  Boston;  in  1817 
another  was  opened  in  Baltimore,  and,  by  183O, 
there  were  no  less  than  twelve  foundries  in  full 
operation  in  various  parts  of  the  country.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  about  thirty  of  these 
foundries  in  the  United  States,  many  of  which 
are  under  the  control  of  the  American  Type- 
Founders  Company. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  printing  trade  in 
America  stereotyping  was,  of  course,  unknown, 
and  the  local  publishers  were  accordingly  com- 
pelled to  recompose  the  type  for  each  new 
edition  that  might  he  recpiired.  The  introduc- 
tion of  stereotyping  by  the  Bruces  in  1813,  there- 
fore, suggested  such  economy  that  the  enter- 
prise could  scarcely  have  failed  to  meet  with 
favor  at  the  hands  of  the  printers.  While  the 
plaster  process,  the  first  method  of  stereotyping 
in  vogue,  was  invented  in  England  by  Lord 
Stanhope,  tidings  of  this  great  discovery  were 
soon  brought  to  this  country,  and  David  Bruce 
at  once  set  sail  for  the  old  world  for  the  express 
purpose  of  ecuring  the  information  that  would 
enable  him  to  make  practical  use  of  the  new  in- 
vention in  America.  Although  the  stories  that 
had  reached  this  country  had  pictured  the  new 
discovery  as  a  perfected  invention.  Lord  Stan- 
hope's  experiments   had   actually   by    no   means 


been  concluded,  and,  as  tin  result,  Bruce  found 
11  impossible  to  acquire  anything  more  than  the 

most      superficial      knowledge      concerning      the 

Finding  that   all   material    facts  were 

being  withheld  from  him,  and  that  it  would  he- 
useless  to  attempt  to  persuade   Lord   Stanhope 

to    disclose    his    secret,     Bruce    returned    to    the 

United  States.     So  far  from  admitting  his  de 
feat,  however,  he  promptly  went  to  work,  and, 
with  the  little  information  In-  had  obtained,  he 

managed  by  his  own  genius  and  mechanical  skill 
to  make  a  plate  that  was  in  every  respeel  su- 
perior to  any  that  had  as  yet  heen  cast  in  Eng- 
land. Through  his  own  diligence  he  had 
mastered  the  defects  which  Lord  Stanhope  had 
heen  unable  to  overcome,  for  his  plate  was  not 

only  perfectly  level  on  both   sides,  hut   it   was  of 

uniform  thickness  in  every  part.  In  fact,  so 
successful  was  he  that  an  Englishman  named 
Watts,  who  had  succeeded  in  learning  his 
I' .  went  hack  to  Europe  with  his  knowl- 
edge. There  In-  found  scons  of  master -printers 
who,  disgusted  with  the  English  invention,  were 
glad  to  he  taught  how  the  American  plates  were 
made,  and  it  was  through  his  eff  irts  that  both 
Austria  and  Germany  acquired  the  art  of 
stereotyping. 

From  the  day  on  which  David  &  George 
Bruce  opined  their  foundry  in  New  York  they 
had  all  the  orders  that  they  could  till,  for 
American  publishers  were  quick  to  appreciate 
the  economical  advantage  of  the  new  invention. 
It  was  the  time  when  the  public  was  just  be- 
ginning to  demand  hooks,  and  as  the  plaster 
casts  were  not  only  made  without  great  expense 
but  also  guaranteed  plates  of  great  durability, 
printers  were  eager  to  stereotype  all  hooks  that 
might  by  any  possibility  require  a  second  edition. 

From  this  simple  beginning,  therefore,  came  the 

great  stereotyping  industry  of  America.  By 
1850,  the  year  in  which  the  making  of  plaster 
plates  attained  its  greatest  development,  there 
were  more  than  50  firms  engaged  in  this  busi- 
ness  in  the  United  States,  while  more  than  1,000 
men  were  employed  in  the  work.  Then  came 
the  modern  improvements  —  the  electrotyping 
for  hook-work  and  the  introduction  of  the 
papier-mache  process  in  the  making  of  news 
papers  —  since  which  time  the  making  of  plates 
has  become  practically  an  art  by  itself 

Prior  to  1805  comparatively  little  printer's 
ink  was  made  in  this  country.  Although  print- 
ers were  supposed  to  know  how  to  mix  the  com 
pound,  the  preparations  that  they  concocted 
proved  such  a  poor  substitute  that  all  the  good 
inks  were  imported.  In  1805.  however,  two 
firms  —  one  in  Philadelphia  and  the  other  in 
Cambridgeport  —  began  the  manufacture  of 
printing  ink,  and.  since  that  time,  the  industry 
has  been  steadily  extended  until  there  are  now 
about  35  firms  engaged  in  this  branch  of  the 
printing  trade.  About  i860  the  cheapness  of 
aniline  colors  inspired  a  more  genera!  use  of 
colored  inks,  hut  as  many  of  these  tints  soon 
lost  their  brilliancy  they  did  not  become  very 
popular  until  the  chemists  had  succeeded  in  cor- 
recting this  fault. 

The  period  between  1810  and  1833  witne  ed 
many  great  improvements  in  the  art  of  printing. 
One  of  the  most  important  innovations  was  the 
substitution  of  iron  for  wood  in  the  making  of 
hand  presses.  Although  wooden  presses  had 
been  used  since  the  time  of  Gutenberg  they  had 
always    proved    a    handicap    to    good    printing. 


AMERICAN  PRINTING  TRADE 


Even  the  strongest  wood  was  weak,  and  as  the 
machine  was  liable  to  give  way  in  some  part  at 
any  pull,  the  pressmen  found  it  impossible  to 
obtain  a  good  impression,  even  when  the  type 
surface  was  no  larger  than  12  bv  20  inches. 
As  the  natural  result,  all  hand-presses  were 
small  affairs,  and  as  they  required  the  services 
of  two  expert  workmen  to  keep  them  going  the 
process  was  as  costly  as  it  was  slow.  In  the 
adoption  of  the  iron  press  American  printers 
followed  the  example  of  their  English  brethren. 
The  first  iron  press  to  be  made  in  America  was 
completed  about  1820,  but,  sometime  previous 
to  that  date,  such  presses  had  been  imported 
from  England.  Recognizing  the  advantage  of  a 
machine  that  was  capable  of  printing  a  sheet 
three  times  as  large  as  the  old  press  and  with 
no  greater  muscular  effort,  American  printers 
soon  demanded  them,  but,  in  spite  of  this  de- 
mand, it  was  several  years  before  the  wooden 
presses  were  relegated  to  the  junk-heap,  some 
of  them  having  been  in  use,  even  in  New  York, 
as  late  as  1850.  In  the  beginning  presses  were 
made  by  Turney,  Worrall,  Wells,  and  Smith, 
but  gradually  the  business  began  to  center  with 
11.  ic  in  New  York  and  Ramage  &  Bronstrup  in 
Philadelphia,  until,  finally,  nearly  all  the  presses 
were  manufactured  by  these  houses. 

Another  invention  that  proved  an  invaluable 
aid  to  the  progress  of  the  art  of  printing  was 
the  making  of  elastic  rollers  for  inking  the  type. 
The  original  method  of  inking  was  a  most 
laborious  system,  the  application  of  the  ink 
being  made  with  balls  of  pelt.  Early  in  the  10th 
century,  however,  an  English  compositor  dis- 
covered  that  a  composition  of  glue  and  molasses, 
long  used  in  the  making  of  pottery,  could  be  ap- 
plied in  the  inking  of  type,  and  from  this  idea 
was  evolved  the  composition  roller  which  was 
so  necessary  to  the  success  of  the  first  machine 
presses.  This  roller  was  first  employed  in  this 
country  about  1826.  Another  invention  that 
played  an  important  part  in  the  production  of 
cheap  printing  was  the  improved  method  of 
paper  manufacture  which  came  with  the  intro- 
duction of  Fourdrinier's  machine.  This,  too,  was 
introduced  in  America  soon  after  1826,  and,  since 
that  time  the  growth  of  the  printing  industry 
has  been  a  steady  and  rapid  evolution. 

Of  course,  the  great  necessity  under  the  new 
conditions  was  more  rapid  printing  facilities,  and 
this  demand  was  met  by  the  inventors  about 
[829.  Some  15  years  prior  to  that  time  a 
German  printer  named  Konig  went  to  England 
to  produce  a  cylinder  machine  for  the  use  of  the 
London  Times.  While  the  press  that  he  con- 
structed was  rather  successful,  he  returned  to 
Germany  before  it  was  perfected,  leaving  the 
English  inventors  to  complete  the  improvement 
of  Ins  work.  This  they  did  in  many  respects, 
but  the  credit  for  the  first  actual  success  in  the 
making  of  cylinder  presses  is  due  to  the  Ameri- 
can manufacturers,  firms  like  R.  Hoe  &:  Co.,  who 
took  the  somewhat  unsatisfactory  foreign  ma- 
chines and  brought  them  to  a  state  of  com- 
parative perfection.  By  depending  only  upon 
good  materia]  and  thorough  workmanship  they 
produced  cylinders  that  were  so  much  more 
satisfactory  than  the  foreign  goods,  that,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  the  home  product  is  cheaper. 
English  printers  have  long  found  it  expedient 
either  to  import  American  printing  machines, or  to 
make  their  own  presses  from  American  models. 


After  1833,  therefore,  America  needed  no 
further  help  from  England  in  the  development 
of  her  printing  industry.  With  the  best  of  paper, 
ink,  type,  and  presses,  all  made  in  this  country, 
and  with  plenty  of  money  to  invest  in  manu- 
facturing enterprises  connected  with  this  trade, 
it  was  unnecessary  for  her  to  turn  to  any  foreign 
nation  for  assistance,  and  when,  in  1830,  the 
system  of  cloth  book-binding  was  introduced, 
all  the  requisites  for  literary  progress  were  in 
her  own  hands. 

Of  course,  with  the  development  of  the  power 
press  the  character  of  the  newspapers  of  this 
country  also  began  to  change.  Whereas  they 
had  originally  been  small  and  dull,  having  but 
little  news  in  them,  the  ability  to  print  many 
copies  enabled  them  to  increase  their  circulation 
as  well  as  their  size.  In  1833  -he  New  York 
Sun,  printing  a  sheet  nj/  by  17  inches  on  a 
hand  press,  could  not  produce  more  than  400 
copies  an  hour.  As  the  demand  for  the  paper 
continued  to  increase,  however,  a  cylinder  press, 
propelled  by  a  man  at  a  crank,  was  introduced 
in  1834,  and  a  year  later,  this  was  supplanted  by 
a  double-cylinder  operated  by  steam  power.  As 
other  papers  in  other  parts  of  the  country  met 
with  similar  experiences,  the  demand  for  rapid 
newspaper  presses  continued,  and,  bv  1845,  it  was 
found  that  even  the  double-cylinder  machine 
was  too  slow  for  the  requirements  of  the  con- 
stantly growing  circulation  of  the  great  dailies. 
See  American  Newspapers. 

It  was  to  comply  with  this  demand  that  R. 
Hoe  &  Co.,  in  1847,  invented  the  type-revolving 
rotary  printing  press,  a  machine  in  which  the 
type  was  fastened  to  the  cylinder  and  succes- 
sively presented  to  each  of  the  imprc- 
cylinders  placed  around  it.  For  more  than  20 
years  this  press  was  able  to  meet  every  demand 
of  periodical  publications,  but,  in  [869,  finding 
that  it  had  at  last  become  too  slow.  R  Hoe  & 
Co.  perfected  their  web -printing  machine,  a 
press  which  prints  continuously  from  stereo- 
tyoed  plates  on  a  cylinder  against  an  endless  roll 
of  paper.  In  spite  of  the  almost  incredible  speed 
at  which  this  press  can  be  run,  other  inventions, 
which  have  since  been  perfected,  now  enable  it. 
not  only  to  print  4,  8,  12.  or  even  more  pag. ■-. 
but  at  the  same  time,  to  fold,  count,  and  paste 
them;  to  insert  sheets  or  add  the  necessary 
covers,  or  even  to  print  illustrations  in  many 
colors.  In  1854  William  A.  Bullock  perfected 
the  first  cylinder  machine  that  was  capable  of 
printing  a  newspaper  from  a  roll  on  both  sides 
at  the  same  time,  but  the  other  improvements 
have  been  the  work  of  R.  Nik-  X-  Co.,  or  some  of 
their  business  rivals  like  Cottrell,  Babcock, 
Campbell,  Potter,  Huber,  Miehle,  Joss,  and 
others. 

Great  as  has  been  the  improvement  in  the 
making  of  machine-presses,  however,  the  other 
branches  of  the  art  of  printing  have  succeeded 
in  keeping  pace  with  it.  In  stereotyping,  for 
example,  the  invention  of  tin'  papier-mache 
process  enabled  printers  to  make  a  number  of 
impressions  of  the  same  Dage  of  type,  while  the 
demand  for  a  convex  plate  was  met.  in  [854, 
when  Charles  Craske,  of  New  York,  since, 
in  stereotyping  a  curved  surface. 

The  period  between  1833  and  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  also  witnessed  many  improve- 
ments in  the  art  of  printing,  the  most  important 
being  the  introduction  of  fast  printing  in  fine 
book  and  job  work.     The  invention  of  the  power 


AMERICAN    PROTECTIVE   ASSOCIATION —AMERICAN  PUBLISHING 


pri  s  had  been  a  blessing  to  the  newspapers, but, 
for  a  lung  time,  book  and  fine  job  work  was  still 
dune  on  hand  presses.  It  was  not  until  1S36 
that  Harper  &  Brothers  introduced  a  power- 
press,  although  Daniel  Fanshaw  of  New  York, 
the  printer  of  the  Bible  Society,  had  10  power 
printing  machines  in  operation  in  his  shop  prior 
to  that  time.  These  machines  were  manu- 
factured by  Daniel  Treadwell  of  Massachusetts, 
and,  although   the,  h   bulky  and  incon- 

venient, they  were  the  best  presses  on  the  market 
until  the  Adams  press  came  to  take  their  place. 
During  all  this  period,  however,  it  was  believed 
that  cylinder  machines  were  incapable  of  doing 
fine  work,  and  it  was  not  until  Francis  Hart,  of 
New  York,  had  demonstrated  the  fallacy  of  this 
ry  that  the  incredulous  could  be  persuaded 
to  make  the  change  which  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  trade  had  so  long  demanded. 

To  Joseph  A.  Adams  belongs  the  credit  of 
devising  the  American  method  of  making-ready 
woodcuts,  and  he  it  was  who  first  demonstrated 
the  feasibility  of  the  new  process  of  electrotyp- 
ing  by  making  successful  electrotype  plates,  in 
1839.  It  was  in  1838  that  the  type-casting 
machine  was  invented  by  David  Bruce,  and 
about  1850  that  the  method  of  printing  illustra- 
tions on  dry  paper  was  discovered. 

The  art  of  engraving  on  wood  was  practiced 
until  comparatively  recent  times,  hut  the  intro- 
duction of  the  art  of  photo-engraving  destroye  1 
its  usefulness,  for,  while  wood  engravings  were 
extremely  costly,  the  new  process  made  the 
cheapest  of  illustrations  possible.  Lithography, 
or  the  art  of  printing  upon  stone,  has  been  em- 
ployed in  the  United  States  since  1819.  It  was 
not  until  1825  that  its  use  became  commercially 
practicable,  but,  since  that  time,  this  form  of 
printing  has  developed  so  rapidly  that,  in  1004, 
the  amount  of  such  work  done  was  estimated  to 
be  nearly  $40,000,000,  a  production  which  re- 
quired the  employment  of  more  than  9,000 
persons. 

1  >ne  of  the  latest,  and,  unquestionably,  one 
of  the  greatest  improvements  in  the  art  of 
printing  was  the  invention  of  the  typesetting 
machine,  which  is  now  in  such  general  use  in  all 
large  establishments  that  it  may  be  said  to  have 
practically  supplanted  hand  composition.  It  is 
by  such  inventions,  however,  that  the  printing 
trade  has  been  revolutionized  until  it  has  grown 
from  the  small  proportions  of  a  business  which 
engaged  the  attention  of  less  than  500  men  to  a 
great  national  industry,  in  which  the  capital  in- 

ted,  according  to  the  1904  estimate,  is  in 
excess  of  $300,000,000,  that  has  an  annual  output 
that  is  valued  at  more  than  $350,000,000,  and 
which  gives  employment  to  not  less  than  175,000 
persons.         Albert  Buckley  Nichols, 

The  Herald  Company  of  Binghamton. 

American  Protective  Association,  or 
"A.  P.  A.,"  a  secret  order  organized  through- 
out the  United  States  and  Canada.  Its  chief 
doctrine,  as  announced  in  its  declaration  of 
principle,  is  that  "subjection  to  and  support  of 
any  ecclesiastical  power  not  created  and  con- 
trolled by  American  citizens,  and  which  claims 
equal,  if  not  greater,  sovereignty  than  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  I'nited  States  of  America,  is 
irreconcilable  with  American  citizenship" ;  and 
it  accordingly  opposes  "the  holding  of  offices  in 
national,  State,  or  municipal  government  by  any 
subject    or     supporter    of     such    ecclesiastical 


power."  Another  of  its  purposes  is  to  prevent 
all  public  encouragement  and  support  of  sec- 
tarian schools.  It  docs  not  constitute  a  separate 
political  party,  but  seeks  to  control  existing  par- 
tics,  and  to  elect  friendly  and  defeat  objo  I 
able  candidates  by  the  concerted  action  of  citi- 
zens affiliated  with  all  parties,  much  after  the 
style  of  the  American  or  "Know-Nothing*  party. 
The  order  was  founded  13  March  1887,  and  in 
1900  claimed  a  membership  of  over  2,000,000. 

American  Psychological  Association,  a  so- 
ciety founded  in  1892  for  the  advancement  of 
psychology  as  a  science.  Persons  arc  eligible  to 
membership  who  are  engaged  in  this  work. 
Membership,  135.  Office  of  secretary,  Columbia 
University,  New  York. 

American  Publishing.  The  book  trade  or 
publishing  industry  in  the  New  World  had  its 
origin  in  a  more  remote  period  than  is  gen- 
erally supposed.  It  began  within  100  years  of 
the  invention  of  printing,  and  from  the  date  of 
the  first  American  book,  1535,  to  the  year  1799, 
over  7,000  different  books  had  been  published, 
nine  tenths  of  them  however  being  pamphlets. 
The  19th  century  saw  almost  the  full  develop- 
ment of  book  publishing,  the  establishment  of 
colleges  and  schools  and  the  founding  of  many 
libraries,  creating  an  ever-increasing  demand  for 
the  best  in  literature. 

Early  American  Books. —  The  first  book 
printed  on  the  American  continent  is  said  to 
have  been  "La  Escalcra  Spiritual  dc  San  Juan 
Climaco."  published  in  Mexico  in  1535.  It  was 
a  translation  from  the  Latin  into  Castilian. 
Other  hooks  were  printed  on  the  first  press  set 
up  in  Mexico  and  six  or  seven  books  are  known 
to  have  been  published  in  Peru  before  1600.  In 
the  United  States  the  earliest  publication  was  a 
pamphlet  called  "The  Freeman's  Oath,"  printed 
in  Boston  in  1639  This  was  followed  in  the 
year  1640  by  the  "Hay  Psalm  Book,"  printed  by 
Stephen  Dave  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  After  its 
publication  in  the  colony  it  was  reprinted  in 
England,  where  it  went  through  17  editions, 
the  last  one  bearing  the  date  of  1754.  It  was 
also  a  highly  popular  work  in  Scotland,  22  edi- 
tions having  been  printed  there,  the  last  dated 
1759.  The  first  original  American  book  pub- 
lished in  this  country  was  Mrs.  Anne  Brad- 
street's  "Poems,"  and  this  volume,  issued  in 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  1640,  was  republished  in 
London  in  1650.  Cambridge  remained  the  only 
publishing  town  for  a  long  time,  and  for  21  con- 
secutive years  issued  about  one  volume  a  year. 
In  1653  Samuel  Green  published  John  Eliot's 
famous  "Catechism"  in  the  Indian  language,  fol- 
lowed in  1659  by  the  Psalms  in  Indian,  in  1661 
by  the  Indian  New  Testament,  and  in  1663  1>3 
the  whole  Bible  in  the  Indian  tongue.  This 
was  the  fust  Bible  printed  in  America. 

Early  Publishers. —  In  New  York  city  the 
original  book  publisher  was  William  Bradford, 
who  became  official  printer  in  1693,  for  "40 
pounds  a  year  and  half  the  benefit  of  his  print- 
ing, besides  what  served  the  public."  In  1694 
he  i^ued  the  "Laws  of  the  Colony."  the  first 
bound  book  published  in  New  York.  In  '738, 
Christopher  Saner  established  a  publishing 
house  at  Germantown.  Pa.,  and  issued  the  first 
German  Bible  printed  in  America  in  1743-  The 
firm   of  Little,   Brown   &   Company   was   estab- 


AMERICAN  PUBLISHING 


lished  in  1784  in  Boston  while  in  the  following 
year  in  Philadelphia,  Lea  Brothers  &  Company 
and  Henry  Baird  &  Company  began  business. 
It  was  also  in  1785  that  S.  E.  Bridgeman  & 
Company  began  publishing  books  at  Northamp- 
ton, Mass.  The  existing  house  of  J.  B.  Lippin- 
cott  &  Company  was  established  in  Philadelphia 
in  1798.  The  firm  of  Harper  &  Brother  began 
business  in  New  York  in  1817.  From  this  date 
the  publishing  business  had  a  rapid  growth, 
among  the  firms  established  being  the  following 
in  New  York :  Baker,  Voorhis  &  Company, 
1820;  D.  Appleton  &  Company,  1825;  D.  Van 
Nostrand,  1830;  Ivison  &  Company,  1831  ;  John 
Wiley  &  Sons,  1832;  John  F.  Trow,  1835;  A.  S. 
Barnes  &  Company,  1838.  In  other  cities  the 
early  firms  included  the  following :  Cincinnati, 
O.,  U.  P.  James,  1831 ;  Springfield,  Mass.,  G.  & 
C.  Merriam  Company,  1831  ;  Louisville,  Ky., 
John  P.  Morton,  1825;  Richmond,  Va.,  J.  \V. 
Randolph  Company,  1831 ;  Mobile,  Ala.,  G.  H. 
Randall.  1831  ;  Montgomery,  Ala.,  Joel  White  & 
Company,  1833 ;  Lancaster,  Pa.,  John  Baer's 
Sons,   1817. 

The  Early  Book  Trade. —  As  an  adjunct  to 
publishing,  the  selling  of  books  originated  in 
Boston  as  early  as  1652,  when  Hezekiah  Usher 
opened  the  first  shop.  Many  colonial  book- 
sellers printed  and  published  their  wares.  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  (q.v.)  was  among  the  early  book 
printers.  In  1732,  Richard  Fry,  an  Englishman 
and  bookseller  of  Boston,  advertised :  "  Whereas 
it  has  been  the  common  method  of  the  most 
curious  merchants  of  Boston  to  procure  their 
books  from  London,  this  is  to  acquaint  these 
gentlemen  that  I,  the  said  Fry,  will  sell  all  sorts 
of  accompt  books,  done  after  the  most  acute 
manner,  for  20  per  cent  cheaper  than  they  can 
have  them  from  London.  *  *  *  For  the 
pleasing  entertainment  of  the  polite  parts  of 
mankind,  I  have  printed  the  most  beautiful 
poems  of  Stephen  Duck,  the  famous  Wiltshire 
poet.  It  is  a  full  demonstration  to  me  that  the 
people  of  New  England  have  a  fine  taste  for 
good  sense  and  polite  learning,  having  already 
sold  1,200  of  these  poems."  The  first  conven- 
tion of  booksellers  for  the  regulation  of  trade 
seems  to  have  been  held  in  Boston,  1724;  it 
was  for  the  special  purpose  of  increasing  the 
prices  of  certain  works.  Toward  the  close  of  the 
century  bookselling  began  to  take  rank  among 
the  most  considerable  commercial  pursuits, 
though  it  then  only  foreshadowed  its  present 
comparative  importance.  Works  of  standard 
character,  involving  large  expenditures,  were 
undertaken  by  publishers,  who,  in  such  cases, 
usually  subscribed  together  as  a  guarantee  for 
the  printer's  outlay.  The  trade  was  conducted 
upon  established  principles,  and  innovators  were 
held  in  poor  esteem.  All  these  usages  were, 
however,  disturbed  by  competition,  and  after 
the  publication  of  the  Waverly  novels,  of  which 
rival  editions  were  issued,  the  individual  mem- 
bers of  the  trade  acted  more  independently  of 
each  other,  and  their  customs  afterward  partook 
of  a  less  narrow  spirit.  The  American  company 
of  booksellers  was  founded  in  1801.  Books  were 
formerly  sold  in  sheets,  to  be  bound  as  pur- 
chasers might  desire,  a  practice  which  no  longer 
obtains.  The  universal  diffusion  of  education 
in  America,  and  the  inquiring  mental  character 
Vol.  1—27 


of  its  people,  not  only  increased  the  circulation 
of  books  but  reduced  their  price,  and  the  old- 
fashioned  veneration  which  literary  works  had 
once  inspired  experienced  no  little  modification. 
Externals  were  of  small  consequence  to  the 
great  body  of  readers,  and  works  were  pur- 
chased not  so  much  for  preservation  as  for  im- 
mediate reading. 

Statistics. —  From  1825  to  1840  the  number 
of  American  publications  show  an  aggregate  of 
1,115.  Of  these  623  wsre  original  and  492  were 
reprints  from  foreign  works.  The  population 
of  the  United  States  in  that  year  was  about 
17.000,000.  In  1853,  733  new  works  were  pub- 
lished in  the  United  States,  of  which  27S  were 
reprints  of  English  works,  35  were  translations 
of  foreign  authors,  and  the  remainder  were  orig- 
inal American  works.  The  population  of  the 
United  States  had  reached  about  25.000,000.  an 
increase  of  50  per  cent  compared  with  1840. 
The  original  American  works  published  in  1853. 
compared  with  the  15  years  ending  in  1840, 
show  an  increase  of  about  800  per  cent  in  less 
than  20  years.  In  other  words,  the  original 
American  publications  of  the  book  trade  seem 
to  have  advanced  about  15  times  as  fast  as  the 
population.  In  1880,  with  a  population  of 
50,000,000,  the  new  books  published  during  that 
year  amounted  to  about  2.000  —  nearly  three 
times  more  than  in  1853,  whereas  the  population 
had  only  doubled.  The  total  number  of  new 
books  published  in  each  year,  according  to  the 
records  of  the  "Publishers'  Weekly"  from  1881 
to  1903  inclusive,  were  as   follows: 


NEW    BOOKS    PUBLISHED. 


1S81 
i£82 


2.99*  '893 5.134 

3.472  1894 4,484 

■883 3,481  1895 5,469 

1S84 4,o38  1896 5.7°3 

1885 4,030  1897 4.928 

:886 4,776  1898 4,886 

■887 4.437  1899 

1888 - 4,631  igoo 

1889 4.014  1901 8,141 

'890 4,559  1902 7,833 

1891 4,065  1903 7,865 

1892 4,862 


Included  in  these  figures  are  different  edi- 
tions of  the  same  book  issued  by  different  pub- 
lishers. The  total  for  190^.  of  7,865  books 
includes  2,072  new  editions.  Of  the  new  books, 
5,621  were  by  American,  1,356  by  English  and 
other  foreign  authors.  The  888  books  required 
to  make  up  the  total  of  7.865,  were  in  1 
"in  sheets,"  i.  e..  they  were  printed  abroad,  and 
bound  in  this  country.  Fiction  leads,  with  977 
American  and  483  foreign  books.  Law  comes 
next  with  605  titles,  all  but  three  American : 
education  holds  third  place.  (627  titles')  and  re- 
ligion and  theology  fourth,  with  513  titles.  The 
output  for  1902  and  1903  may  be  compared  as 
follows : 

1902.    1903. 

Fiction,  American 903  977 

Fiction,  Foreign 818  483 

Law 622  605 

Education 408  627 

Theology 433  S'3 

A  more  detailed  classification  of  the  output 
of  books  in  the  United  States  during  a  single 


AMERICAN  PUBLISHING 


year  will  be  found   in  the  report   for   1902,  as 

fi  .ll«<\\  5 : 

BOOK     PUBLICATIONS     FOR     1902. 


Classes 


Fiction 

Law 

Juvenile 

Education 

Theology  and  religion 

Political  and  social  science... 
Biography,  correspondence.. . 
History 

1      Btry  and  dr. una 

Literature  and  collet  ted  \.  "rks 

Physii    il  and  math,  science 

Descrip,  geog.,  travel 

Medicine  ana  hygiene 

Fine  .iris,  illust.  ^ift  books 

\    seful  arts 

Philosophy 

1  » sin.  and    rural 

S  p.  iris  ami  a  in  use  men  is. . . . 
Hu r  and  satire 

V/i  irks  ol  reference 

Totals 

Grand  total 


Copyright    books 
by  American  au- 
thors    including 
new  editions. 

Books  by  English 
and  other  foreign 

authors  including 
new  editions. 

-e.i 
,S"0 

_.  u 

U 

e  a 
W~ 

.£2 

vi   0  u> 

§  6.2 

a — ' 

003 

388 
408 

433 
223 

253 
■78 
220 

3" 

259 

267 

243 

110 

1  j'> 

62 

73 

46 

49 

98 

818 

2 

39 

108 

78 

8 

37 

59 

•30 

'36 

"9 

■3 

30 

47 

6 

26 

9 

8 

3 

2 

76 
16 

87 
63 
128 
40 
95 
64 
49 
06 
80 

83 
26 
60 
33 

■5 
■4 
7 
2 
1 1 

5.2IO 
1 

1,578 

1.045 
>.578 
5,210 

7.833 

Popular  Books. —  In  1903  there  were  1,700 
book  publishers  in  the  United  States.  While 
Boston  and  Philadelphia  remain  true  to  their 
earlier  reputations  as  leading  book  centres.  New 
York  has  become  the  largest  book  mart  and 
the  leading  factor  in  the  manufacture  of  books. 
Chicago  too  has  assumed  an  important  place  in 
the  hook  trade,  while  some  hundreds  of  books 
are  published  annually  in  Cincinnati,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cleveland,  and  other  smaller  cities.  The 
majority  of  American  books  are  published  by 
100  firms  in  New  York,  Boston,  Chicago,  and 
Philadelphia.  During  1902  and  1903  the  his- 
torical novels  enjoyed  widespread  popularity, 
and  nine  books  of  this  class  circulated  to  the 
extent  of  1,400,000  copies.  This  enormous  out- 
put, however,  did  not  lessen  the  sale  of  older 
and  more  standard  books.  These  were  largely 
reprints.  A  popular  work  75  years  after  its 
first  publication  is  often  found  to  have  been 
reprinted  20  times  by  as  many  different  pub- 
lishers. Of  the  world's  great  standards,  hun- 
dreds, and  in  some  cases  thousands,  of  editions 
have  appeared.  There  is,  nevertheless,  a  dis- 
tinction   to   be  made  between  the  manufacturer 

of    1 ks    who    takes    old    works   and    reprints 

them,  and  the  publisher  who  issues  entirely 
fresh  and  original  matter.  Among  early  suc- 
cessful books  Mrs.  Stowe's  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin" 
had  a  phenomenal  sale.  500.000  copies  being  sold 
in  less  than  five  years  in  the  United  States,  and 
by  April  [852  more  than  1,000,000  had  been  re- 
printed in  Great  Britain.  Of  Longfellow's 
poems,  without  taking  into  account  unauthor- 
ized English  reprints,  the  American  sales  in 
1830  57  amounted  to  325,550;  from  the  latter 
date  till  1901,  220,000. 


School  Buuks. —  No  small  factor  in  book- 
making  during  the  19th  century  was  the  phe- 
nomenal production  of  school  and  college  text- 
books,     in  fact,  the  publication  of  educational 

works  has  increased  steadily.  In  1902  the  re- 
ports showed  a  list  of  433  educational  works, 
while  in  1903  this  was  increased  to  607.  This  is 
illustrative  of  the  remarkable  growth  in  school 
book  publishing.  Of  books  for  use  in  the  public 
schools  editions  of  500,000  copies,  intended  for 
one  year's  consumption,  are  not  an  unusual 
event.  Messrs.  D.  Appleton  &  Company  for 
many  years  sold  over  [,000,000  copies  of  Web- 
ster's "Speller"  every  year;  and  \V.  B.  Smith 
&  Company,  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  sold  over 
1,000,000  copies  of  the  Eclectic  Series  during 
each  year.  The  electrotype  plates  of  school- 
books,    Bibles,    prayer-books,    and    hymn-1 ks, 

are  very  rarely  changed,  r.nd  enormous  quanti- 
ties are  sold  every  year. 

Miscellaneous  Books. —  In  the  United  States 
many  encyclopedias,  dictionaries,  the  complete 
works  of  standard  authors  in  definitive  editions, 
anthologies  of  literature,  etc.,  are  sold  by  sub- 
scription ;  and  the  initial  expense  of  such  books 
being  enormous,  before  a  single  copy  of  the  book 
is  made,  the  sales  must  be  enormous  also.  Then 
there  are  many  "books  which  are  not  books"  — 
such  as  city  directories,  which  are  usually  pub- 
lished by  a  company  devoted  exclusively  to  the 
publication  of  this  one  book;  State  directories, 
list  of  dealers  in  each  business,  and  commercial 
agency  reports  (each  of  these  agencies  makes 
four  revised  editions  of  its  books  each  year, 
each  book  measuring  about  11x13  inches,  and 
containing  about  2,500  pages  of  matter  in  close 
print.  There  are  also  innumerable  genealogies, 
indexes,  catalogues,  together  with  many  other 
productions  which  are  truly  books,  but  which 
cannot  be  called   literature. 

Commercial  Value. —  In  the  publishing  of 
books  the  following  are  the  items  of  outlay 
which  need  to  be  taken  into  account:  Cop) 
right,  paper,  typesetting,  author's  corrections, 
clectrotyping,  press  work,  binding,  advertising. 
Publishing  means  a  great  deal  more  than  merely 
printing  and  binding  a  book.  It  means  putting 
it  where  it  is  likely  to  sell.  The  machinery  of 
distribution,  which  means  the  method  of  get- 
ting books  finally  into  the  bands  of  readers 
through  the  various  middlemen,  is  vastly  im- 
portant. The  manufacture  of  a  book  now  de- 
mands the  assistance  of  various  branches  of 
mechanical  skill.  Besides  the  paper-maker,  the 
type-founder,  and  the  printer,  to  whom  it  gives 
a  large  proportion  of  employment,  it  engages, 
exclusively,  the  bookbinder.  Its  material  form 
has,  till  the  present  era  of  cheap  publications, 
always  borne  a  commercial  value  extravagantly 
disproportionate  to  its  matter. 

Copyright. —  A  common  arrangement  be- 
tween the  American  author  and  publisher  is  a 
payment  of  10  per  cent  royalty  on  the  retail 
price  of  all  sales;  sometimes  a  cash  sum  is  paid, 
and  the  publisher  secures  the  copyright,  which 
is  granted  for  28  years,  subject  to  renewal  by 
the  author,  his  widow,  or  children  for  other 
14  years.  A  condition  is  that  a  copy  of  a  title- 
page  must  be  registered  with  the  librarian  of 
Congress,  and  two  copies  of  the  book  lodged 
there  within  ten  days  of  publication.  The  entry 
fees  are  50  cents  for  an  American  author,  $1.00 


T       <    ' 


£ 


i 


I °  • i  ? 


■X       Or  T 

O       kj  « 

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m 


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—    X. 


AMERICAN  PUBLISHING 


for  a  foreigner,  and  50  cents  additional  for  a 
certificate  of  record.  A  copy  of  any  new  edi- 
tion must  also  be  sent  to  the  librarian.  (Sec 
Copyright.)  By  the  provisions  of  the  Inter- 
national Copyright  Act  (1886),  a  foreign  au- 
thor's rights  are  protected  in  Great  Britain, 
Belgium,  France,  Germany,  Hayti,  Italy,  Spain, 
Switzerland,  and  Tunis.  Colonial  authors  can 
also  secure  copyright  without  publication  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  a  work  copyright  in  the 
United  Kingdom  is  copyright  in  Canada.  Ameri- 
can cheap  reprints  of  British  books  are  admitted 
to  Canada  subject  to  a  customs  duty  of  12V2 
per  cent,  to  be  paid  over  to  the  British  author, 
but  the  returns  from  this  source  have  been  very 
small. 

Bookbinding. —  Since  1885,  in  the  book-mak- 
ing industry,  many  improvements  have  been 
made  in  wire-stitching  machines.  One  of  these 
machines  will  stitch  anything  from  two  sheets 
to  a  book  two  inches  thick,  and  with  several  of 
them  either  round  or  flat  wire  may  be  used. 
There  has  also  been  introduced  a  noteworthy 
combination  folding  and  wire-stitching  machine, 
which,  by  a  continuous  and  automatic  operation, 
takes  the  sheets  from  the  feeders,  and  folds, 
gathers,  collates,  covers,  and  wire-stitches  them. 
Paper-cutting  machines  have  been  improved  by 
the  introduction  of  automatic  clamps,  indicators, 
and  gauges.  The  invention  of  a  steam  round- 
ing and  backing  machine  has  increased  the  ca- 
pacity of  from  500  to  1,000  books  per  day  to  a 
capacity  of  from  5,000  to  6,000  in  the  same  lime. 
The  latest  case-making  machine  feeds  itself  from 
a  roll  of  cloth  which  it  automatically  cuts  into 
pieces  of  proper  size  for  use.  The  cloth  is  first 
covered  with  glue  by  contact  with  a  cylinder 
revolving  in  a  pot  of  glue.  It  is  then  cut  by 
the  machine  and  nicked  in  corner  sections ; 
boards  are  supplied  from  a  holder  and  a  back 
lining  from  a  roll,  both  receptacles  forming  part 
of  the  machine.  This  process  completed,  the 
nearly  finished  product  drops  a  little,  the  cloth 
is  folded  over  the  boards  and  back  lining,  and 
the  binding,  after  passing  through  a  case 
smoother,  is  delivered  in  a  finished  state. 
Among  other  inventions  are  a  casting-in  ma- 
chine, for  putting  the  body  of  a  book  into  its 
cover,  and  a  gathering  machine.  This  latter  in- 
vention promises  important  developments  in 
economy. 

Book  Plates. —  About  the  year  1804  the  art  of 
stereotyping  was  invented  in  England,  and  in  a 
few  years  was  introduced  into  this  country. 
With  the  type -printed  book  under  the  old  con- 
iliiiiins  a  publisher  did  not  dare  print  a  large 
number  of  copies  of  any  book  unless  he  believed 
it  would  have  a  quick  sale.  Books  were  bulky, 
and  took  up  too  much  space.  Consequently, 
the  types  for  a  first  edition  were  distributed 
when  they  left  the  press;  then  had  to  be  reset 
with  renewed  chances  of  error  in  the  second 
edition.  Resetting  for  two  or  more  editions 
added  largely  to  the  cost  of  the  book  and  lim- 
ited its  supply.  The  process  of  stereotyping 
first  used,  known  as  the  plaster  process,  served 
book  printers  for  about  50  years.  The  practice 
of  the  art  was  brought  to  New  York  by  David 
Bruce  in  1813,  but  the  first  book  stereotypes  in 
America  was  the  "Westminster  Catechism." 
made  by  J.  Watts  &  Co.  of  New  York  in  June 
of  the  same  year.     For  the  printing  of  books, 


all    methods   of   stereotyping   have    been    super- 
seded  by   electrotyping,   which    was   experiment 
ally  tried  in  New  York  as  early  as  1841,  and  was 
in  general  use  before  1855. 

Book  Imports. —  The  summary  of  imports  of 
books  and  other  printed  matter  for  1902  and 
1903  shows  the  following: 


(free 

OF    DUTY.) 

Imported  (mm 

ICJ02 

I903 

$1,057,909 
174.326 
615,140 
379,047 
42,091 
20,379 

$». 327.75c 
167.965 

623,889 

264,037 

■ 

Totals 

$2,288,802 

$2,438,862 

CD!    !  'ABLE.) 


Imported  from 


United  Kingdom 

France  

Germany 

Other  Europe 

British  North  America 

China 

Japan  

Other  Countries 

Totals 


$1,112,017 

76,201 

261,464 

83.059 
48,228 

3.3°8 
15,256 

5.869 


$1,605,402 


$1,181,040 

82.800 

307,061 

96.381 

46,127 

3.728 

21,117 

5,266 


Si, 7(4. '59 


The  total  imports  for  1903  amounted  to 
$4,183,021  as  against  $3,894,204  for   1002. 

Book  Exports. —  The  books  and  other  printed 
matter  of  domestic  manufacture  exported  from 
the  United  States  during  1902  and  1903  repre- 
sent  the   following : 


Countries  to  Which  Exported 


United  Kingdom    

Belgium 

France  

Germany 

Italy 

Netherlands 

Other  Europe 

British  North  America •.■;•■ 

Central  American  States  and  British 

Honduras 

Mexico 

Cuba 

Other  West  Indies  and  Bermuda... 

Argentina 

Brazil 

Chili... 

Colombia 

Venezuela 

Other  South  America 

Chinese  Empire 

British  East  Indies 

Japan      ._ 

British  Australasia 

Philippine  Islands 

Other  Asia  and  Oceanica 

British  Africa 

AH  other  Africa 

Other  Countries 


Totals $4,016,845         $3,9",634 


5l,  94,    if 
70,143 

10Q,o6o 

'7.!'7 

1 ,  162,903 

10.475 
220,129 
7". '54 
3'. 517 
35.232 
30.927 
44,488 
36,612 
19,700 
47. "5 
3°.740 
29,706 
59.897 
239.677 
140,881 

109,293 
11.465 


1,102,248 
27.251 
49.852 
I93.'2S 
27.038 
■0.735 
33.294 
.557.331 

■5.978 
152.499 
80,864 

4". 01  I 
40.199 
37.582 
■0,237 

3.499 

'1.  |  .1 
25.750 
22,826 

5'-,.  -5  , 

191,031 
52,159 
20,698 
50,164 
9.979 
34 


During  the  decade  1894  to  1904  the  only 
striking  change  recorded  in  the  book-publishing 
trade  was  the  enormous  and  phenomenal  circu- 
lation of  a  dozen  popular  no  ,-cls.      During  this 


AMERICAN  QUARRYING—  AMERICAN  RAILROADS 


period  the  advance  in  good  taste  and  in  artistic 
beauty  of  product  was  a  marked  characteristic 
of  the  industry.  Fashions  in  bindings  changed 
annually,  but  a  widening  range  of  materials 
and  patterns,  more  daring  use  of  designs  and 
inks,  and  the  invention  and  general  use  of  au- 
tomatic binding  machinery  supplemented  im- 
provements in  printing,  permitting  lower  prices 
for  books  and  promoting  phenomenal  sales.  It 
is  a  significant  coincidence  that  the  decade  which 
witnessed  extraordinary  advance  in  all  details 
of  mechanical  productions  in  this  industry 
should  be  characterized  also  by  the  most  note- 
worthy advance  in  the  good  taste  and  apprecia- 
tion of  the  general  public. 

H.  H.  McCh-rf. 
Of  McClure,  Phillips  &  Co..  New  York. 
American  Quarrying.  See  Quarrying. 
American  Railroads.  The  first  railroads  in 
the  United  States  were  built  to  carry  stone, 
gravel,  anthracite  coal,  and  other  heavy  ma- 
terials. These  of  necessity  were  short.  One  was 
built  on  Beacon  Hill  in  Boston,  in  1807;  one  in 
Delaware  County,  Pa.,  in  1800;  and  one  at  Bear 
Creek  Furnace.  Armstrong  County,  Pa.,  in  1818. 
Other  short  roads  were  simultaneously  con- 
structed, all  having  tracks  composed  of  wooden 
rails.  In  1812.  Col,  John  Stevens,  of  Hoboken, 
N.  J.,  issued  a  pamphlet  stating  "that  trains  of 
carriages  would  be  drawn  on  railways  at  20  or  30 
miles  an  hour,"  and  further  said.  "1  can  see 
nothing  to  hinder  a  steam  carriage  from  moving 
on  these  rails  with  a  velocity  of  100  miles  an 
hour."  This  was  a  daring  prophecy;  but  in  1827 
the  Delaware  &  Hudson  Canal  Co.  began  the 
construction  of  the  Carbondale  R.R.,  extending 
from  Hohcndale,  Pa.,  to  Carbondale,  a  distance 
of  27  miles.  Horses  were  the  motive  power  for 
drawing  the  cars  which  were  used  in  transport- 
ing coal  from  the  mines  to  the  canal.  In  1828 
this  company  sent  Horatio  Allen,  a  machinist 
and  civil  engineer,  to  England  to  purchase  iron 
rails,  and  to  order  3  locomotives  of  such  pattern 
as  he  might  determine  upon  after  his  arrival  in 
England.  The  first  of  these  made  its  trial  trip 
on  9  Aug.  1829.  and  was  the  first  locomotive 
ever  run  in  America.  Mr.  Allen  ran  the  engine 
himself,  and  would  permit  no  one  else  on  it,  as 
he  considered  the  risk  of  life  and  limb  too 
great. 

The  Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.R.,  the  first  under- 
taking to  transport  passengers,  was  projected  in 
1828.  constructed  in  1829,  and  opened  for  busi- 
ness  from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott  Mills,  15  miles, 
in  May.  1830.  Horses  were  used,  and  where  the 
change  of  teams  was  made,  gave  rise  to  the 
well-known  relay  station  9  miles  from  Baltimore. 
In  1830,  Peter  Cooper  built  a  locomotive,  the 
first  ever  constructed  in  the  United  States,  and 
ratulated  himself  that  he  made  better  time 
than  the  horses  on  the  Baltimore  &  Ohio  R.R. 
This  engine  weighed  less  than  a  ton,  the  boiler 
was   about   the  of  a   flour  barrel,   and  the 

flues  were  made  of  gun  barrels. 

In  1830  there  were  but  23  miles  of  railroad 
in  use.  During  the  succeeding  10  years  the  total 
mileage  reached  2.818.  The  line  from  Albany  to 
Schenectady.  17  miles,  was  opened  in  1831.  Five 
years  later  Albany  and  Utica  had  rail  connec- 
tion, and  in  1842.  Buffalo  was  reached.  In  the 
meantime  lines  had  been  built  from  New  York 
and  Boston  to  Albany,  so  that  the  then  East  and 
West  were  in  easy  communication  by  way  of 
the  railroads  and  the  Great  Lakes.     In  the  year 


1850,  the  length  of  the  railroads  in  the  United 
States  aggregated  9,021  miles;  in  i860,  30,635 
miles;  in  1870,  52,914  miles;  in  1S80,  93,296 
miles;  in  1890,  163,597  miles;  in  1900,  193,346 
miles.  The  present  mileage  of  the  railroad 
systems  of  the  United  States,  in  excess  of  200,- 
000,  only  partially  indicates  their  magnitude, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  present  total 
value  of  railroad  assets  ($13,000,000,000)  is 
about  one-seventh  of  the  total  present  wealth  of 
the  United  States   ($90,000,000,000). 

There  are  about  1,000  operating  railroad  com- 
panies in  the  United  States;  but  the  railroad 
system  of  the  United  States  is  conveniently  di- 
vided into  7  groups,  each  group  occupying  a 
nearly  distinct  section  of  the  country,  tin 
of  the  grouping  being  found  in  differences  in 
production,  density  of  population,  and  various 
social  and  ecomonic  conditions  prevailing  in  the 
7  sections  of  the  country.  In  each  of  these  sec- 
tions there  is  considerable  unity  in  the  operation 
and  ownership  of  the  railroad  systems.  These 
territorial  groups  are  as  follows  :  (  1 )  The  New 
England  States;  (2)  the  region  west  of  New 
England  and  the  middle  Atlantic  seaboard,  north 
of  the  Ohio  and  James  rivers,  and  east  of  Chi- 
cago and  Saint  Louis  (trunk  line  territory); 
(3)  the  section  south  of  the  Ohio  and  James 
rivers  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  (southern 
territory);  (4)  the  region  west  and  north  of 
Chicago  and  Saint  Louis,  including  the  chief 
grain-raising  States  of  the  United  States 
(granger  territory)  ;  (5)  south  and  west  of 
Saint  Louis  (southwestern  territory);  (6)  west 
of  the  granger  and  southwestern  territories 
(trans-continental  or  Pacific  lines)  ;  (7)  a  sub- 
division of  lines  within  the  trunk-line  territory 
whose  business  consists  chiefly  of  transporting 
anthracite  coal  from  the  Pennsylvania  mines  to 
the  seaboard. 

This  grouping  of  the  American  railroads  into 
7  systems,  based  upon  physical  differences  in 
territory  and  economic  conditions,  is  not  entirely 
satisfactory,  as  it  gives  little  or  no  information 
regarding  ownership  and  management.  A 
grouping  along  this  line  would  be  as  follow-: 
1  1  )  The  Boston  &  Maine,  3.283  miles;  (21  New 
York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford,  2,027  miles;  (3) 
the  Vanderbilt  roads,  20,798  miles;  (4)  the 
Pennsylvania  system,  19,301  miles;  (5)  the 
Philadelphia  &  Reading  system,  2,145  miles; 
(6)  Morgan  roads,  11.229  miles;  (7)  Morgan 
&  Atlantic  Coast  Line  Company  roads,  10,071 
miles;  (8)  Illinois  Central.  5,380  miles;  (()) 
Seaboard  Air  Line,  2.61 1  miles;  (10)  Gould 
roads,  15,504  miles;  (11)  Moore  road-  it.003 
miles;  (12)  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  Saint  Paul, 
6.604  miles;  (13)  Chicago  Great  Western,  056 
miles;  (14)  Hawley  roads.  2,376  miles;  (15) 
Wisconsin  Central,  978  miles;  (16)  Harriman 
roads,  16.468  miles;  (17)  Morgan-Hill  roads, 
24.711  miles;  (18)  Atchison.  Toneka  &  Santa 
Fe,  7.876  miles.  This  classification,  subject  to 
constant  change  by  transfers  of  ownership, 
shows  that  four-fifths  of  the  railroad  mileage  of 
the  United  States  is  now  in  the  hands  of  a  few 
large  interests  and  capitalists,  between  whom 
there  is  developing  a  community  of  interest  or 
harmony  of  action  that  is  restraining  competition 
in  rate-making. 

The  United  States  government  has  sought  to 
supervise  or  regulate  the  entire  business  of  rail 
transportation  in  order  to  establish  and  main- 
tain equitable  relations  between  the  carriers  and 


.-   .    1:  -jM 

>   ■      * 

TMt   f^09.47«   FREIGHT   CARS   OF  THE      US.—  .   - 

■J     tQUA          IN    BULK    41  GREAT   PYRAMIDS 

■MHIHp^^ 

RAILWAY  STATISTICS  OF  THE  UXITED  STATES. 


AMERICAN  REPUBLICS—  AMERICAN  SHIPBUILDING 


the  people  served.  This  result  cannot  be  at- 
tained solely  by  statutory  prohibitions.  In 
America,  laws  to  be  enforced  must  give  expres- 
sion to  public  opinion  and  in  order  to  make 
unjust  discriminations  impossible,  the  public 
must  declare  that  it  is  as  much  a  crime  for 
public  carriers  to  deny  to  one  individual  or 
community  advantages  to  which  they  are  justly 
entitled,  as  it  would  be  for  the  government  to 
show  favors  to  some  citizens,  and  discriminate 
against  others.  The  problem  is  a  continuing  one, 
the  specific  necessity  for  government  regulation 
varying  from  time  to  time.  In  1870  it  was 
necessary  to  secure  cheaper  rates  to  the  seaboard 
for  the  agricultural  products  of  the  Central 
States ;  during  the  period  from  1870  to  1890  it 
was  necessary  to  adjust  the  rates  charged  at 
small  local  towns  and  large  cities  ;  at  the  present 
time  it  is  imperatively  necessary  to  secure  rela- 
tively reasonable  rates  for  rival  areas  of  pro- 
duction and  for  rival  economic  interests  in  the 
same  area  of  production.  In  the  last  few  years 
new  ideas  have  led  to  the  betterment  of  railroad 
management  and  operation  and  the  railroad 
personnel  has  been  educated  to  a  high  standard. 
The  system  of  to-day  is  a  development  resulting 
from  75  years  of  experience.  From  the  first  crude 
plant  by  gradual  stages  has  been  evolved  the 
modern  economical  transportation  machine  of 
to-day.  From  the  first  crude  rate  sheet  has  been 
evolved  the  present  successful,  if  complicated 
scheme  of  charges,  successful  because  it  moves 
the  traffic  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  shippers, 
the  benefit  of  the  country  at  large,  and  produces 
a  profit  to  the  corporation  owning  the  properties. 
See  Railway  Systems,  American. 
Edward  S.  Farrow, 

Consulting  Railroad  and  Mining  Engineer. 

American  Republics,  Bureau  of.  The 
Pan-American  Congress  held  in  Washington  in 
1889,  though  ostensibly  convened  merely  to  con- 
sider arbitration  and  the  improvement  of  com- 
merce between  the  republics  of  the  western 
hemisphere,  had  a  much  broader  object  in 
view  :  to  express  in  practical  form  the  solidarity 
of  American  interests,  and  devise  means  to  pro- 
tect them.  Believing  that  a  closer  union  be- 
tween us  is  possible  only  through  confidence 
born  of  closer  intimacy,  the  Congress  created 
the  International  Union  of  American  Republics 
and  organized  the  Bureau  of  American  Repub- 
lics (with  a  supervisory  International  Executive 
Committee}    to   effect  that  purpose. 

The  Bureau's  original  function  of  publishing 
tariff  data,  port  regulations,  trade  statistics,  etc., 
was  soon  extended  to  the  diffusion  of  all  sorts 
of  exact  knowledge  concerning  the  American 
republics,  showing  their  natural  solidarity  and 
mutual  protective  necessities.  To  this  end  it 
publishes  a  monthly  bulletin  in  English,  Span- 
ish, Portuguese,  and  French,  now  in  its  nth 
volume;  handbooks  to  the  Central  and  South 
American  states ;  their  tariff,  immigration,  and 
other  laws  of  general  interest,  and  a  great  va- 
riety of  information  otherwise  inaccessible  on 
their  commerce,  industries,  and  general  condi- 
tions ;  also  an  alphabetical  code  of  commercial 
nomenclature  in  parallel  English,  Spanish,  and 
Portuguese  columns  comprising  over  50.000  du- 
tiable commodies,  for  the  use  of  customs  and 
consular  officers  and  shippers.  Tn  1000  it  began 
compiling  from  the  best  sources  special  large- 
scale  maps  of  various  republics,  containing  all 
economic   data,   lines   of   rail   and   wire,   mines, 


areas  of  cultivation,  etc.  As  a  further  instru- 
ment it  has  built  up  a  library  of  '  American  ' 
of  nearly  10,000  volumes,  and  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  maps  and  photographs,  in  the  subject- 
catalogues  of  which  are  noted  all  the  works  and 
articles  on  America,  and  cognate  maps,  in 
Washington  libraries.  It  also  receives  all  offi- 
cial documents  published  by  American  countries. 

American  Revolution.  See  United  States 
—  American  Revolution. 

American  River,  in  north  central  Califor- 
nia, is  formed  by  the  union  of  its  northern  and 
southern  forks  near  the  western  boundary  of 
the  county  of  El  Dorado,  whence  it  flows  south- 
west between  the  counties  of  Placer  and  Sacra- 
mento and  falls  into  Sacramento  River  near  the 
city  of  Sacramento.  For  about  six  miles  it  has 
been  rendered  navigable  for  small  steamers. 
The  north  fork,  considered  by  some  as  the  true 
American  River,  rises  among  the  hills  at  the 
base  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  flows  west-south- 
west, forming  the  boundaries  between  Placer 
and  El  Dorado  counties  for  100  miles,  and 
unites  with  the  south  fork  30  miles  above  the 
city  of  Sacramento.  The  south  fork  flows  from 
Bonpland  Lake  through  El  Dorado  County,  and 
forms  part  of  the  division  between  the  counties 
of   Sacramento   and   El   Dorado. 

American  Scenic  and  Historic  Preserva- 
tion Society,  a  national  organization  estab- 
lished in  1895  for  the  protection  of  American 
scenery  and  the  preservation  of  American  land- 
marks. 

American  Schools  of  Law.  See  Law, 
American   Schools  of. 

American  Shipbuilding.  The  inception  and 
development  of  this  industry  in  America  is 
primarily  due  to  the  enterprise  of  the  early 
colonists  of  New  England,  who  thus  wove  into 
the  fabric  of  a  history  of  isolated  colonization, 
replete  with  incidents  of  hardships  and  self- 
sacrifice,  the  magical  thread  of  commerce  which 
connected  them  with  the  outside  world. 

The  first  effort  was  inspired  by  the  desire  of 
the  members  of  the  Church  of  England  Colony, 
established  at  Sagadahoc,  Maine,  in  1607,  to  re- 
turn to  the  mother  country  after  the  disc 
ing  experiences  of  a  hard  Xew  England  winter. 
Thus,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  River,  near 
one  of  the  most  important  shipyards  of  the 
present  time,  the  keel  of  the  first  American-built 
ship  was  laid,  a  little  two-masted  vessel  about 
60  feet  long,  which  was  named  the  "Virginia." 
From  that  time  up  to  1630,  a  few  small  \ 
were  built  for  various  special  purposes;  but, 
shipbuilding  did  not  assume  the  dignity  of  an 
industry  until  the  trade  of  Brazil  and  the  Dutch 
West  Indies,  monopolized  by  the  Dutch  West 
India  Company,  was  thrown  open  to  the  col- 
onists of  New  Amsterdam.  This  gave  an  im- 
petus that  was  felt  all  along  the  coast.  Boston 
and  Salem  builders  produced  several  vessels 
ranging  in  size  from  150  to  300  tons,  which  en- 
gaged in  profitable  trade  with  Spanish  ports ; 
while  the  shipping  owned  in  the  port  of  New 
Amsterdam  increased  in  less  than  20  vears,  fn  in 
a  fleet  of  15  or  20  small  vessels,  to  one  of  60 
good-sized  ships,  and  over  100  sloops,  engaged 
in  both  foreign  and  coast-wise  trade,  and  from 
this  time  up  to  the  middle  of  the  iSth  century, 
the  industry  grew  steadily  under  impulse-;  from 
one  source  or  another  New  York  (  New 
Amsterdam)    was  engaged  in  an  extensive  ex- 


AMERICAN  SHIPBUILDING 


porting  trade  of  ilotir  and  biscuits,  while  Massa- 
chusetts employed  at  leasl  [,ooo  vessels  in  the 
development  of  her  fishing  trade.  The  period 
from  1750-70  may,  therefore,  be  considered  the 
t:i-l  epoch  of  the  industry.  In  the  latter  year, 
the  American  vessels  represented  a  tonnage  of 
about  400,000,  approximately  one-third  that  of 
Great  Britain,  and  nearly  one-half  of  this 
amount  was  turned  out  of  the  shipyards  of  Mas- 
sachusetts. By  this  time,  however,  Philadelphia 
had  become  a  big  center  of  activity.  It  was  the 
most  accessible  port  to  the  West  Indies,  our 
principal  market  at  that  time,  and  consequently 
turned  out  a  large  proportion  of  the  400  or  more 
vessels  built  annually  in  the  country. 

The  beginning  of  the  Revolution,  therefore, 
found  the  industry  in  a  most  flourishing  con- 
dition, and  although  during  the  following  war 
the  merchant  marine  and  the  fishing  and  whaling 
fleets  of  the  country  were  practically  annihilated, 
the  demand  for  privateers  and  vessels  of  war 
served  to  sustain  the  effort  until  the  close  of 
hostilities  allowed  its  redevelopment,  so  that  at 
the  close  of  the  18th  century,  the  tonnage  of 
American  shipping  amounted  to  nearly  700,000. 
From  [800  to  1812,  however,  the  commercial 
hostility  of  Great  Britain  practically  manifested 
by  the  exclusion  of  the  West  Indian  trade  from 
the  Americans,  the  seizure  and  confiscation  of 
their  ships,  and  the  detention  of  a  large  number 
of  them  in  various  ports,  for  alleged  evasions  of 
British  laws,  prevented  the  much  greater  de- 
velopment  probable   under   different   conditions. 

The  War  of  tSu  gave  the  finishing  stroke 
and  caused  a  sharp  decline  in  the  industry  until 
[815,  when  a  new  impulse  was  given  by  a  rapidly 
increasing  coast-wise  trade,  and  the  demand  for 
a  larger  number  of  packets  in  the  line  of  trans- 
atlantic passenger  transportation,  due  to  the  in- 
creased emigration  from  Europe  to  America  at 
the  close  of  the  war.  The  annual  tonnage  in- 
creased steadily  from  about  50,000  in  1820,  to 
about  (mo.ooo  in  1855.  Several  packet  lines  were 
established  between  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
and  Boston  and  Britisli  and  French  and  other 
European  ports,  and  also  a  great  many  lines 
touching  at  the  important  ports  along  the  coast 
from  Portland,  Maine,  to  New  Orleans.  La.,  and 
the  gulf  ports  of  South  America  and  Mexico. 
The  vessels  were  built  on  speedy  hues;  had 
roomy  accommodations  for  passengers;  ranged 
in  size  from  500  to  1,000  tons,  and  marked  one 
of  the  most  prosperous  periods  of  the  industry. 
About  the  year  1840,  English  steamers  were 
placed  in  competition  with  those  sailing  packets, 
and  aided  by  their  superior  carrying  capacity, 
slowly  but  surely  supplanted  them  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years. 

The  vessels  thus  thrown  out  of  the  packet 
line  service  were  converted  into  freighters,  and 
caused  a  slight  decline  in  the  industry,  which, 
however,  was  relieved  about  the  \ear  18J5  1)/ 
the  demand  for  large  and  swift-sailing  vessels 
for  the  Chinese  tea  trade.  This  inaugurated  the 
era  of  famous  clipper  ships,  the  construction  of 
which  being  still  further  stimulated  by  the  Cali- 
fornian  gold  discoveries  of  '49,  extended  the 
period  of  their  maximum  usefulness  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  War  in   i860. 

These  vessels  represented  the  highest  skill  of 
the  American  naval  architect.  The  shipyards  of 
Xew  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia  built  them 
in  sizes  ranging  from  750  to  2,400  tons. 

Their  lines  were  laid  down  sharp,  and  under 


their  lofty  masts  anil  enormous  spreads  of 
canvas,  they  made  the  best  records  ever  made  by 
sailing  vessels,  and  the  tonnage  of  American 
shipping  very  nearly  equalled  that  of  Great 
Britain. 

The  Civil  War.  however,  terminate  1  their 
career.  English-built  Confederate  privateers, 
running  under  steam,  swept  the  seas,  and 
American  ships  representing  hundred  of  thou- 
sands of  tonnage  were  either  destroyed  or  were 
compelled  to  seek  protection  under  foreign  tlags. 

At  the  end  of  that  war,  America  was  no 
longer  a  maritime  nation.  The  events  of  that 
war  had  developed  new  principles  ami  new 
methods  of  shipbuilding.  The  advantages  to  In- 
derived  from  the  use  of  iron  as  a  material  of 
construction  had  been  demonstrated  beyond  a 
doubt  sometime  previously,  and  while  the  in- 
dustries of  America  were  paralyzed  by  the  inter 
necine  conllict,  the  English  shipyards  had  taken 
full  advantage  of  their  opportunity,  and  backed 
by  governmental  subsidies,  had  re-established 
Great   Britain's  old-time   supremacy  of  the  sea. 

From  i860  to  1882,  the  stagnation  in  the 
American  effort  was  extreme.  In  1855  the  num- 
ber of  vessels  turned  out  of  the  American  yards 
amounted  to  381  ships  and  barks,  and  uli  brigs, 
while  in  1885  only  11  ships  and  barks  left  the 
ways. 

The  seriousness  of  the  situation  was  recog- 
nized by  the  American  capitalists  as  early  as 
1870.  It  was  plain  that  a  great  producing  nation 
could  not  be  truly  great,  or  develop  itself  to  an 
extent  commensurate  with  its  vast  natural  re- 
sources, without  the  possession  of  an  ample 
merchant  marine,  and  they  decided  to  revive  the 
shipbuilding  industry.  Accordingly,  4  steamers, 
the  Ohio,  Indiana,  Pennsylvania,  and  Illinois, 
were  built  by  the  Cramp  Company,  of  Phila 
delphia,  for  the  transatlantic  trade.  They  were 
unquestionably  as  tine  as  any  vessels  of  their 
time,  but  they  were  unable  to  compete  with  the 
British  vessels  which  operated  under  larger  sub- 
sidies. 

It  was  apparent  that  adequate  governmental 
subsidies  were  necessary  to  sustain  the  effort  of 
private  capitalists,  and  that  the  growth  of  the 
British  merchant  marine  was  directly  cine  to 
such  liberal  assistance. 

Therefore,  steps  were  taken  by  the  various 
steamship  companies,  to  obtain  large  cm,  e  sious 
from  the  government,  and  the  Pacific  Mail 
Steamship  Company,  which  was  already  receiv- 
ing a  subsidy  of  $500,000  per  annum,  for  a 
monthly  mail  service  to  Japan  and  China, 
offered  to  double  the  service  for  .111  additional 
$500,000  per  annum.  A  hill  granting  this  sub- 
side was  passed  by  Congress  in  187,?.  but  dis- 
closures confirming  the  fact  that  a  million  dol- 
lars had  been  spent  by  the  company  to  influence 
a  favorable  vote  in  Congress,  and  the  subsequent 
failure  of  the  companv  to  comply  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  bill,  led  to  the  abrogation  of 
the  new  contract  by  the  government.  The  total 
subsidies  paid  to  the  Pacific  Mail  Company  dur- 
ing its  10  years  of  contract  service  amounted  to 
$4,583,000:  but,  as  no  increase  in  the  Oriental 
trade  of  the  United  States  could  be  traced  di- 
rectly to  the  influence  of  a  subsidized  mail 
service,  the  resultant  effect  was  a  steady  decline 
of  the  merchant  marine. 

Another  attempt  to  ameliorate  these  con- 
ditions and  affect  a  revival  was  made  when  the 
steamships   New  York  and   Paris,  of  tin-   Inter- 


H 
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AMERICAN"    SHIP    IJUILDIXG. 


Copyright,    190S,    by   Scientific   American. 
THE  MINNESOTA,  THE  LARGEST  VESSEL  BUILT  IN  AMERICA 

Length,    630    feet;    Breadth,    73   feet    0    inches;    Molded    Depth.    56    feet;    Displacement    on  33    feet    draft. 

• is:    Speed,    H    kn.'t- 


AMERICAN   SILKWORM— AMERICAN   SOCIETY   OF  ENGINEERS 


national  Navigation  Company's  line,  were  ad- 
mitted to  an  American  register  on  the  condition 
that  two  other  vessels,  their  equal  in  every  par- 
ticular, should  be  built  in  American  ship  yards. 
The  government  granted  to  these  vessels  a  pay- 
ment of  $4  a  mile  for  carrying  the  mails  upon 
the  condition  that  they  were  capable  of  main- 
taining a  sustained  speed  of  20  knots  an  hour. 

The  result  of  this  agreement  was  the  con- 
struction of  the  steamships  St.  Louis  and  St. 
Paul  in  1895,  and  the  effective  application  of 
the  system  of  mail-carrying  contracts. 

At  the  present  time  the  subsidies  for  carry- 
ing the  mails  are  defined  on  a  mileage  basis.  It 
amounts  to  $4  per  mile  for  first  class  steamers ; 
$2  a  mile  for  second  class  steamers;  $1  a  mile 
for  third  class  steamers;  and  66  2/3  cents  per 
mile  for  fourth  class  steamers.  In  addition  to 
this  the  post-office  department  pays  American 
mail  steamships  $1.60  a  pound  for  first  class 
matter,  and  8  cents  a  pound  for  all  matter  below 
that  grade. 

The  first  general  subsidy  measure  designed 
to  establish  a  system  of  direct  navigation  boun- 
ties was  introduced  in  the  United  States  Senate 
in  1898,  and  was  passed  by  that  legislative  body 
in  March,  1902.  It  consisted  of  four  titles: 
"Ocean  mail  steamers,"  "general  subsidy,"  "deep- 
sea  fisheries,"  and  "general  provisions."  Pay- 
ments for  carrying  mails  were  based  upon  speed 
and  tonnage  instead  of  mileage,  and  the  ocean 
mail  steamers  were  divided  into  seven  classes 
on  this  basis.  For  100  miles  sailed,  steamers  of 
the  first  class  received  2.7  cents  per  gross  ton ; 
those  of  the  second  class,  2.5  cents ;  third  class, 
2.3  cents;  fourth  class,  2.1  cents;  fifth  class,  1.9 
cents ;  sixth  class,  1.7  cents ;  and  those  of  the 
seventh  class,  1.5  cents.  The  section  entitled 
"general  subsidy,"  provided  for  the  payment  of 
a  bounty  of  I  cent  per  gross  ton  for  every 
100  nautical  miles  sailed,  to  all  vessels  not  re- 
ceiving the  mail  subsidy,  and  was  intended  to 
offset  the  alleged  greater  cost  of  construction, 
and  the  greater  expenses  incurred  in  the  naviga- 
tion of  American"  vessels.  Under  the  title 
"deep-sea  fisheries,"  provision  was  made  to 
grant  a  bounty  of  $2  per  gross  ton  per  annum 
on  American  vessels  engaged  for  at  least  three 
months  in  deep-sea  fishing,  and  $1  per  month 
to  each  sailor  employed  on  such  vessels.  This 
measure  was  brought  before  the  House  during 
the  last  session  of  the  Fifty-seventh  Congress; 
but  was  adversely  reported  upon  by  the  com- 
mittee in  charge  and  failed  to  become  a  law. 

The  period  of  great  internal  development  of 
the  country  is  practically  at  an  end.  The  great 
railroad  systems  are  practically  built,  and  the 
vast  accumulations  of  wealth  in  the  country  are 
seeking  investment.  If  it  is  demonstrable 
that  the  margin  of  profits  on  present  investments 
can  be  enhanced  or  even  prevented  from  de- 
clining by  investments  in  ships,  such  investments 
will  be  made  and  the  industry  will  grow  steadily 
but  surely  under  the  normal  conditions  of  trade. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the 
evolution  of  that  distinctly  American  type  of 
vessel,  the  "schooner."  From  a  handy  two- 
masted  craft  of  about  100  or  150  tons,  extremely 
serviceable  in  the  coast-wise  trade,  it  has  been 
developed  to  the  mammoth  "seven  master"  of 
the  Thomas  W.  Lawson  type.  The  development 
of  the  larger  schooners  appears  to  have  been 
along  the  lines  of  maximum  carrying  capacity 


at  the  minimum  operative  expense.  Vet,  since 
the  building  of  the  Thomas  W.  Lawson,  in  1902, 
no  effort  has  been  made  to  duplicate  her,  al- 
though she  has  made  several  fast  trips  from 
Chesapeake  Bay  to  Boston,  and  they  were  un- 
doubtedly remunerative. 

In  fact  only  one  six-masted  schooner  is  un- 
der construction  at  the  present  time  ( 1905),  and 
no  seven-masted  schooner  is  even  under  con- 
templation. 

The  reasons  for  this  are  quite  clear.  Her 
extreme  length  of  395  feet  makes  her  unavailable 
for  the  general  coasting  trade,  as  she  is  unabl 
to  load  for  crooked  river  ports,  and  is  a  misfit  at 
many  of  the  wharves  at  other  places. 

It  is,  therefore,  apparent  that  in  the  matter 
of  size  the  sailing  vessel  has  reached  her  limit, 
and  is  already  showing  a  tendency  to  go  back  to 
the  less  unwieldy  five-master,  well  adapted,  not 
only  to  the  coast-wise  trade,  but  also  to  the 
trade  with  foreign  countries,  involving  extended 
deep-sea  voyages. 

For  detailed  information  relative  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  American  shipbuilding  in- 
dustry during  the  last  decade  in  special  lines, 
consult  the  articles  under  the  titles  Naval  Con- 
struction ;  Sailing  Vessels ;  Ship;  Shipbuild- 
ing; and  Steam  Vessels,  in  this  encyclopaedia. 

American  Silkworm.      See  Silkworm. 

American  Social  Science  Association.  See 
Social  Science  Association,  American. 

American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers, 
an  association  organized  5  Nov.  1852,  111  the  1  n 
of  New  York,  its  object  being  the  professional 
improvement  of  its  members,  the  encourage- 
ment of  social  intercourse  among  men  of  prac- 
tical science,  the  advancement  of  engineering  in 
its  several  branches,  and  of  architecture,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  central  point  of  reference  and 
union  for  its  members.  Among  the  means  to 
be  employed  for  attaining  these  ends  are  period- 
ical meetings  for  the  reading  of  professional 
papers,  and  the  discussion  of  scientific  subjects, 
the  foundation  of  a  library,  the  collect 
maps,  drawings  and  models,  and  the  publica- 
tion of  such  parts  of  the  proceedings  as  may 
be  deemed  expedient. 

The  early  life  of  the  Society  was  a  stn.ggle 
for  existence  and  it  was  not  until  1867  that 
the  organization  had  a  permanent  headquarters, 
and  began  its  work  in  earnest.  The  lir-.t  pub- 
lication was  the  address  of  President  James 
P.  Kirkwood,  delivered  4  Dec.  1867,  and  print- 
ed in  Vol.  I.  of  'Transactions'  bearing  date  of 
1872.  The  first  Annual  Convention  was  held 
in  New  York  16  June  1869,  55  members  being 
present.  The  second  and  third  conventions 
were  also  held  in  New  York,  but  the  fourth 
was  held  in  Chicago  and  the  annual  conventions 
are  now  held  at  widely  separated  points.  In 
1869  the  membership  of  the  Society  was  160; 
the  membership  in  iqoi  is  over  3.200.  The  so- 
ciety  has  a  splendid  library  of  over  50.000  vol- 
umes, thoroughly  classified  and  indexed  and 
which  is  kept  up  to  date  by  new  additions.  A 
monthly  publication  of  'Proceedings1  is  issued 
in  which  are  printed  the  professional  papers 
in  advance  of  their  presentation  at  the  semi- 
monthly meetings.  These  papers  with  all  the 
discussion  to  which  they  give  rise,  are  subse- 
quently printed  in  'Transactions.'  two  and  some- 
times  three   volumes   of   which   are    issued   an- 


AMERICAN   SOCIETY  OF  ENGINEERS 


nually.  The  last  report  of  the  Secretary  shows 
the  assets  "t"  the  Society  to  be  over  $_>.t5.ooo. 

The  organization  is  in  no  sense  a  local  one, 
and  it  has  never  had  any  subsidiary  branches 
or  been  affiliated  with  other  organizations.  Its 
men  i  of  practitioners  engaged 

in  all  branches  of  Civil  Engineering,  the  broad- 
est interpretation  of  that  term  being  used.  From 
the  beginning,  admission  to  its  privileges  has 
b  n  dependent  solely  upon  professional  expe- 
rience and  personal  character. 

That  the  Society  is  beneficial  to  the  pro- 
fession  is  evidenced  by  the  eagerness  with  Which 
membership  in  it  is  sought.  The  reasons  for 
this  are  apparent,  inasmuch  as  among  its  ob- 
jects arc  to  assist  the  young  engineer  pro- 
fessionally during  the  earlier  years  of  his  career, 
and.  when  he  has  proved  himself  worthy,  to 
stamp  him  as  one  qualified  to  direct  "the  great 
sources  of  Power  in  Nature  for  the  use  and 
convenience  of  Man." 

That  it-  influence  is  far-reaching  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  it  has  members  in  51  of  the 
~\  subdivisions  of  the  United  States,  as  well 
as  in  31  foreign  countries.  This  foreign  mem- 
bership constitutes  <)'_•  per  cent  of  the  total 
list.  Charles  Warren  Hunt, 

Secretary  of  '.he  Society. 

American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers, a  professional  organization  composed 
of  engineers  practising  principally  in  the  depart- 
ment of  generation,  distribution  and  utilization 
of  mechanical  power.  It  is  one  of  four  organ- 
izations of  engineers,  national  in  its  character 
and  with  a  considerable  foreign  membership 
also,  which  exists  for  the  purpose  of  the  reading 
and  discussion  and  publication  of  papers  on  en- 
gineering subjects  and  for  the  advancement  of 
the  profession  of  engineering  in  any  direction 
within  its  scope. 

The  society  was  formed  in  1880  by  a  group 
of  persons  in  and  near  New  York  city,  who  ree- 
led that  the  existing  societies  of  mining  and 
civil  engineers  did  not  naturally  and  instinctively 
offer  a  scope  for  the  developing  strength  of 
mechanical  engineering  in  the  United  States. 
1 1 s  first  meeting  was  held  in  New  York  city  in 
the  autumn  of  1880.  Since  that  two  meetings 
have  been  held  eacli  year;  the  annual  meeting  in 
the  city  of  Xew  York,  and  the  other  meeting 
in  various  cities  of  the  Union;  meetings  have 
fallen  in  Boston,  Providence  Philadelphia,  Al- 
a,  Pittsburg.  Cleveland.  Nashville,  Rich- 
mond, St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and  San  Francisco. 

These  meetings  last  three  or  four  days  and 
are  always  made  the  occasion  of  visits  to  im- 
portant engineering  enterprises  in  the  city  which 
is  entertaining  the  society.  Usually  from  15  to 
20  papers  are  read  and  discussed  at  each  of 
these  meetings  and  the  papers  with  their  discus- 
sions are  issued  to  all  members  in  the  form  of 
an  annual  volume,  averaging  a  thousand  pages 
and  copiously  illustrated.  These  volumes  which 
are  designated  'Transactions'  are  an  accumula- 
tion of  most  valuable  professional  literature,  re- 
sults of  tests  and  experiments,  researches  into 
new  fields  and  are  tilled  with  recorded  data  of 
observation. 

The  society  was  incorporated  as  a  national 
organization  under  the  laws  of  Xew  York 
State  in  1881,  and  has  maintained  its  execu- 
tive   offices    in    Xew     York    city.       For    seven 


or  eight  wars  its  headquarters  were  in 
office  buildings  in  the  business  district,  but  in 
iS.Sc)  the  movement  was  started  of  having  its 
library  of  professional  literature  open  in  the 
evenings  and  for  this  purpose  the  society  rented 
quarters  in  the  Mott  Memorial  Library  build- 
ing. Madison  Avenue  near  27th  Street.  The 
success  of  the  evening  opening  of  its  library 
warrantee!  the  step  which  was  taken  in  1S90  of 
purchasing  the  property  which  had  been  altered 
by  the  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine  for  this 
purpose  and  which  included  not  only  a  library 
space  and  equipment,  but  a  convenient  audi- 
torium of  small  size  for  the  holding  of  meetings. 
The  society  expects  to  be  a  participant  in  the 
provision  of  a  wealthy  engineer  and  donor 
whereby  three  of  these  national  societies  will  be 
accommodated  in  a  special  building  designed 
specifically  for  the  needs  of  organizations  of 
this  class. 

In  addition  to  the  publication  of  an  annual 
volume  the  society  conducts  a  free  public  refer- 
ence library  of  engineering.  This  binary  is 
particularly  rich  in  the  current  contributions 
to  other  scientific  and  engineering  societies 
both  in  English  and  in  other  languages  and  in 
periodical  literature  published  through  the  jour- 
nals of  technical  journalism,  both  at  home  and 
abroad.  This  class  of  literature  is  of  ; 
significance  in  lines  in  which  progress  is  as  rapid 
as  in  the  industrial  departments  of  engineering. 
The  library  contains  (1004)  over  9.000  books 
and  5.000  pamphlets.  It  has  also  a  valuable 
collection  by  bequest  of  antiquities  in  engineer- 
ing and  scientific  matters,  and  obtains  by  ex- 
•  the  scientific  publications  of  the  United 
States  Government  and  corresponds  with  the 
important  technical  societies  of  Europe  and  the 
continent.  The  cosy  auditorium  and  the  library 
exhibit  much  material  in  portraits,  busts,  and 
memorials  of  engineering  achievement  It  is 
specially  rich  in  drawings  and  other  documents 
belonging  to  the  work  and  history  of  Robert 
billion    and   early   steam   navigation. 

The  society  has  also  discharged  a  valuable 
function  by  the  service  of  professional  commit- 
on  special  subjects.  These  profc- 
committees  have  mainly  been  concerned  with 
the  work  of  formulating  the  best  procedure  in 
-  lines,  with  a  view  of  having  such  pro 
cedure  a  species  of  standard  whereby  uniformity 
might  be  secured.  Committees  of  the  society 
have  reported  on  uniform  methods  for  conduct- 
ing tests  of  boilers,  on  uniform  methods  of  con- 
ducting tests  of  engines;  on  uniform  standards 
in  structural  material,  and  have  prosecuted  re- 
search on  the  fire  resisting  properties  of  ma- 
terial, advisable  methods  for  conducting  tests 
of  strength   and   similar  problems. 

These  reports  are  made  by  the  best  experts 
connected  with  the  society,  and  while  the  society 
officially  never  adopts  their  recommendation  by 
legislative  action,  these  recommendations  carry- 
great  weight  by  reason  of  the  sources  from 
which  they  come. 

The   society   is  governed  by  a  council.   - 
sisting  of   a   president,   six   vice-presidents,   nine 
managers,  a  secretary   and   a   treasurer. 

F.    K.    HUTTON, 

Secretary  of  the  Society. 

American  Society  of  Naval  Engineers, 
organized  1888  for  the  purpose  of  publishing  a 
quarterly  journal  covering  the  general  field  of 


AMERICAN  STREET  RAILWAYS 


marine  engineering  and  naval  architecture  with 
cognate  subjects  bearing  on  these.  The  publica- 
tions of  this  society  are  regarded  as  works  of 
reference  by  the  marine-engine  builders  of  the 
world,  as  well  as  by  the  admiralty  officials  of 
the  various  countries.  During  the  existence  of 
the  society  special  effort  has  been  made  to  cover 
every  distinct  feature  of  marine  engineering 
design.  While  the  council  of  the  society  has 
been  exceedingly  conservative  as  regards  ad- 
mitting original  material  to  the  columns  of  the 
'Journal'  of  the  society,  special  encouragement 
has  been  given  to  naval  officers  to  take  ur>  origi- 
nal work,  and  to  particularly  note  the  engineer- 
ing weaknesses  of  warship  construction,  so  that 
each  new  type  of  war  vessel,  at  least  as  far  as 
machinery  design  is  concerned,  will  be  a  dis- 
tinct improvement  upon  its  predecessor.  Sub- 
scribers to  the  'Journal'  are  members.  Office 
of  secretary,   Washington,  D.   C. 

American  Street  Railways.  As  far  back  as 
1630  an  enterprising  mine  owner  at  Newcastle- 
on-Tyne,  finding  the  roads  between  his  mines 
and  the  river  so  bad  as  to  seriously  interfere 
with  the  hauling  of  coal,  conceived  the  idea  of 
laying  in  the  road  wooden  rails,  and  running 
thereon  cars  with  wooden  wheels.  From  that 
time  to  the  present  the  transportation  of  goods 
and  passengers  has  been  a  leading  industry. 
The  idea  of  the  street  railway  grew  out  of  the 
steam  railroad  agitation,  when  the  first  steam 
railroad  was  built  in  the  United  States  in  1829. 
This  idea  rapidly  materialized  and  the  first 
street  ■  ailway  was  built  in  New  York  City  in 
1832,  the  tracks  being  laid  on  Fourth  Avenue 
from  Prince  Street  to  Harlem,  the  rail  consist- 
ing of  strips  of  flat-iron  laid  on  granite  blocks. 
The  cars  resembled  the  stage  coach  then  in  use 
and  were  mounted  on  flanged  wheels.  This 
road  being  a  financial  failure,  it  was  not  until 
1836  that  the  next  street  railway  was  built  in 
Boston.  After  this  time  street  railways  were 
built  in  all  large  American  cities,  and  between 
i860  and  1880  the  horse  railway  had  become  an 
established  institution.  As  cities  grew  and  dis- 
tances became  longer,  there  was  created  a  need 
of  a  motive  power  to  draw  the  cars  faster  than 
horses  could  transport  them.  In  some  cases 
steam  locomotives  were  used  in  the  suburbs  of 
large  cities,  but  this  was  considered  impracti- 
cable on  account  of  the  noise,  dirt,  and  danger. 

Numerous  <vstems  of  propulsion  were  pro- 
posed and  large  expenditures  were  made  in 
tests  and  trials.  The  first  practicable  method 
found  was  that  of  drawing  the  cars  by  an  end- 
less wire  cable,  and  this  method  was  first  used 
in  San  Francisco  in  1873  with  much  satisfaction 
where  it  was  well  suited  for  roads  with  heavy 
traffic  and  steep  grades.  This  system  was  used 
in  nearly  all  the  large  cities  during  the  next  10 
years.  It  was  soon  conceded,  however,  that  the 
cable  system  was  not  the  ideal  one  for  moving 
cars  as  there  were  certain  mechanical  difficulties 
in  its  operation  which  were  extremely  burden- 
some, and  experiments  were  continued  with 
other  systems  between  1880  and  1890.  resulting 
in  the  use  of  electric  motors.  The  names  of 
Edison  and  Thompson  are  identified  with  this 
work.  The  first  street  railway  to  be  entirely 
equipped  with  electric  cars  and  successfully  and 
continuously  operated,  was  a  road  12  miles  long, 
in  Richmond,  Va.,  built  in  1888.  As  soon  as 
this  road  demonstrated  that  the  electric  motor 


could  pull  street  cars  reliably  and  economically, 
horse  roads  all  over  the  United  States  were 
changed  to  electric  roads,  and  many  new  roads 
and  extensions  were  built  into  the  suburbs  of 
the  great  cities. 

The  electric  railway,  a  distinctly  American 
institution,  has  now  spread  all  over  the  world. 
In  the  United  States  there  are  more  than  25.000 
miles  of  electric  railway  track,  covering  an  in- 
vestment of  more  than  $2,200,000,000.  employing 
more  than  150,000  persons  and  daily  transporting 
about  15,000,000  people.  Besides  the  transporta- 
tion of  passengers,  express  and  freight  cars, 
mail  cars,  parlor  cars,  and  even  funeral  cars, 
are  familiar  sights  on  the  street  railways  of 
American  cities.  Interurban  electric  railways 
have  been  built  in  the  outskirts  of  the  large 
cities,  and  between  towns,  on  a  large  scale,  and 
there  are  now  very  few  towns  of  more  than 
5.000  inhabitants  which  are  not  connected  with 
their  neighbors  by  means  of  an  electric  railway. 

Many  problems  in  electricity  have  been  de- 
veloped in  keeping  pace  with  the  street  railway, 
the  latest  of  which  is  the  alternating  current. 
It  is  readily  seen  that  an  alternating  current 
system  of  electric  traction  which  would  permit 
the  use  of  a  high  transmission  line  potential  and 
avoid  the  transformation  to  direct  current  by 
means  of  the  rotary  converter,  would  give  an 
impetus  to  the  electrical  solution  of  transporta- 
tion problems  greater  even  than  that  which  fol- 
lowed the  introduction  of  the  rotary  converter. 
That  the  direct  current,  because  of  its  limitation 
as  to  voltage,  is  inadequate  as  a  system  for  the 
distributing  of  power  over  a  wide  area,  is  now 
firmly  established.  The  alternating  current  sys- 
tem, permitting  a  change  of  potential  by  means 
of  the  simple  and  efficient  static  transformer, 
has  already  successfully  met  the  requirements 
of  transmission  and  distribution  of  electric 
power.  The  necessity  of  using  direct  current 
for  the  operation  of  cars  has.  however,  greatly 
restricted  its  application  to  general  railway  serv- 
ice, involving,  as  it  does,  the  introduction  of 
the  rotary  converter  with  its  auxiliary  apparatus, 
increasing  the  cost  both  of  installation  and  op- 
eration and  reducing  the  commercial  efficiency 
of  the  system  as  a  whole. 

Catenary  line  construction  is  intended  for 
high  tension  trolley  roads,  operated  at  potentials 
up  to  6,000  volts  or  more.  It  is  especially 
designed  for  use  in  conjunction  with  single 
plase  alternating  current  railway  equipment,  and 
marks  one  step  further  in  the  movement  to 
secure  a  greater  degree  of  economy  and  effi- 
ciency in  the  operation  of  electric  trolley  lines. 
The  employment  of  high  tension  currents  for 
traction  purposes  necessitates  the  use  of  an  im- 
proved trolley  equipment,  possessing  an  effici- 
ency and  a  reliability  of  a  high  order.  The 
speed  attained  upon  interurban  lines  makes  it 
difficult  to  obtain  satisfactory  service  with  a 
trolley  wire  which  dips  between  supports  and 
sags  and  sways  with  every  impulse.  Increased 
precautions  against  accidents  and  faulty  con- 
struction are  also  necessary  because  of  the  in- 
creased liability  of  damage  from  any  divi 
of  the  line  current  from  its  proper  channel. 

In  late  years  there  has  been  a  rapidly  increas- 
ing demand  for  a  controlling  system  applicable 
to  trains  of  motor  cars  as  well  as  to  cars 
operated  singly.  This  demand  has  been  met  by 
the  development  of  the  unit  switch  system  of 
multiple   control,    which    consists    of    a    skillful 


AMERICAN  SUNDAY-SCHOOL  UNION —  AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY 


combination  <>f  electro-magnetic  and  pneumatic 
devices,  each  applied  to  those  operations  in 
which  experience  lias  shown  it  to  be  mosl 
effective.  The  construction  is  noticeable  for  the 
liberal  design  of  its  working  parts  and  contacts, 
and  the  great  margin  of  power  available  for 
their  operation;  while  the  general  design  and 
simplicity  of  operation  insures  great  reliability 
of  service  and  low  cost  of  maintenance.  See 
Street  Railways.  Edward  S.  Farrow. 

Consulting  Railroad  and  Mining  Engineer. 

American  Sunday-school  Union,  a  re- 
ligions association  having  for  its  object  the 
organization   and   support   of   Sunday-schools   in 

Ij    neighbor!] Is,  or  those  where   religious 

sentiment  is  t Inided  to  sustain  denomina- 
tional ones;  the  publication  of  religious  juvenile 
literature,  etc.  It  is  not  a  union  of  churches, 
hut  of  Christians  of  various  denominations,  re- 
quiring no  common  creed  hut  a  desire  to  save 
souls  and  promote  the  study  of  the  Bible ;  and 
is  managed  entirely  by  laymen,  though  employ- 
ing both  ministers  and  laymen  as  officials  and  in 
its  work,  which  of  course  includes  the  main- 
tenance of  missionaries  to  organize  schools  and 
enliven  religious  sentiment.  It  has  had  but  six 
presidents  in  nearly  80  years  of  work, —  Alex- 
ander Henry,  John  McLean,  John  A.  Brown, 
Robert  L  Kennedy,  William  Strong,  and  the 
present  president,  Morris  K.  Jesup.  It  has  also 
a  board  of  managers,  the  members  elected  for 
one,  two,  and  three  years;  and  an  executive 
committee.  Its  headquarters  are  at  Philadel- 
phia, where  it  first  came  into  being.  Its  genu 
was  the  First-Day  Society,  founded  in  [791, 
whose  managers  petitioned  for  free  schools  in 
Pennsylvania;  this  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
Philadelphia  Sunday  and  Adult  School  Union 
in  1S17,  which  later  united  with  similar  socie- 
ties and  changed  its  name  to  the  present  title  in 
1824.  In  tiSjl  the  Philadelphia  union  published 
one  book  and  supported  one  missionary ;  in 
1902  it  maintained  nearly  100  permanent  mis- 
sionaries and  published  several  thousand  books 
and  other  publications.  Its  income  is  about 
$125,000  a  year,  and  it  organizes  on  an  average 
about  1,350  Sunday-schools  annually. 

American  Sycamore.      See  Plane. 

American  System.     See  Tariff. 

American  Tariffs.    See  Tariffs.  American. 

American  Temperance  University,  a  co- 
educational (non-sectarian)  institution  in  llar- 
riman,  Tenn.,  organized  in  1891.  Professors, 
30;  siu  lents.  400;  volumes  in  the  library,  1,000; 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $100,000;  grad- 
uates, 200. 

American  Textile  Industry.  See  Textile 
Industry,  American. 

American  University,  The.  Prof.  Ladd  of 
Yale  University,  in  an  essay  originally  read  be- 
fore the  "Round  Table"  of' Boston,  about  1888, 
says:  "Any  one  possessed  of  the  requisite  in- 
formation knows  at  once  what  is  meant  by  the 
university  of  France,  the  English  universities, 
or  a  German  university ;  but  no  one  can  be- 
come so  conversant  with  facts  as  to  tell  what 
an  American  university  is."  And  again:  " —  it 
is  scarcely  less  true  than  it  was  a  score  of  years 
ago,    that,    although    there    may    be    universities 


in  America,  no  one  can  till  what  an  American 
university    is." 

While  not  so  accurate  at  the  present  day  as 
when  first  made,  it  is  still  true  enough,  if  one 
fail  to  tree  himself  at  the  very  start  from  de- 
pendence upon  the  name  as  necessarily  indicative 
of  the  thing.  It  is  incontestable  that  within 
recent  years  the  conception  of  the  natural  and 
necessary  relation  of  the  "university"  to  the 
"college"  has  become  much  clearer,  and  that 
many  and  important  changes  of  organization 
and  administration  have  resulted,  SO  that  it  is 
certainly  easier  than  it  was  in  [888  to  define, 
or  at  least  to  describe,  the  American  university. 
However,     there     remain     difficulties     of     many 

kinds;  and  it  still  is,  and  will  undoubtedly  be 

for  years  to  come,  if  not  actually  impossible,  at 
least  very  difficult,  to  give  a  definition  broad 
enough  to  include  all  institutions  of  learning 
in  the  United  States  which  possess  true  uni- 
versity character,  and  precise  enough  to  ex- 
clude  all   others. 

The  first   difficulty   is  this:   The  names  "uni- 
versity"   and    "college,"    as    Used    in    the    official 
titles    of    institutions,    are    absolutely    worthless 
as    indications   of   the   character   of   these   insti- 
tutions.    Among  the  scores  of  titular  "universi- 
ties"   in   this   country   most   arc   merely    colleges, 
some    good,    some    indifferent,    some    so    badly 
endowed  and  organized  as  to  be  not  even  good 
high   schools.     On  the  other  band,   Bryn   Mawr 
"college"    has   never   assumed,   even    in    informal 
use,   the  name   "university,"   yet   offers  true   uni- 
versity instruction  of  the  highest  order  in  most 
of    the    subjects    covered    by    the    philosophische 
Fakultat    of    a    German    university ;    and    even 
Harvard   and   Columbia,  though   they   have   now 
acquired   a   true   university    character,   of   a    very 
elaborate   type,   and   are   habitually   spoken   of   as 
such,  have  retained  in  their  corporate  titles  their 
ancient      designation     of     "college."      It     happens 
that   in   the   most   eastern    States   the   word   "uni- 
versity"  is  much   less  used  as  a  title,  the  higher 
institutions     of     learning    having    mostly     been 
founded    while   the    English    influence    was    still 
strong,   many   of  them   indeed   in  colonial   times, 
under   direct    English   authority,  and   so  having 
adopted    the    peculiarly    English    name    of    "col- 
lege."    In  the  newer  States  more  ambitious  plans 
prevailed,  and  the  consideration  of  conditions  in 
non-English  European  countries — -notably  those 
of    Germany,    where    the    universities    had    ob- 
tained a  more  commanding  position  and  influ- 
ence   than    elsewhere    by    the    beginning    of    the 
19th    century  —  led    to    the    choice    of   the    name 
of  apparently   greater   dignity.     This   considera- 
tion   seems  also  to  have  been   paramount   with 
the   founders   of  the   countless   purely    sectarian 
institutions  which  sprang  up  all  over  the  coun- 
try, and  still  lead  a  precarious  existence,  striv- 
ing to   hold  the  attention   of  their   brethren    in 
the    faith    by    promiscuously    showering    down 
honorary  degrees.     Yet  it  would  be  grossly  un- 
fair  to   assume   that    in    all    cases    the   name   of 
university   was  adopted  out  of  pure  conceit:   in 
many  the  choice  of  name  was  the  proclamation 
of  a  purpose  sincerely  cherished,  and  resolutely 
carried   forward,  amid   difficulties  of   which   the 
European   critic   can   form   no   conception,   to   a 
realization   more   or   less   complete.     It    will    be 
necessary  then  to  get  rid   of  this  first  difficulty 
by    ignoring   completely   the    difference    in   title. 
If    we    shall    succeed    in    describing    the    thing, 
though   we   may  be  ever  conscious   of  the   un- 


AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY 


fortunate  ambiguity  of  terms,  now  doubtless 
too  firmly  fixed  in  official  and  legal  use  to  be 
easily  changed,  we  may  rest  content. 

Another  difficulty  is  this.  It  is  now  clearly 
seen  that,  as  institutions,  the  college  and  the 
university,  having  very  different  functions,  de- 
mand a  different  organization  and  administra- 
tion. Yet  the  full  recognition  of  this  fact  is 
comparatively  recent,  and  the  logical  conse- 
quences have  been  reached  in  only  a  few  in- 
stances. The  circumstances  of  foundation  and 
the  necessities  of  the  hour  have  made  it  prac- 
tically impossible  for  the  university  and  the 
college  in  the  United  States  to  exist  apart. 
There  are  still  but  two  institutions  which  may 
be  called  even  fragmentary  universities  entirely 
unconnected  with  a  college :  The  Clark  Uni- 
versity of  Worcester,  Mass.,  and  the  Catholic 
University  of  America  at  Washington.  Down 
to  1876,  when  the  Johns  Hopkins  University 
was  opened,  whatever  real  university  instruction 
was  offered  was  organized  at  a  college  already 
existing,  and  even  the  founders  of  the  Johns 
Hopkins,  though  their  chief  purpose  was  avow- 
edly to  provide  for  university  instruction  of 
the  bighest  grade,  felt  it  necessary  or  at  least 
advisable  to  organize  a  college  also.  The  wide 
scope  planned  for  Cornell  University,  opened 
in  1868,  from  the  first  necessarily  included  a 
college,  nay,  many  colleges,  as  part  of  the 
scheme.  In  all  discussion  of  the  American  uni- 
versity, therefore,  in  this  article  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  term  (with  the  two 
exceptions  noted  above)  is  used  to  include  only 
certain  parts  of  institutions  whose  organism  is 
often  highly  complex,  and  that  probably  no  two 
institutions  coincide  in  theory  or  even  in  prac- 
tice, though  certain  principles  and  practices  are 
common  to  those  of  more  complete  type. 

What  then  is  that  American  university,  a 
description  of  which  is  here  undertaken,  if  it 
does  not  anywhere  exist  in  completeness  and 
exactness,  unobscured  by  contact  with  institu- 
tions of  different  character  and  divergent  aims? 
It  will  be  least  misleading  to  say  at  the  outset: 
It  is  nowhere.  In  so  far,  therefore,  Prof,  von 
Hoist's  famous  pronouncement  is  right ;  a  uni- 
versity in  the  European  sense  does  not  exist 
in  America.  And  yet,  from  Harvard  on  the 
Atlantic  tidewater  to  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, which  looks  out  through  the  Golden 
Gate  upon  the  Pacific,  and  from  Minneapolis  to 
New  Orleans,  will  be  found  many  institutions 
which  offer  training  in  the  methods  of  scien- 
tific research,  opportunities  for  the  prose- 
cution of  such  research,  and  abundant  fa- 
cilities in  the  way  of  libraries,  museums 
and  laboratories,  to  those  individuals  who 
have  had  such  preliminary  training  as  to 
be  able  to  profit  fully  by  these  advantages, 
and  which  certify  by  the  formal  bestowal  of  a 
particular  degree  or  degrees  that  the  individual 
receiving  one  of  them  has  proved  himself  or  her- 
self to  have  acquired  the  methods  and  habits  of 
such  scientific  research.  This  is  equivalent  to 
saying,  in  the  technical  language  in  vogue  in  the 
United  States,  that  these  institutions  offer  to 
graduate  students  courses  leading  to  advanced  or 
higher  degrees.  Where  such  courses  are  well 
organized  and  equipped  and  successfully  main- 
tained, there  is  a  university  at  least  in  part, 
and.  it  may  be,  in  the  whole.  Whether  the  in- 
stitution do  only  this,  or  this  and  many   other 


things  besides,  and  whether  it  be  called  uni- 
versity or  college,  may  be  important  questions 
from  some  points  of  view ;  for  the  point  of 
view  of  this  discussion  the  existence  of  such 
organization  for  research  work  by  graduates  is 
the  test,  and  it  is  its  purpose  to  describe  as 
clearly  as  possible  such  organization  of  this 
character  as  may  be  found  in  the  United  States 
of  America.  Apparent  or  evident  divagations 
from  this  strict  purpose  will  perhaps  find  read- 
ier pardon  from  the  foregoing  allusions  to  some 
of  the  difficulties  in  the  way. 

It  has  often  been  remarked  by  observant 
foreign  travelers  in  the  United  States  that 
among  this  young  people  many  institutions 
change  less  rapidly  than  in  the  older  nations 
of  Europe.  This  conservatism,  in  large  part 
an  English  trait  persisting  through  many  gener- 
ations, is  particularly  observable  in  the  field  of 
education ;  experiments  are  carefully  tried, 
downright  innovations  still  less  willingly 
adopted.  Only  where  occasion  is  offered  for 
new  foundations  are  we  apt  to  find  a  ready 
breaking  with  traditional  forms.  When,  on  re- 
viewing the  American  institutions  of  learning 
to  discover  which  of  them  give  the  opportuni- 
ties for  training  in  the  methods  of  research 
that  we  have  taken  as  our  standard  of  measure- 
ment, we  find  them  to  be  almost  without  excep- 
tion colleges,  or  technical  schools,  or  professional 
schools  as  well,  or  all  of  these  together,  we  also 
find  that  they  were  generally  colleges  first  of 
all,  and  that  training  in  research  was  made  a 
part  of  the  system  only  later,  very  gradually 
and  hesitatingly,  the  two  institutions  which  dis- 
claim all  "college"  work  being  almost  the  young- 
est, and  one  of  them  not  yet  displaying  a  very 
encouraging  vitality.  We  find  also  that  one  of 
the  oldest  and  most  famous  colleges  of  all, 
Yale,  was  also  the  first  to  institute  regular 
courses  of  instruction  for  those  who  wished 
to  pursue  their  studies  after  receiving  the  degree 
of  bachelor  of  arts. 

The  union  of  college  and  university  may 
fairly  be  called  the  typical  American  form  of 
organization  for  the  higher  education.  Only  in 
the  institutions  of  comparatively  recent  origin 
do  we  find  that  university  organization  was  at- 
tempted from  the  first.  The  professional  and 
technical  schools  have  generally  occupied  a 
position  of  great  independence  toward  the  in- 
stitution as  a  whole,  in  many  cases  having  hardly 
more  than  the  name  in  common,  but  possessing 
their  own  budgets  and  boards  of  trustees,  some- 
times even  being  administered  as  proprietary 
schools,  wherein  the  professors  divided  among 
themselves  the  fees  paid  by  the  students.  The 
medical  schools  have  been  the  most  independent 
in  this  respect.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  in  the  case  of  such  complex  institutions  the 
name  "university"  is  applied  to  the  whole,  so 
that,  theoretically  at  least,  the  university  may 
include  the  equivalent  of  a  German  university, 
technische  Hochschule  (formerly  called  Poly- 
technicum),  landwirtschaftliche  Hochschule  or 
agricultural  college,  and  Gymnasium.  Passing 
under  review  the  many  types  of  organization 
wherein  university  and  college  are  united,  we 
find  that  in  most  cases  the  graduate  and  under- 
graduate work  are  carried  on  by  the  same  in- 
dividuals, so  that,  instead  of  a  university  and 
a  college  being  in  alliance,  so  to  speak,  as 
might  be  said  if  the  body  of  instructors  of  each 


AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY 


part  were  composed  of  quite  different  individu- 
als, with  one  governing  body  for  the  whole,  we 
have  to  do  really  with  a  complex  and  overlap- 
ping structure.  Herein  lies,  it  must  he  said, 
one  of  the  gri  for  the  Amer- 

ican university,  though  there  are  valuable  com- 
pensations. The  American  university  profes- 
sor is  rarely  able  to  devote  himself  exclusively 
to  advanced  scientific  work  with  well-prepared 
students,  but  must,  in  most  cases,  carry  on  a 
good  deal  of  mere  class  work  as  well,  which 
cannot  but  prove  detrimental  to  the  progress  of 
his  researches. 

The  Slat,-  Universities. —  At  the  present 
time,  in  each  of  20  of  the  States  of  the  Union, 
there  is  maintained  a  single  "Slate  university,8 
supported  exclusively  or  prevailingly  from  pub- 
lic funds,  and  managed  under  the  more  or  less 
direct  control  of  the  legislature  and  adminis- 
trative officers  of  the  State.  In  some  cases 
private  benefactions  have  notablj  supplemented 
the  support  given  from  public  revenues.  These 
States  are  the  following:  Alabama,  California, 
Colorado,  Georgia,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kan- 
sas Louisiana,  Maine,  .Michigan,  Minnesota. 
Mississippi,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  North 
Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oregon,  South 
Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tenm  see,  I  exas,  Vir- 
ginia, Washington,  West  Virginia,  Wisconsin, 
Wyoming.*     The  organization   of  these  institu- 

s,  while  more  similar  than  that  of  the  uni- 
versities which  are  autonomous  corporations, 
yet  shows  many  points  of  divergence;  and  their 
extent  and  standards  of  scholarship  vary  even 
more  widely.  The  larger  among  them  exhibit 
a  very  complete  development  of  technical  and 
professional  schools,  with  the  exception  of 
schools  of  theology,  which  naturally  have  no 
place  in  a  country  where  State  aid  is  not  ex- 
tended to  religion.  The  professional  schools  of 
law  and  medicine,  however,  are  generally  sup- 
ported, at  least  in  greater  part,  by  the  fees  re- 
ceived from  students,  and  up  to  the  present  time 
none  of  them  has  been  put  on  a  true  university 
basis.  Otherwise,  the  sources  of  income  of  these 
universities  are  mainly  the  following:  (1)  The 
of  land-grants  made  in  1862  by 
the  Federal  government,  in  accordance  with 
the  famous  "Morrill  Act"  of  1862,  for  the  main- 
tenances of  colleges  whose  leading  object  should 
be  instruction  in  those  branches  of  learning  re- 
lating to  agricultural  and  mechanical  arts,  in- 
cluding military  tactics,  and  not  excluding  other 
scientific  and  classical  studies.  (J)  State  tax- 
ation, whether  by  way  of  annual  appropriations 
from  the  general  taxes  of  the  state,  or  by  con- 
tinuous appropriations  from  a  permanent  spe- 
cial tax.  _  (3)  Tuition  fee-  (only  in  some  of  the 
universities,  while  in  many  instruction  is  entirely 
gratuitous),  (4)  Private  gifts  and  endowments 
—  the  least  common  source  of  revenue,  al- 
thoug  rilliant  exceptions  are  to  be  noted. 

The  universal  verdict  of  public  opinion,  in 
the  States  where  such  institutions  are  main- 
tained, is  that  they,  as  State  organizations  sup- 
ported directly  by  public  taxation  from  which 
ixable  individual  is  exempt,  should  be  open 
without  distinction  of  sex.  color  or  religion  to 
all    who    can    profit    by    the    instruction    therein 

*  The  University  of  the  State  of  New  York  is  rot  a 
university  at  all.  but  rather  a  State  board  of  education, 
with  supervision  of  all  instruction  j;iven  in  the  State. 
The  "  University  <>f  France."  as  constituted  under 
Napoleon    I.,   is  closely   analogous  to   it. 


given,    Each   forms  the  uppermost  division  of 

the  general  system  of  public  education  of  the 
State  in  which  it  is  maintained,  and  is  man- 
aged with  a  view  to  completing  the  schemi  'it' 
instruction  begun  in  the  primary  and  earned 
on  in  the  secondary  schools.  Control  i-  \ 
in  a  board  of  public  officials,  generally  called 
"regents."  For  example,  the  board  of  regents 
of  the  University  of  Minnesota  consists  of  the 
governor  of  the  State,  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  the  president  of  the  uni- 
versity, and  seven  members  appointed  by  the 
governor  and  confirmed  by  the  senate.  In 
Michigan  the  regents  are  elected  by  popular 
vote  for  terms  of  eight  years  —  an  unusual  fea- 
ture. The  composition  and  mode  of  choice  of 
these  boards  varies  greatly  in  different  Si 
and  not  less  their  fitness  for  the  n  pon  bilities 
entrusted  to  them.  In  some  Stan-,  a-  in  Michi- 
gan and  Wisconsin,  the  result  of  many  years' 
endeavor  has  been,  though  after  many  vicissi- 
tudes and  bitter  struggles,  the  creation  of  noble 
schools  of  training;  in  others  the  constant 
changes  in  political  complexion  of  tin  1 
lature,  and  the  self-seeking  of  party  lead 
have  made  the  univcrsitii  s  mere  shuttle.  1 
of  public  or  party  opinion,  and  not  only  has 
their  development  been  hindered,  but  in  some 
cases  their  usefulness  deliberately  crippled.  In- 
stances are  not  unknown  where  particularly  able 
and  courageous  professors,  who  would  not  cut 
their  scientific  opinion,  after  the  prevailing  fash- 
ion in  politics,  have  been  driven  from  their 
chairs,  even  by  outrageously  underhanded 
methods.  Of  the  State  universities  the  most 
prominent  and  successful  are  those  of  Michi- 
gan, Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  and  California. 
The  first  mentioned  is  the  oldest  and  perhaps 
the  best  known.  Under  the  direction  of  a 
series  of  singularly  able  men  it  has  grown,  since 
its  foundation  in  183",  into  a  position  of  com- 
manding importance.  The  three  others,  while 
considerably  younger,  have  shown  a  surpris- 
ingly rapid  growth.    See  State  Universities. 

Contrast  with  European  Universities. — The 
foregoing  account  of  the  thief  types  of  univer- 
sity organization  in  the  United  State,  will,  it  is 
hoped,  have  made  clear  most  of  the  details  in 
which  their  structure  is  peculiarly  American. 
The  older  institution-,  starting  from  the  English 
type  of  college,  never  developed  in  the  direction 
of  universities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  where 
the  idea  of  the  university  as  a  great  teaching 
body  was  lost  in  the  excessive  development  of 
the  college  as  a  place  of  residence,  and  of  the 
university  as  primarily  a  congeries  of  colleges. 
The  early  mediaeval  universities  of  Europe,  on 
the  continent  as  well  as  in  England,  generally 
provided  for  their  students  places  of  residence 
in  buildings  set  apart  for  this  purpose,  instruc- 
tion of  the  lower  grades  in  connection  with 
these  residence  halls,  and  higher  instruction 
independently  of  them.  On  the  continent,  how- 
ever, especially  in  France  and  Germany,  the 
residential  feature  rapidly  became  less  impor- 
tant, and  finally,  with  a  few  unimportant  excep- 
tions, disappeared  altogether,  so  that  the  entire 
resources  of  the  universities,  though  often 
scanty  enough,  could  be  turned  to  account  fi  r 
the  work  of  instruction.  In  England  exactly 
the  opposite  occurred ;  the  residential  halls  be- 
came, through  the  impulse  of  successive  pious 
foundations,  the  important  factors  in  the  uni- 
versity life,   even   attaining  corporate  independ- 


AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY 


ence  and  ultimately  great  wealth,  and  gradually 
assumed  most  of  the  instruction  of  the  stu- 
dents, though  the  examinations  and  the  award 
of  degrees  remained  the  prerogatives  of  the  uni- 
versity as  a  whole  —  conditions  which  made 
directly  for  the  fixity  of  residence  characteristic 
of  English  universities,  and  adopted  as  a  matter 
of  course  in  the  American  colleges  patterned 
after  the  English  model.  If  the  establishment 
of  Harvard  and  Yale  colleges  had  been  fol- 
lowed at  brief  intervals  of  time  by  the  founda- 
tion of  other  residential  colleges  in  Cambridge 
and  New  Haven,  and  if  there  had  existed  in  the 
colonies  an  established  church  with  a  prestige 
such  as  that  possessed  by  the  Church  of  England 
in  the  home  country,  keeping  the  colleges  under 
its  control,  a  state  of  affairs  similar  to  that  at 
Oxford  would  doubtless  have  resulted.  The 
scanty  population  and  limited  means  of  the 
colonies,  and  their  independence  of  the  Church 
of  England,  prevented  such  a  result,  fortunately', 
on  the  whole,  for  the  educational  welfare  of  the 
country  at  large.  Yet  the  residential  feature 
has  persisted  throughout  the  history  of  the 
American  college ;  though  abandoned  here  and 
there,  as  at  Columbia  and  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,  it  has  been  restored  at  the  latter, 
has  again  been  adopted  in  principle,  if  not  yet 
in  practice,  at  Columbia,  and  deliberately  in- 
troduced, in  various  forms,  at  many  new  insti- 
tutions, even  in  some  which  at  first  had  made 
no  provision  for  students'  residence.  The 
American  institutions  differ  furthermore  from 
the  English  universities  in  this,  that  their 
growth  has  been  so  largely  in  the  direction  of 
professional  and  technical  schools,  though  these 
have  been  thus  far  in  less  than  a  half  a  dozen 
instances  placed  on  a  real  university  basis. 

The  points  of  difference  between  the  Amer- 
ican and  the  continental  European  universities 
are  not  less  apparent.  Taken  as  a  whole,  the 
American  institutions  exhibit  only  a  portion  of 
what  in  Europe  is  thought  necessary  to  the  con- 
stitution of  a  complete  university,  viz..  the  tra- 
ditional four  faculties  of  theology,  law,  medi- 
cine and  philosophy,  because,  although  all  four 
may  be  in  existence  (as  for  example  at  Har- 
vard), they  are  not  all  organized  and  admin- 
istered on  the  same  plane;  but  on  the  other  hand 
they  include  elements  which  in  Europe  are 
sharply  marked  off  from  the  universities,  namely, 
technical  schools,  and  undergraduate  schools, 
which  in  some  cases  correspond  fairly  well  to 
the  lycee  or  gymnasium  of  France  or  Germany, 
in  others  to  the  last  two  or  three  years  of  these 
institutions  and  the  first  year  of  the  university 
or  technical  school.  If  we  separate  the  strictly 
graduate  schools  of  the  American  universities 
from  the  remainder  of  their  respective  institu- 
tions, we  shall  find  them  in  general  covering 
pretty  nearly  the  ground  of  the  '"philosophical 
faculties8  of  Germany,  and  more  or  less  closely 
approximating  them  in  methods  of  work.  A 
decided  point  of  difference,  however,  consists  in 
the  comparative  infrequence  of  migration  on  the 
part  of  students  from  university  to  university, 
which  is  so  nearly  the  universal  rule  in  Ger- 
many. 

Present  Day  Problems. —  When  the  prob- 
lems of  education  are  all  solved,  education 
itself  will  be  dead,  and  the  need  of  it  greater 
than  ever.  The  entire  range  of  education  in  the 
United  States  has  been  in  a  state  of  rapid  tran- 
sition for  many  years  already,  and  nowhere  have 


the  changes  been  more  constant  than  in  the 
domain  of  college  and  university  education. 
From  the  establishment  of  graduate  courses  at 
Yale  in  1847  until  the  present  day,  probably  no 
year  has  passed  without  seeing  some  new  ex- 
periment tried,  some  old  institution  reorgan- 
ized or  new  one  founded.  If  the  new  institu- 
tions have  often  shown  too  little  willingness  to 
profit  by  the  experience  of  others,  or  to  adopt 
the  ways  and  means  of  other  lands,  it  must  .be 
remembered  that  the  educational  problem  has 
been  but  one  of  many  with  which  the  leaders  of 
thought  in  this  country  have  been  confronted, 
and  that  in  the  attempt  to  conform  institutions  to 
the  spirit  of  the  country  it  has  been  necessary 
first  to  discover,  often  at  great  pains  and  heavy 
cost  to  the  experimenter,   what  that  spirit  was. 

Naturally  the  most  important  question  has 
been  and  still  is  that  of  organization.  It  has 
doubtless  become  apparent  from  the  foregoing 
description  that  no  two  universities  are  just 
alike,  and  that  the  differences  do  not  by  any 
means  concern  unimportant  points.  Ever}'  pos- 
sible variety  of  organization  and  administration 
seems  to  the  observer  —  especially  the  foreign 
observer — -to  have  been  tried,  except  that  of  a 
consistent  and  rigid  adherence  to  forms  sanc- 
tioned by  centuries  of  permanence  in  Europe. 

The  vacillation  has  come  from  uncertainty 
as  to  the  true  purposes  of  the  university.  In 
Europe  these  purposes  were  long  ago  settled  :  the 
university  exists  to  train  servants  of  the  state, 
or,  as  prevailing  in  England,  to  train  up  a  race 
of  gentlemen  who  shall  never  forget  the  obli- 
gations of  their  caste.  It  is  the  glory  of  Ger- 
many that  she  has  seen  more  clearly  than  other 
nations  how  truly  the  highest  scientific  train- 
ing is  none  too  good  for  her  public  servants. 

The  wholly  different  conditions  prevailing 
in  the  United  States  have  been  reflected  in  the 
organization  of  our  universities  and  colleges. 
There  is  no  state  religion,  and  the  national 
Constitution  forbids  the  patronage  or  proscrip- 
tion of  any  sect;  consequently  the  theological 
faculty,  originally  the  most  important  in  the 
universities  of  western  and  northern  Europe, 
found  no  state  recognition.  The  practice  of 
the  law  was  subject  to  few  restrictions,  and  in- 
deed in  at  least  one  State  is  still  open  to  every 
citizen  of  mature  age,  so  that  the  schools  of 
law,  when  they  began  at  all,  grew  up  mostly  on 
a  basis  of  private  organization,  with  purely 
practical  training  as  their  object,  and  often  un- 
derbid one  another  in  their  eagerness  for  stu- 
dents. With  such  exceptions  as  the  nature  of 
the  profession  brings  with  it.  the  regulation  of 
the  study  and  practice  of  medicine  went  the 
same  course,  proprietary  schools  being  the  most 
frequent  form  of  organization  for  instruction 
in  the  healing  art.  As  for  the  faculty  of  arts 
or  philosophy,  which,  originally  preparatory  for 
one  of  the  others,  had  in  Germany  been  put  on 
a  par  with  them  and  made  the  doorway  to  the 
new  profession  of  teaching  in  the  State  schools, 
its  ground  was  partially  covered  by  the  cur- 
ricula of  the  best  colleges.  The  character  of  these 
colleges,  however,  resembled  more  nearly  that 
of  the  German  philosophical  faculty  of  two  cen- 
turies ago.  The  state  systems  of  education  did 
not  at  first  include  more  than  elementary 
schools,  so  that  there  was  no  great  incentive 
for  prescribing  a  college  course  for  those  per- 
sons who  wished  to  teach  in  them ;  nor  would 
such  a  regulation  have  been  popular  in  intensely 


AMERICAN   UNIVERSITY 


democratic  communities,  or,  in  the  poverty  of 
many  oi  the  states,  easilj  possible  of  fulfilment. 
Under  these  circumstances  the  European  con- 
ception  of  a  university  was  l« >^i ;  and  when  it 
began  to  be  regained,  different   systems,  impel 

and  incongruous  n  is  true,  but  still  in  many 
ways  useful,  had  grown  up  to  till  the  needs 
which  arc  supplied  in  Europe  by  the  university. 
Other  needs  had  made  themselves  felt  in  Amer- 
ica even  mure  keenly:  the  needs  incident  to 
the  rapid  settling  and  exploitation  of  a  new 
country,  where  vast  distances  and  a  phenomenal 
growth  cit'  population  made  imperative  some  pro- 
vision  for  training  in  the  technical  professions 
and  mechanical  arts.  It  is  not  strange,  then, 
though  it  has  been  unfortunate  for  the  country 
at  large,  that  the  last  need  to  he  recognized  ill 
education  has  been  the  need  of  thorough  train- 
ing in  the  humanities  and  in  pure  science,  in 
what  has  been  admirably  well  called  "disinter- 
ested scientific  thinking,  as  distinguished  from 
technical    or    commercial     science.>) 

American  educators  are  not  yet  at  one  as  re- 
gards the  true  function  of  the  university.  In 
general,  two  opposing  views  are  chiefly  held. 
The  purpose  of  the  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.,  Uni- 
versity is  declared  to  be:  "To  lit  young  persons 
for  success  in  life."  An  admirable  purpose,  no 
doubt,  hut  one  which  the  university  must  share 
in  common  with  many  other  institutions.  Of 
a  like  breadth  of  conception  is  the  avowed  pur- 
pose of  Ezra  Cornell:  "i  would  found  an  insti- 
tution where  any  person  may  find  instruction 
in  any  study."  The  brilliant  history  of  Cornell 
University  is  chiefly  due  to  the  wisdom  of  the 
men  who  have  seen  what  limitations  should  be 
put  upon  this  great  plan.  This  view  of  the  true 
function  of  a  university  is  chiefly  prevalent  in 
the  West;  one  sometimes  hears  it  said  that  the 
western  universities  exist  solely  for  the  sake  of 
the  students,  while  some  oi  tin  eastern  universi- 
ties seem  to  think  that  the  students  exist  chiefly 
for  the  sake  of  the  universities  or  of  science  at 
large.  The  universities  of  private  foundation 
are  proceeding  more  and  more  on  the  assump- 
tion that  their  function  is  to  train,  in  their 
graduate  departments  or  faculties  of  philosophy, 
specialists,  as  teachers,  and  to  a  less  extent  as 
investigators;  those  which  have  raised  some  of 
their  professional  schools  to  true  university  rank 
by  refusing  admission  to  all  who  have  not  re- 
ceived a  non-professional  degree  aim  not  merely 
to  instruct  the  future  physicians  and  lawyers  in 
the  technique  of  their  professions,  but  to  give 
them  true  scientific  insight  and  philosophic 
grasp.  Until  there  is  agreement  as  to  the  true 
function  of  a  university,  there  cannot  be  agree- 
ment as  to  their  organization  and  administration. 
Whoever  holds  to  the  Stanford  idea  will  wish 
t"  see  all  departments  of  instruction  put  on  pre- 
cisely the  same  plane:  whoever  believes  that 
scientific  research  is  the  highest  and  noblest  aim 
of  education  will  demand  for  the  university  an 
organization  which  shall  emphasize  this,  leaving 
to  other  institutions  the  teaching  which  is  en- 
tirely practical. 

As  a  whole,  American  universities  seem  to  be 
trying  to  do  too  many  things  at  once,  generally 
with  an  altogether  inadequate  equipment  of  in- 
structors, and  with  an  insufficient  endowment 
Each  university  aims  to  cover  the  entire  field 
of  instruction:  the  result  is  that  the  professors, 
who  are,  except  in  the  professional  faculties, 
almost   always   college    instructors   as   well,   are 


cruelly  overburdened  with  teaching  and  admin- 
istrative duties,  wilh  the  inevitable  result  that 
few  of  them  can  carry  on  much  research.  The 
organization  of  most  of  our  universities  i  too 
Complicated,  Many  professors  have  to  attend 
two,    three,    or    even    four    [acuity    meetings    each 

month,  and  serve  on  committees  without   mini 

her;  some  of  them  are  <  veil  expected  to  do 
purely   clerical    work. 

Perhaps    the    most    important    of   American 

University    problems    at    present,    as    hearing    di 
rcctly   upon  the   necessary  organization   and   de- 
termining  it,    is    the    relation   of    university    or 

graduate  work  to  undergraduate  work  and  to 
professional  training.  With  the  very  liberal 
regulation,    often     lack    of    regulation,    exercised 

by  the  State  governments  over  the  practice  of 
the  professions  of  law  anil  medicine,  the  number 
of  practitioners  has  inevitably  become  exces- 
sively great.  The  need  of  stricter  control  has 
been    seen,   and   many    Stales    have    increased    the 

requirements  for  admission  to  practice.    That  any 

of  the  Slates  will  require  a  complete  collegiate 
education  as  a  preliminary  to  admission  to  prac- 
tice is  a  very  remote  possibility.  It  rests  with 
the  universities  to  raise  the  plane  of  their  pro- 
fessional schools  so  that  only  the  fittest  will 
survive.  Experience  has  shown  that  raising  the 
standard  of  an  institution  is  surely  followed  in 
a  tew  years  by  an  increase  in  numbers  as  well 
as  in  the  quality  of  students  entering.  A  be- 
ginning has  already  been  made,  as  indicated 
above,  for  the  professional  schools  of  law  and 
medicine.  As  for  the  technical  schools,  most 
of  them,  whether  connected  with  the  universi- 
ties or  not,  have  been  too  ready  to  admit  stu- 
dents on  very  slight  requirements.  Perhaps  in 
time  the  best  of  these  will  see  that  a  go.nl  pre- 
liminary training  ought  to  he  demanded  of  their 
students,  and  so  put  themselves  also  on  a  uni- 
versity  level. 

Enough  has  been  said,  it  is  hoped,  to  show- 
that  there  is  little  chance  of  re-eslahlishing  in 
any  American  university  the  traditional  four 
faculties,  unaccompanied  by  any  other  depart- 
ments of  instruction.  If  means  were  abundant, 
it  would  perhaps  he  advisable  to  separate  en- 
tirely from  the  universities  the  technical  schools, 
except  such  as  should  he  willing  to  demand  a 
preliminary  degree  for  admission  and  to  develop 
more  fully  the  theoretical  and  research  side  of 
their  teaching.  At  present  undue  prominence 
is  given  to  the  technical  schools  in  many  insti- 
tutions, largely  because  they  are  the  best  pay- 
ing parts,  and  the  lone  of  the  whole  institution, 
as  an  organization  that  should  exist  as  largely 
for  the  advancement  of  research  as  for  any 
other   cause,    is    distinctly    lowered   thereby. 

The  graduate  school,  or  faculty  of  philoso- 
phy, hears  closer  relations  with  the  collegiate 
course  than  can  he  borne  by  any  professional 
faculty.  The  overburdening  of  professors  al- 
luded to  above  might  be  remedied  by  the  ap- 
pointment, wdiere  endowments  would  allow,  of 
professors  exclusively  for  graduate  work  on  the 
lines  of  the  faculty  of  philosophy,  who  should 
he  able  to  engage  in  extended  research  work 
with  advanced  students.  Hitherto  no  institution 
has  been  in  a  position  to  do  this  in  any  large 
degree.  Nor  has  it  been  possible  to  try  on  a 
really  instructive  scale  the  experiment  of  a  uni- 
versity without  college  or  technical  schools. 
Whether  such  a  university  could  properly  main- 
tain   a    faculty   of   theology,    it    is   hard    to   say. 


AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY 


The  Union  Theological  Seminary  in  New  York, 
while  under  Presbyterian  management,  is  in 
many  respects  a  real  university  faculty,  and 
the  same  may  be  said  of  some  few  others.  The 
relations  between  Columbia  and  the  Union 
Seminary  have  become  close,  with  the  good 
result  that  many  students  of  the  latter  attend 
courses  at  Columbia  under  the  faculties  of  po- 
litical science  and  philosophy,  and  are  eligible 
for  Columbia  degrees. 

Concerning  the  precise  relation  to  be  borne 
by  the  graduate  work  to  that  of  the  college,  no 
general  agreement  has  yet  been  reached.  Even 
where  the  two  are  carefully  separated,  no  such 
great  dissimilarity  in  methods  exists  as  prevails 
in  Germany  between  the  gymnasium  and  the 
university.  Where,  as  at  Harvard,  the  lines  of 
demarcation  are  partly  obliterated,  the  change 
from  one  method  to  another  is  very  gradual. 
Johns  Hopkins  aims  above  all  at  producing  spe- 
cialists, and  even  her  college  courses  are  largely 
shaped  to  this  end.  The  results  certainly  jus- 
tify her  policy. 

The  preparation  which  the  candidates  for  ad- 
mission to  the  graduate  schools  bring  with  them 
is  naturally  very  varied.  For  many  kinds  of  ad- 
vanced work,  the  general  training  given  in  the 
college  is  not  enough ;  so  that  the  student,  in 
order  not  to  lose  much  valuable  time  afterward, 
has  to  begin  his  special  studies  before  receiving 
his  first  degree.  This  is  encouraged  by  the 
system  in  vogue  at  Columbia,  especially  in  the 
case  of  students  looking  forward  to  medicine  or 
the  law.  A  tendency  to  over-early  specializa- 
tion is  showing  itself  in  many  places;  the  stu- 
dents are  naturally  anxious  to  begin  the  active 
duties  of  life  as  soon  as  possible,  and  are  un- 
willing to  postpone  the  acquirement  of  the  pro- 
fessional degree  until  the  25th  or  26th  year  of 
their  age.  A  remedy  for  this  has  been  sought 
in  several  directions,  but  none  of  the  plans  tried 
has  been  successful  enough  to  prevail  over  the 
Others.  The  trouble  seems  to  lie  largely  in  the 
loss  of  time  during  the  earlier  school  years. 
The  pupils  are  not  taken  in  hand  early  enough, 
nor  do  they  receive  severe  enough  training. 
With  the  improvement  in  organization  and 
methods  which  is  everywhere  noticeable,  it 
ought  to  be  possible  after  a  few  years  to  send 
young  men  and  women  to  college  at  16  as  well 
prepared  as  they  are  now  at  17  or  18.  With 
this  done,  the  college  course  might  well  be 
shortened  to   three  years. 

It  may  be  asked,  what  of  the  Lehrfreiheil  and 
Lemfreiheit,  the  freedom  for  teacher  and 
learner,  as  they  are  claimed  for  the  universities 
of  Germany,  in  those  of  America?  As  for  the 
first,  the  American  university  professor  has  lit- 
tle cause  for  complaint;  whatever  may  have  been 
the  case  25  years  ago,  he  may  now  teach  what 
he  likes  nearly  everywhere,  though  now  and  then 
the  regents  of  a  State  university,  or  the  re- 
ligious body  controlling  a  divinity  school,  raise 
noisy  protest.  In  one  respect  there  is  yet  much 
room  for  improvement:  as  yet  no  serious  effort 
has  been  made  to  introduce  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable features  of  the  German  university  sys- 
tem, the  system  of  Privatdosenten.  It  is  not 
yet  possible  for  a  young  man  of  ability  to  secure 
the  right  of  lecturing  at  a  university  by  merely 
proving  that  he  is  competent  to  do  it.  The  in- 
troduction of  this  custom  has  been  several  times 
attempted,  but  so  far  with  quite  insignificant 
results. 


As  for  the  Lemfreiheit,  that  too  has  be- 
come naturalized  among  us ;  even  the  under- 
graduate enjoys  a  large  measure  of  it,  largest 
in  those  colleges  where  the  elective  system  has 
taken  firm  root.  One  development  of  it,  the 
migration  of  students  from  one  university  to 
another  without  loss  of  standing,  is  still  unsat- 
isfactory. The  custom  is  highly  desirable,  and 
is  steadily  gaining  ground  in  America ;  it  is 
much  commoner  from  the  colleges  to  the  purely 
professional  schools,  students  of  law  and  medi- 
cine naturally  seeking  the  large  cities;  the  chief 
obstacles  to  its  adoption  are  the  differences  be- 
tween the  various  universities  in  the  matter  of 
organization  and  of  requirements  for  degrees, 
and  the  close  connection  between  college  and 
university  which  lead  the  college  graduate  in 
many  instances  to  remain  for  graduate  work 
where  he  has  taken  his  bachelor's  degree,  out  of 
pure  attachment  to  his  alma  mater. 

It  is  interesting  to  observe  how  rapidly  the 
spirit  of  independence  with  responsibility  is  de- 
veloping among  the  graduate  students.  At  22 
or  more  institutions  which  maintain  graduate 
schools  the  students  in  these  have  formed  them- 
selves into  associations  for  the  furtherance  of 
their  mutual  interests,  and  these  clubs  have 
formed  a  national  federation  which  holds  an- 
nual meetings,  where  papers  are  read,  and  ques- 
tions affecting  the  whole  range  of  graduate  work 
are  discussed.  The  interest  shown  in  these  pro- 
ceedings, and  the  intelligent  spirit  in  which  many 
important  questions  are  approached,  make  these 
associations  into  a  most  valuable  adjunct  to  the 
work  of  the  graduate  schools.  At  the  fourth 
annual  convention,  held  at  Cambridge,  Mass., 
in  December,  1898,  addresses  were  delivered  by 
President  Eliot  and  Prof.  J.  W.  White,  of  Har- 
vard, and  papers  were  read,  followed  by  ani- 
mated discussion,  on  the  following  topics :  The 
migration  of  students ;  the  regulations  concern- 
ing major  and  minor  subjects;  specialized 
scholarship  v.  preparation  for  teaching,  as  a 
basis  for  graduate  study;  the  master's  degree; 
graduate  studies  in  European  universities;  the 
regulation  of  graduate  to  undergraduate  courses. 
The  federation  of  graduate  clubs  also  carries  on 
a  determined  opposition  to  the  practice  of  con- 
ferring the  Ph.  D.  honoris  causa. 

A  project  vigorously  advocated  by  many  emi- 
nent American  educators  is  the  foundation  of  a 
national  university  for  tin-  United  Stales,  to  be 
situated  at  Washington,  to  be  controlled  by  a 
board  of  regents  under  the  chairmanship  of  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  and  to  be  con- 
stituted on  the  true  university  basis  of  admitting 
to  any  of  its  schools  only  those  who  have  re- 
ceived the  preliminary  training  shown  by  the 
possession  of  a  bachelor's  degree.  The  plan 
is  an  alluring  one  from  some  points  of  view. 
(See  National  University.)  To  add  another 
institution  of  learning  to  those  that  swarm 
in  the  United  States,  unless  the  new  comer 
should  at  once  outrank  them  all  in  the  mag- 
nitude and  completeness  of  its  equipment,  and 
unless  its  rise  should  imply  the  setting  of 
a  number  of  the  minor  lights,  would  be  a 
very  doubtful  service  to  the  cause  of  univer- 
sity education.  So  far  no  endowments  at  all 
comparable  with  those  of  half-a-dozen  of  the 
universities  already  existing  have  appeared; 
and  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  con- 
gress could  be  depended  upon  to  give 
the    institution    the    thoroughly    adequate    sup- 


AMERICAN  UNIVERSITY  — AMES 


port  without  which  it  must  remain  at  lust  one 
additional  "toi  o  <  if  a  university.11 

Edward  Delavan  Perry, 
imbia  University,  New  York. 

American  University,  The,  a  post-graduate 
institution  in  Washington,  mded  under 

the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
in  1891,  with  Bishop  John  F.  Hurst  as  chan- 
cellor. 

American  Water-color  Society.  See 
Water-Color  Society,  American. 

American  Whigs.    See  Whigs. 

America's  Cup.  See  Yachts  and  Yacht- 
ing. 

Americus,  Ga„  county-seat  of  Sumner 
CO.,  on  the  Georgia  &  A.  and  Central  of  Ga. 
R.R.'s,  about  7S  miles  southwest  of  Macon.  The 
town  was  settled  in  1832,  and  is  governed  under 
a  charter  granted  in  1889.  There  is  a  mayor  and 
council  of  six.  It  is  the  business  centre  for  a 
large  cane  and  cotton  region  and  has  also  sev- 
eral manufacturing  industries.  Pop.  (1900) 
7.674. 

Amerighi  Michelangelo.     See  Caravaggio. 

Amerigo  Vespucci.     See  Vespucci. 

Amerind,  a  word  suggested  by  Maj.  J.  W. 
Powell  to  describe  the  American  Indians  as  dis- 
tinguished from  other  Indians. 

Amerling,  a'mer-ling,  Friedrich,  Austrian 
painter:  b.  Vienna  1803;  d.  there  1887.  He 
studied  painting  in  Vienna,  and  also  in  London, 
Paris,  and  Munich,  and  spent  some  years  in 
Italy.  Upon  his  return  to  Austria  he  was  se- 
lected to  paint  a  portrait  of  the  Emperor  Franz 
I.,  and  from  that  time  ranked  as  the  most  prom- 
inent portrait  painter  of  that  country.  His 
portraits  number  about  1,000,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  brilliant  coloring,  but  sometimes  fail 
of  definiteness  of  characterization.  Consult: 
Bodensuin.  'Ihnulert  lahre  Kunstgeschichte 
Wiens'    (1888);  and   Frankl,  'Lite'    (1889). 

Amersfoot,  a  town  in  Holland,  in  the 
province  of  I  trecht,  and  12  miles  northeast  of 
the  town  of  Utrecht.  By  the  Eem,  on  which  it 
stands,  it  has  a  navigable  communication  with 
the  Zuyder  Zee.  It  manufactures  woolen  goods, 
tobacco,  glass,  and  silk-yarn,  and  carries  on  an 
extensive  trade  in  grain.  The  Roman  Catholic 
church  of  St.  Mary,  built  in  the  14th  century, 
has  a  Gothic  tower  308  feet  high,  considered 
to  In-  one  of  the  finest  in  Europe.  There  is  a 
college  of  the  Jansenists  in  the  city,  it  being  one 
of  the  chief  centres  of  this  sect,  which  does 
a-  exist  outside  of  Holland.  The  Grand 
Pensionary  of  Holland,  Jan  von  Oldenbarne- 
commonly  called  Barneveldt,  was  born 
here.     Pop.    (1902)    20,500. 

Ames,  Adelbert,  American  soldier  and 
Reconstruction  official:  b.  Rockland.  Me.,  31 
(let.  1835.  Graduating  at  West  Point  in  1861  he 
was  assigned  to  the  artillery  and  served  through 
the  Civil  War  with  distinction :  was  wounded 
at  Bull  Run  and  brevetted  for  gallantry  there; 
took  part  in  nearly  all  the  battles  of  the  Penin- 
sular campaign,  in  Fredericksburg,  Chancellors- 
ville,  Antietam,  Gettysburg,  and  before  Peters- 
burg; was  brevetted  colonel,  was  brigade  and 
division  commander  at  times,  brevetted  major- 
gi  neral  of  volunteers  for  conduct  at  the  cap- 
ture of  Fort  Fisher,  and  major-general  in  the 


regular  army  for  general  conduct  in  the  war. 
In  1806  he  was  made  lieutenant-colonel.  From 
1868,  when  lu-  was  appointed  provisional  gov- 
ernor of  M1--1~-11.p1  (extended  the  next  year 
to  the  4th  military  district  of  the  States  lately 
in  insurrection),  to  1876,  he  was  in  the  thick 
of  tin-  "carpet-bag"  troubles;  upheld  by 
United  States  troops,  the  negro  vote,  and  a 
small  section  of  whites,  mostly  recent  immi- 
grants, and  bitterly  fought  by  the  mass  of  the 
white  inhabitants.  Mi  ippi  was  among  the 
last  of  the  revolted  States  t<>  accept  Recon- 
struction or  the  War  Amendments  as  fixed 
facts.  The  preponderant  negro  population  and 
the  backwardness  of  much  of  the  while  made 
the  race  problem  more  acute  there  than  any- 
where else  in  the  South;  the  elements  at  Ames' 
disposal  were  unfit  to  base  even  a  decent  civil- 
ized structure  upon,  and  they  frightfully  plun- 
dered and  misgoverned  the  State;  on  the  other 
hand,  according  to  Ins  side,  the  white  portion 
would  not  do  its  best  to  reduce  the  evils  by  co- 
operating in  good  faith  with  the  administration, 
and  simply  defied  all  orders:  and  the  State  went 
into  anarchy  tempered  by  local  vigilance  com- 
mittees. He  held  an  election  for  a  legislature 
30  Nov.  1869,  convened  it  11  Jan.  1870,  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  for  the  unex- 
pired term  from  4  March  1869,  and  in  1873  was 
elected  governor  of  Mississippi  and  resigned 
his  seat  in  the  Senate  —  the  whiles  regarding 
all  these  elections,  under  the  conditions,  mere 
military  usurpation  and  illegality.  His  gover- 
norship was  charged  with  sacrificing  the  civil- 
ized interests  of  the  State  to  the  blacks,  and  on 
7  December  there  was  a  bloody  race  riot  at 
Vicksburg,  followed  by  others  through  the 
State.  Ames  sent  to  Washington  for  more 
troops  to  maintain  order,  the  white  party  coun- 
tered with  fresh  charges,  a  congressional  in- 
vestigating committee  was  appointed,  and  for 
two  years  the  State  had  —  like  several  Southern 
States  through  this  period  —  a  formal  govern- 
ment perfectly  powerless,  and  a  real  government 
consisting  of  the  rough  consensus  of  intere  I 
among  the  larger  white  landowners.  In  No- 
vember 1875  these  recovered  control  of  the 
State  by  suppressing  the  negro  vote  wherever 
troops  were  not  actually  present.  The  legisla- 
ture which  met  in  January  impeached  Ames  and 
all  his  executive  officers;  the  State  Administra- 
tion was  paralyzed:  the  national  administration 
was  sick  of  upholding  impossible  local  govern- 
ments ;  and  Ames  finally  agreed  to  resign  if  the 
impeachment  were  withdrawn.  He  at  once  re- 
moved to  New  York ;  later  to  Lowell,  Mass. 
In  the  Spanish-American  war  he  was  a  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers. 

Ames,  Charles  Gordon,  an  American 
clergyman,  editor,  and  lecturer:  b.  Dorchester, 
Mass.,  3  Oct.  1828.  He  graduated  at  the  Ge- 
auga Seminary,  Ohio;  was  ordained  in  1849  as 
a  Free  Baptist,  but  later  became  a  Unitarian  and 
pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Disciples,  Boston. 
He  was  editor  of  the  Minnesota  Republican, 
the  first  Republican  paper  in  the  Northwest,  in 
1854,  and  the  Christian  Register  of  Boston, 
1877-80.  He  wrote  'George  Eliot's  Two  Mar- 
riages* (iSsm  :  'As  Natural  as  Life'  (1894): 
'Poems'  (1898)  ;  etc.  He  has  preached  and  lec- 
tured in  20  States,  and  has  always  been 
deeply  interested  in  social  and  philanthropic 
questions. 


AMES 


Ames,  Eleanor  Maria  (Easterbrook), 
pseudonym  "Eleanor  Kirk,"  author:  b.  Warren, 
R.  I.,  7  Oct.  1831.  Besides  numerous  contribu- 
tions to  newspaper  and  periodical  literature,  she 
has  published:  'Up  Broadway,  a  Life  Story' 
(1870)  ;  'H.  W.  Beecher  as  a  Humorist:  Selec- 
tions' (1887)  ;  'Information  for  Authors' 
(1888)  ;  'Periodicals  that  Pay  Contributors' 
(privately  printed)  ;  editor  'Eleanor  Kirk's 
Idea,'  a  monthly  magazine. 

Ames,  Fisher,  American  orator  and  states- 
man :  b.  Dedham,  Mass.,  9  April  1758 ;  d.  there, 
4  July  1808.  His  father  died  when  he  was  six. 
A  precocious  scholar,  he  graduated  from  Har- 
vard at  16 ;  taught  school  some  years  to  support 
his  impoverished  family,  cultivating  himself  by- 
wide  reading  and  profound  study  of  the  classics 
and  the  Scriptures ;  studied  law,  and  began 
practice  in  Dedham  in  1781.  He  made  a  repu- 
tation as  "Brutus"  and  "Camillus"  in  the  Bos- 
ton papers,  was  sent  to  the  legislature  in  1788, 
won  laurels,  and  was  elected  to  the  convention 
to  ratify  the  Federal  Constitution.  His  speech 
there  on  biennial  elections  gave  him  fresh  re- 
pute as  one  of  our  foremost  orators.  In  Decem- 
ber he  was  elected  (Federalist)  Representative 
to  Congress,  and  re-elected  through  Washing- 
ton's administration  to  1797:  he  was  chosen  to 
pronounce  the  congressional  address  to  Wash- 
ington on  his  retirement;  and  on  28  April  1796 
delivered  his  masterpiece  of  eloquence  and  ef- 
fectiveness, on  the  appropriation  to  carry  Jay's 
treaty  of  1794  into  effect, —  so  impressive  that 
the  other  party  protested  against  taking  a  vote 
until  after  an  adjournment,  because  the  House 
was  too  excited  to  decide  rationally.  Retiring 
from  public  life  on  account  of  feeble  health,  he 
spent  his  later  years  mainly  on  his  Dedham 
farm,  though  writing  papers  in  1798  to  urge  the 
Federalists  to  resist  French  aggressions,  which 
was  pouring  oil  on  a  conflagration  (see 
Adams,  John;  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  and 
the  names  of  the  various  political  parties 
of  the  time),  serving  for  a  time  on  the  State 
Council,  and  delivering  a  eulogy  on  Washington 
before  the  legislature.  He  declined  the  presi- 
dency of  Harvard  in  1804.  He  was  an  orator 
by  inspiration,  studying  his  subject  and  taking 
notes  to  expand  on  the  moment,  and  full 
of  flashing  epigrams  and  pregnant  laconics.  A 
large  public  school  in  Dedham  Centre  com- 
memorates his  name.  ('Works  and  Life,'  I 
vol.  1809 ;  2  vols.  1854,  by  his  son  Seth ;  selected 
speeches,  four  new,  1  vol.  1871,  by  his  grand- 
son.) 

Ames,  James  Barr,  professor  of  law:  b. 
Boston,  22  June  1846.  Graduated  at  Harvard 
in  1868,  the  Law  School,  1872.  Instructor  in 
history.  Harvard,  1872-3 ;  associate  professor  of 
law,  1873-7 1  professor  of  law  since  1877,  and 
dean  of  the  law  school  since  1895.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  articles  in  the  'Harvard  Law 
Review'  and  other  legal  periodicals,  and  has 
compiled  collections  of  cases  on  torts,  pleading, 
partnership,   notes  and  bills,   and  suretyship. 

Ames,  Joseph,  painter:  b.  Roxbury,  N.  H., 
1816:  d.  New  York.  30  Oct.  1872.  Though 
wholly  self-taught  he  early  began  portrait- 
painting,  opened  a  studio  in  Boston,  and  had 
success  enough  to  obtain  means  to  go  to  Rome 
and  study.  While  there  he  painted  a  fine  por- 
trait of  Piu*  IX.  He  was  elected  member 
Vol.  1—28 


of  the  National  Academy  of  Design.  1870, 
and  soon  had  more  orders  than  he  could  fill. 
Some  of  his  best  known  portraits  are  those  of 
Ristori,  Prescott,  Emerson,  Rachel,  and  Presi- 
dent Felton  of  Harvard.  'Maud  Muller'  and 
'The  Death  of  Webster'  are  his  best  known 
ideal  paintings. 

Ames,  Joseph  Sweetman,  professor  of 
physics:  b.  Manchester,  Vt.  3  July  1864.  He 
graduated  at  Johns  Hopkins  in  1886  and  is  pro- 
fessor of  physics  there.  He  is  author  of  'Theory 
of  Physics'  (1897);  'Manual  of  Experiments 
in  Physics'  (1898)  ;  'Free  Expansion  of  Gases' 
(1898)  ;  'Induction  of  Electric  Currents'  (2 
vols.  1900)  ;  editor  'Scientific  Memoir  Series,' 
'Fraunhofer's  Papers'  ;  assistant  editor  'Astro- 
physical  Journal,'  'American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence.' 

Ames,  Mary  Clemmer,  American  journal- 
ist and  author:  b.  Utica,  N.  Y.,  1839;  d.  18 
Aug.  1884.  Educated  in  Westfield,  Mass.,  she 
began  very  young  to  write  for  the  Springfield 
Republican;  then  removed  to  Washington  and 
became  for  many  years  a  regular  weekly  cor- 
respondent of  the  New  York  Independent,  her 
'Woman's  Letter  from  Washington'  in  which 
made  her  one  of  the  best  known  and  most 
influential  woman  writers  in  the  country.  Her 
style,  especially  on  attractive  masculine  per- 
sonalities, was  somewhat  Oriental;  but  she  was 
honest  and  sincere  in  a  time  of  pervasive  lob- 
byism  and  self-seeking.  She  wrote  also  bio- 
graphical sketches  of  the  Cary  sisters,  Emerson, 
Longfellow,  Charles  Sumner,  Margaret  Fuller, 
and  George  Eliot;  'Ten  Years  in  Washington' 
(1871);  'Outlines  of  Men,  Women,  and 
Things'  (1873);  the  novels  'Victoria'  (1864), 
'Eirene'  (1870),  and  'His  Two  Wives'  (1874)  ; 
and  a  volume  of  poems  (1882).  She  married 
early  Rev.  Daniel  Ames,  and  was  divorced ;  in 
1883  Edmund  Hudson,  proprietor  of  the  'Army 
and  Navy  Register.'  Her  home  in  Washing- 
ton was  long  a  social  and  literary  centre. 
(Works,  Boston,  1885;  memorial  by  her  hus- 
band,  1886.) 

Ames,  Nathan  P.,  American  manufacturer: 
b.  1803;  d.  23  April  1847.  In  1829  he  established 
cutlery  works  at  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.,  which 
attained  a  national  reputation,  their  swords 
especially  being  largely  bought  by  the  United 
States.  In  1834  he  removed  the  works  to  Cabot- 
ville  (Chicopee),  where  he  lived  and  died;  and 
incorporated  with  others  the  Ames  Mfg.  Co., 
which  in  1836  added  a  bell  and  bronze  can- 
non foundry  that  had  equal  fame  and  furnished 
the  larger  part  of  the  government's  brass  can- 
non in  the  Civil  War,  as  well  as  the  bronze  stat- 
ues of  De  Witt  Clinton  in  Greenwood  Cemetery, 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  of  George  Washington  in 
Union  '  Square,  New  York,  and  of  Benjamin 
Franklin  in  School  Street,  Boston.  The  works 
supplied  the  British  government  just  before  the 
Crimean  war  with  machines  for  making  mus- 
kets. 

Ames,  Oakes,  manufacturer  and  pro- 
moter: b.  Easton,  Mass.,  10  Jan.  1804;  d.  8  May 
1873.  The  son  of  a  blacksmith  who  had  become 
a  manufacturer  of  highly  reputed  picks  and 
shovels,  he  trained  himself  in  his  father's  works, 
and  with  his  brother  joined  the  firm  as  Oli- 
ver Ames  &  Sons.  The  opening  up  of  California 
in   1848  and  Australia  in  1851  by  the  gold  dis- 


AMES  — AMHERST 


eries  created  an  immense  demand  for  their 
goods  in  mining,  settlement,  and  railroad  build- 
ing, which  raised  the  firm  to  the  front  rank  in 
business  and  wealth;  and  in  the  Civil  War  they 
had  great  contracts  for  shovels,  swords,  etc, 
Mr.  Aim-,  was  in  the  Massachusetts  executive 
council    1861,   and    1  1  in    1862   till    death. 

In  1864  the  failure  oi  attempts  to  carry  through 
the  nationally  exigent  Pacific  Railroad  led  Presi- 
dent Lincoln's  government  to  call  on  Mr.  Anus 
to  undertake  it.  He  risked  financial  ruin  if  it 
failed,  investing  $1,000,000  and  making  his  whole 
fortune  responsible  for  the  rest:  it  could  not 
be  expected  that  he  should  forego  a  corre- 
sponding  profit  if  it  succeeded.  The  work  was 
finally  accomplished  by  organizing  a  construc- 
tion company  (see  Credit  Mobilier  of  Amer- 
ica), which  paid  itself  largely  in  stock  and  bonds 
of  the  Union  Pacific,  practically  making  tin- 
two  companies  one,  and  enabling  the  former 
to  charge  the  latter  its  own  prices  [or  work  and 
supplies,  the  government  paying  the  bills. 
Credit  Mobilier  stock  became  enormously  valu- 
able, and  the  directors  were  charged  with  cheat 
ing  the  government  and  using  the  stock  to  buy 
congressional  support  for  the  fraud.  Mr.  Ames' 
anomalous  position  as  congressman,  director  in 
both  companies,  contractor  for  immense  sup- 
plies to  the  railroad,  and  the  ablest  manager  of 
the  whole  enterprise,  caused  the  chief  fury  of 
the  assault  to  fall  on  him;  and  in  the  tremen- 
dous public  scandal  and  investigation  which  fol- 
lowed he  was  censured  by  the  Forty-second 
1  ongress  and  died  shortly  after.  His  son  Oli- 
ver ((|.v. ),  however,  induced  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  to  re-examine  the  case,  and  on  10 
May  1883  (the  14th  anniversary  of  the  comple- 
tion of  the  railroad)  it  passed  a  resolution  ex- 
onerating Mr.  Anns.  The  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
road erected  a  monument  to  his  memory  at 
Sherman.  Wyoming,  the  crest  of  the  road,  8,550 
feet  above  the  sea. 

Ames,  Oliver,  manufacturer,  brother  of 
Oakes  above:  b.  Plymouth,  Mass.,  5  Nov.  1807; 
(1  o  March  18;;.  His  brother's  partner,  he  was 
a  sharer  in  all  bis  business  enterprises;  president 
pro  Inn.  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  1866-8, 
formal  president  1808-71  ;  a  director  in  the  Credit 
Mobilier.  After  his  brother's  death  he  became 
head  of  the  manufacturing  firm.  He  was  a 
member  of  the   State   Senate   [852  and   1857. 

Ames,  Oliver,  manufacturer,  son  of  Oakes 
above:  l>.  North  Easton,  Mass,  [831;  d.  1895. 
lie  was  trained  in  his  father's  works,  and  as 
his  h<  11  spent  several  years  in  paying  off  the  ob- 
ligations of  millions  of  dollars  incurred  by  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad  and  other  undertakings. 
Entering  public  life  avowedly  to  vindicate  his 
father's  memory,  he  was  lieutenant-governor  of 
Massachusetts  1882-6;  in  [883  obtained  the 
vindicatory  resolution  he  sought;  and  1886-8 
was  g'  n  erni  >r. 

Ames,  Samuel,  jurist:  b,  Providence,  R.  T., 
6  Sept.  1800;  d.  there  20  Dec.  18(15.  Graduated 
at  Brown,  1823;  studied  law  with  Judge  Gould 
at  Litchfield,  Conn.  He  served  for  many  years 
in  the  Rhode  Island  State  Assembly,  being 
speaker  1844-5.  He  was  elected  chief  justice  of 
the  State  supreme  court  1856,  but  resigned  in 
1X0^  .hi  account  "f  ill  health.  In  1839  lie  mar- 
li.d  Mary  Throop  Dorr,  daughter  of  Thomas 
W.  Dorr,  leader  of  the  rebellion   in   1842.     Au- 


thor and  editor  of   'Angell  and  Ames  on  Cor 
poratioiis,'    and   vols.  4-7  of   the    'Rhode    Island 

Reports.3 

Ames,  Iowa,  city  in  Story  County,  on  the 
Chicago  &  N.W.  R.R.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
State  Mechanical  and  Agricultural  College  and 
has  a  public  library,  banks,  churches,  schools, 
and  two  newspapers.  It  was  first  settled  in 
1864.     Pop.   (iyoo)  2,422. 

Amesbury,  Mass.,  town  in  Essex  County, 
situated  on  the  Mcrrimac  River  and  on  the 
Boston  &  Maine  R.R. ;  27  miles  north  of  Salem. 
It  has  manufactories  of  cotton  and  woolen 
goods,  boots  and  shoes,  machinery,  and  car- 
riages, and  was  long  the  residence  of  the  poet 
Whittier.  The  town  was  settled  in  1630.  Pop. 
(1900)  9,473. 

Ametabola,  those  insects  in  which  devel- 
opment is  direct,  there  being  no  metamorphosis. 

Am'ethyst  (from  the  Greek  amethystos, 
"not  intoxicated").  In  mineralogy  (ij  a  violet 
or  purple  variety  of  crystallized  quartz,  the  color 
being  probably  due  to  traces  of  manganese  or 
iron.  It  is  esteemed  as  a  gem,  and  was  worn  by 
the  Greeks  in  the  belief  that  it  lessened  the 
intoxicating  effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  upon  its 
possessor.  It  is  widely  distributed,  but  speci- 
mens pure  enough  in  color  to  be  used  as  gems 
are  not  common.  The  finest  amethysts  come 
from  Brazil,  India,  Siberia,  Pennsylvania,  and 
North  Carolina. 

(2)  The  precious  (or  Oriental)  amethyst  is 
a  crystalline  oxide  of  aluminum,  violet  in  color 
from  the  presence  of  traces  of  some  other  metal- 
lic oxide,  and  very  brilliant  and  beautiful.  Min- 
eralogically  the  Oriental  amethyst  is  a  variety 
of  corundum  (q.v.). 

Amhara,  am-ha'ra,  a  district  of  Abyssinia, 
lying  between  the  Tacazze  ami  the  Blue  Nile, 
but  of  which  the  limits  are  not  well  defined. 
Ihe  Amharic  language,  next  to  the  Arabic  the 
most  widely  used  of  all  the  Semitic  languages, 
has  gradually  gained  ground  in  southern  and 
central  Abyssinia,  and  has  become  tin-  court  lan- 
guage'. It  has  a  literature  of  its  own,  including 
a    version  of  the'   Scriptures. 

Amherst,  Jeffery,  Baron,  British  soldier 
remembered  for  his  American  services:  b.  Kent, 
England,  29  Jan.  1717;  d.  3  Aug.  1797.  lie  was 
a  duke's  page,  by  his  favor  entering  the  army  as 
ensign  at  14,  and  became  Gen,  Lord  I.igonier's 
aide;  serve. I  through  the-  war  eif  the  Austrian 
Succession,  I74l~8.  anil  was  at   Dettingen  (1743), 

Fontenoy  (1745).  and  Roncoux  (1740);  in  the 
Seven  Seats'  war  beginning  1756  be  was  at 
the  French  victory  of  Hastenbeck,  1 757-  He 
had  become  noted  as  a  brilliant  sohlie-r  and 
ranked  as  lieutenant-colonel;  in  1758  Pitt  se- 
lected him  to  ...  operate  with  Prideaux  in  con- 
quering Canada  from  the  French,  made  him 
major-general,  and  gave  him  command  < •  f  the 
expedition  against  Louisburg,  which  he  speed- 
ily reduced,  27  July.  In  the  following  Septem- 
ber he-  superseded  Abercromby  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  English  forces  in  America  and 
captured  Crown  Point  anil  Ticonderoga  the  fol- 
1.  wing  year.  On  8  Sept.  1  700  he  captured  Mon- 
treal and  en.l.d  the-  French  dominion  in  Canada, 
F.  .r  this  he  was  made  governor-general  < >f  the 
British  possessions  in  America,  thanked  by  Par- 
liament, and  made  a  Knight  of  the  Bath.  But 
in  face  of  Pontiac's  conspiracy  (1762)  he  failed, 


AMHERST  — AMICI 


as  other  English  commanders  had  so  often  be- 
fore, from  insisting  on  conducting  Indian  like 
European  warfare,  and  despising  the  Ameri- 
can militia  and  American  experience.  But  as 
American  trivialities  like  Pontiac's  war  were  un- 
known or  unregarded  in  England,  Amherst  on 
his  return  in  1763  was  received  with  immense 
enthusiasm  as  the  conqueror  of  Canada;  and  as 
he  was  also  a  favorite  of  George  III.,  and  ac- 
tively supported  the  policy  of  coercing  the  colo- 
nies through  the  years  before  the  Revolution, 
his  honors  did  not  cease.  He  was  titular  gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  1763-8,  without  going  there, 
governor  of  Guernsey  from  1770  on,  privy  coun- 
cilor, 1772  on,  1772-82  and  1783-93  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  British  army,  and  was  made  a 
field  marshal  on  resigning  his  command.  In 
1776  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  In  1780  he 
took  an  active  and  most  humane  part  in  sup- 
pressing the  London  "no  popery"  riots. 

Amherst,  port  of  entry  and  capital  of  Cum- 
berland County,  Nova  Scotia,  Canada,  situated 
on  an  arm  of  Cumberland  Bay,  an  extension  of 
Chignecto  Bay,  the  extreme  northeastern  arm 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy ;  on  the  Intercolonial  Rail- 
way. 138  miles  north  by  west  of  Halifax,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  about  midway  between  that  city  and 
Saint  John,  Xew  Brunswick.  It  was  formerly 
called  Fort  Lawrence.  Amherst  is  the  centre  of 
a  rich  agricultural  and  lumbering  district;  has 
factories,  iron-foundries,  tanneries,  and  ship- 
building establishments;  and  has  an  especially 
large  trade  in  lumber  and  ship-building.  Some 
of  the  richest  coal  mines  in  the  Province  are 
near  here,  and  grindstones  and  gypsum  are 
quarried  in  the  vicinity.  The  county  and  rail- 
way buildings,  the  churches,  and  hotels  are  sub- 
stantial structures.  Amherst  has  a  bank,  and 
daily,  semi-weekly,  and  weekly  newspapers. 
Pop.    (1901)   4,964. 

Amherst,  Mass.,  a  town  in  Hampshire  co., 
situated  on  the  Boston  &  Maine  and  the  Cen- 
tral Vermont  R.R.'s,  23  miles  northeast  of 
Springfield.  It  has  manufactories  of  paper, 
straw  and  palm-leaf  hats,  and  leather,  and  is 
best  known  as  the  seat  of  Amherst  College 
(q.v.),  the  State  Agricultural  College,  and  the 
State  Experiment  Station.     Pop.  (igoo)  5,028. 

Amherst  College,  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  one 
of  the  best  known  and  most  influential  of  New 
England  colleges,  though  it  has  kept  to  the  older 
ideals  of  an  all-round  liberal  education,  neither 
workshop  nor  professional  school,  and  has  not 
attempted  to  broaden  into  a  university  with  spe- 
cialized departments.  As  with  all  the  earlier 
United  States  institutions  of  learning,  the  ob- 
jects and  impelling  causes  of  its  foundation  were 
religious.  It  was  started  by  an  association  of 
Congregational  ministers  who  first  took  action 
in  1815,  and  was  based  on  Amherst  Academy, 
opened  December  1814.  and  for  many  years  one 
of  the  foremost  academies  in  Massachusetts.  The 
trustees  of  the  academy  were  long  the  trustees  of 
the  college  also,  and  the  original  plan  was  merely 
to  endow  a  professorship  of  languages  there  to 
train  educated  ministers.  They  then  enlarged 
it  to  a  charity  fund  for  <(the  classical  education 
of  indigent  young  men  of  piety  and  talents1' 
for  the  ministry.  A  convention  of  the  churches 
in  western  Massachusetts  on  29  Sept.  1818  lo- 
cate! the  new-  institution  at  Amherst :  the  corner- 
stone was  laid  0  Aug.   1820,  and  the  institution 


opened  18  Sept.  1821.  For  some  years  the  in- 
tention was  to  incorporate  Williams  College 
with  it;  but  011  a  petition  to  the  legislature  per- 
mission to  remove  Williams  was  refused.  The 
first  president  was  Rev.  Zephaniah  Swift  Moore, 
who  died  29  June  1823  largely  as  a  result  of 
overwork.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  Heman 
Humphrey,  who  retired  in  1845.  when  the  in- 
stitution was  threatened  with  bankruptcv,  and 
its  members  and  friends  hardly  expected  to 
maintain  it  as  anything  more  than  an  academy, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  Edward  Hitchcock, 
then  professor  of  natural  theology  and  geology 
there,  and  considered  the  foremost  of  American 
geologists.  In  his  nine  years'  tenure  he  greatlj 
extended  the  reputation  of  the  college  and  saw 
it  much  more  prosperous,  and  by  his  firm  but 
conciliatory  spirit,  his  weight  of  character,  and 
sagacity  of  policy,  gave  it  more  internal  unity 
and  outside  friendship.  He  resigned  the  presi- 
dency in  1854,  but  retained  his  professorship 
and  was  succeeded  by  Rev.  William  Augustus 
Stearns,  who  died  in  1876  :  an  able  and  excellent 
business  man  and  administrator,  and  sound  con- 
servator of  the  college  interests.  His  successor, 
Rev.  Julius  H.  Seelye,  who  held  office  till  1890, 
placed  it  within  its  chosen  boundaries  alongside 
the  best  of  other  colleges :  his  reputation  as 
scholar,  publicist,  educator,  and  humanitarian 
was  more  than  national  and  drew  the  best  class 
of  pupils  there.  He  resigned  in  1890  from  fail- 
ing health,  and  has  been  succeeded  by  Merrill 
Edwards  Gates  to  1899,  and  Rev.  George  Harri-. 
the  present  president.  The  college  in  1902  had 
36  professors  and  410  students,  and  had  gradu- 
ated over  4,200  in  all,  of  whom  considerably  over 
half  had  become  clergymen  or  teachers.  It  had 
a  library  of  over  75,000  volumes  and  very  re- 
markable scientific  museums ;  President  Hitch- 
cock's private  collection  of  fossil  footmarks,  or 
ichnological  cabinet,  the  choicest  in  the  world, 
and  his  admirable  geological  and  mineralogical 
cabinet,  greatly  supplemented  by  Prof.  Benjamin 
K.  Emerson,  "a  Mecca  to  geologists  and  sa- 
vants" ;  the  Adams  conchological  and  the  Shep- 
ard  meteoric  collections:  also  the  collection  of 
Indian  relics  presented  by  Edward  Hitchcock, 
Jr.  It  has  likewise  the  Pratt  gymnasium  and 
natatoriuni,  athletic  field,  and  college  hospital, 
presented  by  the  sons  of  Charles  Pratt  of  Brook- 
lyn, N.  Y.  Its  income  is  about  $110,000,  and  its 
scholarship  fund  has  swelled  by  degrees  to 
5300,000,  the  income  of  which  goes  to  indigent 
students. 

Alfred  S.  Goodale, 

Registrar. 

Amice,  or  Amict  (Tat.  amictus,  girt 
around),  a  vestment  worn  by  priests  in  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church  during  the  celebration  of 
mass.  After  the  general  adoption  of  the  cravat 
had  rendered  the  amice  unnecessary  as  a  neck- 
cloth, it  was  retained  for  the  significance  which 
it  had  acquired  as  an  emblem  of  the  cloth  where- 
with the  Saviour  was  blindfolded  by  the  Jews 
the  night  before  his  crucifixion. 

Amici,  Giovanni  Batista,  an  Italian  savant: 
b.  in  Modena,  1786:  d.  1864.  He  studied  nat- 
ural history  at  Bologna,  and  mathematics  at 
Modena.  He  became  professor  of  mathematics 
at  the  college  of  Fanaro,  and  for  some  time 
general  inspector  of  education  in  Modena,  where 
in   1831  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  appointed 


AMICIS;  AMIDE 


him    director    of    the    Florence    observatory,    as 
.ii-    of    thi  ted    com<  t  disi  i 

Pons.    This  office  he  held  until  his  death, 

publishing   every   year   the   result   oi    his  astro- 
itions,    al    thi      ame    time   con- 

tributing  important  papers  on  natural  history  to 

the  Memorie  della  Societa  Ualiana.     Science  is 
illy  indebted   to   him   for   his  improvement 

of  the  tele  i  i  ipes,  and  of 

tmera   lucida,  invented  hy   Hooke    Hid    Will 

laston.     I  [i  have  from  Ins  earlii 

d  much   attention  to  optical   instruments, 

and  before  he  was  20  he  made  a  til.  ■-cope  of  a 
mixture  composed  by  himself.  In  1827  he  made 
dioptric    mil  which    are    sold    with    his 

name    attached,    and.    notwithstanding    the    im- 

1  microscopes  of  Oberhauser,  are  still  in 
great   favor.     He  was   assisted   in   his  labors  by 

in,  Vincenzo  Amici,  who  is  professor  of 
mathematic    al  the  University  of  Fisa. 

Amicis,  Edmondo  de,  Italy's  foremost 
19th-century  descriptive  writer:  b.  Oncglia,  of 
parentage,  21  Oct.  1846.  Educated  at 
Coni  and  Turin,  he  attended  the  Modena  mili- 
tary school;  entered  service  1863  as  suh-licu- 
tenant,  acted  against  the  Sicilian  brigands,  and 
served  through  the  Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866, 
being  at  Custozza  24  June.  Me  remained  in  the 
army  till  the  occupation  of  Rome  in  1870;  but 
bis  literary  vocation  was  plain.  In  18117  he  took 
of  a  Florentine  paper.  L' Italia  Militare. 
In  1868  his  first  volume.  'Military  Sketches,5 
short  stories  of  the  phases  of  a  soldier's  life, 
bad  sweeping  success  and  marked  him  as  the 
coming  Italian  litterateur;  and  in  1871  be  settled 
at  Turin  and  devoted  himself  to  authorship. 
His  next  work  was  'Recollections5  (of  1870-1), 
dedicated  to  the  youth  of  Italy;  a  fresh  collec- 
tion of  stories  followed.  But  a  craving  for  trav- 
el turned  him  into  the  path  which  has  given  him 
his  greatest  fame:  the  foreign  world  at  bast 
knows  him  mainly  by  the  brilliant,  glowing  vol- 
umes describing  the  countries  of  Europe  and 
other  continents  be  visited,  their  national  charac- 
teristics and  habits,  and,  most  of  all.  the  springs 
of  their  life  and  thought.  They  are  enthusiastic, 
sympathetic,  optimistic,  full  of  sensuous  delight 
in  beauty,  rich  in  color,  and  vivid  in  clearness 
of  portrayal;  but  they  exhibit  too  a  marvelously 
keen  analytic  power  as  well  as  acute  photo- 
graphic sensitiveness  to  impressions  and  mar- 
literary  skill  in  translating  them  into 
language.  The  greatest  of  these  perhaps  is  'Hol- 
land' (1874'),  a  singularly  fine  analysis  of  the 
essence  of  Dutch  life  and  the  sources  of  Dutch 
art  in  that  life;  others  are  'Spain*  (1873).  'Rec- 
ollections of  London'  (1874).  'Morocco* 
(1876),  'Recollections  of  Paris5  (1878),  <Con- 
n>ple'  (1878).  He  published  also  in  these 
'Literary  Portraits5  (1881),  sympathetic 
studies  of  Daudet,  Zola,  Dumas  Jr..  Augier, 
Coquelin.  and  Deroulede;  "The  Friends,5  on 
friendship  in  general  (1882);  historical  novel- 
1  collection  in  part  old,  entitled  'The 
Gate  of  Italy5  (1884)  :  'On  the  Ocean5 
(1889).  Later,  educational  and  social  prob- 
lems deeply  occupied  bis  mind:  his  'Cuore5 
(Hearts;  Englished  as  'The  Heart  of  a  School- 
boy5), a  juvenile  in  which  a  pupil  tells  the 
events  of  a  school  year  day  by  day,  has  sold 
nearly  200.000  copies  in  Italy :  a  novel  for 
adults  on  similar  lines  is  'The  Workmen's  Mis- 
tress5  (189;)  ;  followed  the  same  year  by  'The 


Roman:e  of  a  Master5  (1895),  which  has  a 
Strong   socialistic    bent.      He   avows    himself   that 

he  think-  socialism  the  only  available  spring  of 
a  vital  Italian  literature  now.  His  latest  works 
are   'Everybody's   Wagon5    (1899),   'Memories5 

i  lope   ami   1  llory '    1  ['I'm),   and    'Rec- 
ords of  Infancy  and  School'   (1901). 

Amide  (am'id;  from  ammonia,  +  «/<•),  in 
chemistry,  a  general   name  for   a  class  of  bodies 

which  may  be  regarded  as  derived  from  am- 
monia, XII  .  by  replacing  one  or  more  of  the 
hydrogen  atoms  in  that  substance  by  an  equal 
number  "f  monovalent  acid  radicals.  Thus 
formic  acid,  H.CO.OH,  may  be  regarded  as  a  hy- 
drate of  the  acid  radical  HCO;  and  the  com- 
pound HCO. NIL,  which  is  known  as  "forma- 
mide,"  and  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  ethyl 
formate  upon  ammonia,  may  be  rei  de- 

rived from  ammonia  by  the  substitution  of  the 
radical  HCO  tor  one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in 
NHs.  Similarly,  acetic  acid,  CH«.CO.OH,  may 
1"  regarded  as  a  hydrate  of  the  radical  "acetyl8 
(CdllM:  an. I  acetaniide,  which  has  the  for- 
mula CjHiO.NHi,  and  is  produced  by  the  ac- 
tion of  ethyl  acetate  upon  ammonia,  may  be  re- 
garded as  derived  from  ammonia  hy  the 
substitution  of  the  radical  "acetyl"  for  one  of 
the  hydrogen  atoms  in  the  ammonia. 

Taking  the  general  formula  of  a  normal  fatty 
acid  as  X.CO.OH,  where  X  represents  an  alco- 
hol radical  (see  AlXOHOl  1.  an  amide  may  be 
formed  by  substituting  the  monovalent  acid  radi- 
cal, XCO,  for  one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  XII  . 
The  resulting  substance,  XCO.NH:,  is  called  the 
"primary  amide"  of  the  acid  radical  XCO.  By 
the  further  substitution  of  XCO  for  one  of  the 
atoms  of  hydrogen  remaining  in  the  primary 
amide,  a  "secondary  amide55  of  the  same  acid 
radical  is  obtained,  having  the  formula  (XCO)j. 
NH.  It  is  evident  that  a  "tertiary  amide,"  hav- 
ing the  formula   tXCO)a.N,  is  also  possible. 

For  some  purposes  it  is  convenient  to  regard 
the  primary  amide.  XCO.XH-.  of  the  monobasic 
acid  X.CO.OH,  from  the  opposite  point  of  view; 
namely,  as  derived  from  the  acid  by  the  substi- 
tution of  the  radical  NH:  for  the  hydroxyl  group 
OH.  Obviously  the  result  is  the  same  in  eithi  r 
case;  but  this  latter  view  makes  the  deportment 
of  dibasic  acid  radicals  easier  to  describe.  Thus 
in  the  dibasic  acid  Y(CO.OH  l9  1  where  Y  is  a 
divalent  radical),  the  first  result  of  the  substitu- 
tion of  NHj  for  OH  is  the  formation  of  the 
body  Y(CO.OH).(CO.NH::),  which  is  both  an 
acid  and  an  amide, —  an  amide  because  it  is  ob- 
tained by  the  substitution  of  NH;  for  OH.  and 
an  acid  because  it  still  contains  one  mob  rub  of 
hydrogen  that  is  replaceable  by  a  monovalent 
metal  or  radical  (namely,  the  molecule  of  11 
in  the  OH).  Bodies  of  this  type  arc  called 
"amic  acids." 

If  the  molecule  of  OH  remaining  in  an  amic 

acid  is  replaced  by  a  further  substitutii f  XT  I  . 

the  resulting  substance.  Y(CO.NHj)a,  is  called 
a    «di-amidc."    and    may   be    regarded    as    formed 

from  two  molecules  of  ammonia  by  the  substi- 
tution of  the  divalent  acid  radical  Y(CO);  for 
one  third  of  the  total  hydrogen  present  in  those 
molecules. 

The  chemistry  of  the  amides  is  very  involved. 
They  arc  mostly  solid  bodies,  neutral  to  litmus, 
but  capable  of  forming  compounds  with  acids. 
The  most  familiar  example  of  the  class  is  the 
primary  amide  of  acetyl,  or  "acetamjde.'5     This 


AMIDO  ACIDS  — AMIS  ET  AMILES 


substance,  which  is  usually  obtained  by  the  dry 
distillation  of  acetate  of  ammonium  at  tempera- 
tures exceeding  375°  F.,  has  the  formula 
C.II.O.XH:,  as  noted  above,  and  forms  hex- 
agonal crystals.  It  melts  at  about  1800  F.,  boils 
at  about  4320,  and  is  quite  soluble  in  water. 
Diacetamide,  (QH30)2.NH,  and  triacetamide, 
(GHjO  )j.N,  are  also  known.  See  Amine; 
Imide;  Xitrile. 

Amido  Acids,  intermediary  products  in 
the  metabolism  of  proteids.  In  the  process  of 
digestion  notably,  the  proteids  (albumens)  un- 
dergo a  gradual  series  of  transformations  where- 
by the  complex  proteid  molecule  is  broken  down 
into  simpler  and  simpler  compounds,  until  at 
the  end  of  the  process  carbonic  anhydride,  water, 
urea,  uric  acid,  ammonia,  etc.,  are  the  results. 
While  these  end  products  of  metabolism  are  well 
known,  the  intermediary  products  are  the  object 
of  much  inquiry.  In  the  intestinal  canal,  under 
the  prolonged  action  of  the  pancreatic  juice  fer- 
ments, simpler  nitrogenous  principles  are  found, 
leucine,  tyrosine,  aspartic  acids  —  these  belong  to 
the  general  group  of  the  amido-acids.  Schutz- 
enberger  has  described  amido-acids  of  the  (i) 
leucine  class,  CNH,N-f-1N02 — such  as  alanine, 
propalinine,  butalanine ;  (2)  of  the  acrylic  se- 
ries CnH,n-,XO,  (3)  amido-acids  of  the 
gluco-protein  class,  sweet  in  taste,  with  the  gen- 
eral formula  CnH,nN204;  ( 4 )  amido-acids 
such  as  tyrosine,  tyroleucine,  and  glutaminic 
acid.  References:  'Text-book  of  Physiology,' 
Schafer,  Vol.  I.,  p.  30. 

Amiel,  Henri  Frederic,  a  distinguished 
Swiss  essayist,  philosophical  critic  and  poet :  b. 
in  Geneva,  27  Sept.  1821 ;  d.  there  11  March 
1881  ;  was  for  five  years  a  student  in  German 
universities,  and  on  his  return  home  became  pro- 
fessor of  philosophy  in  the  Geneva  Academy. 
He  is  author  of  several  works  on  the  history  of 
literature,  as  'The  Literary  Movement  in  Ro- 
manish  Switzerland'  (1849)  ;  'Study  on  Mme. 
de  Stael'  (1878)  ;  and  of  several  poems,  among 
them  'Millet  Grains'  (1854).  But  his  fame 
rests  principally  on  the  'Journal,'  which  ap- 
peared after  the  author's  death. 

Amiens,  a'myaN',  an  old  French  city, 
once  the  capital  of  Picardy,  and  now  of  the 
department  of  Somme,  on  the  many-channeled 
navigable  Somme,  81  miles  north  of  Paris  by 
rail.  Its  fortifications  have  been  turned  into 
charming  boulevards,  but  it  still  retains  its  old 
citadel.  The  Cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  is  a 
masterpiece  of  Gothic  architecture.  Begun  in 
1220,  or  a  little  later  than  Salisbury  Cathedral, 
it  is  470  feet  long,  and  has  a  spire  (1529)  426 
feet  high ;  but  its  special  feature  is  the  loftiness 
of  the  nave,  141  feet.  In  his  little  work  called 
'The  Bible  of  Amiens,'  Ruskin  says  this  church 
well  deserves  the  name  given  it  by  Viollet-le- 
Duc,  "the  Parthenon  of  Gothic  architecture," 
and  affirms  that  its  style  is  "Gothic,  pure,  au- 
thoritative, and  unaccusable."  Other  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  Hotel  de  Ville  (1600-1760).  in 
which  the  Peace  of  Amiens  was  signed ;  the  large 
museum  (1864),  in  Renaissance  style;  and  the 
public  library,  founded  in  1791  and  containing 
70.000  volumes.  Amiens  has  considerable  manu- 
factures of  velvet,  silk,  woolen,  and  cotton  goods, 
ribbons,  and  carpets.  Peter  the  Hermit  and  Du- 
cange  were  natives,  and  there  are  statues  to 
both  of  them.  The  "Mise  of  Amiens."  was  the 
award  pronounced  by  Louis  IX.  of  France,  in 


1264.  on  the  controversy  between  Henry  III.  of 
England  and  his  people  as  to  the  "Provisions  of 
Oxford."  The  Peace  of  Amiens  (27  March 
1802;  was  a  treaty  intended  to  settle  the  dis- 
puted points  between  England,  France,  Spain, 
and  Holland.  By  it  England  retained  possession 
of  Ceylon  and  Trinidad  and  an  open  port  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  the  republic  of  the  Ionian 
Islands  was  recognized;  Malta  was  restored  to 
the  Knights  of  St.  John ;  Spain  and  Holland  re- 
gained their  colonies,  with  the  exception  of 
Trinidad  and  Ceylon ;  the  French  were  to  quit 
Rome  and  Naples ;  and  Turkey  was  restored  to 
its  integrity.  In  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  on  27 
Nov.  1870,  General  ManteufFel  inflicted,  near 
Amiens,  a  signal  defeat  on  a  French  army  30,- 
000  strong,  and  three  days  later  the  citadel  sur- 
rendered. Pop.  (1903)  about  92,000.  For  a  re- 
cent account  of  the  cathedral  see  T.  Perkins' 
'The  Cathedral  of  Amiens'   (1902). 

Amina,  the  sleep-walking  heroine  of 
Bellini's   opera    'La    Sonnambula.' 

Amine  (am'in;  from  ammonia  +  ine),  a 
general  name  for  a  compound  formed  by  re- 
placing one  or  more  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  of 
ammonia  by  an  equivalent  number  of  metallic 
atoms  or  basic  organic  radicals.  (Compare 
Amide.)  As  in  the  case  of  the  amides,  a  given 
monovalent  radical  can  form  three  compounds 
of  this  sort  according  as  it  replaces  one.  two, 
or  three  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  of  the  original 
ammonia.  For  example,  the  monovalent  basic 
radical  "ethyl,"  GHs,  forms  primary  ethyl  amine 
(or  "ethylamine"),  C-Ho.XH-,  when  it  replaces 
one  atom  of  H  in  NH,;  secondary  ethyl  amine 
(or  "diethylamine"),  (C3H5)=.XH,  when  it  re- 
places two  atoms  of  H ;  and  tertiary  ethyl  amine 
(or  "triethylamine"),  (C2H..UX,  when  it  re- 
places all  three  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  the 
ammonia.  The  base  by  which  the  hydrogen  in 
the  ammonia  is  replaced  need  not  be  organic. 
Potassium,  for  example,  may  replace  an  atom 
of  it,  with  the  formation  of  potassium  mona- 
mine  (or  "potassamine"),  K.NH:.  A  derivative 
of  ammonia,  in  which  one  atom  of  the  typical 
hydrogen  is  replaced  by  a  monovalent  acid  rad- 
ical, and  another  by  a  monovalent  basic  radical 
or  by  a  monad  metal,  may  be  considered  to  be 
either  an  amine  or  an  amide.  Thus  CH3.C;H30. 
XH.  in  which  one  atom  of  the  hydrogen  has  been 
replaced  by  the  basic  radical  "methyl"  (CH.,), 
and  another  by  the  acid  radical  "acetyl" 
(GH3O),  may  be  described  as  a  modified 
methylamine,  or  as  a  modified  acetamide. 

The  simpler  amines  are  strongly  basic  in 
character,  and  may  be  formed  by  the  action  of 
ammonia  on  the  ethers  of  inorganic  acids.  They 
are  mostly  volatile  or  capable  of  distillation. 
When  ammonia  is  added  to  a  cold  solution  of  a 
salt  of  an  amine,  the  amine  is  expelled  from  its 
combination    and  precipitated. 

The  most  important  amines,  in  the  arts,  are 
methylamine   (q.v.)   and  aniline  (q.v.). 

Amirante  Islands,  a  group  of  small  islands 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  lying  southwest  of  the  Sey- 
chelles. They  were  taken  possession  of  by  Great 
Britain  in  1814  and  form  a  dependency  of  Mau- 
ritius.  They  produce  cocoa-nuts,  and  turtle  and 
fish  are  abundant.     About  six  are  inhabited. 

Amis  et  Amiles,  a'me'  za  a'mel',  a  chan- 
son of  the  Middle  Ages,  dating  from  about  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  century.     The  work  con- 


AMISTAD  CASE 


sists   of  3,500  lines,   in   which   are   narrated  the 
adventures   of   two    friends. 

Amistad  Case,  in  United  Slates  history, 
one  of  the  landmarks  of  the  slavery  question. 
The  Spanish  government,  by  decree  of  Decem- 
bei  [817,  forbade  the  importation  of  slaves  from 
Africa  into  its  dominions  after  30  Dec.  1820,  on 
penalty  of  confiscation  of  the  slave-ship  and  im 
mediate  freeing  of  the  negroes.  The  trade 
nevertheless  went  On  tinder  transparent  dis- 
guises. In  the  spring  of  (839  the  slave-hunters 
in  Vfrica  made  a  large  rapture  "f  Sierra  Leone 
natives,  including  their  chief  Cinque,  and  sent 
them  to  Havana;  where  two  months  after- 
ward two  Cuban  planters,  Pedro  Ruiz  and  Jose 
Montez,  bought  38  youths  and  men,  three  girls, 
and   .1    boy,   and    shipped   them  on  27   June   for 

naja,  Puerto  Principe,  on  the  schooner 
I. 'Amistad.  under  passport  from  the  governor 
of  Cuba  obtained  by  falsely  alleging  that  they 
were  domestic  slaves.  Cinque  organized  a  plan 
fur  revolt,  and  when  four  days  out  they  rose, 
killed  the  captain  and  one  of  the  crew,  wounded 
two  others  in  the  contest,  and  forced  the  re- 
maining whites  to  surrender;  but  they  did  them 
no  violence,  and  set  all  on  shore  except  the  two 
planters,  win  mi  they  managed  to  make  under- 
stand that  they  must  steer  fur  Africa.  These 
gradually  changed  course  in  the  nights  and  fogs, 
and  brought  the  vessel  north  off  Culloden  Point 
(near  Montauk),  at  the  east  end  of  Long  Island, 
where  on  26  August  she  was  noted  as  "suspi- 
cious" by  Lieut.  Gedney  of  the  coast  survey,  on 
the  brig  Washington.  He  sent  a  boat  to  her, 
and  one  of  the  planters  declared  himself  the 
owner  of  the  negroes  and  claimed  United  States 
piotection.  Some  of  them  had  gone  on  land  in 
a  boat ;  Gedney  seized  them  as  under  New  York 
State  jurisdiction,  and  the  vessel  as  a  "prize 
rescued  from  pirates."  and  brought  them  to 
New  London,  Conn.  The  negroes  were  com- 
mitted fur  murder  on  the  high  seas,  to  be  tried 
at  the  circuit  court  of  17  September  at  Hart- 
ford, and  meantime  lodged  in  New  Haven  jail. 
The  planters  claimed  them  as  slaves,  appealed  to 
the  Spanish  minister  Calderon,  and  he  demanded 
their  surrender  of  the  United  States  district 
attorney  for  Connecticut.  The  latter  wrote  to 
the  secretary  of  state  (Forsyth  of  Georgia)  ask- 
ing if  the  negroes  under  treaty  with  Spain  might 
not  be  surrendered  before  the  court  sat;  the  sec- 
retary transmitted  the  question  to  the  President 
(Van  Buren),  but  warned  the  district  attorney 
to  take  care  that  no  court  whatever  put  the  ves- 
sel, cargo,  or  slaves  (sic)  beyond  the  control  of 
the  Federal  executive.  Meantime  the  anti- 
slavery  interest  had  bestirred  itself  and  secured 
funds,  able  counsel,  and  an  interpreter  of  Afri- 
can :  and  the  circuit  court  (Judge  Thompson) 
decided  on  the  23d  that  the  killing  of  the  captain 
of  the  LAmisiad.  being  an  incident  of  the  slave 
trade,  was  not  a  crime  against  the  law  of  nations. 
The  negroes  were  remanded  to  jail  till  the 
district  court  in  November  should  decide 
whether  they  were  free  or  slave.  The  next  day 
the  United  States  attorney-general,  Felix  Grundy 
of  Tennessee,  was  ordered  to  prepare  an  official 
opinion  on  the  Spanish  minister's  requcs?  and 
tin-  claim  of  Gedney  et  at.  for  prize  money.  He 
replied  in  November  that  ship,  cargo,  and 
negroes  should  be  surrendered  according  to  Art. 
9  of  the  treaty  of  27  Oct.  1705,  as  the  United 
States  under  international  law  had  no  power  to 
investigate  the  truth  of  facts  stated  in  Spanish 


official  papers, —  in  other  words,  whether  the 
gc  vernor's  passport  was  obtained  by  fraud,  and 
the  negroes  were  free  according  (o  the  Spanish 
law  already  cited;  though  hardly  one  could  speak 
a  word  of  European  and  none  much  more,  and 
the  planters  were  obviously  perjured  in  swear- 
ing ignorance  of  tlnir  being  recently  imported. 
Hut  this  article  any  way  related  only  to  vessels 
and  goods  rescued  on  the  high  seas  from  pirates; 
and  under  this  interpretation  the  negroes  were 
at  once  the  pirates  and  the  cargo,  and  had  com- 
mitted piracy  in  seizing  themselves  from  their 
owners.  The  Spanish  minister  protested  that 
no  United  States  court  had  any  jurisdiction. 
The  administration,  not  daring  to  take  the  case 
out  of  its  court.,  went  as  far  as  it  could  by 
ordering  the  district  attorney  to  act  .as  legal 
adviser  to  the  planters  and  tile  another  indict- 
ment for  them  with  new  pleadings;  sent  a  vessel 
to  lie  off  New  Haven  in  order  to  carry  the 
negroes  back  to  Cuba  as  soon  as  the  district 
court  pronounced  them  slaves,  as  was  taken  for 
granted  (this  was  the  fust  trial  for  violating  the 
slave-trade  laws  that  had  taken  place  except  in 
slave  Slates,  where  of  course  no  convictions 
were  ever  found),  and  to  do  it  instantly  unless 
an  appeal  were  interposed,  which  was  "not  to  be 
taken  for  granted";  ordered  that  Gedney  and 
his  associate  Meade  accompany  it  to  give  evi- 
dence in  court;  and  that  these  directions  be  kept 
secret.  But  the  anti-slavery  counsel  had  no 
difficulty  in  showing  that  kidnapping  foreigners 
was  not  only  not  protected  by  United  States  or 
even  Spanish  law,  but  was  directly  contrary  to 
both  (the  anti-slavery  doctrine  outside  the 
courts  was  that  the  kidnapped  had  a  natural 
right  to  kill  tlnir  captors  if  they  could,  and  a 
legal  right  to  hold  ship  and  cargo  as  prize  in 
such  case,  and  the  United  States  had  no  right  to 
interfere)  :  and  the  court  pronounced  them  free, 
and  ordered  them  delivered  to  the  United  States 
executive  to  be  sent  back  to  Africa.  The  plain- 
tiffs at  once  appealed  to  the  supreme  court,  and 
the  administration  continued  its  partnership  in 
a  private  suit.  The  case  of  the  negroes  was  ar- 
gued in  February  and  March  1.841  by  John 
Quincy  Adams,  wdio  had  previously  introduced 
resolutions  into  the  House  directing  the  Presi- 
dent to  report  to  Congress  the  authority  by 
which  Africans  charged  with  no  crime  were 
held  in  custody;  Roger  Sherman  Baldwin, 
the  district  attorney,  admitted  in  open  court  that 
they  were  newly  from  Africa  when  bought:  and 
on  9  March  the  court  (Taney,  C.  J.)  pronounced 
them  illegally  held  as  slaves  and  liable  to  no 
punishment  for  their  acts.  The  case  roused  the 
fiercest  excitement  in  both  the  free  and  slave 
sections  of  the  country.  In  1844  the  astound- 
ing bill  was  reported  by  the  chairman  of  the 
House  committee  on  foreign  affairs  to  pay  Ruiz 
and  Montez  $70,000  compensation;  but  it  was 
laid  on  the  table  and  never  reappeared.  This 
ends  the  "case."  but  a  word  may  be  added  on  the 
negroes.  They  were  removed  to  Farmington, 
Conn.,  well  cared  for.  and  instructed  in  the  rudi- 
ments of  education  by  a  competent  professor. 
Cinque  kept  them  under  stern  discipline;  they 
were  excellently  behaved  and  much  liked;  and 
some  of  them,  being  unusually  quick  of  intelli- 
gence, were  exhibited  for  proficiency  in  New 
England  towns.  About  the  end  of  November 
they  were  sent  back  to  Africa  with  some  mis- 
sionaries, and  a  mission  was  afterward  estab- 
lished  in  the  district. 


AMITOSIS  — AMMONIA 


Amitosis.     See  Mitosis. 

Amlwch  (pronounced  Amlook),  a  seaport 
town  in  North  Wales,  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
island  of  Anglesey,  and  14  miles  northeast  from 
Holyhead.  The  harbor  is  partly  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock.  There  are  copper  mines  near  the 
town,  and  mining  is  said  to  have  been  carried 
on  here  by  the  Romans.     Pop.   (1901)   5,308. 

Ammanati,  Bartolomeo,  a  sculptor  and 
architect:  b.  Florence,  151 1  ;  d.  1592.  His  chief 
work  was  the  Trinity  bridge  over  the  Arno  at 
Florence. 

Ammen,  Daniel,  American  naval  officer : 
b.  Brown  County,  Ohio,  15  May  1820;  entered 
the  United  States  navy  7  July  1836  as  midship- 
man. He  was  in  the  Wilkes  exploring  expedi- 
tion around  the  world  1838-42,  in  the  East  India 
sciuadron,  and  on  the  coast  survey ;  on  the  ex- 
pedition to  the  Paraguay  River  1853-4.  He 
commanded  the  Seneca  at  the  capture  of  Port 
Royal,  7  Nov.  1861 ;  promoted  to  commander  21 
Feb.  1863 ;  in  charge  of  the  Patapsco  at  the  as- 
sault on  Fort  Macallister,  3  March  1863,  and  on 
Fort  Sumter,  7  April ;  commanded  the  Mohican 
in  the  attacks  on  Fort  Fisher,  December  1864 
and  January  1865.  He  was  commissioned  cap- 
tain 1866,  was  chief  of  the  bureau  of  yards  and 
docks  1869-71,  and  of  the  bureau  of  navigation 
till  11  Dec.  1877,  when  he  was  made  rear-ad- 
miral on  the  retired  list.  He  designed  the 
Ammen  life  raft  and  the  ram  Katahdin.  He 
wrote  'The  American  Inter-Oceanic  Ship  Canal 
Question'  (1880)  ;  'The  Atlantic  Coast,'  (1883); 
'Country  Homes  and  their  Improvement'; 
'The  Oid  Navy  and  the  New'    (1891). 

Ammergau,  am'mer-gou,  a  district  or  gau 
on  the  river  Ammer  in  Upper  Bavaria.  The 
inhabitants  are  occupied  in  making  figures  of 
saints,  crucifixes,  toys,  etc.,  of  wood,  ivory,  and 
glass,  from  which  a  considerable  trade  arises, 
having  its  centre  in  the  villages  of  Ober  and 
Unter  Ammergau.  The  former  village  is  famous 
on  account  of  the  Passion  Play   (q.v.). 

Am'meter.     See  Galvanometer. 

Ammon,  an  Egyptian  deity,  whose  worship 
spread  all  over  Egypt  and  other  parts  of  north 
Africa,  and  many  parts  of  Greece.  The  Egyp- 
tian hieroglyphic  monuments  call  him  Amini, 
the  Greeks  identified  him  with  their  supreme 
god  Zeus,  while  the  Romans  regarded  him  as 
the  representative  of  Jupiter.  His  worship  cen- 
tred in  the  Egyptian  Thebes,  which  the  Greeks 
therefore  called  Diospolis  or  the  City  of  Zeus. 
lie  is  represented  as  a  r^m,  as  a  human  being 
with  a  rani's  head,  or  simply  with  the  horns  of 
a  ram.  His  most  celebrated  temple  was  in  the 
Oasis  of  Siwah  in  the  Libyan  desert. 

Ammonia  (supposed  to  be  so  called  because 
originally  prepared  from  the  dung  of  camels 
near  the  temple  of  Ammon,  in  Egypt),  a  gaseous 
compound  of  hydrogen  and  nitrogen,  having  the 
formula  NIL.  It  may  be  formed  in  small  quan- 
tities by  the  direct  combination  of  its  elements 
under  the  influence  of  the  silent  electric  dis- 
charge; hut  in  the  arts  it  is  commonly  prepared 
by  the  decomposition  of  nitrogenous  matter. 
Formerly  it  was  manufactured  in  large  quan- 
tities by  the  destructive  distillation  of  horns, 
hoofs,  and  hides,  and  from  this  fact  it  was 
known  as  "spirits  of  hartshorn."  It  is  now 
chiefly  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  coal-gas.  Coal  suitable  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  gas  contains  nitrogen,  often  to  the 


extent  of  2  per  cent  of  its  weight ;  and  in  the 
distillation  of  such  coal  the  nitrogen  combines 
with  a  portion  of  the  hydrogen  that  is  also 
present,  and  is  driven  off  in  the  form  of  am- 
monia; or  more  often  it  combines  with  the 
sulphur  present  and  is  obtained  in  the  form  of 
a  sulphate.  Salts  of  ammonia  also  occur  in 
nature,  sometimes  in  considerable  quantities.  In 
Tuscany  ammonia  sulphate  is  obtained  as  a  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  boric  acid.  See 
Boussingaultite;  Larderelute  ;  Mascagnite. 

Ammonia  (NH3)  is  a  colorless  gas  at  ordi 
nary  temperatures  and  pressures,  but  at  60"  F. 
it  condenses  into  a  colorless  and  expansible 
liquid  upon  the  application  of  a  pressure  of 
about  seven  atmospheres.  At  the  freezing  point 
of  water  a  pressure  of  4.4  atmospheres  suffices 
to  liquefy  it ;  and  at  about  29°  below  zero,  I'"., 
it  condenses  into  a  liquid  at  ordinary  atmo- 
spheric pressure.  Ammonia  thus  liquefied  by 
pressure  is  much  used,  in  the  arts,  for  the  pro- 
duction of  low  temperatures  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  artificial  ice.  (See  Refrigeration,  Arti- 
ficial.) It  freezes  at  about  103°  below  zero,  F., 
into  a  white  crystalline  solid.  Liquid  XI  l:,  dis- 
solves the  alkali  metals  without  chemical 
change,  forming  blue  solutions. 

Ammonia  gas  is  very  soluble  in  water  at  or- 
dinary temperatures,  the  solution  constituting 
the  so-called  "ammonia"  or  "aqua  ammonia" 
that  is  familiar  in  every  household.  At  320  F. 
and  at  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  water  will 
absorb  1,148  times  its  own  volume  of  NH3; 
and  at  68°  F.  it  will  absorb  740  times  its  own 
volume. 

Both  ammonia  gas  and  its  solution  in  water 
possess  strongly  alkaline  properties,  turning  red 
litmus  paper  blue  and  combining  with  acids  to 
produce  definite  salts.  The  solution  of  am- 
monia gas  in  water  is  attended  by  a  considerable 
development  of  heat,  and  it  is  usual  to  consider 
that  a  definite  compound  of  ammonia  and  water 
is  formed.  The  formula  of  this  compound  may 
be  written  NH,.H;0,  but  many  considerations 
suggest  that  NH..OH  is  a  better  and  more  logi- 
cal form.  NH4  is  here  considered  to  be  a  radical, 
analogous  in  its  chemical  deportment  to  the 
familiar  alkali  metals  sodium  and  potassium. 
According  to  this  view  ordinary  "aqua  am- 
monia" would  be  regarded  as  a  solution  of  the 
hydrate  of  the  radical  Nil,;  ami  for  many  years 
past  chemists  have  admitted  the  existence  of 
such  a  radical,  which  they  have  called  "am- 
monium." Upon  adding  hydrochloric  acid  to  a 
solution  of  ammonia  gas,  a  compound  known  as 
"sal  ammoniac"  is  obtained,  which  is  used 
largely  in  electric  batteries  that  are  intended  for 
open  circuit  work.  The  reaction  by  which  this 
substance  is  formed  may  be  written  Kll.,-f- 
HC1  =  NH3.HC1;  or  if  the  existence  of  a  definite 
hydrate  in  the  "aqua  ammonia"  is  admitted,  we 
may  write  the  reaction  NH..OH  +  HC1  =  NH,. 
CI  +  H=0,  in  which  case  the  reaction  is  in  ail 
respects  analogous  to  that  by  which  potassium 
chlorid  (for  example)  is  formed  when  hydro- 
chloric acid  acts  upon  potassium  hydrate: 
K0H  +  HC1  =  KC1  +  H,0.  All  the  other  salts 
that  are  formed  by  the  combination  of  ammonia 
with  acids  can  be  similarly  expressed  bj  admit- 
ting the  existence  of  the  radical  NIL  and  treat- 
ing it.  in  the  formulae,  as  though  it  were  a  metal 
of  the  alkali  group.  All  the  "ammonium"  com- 
pounds are  isomorphous  with  the  corresponding 
potassium  compounds. 


AMMONIACUM;  AMMONITES 


Aqua  ammonia,  or  "caustic  ammonia"  (as  it 
is  sometimes  called  ■'  for  many  purpi 

in  the  arts,  notably  in  the  | 

by   the  ammonia   proces  iDIUM),   and    in 

dyeing  and  calico-printing.  Large  quantities  of 
the  sulphate    ire  u  rs    and  in  the 

manufacture  of  ammonia  alum  (see  Alum). 
The  chloride  of  ammonium  is  used  (as  above 
noted  )  in  certain  common  forms  of  electric 
batteries,  and  also  in  soldering,  in  dyeing,  and 
in  many  minor  ways.  The  carbonate  is  largely 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  baking  powders  and 
for  scouring  wool. 

Ammonia  is  expelled  from  all  of  its  com- 
pounds by  quicklime,  and  the  usual  test  for 
ammoniacal  compounds  consists  in  beating  the 
substance  to  be  examined,  together  with  caustic 
bine  or  caustic  soda  or  potash.  If  ammonia  is 
present  in  any  considerable  amount  it  is  liberat- 
ed by  this  treatment  and  may  be  recognized  by 
smell  or  by  its  action  on  litmus  paper.  Nearly 
all  of  the  compounds  of  ammonia  are  readily 
soluble    in    water,    the    acid    tartrate    and    the 

ible  platinic  chloride  being  the  chief  excep- 
tions. 

Ammonia  forms  the  starting  point  for  an  ex- 

irdinarily  long  list  of  compounds,  many  of 
which  are  exceedingly  complicated.  See  Amide; 
Amine. 

Ammoniacum  is  a  paim  resin  derived 
from  the  stems  of  Dorema  ammoniacum,  a 
forest  plant  of  Persia.  Other  species  of  Dorema 
yield   similar  products. 

The  plant  has  an  abundant  supply  of  milky 
juice  which  exudes  spontaneously  and  hardens 
in  various-shaped  masses.  Fine  tears,  varying 
in  size  from  two  to  five  mm.  up  to  the  size  of 
a  hazel-nut  are  obtained  from  insect-punctured 
wounds,  while  the  so-called  ammoniacum 
amygdaloides  is  obtained  from  the  root  of  the 
plant. 

Ammoniacum  consists  of  a  mixture  of  vary- 
ing proportions  of  ethereal  oils,  I  to  2  per  cent, 
resins,  gums,  65  to  70  per  cent;  and  pectin  like 
bodies.  Ash  20  per  cent.  A  certain  amount  of 
water  is  always  found  in  the  commercial  pi 
net.  The  ethereal  oils  are  found  in  small 
quantities  only,  generally  less  than  10  per  cent. 
It  is  soluble  in  carbon  disulphide.  The  resin  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  other  resins  in  that  its 
alcoholic  solution  gives  a  red  reaction  when 
added  to  a  bromide  of  sodium  solution.  30  gr. 
NaOH  in  Aq.  Mr.  20  gr.  Aq.  1  liter.  Umbelhf- 
eron  would  seem  to  be  absent. 

Ammonites,  or  "children  of  Amnion."  In 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  their  land  is  called 
Bit-Amman,  as  if  Amman  were  a  personal 
name;  but  Genesis  says  Ben-ammi,  and  Ammi 
was  perhaps  a  local  god.  Their  land  was  in  the 
rn  part  of  the  district  now  called  Belka.  on 
the  northeast  of  the  Dead  Sea  next  the  desert  : 
its  capital  Rabbah  or  Rabbath-Ammon.  Their 
real  history  begins  with  Saul,  though  Jephtbah 
the  freebooter  is  said  to  have  delivered  Israel 
from  them,  and  one  tradition  represents  Balaam 
as  an  Ammonite —  but  this  is  thought  a  later 
excuse  for  excluding  them  from  the  Jewish 
body.  They  were  in  a  state  of  chronic  border 
warfare  with  the  Hebrew-,  their  close  kinsmen, 
and  speaking  a  closely  related  dialect.  Nahash, 
king  of  Amnion,  besieges  Jabesh-Gilead  (1  Sam. 
xi.),   and   offers  terms   for   its   capitulation   on 


condition  of  putting  out  the  chief  men's  right 
. —  but  Saul  wins  a  crushing  victory  over 
the  besiegers.  David  as  Saul's  enemy  is  well 
treated  by  Nahash ;  but  when  he  takes  Saul's 
place  the  old  feelings  are  resumed.  Hanun, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Nahash.  u 
David's  messci  ongratulation  with  gross 

contumely  (2  Sam.  x. )  ;  David  wins  a  victory 
over  them  and  the  Syrian  allies  they  have  called 
in,  and  exacts  a  frightful  vengeance  from  them, 
putting  his  captives  to  the  torture  quite  in  the 
Assyrian  fashion,  and  leaving  us  to  infer  that 
there  was  little  to  choose  in  savagery.  They 
probably  recovered  their  independence  after 
Solomon's  death.  Later  they  were  subjugated 
by  the  Assyrians,  as  the  inscriptions  of  several 
kings  evince.  Under  Jeroboam  II.  they  make 
incursions  into  Gilead  and  are  blamed  for  in- 
humanity. After  the  Israelitish  deportation  of 
734  they  occupied  the  land  of  Gad ;  under 
Jehoiakim  they  are  incorporated  into  Judah  : 
under  Zedckiah  they  are  allied  with  him  against 
Assyria,  but  seem  to  have  drawn  out  in  time 
for  safety,  and  Israelitish  fugitives  find  refuge 
with  their  king  Baalis.  Later  they  intermarried 
with  the  Jews,  and  there  was  a  village  of  them 
in  Benjamin;  Judas  Maccabeus  defeated  them; 
but  they  were  gradually  absorbed  by  invading 
Arab  tribes.     Their  great  local  god  was  Mill    in 

Ammonites,  the  general  name  for  the  fos- 
sil cephalopod  mollusks  of  the  order  Ammon- 
oidea,  given  originally  because  of  a  fancied  re- 
semblance of  the  coiled  specimens  first  known 
to  a  ram's  horn,  the  symbol  of  Jupiter  Ammon. 
Subsequently  it  served  as  a  generic  name  for 
a  group,  but  this  has  been  abandoned  in  the 
light  of  later  information.  The  Ammonoidea 
are  one  of  the  two  orders  of  chambered  tetra- 
branchiate  cephalopods,  the  other  being  the 
Nautiloidea  (see  Nautilus).  Their  remains 
are  found  fossil  in  marine  Palxozoic  rocks-  from 
the  Devonian  to  the  close  of  the  Mesozoic  Age. 
More  than  5,000  species  have  been  described, 
grouped  into  about  100  families,  and  these  into 
nine  sub-orders  in  two  divisions,  (1)  Intrasipli- 
onata  and  (2)  Extrasiphonata.  The  first  group 
contains  a  single  primitive  (Devonian)  sub- 
order having  the  siphuncle  dorsally  situated; 
the  second  contains  all  the  remainder,  which 
agree  in  having  the  siphuncle  ventral.  The 
classification  is  based  upon  the  complexly  lobed 
pattern  of  the  sutures,  or  lines  of  union  betvt 
the  septa  or  partition  walls  of  the  chambers  and 
the  outer  wall  of  the  shell.  (See  Ceph  ilopoda.  ) 
The  shells  of  ammonites  were  typically  coiled  in 
a  single  plane  and  ran  in  size  from  an  inch  or 
two  in  diameter  to  two  or  more  feet;  but  this 
varied  greatly,  even  to  partial  or  entire  straight- 
ness.  The  surface  of  the  shell,  too,  was  in 
many  cases  smooth  and  polished  or  slightly 
ridged,  while  in  others  it  was  roughly  ringed  or 
covered  with  cross-lines,  spikes,  and  tubercles, 
in  handsome  variety.  Some  shells  were  so  com- 
l*re-sed  as  to  have  the  proportions  of  a  watch; 
while  others  were  almost  globose. 

As  Hyatt  states,  ammonoids  experienced  a 
progressive  evolution  from  the  early  Devonian 
until  the  upper  Juras,  when  the  group  reached 
its  summit  of  importance  and  was  represented  in 
great  numbers  and  variety  in  all  parts  of  the 
world :  that  is.  when  it  attained  the  summit 
of  its  evolution  in  complexity  of  structure,  form, 
and  ornament.    Ammonoids  exist  in  great  abun- 


AMMONITES. 

1  7  Ammonites  cordatus.  *,  *  Ammonites  Coupei.  5,  fl  Ammonites  opulentus.  7  Ammonites  nummularis. 

8  Ammonitrs  cavernosus.  B  Ammonites  rotula.  10  Ammonites  Humphryi. 


AMMONIUS  SACCAS  — AMMUNITION 


dance  in  the  rocks  of  this  period  in  the  western 
United  States,  especially  those  of  the  irregular 
group  called  Ceratites,  which  succeeded  the 
Palaeozoic  Goniatites,  and  other  primitive  forms. 
The  Jurassic  ammonoids  show  a  mixture  of 
retrogression  with  some  progressive  features. 
"Part  of  their  losses  are  regained  by  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  vast  number  of  forms  and  modifica- 
tions during  this  period,  but  there  are  numerous 
localized  signs  of  retrogression,  due  perhaps  to 
unfavorable  surroundings."  Indications  of  this 
kind  occur  sporadically  throughout  the  Jurassic 
time  and  become  general  in  the  Cretaceous 
period.  Many  of  the  later  forms  were  openly 
or  grotesquely  coiled,  or  coiled  only  when 
young,  becoming  nearly  or  quite  straight  when 
they  grew  older,  as  in  Ptychoceras,  Turriteles, 
Scaphites,  etc.  These  degraded  "old-age"  types 
were  evidently  due  to  the  waning  forces  of  life 
or  to  disease,  because  similar  though  much  less 
marked  uncoiling  of  shells,  due  to  unfavorable 
condition  of  the  water,  have  been  observed  in  the 
fresh-water  Planorbis  of  Steinheim,  Germany, 
and  elsewhere.  (See  Evolution;  Senescence.) 
Hyatt  thus  infers  that  there  was  in  the  European 
seas,  at  least,  a  widespread  unfavorable  change 
in  their  physical  surroundings,  "similar  to  but 
more  extensive  than  that  which  affected  Euro- 
pean forms  during  the  Lower  Oolite,"  and  to 
this  influence  he  ascribes  the  uncoiling  of  the 
shells  of  Spiroceras  and  its  allies.  At  the  close 
of  the  Cretaceous  period  the  ammonoids  entirely 
disappeared.  We  thus  see  in  the  vast  and  more 
or  less  complete  and  continuous  series  of  these 
beautiful  shells,  in  which  the  imperfections  of 
the  geological  record  are  less  marked  than  in 
other  groups,  the  process  of  rise,  culmination, 
decline,  and  death  of  a  type,  presenting  also 
beautiful  illustrations  of  the  biogenetic  law 
(q.v.).  The  type  begins  with  infantile  and 
larval  forms,  then  evolves  youthful,  mature,  and 
finally  old  age  forms,  which  present  in  their 
simple  and  closely  coiled  shells  a  return  to  the 
original  simplicity  of  the  infancy  and  childhood 
of  the  type. 

Concerning  the  animals  which  made  the 
shells,  nothing  is  known  except  by  inference. 
The  growth  of  the  shell  begins  with  the  forma- 
tion of  the  primitive  conically-shaped  shell 
called  "protoconch,"  and  then  the  secondary 
shell  begins  to  grow  and  becomes  coiled  up  in 
one  plane.  Like  the  nautilus  the  mollusk  lived 
in  the  outer  chamber  of  its  shell,  from  which 
it  periodically  advanced.  The  aperture  of  this 
outer  chamber  was  closed  when  the  animal 
withdrew  into  it,  either  by  a  single  horny  plate 
(aiiaptychus)  or  by  a  pair  of  calcareous  plates 
(aptychus).  The  very  earliest  appear  to  have 
been  swimmers,  like  the  nautiloids ;  but  the 
great  bulk  of  the  ammonites  undoubtedly  lived 
gregariously  alongshore,  where  they  crawled 
about,  carrying  or  partly  dragging  their  shells. 
and  searching  for  the  animal  food  upon  which 
they  subsisted.  The  learned  Zittell  points  out 
that  their  shells  were  proportionately  less  bulky 
than  those  of  the  nautiloids,  and  correspondingly 
less  buoyant;  and  the  probability  is  that  they 
swam  little  and  were  rarely  active.  There  is 
reason  to  believe  that  in  the  case  of  some  species 
the  eggs  were  retained  within  the  shelter  of  the 
living-chamber  until  they  hatched,  and  that  the 
young  remained  there  until  somewhat  grown. 
See  Goniatites. 


Bibliography. —  Cook,  'Cambridge  Natural 
History.  Mollusks'  (1895);  Zittell-Eastman, 
'Text-book  of  Palaeontology,'  Vol.  I.  (1900)  ; 
Hyatt,  'Genesis  of  the  Arietidx'  (Memoirs 
Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  Vol.  XVII.,  1889);  'Phylo- 
geny  of  an  Acquired  Characteristic*  (Proc. 
Amer.  Philos.  Society,  Vol.  XXXIL,  No.  143, 
1894)  ;  Wurtenberger,  'Studien  uber  die  Stam- 
mesgeschichte  der  Ammoniten'  (Leipsic  1880), 
and  numerous  other  papers ;  also  articles  by 
D'Orbigny,  Neumayr,  Pumpelly,  Quenstedt, 
'Sandberger,  Suess,  Waagen,  White,  Whiteaves, 
Wright  and  Zittel. 

Ammo'nius  Sac'cas,  a  Greek  philosopher 
who  lived  about  175-250  a.d.  Originally  a  porter 
in  Alexandria,  he  derived  his  epithet  from  the 
carrying  of  sacks  of  corn.  The  son  of  Chris- 
tian parents,  he  abandoned  their  faith  for  the 
polytheistic  philosophy  of  Greece.  His  teaching 
was  historically  a  transition  stage  between 
Platonism  and  Neo-Platonism.  Among  his  dis- 
ciples were  Plotinus,  Longinus,  Origen,  etc. 

Ammonoosuc,  the  name  of  two  small 
rivers  in  New  Hampshire  which  rise  in  Coos 
County  and  flow  in  a  southwest  direction,  emp- 
tying into  the_  Connecticut  River.  The  lower 
Ammonoosuc  is  about  100  miles  long  and  the 
upper  75  miles  long. 

Ammophila,  a  grass  common  on  sandy 
beaches,  a  coarse  perennial,  with  running  root- 
stocks.  It  is  of  value  as  a  binder  of  loose  sand 
and  is  employed  for  that  purpose  throughout  the 
world,  its  destruction  being  forbidden  in  Eng- 
land under  severe  penalties. 

Ammunition,  the  articles  which  are  re- 
quired in  firearms  and  ordnance  to  render  the 
mechanism  effective.  From  the  earliest  period 
of  settlement  shot  and  bullets  have  been  made 
by  Americans.  Lead  was  brought  with  them 
from  England  and  Holland,  and  cast  in  molds, 
many  of  which  are  still  preserved  in  old  houses 
in  New  England,  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia. 
They  differed  only  in  size,  so  whether  each  pro- 
jectile weighed  an  ounce  or  the  twentieth  of  an 
ounce,  the  same  plan  was  adopted.  Shot-towers 
were  invented  at  an  early  date.  The  metal,  a 
compound  of  lead  and  arsenic,  the  latter  form- 
ing one  hundredth  part,  is  melted  at  the  top  of  a 
high  tower  and  poured  into  a  colander.  The 
lead  passes  through  in  drops  instead  of  streams, 
each  assuming  a  perfectly  spherical  form,  and 
falls  into  a  basin  of  cold  water,  there  being  in- 
stantly chilled  in  the  globular  form.  After  this 
the  shot  are  rolled  down  an  inclined  plane,  those 
which  are  not  truly  spherical  falling  off  at  the 
sides,  while  the  perfect  ones  continue  in  a  direct 
course.  The  holes  through  which  the  liquid 
metal  passes  are  from  one  thirtieth  to  one  three 
hundred  and  sixtieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Shot  is  much  used  for  killing  small  game,  which 
would  be  torn  in  pieces  by  a  heavy  bullet  :  ami  a 
shot-gun  also  requires  less  accurate  marksman- 
ship than  a  rifle.  _  Bullets  are  still  cast  in  molds, 
but  in  the  factories  this  operation  is  performed 
with  great  celerity.  The  ridge  caused  by  the 
meeting  of  the  two  parts  is  automatically  re- 
moved by  a  knife.  Swaging  of  bullets  is  also 
practised.  The  total  quantity  of  shot  made  in 
New  York  annually  is  valued  at  $400,000,  there 
being  three  shot-towers.  Early  in  the  10th  cen- 
tury no  method  was  commonly  known  of  getting 


AMNESIA  — AMOR 


accurate  results  from  a  gun.  but  it  was  noticed 
that  a  bullet  was  marly  always  flattened  or 
smashed  at  the  end  nearest  the  powder.  It'  the 
ball  was  large  for  the  bore  of  the  gun  it  reached 
its  mark  more  certainly  than  if  the  bore  was 
large.  It  was  therefore  the  common  practice 
for  hunters  to  put  a  patch  or  wad  around  their 
bullet,  which  prevented  the  powder  from  falling 
out,  and  also  kept  the  bullet  straight  till  it  had 
l.ii  the  muzzle;  and  it  was  also  discovered  that 
if  there  were  grooves  inside  the  barrel  which 
twisted  iimre  or  less,  a  rotary  motion  was  im- 
parted t<>  the  bullet,  which  added  much  to  its 
range  and  its  powers  of  reaching  its  aim.  This 
con  tituted  the  rifle,  and  after  its  method  of 
construction  became  generally  known  no  other 
weapon  was  used  for  bunting  large  game.  They 
were  used  to  some  degree  in  armies  even  fifty 
years  ago.  Gradually  the  smooth-bore  musket 
was  driven  out  and  soldiers  were  supplied  alone 
with  ritles.  But  another  article  was  necessary 
In  fore  this  could  be  completely  accomplished. 
Until  the  second  quarter  of  the  century  the  fire 
which  was  required  to  he  communicated  to  the 
powder  came  from  a  blow  of  the  hammer  of 
the  gun  upon  a  piece  of  flint.  Frequently  there 
was  a  miss.  Percussion-caps  were  introduced 
about  this  time.  They  depended  for  their  value 
upon  the  quality  of  igniting  with  a  blow,  their 
shape,  like  that  of  a  cup,  bemg  only  requisite  in 

older  to  keep  them  on  the  nipple  of  the  gun. 
They  were  much  more  certain  in  action  than  the 
flint  had  been,  and  soon  drove  it  out  everywhere. 
A  later  improvement  in  ammunition  was  by  the 
introduction  of  cartridges,  the  powder  and  bul- 
let being  together.  The  metallic  cartridge  is  an 
invention  made  in  France  about  l8,ti  and  intro- 
duced here  shortly  after.  A  greal  improvement 
was  also  made  in  France  in  [845  in  the  shape 
of  the  bullet,  which  did  not  become  known  here 
till  file  tune  of  the  Crimean  War.  It  was  the 
Minic  bullet,  having  tor  its  peculiarity  an  elonga- 
tion of  the  projectile.  Hitherto  all  olhers  had 
been  round.  The  part  which  was  foremost  ta- 
pered to  a  point,  but  the  rear  was  flat,  as  if  the 
bullet  had  been  cut  from  a  round  rod  of  bid. 
A  heavier  bullet  was  thus  attained,  a  more 
thorough  rotation  was  imparted,  and  little  re- 
sistance  was  experienced  from  the  air.  The  new 
projectile  would  carry  twice  the  distance  of  the 
oin  11  superseded,  and  would  even  at  that  point 
he  more  destructive.  The  total  production  of 
ammunition  in  the  United  States  in  1900  was 
valued  at  $6,538,482;  business  was  carried  on  in 
35  establishments,  which  had  2.267  workmen, 
paid  $1,110,482  in  wages,  and  used  materials 
valued  at  $4,645,850.  See  Armament  of  the 
World;  Pike-Arms;  Ordnance. 

Amnesia.     See  Aphasia. 

Amnesty,  an  act  of  oblivion  passed  alter 
an  exciting  political  period.  Express  amnesty 
is  one  grained  in  direct  terms.  Implied  amnesty 
is  one  which  results  when  a  treaty  of  peace  is 
made  between  contending  parties.    Amnesty  and 

pardon  are  very  different  Amnesty  is  an  act 
of  the  sovereign  power,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  efface    and    to   cause   to    be    forgotten   a    crime 

or  misdemeanor.  A  pardon  is  an  act  of  the 
same  authority  which  exempts  the  individual  on 
whom  it  is  bestowed  from  the  punishment 
which  the  law  inflicts  for  the  crime  he  has 
committed.  7  I'd.  (U.  S.)  160.  Amnesty  is  the 
abolition  and  forgetfulness  of  the  offense;  par- 


don is  forgiveness.  A  pardon  is  given  to  one 
who  is  certainly  guilty  or  has  been  convicted; 
amnesty,  to  those  who  may  have  been  so. 

Amnesty  Proclamation.  An  act  passed 
25  Dec.  l!S()8,  granting  amnesty  to  all  who  were 
guilty  of  treason  against  the  United  States  or 
adhered  to  their  enemies  during  the  Civil  War. 
This  included  domiciled  aliens.  But  the  procla- 
mation did  not  entitle  one  w1msL-  property  bad 
been  sold  under  the  Confiscation  Act  of  iSoj  to 
reclaim  the  proceeds  after  they  had  been  paid 
into  the  treasury  of  the  United  States. 

Amnion.      See  Foetus. 

Amoeba,  or  Proteus  Animalcule,  a  pro- 
tozoan classified  as  one  of  the  rhizopods,  which 
is  present  almost  everywhere  in  fresh  water, 
and  sometimes  in  moist  earth,  and  is  commonly 
taken  as  the  type  of  the  unicellular  animals. 
It  is  a  mere  drop  of  animated  jelly  I  protoplasm, 
q.V.),  hardly  visible  to  the  unaided  eye.  which 
under  the  microscope  is  seen  to  be  divisible  into 
an  inner  granular  mass  (endosarc)  and  an  outer 
clearer  part  or  envelope  (cctosarc)  ;  but  there 
is  no  essential  difference  in  substance  between 
them.  Imbedded  in  the  interior  granules  is  a 
large  Spherical  globule,  the  nucleus,  consisting 
of  a  clear  chromatic  substance  containing  mi- 
nute granules  of  chromatin.  A  contractile 
vacuole  lies  in  the  ectosarc,  ami  manifests  more 
or  less  regular  and  rythmical  expansions  and 
contractions;  this  seems  to  serve  the  purpi 
of  an  excretory  organ.  The  amoeba  continually 
throws  out  irregular  threads  and  extensions 
(pseudopods),  so  that  its  shape  is  more  often 
like  that  of  a  drop  of  any  thick  liquid  which 
has  fallen  and  spattered,  than  of  a  globule;  this 
shape  is  changing  incessantly  as  the  creature 
slowly  creeps  about.  Whenever  it  touches  any 
edible  particle  of  organic  material  it  slowly 
enfolds  it,  and  the  particle  sinks  into  the  body, 
where  it  is  gradually  dissolved,  its  nutritive 
material  is  digested  and  assimilated,  furnishing 
food  and  fuel  to  the  protoplasm,  and  the  innutri- 
tions parts  are  finally  gathered  into  the   vacuole, 

whence  they  are  squeezed  out  and  discarded. 

Amoeba  reproduces  if  self  by  a  simple  process 
of  division.  A  constriction  takes  place  at  a 
point  where  the  nucleus  will  be  divided,  and 
011  until  the  animal  becomes  dumbbell 
shaped.  Finally  the  two  parts  separate,  and 
each  becomes  a  distinct  and  perfect  whole,  each 
with  its  half  of  the  original  nucleus,  which  at 
once  becomes,  in  each  case,  a  whole'  nucleus. 
AlTr  a  time  these  individuals  in  turn  undergo 
a  similar  division,  and  so  on.  It  may  there- 
fore be  said  that  amoeba  never  ceases  to  exist 
— -never  dies;  but  simply  multiplies  indefinitely 
by  repeated   divisions. 

Certain  forms  of  Amoeba,  notably  . /.  d'li, 
are  the  cause  of  a  distinct  kind  of  dysentery 
now  termed  amoebic  dysentery.  This  is  a  dis- 
ease mostly  of  the  tropics,  but  is  also  found 
endemic  in  the  United  States.  Occasionally  the 
parasite  may  infect  the  liver,  causing  an  abscess 
in   that    organ.    The  disease   is   difficult    to  treat. 

Amor,  the  god  of  love  among  the  Romans, 
equivalent  to  the  Greek  Eros,  lie  had  no  place- 
in  the  national  religion  of  the  Romans,  who 
derived  all  their  knowledge  of  him  from  the 
Creeks.  According  to  the  later  mythology 
Amor  is  the  son  of  Venus  and  Mars,  the  most 
beautiful   of   all   the   gods;   a    winged   boy   with 


AMORGO  — AMOS 


bow  and  arrows,  sometimes  represented  blind- 
folded. His  arrows  inflict  the  wounds  of  love, 
and  his  power  is  formidable  to  gods  and  men. 
He  is  not  always  a  playful  child  in  the  arms 
of  his  mother,  but  appears  sometimes  in  the 
bloom  of  youth,  for  example,  as  the  lover  of 
Psyche.  He  is  brother  of  Hymen,  the  god  of 
marriage,  whom  he  troubles  much  by  his 
thoughtlessness.  According  to  the  earlier  my- 
thology he  is  the  oldest  of  all  the  gods,  and  ex- 
isted before  any  created  being.  In  English  the 
god  of  love  is  less  frequently  called  Amor  than 
Cupid ;  yet  with  the  ancients  cupido  denoted, 
properly,  only  the  animal  desire. 

Amor'go  (ancient  Amorgos),  an  island  in 
the  Grecian  Archipelago,  one  of  the  eastern  Cy- 
clades,  22  miles  long,  five  miles  broad ;  area, 
106  square  miles ;  has  a  town  of  the  same  name, 
with  a  castle   and  a  large  harbor.     Pop.  5.000. 

Amorites.  Though  made  a  separate  tribe 
in  the  varied  and  rhetorical  lists  of  the  peoples 
in  Canaan  ousted  by  the  Israelites,  the  name 
is  used  by  Amos  in  the  8th  century  as  a  general 
term  for  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Canaan, 
with  attribution  of  gigantic  size  and  power,  as 
most  old  nations  do  with  their  special  aboriginal 
predecessors.  Some  critics  think,  however, 
that  "Canaanite"  is  used  for  the  peaceful  set- 
tlers of  the  plains,  and  "Amorite"  for  the  war- 
like tribes  on  the  hills  to  the  north.  At  any 
rate,  the  latter  term  is  always  used  when  hostile 
tribes  are  meant.  Moses'  foes  include  Sihon 
and  Og  the  Amorite  kings,  and  Joshua  deals 
with  12  kings  of  the  Amorites  west  of  the 
Jordan.  The  Amarna  letters  show  that  the  coast 
as  far  north  at  least  as  Sidon  was  called  Kinahi 
(Canaan),  and  perhaps  the  Amorites  were  the 
people  of  the  interior ;  but  the  usages  may  be 
due  to  the  writers  coming  from  different  sec- 
tions. 

Amory,  Blanche,  a  shallow,  selfish,  world- 
ly girl  in  Thackeray's  novel   'Pendennis.' 

Amory,  Robert,  physician:  b.  Boston  3 
May  1842.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  1863,  M.D. 
1866,  and  studied  in  Paris  and  Dublin.  He  was 
lecturer  at  Harvard  on  the  physiological  action 
of  drugs  1869 ;  then  professor  of  physiology  at 
Bowdoin  Medical  College  till  1874.  Author  of 
'Bromides  of  Potassium  and  Ammonium' 
(1872);  'Action  of  Nitrous  Oxide'  (1870); 
and  important  papers  on  'Chloral  Hydrates,' 
'Pathological  Action  of  Prussic  Acid.'  and 
'Photography  of  the  Spectrum'  :  the  volume  on 
'Poisons'  in  Wharton  &  Stille's  'Medical 
Jurisprudence'  ;  and  'Electrolysis  and  Its  Ap- 
plications to  Treatment  of  Disease'    (1886). 

Amory,  Thomas  Coffin,  lawyer  and  au- 
thor: b.  Boston  1812;  d.  there  1889.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  1830 ;  and  for  many  years  was 
connected  with  the  municipal  government  of 
Boston.  Author  of  'Life  of  James  Sullivan'  (2 
vols.  1859)  ;  'Military  Services  of  Maj-Gen. 
John  Sullivan'  (1868)  ;  'Life  of  Sir  Isaac 
Coffin'  (1886);  'The  Siege  of  Newport:  a 
Poem'  (1888);  'Charles  River:  a  Poem' 
(1888). 

Amos,  the  prophet:  the  earliest  identifia- 
ble Hebrew  writer,  and  the  first  extant  prophet 
who  wrote  his  prophecies,  therefore  of  great 
historical  importance  not  only  for  Hebrew  con- 
ditions in  his  age.  but  for  the  evolution  of  their 
religious    thought.     He    lived    under    Jeroboam 


II.  of  Israel  (790-749  B.C.)  and  Uzziah  of  Ju- 
dah  at  least  during  part  of  his  career;  was  in  Is- 
rael perhaps  between  765  and  750,  though  there 
are  strong  reasons  for  putting  him  after  745.  He 
was  probably  a  man  of  position,  a  fig-planter 
and  cattle-owner  (though  he  calls  himself  a 
fig-picker  and  herdsman)  from  Tekoa  in  Judah 
(see  2  Sam.  xiv.  2  for  the  estimate  of  its  peo- 
ple's astuteness  in  David's  time),  near  Arabia 
and  the  Dedanites ;  his  opportunities  for  meet- 
ing varied  human  elements  had  been  good,  his 
intellect  was  vigorous  and  his  nature  lofty,  and 
his  writings  show  a  singular  cultivation  and  re- 
finement which  reminds  one  how  often  the 
Eastern  herdsman  thus  surprises  the  traveler. 
He  felt  that  he  had  a  burning  moral  message 
to  deliver  to  the  Hebrews,  and  the  place  to 
deliver  it  was  in  the  far  more  important  north- 
ern kingdom,  then  in  the  flower  of  its  prosperity 
first  and  last.  Assyria  had  been  greatly  weak- 
ened by  the  growth  of  the  kingdom  of  Urartu 
(Armenia)  to  the  north,  and  by  internal  re- 
volts under  Ashur-dan  (772-755);  meantime  it 
had  trampled  Damascus  into  a  temporary  im- 
potence for  aggression.  Jeroboam  in  his  long 
reign  was  therefore  able  to  win  back  all  that 
Hazael  had  taken  away,  and  extend  his  king- 
dom from  Hamath  in  Syria  down  to  the  Dead 
Sea :  he  captured  two  places  in  Gilead,  and  his 
people  thought  their  military  prowess  irresisti- 
ble ;  they  suffered  from  no  raids  or  tribute, 
wealth  and  luxury  were  increasing  rapidly,  and 
self-indulgence  with  it.  As  always,  laxer  for- 
eign religions  had  come  in  also :  Yahwe  was 
relied  on  as  the  national  champion,  but  other 
gods  were  worshipped  also,  and  even  with  him 
the  connection  was  becoming  non-moral,  a  costly 
ritual  usurping  the  place  of  ethical  religion. 
Into  this  comfortable  and  boastful  population, 
expecting  no  attack  from  Assyria,  and  with 
their  unhampering  religion,  came  the  great 
moral  teacher  from  the  other  kingdom,  preach- 
ing everything  most  alien  and  distasteful  to 
them :  that  their  military  successes  are  nothing, 
and  Yahwe  will  raise  up  a  nation  to  carry  them 
off  beyond  Damascus  (transplantation,  as  a 
means  of  breaking  up  rebellious  elements  and 
unifying  the  empire,  was  introduced  by  Tiglath- 
pileser  II.  of  Assyria,  745-727,  which  suggests 
the  later  date  for  Amos)  ;  that  Yahwe  hates 
their  burnt-offerings  and  wants  nothing  but 
righteousness ;  that  precisely  because  he  is  closer 
to  them  will  he  judge  them  more  severely;  and 
that  while  he  will  eventually  not  let  the  race 
of  Jacob  die,  he  will  not  restore  it  till  the  pres- 
ent kingdom  has  been  obliterated  from  the  earth. 
This  was  taking  the  heart  out  of  the  people ;  and 
when  he  came  to  Bethel,  the  northern  Jerusa- 
lem, and  reiterated  his  warnings  that  Jeroboam 
would  die  by  the  sword  and  the  people  be  de- 
ported, Amaziah  the  high  priest  reported  him  to 
the  king  as  a  public  nuisance  and  conspirator, 
and  contemptuously  told  him  to  go  back  to  Ju- 
dah and  prophesy  to  such  as  would  pay  him, 
but  not  to  do  it  in  Bethel,  for  it  was  the  king's. 
This  brought  out  the  invaluable  autobiographic 
fragment  (vii.  14-15),  wherein  he  tells  us  of 
his  position,  and  that  he  is  none  of  the  guild  of 
professional  prophets  and  does  not  need  to  take 
fees  for  his  utterances,  but  a  private  individ- 
ual with  a  call  from  God  to  go  out  and  tell 
the  truth.  For  him,  indeed,  it  is  correct  to 
say    God    and    not    Yahwe :    he    is    an    ethical 


AMPHIBIA 


monotheist.  His  writings  as  lliey  stand  show 
signs  of  change  and  interpolation  from  subse- 
quent hands ;  but  the  undoubtedly  authentic 
part  exhibits  fine  literary  as  well  as  intellec- 
tual and  spiritual  qualities,  and  the  imagery  is 
graphic  and  certifies  to  his  pastoral  and  agri- 
cultural employment.  (A  special  work  on  Amos 
is  by  H.  G.  Mitchell,  Boston,  1S89.) 

Amphib'ia,  a  class  of  back-boned  creeping 
animals  comprising  the  newts,  frogs,  and  toads, 
together  with  several  extinct  groups,  which  is 
ified  between  tlie  fishes  and  the  reptiles. 
The  most  prominent  characteristic  is  indicated 
by  the  name,  which  refers  to  the  fact  that  these 
animals  are  provided  with  a  respiratory  appa- 
ratus which  enables  them  to  breathe  both  water 
and  air.  It  is  not  meant,  however,  that  the 
Amphibia  are  able  to  breathe  in  either  air  or 
water  at  the  same  time,  but  that  the  young  are 
provided  with  gills  and  live  in  water  up  to  a 
certain  age,  or  in  rare  cases  permanently,  after 
which  they  acquire  lungs  and  thereafter  breathe 
atmospheric  air.  As  these  young  as  a  rule  are 
different  from  their  parents  and  must  undergo 
metamorphosis  from  the  larval  into  the  adult 
condition,  amphibians  as  a  class  are  usually 
said  to  undergo  metamorphosis,  but  this  is 
equally  true  of  some  fishes  and  it  is  not  true  of 
all  amphibians.  The  evidence  not  only  of  mod- 
ern similarity  of  structure,  but  that  obtained 
from  a  study  of  the  fossil  forms,  makes  it 
plain  that  the  Amphibia  are  the  result  of  the 
evolution  of  a  branch  from  an  ancient  fish- 
stock,  probably  by  way  of  the  lung-fishes  or 
Dipnoi  (q.v.).  On  the  other  hand  they  are 
related  in  a  not  very  different  degree  to  the 
reptiles.  The  connection  link  according  to 
Gadow,  is  formed  by  the  Stcgoccpliali;  all  the 
recent  orders  are  far  too  specialized.  The  line 
leading  from  Stcgoccpliali  to  fossil  reptiles  is 
extremely  gradual,  and  the  same  consideration 
applies  to  the  line  which  leads  downward  to  the 
fishes;  but  the  great  gulf  within  the  I'ertcbrata 
lies  between  fishes  and  amphibians,  that  is,  be- 
tween absolutely  aquatic  creatures  with  internal 
gills  and  fins,  and  terrestrial  four-footed  crea- 
tures with  lungs  and  fingers  and  toes.  No  great 
phylogenetic  importance  attaches  to  the  pos- 
session of  external  gills,  as  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  in  the  Amphibia  these  organs  owe  their 
origin  to  entirely  larval   requirements. 

Although  in  the  Palaeozoic  age  the  great 
stegocephalous  amphibians  (more  usually  called 
labyrinthodonts,  q.v.),  flourished  as  the  only 
terrestrial  vertebrates  of  importance,  the  class 
never  attained  a  dominant  position.  Inter- 
mediate between  the  aquatic  fishes  and  the  grad- 
ually rising  terrestrial  reptiles,  the  amphibians 
were  pushed  aside  in  a  double  way  by  the 
struggle  of  evolution,  until  now  most  of  them 
have  become  extinct.  The  remainder  persist 
only  because  they  have  found  shelter  in  the 
nooks  and  corners  of  the  world  to  which  they 
have  become  adapted  by  small  size  and  aquatic 
habits ;  and  only  one  group,  the  frogs  and  toads, 
fortunate  in  their  plasticity,  have  spread  over 
the  whole  globe  and  exhibit  some  richness  in 
forms. 

The  class  Amphibia  is  divided  into  two  sub- 
classes: (1)  Stegocephali  (q.v.),  which  is 
wholly  extinct;  (2)  Lissamphibia,  which  in- 
cludes all  of  the  modern  forms,  contained  in 
three    orders:     (1)    Apoda,    composed    of    the 


family  Ca-cilliidic  (see  Co7.cii.ua  ns)  ;  (2) 
Urodela,  including  the  long-tailed,  smooth- 
skinned,  aquatic  salamanders,  newts,  mud-pup- 
pies,  and  the  like;  (3)  Anura,  comprising  the 
tailless  forms,  or  frogs  and  toads,  of  which 
there  are  two  divisions, —  the  few  Agl 
which  have  no  tongue,  and  the  tongue-bearing 
Phaneroglossa,  which  includes  the  great  ma- 
jority of  forms. 

Fossil  Amphibia.  The  modern  frogs  and 
salamanders  are  a  small  and  scanty  remnant  of 
the  Amphibia  of  Palaezoic  time.  During  the 
Carboniferous  and  Permian  periods  they  were 
the  dominant  form  of  life  and  of  great  variety  in 
form,  including  some  of  very  large  si/e,  12  feet 
or  more  in  length.  All  these  ancient  Amphibia 
belong  to  an  extinct  group,  the  Labyrii 
(sometimes  called  Stegocephalia),  or  "armored 
amphibians,1  distinguished  by  having  the  wide 
flat  head  completely  roofed  over  with  bom,  and 
the  body  more  or  less  armored  with  bony  plates 
and  scales.  The  skull  has  two  openings  for  the 
eyes,  two  at  the  front  margin  for  the  nostrils, 
and  a  single  one  in  the  middle  for  the  pineal 
eye.  Like  modern  amphibians,  they  breathed 
by  gills  when  young,  but  by  lungs  when  adult. 
All  had  long  tails  and  most  of  them  short  stout 
legs.  Some  were  elongated  and  snake-like, 
others  tadpole-like  with  large  heads  shaped  like 
a  broad  arrow  (Diplocatllus)  and  no  limbs; 
others,  and  these  the  largest,  heavy-bodied,  with 
flat  conical  or  semi-circular  heads,  short  legs, 
and  five-toed  feet   {Labyrinthodon,  Eryops). 

These  ancient  amphibians  illustrate  various 
stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  backbone  of  mod- 
ern Vcrtcbrata  from  the  notochord  or  segmented 
rod  of  cartilage  from  which  it  was  derived.  In 
the  smaller  and  more  primitive  types  the  seg- 
ments of  cartilage  are  but  slightly  ossified  in  a 
number  of  separate  plates  or  incomplete  rings  of 
bone.  In  others  each  vertebra  is  composed  of  two 
or  four  pieces,  which  remain  separate  during  life 
instead  of  consolidating  into  a  single  bone,  as  in 
modern  vertebrates.  In  others,  again,  the  verte- 
bra is  completely  united.  The  oldest  known 
labyrinthodonts  are  from  the  Carboniferous 
rocks,  and  are  related  to  some  of  the  older 
Palaeozoic  dipnoan  fishes,  from  which  they  may 
have  been  descended.  In  the  Permian  they  at- 
tained large  size  and  great  abundance,  and  con- 
tinued into  the  Triassic  period,  by  the  end  of 
which  they  had  become  extinct.  Their  foot- 
tracks,  often  preserved  in  muddy  sandstones  of 
these  periods,  are  sometimes  curiously  like  the 
impressions  of  a  human  hand,  whence  they  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Cheirotherium,  or  "beast- 
with-a-hand,8  before  their  nature  was  recog- 
nized. The  frogs  and  salamanders  are  probably 
descended  from  primitive  labyrinthodonts,  but 
are  very  little  known  as  fossils.  One  fossil  spe- 
cies, allied  to  the  giant  salamander  of  Japan,  was 
found  in  the  Miocene  strata  of  Oeningen  many 
years  ago  (1726)  and  was  supposed  by  an  early 
naturalist  to  be  the  fossil  skeleton  of  a  man, 
and  described  as  "homo  diluvii  testis  ct  thco- 
scopos'" — the  man  who  was  witness  to  the  Del- 
uge and  saw  God  —  a  quaint  reminder  of  the 
geological  speculations  of  two  centuries  ago. 

Consult  Gadow,  'Amphibia  and  Reptiles1 
(London.  1001)  ;  Boulenger,  'Catalogue  of 
Batrachia*  in  British  Museum  (London,  1882)  ; 
and  many  papers  in  English  scientific  periodi- 
cals; Cope,  'Batrachia  of  North  America.' 


AMPHIBIA. 


i.  A  Spanish  Salamander  (Pleurodires  waltli). 

2.  European  Crested  Newt  (Triton  cristatus). 

3.  Menobranch  (Necturus  maculatus). 

4-5.  East  African  Toad  (Breviceps  mossambicus). 


6.  A  Mexican  Toad  t  Rhinophrynus  d    t 

7.  An  Amphisbaena  tSiphonops  annulatus  I. 

8.  Hnrned  Frog  1  Ceratobatrachus  GuentherO. 

9.  Flying  Frog  (Rhacophorus  pardalis< 


AMPHIBOLE  — AMPHIOXUS 


Amphibole,  am'fi-bol  (from  the  Greek 
amphibolos,  "doubtful,"  in  allusion  to  the  diffi- 
culty of  distinguishing  it  from  pyroxene).  In 
mineralogy,  (i  i  a  common  mineral,  crystalliz- 
ing in  the  monoclinic  system,  and  varying 
greatly  in  chemical  composition.  The  name  was 
first  given  by  Haiiy  in  1801  as  distinguishing  a 
species  of  which  he  regarded  hornblende  and 
actinolite  as  varieties.  In  1809  he  included 
tremolite  also.  In  general,  the  species  may  be 
described  as  a  normal  metasilicate  of  calcium 
and  magnesium,  associated  with  iron,  manga- 
nese,   sodium,   potassium,   and   hydrogen. 

(2)  Amphibole  group. —  An  important  group 
of  minerals,  including  the  species  described 
above,  and  taking  its  name  therefrom.  Its  con- 
stituent species  are  widely  different  in  chemical 
composition,  and  are  closely  allied  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  pyroxene  group.  All  the  species 
of  the  amphibole  group  have  a  prismatic  cleav- 
age of  from  54°  to  56°,  and  they  also  exhibit 
close  relationships  in  the  optical  properties.  A!i 
the  species  of  the  pyroxene  group  have  a  funda- 
mental prism  with  an  angle  of  930  and  87°,  the 
corresponding  angle  in  amphibole  being  560  and 
124°.  The  specific  gravity  of  the  pyroxenes  is 
usually  higher  than  that  of  the  species  of  the 
amphiboles  with  which  they  are  likely  to  be  con- 
fused. Alkalis  are  met  with  more  commonly  in 
the  amphiboles,  and  magnesium  is  also  more 
prominent  in  that  group.  The  amphibole  group 
is  divided  into  three  main  sections  according  to 
the  crystalline  forms  of  its  species.  Dana's 
classification  is  as  follows : 


A.  Orthorhombic   Section. 

AnthophylHte. 
(Gedrite.) 

B.  Moxoclixic  Section. 

Amphibole: 

Non-aluminous  varieties: 

Tremolite. 

Actinolite. 

Cummingtonite. 

Dannemorite. 

Grunerite. 

Richterite. 
Aluminous  varieties: 

Edenite. 

Pargasite. 

Hornblende. 
Glaucophane. 
Riebeckite. 
Crocidolite. 
Arfvedsonite. 
(Barkevikite.) 

C.  Triclinic  Section. 

--Enigmatite. 

Amphibol'ogy,  an  equivocal  phrase  or 
sentence,  not  from  the  double  sense  of  any  of 
the  words,  but  from  its  admitting  a  double  con- 
struction, as  "The  duke  yet  lives  that  Henry 
shall  depose."  The  word  that  may  be  ambigu- 
ous, and  consequently  the  sentence  is  an  exam- 
ple of  equivocation,  not  amphibology. 

Amphic'tyon'ic  League  or  Council,  in  an- 
cient Greece,  an  assembly  composed  of  deputies 
from  12  Greek  tribes,  each  of  which  sent  two 
deputies,  who  assembled  with  great  solemnity; 
composed  the  public  dissensions,  and  the  quar- 
rels of  individual  cities,  by  force  or  persuasion ; 
punished  civil  and  criminal  offenses,  and  partic- 
ularly transgressions  of  the  law  of  nations  and 
violations  of  the  temple  of  Delphi.  After  the 
decision  was  published  a  fine  was  inflicted  on 
the  guilty  state,  which  if  not  paid  in  due  time 
was  doubled.     If  the  state  did  not  then  submit, 


the  whole  confederacy  took  arms  to  reduce  it 
to  obedience.  The  assembly  had  also  the  right 
of  excluding  it  from  the  confederation.  An 
instance  of  the  exercise  of  this  right  gave  rise 
to  the  Phocian  war,  which  continued  10  years 
(b.c.  355-346). 

Amphic'yon,  a  genus  of  extinct  mammals, 
found  fossil  in  Miocene  rocks,  which  is  usually 
placed  among  the  extinct  Cauida  (dogs),  but 
has  many  bear-like  features,  such  as  plantigrade, 
five-toed  feet,  and  the  structure  of  the  ulna  and 
radius.  The  largest  species  was  about  the  size 
of  a  bear,  but  with  a  very  dog-like  head.  It 
belonged  to  the  Old  World,  but  a  closely  al- 
lied American  Miocene  form  is  Daphanus. 

Am'phineu'ra.      See  Mollusks. 

Amphi'on,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of 
Zeus  and  Antiope,  his  twin  brother  being  Ze- 
thus.  He  is  represented  as  being  the  oldest  of 
the  Grecian  musicians.  In  Lydia,  where  he 
maried  Niobe,  the  daughter  of  King  Tantalus, 
he  learned  music,  and  brought  it  thence  into 
Greece.  He  reigned  in  Thebes,  which  he  partly 
built,  and  it  is  said  that  at  the  sound  of  his 
lyre  the  stones  voluntarily  formed  themselves 
into  walls;  also  that  wild  beasts,  and  even  trees, 
rocks,  and  streams  followed  the  musician.  With 
the  aid  of  his  brother  Zethus  he  is  said  to  have 
avenged  Antiope,  who  had  been  imprisoned  and 
ill-used  by  his  father,  and  to  have  bound  Dirce, 
his  stepmother,  to  the  horns  of  a  wild  bull.  This 
incident  is  supposed  to  be  represented  by  the 
famous  piece  of  sculpture,  the  Farnese  bull,  in 
the  Farnese  Palace  at  Rome. 

Am'phiox'us,  the  lancelet,  a  small  animal 
of  the  marine  class  Lcptocardii.  Its  earliest 
scientific  name  is  Branchiostoma.  From  its 
somewhat  worm-like  form  it  was  for  a  long  time 
regarded  as  a  worm  by  some  authors,  and  ori- 
ginally as  a  mollusk  (Limax)  by  Pallas.  It 
is  now  named  Atnphioxus  lanceolatus;  lives 
buried  in  the  sand  just  below  low-water  mark, 
the  head  or  "oral  hood"  projecting  above  into 
the  water.  It  also  swims  in  a  vertical  or  upright 
position,  also  frequently  lying  on  one  side  on 
the  sand ;  and  burrows  head  foremost  rapidly 
downward  in  the  sand.  It  extends  along  our 
coast  from  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake  Bay  to  Flor- 
ida ;  also  on  the  eastern  coast  of  South  America 
and  in  the  north  European  seas,  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  East  Indies  and  Australasia,  the  spe- 
cies being  truly  cosmopolitan.  Another  very 
closely  allied  genus,  Asymmetron,  includes  two 
species,  one  of  which  occurs  at  the  Bahamas, 
and  the  other  in  the  Louisade  Archipelago, 
southeast  of  New  Guinea. 

The  body  of  Atnphioxus  is  about  two  inches 
in  length,  slender,  compressed,  pointed  at  each 
end,  hence  the  generic  name  {Atnphioxus,  a/upl 
both,  o£!>$,  sharp),  the  head-end  being  thin  and 
compressed.  The  muscular  segments  are  dis- 
tinct to  the  naked  eye.  From  the  mouth 
to  the  vent  is  a  deep  ventral  furrow,  and  a  slight 
dorsal  fin  extends  along  the  back  and  beneath 
as  far  front  as  the  vent,  forming  the  ventral 
fin,  while  the  wider  portion  at  the  tail  is  the 
caudal  fin.  The  oral  hood  has  a  large  me- 
dian external  opening,  which  is  oral,  surrounded 
with  a  circle  of  ciliated  tentacles  supported  by 
semi-cartilaginous  processes  arising  from  a  cir- 
cumoral  ring.  At  the  bottom  of  this  opening  is 
the    mouth    which   leads    directly    into    a    large 


AMPHIPODA  —  AMPHISBiENA 


broad  pharynx  or  'bronchial  sac,"  protected  at 
the  entrance  by  a  number  of  minute  ciliated 
lobes,      ["he  wails  of  this  sac  are  perforated  by 

long  ciliated  sins,  of  which  there  are  more  than 
a  hundred  pairs,  comparable  with  those  of  the 
bronchial  sacs  of  ascidians  and  of  Balanoglos- 
sus.  The  water  which  enters  the  mouth  passes 
out  through  these  slits,  where  it  oxygenates  the 
blood  and  enters  the  peribronchial  cavity, 
thence  passing  out  of  the  body  through  the  ab- 
dominal pore  (atriopore).  The  pharynx  leads 
to  the  stomach  with  which  is  -onnected  the 
liver  or  ccccum.  There  is  a  system  of  blood- 
vessels, but  no  heart.  A  contractile  median 
vessel,  the  ventral  aorta,  beginning  at  the  free 
end  of  the  liver,  and  extending  along  the  under- 
side of  the  pharynx,  sends  branches  to  the  sac 
and  two  anterior  branches  to  the  dorsal  aorta. 
On  the  dorsal  side  of  the  pharynx  the  blood  is 
poured  by  the  two  anterior  trunks,  and  by  the 
branchial  veins  which  carry  away  the  aerated 
blood  from  the  branchial  bars,  into  a  great  lon- 
gitudinal trunk  or  median  dorsal  aorta,  by 
which  it  is  distributed  throughout  the  body. 
There  are  also  vessels  distributed  to  the  liver, 
and  returning  vessels,  representing  the  portal 
and  hepatic  veins.  The  blood-corpuscles  are 
white  and   nucleated. 

The  vertebral  column  of  the  true  vertebrates 
is  represented  in  the  lancelet  by  a  notochord, 
a  long,  flexible,  cylindrical  rod  pointed  at  both 
ends,  which  extends  to  the  end  of  the  head  far 
in  front  of  the  nervous  cord;  and  also  by  a 
series  of  semi-cartilaginous  bodies  above  the 
nervous  system,  and  which  are  thought  to  rep- 
resent  either  neural  spines  or  fin-rays.  The 
nervous  cord  is  a  rod-like  structure  which  lies 
over  the  notochord.  It  is  not  divided  into  a 
true  brain  and  spinal  cord,  though  the  cord  is 
slightly  enlarged  at  the  anterior  end,  where 
a  rudimentary  ventricle  is  said  to  exist.  The 
nerve-cord  sends  off  a  few  nerves  to  the  peri- 
phery, with  a  nerve  to  the  single  minute  me- 
dian eye.  An  olfactory  pit  opens  externally  on 
the  left  side  of  the  snout.  The  principal  excre- 
tory organs  are  about  nin  ly  pairs  of  peculiarly 
modified  nephridia,  situated  above  the  pharynx, 
and  in  relation  with  the  main  ccclomic  cavities. 
The  reproductive  glands  are  srptare  masses  or 
pouches,  of  which  there  are  about  26  pairs  at- 
tached in  a  row  on  each  of  the  walls  of  the 
body-cavity.  The  individuals  may  be  male  or 
female,  the  only  sexual  differences  being  in  the 
reproductive  glands. 

I  he  eggs  may  pass  out  of  the  mouth  or 
through  the  pore.  Kowalevsky  found  them 
issuing  in  May  from  the  mouth  of  the  female, 
and  fertilized  by  spermatic  particles,  likewise 
issuing  from  the  mouth  of  the  male.  The  eggs 
are  very  small.  0.105  millimetres  in  diameter. 
The  eggs  undergo  total  segmentation,  leaving  a 
segmenta  on  cavity.  The  body-cavity  is  next 
formed  by  invagination.  The  blastoderm  now 
invaginates  and  the  embyro  swims  about  as  a 
ciliated  gastrula.  The  body  is  oval,  and  the 
germ  does  not  differ  much  in  appearance  from 
a  worm,  starfish,  or  ascidian  in  the  same  stage 
of  growth.  No  vertebrate  features  are  devel- 
oped. Socn  the  lively,  ciliated  gastrula 
elongates,  the  alimentary  tube  arises  from  the 
primitive  gastrula  cavity,  while  the  edges  of  the 
flattened  side  of  the  body  grow  up  as  ridges, 
which  afterward,  as  in   all  vertebrate  embryos, 


grow  over  and  enclose  the  spinal  cord.  When 
the  germ  is  _>4  hours  old  it  assumes  the  form  of 
a  ciliated  flattened  cylinder,  and  now  resembles 
an  ascidian  embryo,  there  being  a  nerve  cavity 
with  an  external  opening,  which  afterward 
closes.  The  notochord  appears  at  this  tunc. 
In  the  next  stage  observed  the  adult  characters 
have  appeared,  the  mouth  is  formed,  the  tir-t  pair 
of  gill-openings  are  seen,  II  additional  p; 
appearing.  It  thus  appears  that  while  the  lance- 
let at  one  time  in  its  life  prevents  ascidian  fea 
tures,  yet,  as  Balfour  states,  "all  the  modes  of 
development  found  in  the  higher  vertebrates 
are  to  be  looked  upon  as  modifications  of  that 
of  Amphioxus."  A.  S.  Packard, 

Late  Prof.  Zoology,  Brown  I  'niversily. 

Amphip'oda,  an  order  of  Crustacea,  in 
which  the  body  is  compressed  and  usually  arched. 
'I  here  is  no  carapace  or  distinct  cephalothorax, 
but  a  small  head,  bearing  two  pairs  of  antenna. 
a  pair  of  jaws  (mandibles),  and  three  pairs  of 
maxillae.  The  thoracic  segments  are  separate 
and  like  those  of  the  abdomen,  not  being  fused 
and  united  with  the  head  segments.  Respira- 
tion is  performed  by  lamellate  Or  leaf-like  gills 
arising  from  the  middle  pair  of  legs.  The  am- 
phipods  are  represented  by  the  common  beach- 
flea  or  beach-  or  sand-hopper  (Orchestia  agilis)  ; 
by  Gammarus,  or  "scud,"  species  of  which  live 
both  in  the  sea  and  in  fresh-water.  Extreme 
forms  are  the  ghost-like  or  skeleton-like  atten 
uated  Caprella,  abounding  in  eel-grass  below- 
low  tide;  and  which  in  walking  loop  the  body 
somewhat  like  a  geometricid  caterpillar.  Another 
form  is  Chelura  terebrans,  which  burrows  in 
wood,  in  company  with  the  gribble.  It  is  very 
active  and  frequently  destructive  to  submerged 
piles.  Other  forms  arc  eyeless  and  live  in 
caves  or  dark  well-. 

Amphipolis,  an  important  city  of  Thrace 
or  Macedonia;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Strymon 
River.  33  miles  from  the  Tigean.  It  was 
founded  by  an  Athenian  colony  about  4.50  1:1  ; 
was  captured  by  Sparta  in  4J4  B.C  ;  and  near  it 
the  Spartans  defeated  the  Athenians  in  42J  B.I 
Subsequently  it  became  a  Macedonian  pos  1 
sion ;  was  called  Popolia  in  the  Middle  Aees; 
and  its  site  is  now  occupied  by  the  Turkish 
town  of  Yenikeui. 

Am'phisbae'na,  one  of  the  degraded  worm- 
shaped  li/anls  nf  the  family  .  1  inphisbiCiiiilic, 
which  lead  an  entirely  subterranean  lite,  bur- 
rowing like  earth-worms.  They  have  a 
skin  forming  numerous  rings  and  containing 
only  vestiges  of  scales  except  upon  the  head. 
External  limb,  are  absent  (except  in  one  genus), 
but  only  vestiges  remain  of  any  limb-bones. 
Their  tails  are  SO  shorl  and  blunt  that  they  arc- 
popularly  said  in  some  countries  i"  have  two 
heads,  whence  the  scientific  name  of  the  group. 
This  notion  is  strengthened  by  their  ability  to 
move  either  forward  or  backward  with  equal 
case.  About  a  dozen  genera  and  more  than 
60  species  are  known,  most  of  which  inhabit  the 
warmer  parts  ,,f  America  and  Africa:  some  also 
live  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  Spain.  They  are  fre- 
quently found  in  ants'  nests,  and  have  been 
called  "mothers  of  ants"  in  consequence. 
Their  eyes  and  ears  are  concealed  beneath  the 
skin.  A  common  species  in  South  America  and 
the  West  Indies  {Amphisbama  fuliginosa)  is 
checkered  black  and  white,  and  is  from  one  to 
two    feet   in    length.     Like    the   others    it    feeds 


AMPHITHEATRE  —  AMRITSIR 


upon  worms  and  small  insects  found  under  the 
surface  of  the  ground.  They  are  quite  harm- 
less. 

Am'phithe'atre,  with  the  Romans,  a  build- 
ing without  a  roof,  of  a  round  or  oval  form, 
destined  for  the  combats  of  gladiators  or  of 
wild  beasts.  In  the  middle  was  the  arena,  a 
large  place  covered  with  sand,  on  which  the 
fights  were  exhibited.  Round  about  were  the 
vaults  or  caves  in  which  the  animals  were 
kept ;  above  these  was  the  gallery,  from  which 
ascended  successive  rows  of  seats,  each  of 
greater  height  and  circumference  than  the  pre- 
ceding. The  first  14  were  for  the  senators 
and  judges,  the  others  for  the  common  peo- 
ple. Julius  Cssar  erected  the  first  large  am- 
phitheatre at  Rome  for  his  gladiatorial  exhi- 
bitions. It  was  of  wood.  Statilius  Taurus, 
20  years  later,  built  the  first  stone  one.  The 
Coliseum  at  Rome  is  the  largest  of  all  the 
ancient  amphitheatres.  (See  Coliseum.)  In 
Verona  there  is  one  the  interior  of  which  still 
shows  the  whole  ancient  architecture  and  is 
carefully  preserved. 

Am'phitri'te,  in  Greek  mythology,  a 
daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Tethys,  or  of  Nereus 
and  Doris.  Poseidon  wished  to  make  her  his 
wife,  and  as  she  hid  herself  from  him  he  sent  a 
dolphin  to  find  her,  which  brought  her  to  him, 
and  received  as  a  reward  a  place  among  the 
stars.  As  a  goddess  and  queen  of  the  sea  she 
is  represented  as  drawn  in  a  chariot  of  shells 
by  tritons,  or  riding  on  a  dolphin,  before  which 
a  cupid  swims,  with  the  trident  of  Poseidon  in 
her  hand. 

Amphit'ryon,  in  Greek  mythology,  king 
of  Thebes,  son  of  Alcauis,  and  husband  of  Alc- 
tnena.  Plautus,  and  after  him  Moliere,  have 
made  the  trick  played  upon  him  by  Zeus  (in  as- 
suming his  form  in  order  to  enjoy  the  embraces 
of  his  wife)  the  subject  of  amusing  comedies, 
in  which  the  return  of  the  true  Amphitryon, 
and  his  meeting  with  the  false  one,  occasion 
several   humorous  scenes. 

Am'phiu'ma,  a  genus  of  Amphibians  that 
lose  their  tadpole  gills,  but  retain  a  gill  slit. 
See  Kongo  Snake. 

Amphora,  a  vessel  used  by  the  Greeks 
and  Romans  for  holding  various  liquids,  par- 
ticularly wine  They  were  of  various  forms, 
but  most  commonly  tall  and  narrow,  with  a 
pointed  end  which  fitted  into  a  hole  or  socket 
to  enable  them  to  stand  upright.  Properly  an 
amphora  was  a  two-handled  vessel,  from  Greek 
aniphi.  both,  and  phero,  to  carry. 

Amphoteric,  a  chemical  property  of  many 
organic  substances,  urine,  milk,  blood,  etc.,  to 
show  acid  to  blue  litmus  and  alkaline  to  red 
litmus,  thus  paradoxically  being  both  acid  and 
alkaline. 

Am'plitude,  in  astronomy,  the  distance  of 
any  celestial  body  or  other  object  (when  re- 
ferred by  a  secondary  circle  to  the  horizon) 
from  the  east  or  west  points ;  the  complement  to 
the  amplitude,  or  the  distance  from  the  north 
or  south  point,  is  called  the  azimuth. 

Ampudia,  Pedro  de,  Mexican  soldier.  He 
first  appears  in  the  wars  against  Texas,  Santa 
Anna  (q.v.)  making  him  a  general  in  1840.  He 
engaged    in    forays    and   fights    here    for    some 


years,  coming  into  conflict  with  Summerville's 
Texas  troops  and  commanding  the  land  forces 
in  the  siege  of  Campeachy ;  compelled  to  re- 
treat 26  June  1843,  he  went  to  Tabasco,  and  in 
1S44  captured  and  summarily  executed  Sent- 
manat  who  had  assaulted  it.  The  act  was  loud- 
ly condemned,  and  he  was  dismissed.  He  re- 
appeared in  the  United  States-Mexican  war 
under  Arista ;  was  in  the  fight  at  Matamoras, 
II  April  1846;  was  given  command  of  Monte- 
rey, but  surrendered  to  Taylor  24  September 
and  vanishes  from  history. 

Ampulla  (Lat.),  in  antiquity,  a  vessel 
bellying  out  like  a  jug,  that  contained  unguents 
for  the  bath ;  also  a  vessel  for  drinking  at  table. 
The  ampulla  has  also  been  employed  for  cere- 
monial purposes,  such  as  holding  the  oil  or 
chrism  used  in  various  church  rites  and  for 
anointing  monarchs  at  their  coronation. 
Ampullaria.  See  Apple-Shell. 
Am'puta'tion.  See  Surgery. 
Amraphel,  king  of  Shinar  (=  Sumer,  the 
Sumerian  or  South  Babylonian  plain),  a  mon- 
arch mentioned  in  Gen.  xiv.  as  an  ally  of  Che- 
dorlaomer,  king  of  Elam.  in  subduing  his  re- 
volted Palestinian  vassals.  Two  other  allied 
kings  are  named:  Arioch  of  Ellasar  ( Larsa, 
South  Babylonia)  and  Tidal  of  Goiim  ( translat- 
ed "nations"  in  Authorized  Version;  identified 
by  some  with  Gutium  in  Media,  by  others  with 
"the  tribes>>  =  the  wandering  Kuril- 1.  Wither 
of  the  names  nor  any  mention  of  the  raid  is 
found  on  the  inscriptions;  and  the  expedition, 
with  its  capture  of  Lot  and  the  successful  re- 
capture by  Abraham,  has  no  critical  standing. 
Nevertheless  it  is  most  interesting  historically; 
for  the  non-Jewish  names  are  apparently  gen- 
uine, and  the  conditions  are  precisely  those  of 
the  times  which  the  names  would  imply.  Arioch 
would  correspond  to  the  Babylonian  Eriaku, 
supposed  to  be  found  in  a  fragmentary  epic  on 
the  invasion  of  Babylonia ;  Tid"al  to  a  Tudhkula 
or  Tudhghula  also  said  to  be  recognizable  there  ; 
and  Chedorlaomer  to  Kudur-Laghamar.  the 
first  half  of  which  is  found  in  other  Elamite 
royal  names,  as  Kudur-Mabuk,  etc..  and  the 
last  is  probable.  As  to  Amraphel,  he  is  very 
plausibly  Hammurabi  (q.v.).  the  great  revivor 
of  the  Babylonian  monarchy  about  2250,  after 
its  conquest  by  the  Elamites ;  or  rather  Ham- 
murabi-ilu  (the  divine  name  el  or  ilu  added,  as 
common  in  Babylonian  and  Egyptian:  cf.  Jo- 
seph-el and  Jacob-el  against  the  Hebrew  Joseph 
and  Jacob),  or  perhaps  Hammu-rapaltu,  a 
probably  dialectic  variant  of  Kimta-rapashtu 
actually  found  written.  Chedorlaomer's  expe- 
dition is  like  other  known  ones  of  Babylonian 
kings  against  the  lands  west  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean, which  they  claimed  as  tributary.  But 
there  is  a  closer  verisimilitude,  which  makes  it 
practically  certain  that  the  substance  of  the 
story  was  taken  from  a  Babylonian  tablet  de- 
Mug  an  actual  occurrence:  Amraphel  in  the 
story  is  a  subordinate  ally  of  Chedorlaomer.  and 
the  historical  Hammurabi  was  apparently  a  de- 
pendent sub-king  of  Babylon  under  the  Elamites 
before  he  threw  off  their  yoke.  The  added 
Abraham  story  may  represent  a  tradition 
welded  with  the  other  in  later  times. 

Amritsir,  um-rit'sar,  or  Umritsir  (that  is, 
"the  pool  of  immortality"),  a  town  of  Hindu- 
stan, capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in 


AMRU  —  AMSTERDAM 


the  Pan  jab,  the  principal  place  of  the  religious 
worship  of  the  Sikhs.  It  is.  on  account  of  its 
favorable  situation  between  Cabul  and  Delhi, 
Cashmere,  and  the  Deccan,  a  place  of  great 
trade,  and  has  considerable  manufactures  of 
shawls  and  silks;  but  its  chief  attraction  to  the 
natives  is  the  sacred  pond  constructed  by  Ram 
Das  (one  of  the  earlier  pontiffs  of  the  Sikh 
faith),  in  which  the  Sikhs  immerse  themselves 
that  they  maj  be  purified  from  all  sin.  I  hi  I 
holy  basin  is  150  paces  square,  built  of  brick, 
having  in  its  centre  the  chief  temple  of  the 
Sikh  religion.  •  Under  a  silken  canopy  in  this 
temple  is  deposited  the  book  of  Sikh  religion 
and  laws,  called  the  Granth.  The  voluntary 
contributions  of  pilgrims  and  devotees  support 
this  place,  to  which  600  priests  are  attached. 
Pop.   (1901)    164,000  (including  cantonments). 

The  district  of  Amritsir  lies  between  the 
rivers  Ravi  and  Bias.  It  is  intersected  by  nu- 
merous  canals.     Its   area   is    1,601    miles.     Pop. 

02)  2,500,000. 

Am'ru,  originally  an  opponent,  and  subse- 
quently a  zealous  supporter  of  Mohammed,  and 
cue  of  the  ablest  of  the  Mohammedan  warriors. 
He  brought  Egypt  under  the  power  of  the 
Caliph  Omar  in  638,  and  governed  it  wisely  till 
his  death  in  663.  The  burning  of  the  famous 
Alexandrian  Library  has  been  generally  attrib- 
uted to  him,  though  only  on  the  authority  of  a 
writer   who   lived  six  centuries  later. 

Amsdorf,  Nicolaus,  a  Protestant  reformer 
of  the  16th  century:  b.  in  Gross-Zschopa,  near 
Wurzen,  on  the  Mulde,  3  Dec.  1483;  d.  14  May 
1505.  He  was  educated  at  Leipsic,  and  then  at 
Wittenberg,  where  he  was  one  of  the  first  who 
matriculated  (1502)  in  the  recently-founded  uni- 
versity. He  obtained  various  academical  honors, 
and  became  professor  of  theology  in  1511.  He 
joined  Luther  at  the  very  beginning  of  his 
struggle  (1517)  ;  continued  all  along  one  of  his 
most  determined  supporters;  was  with  him  at 
the  Leipsic  Conference  and  the  Diet  of  Worms; 
and  was  in  the  secret  of  his  Warthurg  seclu- 
sion. He  assisted  the  first  efforts  of  the  Ref- 
ormation at  Magdeburg,  at  Goslar,  and  at  Ein- 
beck ;  took  an  active  part  in  the  debates  at 
Schmalkald,  where  he  defended  the  use  of  the 
sacrament  by  the  unbelieving;  and  spoke  out 
strongly  against  the  bigamy  of  the  Elector  of 
Hesse.  He  urged  the  separation  of  the  High 
Lutheran  party  from  Melancthon,  got  the  Saxon 
dukes  to  oppose  the  Frankfurt  Recess  (1558), 
and  continued  to  fight  for  the  purity  of  Lutheran 
doctrine   until   his  death. 

Amsler,  Samuel,  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  engravers:  b.  in  Schinznach,  in  the 
canton  of  Aargau,  1791  ;  d.  18  May  1849.  Ams- 
Icr's  principal  engravings  are  'The  Triumphal 
March  of  Alexander  the  Great'  and  a  full- 
length  'Christ,'  after  the  sculptures  of  Thor- 
waldsen  and  Dannecker ;  the  'Burial  of  Christ,' 
and  two  'Madonnas,'  after  the  pictures  of 
Raphael;  and  the  'Triumph  of  Religion  in  the 
Arts.'  after  Overbeck,  his  last  work,  on  which 
he  spent  six  years. 

Amsterdam,  formerly  called  Amstelredam, 
the  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  is  situated  in  the 
province  of  North  Holland,  at  the  influx  of  the 
Amstel  to  the  Ij  or  Y  (pronounced  eye),  an 
arm  of  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  city  is  built  in  the 
shape  of  a  semi-circle,  and  within  this  semi- 
circle four  canals  —  the  Prinsen  Gracht,  Keizer's 


Gracht,  Heeren  Gracht,  and  the  Singel  —  ex- 
tend in  the  form  of  polygonal  ere  c<  nl  .  nearly 
0  each  "ther.  while  numi  rous  ■  mailer 
canals  intersect  the  city  in  every  direction,  di- 
viding it  into  about  90  islands,  with  about  300 
bridges.  The  site  of  Amsterdam  was  originally 
a  peat  bog,  and  all  its  buildings  rest  upon  piles 
that  are  driven  .some  40  or  50  feet  through  a 
mass  of  loose  sand  and  mud  until  they  reach 
a  solid  stratum  of  firm  clay.  This  foundation 
is  perfectly  secure  as  long  as  the  piles  remain 
under  water.  At  the  beginning  of  the  13th 
century  it  was  merely  a  fishing  village,  with  a 
small  castle,  the  residence  of  the  lords  of 
Amstel.  In  1296,  on  account  of  its  share  in 
the  murder  of  Count  Floris  of  Holland,  the 
rising  town  was  demolished;  but  in  1311,  with 
Amstelland    (the  district  on  the  banks  of  the 

Amstel),  it  was  taken  under  the  protection  of 
the  Counts  of  Holland,  and  from  them  received 
several  privileges  which  contributed  to  its  sub- 
sequent prosperity.  In  1482  it  was  walled  and 
fortified.  After  the  revolt  of  the  seven  prov- 
inces (1566)  it  speedily  rose  to  he  their  first 
commercial  city  and  a  great  asylum  for  the  Flem- 
ish Protestants;  and  in  1585  it  was  considerably 
enlarged  by  the  building  of  the  new  town  on 
the  west.  The  establishment  of  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company  (1602)  did  much  to  forward  the 
well-being  of  Amsterdam,  which,  20  years  later, 
had  100,000  inhabitants.  In  the  middle  of  that 
century  the  war  with  England  so  far  reduced 
the  commerce  of  the  port  that,  in  1653.  4,000 
houses  stood  uninhabited.  Amsterdam  had  to 
surrender  to  the  Prussians  in  1787.  to  the  French 
in  1795;  and  the  union  of  Holland  with  France 
in  1810  entirely  destroyed  its  foreign  trade, 
while  the  excise  and  other  new  regulations  im- 
poverished its  inland  resources.  The  old  firms, 
however,  lived  through  the  time  of  difficulty, 
and  in  1815  commerce  again  began  to  expand  — 
an  expansion  greatly  promoted  by  the  opening 
in  1876  of  a  new  and  more  direct  waterway  be- 
tween the  North  Sea  and  the  city. 

The  city  has  a  fine  appearance  when  seen 
from  the  harbor  or  from  the  high  bridge  over 
the  Amstel.  Church  towers  and  spires,  and  a 
perfect  forest  of  masts,  relieve  the  flatness  of 
the  prospect.  The  old  ramparts  have  been 
leveled,  planted  with  trees,  and  formed  into 
promenades.  Between  1866  and  1876  many  spa- 
cious streets  and  an  extensive  public  park  were 
added  to  the  city.  Tramways  have  been  suc- 
cessfully introduced,  and  the  harbor  greatly 
improved.  There  is  railway  communication 
with  all  parts  of  the  country  and  of  Europe. 
Rich  grassy  meadows  surround  the  city.  On 
the  west  side  are  a  great  number  of  windmills 
for  grinding  corn  and  sawing  wood.  On  each 
side  of  the  three  chief  canals,  with  a  row  of 
trees  and  a  carriage-way  intervening,  are  hand- 
some residences.  The  building  material  is 
brick:  and  the  houses  have  their  gables  toward 
the  streets,  wdiich  gives  them  a  picturesque  ap- 
pearance. The  defenses  of  Amsterdam  now 
ist  in  a  row  of  detached  forts,  and  in  the 
sluices,  several  miles  distant  frorr  the  city, 
wdiich  can  flood  in  a  few  hours  the  surrounding 
land.  A  hard  frost,  however,  like  that  of 
1794-?.  when  Pichegru  invaded  the  country, 
would  render  this  means  of  defense  useless. 

The  population,  wdiich  from  217,024  in  1704, 
sank  to  180.179  in  1815,  rose  steadily  to  503.285 
in    1897,   of   whom   the   majority   belong  to   the 


AMSTERDAM  —  AMUR 


Dutch  Reformed  Church.  Of  the  remainder, 
about  80,000  were  Catholics,  30,000  German 
Jews,  and  3,200  Portuguese  Jews.  The  chief 
industrial  establishments  are  sugar  refineries, 
engineering  works,  mills  for  polishing  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones,  dockyards,  manufac- 
tories of  sails,  ropes,  tobacco,  silks,  gold  and 
silver  plate  and  jewelry,  colors,  and  chemicals, 
breweries,  distilleries,  with  export  houses  for 
corn  and  colonial  produce ;  cotton-spinning, 
hook-printing,  and  type-founding  are  also  car- 
ried on.  The  present  Bank  of  the  Netherlands 
dates  from  1824,  Amsterdam's  famous  bank  of 
1609  having  been  dissolved  in  1796. 

The  former  Stadhuis  ("townhouse9),  con- 
verted in  1808  into  a  palace  for  King  Louis 
Bonaparte,  and  still  retained  by  the  reigning 
family,  is  a  noble  structure.  Built  by  Van  Kam- 
pen  in  1648-55,  and  raised  upon  13,659  piles,  it 
extends  282  feet  in  length  by  235  feet  in  breadth, 
and  is  surmounted  by  a  round  tower  rising  182 
feet  from  the  base.  It  has  a  hall  120  feet  long, 
57  wide,  and  90  high,  lined  with  white  Italian 
marble  —  an  apartment  of  great  splendor.  The 
cruciform  Nieuwe  Kerk  (New  Church),  a 
Gothic  edifice  of  1408-14,  is  the  finest  eccle- 
siastical structure  in  the  city,  with  a  splendidly 
carved  pulpit,  and  the  tombs  of  Admiral  de 
Ruyter,  the  great  Dutch  poet  Vondel,  and  va- 
rious other  worthies.  The  Old  Church  (Oude 
Kerk),  built  in  the  14th  century,  is  rich  in 
painted  glass,  has  a  grand  organ,  and  contains 
several  monuments  of  naval  heroes.  Literature 
and  science  are  represented  by  a  university  sup- 
ported by  the  municipality  (till  1876  known  as 
the  Athenteum  Illustrc),  by  academies  of  arts 
and  sciences,  by  museums  and  picture  galleries, 
a  palace  of  national  industry,  a  botanical  gar- 
den, several  theatres,  etc.  The  new  Ryksmti- 
seum  contains  a  truly  national  collection  of 
paintings,  its  choicest  treasure  being  Rem- 
brandt's 'Night-guard.'  Rembrandt  (q.v.) 
made  Amsterdam  his  home ;  and  his  statue 
(1852)  now  fronts  the  house  he  occupied. 
Spinoza  was  a  native.  The  hospital  for  aged 
people,  the  poorhouse,  house  of  correction,  the 
orphan  asylums,  a  navigation  school,  and  many 
benevolent  societies,  are  well  supported  and 
managed  on  good  principles.  A  water  supply 
was  introduced  in  1853.  The  North  Holland 
Canal,  to  which  Amsterdam  is  so  largely  in- 
debted for  the  rapid  increase  of  its  commerce,  is 
noticed  under  Zuider  Zee.     Pop.  (1891)417,539. 

Amsterdam,  N.  Y.,  a  city  of  Montgom- 
ery County,  33  miles  northwest  of  Albany.  It 
is  located  on  the  Mohawk  River,  the  Erie 
Canal,  and  the  West  Shore  railway,  and  is  a 
busy  manufacturing   centre. 

Industries,  etc. —  Amsterdam  has  about  half 
a  hundred  factories,  among  the  numerous  prod- 
ucts being  such  diversified  objects  as  carpets, 
knit-goods,  rugs,  wagon-springs,  paper,  silk, 
paper-boxes,  and  brooms.  There  are  also  foun- 
dries and  machine-shops ;  three  daily  newspapers 
are  published. 

Public  Institutions,  Buildings,  etc.—  Here 
are  located  an  academy,  a  hospital,  a  board  of 
trade,  numerous  churches,  and  a  Roman  Cath- 
olic institute.  There  are  well-paved  streets,  a 
fine  system  of  drainage,  an  excellent  water  sup- 
ply, and  an  electric  lighting  system. 

History. —  Amsterdam  was  first  settled  about 
1778,  and  until  1804  it  was  known  as  Veeders- 
Vol.  1  —  29 


burg.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1830, 
and  as  a  city  in  1885.  Pop.  (1890)  17,336; 
(1900)  20,929;  (1905)  23,943. 

Amu,  Amoo,  Amoo  Darya  (Arab. 
Gihon),  a  river  of  Central  Asia,  the  ancient 
Oxus.  It  takes  its  rise  in  the  eastern  Pamir, 
near  the  boundary  of  eastern  Turkestan,  flows 
at  first  generally  west  (to  Ion.  66°  E.),  thence 
generally  northwest,  and  empties  by  a  delta  into 
the  southern  part  of  the  Aral  Sea.  It  receives 
several  affluents  from  the  mountains  of  Turke- 
stan and  the  Hindoo  Koosh.  About  1.600  miles 
in  length,  it  is  navigable  by  light  draught  ves- 
sels for  about  800.  As  a  means  of  irrigation. 
it  is  of  considerable  importance. 

Amulet,  a  piece  of  stone,  metal,  or  other 
substance,  marked  with  certain  figures  or  char- 
acters, which  people  wear  about  them  as  a  pro- 
tection against  diseases  and  enchantments.  The 
name,  as  well  as  the  thing  itself,  is  derived 
from  the  East.  The  word  comes  from  the  Ara- 
bic hamalah  (anything  hung  round  the  neck). 
Among  the  Turks,  and  many  people  of  central 
Asia,  every  individual  thinks  an  amulet  neces- 
sary to  secure  him  from  harm.  They  were 
introduced  into  Christian  Europe  by  the  Jews. 
With  the  ancients,  for  example,  the  Egyptians, 
Greeks,  Romans,  they  were  frequently  found. 
From  the  pagans  they  were  introduced  among 
the  Basilidians.  Their  amulets  were  stones  with 
the  word  Abraxas  engraved  on  them.  The 
Jews  had  many  superstitious  notions  abou'. 
amulets.  Many  Christians  of  the  1st  century- 
wore  amulets  which  were  marked  with  a  fish 
as  a  symbol  of  the  Redeemer.  To  the  Christian 
divines  the  use  of  amulets  was  interdicted  by 
the  Council  of  Laodicea  under  penalty  of  dis- 
missal from  office.  With  the  spread  of  Arabian 
science  and  astrology  the  astrological  amulets 
of  the  Arabians,  the  talismans,  came  into  use  in 
the  West.  The  Turks,  the  Chinese,  the  people 
of  Thibet,  and  many  other  nations,  have  yet 
great  confidence  in  them.  See  Superstition  ; 
Talisman. 

Amur,  am-6r',  a  river  formed  by^  the 
junction  (about  lat.  530  N.  and  Ion.  1210  E.) 
of  the  Shilka  and  the  Argun,  which  both  come 
from  the  southwest.  From  the  junction  the 
river  flows  first  southeast  and  then  northeast, 
and,  after  a  total  course  of  3.060  miles,  falls 
into  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  opposite  the  inland  of 
Sakhalin.  It  is  very  valuable  for  navigation, 
and  carries  a  considerable  fleet  of  steamers, 
but  on  account  of  the  bar  at  its  mouth  goods 
are  generally  disembarked  and  carried  overland 
to  Alexandrovsk. 

In  1636  Russian  adventurers  made  excur- 
sions to  the  lower  Amur,  and  in  1666  built  sta- 
tions and  a  fort  at  Albazin.  In  1685  both 
stations  and  the  fort  were  taken  by  the  Chinese, 
but  were  promptly  retaken  by  the  Russians,  who 
in  1689  abandoned  the  whole  territory  of  the 
Amur  to  the  Chinese. 

In  1854-6  two  military  expeditions  were  con 
ducted  by  Count  Muravieff,  who  established 
the  stations  of  Alexandrovsk  and  Nikolaeysk. 
In  1858  China  agreed  to  the  Treaty  of  Tien- 
tsin, by  which  the  boundaries  of  Russia  and 
China  were  defined.  The  left  hank  of  the  Amur 
and  all  the  territory  north  of  it  became  Rus- 
sian ;  and  below  the  confluence  of  the  I'ssuri 
both'  banks.     In    i860,   after   the    occupation   of 


AMURATH  — AMYL 


Pekin  by  the  British  and  French,  General  Igna- 
tiefl  secured  the  .signature  of  Prince  Kung  to 
a  treaty  by  which  Russia  acquired  the  broad 
and  wide  territory  comprised  between  the  river 
Amur  and  the  mouth  of  the  Tumen,  extending 
io°  of  latitude  nearer  the  temperate  regions, 
and  running  from  the  shore  of  the  north  Pacific 
eastward  to  the  banks  of  the  river  Ussuri,  a 
principal  affluent  of  the  Amur.  In  September 
1900  Russia  took  formal  possession  of  the 
right   bank   of   the    river. 

This  vast  territory  falls  into  two  Russian 
provinces  —  the  Maritime  Province  between  the 
Ussuri  and  the  sea,  and  the  government  of 
Amur  north  of  the  river.  The  latter  has  an 
area  of  175,000  square  miles.  The  country  is 
richly  timbered,  and  is  admirably  adapted  for 
pasturage  and  agriculture,  though  the  climate 
is  severe.  Fur-bearing  animals  are  still  plenti- 
ful, and  the  river  alxnmds  in  fish.  The  capital 
is  Khabarovka.  Nikolaevsk,  once  the  only  im- 
portant  place  in  these  regions,  is  on  the  Amur, 
26  miles  from  its  mouth,  where  the  river  is 
Ij4  miles  wide,  and  in  places  15  feet  deep;  but 
the  political  centre  tends  southward  to  the 
more  temperate  Maritime  Province  (area,  730,- 
000  square  miles),  near  the  southern  end  of 
which  is  situated  the  important  harbor  of  Vla- 
divostok ("Rule  of  the  East"),  or  Port  May, 
which  in  1872  was  placed  in  telegraphic  com- 
munication with  Europe  by  the  China  submarine 
cable,  and  is  now  the  capital  of  the  Amur 
provinces.  The  island  of  Sakhalin  (Saghalien), 
north  of  the  Japan  group,  along  a  portion  of  the 
coast  of  Asiatic  Russia,  and  formerly  possessed 
partly  by  Russia  and  partly  by  Japan,  is  also  a 
part  of  the  Amur  region  in  the  wider  sense. 

Amurath  I.,  ;i'm66-rat,  a  sultan  of  the 
Turks;  succeeded  bis  father  Orchan  in  1 360. 
He  founded  the  corps  of  Janissaries,  conquered 
Phrygia,  and  on  the  plains  of  Cassova  defeated 
the  Christians.  In  this  battle  he  was  wounded, 
and  died  the  next  day,  1389. 

Amurath  II.,  one  of  the  more  illustrious 
of  the  Ottoman  emperors,  succeeded  his  father, 
Mohammed  I.,  in  1421.  at  the  age  of  17.  In  1423 
he  took  Thessalonica  from  the  Venetians;  in 
1435  subdued  the  despot  of  Servia,  besieged 
Belgrade,  which  was  successfully  defended  by 
John  Hunniades;  defeated  the  Hungarians  at 
Varna  in  1444,  and  slew  their  king,  Ladislaus. 
He  died  in   1451. 

Amurath  III.,  succeeded  his  father,  Selim 
II.,  in  1574.  His  first  act  was  the  murder  of 
his  five  brothers.  He  added  several  of  the  best 
provinces  of  Persia  to  the  Turkish  empire.  He 
was  noted  for  his  avarice,  and  his  sensual  ex- 
cesses made  him  prematurely  old.  He  died  in 
1595- 

Amurath  IV.,  succeeded  his  uncle,  Mus- 
tapha  X.,  1623.  After  two  unsuccessful  at- 
tempts he  took  Bagdad  from  the  Persians  in 
1638,  and  ordered  the  massacre  of  30.000  prison- 
ers who  had  surrendered  at  discretion.  The 
excessive  cruelty  and  debauchery  of  Amurath 
IV.  have  earned  for  him  the  character  of  being 
one  of  the  worst  sovereigns  that  ever  reigned 
over  the  Ottomans.     He  died  in  1640. 

Amurath  V.,  Sultan  of  Turkey:  b.  21  Sept. 
1840.  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1876  as 
the  result  of  a  revolution  that  caused  the  over- 
throw of  his  uncle  Abdul  Aziz.     His  reign  was 


for  a  few  months  only,  as  he  developed  strong 

symptoms  of  insanity    and  was  deposed  in  Au- 
gust  1876. 

Amyclae.  (1)  An  ancient  town  of  Laco- 
nia,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Eurotas,  2^ 
miles  southeast  of  Sparta.  It  was  the  home  of 
Castor  and  Pollux,  the  "Amyckean  brothers." 
It  was  conquered  by  the  Spartans  only  before 
the  first  Messenian  war.  (2)  An  ancient  town 
of  Latium,  which  claimed  to  have  been  built  by 
a  colony  from  the  Greek  Amyclae. 

Amygdalin,  a-mig'da-lin  (from  the  Latin 
amygdala,  "almond*),  a  crystalline  substance 
occurring  in  bitter  almonds,  in  the  kernels  of 
apples,  pears,  and  peaches,  in  the  leaves  of  the 
laurel  (CeraSHS  luuro-ccrasus) ,  and  in  the  leaves 
and  bark  of  various  species  of  the  genus 
Primus.  It  has  the  formula  C»H«iN0ii+ 
3H1O,  and  is  of  special  interest  to  the  chemist 
because  it  was  the  first  known  of  the  numerous 
class  of  substances  termed  "glucosides"  (q.V.), 
It  is  obtained  by  extraction,  with  boiling  alco- 
hol, of  the  pulp  left  after  the  expression  of  the 
oil  from  bitter  almonds.  The  alcoholic  solu- 
tion is  concentrated  by  evaporation,  and  the 
amygdalin  precipitated  by  the  addition  of  ether, 
in  which  it  is  insoluble.  Like  the  other  gluco 
sides,  amygdalin  does  m>t  form  salts  with  acids, 
but  is  decomposed  by  them  with  the  formation 
of  glucose. 

Amyg'daloid,  in  geology,  an  igneous  rock- 
containing  numerous  almond-shaped  or  spherical 
enclosures  of  material  distinctly  different,  either 
chemically  or  physically,  from  that  which  con- 
stitutes the  rock  itself.  The  enclosures  were 
originally  cavities  due  to  the  inclusion  of  steam 
or  gases.  Lava  frequently  exhibits  a  structure 
of  this  kind,  its  enclosures  being  commonly 
calcite  or  quartz. 

Am'yl  (from  the  Latin  amylunt,  "starch," 
its  first-known  compounds  being  obtained  by 
the  distillation  of  fermented  starchy  matter), 
an  important  organic  radical  having  the  form- 
ula C.-.Hn,  and  belonging  in  the  fatty  series. 
It  is  also  called  "pentyl,"  because,  in  the  l<>ng 
list  of  analogous  radicals  having  the  general 
formula  CnH2n+,  amyl  is  the  particular  radical  in 
which  n  =  s.  Amyl  cannot  exist  in  the  free 
state,  but  two  of  its  molecules  can  combine  to 
form  the  paraffin  "decane,"  CwHe,  which  is  a 
liquid  boiling  at  about  3200  F.  The  radical  amyl 
can  have  no  less  than  eight  dihercnt  isomeric 
forms,  and  the  chemistry  of  its  compounds  is 
correspondingly  complicated.  Of  the  many  com- 
pounds that  are  known,  however,  only  three 
arc  especially  important  in  the  arts.  These  are : 
(1)  amyl  alcohol,  (2)  amyl  acetate,  and  (3) 
amyl  nitrite. 

(1)  Eight  isomeric  amyl  alcohols  are  the- 
oretically possible,  one  for  each  of  tiie  theoret- 
ically possible  isomeric  forms  of  the  radical  it- 
self; and  seven  of  these  are  actually  known. 
Five  of  the  seven  are  of  no  particular  impor- 
tance in  practical  chemistry,  but  the  remaining 
two,  known  respectively  as  the  "active"  and 
"inactive"  amyl  alcohols,  constitute  the  greater 
part  of  the  fusel-oil  (q.v.)  that  is  obtained 
abundantly  in  the  manufacture  of  potato  brandy, 
and  less  abundantly  in  the  preparation  of  many 
other  kinds  of  distilled  liquors.  "Active"  amyl 
alcohol  has  the  formula  OLCKGH-XIL'  >l  1, 
boils  at  about  2620  F.,  and  takes  its  name  fro;^ 


AMYLENE  HYDRATE  — AMYRAUT 


the  fact  that  it  rotates  the  plane  of  polarized 
light  to  the  left.  "Inactive"  amyl  alcohol  has 
the  formula  (CrLKCH.CH^CH^OH,  boils  at 
about  2690  F.,  solidifies  at  — 4°  ¥.,  and  has  no 
effect  upon  polarized  light.  These  two  kinds 
ai  amyl  alcohol  may  be  obtained,  mixed,  by 
washing  fusel-oil  with  water,  and  subsequent 
rectification.  They  may  then  be  separated  by 
fractional  distillation,  or  by  other  more  exact 
methods,  for  which  see  special  treatises. 

(2)  Amyl  acetate  (more  exactly,  <(iso-amyl 
acetate,"  since  six  acetates  are  known),  is  pre- 
pared by  distilling  a  mixture  of  the  foregoing 
amyl  alcohols  with  sodium  acetate  and  sulphuric 
acid.  It  is  a  liquid,  boiling  at  about  282°  P.,  and 
possessing  a  strong  fruit-like  smell.  It  is  used 
for   flavoring   cheap   confectionery. 

(3)  Amyl  nitrite,  &Hu.NO;,  may  be  formed 
by  distilling  a  mixture  of  the  foregoing  amyl 
alcohols  with  potassium  nitrite  and  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid.  It  is  a  yellow  liquid,  with  an  ethe- 
real, fruity  odor.  When  its  vapor  is  inhaled, 
it  paralyzes  the  vaso-motor  nervous  system  and 
lowers  the  blood  pressure.  Amyl  nitrite  is  often 
administered  in  this  way  for  the  cure  of  obsti- 
nate hiccoughing.  Its  effects  are  powerful  and 
almost  instantaneous,  and  it  should  never  be 
tried  except  under  the  guidance  of  a  physician. 

Amylene  Hydrate,  an  alcohol  used  as  a 
hypnotic.  It  is  technically  a  tertiary  iso-amyl 
alcohol  [(CH3)2C(OH)CH2CH:,],  and  is  a 
limpid,  colorless,  neutral  fluid  with  a  peculiar 
odor  and  a  burning  taste.  It  is  miscible  with 
eight  parts  of  water  and  freely  miscible  with 
alcohol,  chloroform,  and  fixed  oils.  It  has  an 
action  on  the  human  body  similar  to  that  of 
other  alcohols,  and  is  a  useful  hypnotic,  occupy- 
ing a  position  between  chloral,  which  is  twice 
as  strong,  and  paraldehyde,  which  has  about 
half  the  strength  of  amylene  hydrate.  In  large 
doses  it  is  a  heart  depressant. 

Amylop'sin,  a  chemical  (or  unorganized) 
ferment,  occurring  in  the  pancreatic  fluid,  to- 
gether with  steapsin  and  trypsin.  The  chief 
function  of  amylopsin,  in  intestinal  digestion,  is 
to  effect  the  conversion  of  starches  and  similar 
substances  (amyloses)  into  sugars  (dextrins, 
maltoses,  isomaltoses,  and  glucose).  The  con- 
version  takes  place  in  the  small  intestine.  Amy- 
lopsin is  often  called  the  "pancreatic  diastase." 
Sec  Pancreas. 

Am'yl°se,  any  carbohydrate  (q.v.)  which 
can  be  classified  as  starch,  dextrin,  cellulose,  or 
natural  gum.  The  remaining  members  of  the 
carbohydrate  group  are  classed  as  glucoses  or 
saccharoses.  The  general  formula  of  an  amy- 
lose  is  (CJT,„Or.)n.  See  Carbohydrate;  Cel- 
lulose; Dextrin;  Starch;  Gum. 

Amyntas,  the  name  of  various  characters 
in  ancient  Greek  or  Macedonian  history,  espe- 
cially kings  of  Macedonia.  (1)  A  son  of  Alce- 
tas,  reigned  about  540  to  500  B.C.,  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Alexander  I.  (2)  King 
of  Macedonia,  son  of  Philip,  and  brother  of 
Perdiccas  II.;  reigned  393  to  369  B.C..  having 
gained  the  crown  by  the  murder  of  Pausanias. 
He  was  engaged  in  war  with  the  Olynthians  and 
assisted  by  the  Spartans.  He  was  father  of 
Alexander,  Perdiccas,  and  the  famous  Philip. 
(3)  Philip  excluded  the  grandson  of  Amyntas 
II.  from  his  succession  and  he  was  put  to  death 
in  the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  Alexander  the 


Great  because  of  a  plot  against  the  life  of  Alex- 
ander. The  4th  was  a  Macedonian  officer  in 
Alexander's  army. 

Amyntor,  Gerhard  von,  pseudonym  of 
Dagobert  von  Gerhardt,  a  German  novelist  and 
poet:  b.  Liegnitz,  Silesia,  12  July  1831.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1849,  took  part  in  the  cam- 
paigns of  1864  and  1870-1  as  a  major,  was  se- 
verely wounded  in  the  former  and  resigned  in 
1872;  settled  in  Potsdam  in  1874.  His  principal 
works  are  'Peter  Quidam's  Rhine-Journey' 
(1877),  an  epic;  'Songs  of  a  German  Night 
Watchman'  (1878)  ;  'The  New  Romancero' 
(1880),  poems;  'The  Priest'  (1881),  an  epic; 
novels,  'It  Is  You'  (1882);  <A  Problem' 
(1884)  ;  'Praise  of  Woman'  (1885)  ;  and  <Ger- 
ke  Suteminne'    (1887),  a  historical  romance. 

Amyot,  Jacques,  a-me-6',  a  French  author: 
b.  30  Oct.  1513;  d.  6  Feb.  1593.  He  is  famous 
for  his  translations  from  the  Greek,  which, 
owing  to  their  elegant  style,  are  considered 
classical  literature.  They  are  the  'Theagenes 
and  Chariclea'  of  Heliodorus;  'Seven  Books  of 
Diodorus  Siculus,'  the  'Daphnis  and  Chloe'  of 
Longus ;  and  'Plutarch's  Lives,'  which  was 
used  by  Corneille  as  a  source  for  his  antique 
tragedies,  and  by  Shakespeare  (in  its  English  ver- 
sion by  Sir  Thomas  North)  for  some  of  his  plays. 

Amyraut,  Moi'se,  a  French  Calvinist  the- 
ologian :  b.  in  Bourgueil,  in  the  province  of 
Anjou,  1596;  d.  1664.  He  was  educated  at  Sau- 
mur,  where  he  was  himself  afterward  a  profes- 
sor of  divinity.  By  his  talents  and  moderation 
he  soon  acquired  reputation  and  influence.  In 
1631  he  attended  the  Synod  of  Clarendon,  and 
was  commissioned  to  present  to  the  king  the 
remonstrances  of  his  brethren  against  the  in- 
fraction of  the  edicts  of  pacification.  In  his 
mission  he  acted  with  such  judgment  and  dig- 
nity that  he  succeeded  in  relieving  the  Protes- 
tant deputies  from  the  disgraceful  obligation  of 
addressing  the  king  on  their  knees.  Although 
he  was  a  Protestant,  his  amiable  temper  and 
courteous  manners  commanded  the  regard  of 
the  Catholics,  and  he  was  held  in  particular 
esteem  by  Cardinal  Richelieu.  He  endeavored 
to  bring  about  a  complete  union  between  the 
various  Protestant  Churches;  this  object  he 
had  in  view  in  nearly  all  his  writings,  especially 
in  a  Latin  tract,  (Dc  secessione  ah  ecclesia  Ro- 
mano, deque  pace  inter  Evangelicos  in  ncgotio 
rcligionis  instituenda?  Moreover,  acting  in 
concert  with  Richelieu,  he  aimed  at  a  reconcilia- 
tion between  the  Protestants  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  favor  and  respect  with 
which  he  was  treated  by  the  heads  of  the 
French  government,  Richelieu,  and  Mazarin, 
are  to  be  ascribed  to  his  opinions  concerning 
the  power  of  the  princes.  He  publicly  main- 
tained on  several  occasions  the  doctrine  of  im- 
plicit obedience  to  the  sovereign  authority, 
which,  indeed,  had  also  been  held  by  the  great 
founders  of  the  Reformation.  Amyraut  was  a 
finished  scholar,  and  wrote  Latin  and  French 
with  equal  ease.  His  numerous  writings,  which 
were  received  with  marked  favor  in  his  time, 
are  now  nearly  forgotten  and  not  easy  to  be 
procured.  Among  the  number  we  may  men- 
tion <A  Treatise  on  Religions.  Against  Those 
Who  Esteem  Them  to  Be  Indifferent'  ;  'Chris- 
tian Morals':  <A  Treatise  on  Dreams'; 
'Against  the  Millenarists'  ;  'Considerations  on 
the  Laws  of  Nature  Regulating  Marriage.' 


AMYRIDACE.E  —  ANABAPTISTS 


Amyridaceae,  a  natural  order  of  tropical 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  or  shrubs  with  op- 
posite or  alternate  compound  leaves,  frequently 
stipulate  and  dotted;  the  Bowers  are  usually 
bisexual,  but  are  sometimes  unisexual  by  abor- 
tion. They  yield  resinous  and  balsamic  juices, 
which  are  sometimes  used  medicinally,  and  re- 
ceive such  names  as  bdellium,  elemi,  frankin- 
cense, myrrh,  olibanum,  tacamahac.  (See  these 
articles.)  Among  the  chief  genera  of  the  order 
are  Amyris,  Balsamodendron,  Boswellia,  Cana- 
rium,  and  /,  ii  o.  They  are  sometimes  classed  as 
a  suborder  of  Anacardiacea. 

An,  or  Ox.  the  Egyptian  name  of  the  city 
of  ileliopolis. 

Ana,  a  comparatively  modern  designation 
applied  to  collections  of  the  sayings  and  ob- 
servations of  eminent  persons,  as  well  as  to 
gossip  or  criticism  pertaining  to  them. 

Anabaptists  (Greek,  dud,  again;  pa*Tl{ai>, 
to  'baptize),  those  who  baptize  again  persons 
admitted  to  their  communion,  when  such  con- 
verts have  been  baptized  in  their  infancy  or 
have  been  merely  sprinkled  and  not  immersed 
in  baptism  or  have  been  baptized  in  any  way 
without  being  capable  of  declaring  the  doctrines 
which  they  believe  and  giving  a  reason  for  the 
hope  that  is  in  them.  Baptists  (q.v.)  of  the 
present  day  are  not  properly  to  be  styled  Ana- 
baptists, as  they  lay  no  capital  emphasis  upon  the 
necessity  for  rebaptism,  although  they  have  very 
definite  canons  on  the  subject  of  immersion. 

Anabaptists  of  the  early  Church. —  In  the  3d 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  the  century  which 
witnessed  such  violent  and  bitter  controversies, 
the  question  of  baptism  came  also  under  dis- 
cussion. In  the  Eastern  Church,  including 
Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  North  Eastern  Africa  and 
Constantinople,  it  was  definitely  maintained  that 
baptism  was  invalid  unless  it  was  administered 
by  one  of  the  clergy  with  proper  matter  and 
form.  In  the  Western  Church,  including  Italy, 
Gaul,  Spain,  and  North  Western  Africa,  it  was 
held  that  the  virtue  of  baptism  lay  in  the  invo- 
cation of  the  Trinity,  and  the  ceremonial  sprink- 
ling with,  or  immersion  in  the  water.  Any  bap- 
tism thus  administered  by  a  person  of  either 
sex,  by  a  clergyman  or  a  layman,  was  equally 
valid.  When  two  children  in  their  play  mim- 
icked the  act  of  a  priest  whom  they  had  seen 
baptizing  an  infant,  Saint  Augustine  of  Hippo 
declared  that  the  boy  wdio  had  Deen  thus  bap- 
tized by  his  companion  was  a  real  and  actual 
partaker  of  the  benefits  and  bound  by  all  the 
vows  pertaining  to  this  sacrament.  The  contro- 
versy between  the  East  and  the  West  continued, 
however,  to  rage  with  such  fury  that  two  coun- 
cils were  called  to  settle  the  question.  The  one 
was  held  in  Iconium,  Asia  Minor,  in  235,  the 
other  at  Synnada  in  256.  At  these  theological 
synods  the  decision  arrived  at  was,  that  rebap- 
tism was  unnecessary  for  those  who  had  been 
baptized  by  heretics.  The  storm  of  controversy 
swept  westward  to  Northern  Africa  as  far  as 
Carthage,  where  Tertullian  supported  the  posi- 
tion of  the  Eastern  Church  in  contrariety  to  that 
of  Saint  Augustine  and  other  Western  doctors. 
Agrippinus,  bishop  of  Carthage,  maintained 
against  the  bishop  of  Rome  that  baptism  under 
certain  circumstances  ought  to  be  repeated.  His 
followers  were  called  Agrippinians  and  his  de- 
fiance of  the  bishop  of  Rome  took  the  form  of 


a  concilier  decree  which  was  issued  by  a  synod 
which  he  convened  and  which  endorsed  the  sen- 
tence of  Iconium.  In  tin  year  253  Stephen, 
bishop  of  Rome,  fulminated  a  bull  of  excommu- 
nication against  all  the  bishops  of  Asia  Minor, 
including  Cappadocia,  Galatia  and  Phrygia, 
whom  he  rtylcd  Rebaptizers  and  Anabaptists  in 
an  opprobrious  sense. 

Minister  Anabaptists. — In  the  16th  century 
there  arose  in  Europe  a  religious  sect  known  as 
Anabaptists,  whose  main  tenets  carried  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Reformation  to  the  extreme  limit  of 
that  revolutionary  movement.  Their  principles 
were  those  of  revolt  against  mediaeval  feudal- 
ism just  as  much  as  against  ecclesiai  Meal  author- 
ity. They  were  socialists  as  well  a^  reformers, 
mystics  and  fanatics.  Their  existence  was  one 
of  the  results  of  the  Renaissance  as  interpreted 
to  the  common  mind.  Their  views  were  demo- 
cratic and  individualistic.  They  rejected  all 
authority,  all  tradition,  all  dogma,  everything  in 
short  that  militated  against  the  absolute  inde- 
pendence of  the  individual  mind  and  spirit 
This  tendency  acquired  at  length  the  character 
not  only  of  liberty  but  of  license,  and  the  term 
Anabaptist  has  thus  become  associated  with 
every  extreme,  not  only  of  license  but  of  licen- 
tiousness, of  rebellion  and  political  outlawry.  It 
is  quite  absurd  to  associate  the  term  Anabaptist 
as  employed  historically  with  any  phase  of 
Christian  thought,  practice  or  opinion.  It  really 
is  a  term  applied  to  those  who  at  a  turning  point 
in  the  history  of  European  thought,  social,  polit- 
ical and  religious,  became  intoxicated  with  the 
idea  of  individual  liberty,  and  the  result  was 
violence  and  excess  of  the  worst  character. 

The  history  of  the  movement  is  as  follows: 
The  doctrine  of  adult  baptism  was  first  put  forth 
by  Thomas  Miinzer,  the  Lutheran  pastor  of 
Zwickau  in  Saxony,  in  the  year  1520.  Miinzer 
soon  obtained  many  followers  who  joined  him 
in  his  uprising  against  all  civil  and  religious 
authority.  Although  openly  belonging  to  the 
Reformation  movement  they  very  soon  became 
completely  repudiated  by  the  followers  of 
Luther  and  his  adherents.  But  the  spirit  of 
insurrection  against  feudal  tyranny  prevailed 
amongst  all  the  common  people  on  the  Rhine, 
in  Westphalia,  Holstein,  Switzerland,  Flanders 
and  throughout  the  whole  Netherlands,  and  the 
increase  of  Miinzer's  followers  became  so  dan- 
gerous that  the  magistrates  and  civil  authorities 
found  it  difficult  to  restrain  them.  Miinzer 
was  compelled  to  leave  Zwickau;  he  visited  Bo- 
hemia, resided  for  two  years  at  Alstadt  and 
Thuringia  and  in  1524  was  found  propagating 
his  doctrines  in  Switzerland.  He  was  the  prin- 
cipal inciter  of  the  Peasants'  War,  which  was 
entered  upon  with  a  view  of  establishing  an 
ideal  Christian  commonwealth  with  communistic 
institutions.  This  war  reached  its  culmination 
in  1525,  when  Miinzer  led  his  forces  against  the 
representations  of  established  order  and  was 
defeated  at  the  battle  of  Frankenhausen  15  May 
1525,  Miinzer  was  taken  prisoner  and  with  sev- 
eral of  his  associate  leaders  was  tried,  con- 
demned and  executed.  But  all  this  was  looked 
upon  by  the  Anabaptists  as  merely  a  form  of 
welcome  persecution.  New  associations  were 
formed :  new  prophets  and  teachers  arose ;  the 
propaganda  was  extended  amongst  the  peasant' 
and  serfs  of  Germany,  Austria  and  Hungary  io 
every  direction.  It  may  be  necessary  to  state 
that   the   tenets   of   the   Anabaptists   are   to  be 


ANABASIS  —  ANACHARSIS 


summarized  in  their  own  words  as  follows: 
"Impiety  prevails  everywhere.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  that  a  new  family  of  holy  persons 
should  be  founded,  enjoying,  without  distinction 
of  sex,  the  gift  of  prophecy,  and  skilled  to  inter- 
pret Divine  Revelations.  Hence,  no  need  for 
learning;  for  the  internal  word  is  more  than  the 
outward  expression.  No  Christian  is  to  be  al- 
lowed to  go  to  law,  to  hold  an  office  in  the  civil 
government,  to  take  an  oath  in  a  court  of  jus- 
tice or  to  possess  any  personal  property ;  every- 
thing amongst  Christians  must  be  in  common.8 
John  Bochhold,  or  Bockel,  a  tailor,  of  Ley- 
den,  aged  26,  and  John  Matthias,  or  Matthiesen, 
a  baker  of  Harlem,  came,  in  1553,  to  Munster  in 
Westphalia,  a  town  whose  inhabitants  followed 
the  doctrines  of  the  Reformation.  Here  they 
soon  won  the  adherence  of  the  excited  populace, 
and  among  the  rest,  of  Rothmann,  a  Protestant 
clergyman,  and  the  Councillor  Knipperdolling. 
The  magistrates  in  vain  excluded  them  from  the 
churches.  They  took  violent  possession  of  the 
council-house,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  year  a 
treaty  was  signed  securing  the  religious  liberty 
of  both  parties.  Being  strengthened  by  the  ac- 
cession of  the  restless  spirits  of  neighboring 
cities,  they  soon  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  town  by  force,  and  drove  out  their  adver- 
saries. Matthiesen  came  forward  as  their 
prophet,  and  persuaded  the  people  to  devote 
gold,  and  silver,  and  movable  property  to  the 
common  use,  and  to  burn  all  books  but  the 
Bible ;  but  in  a  sally  against  the  bishop  of  Mun- 
ster, who  had  laid  siege  to  the  city,  he  lost  his 
life.  He  was  succeeded  in  the  prophetic  office 
by  Bochhold  and  Knipperdolling.  The  churches 
were  destroyed,  and  twelve  judges  were  set  over 
the  tribes,  as  in  Israel ;  but  even  this  form  of 
government  was  soon  abolished,  and  Bochhold, 
under  the  name  of  John  of  Leyden,  raised  him- 
self to  the  dignity  of  king  of  New  Zion,  as  the 
Anabaptists  of  Munster  called  their  kingdom, 
and  as  such  was  ceremoniously  crowned.  From 
this  period  (1534)  Munster  was  the  scene  of  all 
excesses  of  fanaticism,  lust  and  cruelty.  The 
introduction  of  polygamy,  and  the  neglect  of 
civil  order,  concealed  from  the  infatuated  people 
the  avarice  and  madness  of  their  tyrant  and  the 
increase  of  danger  from  abroad.  Bochhold  lived 
in  luxury  and  magnificence ;  he  sent  out  sedi- 
tious proclamations  against  the  pope  and  Luther, 
as  well  as  the  neighboring  authorities  :  he  threat- 
ened to  destroy  with  his  mob  all  who  differed 
in  opinion  from  him  ;  made  himself  an  object  of 
terror  to  his  subjects  by  frequent  executions, 
and  while  famine  and  pestilence  raged  in  the 
city,  persuaded  the  wretched,  deluded  inhabitants 
to  a  stubborn  resistance  of  their  besiegers.  The 
city  was  at  last  taken,  24  June  1535,  by  treachery, 
though  not  without  a  brave  defence,  in  which 
Rothmann  and  others  were  killed,  and  the  king- 
dom of  the  Anabaptists  destroyed  by  the  execu- 
tion of  the  chief  men.  Bochhold,  and  two  of 
hjs  most  active  companions,  Knipperdolling  and 
Krechting,  were  tortured  to  death  with  red-hot 
pincers,  and  then  hung  up  in  iron  cages  on  Saint 
Lambert's  steeple,  at  Munster,  as  a  terror  to  all 
rebels.  In  the  meantime,  some  of  the  twenty-six 
apostles,  who  were  sent  out  by  Bochhold  to  ex- 
tend the  limits  of  his  kingdom,  had  been  suc- 
cessful in  various  places :  and  many  other  teach- 
ers, who  preached  the  same  doctrines,  continued 
active  in  the  work  of  founding  a  new  empire  of 
pure   Christians,   and   propagating   their   visions 


and  revelations  in  the  countries  above  men- 
tioned. It  is  true  that  they  rejected  the  prac- 
tice of  polygamy,  community  of  goods,  and  in- 
tolerance toward  those  of  different  opinions, 
which  had  prevailed  in  Munster ;  but  thev  en- 
joined upon  their  adherents  the  other  doctrines 
of  the  early  Anabaptists  and  certain  heretical 
opinions  in  regard  to  the  humanity  of  Christ, 
which  seemed  to  result  from  the  controversies 
of  that  day  about  the  sacrament.  The  most 
celebrated  of  these  Anabaptist  prophets  were 
Melchior  Hoffmann  and  David  Joris.  The  for- 
mer, a  furrier  from  Suabia,  first  appeared  as  a 
teacher  in  Kiel  in  1527;  afterward,  in  1529,  in 
Emden ;  and  finally  in  Strasburg,  where,  in 
1540,  he  died  in  prison.  He  formed,  chiefly  by 
his  bold  promises  of  a  future  elevation  of  him- 
self and  his  disciples,  a  peculiar  sect,  whose 
scattered  members  retained  the  name  of  Hoff- 
mannists  in  Germany  till  their  remains  were 
lost  among  the  Anabaptists.  They  have  never 
owned  that  Hoffmann  recanted  before  his  death. 
David  Joris,  or  George,  a  glass-painter  of  Delf*, 
born  in  1501,  and  rebaptized  in  1534,  showed 
more  depth  of  mind  and  warmth  of  imagination 
in  his  various  works.  In  his  endeavors 
to  unite  the  discordant  parties  of  the  Anabap- 
tists, he  collected  a  party  of  quiet  adherents  in 
the  country,  who  studied  his  works  (as  the  Gich- 
telians  did  those  of  Bohme),  especially  his  book 
of  miracles,  which  appeared  at  Deventer  in 
1542,  and  revered  him  as  a  kind  of  new  Mes- 
siah. Unsettled  in  his  opinions,  he  traveled  a 
long  time  from  place  to  place,  till  at  last,  to 
avoid  persecution,  in  1554,  he  became  a  citizen  of 
Basil,  under  the  name  of  John  of  Bruges.  In 
1556,  after  an  honorable  life,  he  died  there 
among  the  Calvinists.  In  1559  he  was  accused, 
though  without  much  reason,  of  profligate  doc- 
trine and  conduct,  and  the  Council  of  Basil  or- 
dered his  body  to  be  burnt. 

Undoubtedly  by  no  means  all  the  Anabaptists 
of  Germany  indulged  in  social  and  political  ex- 
cesses. The  fanaticism  which  characterized 
some  of  the  early  Anabaptists  is  sufficiently  ex- 
plained by  the  tendency  of  human  nature  to 
rush  into  extremes.  The  iron  hold  of  the  ec- 
clesiastical hierarchy,  which  had  cramped  the 
church  for  ages,  being  suddenly  relaxed,  men 
had  yet  to  learn  what  were  the  genuine  condi- 
tions whether  of  civil  or  religious  liberty.  But 
these  considerations  were  overlooked,  and  the 
reformed  churches,  with  one  consent,  regarded 
the  Anabaptists  with  horror  and  disdain.  The 
correspondence  of  the  Reformers  is  full  of  allu- 
sions to  the  subject.  Anabaptists  are  spoken  of 
with  reprobation,  and  a  distinction  is  not  suf- 
ficiently made  between  the  sober  Christians  and 
the  worst  fanatics  of  the  party.  It  is  probable, 
at  least,  that  their  faults  have  been  exaggerated 
even  by  the  best  writers. 

Anabasis.     See  Xenophon. 

Anabolism,  the  building-up  process  of 
organic  life.  The  term  metabolism  (q.v.)  is 
used  to  express  the  interchange  of  the  life  pro- 
cess constantly  going  on  in  living  plants  and 
animals. 

Anacharsis,  the  name  of  a  Scythian  phi- 
losopher who  flourished  about  600  B.C.  and  was 
a  friend  of  Solon,  by  whose  influence  he  ? 
received  into  Athenian  society.  Returning  to 
Scythia,  he  was  put  to  death  because  of  his  per- 
formance of  certain  Greek  religious  ceremonies. 


ANACHRONISM  —  ANAESTHETICS 


Modern  reader?  have  been  familiarized  with  the 
name  through  J.  J.  Barthelmy*s  famous  'Voyage 
du  Jcune  Anacharsis  en  Grece'   (1788). 

Anachronism,  an  inversion  of  chronologi- 
cal relation,  unintended  or  otherwise.  In  com- 
mon parlance  it  is  confined  to  the  antedating 
of  customs  or  events,  particularly  in  imagina- 
tive works  with  a  l>asis  of  history. 

Anaconda,  Mont.,  city,  the  county-seat  of 
Deer  Lodge  Count]  ;  27  miles  northwest  of  Butte 
on  the  Northern  Pacific,  Great  Northern,  and 
Butte,  Anaconda  &  Pacific  Railways.  It  was 
founded  in  1884,  following  the  erection  of  its 
great  copper-smelting  w>rks.  which  are  the 
largest  in  the  world.  They  treat  daily  between 
5.000  and  10.000  tons  of  ore  mined  in  the  vicin- 
ity. Deposits  of  graphite  and  sapphires  are 
found  near  the  city.  Anaconda  also  has  large 
railway  shops,  brick  works,  machine  shops,  and 
other  manufactories,  hanks,  telephone  and  tele- 
graph service,  and  daily  and  weekly  newspapers. 
The  Hearst  Free  Library  contains  about  6.000 
volumes.  Anaconda  has  grown  rapidly  with 
the  development  of  its  great  copper  industry. 
In  [880  it  was  a  small  mining  camp;  ten 
years  later  its  population  was  3,975.  Pop. 
1  lOOO)    0453. 

Anaconda  ( origin  unknown;  possibly  na- 
tive name),  the  largest  snake  in  America 
(Eunectcs  muriiius),  sometimes  reaching  a 
luigth  of  30  feet.  It  is  found  in  or  near  shal- 
low lakes  and  streams  in  Brazil,  Guiana,  and 
other  parts  of  tropical  America,  where  it  spends 
much  of  its  time  in  the  water.  It  feeds  on 
small  animals,  is  closely  related  to  the  boa  con- 
strictor, and  is  not  venomous.  Ornamental 
h.ther  is  prepared  from  its  skin,  which  is 
bright  brown,  marked  along  the  back  with 
blotches,  and  along  the  sides  with  rings  of 
darker  color.     Compare  Boa. 

Anacreon,  a  famous  Greek  lyrist:  b.  Teos, 
about  560  B.C. ;  d.  476  B.C.  Long  resident  at  the 
court  of  Polycratcs  of  Samos,  he  went  to  Athens 
in  522  and  was  distinguished  by  the  favor  of 
Hipparcbus.  His  principal  themes  were  love 
and  wine,  but  he  was  a  satirist  as  well.  He 
was  greatly  esteemed  throughout  Greece,  great 
henors  being  paid  to  his  memory.  Only  two 
complete  poems  and  some  fragments  of  his 
works  are  extant,  the  well-known  'Anacreon- 
tea*  being  poems  after  his  manner,  but  dating 
from  a  very  much  later  period. 

Anadir,  or  Anadyr  Bay,  a  large  inlet  of 
Bering  Sea,  much  frequented  by  whaling- 
vessels.  It  is  about  250  miles  wide,  a  peninsula 
of  half  that  breadth  lying  between  it  and  the 
Arctic  Ocean. 

Anadir,  or  Anadyr,  the  most  easterly  of 
the  larger  rivers  of  Siberia.  It  rises  in  the 
Stanovoi  Mountains,  and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of 
Anadyr  after  a  course  of  some  400  miles. 

Anadyomene,  a  surname  of  Venus,  and 
referring  to  her  as  rising  from  the  sea.  It  was 
applied  by  the  ancients  to  a  picture  by  Apelles, 
which  represented  the  goddess  emerging  from 
the  waters. 

Anaemia,  literally  without  blood,  popularly 
poorness  of  blood.  In  medicine,  however,  it 
may  apply  to  two  very  different  classes  of 
disease  in  which  there  may  be  a  reduction  of 
the  amount  of  the  blood,  in  its  entirety,  in  its 


corpuscles,  red  or  white,  or  in  one  particular, 
or  important  ingredient,  as  the  red  coloring 
matter  of  the  blood,  the  hemoglobin.  These 
two  are  secondary  and  primary  an.-emias. 
Secondary  anaemia  may  follow  a  hemorrhage, 
long-continued  wasting  disease  as  Bright  s 
disease,  suppuration,  tuberculosis,  cancer,  gas- 
tric ulcer ;  may  result  from  inanition ;  may  he 
due  to  the  presence  of  intestinal  parasites,  nota- 
bly the  hook-worm  disease,  Uncinaria  (the  poor 
whites  of  the  South,  earth-eaters,  etc.,  seem  to 
have  this  disease)  ;  or  may  result  from  acute 
or  chronic  poisoning  as  l-om  animal  parasites, 
malaria;  or  plant  parasites,  the  bacteria,  in  the 
acute  infectious  diseases;  or  the  poison  may  be 
inorganic,  such  as  lead,  mercury,  copper,  or  ar- 
senic. Primary  anaemia  includes  two  di 
Chlorosis  (q.v.),  the  green-sickness  of  young 
girls;  and  pernicious  anaemia  (q.v.),  a  peculiar 
disease  of  the  blood-making  organs.  See  Blooi 
Diseases. 

Anaesthesia,  the  loss  or  impairment  of 
sensibility,  a  term  usually  applied  to  the  diminu- 
tion or  loss  of  the  senses  of  touch  or  pais 
(analgesia,  or  temperature  sensations),  but  may 
apply  to  the  diminution  of  the  sense  of  smell 
(anosmia),  or  olfactory  anaesthesia;  that  of 
sight  (retinal  anaesthesia)  taste  (agustia),  of 
the  muscle  sense,  of  the  sense  of  hearing,  or 
any  of  the  special  senses.  Anaesthesia  of  any 
of  these  different  varieties  may  result  from  in- 
jury to  any  part  of  the  sensory  nervous  chain 
or  neuron  (q.v.).  If  the  injury  involves  the 
external  portions  of  the  sense  organs,  which 
are  different  for  all  types  of  sensations,  as  in 
a  cut  of  the  wrist  including  a  sensory  nerve,  the 
anaesthesia  is  termed  peripheral  anaesthesia;  if 
the  sensory  nerve  centres  are  affected,  as  in 
some  apoplexies,  it  is  termed  a  central  anxsthe- 
sia.  Anxsthesias  may  be  general  or  local ; 
complete  or  incomplete ;  permanent  or  transi- 
tory;  unilateral,  on  one  side  of  the  body 
(hemianxsthesia),  due  to  injury  of  the  spinal 
cord  or  brain  on  the  opposite  side;  or  In! 
usually  due  to  some  symmetrical  lesion  of  the 
spinal  cord,  as  in  myelitis,  broken  back,  tumor 
pressing  on  the  cord,  syringomyelia,  locomotor- 
ataxia,  hysteria,  etc.  The  tracing  of  the  nerve 
fibres  to  and  from  an  area  that  is  anxsthetic 
makes  one  of  the  most  fascinating  studies  in 
medicine.  Certain  drugs,  such  as  cocaine, 
aconitum,  chloroform,  ether,  etc.,  alss  occasion 
anxsthesia.  See  Anesthetics;  Sensation. 
(References:  "Dictionary  of  Philosophy  and 
Psychology.'  Baldwin  (  1003)  ;  Flechsig  &  Bech- 
ttrew,  'Die  Leitungsbahncn  im  Gehirn  und 
Riickenmark'  ;  E.  Long,  'Les  Voies  Centrales  de 
la   Sensibilite  Generale,'    1899.) 

Anaesthetics,  agents  used  to  produce 
anxsthesia,  a  word  first  employed  by  Dr.  Oliver 
Wendell  Holmes.  In  early  times  it  was  known 
that  pressure  on  the  carotid  arteries  on  each 
side  of  the  neck  could  bring  about  temporary 
unconsciousness  and  resultant  anxsthesia.  The 
gentle  art  of  garrotting  grew  out  of  this  gen- 
eralized knowledge.  Ancient  peoples  used 
opium,  cannabis  indica,  and  alcohol  to  produce 
anxsthesia.  particularly  analgesia,  or  relief  from 
pain,  but  it  was  not  until  the  early  part  of  the 
19th  century  that  the  discovery  of  the  general 
anxsthetics,  nitrous  oxid,  ether,  and  chloroform 
was  made,  and  still  later  the  wonderful  develop- 


ANACONDA  (Eunectes   murinus). 


ANAGNI  — ANAKIM 


merits  made  in  the  art  of  local  anaesthesia  by 
the  use  of  cocaine  and  its  congeners. 

For  remedial  measures  anaesthesia  may  be 
local  or  general.  Cold  from  ice,  or  from  freez- 
ing mixtures,  ethyl  chloride,  etc.,  is  a  very  effi- 
cient local  anaesthetic  for  the  performance  oi 
small  operations,  such  as  opening  boils,  felons, 
etc.  A  large  number  of  drugs  have  the  power 
of  numbing  the  sensory  nerves  of  the  skin  and 
are  extensively  employed  to  relieve  itching  and 
soreness.  These  are  mostly  of  the  phenol  or 
carbolic  acid  group,  thymol,  menthol,  etc. 
Even  more  efficient  in  its  action  on  the  sensory 
nerve  filaments  is  the  alkaloid  cocaine,  obtained 
from  the  South  American  coca  plant.  Applied 
in  appropriate  watery  solution  (2  to  4  per  cent) 
to  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  ear,  eye,  nose, 
throat,  urethra,  vagina,  or  rectum,  it  quickly 
brings  about  loss  of  all  pain  sensations,  or,  inject- 
ed into  the  skin,  causes  complete  anaesthesia  over 
a  circumscribed  area,  permitting  of  cutting  ope- 
rations. When  injected  into  the  spinal  canal 
it  brings  about  complete  loss  of  pain  sense  in  all 
portions  of  the  body  below  the  site  of  the  in- 
jection, sometimes  even  more  extensively.  This 
method  of  inducing  anaesthesia  without  loss  of 
consciousness  has  some  very  advantageous  fea- 
tures in  surgical  procedures  and  was  first  prac- 
ticed by  a  New  York  physician,  Dr.  J. 
Leonard  Corning.  Other  related  alkaloids, 
eucaine,  holocain,  have  similar  properties  to 
cocaine.  Still  other  compounds  made  by  the 
synthetic  chemist  have  been  widely  employed, 
principally  as  analgesics   (q.v.). 

General  anaesthesia  is  usually  brought  about 
by  the  inhalation  of  some  vapor.  Nitrous  oxid 
gas,  chloroform,  ether,  ethyl  chloride,  etc.,  are 
those  most  frequently  employed,  especially  the 
three  former.  Nitrous  oxid  (q.v.)  was  the  first 
of  this  series  to  be  suggested.  It  was  made  by 
Sir  Humphry  Davy  in  1800,  but  was  not  used  in 
practice  until  about  1844,  when  Dr.  H.  Wells, 
an  American  dentist,  employed  it  in  the  ex- 
traction of  teeth. 

The  anaesthetic  properties  of  ether  were 
known  for  some  years  before  put  to  practical 
use.  As  to  its  first  use  there  is  much  contro- 
versy. It  seems  certain  that  one  Dr.  Crawford 
W.  Long  of  Georgia  first  used  ether  as  a  general 
anaesthetic,  but  to  W.  T.  G.  Morton,  a  dentist 
of  Boston,  should  be  given  the  credit  for 
demonstrating  its  value  and  use  to  the  medical 
profession.  Long  did  his  first  operation  under 
ether  30  March  1842,  for  the  removal  of  a 
cystic  tumor  of  the  jaw.  He  reported  his  ex- 
periments to  the  Georgia  State  Medical  Society 
in  1842.  Morton's  work  was  begun  in  1846, 
on  30  September,  when  he  extracted  a  tooth 
while  the  patient  was  under  the  influence  of 
ether.  He  subsequently  demonstrated  his  meth- 
od at  the  Massachusetts  General  Hospital,  and 
then  patented  his  product  under  the  name 
Letheon. 

The  following  year  Sir  J.  W.  Simpson  of 
Edinburgh  announced  the  discovery  of  the 
anaesthetic  properties  of  chloroform  and  demon- 
strated its  value  in  obstetrics.  At  the  present 
time  all  three  of  these  anaesthetics  are  exten- 
sively employed.  In  Europe  chloroform  is  pre- 
ferred ;  in  this  country  ether  is  used  more  often. 
The  statistics  of  deaths  following  these  two 
shows  ether  to  be  the  less  dangerous,  although 
it    has    more    disagreeable    after-effects     than 


chloroform.  Chronic  bronchial  and  kidney 
disease  contra-indicate  the  use  of  ether,  while 
in  respect  to  people  with  weak  hearts  chloro- 
form is  to  be  avoided.  See  Chlorofokm  ; 
Ether  ;  Nitrous  Oxide. 

References:  Probyn  Williams,  'Guide  to 
Administration  of  Anaesthetics*  (New  York, 
1901)  ;  F.  R.  Packard,  ■'The  Discovery  of  Ether 
in  the  History  of  Medicine  in  the  United 
States'  (Philadelphia,  1901)  ;  E.  Overton, 
"Studien  iiber  die  Narkose*    (Jena,  1901). 

Anagni,  a  town  of  Italy,  40  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Rome.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
four  Popes  —  Innocent  III.,  Gregory  IX.,  Alex- 
ander IV.,  and  Boniface  VIII.,  and  as  the  chief 
city  of  the  Herriici  was  a  place  of  importance 
during  the  whole  period  of  Roman  history. 
Virgil  mentions  it  as  "wealthy  Anagnia."  Pop. 
(1901)    10,059. 

Anagram,  a  word  or  sentence  resulting 
from  the  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  given 
word  or  form  of  words.  The  most  exact  ana- 
gram, sometimes  termed  palindrome,  is  that 
formed  by  reading  the  letters  backward  —  evil, 
for  example,  thus  read,  constituting  live.  The 
making  of  anagrams  was  a  favorite  mediaeval 
amusement  and  is  still  an  occasional  pastime. 

Anaheim,  Cal.,  city  in  Orange  County, 
situated  in  a  fertile  valley,  28  miles  south  of  Los 
Angeles,  on  the  Southern  P.  and  Santa  Fe 
R.R.'s.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  wine  trade  for 
southern  California,  producing  over  1,000,000 
gallons  annually.  Anaheim  has  a  public  library, 
high  schools,  Saint  Catherine's  Academy,  and 
11  churches.  It  was  settled  in  1859.  Pop. 
(1900)   1,456. 

Anahuac,  a  name  applied  to  the  great 
central  plateau  of  Mexico,  elevated  from  6,000 
to  9,000  feet  above  the  sea  and  including  more 
than  the  area  of  the  republic.  It  contains  sev- 
eral lakes,  and  Popocatepetl  is  the  loftiest  of  the 
volcanoes  which  rise  from  it. 

Anaitis,  the  Persian  water  goddess  of  an- 
tiquity, extensively  worshipped  in  the  East. 

Anakim  ("long-necked  ones"  =  giants), 
a  general  term,  like  Amorites  or  Rephaim,  used 
by  the  Hebrews  for  the  pre-Jewish  inhabitants 
of  Palestine ;  but  with  special  reference  to  the 
colossal  stature  accredited  to  them,  as  by  others 
to  the  wild  fierce  tribes  they  encountered  on 
first  entering  their  adopted  land.  Like  the  Greek 
giants,  they  were  mountain-dwellers  (Josh.  xi. 
21-2),  all  through  Judah  and  Israel  as  later  di- 
vided, and  apparently  with  palisaded  strong- 
holds at  Hebron  and  other  places.  This  passage 
says  Joshua  drove  them  thence,  but  that  rem- 
nants survived  at  Gaza,  Gath,  and  Ashdod, 
then  or  later  Philistine  cities.  An  older  pas- 
sage, however,  says  in  the  Authorized  Version 
that  it  was  Caleb  who  expelled  "the  three  sons 
of  Anak,"  whose  names  are  given,  from  "the 
city  of  Arba  [Kirjath-Arba]  (the  father  of 
Anak),  which  is  Hebron."  But  this  is  a  lu- 
dicrous misapprehension  of  the  scribe.  "Sons 
of  the  Anakim"  means  in  Oriental  phraseology 
clans  of  that  people,  here  turned  into  a  person 
with  personal  sons.  The  other  part  is  still  more 
grotesque.  "Kirjath-Arba"  means  "city  of  four" 
(probably  from  the  incidents  of  its  settlement)  ; 
but  the  scribe  has  taken  "Arba"  for  a  person. 
If  the  oldest  text  spoke  of  the  city  of  the  "father 
of  the  Anakim"   (that  is,  their  ancestral  home). 


ANALCITE  — ANALOGY  OF  RELIGION 


the  metaphor  is  intelligible  enough;  but  as  such 
metaphors  in  tbe  East  arc  usually  feminine,  it  is 
most  likely  the  original  said  "mother  of  Ana- 
kim,"  and  the  copyist  corrected  a  supposed  error. 

Analcite,  a-nal'sit  (from  the  Greek  word 
meaning  "weak,"  in  allusion  to  the  feeble  elec- 
tric properties  it  manifests  when  heated  or 
rubbed),  a  mineral  usually  classed  as  a  zeolite, 
or  hydrated  double  silicate  of  sodium  and 
aluminum,  with  the  formula  NaAlShO0+  H=0 ; 
although  Doelter  maintains  that  the  water  can- 
nol  be  water  of  crystallization,  and  writes  the 
formula  thus:  NaAlSid-r-  2H2SiO„  Analcite  is 
commonly  colorless  or  white,  with  a  vitreous 
lustre,  its  hardness  is  from  5  to  5.5,  and  its 
specific  gravity  about  2.26.  It  occurs  in  a  va- 
riety of  forms,  but  usually  in  trapezohedrons. 
There  has  been  much  controversy  over  its  crys- 
talline structure,  owing  to  certain  optical 
anomalies  that  it  exhibits;  but  it  is  now  usually 
n  Ferred  to  the  isometric  system,  the  weak  dou- 
ble refraction  that  it  often  exhibits  being  prob- 
ably due  in  part  to  anomalous  internal  stresses, 
and  in  part  to  a  loss  of  water,  and  a  consequent 
modification  in  molecular  structure.  Beautiful 
crystals  of  analcite  are  found  near  Mount  /Etna 
and  in  Nova  Scotia.  In  the  United  States  the 
mineral  occurs  in  tli^  trap  rocks  of  northern 
New  Jersey,  Colorado,  California,  and  the  Lake 
Superior  region.    See  Leucite. 

Analemma,  a  geometrical  term  implying 
the  projection  of  a  sphere  upon  the  plane  of  a 
meridian  with  the  point  of  sight  an  mfinitely  dis- 
tant point  of  the  radius  perpendicular  to  that 
plane.  This  projection  is  sometimes  styled 
orthographic.  The  sun-dial  has  been  called  an 
analemma,  and  the  term  has  also  been  used  to 
indicate  a  scale  showing  the  declination  of  the 
sun  and  the  equation  of  time  of  various  periods 
of  the  year. 

Analgesics,  remedies  used  to  control  pain. 
These  have  come  largely  into  use  during  the 
past  10  to  15  years.  Before  that  time  the  pro- 
fession had  to  rely  chiefly  on  a  few  drugs, 
notably  opium,  cannabis  indica,  and  their  allies, 
for  the  relief  of  pain  of  nerve  and  muscle: 
neuralgia,  acute  rheumatism,  sick  headache,  and 
other  transitory  or  persistent  affections  of  the 
sensory  nerves.  Synthetic  chemistry  has  intro- 
duced a  large  number  of  new  drugs  that  have 
been  found  very  useful  in  allaying  the  pain  and 
discomfort  of  many  conditions  heretofore  borne 
with  heroic  stoicism.  The  commonest  of  these 
new  remedies  are  antipyrine,  acetanilide  or  anti- 
febrin,  and  phenacetin.  These  are  but  a  few  of 
a  large  list  of  similar  drugs.  The  numerous 
drug-store  mixtures  sold  as  headache  powders, 
etc.,  are  usually  mixtures  of  the  cheapest  of 
these,  acetanilide  or  antifebrin,  with  other  prod- 
ucts. See  Anesthetics;  Antifebrin;  Anti- 
pyretics; Phenacetin. 

Analogue,  a  term  in  comparative  anatomy 
employed  to  denote  resemblances,  as  an  organ 
of  an  animal  or  plant  performing  the  same  func- 
tion as  another  part  in  a  second  animal  or  plant 
differently  organized.  It  is  much  used  by  geolo- 
gists in  comparing  fossil  remains  with  living 
specimens. 

Analogy,  a  correspondence  of  relations 
between  one  thing  and  another. 

In  logic  it  implies  the  resemblance  of  rela- 
tions, a  meaning  given  to  the  word  first  by  the 


mathematicians.  To  call  a  country  which  has 
sent  out  various  colonies  the  mother  country 
implies  an  analog)-  between  the  relation  in  which 
it  stands  to  its  colonies  and  that  which  a  mother 
holds  to   her  children. 

As  more  commonly  used  it  is  a  resemblance 
on  which  an  argument  falling  short  of  induction 
may  be  established.  Under  this  meaning  the 
element  of  relation  is  not  especially  distinguished 
from  others.  "Analogical  reasoning,  in  this  sec- 
ond sense,  may  be  reduced  to  the  following  for- 
mula:  Two  things  resemble  each  other  in  one 
or  more  respects;  a  certain  proposition  is  true 
of  the  one,  therefore  it  is  true  of  the  other." 
If  an  invariable  conjunction  is  made  out  be- 
tween a  property  in  the  one  case  and  a  property 
in  the  other,  the  argument  rises  above  analogy, 
becoming  an  induction  on  a  limited  basis;  but  if 
no  such  conjunction  has  been  made  out,  then 
the  argument  is  one  of  analogy  merely.  Ac- 
cording to  the  number  of  qualities  in  one  body 
which  agree  with  those  in  another,  may  it  be 
reasoned  with  confidence  that  the  as  yet  unex- 
amined qualities  of  the  two  bodies  will  also  be 
found  to  correspond.  Metaphor  and  allegory 
address  the  imagination,  while  analogy  appeals 
to  the  reason.  The  former  are  founded  on  simi- 
larity of  appearances,  of  effects,  or  of  incidental 
circumstances ;  the  latter  is  built  up  on  more  es- 
sential resemblances  which  afford  a  proper  basis 
for  reasoning. 

In  zoology  analogy  is  applied  to  the  resem- 
blance between  the  entire  bodies,  or  between 
special  structures  of  organs,  in  animals  of  un- 
related types.  Thus  a  whale  is  analogous  in 
form  to  a  fish,  its  paddles  analogous  to  the  fins 
of  a  fish.  The  wings  of  an  insect  are  analogous 
to  those  of  a  bird.  Analogy  implies  a  dissimi- 
larity of  structure  of  two  organs,  with  identity 
in  use  or  function,  as  the  legs  of  a  bird  or  quad- 
ruped and  those  of  an  insect.  These  analogies 
arc  the  result  of  the  adaptation  of  the  animal  to 
similar  habits,  modes  of  life,  or  like  environ- 
ment, and  result  in  convergence  (q.v.),  paral- 
lelism, and  sometimes  mimicry  (q.v.).  (See 
also  Homology'. )  Osborn  defines  analogy  m 
evolution  as  embracing  similar  changes  due  to 
similar  adaptation  in  function  both  in  homolo- 
gous and  in  non-homologous  organs,  both  in 
related  and  in  unrelated  animals.  The  different 
grades  of  analogy  are  shown  by  Osborn  in  the 
following  table : 

ANALOGY   IN   EVOLUTION. 

Analogous  Variation  (Darwin):  Similar  congenital 
variations  in  more  or  less  distantly  related  animals  and 
plants. 

Parallelism:  Independent  similar  development  of  re- 
lated  animals,   plants,    and  organs. 

Convergence :  Independent  similar  development  of 
unrelated  animals,  bringing  them  apparently  closer  to- 
gether. 

Homoflasy  (Lankester)  (?  Homomorfhy  Furbnn- 
ger) :  Independent  similar  development  of  homologous 
organs  or   regions  giving  rise  to  similar  new  parts. 

Analogy  of  Religion,  The,  a  famtAis  work 
by  Bishop  Joseph  Butler,  published  in  1736. 
The  full  title  is  <The  Analogy  of  Religion,  Nat- 
ural and  Revealed,  to  the  Constitution  and 
Course  of  Nature.'  The  author  lays  down 
three  premises, —  the  existence  of  God;  the 
known  course  of  nature ;  and  the  necessary  lim- 
itations of  our  knowledge.  These  enable  him 
to  take  common  ground  with  those  whom  he 
seeks  to  convince  —  the  exponents  of  a  "loose 
kind  of  deism."     In  no  sense  a  philosophy  of 


ANALYSIS— ANALYSIS  SITUS 


religion,  but  an  attempt  to  remove  common  ob- 
jections thereto,  the  work  is  necessarily  narrow 
in  scope;  but  within  its  self-imposed  limitations 
the  discussion  is  exhaustive,  dealing  with  such 
problems  as  a  future  life;  God's  moral  govern- 
ment; man's  probation;  the  doctrine  of  neces- 
sity; and  most  largely  the  question  of  revelation. 

Analysis,    in    common    speech,    the    act    of 

analyzing ;  the  state  of  being  anlayzed ;  the  result 
of  such  investigation.  The  separation  of  any- 
thing physical,  mental,  or  a  mere  conception 
into  its  constituent  elements.  It  is  also  ap- 
plied to  a  syllabus,  conspectus,  or  exhibition  of 
the  heads  of  a  discourse;  a  synopsis,  a  brief  ab- 
stract of  a  subject  to  enable  a  reader  more  read- 
ily to  comprehend  it  when  it  is  treated  at  length. 

In  mathematics  the  term  analysis  signifies 
an  unloosing,  as  contradistinguished  from  syn- 
thesis, a  putting  together.  The  analytical  meth- 
od of  inquiry  has  been  defined  as  the  method 
of  ascertaining  the  truth  of  a  proposition  by  first 
supposing  the  thing  done,  and  then  reasoning 
back  step  by  step  till  one  arrives  at  some  ad- 
mitted truth.  Analysis  in  mathematics  may  be 
exercised  on  finite  or  infinite  magnitudes  or 
numbers.  The  analysis  of  finite  quantities  is 
the  same  as  specious  arithmetic  or  algebra. 
That  of  infinites,  called  also  the  new  analysis,  is 
especially  employed  in  fluxions  or  the  differential 
calculus.  But  analysis  could  be  employed  also  in 
geometry;  it  is  therefore  a  departure  from  cor- 
rect language  to  use  the  word  analysis,  as  many 
do,  as  the  antithesis  of  geometry;  it  is  opposed,  as 
already  mentioned,  to  synthesis,  and  to  that  only. 

As  to  analysis  in  chemistry,  see  Chemical 
Analysis. 

Analytica,  The,  a  treatise  by  Aristotle,  is 
the  third  in  that  philosopher's  'Organ on,*  or 
•Instrument,'  and  includes  in  general  all  that 
concerns  the  art  of  reasoning.  Aristotle  does 
not  call  his  system  logic,  or  claim  to  have  in- 
vented it;  but  his  theory  is  so  perfect  that  no 
philosopher  has  been  able  to  add  to  it  any  ele- 
ment of  importance  since  it  was  first  advanced. 
The  'Analytica*  is  divided  into  two  parts:  the 
first  dealing  with  the  form  of  every  demonstra- 
tion; the  second,  with  the  demonstration  itself. 
In  the  first  dissertation  he  treats  of  the  terms 
composing  a  proposition,  defines  a  syllogism, 
and  shows  how  it  is  constructed.  In  the  second 
treatise  Aristotle  discusses  the  logic  of  science. 

Analysis  Situs.  Let  a  geometrical  figure — say 
a  closed  surface  in  common  space — be  subjected 
to  any  change  of  form  (bending,  stretching,  etc.) 
that  does  not  involve  any  " tearing"  or 
"joining."  An  extensible  rubber  model  will 
suggest  the  possibilities  of  such  deformation. 
Whatever  properties  of  our  figure  are  unalter- 
able by  this  process  form  the  subject-matter  of 
analysis  situs,  which  may  therefore  be  defined 
as  the  theory  of  invariants  of  the  group  (or  groups, 
see  this  term)  of  continuous  deformations.  Its 
scope,  however,  is  not  confined  to  common 
space,  but  embraces,  in  general,  H;-dimensional 
figures  in  n-dimensional  space  (more  briefly: 
Rn  or  H-space,  also  w-surfaces  for  m-dimensional 
surfaces,  etc.). 

The  effect  of  tearing  a  surface  or  making  an 
incision  on  it  along  a  line,  is  to  double  the  latter. 
As  the  incision  proceeds  it  substitutes  for  each 
point  P  of  the  line  two  points.  Pi,  Pr,  henceforth 
not  to  be  considered  as  consecutive,  and  whose 


successions  separately  constitute  the  left  and 
right  edges  of  the  incision.  Joining  is  the 
opposite  process,  each  point  of  the  juncture  con- 
sisting of  twin  points  merged  into  one.  Corre- 
sponding definitions  apply  to  incision  and  junc- 
ture along  surfaces  of  two  or  more  dimensions, 
or  when  the  elements  considered  are  straights, 
planes,  etc.,  instead  of  points. 

It  will  here  be  noticed  that  figures  which  are 
not  continuously  deformable  into  one  another, 
or  equivalent,  in  «-space,  may  become  so  by 
virtue  of  the  additional  freedom  of  deformation 
that  h  + 1 -space  affords.  The  figure  of  two  con- 
centric circles  in  a  plane  is  not  equivalent  to 
two  circles  excluding  one  another,  but  becomes 
so  in  3-space.  Hence  a  distinction  arises  be- 
tween absolute  analysis  situs,  which  places  its 
figures  in  space  of  any  suitable  number  of  dimen- 
sions, and  analysis  situs  in  a  given  space  or 
surface  within  which  all  deformation  must  take 
place. 

C.  Jordan  has  shown  that  in  the  case  of  2- 
dimensional  surfaces  the  following  four  inva- 
riants form  a  complete  system.  This  means  that 
any  two  surfaces  agreeing  in  these  data  are 
equivalent:  (i)  the  number  of  detached  portions 
of  which  they  consist,  and,  with  regard  to  each  of 
these:  (2)  the  number  of  curves  bounding  it;  (3) 
its  connectivity;  (4)  its  laterality  (unilateral  or 
bilateral  type).  Evidently  the  first  and  second 
of  these  could  be  changed  by  incision  or  junc- 
ture only. 

Connectivity. — A  surface  is  connected  if  it  per- 
mits of  continuous  passage  on  it  between  any 
two  of  its  points.  The  standard  of  connectivity 
is  the  area  of  a  plane  triangle,  circle,  or  equiva- 
lent figure,  which  is  called  simply-connected  or 
elementary.  On  it  any  two  curves  C,,  C2  (not  in- 
tersecting themselves  or  each  other)  between  two 
points,  .4,  B,  are  equivalent,  for  taken  together 
they  form  a  closed  curve  which  divides  the  plane 
into  two  separate  portions.  This  latter  property 
received  analytical  demonstration  from  Jordan 
(hence  "Jordan  curves")  and  has  lately  been 
based  on  the  theory  of  assemblages  by  Veblen. 
Using  Poincare's  notation  we  write 

Cl^C2     or     Cx—  C,30, 

where  the  negative  sign  means  that  the  cm  \  c 
is  to  be  taken  in  the  opposite  direction  (from 
B  to  A),  and  equivalence  to  zero  means  unlimited 
contractibility.  A  spherical  or  ellipsoidal  sur- 
face is  also  simply  connected,  with  this  difference, 
that  closed  curves,  if  one  obstacle  (a  small 
circle  or  "puncture"  of  the  surface)  be  placed 
in  the  way  of  their  contraction,  may  still  be 
reduced  to  zero  by  deformation  in  the  oppo- 
site direction.  Consider,  for  instance,  the  in- 
tersection of  such  a  surface  with  a  movable 
plane  as  the  latter  moves  parallel  to  itself  in 
either  of  two  directions. 

Extending  our  definition  of  equivalence  to 
zero,  to  sums  of  curves  on  any  surface,  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  stipulate  (1)  that  the  order 
of  terms  of  a  sum  must  be  preserved  (non- 
commutative  addition)  and  (2)  that  any  portions 
of  curves,  if  deformed  so  as  to  coincide  and  form 
negatives  of  one  another,  shall  cancel.  Thus 
on  the  surface  of  the  double  ring  (Fig.  1)  we 
have 

Cl+C1  =  C3     or     C,-fC,  —  C,  =  o. 

Curves  form  an  independent  set  on  a  surface 
if  none  and  no  sums  of  them  are  equivalent  to 


ANALYSIS  SITUS 


zero.     Curves    containing    portions    equivalent 
inter  se  'as  when  coiling  several  times  about  a 


I'll-.,  t. 

cylinder)  shall  here  be  excluded.     Multiply 

I  surfaces  are  then  said  t<>  have  connectivity 

c  if  they  permit  of  c  independent  paths  between 

any  two  points  .1.  B.     The  connectivity  of  a 

I   surface,    i.e.,   one   without   boundary   and 

yet   having  all  its  points  at  finite  distances,  is 

not   changed   by   puncturing  it.     For  instance, 

tin-  intersection  "f  the  double  ring  of  Fig.  i  with 

a  plane  remains  equivalent   with  itself  (and  to 

:   hi  iw  the  plane  moves. 

Taking  B  at  an  infinitesimal  di  itance  from  .1. 

all   i  ween   them   hut    those  equivalent 

to    the    shortest     one,    approach    closed    curves 

(Fig.    2).      Hence    there    are   c  —  i    independent 


Fig.  2. 

closed  curves  on  a  surface  of  connectivity  c. 
Conversely,  an  independent  set  of  c  —  1  closed 
curves  does  not  divide  the  surface  (for  this 
would  give  rise  to  an  equivalence  between  those 
[ding  any  portion  of  it)  and  can  readily  be 
so  connected  with  two  points  .1.  B,  as  to  form 
r  slight  changes)  1  -1  paths  from  .1  to  />', 
in  addition  l"  which  there  is  the  direct  line  join- 
ing these  points. 

Connectivity  is  often  investigated  by  the 
method  of  sections.  The  latter  are  incisions  of 
three     types:       (1)     cross-sections     between     two 

j„,mts  on  tin  boundary.  They  may  he  bound- 
it  drawn  between  points  of  the  same 
bounding-curve,  or  bound-joining,  if  between 
different  ones.  The  former  increase,  the  latter 
diminish,  the  number  of  boundaries  by  unity. 
re-entrant  sections,  along  closed  curves,  each 
furnishing  two  new  rims;  (3)  a-  (sigma-)  sections, 
starting  at  a  boundary  point  and  ending  at  a 
1  own  right  or  left  edge.  These 
contain  a  re-entrant  section  and  a  bound-joining 
section,  and  increase  the  number  of  bounding- 
curves  by  unity. 

Limiting  our  investigations  to  surfaces  any 
sufficiently  small  area  of  which  may  be  con- 
sidered simply  connected,  we  may  divide  any 
one,  or  system  of  several,  of  them  by  a  sufficient 
number  (</i  of  cross-sections  into  (say,  e)  ele- 
mentary areas.  Since  cross-sections  start  at  a 
boundary,  we  must  give  a  boundary  to  closed 
surfaces  by  puncturing  them,  i.e.,  taking  out  an 
infinitesimal  area  somewhere.  The  difference 
then  proves  characteristic  of  our  system  of 
surfaces,  and  in  fact  is  known  as  its  characteris- 
tic: K  =e—q. 

To  prove  this,  let  a  second  division,  by  ./' 
cross-sections,  yield  c'  elementary  areas.  Super- 
pose the  tracings  of  both  divisions  and  let  there 
be  /  of  tlie  proposed  incisions.     Then 

the  e  areas  left  whole  by  the  first  division  will 
be  cut  17'  +  /  times  by  the  second,  or  the  e1  areas 
of   the   second   q  +  t   times   by    the    first.      Both 


sets  of  incisions  thus  furnish  c  +<f +t  =c'  +  .7  +« 
parts,  which  proses  the  proposition.  We  alsrt 
see  that  the  characteristic  of  a  system  of  sur. 
faces  is  the  sum  of  their  individual  chi 

ties 

Any  surface  can  be  rendered  simply  connected 
by  means  of  1  —  K  cross-sections,  for  let  the  1) 
cross-sections  which  divide  it  into  e  elementary 
areas  be  traced,  and  let  them  meet  in  r  vo  ' 
Consider  this  division  as  a  map  of  e  districts, 
the  traces,  counted  from  vertex  to  vertex,  being 
its  frontiers.  Between  any  adjacent  districts 
obliterate  one  frontier  (therebj  also  removing 
two  vertices).  Repeat  tins  operation  on  the 
new  map.  etc..  until  but  one  district  remains. 
By  what  we  have  proven,  the  totality  of  re- 
maining frontiers  then  constitute  l—K  cross- 
sections. 

On  the  other  hand  the  c  —  1  nearly  closed 
curves  connecting.  1  with  /-;  (see  above  1  can  readily 
be    turned    into    cross-sections    if    we    first    draw 

a  re-entrant  section  in  a  circle  of  diameter  AB, 
thereby  "puncturing"  the  surface.  Hence,  on 
closed  surfaces,   c  — 1=»—  K,  or  c  —  2  —  K,   and 

if  we  retain  this  formula,  the  connectivity  of  a 
system  of  m  surfaces  will  prove  to  be  the  sum 
of  the  individual  connectivities,  diminished  by 
the  number  (11;  —  1)  of  junctures  necessary  to 
make  one  surface  of  the  system: 

c  =  Ici  —  ( w  —  1 )  =  1  +  2(ci  —  1 ) . 

Kroncckcr's  researches  have  led  to  an  analyt- 
ical expression  j<>r  the  characters  tit  of  a  closed 
analytical  surface  /(v.  y.  c)=o.  Let  /(.v,  y,  z) 
be  negative  in  the  interior  of  this  surface,  and 
consider  the  family  of  surfaces  j(x.  y,  c)  =  >.. 
As  X  increases  from  —  00  to  o.  the  surface  has  no 
real  part  at  first,  then,  through  iln  tage  of 
isolated  points  or  curves,  real  surfaces  will 
develop.  An  isolated  point  develops  into  an 
ellipsoidal  surface,  increasing  K  by  2.  while  a 
closed  curve  (without  multiple  points)  becomes 
an  anchor-ring,  leaving  K  unchanged.  This, 
or  the  opposite,  may  occur  several  times  as  the 
parameter  increases.  Also,  double  points  of  the 
surface  may  arise,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which 
the  surfaces  resemble  one-  or  two-sheet  hyper- 
boloids,  changing  from  the  one  shape  to  the  1  >t  her 
as  the  double-point  stage  is  passed.  In  each  of 
these   cases   the   increase   of  K   is   found    t"    be 

L  fja  fa  .  sgn  (signum)  meaning  ±  1    ac- 

/.u   /.12  /33 

cording  as  the  determinant  is  positive  or  m    a- 

tivc,  and 


fjl       fJl      fJl 

"      dx'     '*     dy'     '3     dz' 


f  J2LJJ± 

'"     dx1      dx ' 


}    =    .  _'_  =J±     etc. 
/I2      dxdy     dy  ' 

bemg  partial  derivatives. 

Examples. — (1)  The  surfaces  formed  by  rota- 
tion of  the  lemniscates 

l(x-ay+y'][(x  +  ay+y']-a'  =A     (Fig.  3) 

about  the  .r-axis.  For  positive  /  they  present 
single  sheets  of  ellipsoid  connectivity  (K  =  2), 
for  negative  X,  pairs  of  sheets  of  the  same  kind 
(A"  =4).  Within  an  infinitesimal  sphere  about 
the  origin  the  transition  is  from  the  one-sheet 
to  the  two-sheet  hyperboloid,  as  /  decreases 
through  zero.     At   k=  —a*   the   two   sheets   be. 


ANALYSIS  SITUS 


come  isolated  points   and   vanish   (A'  =  o).      (2)     the  sheets,  therefore  each  counting  for  n  cross- 
The  surfaces   formed   by   rotation   of  the   same     sections.      Hence 

m 

K  =  2  n  +  2\ n  -  ?(,%■  -  1 )]  _  n m  =  2  n  -  I (,?,■/  -  1 ) . 

« = 1     y  a 

c  A* 

One  half  of  the  connectivity,  viz.,  p  ■=—  =  1  — — 

22' 
is  known  as  the  deficiency  of  the  surface.  This 
is  also  found  to  be  the  difference  between  the 
maximal  number  of  double  points  a  curve  of 
the  nth  order  may  have,  and  the  actual  num- 
ber  of    them    (d)    on    the    curve   /(.v.   y.  z)  =  o : 

()!  —  l)(lt  —  2) 

?= —  a.     Besides,  p  is  the  number 

2  * 

of  integrals  linearly  independent  on  the  surface. 

Laterality. — Granting  that  within  a  sufficientlv 
small  neighborhood  of  every  point  P.  any  of 
the  surfaces  we  consider  has  two  sides  (right 
and  left)  distinguished  by  the  two  perpendicu- 
lars to  be  drawn  from  P,  it  may  happen  that 
some  continuous  path  on  the  surface  starting 
at  P  on  the  right  side,  arrives  at  P  on  the  left 
side.  The  surface  is  then  called  unilateral,  in 
the  absance  of  such  a  possibility,  bilateral.  We 
have  hitherto  tacitly  assumed  the  bilateral 
type  for  our  surfaces. 

Moebius  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  a 
rectangular  strip  of  paper  aba'b',  if  its  sides 
6a.  a'b'  be  joined  after  a  twist  of  1S00,  as  Fig.  4 


Fig.  3. — Lemniscates. 

lemniscates  about  the  y-axis.  At  >l=  —  a'  they 
reduce  to  an  isolated  curve  and  vanish  without 
changing  the  characteristic  (K  =  0). 

/  1 1    '12   / 1 3 

Thus  K  becomes  —  2 1  sgn  /,,  f22  j23   ,  the  sum 

/3l    /32   /33 

to  be  taken  over  all  points  of  intersection  of  the 
three  surfaces:  /,=o,  /2  =  o,  /3  =  o.  Moreover, 
this  expression  lends  itself  to  transformation 
into  the  integral  by  means  of  which  Gauss 
represents  the  "total  curvature"  of  the  surface 
f(x,  y,  z)  -=o,  so  that  we  finally  get: 

K  = —  total  curvature. 

Connectivity  of  Riemann  Surfaces. — If  w  be  an 
w-valued    algebraic    function    of    the    complex 
variable    z    (see    Complex    Variable),    let    all 
values  of  z  be  represented  on  a  spherical  surface. 
Superpose   radially    n   copies   or   sheets   of   this 
surface  and  imagine  that   for  one  value  z0  for 
which  the  n  v- values  are  distinct,  one  value  of 
w  belongs  to  each  z0.  i.e..  to  each  of  the  n  sheets. 
The  values  w,  .  .  .  :<.•„  will  vary  continuously  with 
z,   constituting   n   branches   of  the   function   w. 
For  some   values  of  z,   however,   say   for  z  =  blt 
b2.  .  .  .  ,  bm.  some  among  the  quantities  u\  .  .  .  wn 
will  turn  out  equal.      In  these  points  we  assume 
connection    between    the    corresponding   sheets, 
and  denote  them  as  branch-points.      Such  con- 
nection may  not  be  feasible  where  other  sheets 
intervene.      In  4-space  this  difficulty  would  not 
arise.     Limited  as  we  are  to  3-space,  we  may  still 
suppose  passage  possible  in  these  points  between 
the   sheets  in  question.      Further,  we  find   that 
whenever,   starting  at  z0.   we   take  z  in   a  loop 
(in  all   sheets   simultaneously)  about  a  branch- 
point,  on   returning  to  =0  the  values  w,  .  .  .  wn 
will   have   undergone   a   permutation   typical  of 
that  branch-point.     We  prevent  such  loops,  and 
render  the  branches  single-valued,  by  means  of 
incisions  through  all  the  sheets  concerned,  from 
z0  to  each  branch-point.     We  further  join  every 
left  edge  of  these  incisions  with  the  right  one 
that  exhibits  the  same  a;-values.     This  process 
(which,  strictly  speaking,  again  calls  for  a  fourth 
dimension)  completes  our  Riemann  surface. 

If  we  use  a  circular  punch  to  cut  out  neigh- 
borhoods of  the  m  branch-points  (through  all 
the  sheets),  the  portion  punched  out  at  bi, 
Where  first  ,?;,  then  /?,-,  .  .  .  sheets  are  connected, 
Will  show  it -(.■?,-,  -1') -(,.?,-,-  1)-  ...  distinct 
simply  connected  parts.  Thus  all  branch-points 
furnish  2£n  —  J'.(i,y—  i)J  elementary  areas.  The 
neighborhood  of  z0,  similarly  punched  out, 
ynhls  n  separate  circles.  The  remainder  falls 
into  n  elementary  surfaces  by  means  of  m  in- 
cisions from  z0  to  the  branch-points,  through  all 


Fig.  4. — Moebius'  sheet. 

directs,  becomes  unilateral.  Moebius'  sheet  may 
conveniently  be  represented  by  folding  the 
rectangular  strip  into  triangular  shape  "as  in 
Pig-  5       The  folds  may  be  distinguished  as  posi- 


b.a 


Fig.  5. 


tive  or  negative  according  as,  on  our  way  from 
ab  i"  a'b',  we  pass  from  the  lower  to  the"  upper 
sheet  or  the  reverse.  Each  corresponds  to  a 
torsion  of  ±n.  Positive  folds  will  cancel  against 
negative  ones.  Evidently  a  strip  folded  into  the 
shape  of  a  polygon  of  an  even  number  of  sides 
will  thus  represent  a  bilateral  surface;  if  the 
number  of  sides  be  odd,  a  unilateral  one.      Ruled 


ANALYSIS  SITUS 


surfaces  of  the  third  order  contain  the  Moebius 
sheet  (Masckke)  Closed  surfaces  without  double 
point  i  are  I  ilateral. 

Indicatrix.  —  The  two  normals  at  a  point  P, 
not  being  in  the  surface,  are  more  conveniently 
replaced  by  a  small  circle  about  the  point,  taken 
m  a  definite  (say  counter-clockwise)  rotation 
about  /'.  On  tin-  other  side  (of  this  point's 
neighborhood)  the  same  rotation  will  be  a  clock- 
wise one  about  /'.  Similarly,  within  the  surface 
two  infinitesimal  perpendicular  straight  lines 
may  be  drawn,  which  if  produced  would  form  a 
right-handed  Cartesian  coordinate  system  (see 
Analytic  Geomi  iky)  on  one  side  (which  we 
may  define  as  the  right  one)  and  a  left-handed 
one  on  the  other.  Such  alternating  contrivances 
are  called  in, lira/rices  (Klein).  They  may  be 
distinguished  as  right  and  left,  or  as  positive  and 
\tive.  If  constructed  continuously  {i.e., 
without  sudden  transition  to  the  opposite  one) 
on  continuous  paths  for  all  points  that  can 
thus  bo  reached,  one  indicatrix  will  result  for 
each  point  on  a  bilateral  surface,  while  on  a 
unilateral  one  a  point  will  have  both  of  them. 
Hence  the  term  double  surfaces  for  the  latter  type. 

Unilateral  Surfaces. — It  will  be  noticed  that 
Moebius'  sheet  has  one  continuous  edge.     Also, 


Fig.  6. 

if  we  pursue  any  closed  path,  our  direction  of 
progress  and  a  direction  on  the  surface  per- 
pendicular to  the  former  and  pointing  to  the 
left  may  be  taken  as  an  indicatrix.      Along  some 


PlO.   7. — Effect   nf    a    bilateralizing    re-entrant    section    on 
Fig.  6.      One  side  is  shaded. 

closed  paths  the  latter  will  be  reversed.  A  line 
closely  following  such  a  path  on  its  left  will  not 
close,  as  its  beginning  and  end  will  be  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  path.  An  incision  along  the 
latter  evidently  leaves  our  surface  connected. 
Thus,  on  a  unilateral  surface,  at  least  one  non- 
dividing  re-entrant  section  can  be  made.  We 
shall  call  it  a  bilateralizing  one.  In  fact,  the 
number  of  bilateralizing  re-entrant  sections  will 


be  that  of  independent  paths  along  which  the 
indicatrix  is  reversed.  This  type  of  the  re- 
entrant section,  however,  yields  only  one  new 
bounding-eurve.  For  only  after  completing  a 
double  circuit  about  the  above  closed  path  will 
the  line  following  it  on  the  left  close  in  its  turn, 
showing  that  the  two  edges  of  the  incision  blend 
into  one.  There  also  becomes  possible  a  new 
kind  of  cross-section  that  leaves  unchanged  the 
number  of  boundaries  {bilateralizing  cross-sec- 
tion), as  we  see  by  merely  tracing  a  bilateraliz- 
ing re-entrant  section  and  then  making  a  cross- 
section  that  crosses  the  trace  once  between  two 
points  of  one- boundary. 

Let  our  surface  possess  B  bounding  curves; 
let  it  become  simply  connected  by  virtue  of  6 
bilateralizing,  5  bound-severing,  and  j  bound- 
joining  cross-sections.  Then  j  —  G  —  1—D—s,  and 
B  +s  —  (c  —  i  —  b  —  s)  =  i  or  B  +  25  +b  =c.  Since  b 
is  not  zero,  the  number  of  boundaries  of  a  uni- 
lateral surface  will  always  be  less  than  its  con- 
nectivity:  B<c. 

Two  Types  of  Unilateral  Surfaces. — Draw  a 
line  connecting  two  points  on  different  bilateral- 


Fig.  8. 
izing    re-entrant     sections.      Make     the     bound- 
joining  cross-sections  db  and   ab  immediately  to 
the  right  and  left  of  it,  and  rejoin  the  re-entrant 
sections    along  the    small   portions  da  bb.     The 


Fig.  .,. 

result  will  be  a  common  re-entrant  section. 
For  follow  by  a  line  immediately  to  the  left  the 
re-entrant  section  from  a  to  b,  the  cross-section 
from  b  to  it,  the  other  re-entrant  section  to  d 
and,  finally,  the  cross-section  to  b.  It  will  be 
seen  that  this  line  is  closed,  and  so  is  the  corre- 
sponding edge  of  the  whole  incision. 

After  this  process  of  uniting  bilateralizing  re- 
entrant sections  has  been  repeated  as  often  as 
possible,  if  b  is  even,  no  bilateralizing  re-entrant 
sections  remain;    if  b  is  odd,  there  will  reanain 


ANALYSIS   SITUS 


one.     Accordingly,  there  are  two  types  of  uni- 
lateral surfaces-. 


(i)   R+2(s+-J\  =c,   b 


even:  K  =  2—c,  when 

the  surface  is  unbounded  (R=o),  becomes  2,  o, 
-2,  — 4  •  •  • 

(2)   i?+2|sH — — |+i=c,   b   odd:     A'  =  2-c 

=  1 ,   — 1,  —  3  .  .  .  ,  of  R  =  o . 

The  above  surface  (Fig.  9)  is  of  the  first  type, 
even  if  extended  so  as  to  lose  its  boundary; 
K  =  0.  Steiner's  surface,  which  is  equivalent  to 
the  projective  plane,  is  of  the  second  type;  K  =  1. 


Fig.  10. — Evolution  of  Steiner's  surface. 

Steiner's  Surface. — Project  the  points  of  the 
projective  plane  from  a  center  C.  On  each  pro- 
jecting ray,  whose  length  CP  we  call  r,  lay  off 

r 
the  segment  — — ■    from  C.     The  line  at  infinity 

will  thus  furnish  a  circle  of  radius  unity,  whose 
diametrically  opposite  points  represent  the  same 
point  (at  v. )  of  our  plane.  Now  let  the  entire 
new  surface,  consisting  of  the  ends  of  the  seg- 
ments laid  off  from  C,  be  deformed  into  the 
plane  area  of  this  circle  (Fig.  6).  Cut  the  latter 
from  C  to  E,  roll  it  into  a  cone,  putting  CE  on 
CE'  (the  edges  of  the  incision  on  different  sides). 
Join  the  edges  of  CE  (creating  a  double  line) 
and  also,  by  adjacent  points,  the  two  basal 
circles  of  the  cone.  This  second  juncture,  by 
deformation  of  the  surface,  may  be  made  to 
show  continuous  curvature,  and  the  apex  of  the 
cone  may  be  made  to  coincide  with  the  center 
of  the  circle  of  juncture.  This  is  Steiner's  sur- 
face (Fig.  11).  By  punching  out  its  center  and 
cutting  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  double 
line  we  get  three  elementary  surfaces.  Hence 
K  =  1 ,  also  c  —  1 ,  6  =  1,  B  =0. 

Boy  has  devised  similar  surfaces  and  inves- 
tigated the  connection  between  the  characteristic 
and  Gauss'  total  curvature  in  such  cases. 

Two  connected  surfaces  possessing  the  same 
number  (B)  of  bounding-curves,  the  same  con- 
nectivity and,  in  case  they  are  unilateral,  the  same 
number  of  bilateralizing  re-entrant  sections,  can 
now  be  made  simply  connected  by  means  of  the 
same  number  of  independent  re-entrant  sections. 
After  a  correspondence  has  been  decided  upon 
between    the    bounding   curves,    we    draw    c  —  1 


bound-joining  cross-sections  between  pairs  of 
corresponding  ones  and  further  establish  a  one- 
to-one  correspondence  between  the  points  of  the 
original  bounding  curves,  also  of  these  cross- 
sections.  The  resulting  simply  connected  sur- 
faces will  have  their  boundaries  corresponding 
point  for  point.     Schoenflies  has  demonstrated 


Fig.  11. — Steiner's  surface  and  its  connectivity. 

that  under  these  conditions  between  the  points  in 
the  interior  of  the  simply  connected  areas,  too,  a 
continuous  one-to-one  correspondence  may  be  es- 
tablished. This  proves  our  surfaces  equivalent, 
verifying  the  alleged  theorem  of  Jordan. 

Space  of  n  Dimensions. — The  conceptions  in- 
troduced in  the  analysis  situs  of  two-dimensional 
surfaces  in  three-dimensional  space  permit  of 
generalization.  The  indicatrix  of  an  m-dimen- 
sional  surface  will  consist  of  m  directions  in  (*  c. 
tangent  to)  the  surface  perpendicular  to  each 
other.  There  will  be  only  two  indicatrices 
(right  and  left),  since  we  may  bring  about  coin- 
cidence between  a  first  pair  of  axes  of  different 
indicatrices,  then  between  a  second  pair,  etc. 
To  do  this,  in  the  case  of  the  fcth  pair,  we  have 
m—  fc-space  at  our  disposal.  This  becomes  a 
common  plane  for  the  m-first  pair.  For  the  last 
pair  there  remains  a  line  only,  so  that  coinci- 
dence, if  not  existing,  cannot  be  forced.  As  a 
consequence,  unilateral  and  bilateral  m-sur- 
faces  must  be  distinguished. 

Examples. — The  indicatrix  of  a  line  is  the  line- 
element  (or  the  tangent)  taken  in  one  of  two 
possible  directions.  A  closed  curve  with  a 
cusp  might  be  considered  one-sided,  as  the 
direction  here  changes  abruptly  as  we  make 
the  circuit.  A  four-sided  prism  abcda'b'c'd'  in 
Rt  can  be  twisted  like  Moebius'  sheet  and  its 
face  abed  joined  to  c'd'a'b'.  The  resulting  sur- 
face is  bounded  by  one  bilateral  2-surface  (from 
ab   to  cd  —  a'b'  and   back    to  c'd'  =  ab)   and  two 


ANALYSIS   SITUS 


unilateral  ones      W.   may  further  join  these  two 
latter  2-surfaces,   their  juncture    only    forming 


Interiors  of  Different  ( Orders  and  Degrees. —  In  a 
plane    a   closed    curve    may    have    overlapping 

portions  so  as  to  contain  a  certain  area  twice 
or  r  times.  In  3-space  it  may,  without  having 
any  double  points,  coil  r  times  about  certain 
straight  lines  of  its  interior,  which  thereby  be- 
come an  interior  of  the  rth  order.  But  if,  as  we 
follow  the  curve  in  a  given  direction,  it  coils  p 
times  in  an  assumed  positive  rotation  about  this 
interior  of  rth  order,  and  r—p  times  negatively,  we 
may  then  call  p— (r— p)  =2p— r  the  degree 
interior.     The  curve  C  (Fig.  13)  has  an  interior  of 


Fig.  12. 

a  unilateral  surface  such  as  we  may  imagine 
inside  any  solid.  There  will  remain  only  one 
bounding  bilateral  2-surface  of  spherical  con- 
nectivity, just  as  Moebius'  sheet  has  one  edge. 
This  further  shows  that  an  incision  is  possible 
along  a  surface  of  spherical  connectivity,  which 
does  nol  divide  our  3-surface,  but  renders  it 
bilateral  (bilateralizing  closed  section). 

We  shall  now  consider  bilateral   m-surfaces. 
They  may  be  given  by  making  the  coordinates 
>,  .  .  .  \  „   of  a   point    in    u-space,    functions   of   111 
1.  lets     /,  .  .  .  /m:  i,      >,(/,  .  .  .  (m).         iu- 

planes  will  then  be  linear  functions.  Lines,  com- 
mon planes,  etc.,  arc  m-planes  for  >n  =  1 ,  2  .  .  . 

In  rt-space,  we  call  surfaces  complementary  if 
their  dimensions  add  up  to  n.  dual  if  they  add  up 
to  11  —  1 .  In  R„  lines  and  2-surfaces  are  comple- 
mentary, while  lines  are  dual  to  lines  (self-dual). 
ed  m-surfaces  are  boundless  and  contain 
no  points  with  infinite  t rdinates.  They  sepa- 
rate the  dual  planes  of  11-space  into  interior  and 
exterior  ones.  Taking  any  complementary  plane 
(11  — »i-plane)  that  does  not  intersect  the  closed 
m-surface,  we  can  move  into  it  any  exterior  dual 
plane  («  —  1  -  m-plane)  without  allowing  it  to  inter- 
sect tile  surface  on  the  way.  can  reverse  it  there 
by  turning  it  through  1800,  and  bring  it  back  to 
riginal  position  along  the  path  on  which  it 
was  brought.  An  interior  11  —  1  —  m-plane,  if 
we  attempted  to  do  the  same,  would  describe 
an  11  m-surface  which  must  intersect  the  given 
111-surfacc.  Besides  distinguishing  between  the 
or  and  exterior  of  our  closed  »i-surfacc  this 
also  shows  that  tile  interior  is  bilateral,  the 
exterior  unilateral,  with  regard  to  the  dual 
planes. 

Examples. —  (1)   The  limiting  case  of  a  closed 

figure  without  dimension  is  a  couple  of  points 

In    1  traight  line)  it  bounds  a  segment. 

parates  the  straights  of  2-space  (common 

plane)    into   those   passing   between   it   (interior) 

and  the  exterior  one    .  and  'Lies  the  same  for  the 

2-plai  pace.      (->)   The  interior  of  a  cir- 

umference    is   an    area  in   2-space;     in 

ice   it   consists  of  the   straight  lines  passing 

through    it.      Take   a    plane   not    intersecting   it: 

an  exterior  straight  line  may  be  moved  into  the 

without  commg  in  contact  with  the  circle. 

may  there  be  turned  through   1S00  and  brought 

back. — Although   points   cannot   be    reversed,    it 

is  as  natural  111  an  anaylsis  situs  as  in  projective 

geometry  to  assume  unilaterality  for  the  infinite 

plane.      This  is  merely  to  extend   to  a  limiting 

case  what  is  true  generally. 


Pig.  13. — Interior  "i  order  2  an<l  degree  o. 
order   2    and   degree   o.   to   which   line   /.   belongs. 

These  considerations  are  applicable  to  rt-space, 

where  11  -  1 -surfaces,  however,  cannot  possess 
interiors  of  higher  orders  without  self-intersect  ion 
(double  points,  etc.).  Interiors  of  higher  orders 
than  the  first  can  be  removed  by  deformation, 

unless  the  curve   is   knotted    (see    below). 

Locking  of  Dual  Closed  Curves. —  in  rt-space  a 
closed  (M-surface  may  be  locked  with  a  c] 
11  —  1  —  111-surface.  as  are  the  links  of  a  chain. 
Through  neither  of  them  can  a  surface  one 
dimension  higher  than  it  be  laid  thai  does  not 
intersect  the  other.  Examples:  A  point-couple 
and  a  circle  enclosing  one  of  its  points  in  a  plane. 
Two  linked  curves  in  r?8.  for  the  latter.  aC( 
ing  to  Gauss,  the  double  integral 

(v'-.v)(-.  I/) 

(  ■/        i-    /    dx'       03 

+  (s'  -z)(./.rrf/  -dydx') 

4*J  J  [(AT* -*)'  +  (/ -y)2  +  (*' -S)2]J. 

.v.  y,  s  being  a  point  of  one  curve-,  v'.  y' ,  :'  one 
of  the  other,  has  the  value  1.  In  the  case  of 
one  curve  coiling  repeatedly  about  the  other. 
the  order  and  degree'  of  their  interlocking  may 
n  be  distinguished  in  accordance  with  the' 
reflections  of  the  preceding  paragraph.  Gi 
integral  then  gives  the-  degree,  which  may  happen 
to  be-  o  if  the'  oreler  be'  even.  Two  spile  1  II  al 
surfaces  transplanted  into  A's  may  interlock. 

Knots. — Closed    m-surfaces,    in    2m  +  i-space 

may  lock  with  themselves.  They  are  then  said 
to  form  knots.  The  various  shapes  of  knotted 
curves  in  common  space  have  been  extensively 


Jl 


Fig.  14. — Tre:t"oil-knot. 

investigated  (Listing,  Tait,  Simony).  These  rc- 
searches  have  been  referred  to  as  topology,  a 
word  also  used  synonymously  with  analysis 
situs.  The  simplest  knot  is  the  so-called  trefoil- 
knot.  It  is  formed  by  a  curve  of  the  sixth 
order  whose  equation  in  tetrahedral  coordinates 


ANALYZER— ANAM 


is  given  by  Brill.  It  was  thought  that  these 
knots  might  be  forms  of  vortex-rings  accounting 
for  the  differences  of  chemical  elements.  There 
are  no  knots  in  4-space,  surface-knots  first  be- 
coming possible  in  5-space,  and,  in  their  turn, 
dissolving  in  6-space. 

Generalised  Connectivity. — w-surfaces  will  be 
called  connected  with  regard  to  tangent  lines, 
2-planes,  etc.,  if  any  two  of  these  can  be  moved 
into  one  another  without  ceasing  to  be  tangent 
to  the  surface.  Two  spheres  in  R3,  e.g.,  are  dis- 
connected as  to  points,  connected  as  to  tangents 
and  tangent  planes.  The  opposite  is  true  for  the 
faces  of  a  polyhedron.  But  we  shall  assume  that 
the  surfaces  considered  possess  all  these  connec- 
tivities. With  regard  to  any  of  them  they  may  be 
multiply-connected.  Connectivity  as  to  points 
(c,)  is  the  special  case  treated  above.  It  has  been 
referred  to  as  cyclosis  or  periphraxy  (Maxwell) 
in  the  case  of  portions  of  3-space.  The  interior 
of  an  anchor- ring,  e.g.,  has  <;,  =  2. 

The  c—  1  closed  curves  by  means  of  which  we 
determined  the  connectivity  of  a  closed  surface 
in  3-space  will  lock  with  other  closed  curves 
either  in  the  space  enclosed  by  the  surface  or  in  the 
exterior.  We  are  thus  led  to  consider  the  con- 
nectivity of  the  portion  (R3  —  5,)  left  after  sub- 
tracting from  R3  the  points  of  our  surface  Ss. 

Betti's  Numbers  of  a  Closed  m-surface  Sm. — 
Imagine  Sm,  if  necessary  after  continuous  defor- 
mation, placed  in  m  + 1  -space.  Find  the  con- 
nectivities c„  c,  .  .  .  Cm-i  of  the  remainder 
(Rm+j—Sm)  with  regard  to  points,  lines,  2- 
planes,  .  .  .  in  —  1 -planes.  These  are  Betti's  num- 
bers P,,  P2  .  .  .  Pm-i  of  the  surface  Sm,  (ct  =  Pt). 
This  means  that  in  (Rm+l—  Sm)  there  are  Pt—  1 
independent  closed  ^-surfaces  with  which  cer- 
tain in—  ^'-surfaces  within  Sm  may  lock.  Ob- 
viously, the  in  —  A'-surfaces  may  be  deformed  out 
of  Sm  into  the  remainder  (/\m+,  —  Sm),  while  at 
the  same  time,  and  never  ceasing  to  lock  with 
them,  the  ^-surfaces  are  deformed  so  as  to  be 
"ii  ^m.  This  shows  that  Pm-t  is  at  least  equal 
to  Pt,  and  vice  versa,  so  that  finally  Pm-k  =  l'k 
on  anv  closed  bilateral  m-surface  without  double 
points.  Betti's  number  P,  for  a  2-surface  is 
at  the  same  time  its  connectivity  c. 

Hitler's  Polyhedron  Formula. — The  theorem 
holds  for  any  division  of  a  spherical  surface  into 
simply  connected  districts  by  frontiers  bounded 
by  the  vertices  in  which  they  concur,  that 
v—  j+d  =  2,  ;•  being  the  number  of  vertices,  / 
of  frontiers,  and  d  of  districts.  Such  a  map 
is  regular  if  each  district  has  the  same  number 
fd  of  frontiers,  and  if  an  equal  number  /„  of  these 

2/  2/ 

c- mcur  in  each  vertex.     We  have  u  =  — ,  d  =  7L, 

U  fd 

and  /'( 2Jd  -  fdfv  +  2fv)  =  2 /"„/<*.  where  2/d  —fdfv  +  2}, 
must  evidently  be  positive.  This  gives  rise  to  only 
five  regular  maps  corresponding  to  the  regular 
polyhedral  surfaces  of  the  tetrahedron  (self- 
reciprocal),  cube  and  octahedron  (reciprocal  to 
each  other), dodecahedron  andicosahedron  (recip- 
rocal). The  regular  4-dimensional  polyhedra  are 
found  to  be  six,  viz..  two  self-reciprocal  ones 
bounded  bv  5  tetrahedra  and  24  octahedra  re- 
spectively, one  bounded  by  8  cubes  reciprocal  to 
one  bounded  by  16  tetrahedra,  and  one  bounded 
by  120  dodecahedra  reciprocal  to  one  bounded 
by  600  tetrahedra. 

Euler's  formula,  extended  to  maps  on  closed 
2-surfaces  of  connectivity  c:  v—f+d=$—c  leads 
t'  1  a  superior  limit  for  the  number  of  districts 
that   may  be  adjacent  each  to  each  on  such  a 


surface.  Heffter  has  investigated  under  what 
conditions  this  limit  is  actually  attained,  while 
II.  S.  White  shows  what  regular  maps  (called 
by  him  reticulations)  are  possible  for  any  given  c. 
Generalizing  still  further,  Euler's  formula  for  a 
map  on  any  m-surface,  i.e.,  a  division  of  it  into 
simply  connected  parts,  the  dividing  in  —  1- 
surfaces  again  being  divided  into  simply  con- 
nected partitions,  etc.,  becomes: 
m-  1 

2  (  - 1)«"«  =  1  +  iX  -  i)"(.Pm-g- 1) , 
8=0 

nq  being  the  number  of  q-dimensional  parts  or 
partitions  on  the  map.  Since  for  closed  m-sur- 
faces  we  have  Pk  =  Pm-t.  if  >n  is  even  this  be- 
comes 2-(-i)«M9  =  3-P1+P2..-Pm_1;  if  m  is 
odd,  I{  —  i)lnq  =0  (Poincare). 

Literature. — Since  no  treatise  on  analysis  situs 
has  been  published,  a  few  of  the  main  papers 
on    the    subject    will    here    be    mentioned.     W. 
Dyck  (Math.  Annalen.  vol.  32.  p.  457)  gives  the 
literature  preceding  his  article  (to  1888).     The 
pertinent    publications    of    the    savants    named 
above  are  as  follows:   Listing,  <  Der  Census  raura- 
licher     Complexe'      (Gottinger     Abhandlungen, 
1S61),  and  <  Vorstudien  zur  Topologie'  (Gotti 
Studien,   1847):  C.Jordan,  <Sur  la  deformation 
des  Surfaces' (Liouville  Journal,  ser.  2,  11,  1S66); 
Klein,  <Uber  den  Zusammenhang  der   Flachen' 
(Math     Annalen     7,    1S74);     Moebius,  'Werke,' 
Band    2:     'Uber   die    Bestimmung   des    Inhalts 
eines  Polyeders '  and  '  Zur  Theorie  der  Polyeder 
und     der     Elementarverwandtschaft  > ;      Gauss, 
( Werke, '  V,  p.  134;  Kronecker,  (  Berliner  Monats- 
berichte'   (1S69,   p.    159,   p.   6SS,    1873,  p.    117. 
1878,    p.    95);     Betti,    'Sopra    gli    spazi    di    un 
numero    qua    lunque   di   dimensioni'   (Annali   di 
matematica,   1S70);     Tait,  'On    Knots'    (Trans. 
Roy.    Soc.   Edinburgh,    1879,     1SS4,    1SS6;     also 
Proceedings  of  the  same  Society,  1876  to  1S79); 
Simonv     (Math.    Annalen     19     and    24);     Brill 
(Math.    Ann.    iS);      Heffter     (Math.    Ann. 
Boy     (Math.     Ann.     57);    Maxwell.    'Theory   of 
Electricity    and    Magnetism'    (vol.     1,    p. 
Veblen    (Trans.    Am.    Math.   Soc,    1905,  p.  S3). 
The  subject  of  analysis    situs  of   higher   dimen- 
sions,   especially    of  4-space,   has  been    greatly 
advanced  by  the    following    six    recent    papers 
by    H.    Poincare:    'Analysis    Situs'  (Journal  de 
l'Ecole   Polytechnique,    181)5);     'Complement  a 
l'A.     S. '     (Proc.    London     Math.     Sue,    1900); 
'Second    complement    a  l'A.  S.>  (Rendiconti  del 
Circolo     matematico    di    Palermo,  1899);     *Sur 
certaines  surfaces  algebriques'  (Bull.  Soc.  math, 
de    France,   1902);    *Sur  les  cycles  des  surfaces 
algebriques'    (Journal    de    Math,    1902);    <Cin- 
quieme    complement    a    l'A.   S. '   (Rendic.    Circ. 
mat.  di  Palermo,  1904). 

Paul  Wernicke. 
Professor  State  College  of  Kentucky. 

Analyzer,  the  portion  of  a  polariscope 
(q.v.)  employed  in  the  examination  of  polar- 
ized light.  Xicol  prisms,  tourmaline  plates. 
double-refracting  crystals,  and  movable  mirrors 
are  each  used  for  this  pur] 

Anam,  or  Annam,  an  Asiatic  country  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula, 
along  the  China  Sea,  about  850  miles  long,  with 
a  breadth  varying  from  over  400  miles  in  the 
north  to  100  in  the  middle.  It  is  composed  of 
Tonquin  or  Tongking  in  the  north  and  Cochin- 
China  and  Chiampa  in  the  south.    The  total  area 


ANAMALAI  HILLS-ANAPTOMORPHUS 


is    170,000    square    miles,   and    the    population 
15,000,000. 

Its  coast  is  much  indented,  affording  many 
fine  harbors,  and  a  mountain  range  extends  its 
entire  length.  The  Mehong,  the  principal  river, 
is  the  boundary  between  Anam  and  Siam  and  is 
navigated  by  steamboats.  The  capital  and 
largest  citv  is  Hue.  Rice,  cinnamon,  sugar- 
cane, coffee,  tea,  tobacco,  and  cotton  are  the  chief 
productions,  though  silk  is  manufactured  to 
some  extent  and  fine  woods  are  exported.  The 
mment  is  a  monarchy,  the  king  being  nom- 
inally assisted  by  a  council  of  six,  but  French  in- 
fluence predi  iminates. 

The  inhabitants  are  from  two  races,  the 
Mountain  Mois,  and  the  Anamese  proper,  and 
generally  under  the  middle  size  and  less  ro- 
bust than  the  surrounding  peoples.  Their  lan- 
guage is  monosyllabic  and  is  connected  with 
the  Chinese,  The  religion  of  the  majority  is 
Buddhism,  but  the  educated  classes  hold  the 
doctrines  of  Confucius;  besides  which  there  are 
420,000  Roman  Catholics, 

Anam  was  conquered  by  the  Chinese  in  214 
11  c  .  but  in  1428  a.d.  completely  won  its  inde- 
pendence. The  French  began  to  interfere  ac- 
tively in  its  affairs  in  1847  on  the  plea  of  pro- 
ng the  native  Christians.  By  the  treaties 
of  1862  and  1867  they  obtained  the  southern  and 
most  productive  part  of  Cochin-China,  subse- 
quently known  as  French  Cochin-China;  and  in 
1  874  they  obtained  large  powers  over  Tonquin. 
By  the  treaty  of  1884,  ratified  at  Hue\  1S86, 
Anam  was  declared  a  French  protectorate. 

Anamalai  Hills,  a  range  of  mountains  in  the 
Coimbatore  district  of  Madras,  southern  India. 
They  lie  between  10°  13'  and  io°3i'  North  lati- 
tude and  760  52'  and  7;°  23'  East  longitude. 
The  range  is  rather  a  vast  table-land  with  sev- 
eral high  summits  than  mountains.  They  are 
covered  with  dense  forests  and  the  brush  and 
jungle  growths  render  habitation  impracticable, 
the  only  inhabitants  being  a  few  wild  tribes  who 
live  upon  the  animals  which  infest  the  woods 
and  jungle  produce.  Geologically  the  moun- 
tains are  formed  of  metamorphic  gneiss,  inter- 
spersed with  veins  of  feldspar,  quartz,  and  red- 
dish porphyrite.  Teak  and  other  valuable  tim- 
ber may  be  found  on  the  lower  slopes,  while  a 
portion  of  the  land  has  been  planted  with  coffee. 

Anamarita.     Sec  Cocculus  Indicus. 

Anamorphosis,  a  term  applied  to  a  draw- 
ing so  executed  as  to  present  a  distorted  image 
■  ■f  the  object  represented,  but  which,  if  viewed 
from  a  certain  point,  or  reflected  by  a  curved 
mirror  or  through  a  polyhedron,  shows  the  ob- 
ject in  true  proportion. 

Anamosa,  la.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Jones  County,  situated  on  the  Wapsipinicon  and 
Buffulo  rivers  and  on  the  Chicago  &  N.  W. 
and  Chicago,  M.  &  St.  P.  R.R.'s.  It  has  a 
State  penitentiary  and  many  excellent  quarries 
of  building-stone,  and  manufactories  of  flour, 
carriages,  and  wagons.     Pop.  (1900)  2,891. 

Ananchytes,  a  genus  of  fossil  petalostichous 
sea-urchins  of  the  family  Spatangida,  and  sub- 
family Ananchytimz,  found  in  the  Cretaceous 
formation.  The  name  "shepherd's  crown"  is 
given  to  it  in  the  southern  part  of  England  and 
also  the  name  <(  fairy  li  >aves.  *  They  have  a  trans- 
versed  mouth,  an  oblong  outlet,  a  helmet-like 
form,  and  simple  ambulacra. 


Ananias,  a  member  of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem, 
struck  dead  with  his  wife  Sapphira  because  of 
an  attempt  to  misrepresent  the  amount  of  their 
gifts  to  the  Apostle  Peter.  The  name  was  also 
borne  by  a  Damascus  disciple  named  in  connec- 
tion with  Saul's  adventure  there,  and  bya  high- 
priest  in  Jerusalem  belonging   to  the  Sanhedrim. 

Ananier,  or  Ananyer,  a  Russian  town  about 
220  miles  northwest  of  Kherson,  with  some  little 
agricultural  trade  and  a  mixed  population  of 
Russian  Jews  and  Rumanians.  It  was  annexi  d 
to  Russia  in  1792.     Pop.  (1897)  about  17,000. 

Anapa,  a  seaport  town  of  Russia,  situated 
on  the  Black  Sea.  It  has  been  variously  the 
possession  of  Turks  and  Russians,  but  has  be- 
longed to  Russia  from  1829.     Pop.  about  7,000. 

Anapaest,  in  prosody,  a  foot  consisting  of  two 
short  syllables  and  one  long  one.  In  the  comedies 
of  Aristophanes  it  was  the  dominant  measure, 
and  Greek  choruses  employed  it  in  their  exits 
and  entrances.  From  this  latter  circumstance 
it  was  frequently  styled  the  marching  rhythm. 

Ana'phalis,  a  genus  of  plant  of  the  tribe  Inuloidcce 
of  the  family  Composites.  The  characteristics  are 
nearly  the  same  as  Antetmaria.viz.:  heads  many 
flowered,  dioecious;  flowers  all  tubular;  and  the 
pistillate  corollas  are  very  slender.  Involucre  dry 
and  scarious,  white  or  colored,  and  imbricated. 
The  receptacle  is  convex  or  flat,  not  chaffy; 
anthers  caudate;  achenes  terete  or  flattish.  The 
main  difference  between  the  two  lies  in  the  pappus, 
as  in  the  A  naphalis  the  pappus  in  the  sterile  flowers 
is  not  thickened  at  the  summit  or  scarcely  so  and 
that  of  the  fertile  flowers  not  at  all  united  at 
the  base;  fertile  heads  usually  with  a  few 
perfect  but  sterile  flowers  in  the  center.  A.  m:r- 
goritacea  (pearly  everlasting)  is  found  on  dry 
hills  and  in  the  woods,  is  common  to  the  north- 
ward and  flowers  in  August.  The  stem  is  erect, 
corymbose  at  the  summit,  has  many  heads  and 
is  leafy;  leaves  broadly  to  linear-lanceolate, 
taper- pointed,  sessile,  and  soon  green  above;  the 
involucral  scales  are  pearly  white,  very  numer- 
ous, and  obtuse  or  rounded.  Consult:  Gray, 
•Manual  of  Botany>  (New  York,  1889). 

Anaphrodisiacs,  an-af  ro-dlz'I-aks,  are  rem- 
edies that  diminish  sexual  power  or  desire. 
They  may  act  directly  on  the  genital  centres  in 
the  spinal  cord,  indirectly  through  the  circula- 
tion on  the  brain,  or  locally  on  the  sense  organs. 
Inasmuch  as  local  irritation  is  a  frequent  cause 
of  stimulation  of  the  sexual  sense,  attention  to 
cleanliness  is  imperative  and  the  removal  of  all 
sources  of  irritation  indicated.  There  are  many 
simple  ways  of  allaying  the  excitement  for  the 
time,  such  as  the  application  of  ice,  and  cold 
baths,  local  or  general,  are  of  great  benefit.  The 
diet  should  also  be  regulated,  spicy,  stimulating, 
and  heating  foods  should  be  carefully  avoided, 
and  the  main  foods  should  be  vegetables.  The 
clothing  should  be  as  light  as  possible,  and  if 
necessary  drugs  may  be  administered.  Local 
analgesic  applications,  such  as  weak  solutions  of 
carbolic  acid — 1  to  2  per  cent — or  oxid  of  zinc 
ointment  with  carbolic  acid,  are  useful.  Of  the 
general  anaphrodisiacs  the  bromides  are  the  best. 
Bromide  of  sodium  or  potassium  is  most  fre- 
quently employed.  Special  medical  advice  is 
needed  in  the  treatment  of  persistent  sexual  ex- 
citement.    See  also  Aphrodisiac. 

Anaptomorphus,  a  fossil  lemur  from  the 
Eocene  of  Wyoming,  allied  to  the  modern  tar- 


ANARCHISM 


sier.     Some  authorities  have  considered  this  ani- 
mal as  related  to  the  ancestral  line  of  man. 

Anarchism,  a  theory  of  social  organiza- 
tion, numbering,  it  is  said,  about  one  million  ad- 
herents. Its  doctrines  represent  the  extreme  of 
individualism.  It  looks  upon  all  law  and  gov- 
ernment as  invasive,  the  twin  sources  whence 
flow  nearly  all  the  evils  existent  in  society.  It 
therefore  advocates  the  abolition  of  all  govern- 
ment as  we  to-day  understand  the  term,  save 
that  originating  in  voluntary  co-operation. 
Anarchists  do  not  conceive  of  a  society  without 
order,  but  of  an  order  arising  out  of  the  law  of 
association,  preferably  through  self-governing 
groups,  for  it  may  be  said  that,  with  here  and 
there  an  exception,  anarchists  regard  mankind 
as  gregarious.  "Our  object  is  to  live  without 
government  and  without  law."  says  Elisee  Re- 
clus,  the  eminent  geographer,  and  to-day  the 
leading  anarchist  of  France.  Anarchists  do  not 
ignore  the  enormous  economies  resulting  from 
the  law  of  association,  but  insist  that  the  law 
will  be  better  served  in  a  state  of  freedom  and 
in  the  absence  of  all  compulsion.  They  believe 
that  everything  now  done  by  the  state  can  be 
better  done  by  voluntary  or  associative  effort, 
and  that  no  restraint  upon  conduct  is  necessary, 
because  of  the  natural  tendency  of  mankind  in 
a  state  of  freedom  to  respect  the  rights  of  the 
individual.  The  repression  of  crime,  where 
crime  might  arise,  could  safely  be  left  to  spon- 
taneously created  organizations,  such  as  the 
Vigilance  Committees  in  early  California, 
where  no  State  government  existed.  In  the 
view  of  Prince  Kropotkin,  the  leading  Russian 
anarchist,  no  cause  for  litigation  would  arise 
after  we  had  abolished  "the  present  system  of 
class  privilege  and  unjust  distribution  of  the 
wealth  produced  by  labor,  that  creates  and  fos- 
ters crime." 

To  quote  further  from  Kropotkin:  "We 
are  nurtured  from  our  birth  to  believe  that  we 
must  have  government.  Yet  the  history  of  man 
proves  the  contrary.  When  small  bodies  or 
parts  of  humanity  broke  down  the  powers  of 
their  rulers  and  resumed  some  part  of  their 
foreordained  freedom,  these  were  always  epochs 
of  the  greatest  progress,  economically  and  intel- 
lectually. In  the  direct  ratio  to  the  freedom  of 
the  individual  he  advances." 

It  is  not  easy  to  sum  up  in  a  few  paragraphs 
the  leading  doctrines  of  any  economic  sect  and 
at  the  same  time  retain  absolute  accuracy  of 
statement.  It  should  therefore  be  said  that 
anarchists,  while  agreeing  that  the  doctrine  of 
laisscz  fairc  should  be  extended  to  all  depart- 
ments of  human  activity,  are  by  no  means  in 
agreement  on  all  points.  There  are  evolutionary 
and  revolutionary  anarchists,  and  communist- 
and  individualist-anarchists.  The  point  on 
which  all  are  agreed  is  in  their  opposition  to 
compulsory  forms  of  government,  and  in  re- 
garding the  necessary  despotism  of  majorities 
in  a  democracy  as  only  a  little  less  hateful  than 
the  despotism  of  a  monarchy.  "Governments 
are  the  scourge  of  God,"  says  Proudhon,  with 
whom  the  philosophy  of  modern  anarchism  may 
be  said  to  have  begun. 

Pierre  Joseph  Proudhon  was  born  in  Be- 
sangon,  France,  in  1809,  and  died  in  1865. 
Germs  of  the  doctrine  of  which  he  is  the  found- 
er may  be  traced  to  much  earlier,  even  ancient 
periods.  Among  his  modern  precursors  is  Wil- 
liam Godwin  (b.  in  Wisbech,  England,  1756;  d. 

Vol.  I— JO 


in  London,  1834),  wno  >s  better  known  as  the 
author  of  the  novel,  'Caleb  Williams,'  but  who 
in  his  'Inquiry  Concerning  Political  Justice,' 
which  appeared  in  1793,  advocated  the  abolition 
of  every  form  of  government,  and  formulated 
the  theory  of  anarchistic  communism.  But 
modern  anarchism  as  a  force  in  sociologic 
thought  began  with  the  publication  of  Proud- 
hon's  famous  essay,  'What  is  Property'  (1840). 
In  it  he  rejects  all  law  and  authority,  but  in  a 
work  which  appeared  in  1852  entitled,  'The  Fed- 
erative Principle,'  he  seems  to  have  modified  in 
a  measure  his  former  theory  of  government 
and  favors  the  formation  of  self-governing  com- 
munities. In  the  former  work  occurs  the  phrase 
which  is  destined  to  be  forever  associated  with 
the  name  of  Proudhon,  but  which  was  uttered  by 
the  Girondist  Brissot  a  half  century  earlier, 
"Property  is  robbery." 

It  was  upon  the  notion  that  he  had  furnished 
a  demonstration  of  this  thesis  that  Proudhon 
especially  prided  himself.  But  this  phrase  as 
used  by  the  father  of  anarchism  must  be  held 
to  apply  rather  to  modern  methods  of  acquisition 
than  to  property  itself,  for  Proudhon  was  an  in- 
dividualist, not  a  communist-anarchist,  and 
strove,  however  unsuccessful  he  was  in  making 
himself  understood,  rather  to  refine  than  to  de- 
stroy the  idea  of  property.  In  all  his  reason- 
ing on  this  point  there  is  much  dialectic  subtlety, 
of  which,  with  perverted  ingenuity,  Proudhon 
was  overfond ;  but  it  may  be  said  that  what  he 
really  sought  was  the  overthrow  of  all  prevail- 
ing theories  of  property  with  a  view  to  render- 
ing it  unassailable  from  the  standpoint  of  exact 
equality  and  social  justice.  A  few  years  later 
the  doctrines  of  anarchism  in  the  hands  of  Mi- 
chael Bakunin  underwent  a  change  from  the 
advocacy  of  a  purely  peaceful  revolution  to  one 
of  force.  Bakunin  was  born  1814,  died  1876. 
He  was  prominent  in  the  Paris  Revolution  of 
1848,  was  surrendered  to  Russia  and  sent  to  Si- 
beria, but  succeeded  in  making  his  escape.  His 
principal  work,  in  addition  to  innumerable  pam- 
phlets and  addresses,  is   'Dieu   et  1'fitat.' 

"The  propaganda  by  action,"  as  it  is  termed, 
by  which  it  was  hoped  to  inspire  such  dread  and 
horror  as  to  compel  the  adoption  of  measures  of 
social  amelioration,  or  perhaps  the  overthrow  of 
the  state  itself,  has  borne  abundant  fruit  in  the 
attempted  assassination  of  Emperor  William  in 
1878,  in  the  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the  German 
princes  in  1883.  in  the  assassination  of  President 
Carriot,  of  France,  in  1894,  of  the  Empress  Eliz- 
abeth, of  Austria,  in  1898,  of  King  Humbert,  of 
Italy,  in  1900,  and  of  President  McKinley,  by 
Czolgosz,  in  the  autumn  of  1901.  Other  anarch- 
ist crimes  were  the  throwing  of  a  bomb  in  the 
French  Chamber  of  Deputies,  in  1893,  by  Vail- 
lant,  and  the  bomb  explosion  in  Paris,  caused  by 
Emile  Henry,  in  1894. 

The  Haymarket  tragedy  of  1886,  in  Chicago, 
by  which  a  number  lost  their  lives  in  an  ex- 
plosion from  a  bomb  thrown  by  some  unknown 
hand,  and  which  resulted  in  the  trial  and  con- 
viction of  seven  professed  teachers  of  anarchism 
in  that  city,  four  to  the  gallows,  two  to  life  im- 
prisonment, and  one  to  a  term  of  15  years, 
aroused  the  attention  of  the  whole  civilized 
world.  It  is  now  seen,  after  the  lapse  of  17 
years,  that  these  men,  even  if  dangerous  to  the 
community,  were  convicted  more  largely  by  the 
existing  state  of  public  terror  than  by  any  actual 
evidence  connecting  them  with  the  throwing  of 


ANASTASI A  — ANASTATIC  PRINTING 


the  bomb.  The  fact  that  the  pardon  of  the  three 
who  escaped  the  gallows  was  petitioned  for, 
after  the  terror  of  the  time  had  died  away,  by 
some  of  the  most  prominent  citizens  of  Chicago, 
is  proof  of  the  change  the  public  mind  under- 
went regarding  the  accused.  The  controversy 
over  the  justice  of  their  conviction  is  still  un- 
settled. With  these  acts  of  murder  and  ven- 
geance the  purely  economic  doctrines  of 
anarchism  have  of  course  no  relation.  "The  prop- 
aganda of  action"  is  repudiated  by  those  who  are 
sometimes  termed  "philosophical  anarchists,*  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  revolutionary  wing. 
These  are  represented  in  this  country  by  Benja- 
min R.  Tucker,  in  France  by  Elisee  Reclus,  and 
in  England  by  Auberon  Herbert.  ("It  is  a  mis- 
take to  believe  that  the  anarchist  idea  can  be 
advanced  by  acts  of  barbarity." —  Elisee  Re- 
clus.) This  school  regards  force  as  fundamen- 
tally at  war  with  their  ideals.  It  does  not  be- 
lli ve  that  the  social  revolution  can  be  accom- 
plished by  the  methods  of  Bakunin  and  his 
school.     Proudhon   never  preached  force. 

With  the  policy  of  "propaganda  by  action"  in 
this  country  is  linked  the  name  of  Johann  Most, 
a  former  member  of  the  German  Reichstag ;  in 
France,  that  of  Charles  Malato  ("I  love  and 
admire  Vaillant  just  as  some  English  Republi- 
cans love  and  admire  Cromwell,  who  was  also  a 
regicide"  —  Charles  Malato);  and  in  Italy, 
that  of  Enrico  Malatesta,  an  anarchist,  like 
Kropotkin,  of  noble  family.  ("It  seems  to  me 
that  in  the  natural  order  of  evolution  violence 
has  as  much  a  place  as  the  eruption  of  a  volca- 
no. All  great  progress  has  been  paid  for  by 
streams  of  blood.  I  cannot  see  how  the  present 
conditions  based  upon  force  can  be  changed  in 
any  other  way  than  by  force,  and  so  long  as 
they  use  force  against  us  we  must  in  self-defense 
employ    violent    methods." — Enrico    Malatesta.) 

As  Proudhon  was  the  father  of  anarchistic 
individualism,  Kropotkin  is  as  indisputably  the 
father  of  anarchistic  communism.  Theoretic 
anarchism  for  some  time  subsequent  to  the  ad- 
vent of  its  French  founder  was  rigidly  indi- 
vidualistic. Max  Stirner,  a  follower  of  Proud- 
hon in  Germany,  whose  philosophy  was  more  of 
a  blank  negation  than  that  of  his  master,  pushed 
the  ego  to  a  point  where  it  more  resembles  a 
caricature  than  a  dogma,  and  Bakunin  hated  the 
idea  of  communism.  But  in  Kropotkin  it  must 
be  said  that  the  idea  of  property  has  reached  its 
disappearing  point,  and  the  ideal  of  anarchism 
is  at  the  last  purely  communistic.  Kropotkine's 
life  and  his  romantic  career,  united  with  the 
vast  store  of  knowledge  he  possesses,  give  to  his 
professions  of  anarchism  a  fascination  and  a 
weight.  And  amiable  as  is  his  personality,  he 
is  not  unsuspected  of  a  sympathy  with  the  Ba- 
kunin school  of  action. 

Among  the  works  on  anarchism  not  pre- 
viously mentioned  are  Kropotkin's  'Paroles  d' 
tin  Revoke'  and  'La  Conquete  du  Pain.'  with 
a  preface  by  Elisee  Reclus,  and  the  latter's  'Evo- 
lution et  Revolution'  ;  'The  Individual  and  His 
Property1  by  Max  Stirner;  'Societe  Mourante' 
and  'Societe  au  Lendemain  de  la  Revolution'  ; 
'Declarations'  (Paris),  by  G.  Eliivant,  a  work 
highly  regarded  by  anarchists;  'Apres  la  Tem- 
pete,'  by  Herzcn ;  magazine  articles  by  Auberon 
Herbert;  and  'Instead  of  a  Book,'  by  Benjamin 
R.  Tucker.  'Anarchism,  Its  History  and  The- 
ory,' by  E.  V.  Zenker,  is  a  work  valuable  for  its 
thoroughness  and  its  judicial  impartiality;   'Die 


Theorie  des  Anarchisimus,'  by  Rudolph  Stam- 
ler,  may  be  consulted  with  profit  for  an  exam- 
ination and  refutation  of  the  theories  and  argu- 
ments of  anarchism.  Among  the  works  clo 
allied  to  anarchistic  thought  should  be  included 
the  sociologic  romance,  'Freeland,1  by  Theodor 
Hertzka,  of  Austria. 

JosEi'ii  Dana  Mii.i.er. 

Anastasia,  Saint,  the  name  of  three  Chris- 
tian martyrs.  {  i )  A  virgin  said  to  have  been 
a  pupil  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  and  slain  under 
Nero  (54-68  A.D.).  She  is  commemorated  15 
April.  (2)  "The  Younger,"  martyred  under 
Diocletian,  303;  wife  of  one  Publius,  a  pagan, 
who  himself  laid  an  information  against  her. 
Two  alleged  letters  of  hers  in  prison  have  been 
preserved.  The  Greeks  commemorate  her  the 
jjd  of  December,  the  Latins  the  25th.  (3)  A 
Greek  maiden  of  Constantinople,  whom  Jus- 
tinian (about  597)  sought  as  a  mistress.  To  es- 
cape him  she  fled  to  Alexandria  and  lived  there 
disguised  as  a  monk  for  28  years.  She  is  com- 
memorated 10  March. 

Anastasius,  the  name  of  four  Popes,  the 
first  and  most  eminent  of  whom  held  that  of- 
fice 398-401.  He  enforced  celibacy  on  the  higher 
clergy  and  was  a  strong  opponent  of  the  Mani- 
ch.xans  and  Origen.  Anastasius  II.  succeeded 
Gelagius  I.  in  496;  d.  498.  Anastasius  III.  filled 
the  papal  chair  911-913.  Anastasius  IV.  was 
Pope  1 1 53-1 154. 

Anastasius  I.,  an  emperor  of  the  East  wtio 
succeeded  Zeno,  a.d.  491,  at  the  age  of  about 
55:  b.  about  438;  d.  518.  He  distinguished  him- 
self by  suppressing  the  combats  between  men 
and  wild  beasts  in  the  arena,  abolishing  the  sale 
of  offices  and  building  the  fortifications  of  Con- 
stantinople. His  support  of  the  heretical  Eu- 
tychians  led  to  a  dangerous  rebellion  and  his 
anathematization  by  the  Pope. 

Anastasius  II.,  an  emperor  of  the  East 
who  was  raised  to  the  throne  in  713.  Attempt- 
ing various  reforms,  he  was  deposed  in  716  and 
became  a  monk  at  Thessalonica. 

Anastasius,  a  romance  by  Thomas  Hope, 
(1819).  The  author  was  known  to  have  writ- 
ten some  learned  books  on  furnishing  and  cos- 
tume; but  'Anastasius'  gave  him  rank  as  an 
accomplished  painter  of  scenery  and  delineator 
of  manners.  Anastasius,  the  hero,  a  young 
Greek  ruined  by  injudicious  indulgence,  is  haled 
before  a  Turkish  magistrate.  Discharged,  he 
fights  on  the  side  of  the  Crescent  and  goes  to 
Constantinople,  where  he  resorts  to  all  sorts 
of  shifts  for  a  livelihood, —  jugglery,  peddling, 
nostrum-making;  becomes  a  Mussulman,  visits 
Egypt,  Arabia,  Sicily,  and  Italy,  and  finally  dies 
young,  a  worn-out  and  worthless  adventurer. 
The  book  has  passages  of  great  power,  often  of 
brilliancy  and  wit;  but  belongs  to  the  fashion 
of  a  more  leisurely  day  and  is  now  seldom  read. 

Anastatic  Printing,  a  process  by  which  a 
facsimile  of  a  page  of  type  or  an  engraving, 
old  or  new,  is  reproduced  in  the  manner  of  a 
lithograph  or  page  of  letterpress.  The  print  or 
page  to  be  transferred  is  dipped  in  diluted  ni- 
tric acid,  and.  while  retaining  a  portion  of  the 
moisture,  laid  face  downward  on  a  polished 
zinc  plate  and  passed  through  a  roller-press. 
The  zinc  is  immediately  corroded  by  the  acid 
contained  in  the  paper,  excepting  on  those  parts 
occupied  by  the  ink  of  the  type  or  engraving. 


ANASTOMOSIS  —  ANATOMY 


The  ink,  while  rejecting  the  acid,  is  loosened  by 
it  and  deposits  a  thin  film  on  the  zinc,  thus 
protecting  it  from  the  action  of  the  acid.  The 
result  is  that  those  parts  are  left  slightly  raised 
in  relief,  and  the  plate  being  then  washed  with 
a  weak  solution  of  gum,  and  otherwise  treated 
like  a  lithograph,  the  raised  parts,  being  greasy, 
readily  receive  ink  from  the  roller  and  give 
off  a  facsimile  impression  of  the  original. 

Anastomosis,  in  anatomy  the  joining  of 
the  branches  of  a  vessel  with  other  vessels  of 
the  same  or  a  different  branch.  Anastomoses 
are  found  in  the  arteries,  veins,  and  lymphatics. 
Anastomoses  of  nerve  and  muscle  fibres  are 
also  spoken  of. 

An'atase,  a  mineral  more  correctly  known 

as    OCTAHEDRITE    (q.V.). 

Anathema,  a  word  used  in  a  form  of  ex- 
communication from  the  Church.  It  is  properly 
a  Greek  word,  and  was  originally  applied  to  an 
object  set  apart  and  devoted  to  a  deity,  such  as  a 
gift  hung  up  in  a  temple  (being  derived  from 
the  Greek  anatithemi,  I  lay  up)  ;  but  it  gradu- 
ally came  to  mean  separation  from  God  and  men, 
something  accursed ;  and  latterly  to  pronounce 
an  anathema,  to  anathematize,  became  much  the 
same  as  to  curse.  Anathema  occurs  repeatedly 
in  New  Testament  Greek,  in  the  English  ver- 
sion being  generally  rendered  "accursed,"  but 
once  the  original  word  is  retained  (i  Cor.  xvi. 
22)  along  with  maranatha,  the  latter  serving  ap- 
parently to  intensify  the  curse,  though  it  is 
properly  a  Syriac  expression  signifying  "the 
Lord  will  come."  The  Greek  and  Roman  Cath- 
olic Churches  both  make  use  of  the  anathema. 
In  the  latter  it  can  be  pronounced  only  by  a 
Pope,  council,  or  some  of  the  superior  clergy. 
The  subject  of  the  anathema  is  thus  declared 
an  outcast  from  the  Church.  When  councils 
declare  any  belief  heretical  the  declaration  is 
couched  in  the  following  form :  Si  quis  dixerit, 
etc..  anathema  sit,  "If  anyone  says  (so  and  so) 
let  him  be  anathema."  The  anathema  was  thus 
pronounced  by  the  Vatican  Council  against  op- 
ponents of  the  doctrine  of  papal  infallibility.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  the  anathema  was  freely  used. 
See  Excommunication. 

Anathoth,  a  town  in  Palestine,  assigned  to 
the  Levites.  the  birthplace  nf  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah and  the  home  of  Abiathar  the  high  priest. 
It  was  about  three  miles  northeast  of  Jerusalem, 
and  the  small  village  of  Anata  occupies  its  site. 

Anat'idae,  a  family  of  swimming-birds,  in- 
cluding ducks,  swans,  geese,  etc     See  Anseres. 

Anato'lia,  the  modern  name  of  Asia 
Minor.     See  Asia  Minor. 

Anatomy,  literally  a  cutting  up;  but  anat- 
omy usually  signifies  the  special  study  of  the 
structure  of  organic  bodies,  morphology    (q.v.) 
and  applies  to  both  animals  and  plants.     Animal 
morphology   is   the    study    of    human    or    other 
animal  forms,  the  study  of  the  relationship  be- 
tween    the     forms     constituting     Comparative 
Anatomy  (q.v.).    The  study  of  the  minute  or  mi- 
croscopical anatomy  is  termed  Histology   (q.v.). 
Developmental  Anatomy  is  the  study  of  the  grad- 
ual growth   of  the  animal,   Embryology    (q.v.). 
In  the  plant  world  there  are  also  the  correlated 
branches    of    Plant    Morphology,    Comparative 
Anatomy,     Histology,     and     Embryology.     The 
study  of  the  microscopical  structure  of  the  sin- 


gle cell  is  termed  Cytology ;  of  collections  of  re- 
lated cells  and  tissues  constituting  organs,  Or- 
ganology; thus  the  study  of  the  bony  system  is 
termed  Osteology,  of  the  structures  of  circula- 
tion Angiology,  of  nerve  structures  Neurology, 
of  the  muscles  Myology,  of  the  viscera  Splanch- 
nology, etc.  Each  in  its  turn  has  its  special 
departments  of  investigation. 

The  study  of  anatomy  may  be  approached 
from  the  purely  descriptive  side,  Descriptive 
Anatomy,  or  may  deal  with  the  anatomy  of  re- 
lated organs  in  related  animals,  as  Systematic 
Anatomy.  Applied  or  Practical  Anatomy,  or 
that  branch  dealing  with  its  study  as  an  aid  in 
the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  disease,  may  be 
designated  as  Medical  or  Surgical  Anatomy. 
Regional  and  Topographical  Anatomy  deals 
with  the  study  of  special  parts  or  the  special  re- 
lations to  surrounding  parts.  The  larger  study 
of  anatomy  in  its  general  philosophical  relations 
to  the  general  questions  of  structure  is  termed 
Philosophical  or  Transcendental  Anatomy. 

History. —  The  beginnings  of  human  know- 
ledge of  the  structure  of  organic  bodies  are 
preserved  from  the  earliest  times  in  fragments 
only,  but  there  are  very  good  reasons  for 
believing  that  much  more  was  known  many 
thousands  of  years  before  the  Christian  era 
than  there  is  written  evidence  to_  substantiate. 
The  history  of  anatomical  study  is  correlative 
with  the  history  of  medicine,  and  even  in  very 
early  times  inquiries  were  made  concerning  the 
structure  of  the  human  and  animal  body. 

It  is  usual  to  ascribe  to  the  Greeks  the  first 
foundations  of  anatomical  knowledge,  but  it 
seems  that  Chinese  culture,  which  was  highly 
developed  when  the  peoples  of  Europe  were  in 
a  very  primeval  condition,  had  a  well  system- 
atized medical  lore  that  included  much  exact 
pharmacological  knowledge,  with  some  few  ana- 
tomical facts,  although  the  anatomy  of  the  early 
Chinese  was  largely  speculative.  Section  of  the 
human  as  well  as  lower  animal  bodies  was  for- 
bidden by  at  least  two  of  the  religious  sects  of 
early  Chinese  culture,  the  Alman  and  Buddha 
worships.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  as  early 
as  2838-2699  B.C.,  Shinnong  was  a  half-mythical 
medicine  man  in  China,  and  it  is  said  that 
Chinese  works  on  medicine  were  written  as 
early  as  2698-2599  B.C.     (Hwang  Ai). 

In  India  the  sacred  work  of  the  Ayur  Veda, 
supposed  to  date  from  between  the  14th  to  the  9th 
centuries  B.C.,  at  least  100  years  before  the  cult 
of  ^Esculapius  had  begun,  contains  descriptions 
of  the  human  body  obtained  from  dissections, 
and  it  may  be  that  Charaka  and  Susrutu,  the 
earliest  of  Indian  physicians,  should  be  consid- 
ered the  earliest  anatomists.  Egypt  contributed 
somewhat  to  the  knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  the 
Papyrus  Ebers,  1553?  B.C.,  is  a  monument  of  old 
Egyptian  medicine.  It  is  of  interest  to  note  that 
some  of  the  Hippocratic  nomenclature  of  anat- 
omv  is  of  Egyptian  origin.  The  influence  of  re- 
ligion,  however,  was  very  strong  in  the  shaping 
of  Egyptian  medicine.  Evisceration  was  largely 
practised  and  undoubtedly  led  to  the  collection 
of  many  anatomical  facts  the  importance  of 
which  has  become  lost  to  students.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  the  school  of  medicine  situated  in 
Greece,  on  the  island  of  Cos,  laid  the  firm  foun- 
dations of  our  knowledge  of  anatomy.  It  was 
in  Greece  also  that  the  physician"s  profession 
was  amply  recognized.     This  early  Hippocratic 


ANATOMY 


age  Rave  rise  to  a  professional  conscience,  and 
the  "Physician's  Oath,8  or  the  "Hippocratic 
Oath,"  "is  a  monument  of  the  highest  rank  in 
the  history  of  civilization."  (Gomperz:  "Greek 
Thinkers.') 

There  were  at  least  seven  physicians  with 
the  name  of  Hippocrates  who  taught  in  the 
early  times.  Hippocrates  II.  (430  B.C.),  how- 
ever, was  the  great  Hippocrates,  but  the  know- 
ledge of  anatomy  then  possessed  must  be  con- 
sidered as  the  accumulation  of  the  school  rather 
than  the  work  of  any  one  man,  for,  as  has  al- 
ready been  pointed  out,  some  of  the  Hippocratic 
nomenclature  is  Egyptian  in  origin,  (v.  Oefclc.) 
Inasmuch  as  the  Hippocratic  writings  are  partly 
preserved,  a  better  idea  of  the  anatomical  know- 
ledge of  the  times  may  be  gathered  from  them 
than  from  the  mythical,  traditional,  and  frag- 
mentary remnants  left  by  other  peoples.  The 
school  of  Cos  had  a  fairly  accurate  and  exten- 
sive knowledge  of  the  human  skeleton,  and  they 
knew  the  general  shapes  and  varieties  of  most 
of  the  internal  organs.  Their  physiological  hy- 
potheses, however,  were  crude  but  suggestive. 

From  the  time  of  the  great  Hippocrates  the 
school  of  Cos  seemed  to  deteriorate,  although 
Polybus,  the  son-in-law  of  Hippocrates  II., 
Syennesis,  Diogenes,  and  Praxagoras,  the  last 
named  being  noted  for  his  anatomical  know- 
ledge, kept  alive  many  of  the  traditions  of  the 
school.  With  Aristotle  (384-323  B.C.)  there 
came  a  period  of  more  exact  science  and  the 
dissection  of  the  lower  animals  was  practised, 
hence  Aristotle  may  be  termed  the  father  of 
Comparative  Anatomy.  His  researches  in  anat- 
omy were  wide  and  deep  and  his  work  on 
animals  contains  much  that  is  still  taught. 

The  Alexandrian  period,  300  B.C.,  during 
which  the  culture  of  Rome  and  of  Greece  was 
encouraged  in  Egypt  under  the  Ptolemies, 
shows  as  a  bright  spot  in  the  history  of  anatom- 
ical science.  With  the  foundation  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Museum,  the  analogue  of  a  modern 
university,  the  practice  of  human  dissection  be- 
came authorized.  This  period  was  a  brilliant 
one  in  the  history  of  medicine.  Herophilus  and 
Erasistratus  were  among  the  early  leaders,  the 
former  making  some  noteworthy  contributions 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  brain. 
He  maintained  that  it  was  the  organ  of  thought 
and  the  origin  of  motion.  He  also  described 
the  lacteals  and  the  lymphatics,  and  was  an 
indefatigable  searcher  for  the  seat  of  the  soul, 
which  he  placed  in  the  floor  of  the  fourth  ven- 
tricle of  the  brain,  the  place  now  known  to  be 
the  site  of  the  cranial  nerves,  that  are  indispen- 
sable for  the  function  of  breathing.  Herophilus 
also  is  credited  with  the  destruction  of  the  old 
doctrine  that  the  arteries  held  air,  hitherto  the 
veins  only  having  been  thought  to  contain  blood. 

Erasistratus  first  described  the  valves  in  the 
veins,  made  the  general  subdivision  of  sensory 
and  motor  nerves,  and  drew  the  generalization 
of  the  relation  of  the  complexity  of  the  brain 
convolutions  and  mental  development.  He  also 
first  suggested  the  thought  of  anastomoses  be- 
tween the  arteries  and  veins.  Many  others  fol- 
lowed, but  the  rise  of  the  Empirical  school 
(q.v.)  was  the  forerunner  of  the  gradual  decay 
of  the  Alexandrian  school.  It  was  to  the  newly 
arisen  empire  of  Rome  that  the  stream  had 
turned,  and  until  the  time  of  Cato  Greek  physi- 
cians flourished  in  Rome.     Asclepiades   (126-56 


B.C.)  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Atomic 
school  at  Rome,  and  Rufus  (97  B.C.)  of  Ephesus, 
with  A.  Cornelius  Celsus  (25  B.C.-40  a.d.)  were 
among  those  who  have  left  definite  anatomical 
landmarks.  Celsus  is  known  as  a  brilliant  man, 
a  compiler  of  the  work  of.  his  predecessors. 
His  anatomical  work  was  insignificant,  but  he 
contributed  largely  to  therapeutics.  The  last 
dying  ember  of  this  Alexandrian  transplanted 
school  showed  in  Claudius  Galen,  a  Greek  from 
Pergamos,  a  town  already  noted  for  its  ,1'srn- 
lapian  temple.  Galen  was  a  man  of  great  bril- 
liancy, an  independent  thinker,  and  it  was  to 
his  literary  efforts  that  much  of  the  history  and 
treatment  of  the  Hippocratic  school  has  been 
preserved  to  us.  His  works  on  anatomy  alone 
were  at  least  fifteen  in  number,  nine  of  which 
are  preserved.  Galen  systematized  much  of  the 
anatomical  knowledge  of  the  time,  anil  although 
much  of  his  data  was  drawn  from  the  study 
of  apes  it  was  to  pass  muster  in  the  service  of 
human  anatomy.  He  was  perhaps  the  first  to 
make  any  experimental  physiological  studies. 
His  descriptions  of  the  relations  of  the  brain 
to  the  spinal  cord  and  his  knowledge  of  the 
cranial  nerves  were  in  advance  of  his  predeces- 
sors. Galen's  work  stands  out  as  the  last  sys- 
tematic work  of  the  Greek  period,  and  following 
his  death  began  the  dark  era  of  the  barbaric 
inroads  of  the  northern  races  and  the  dispersal 
of  the  culture  of  the  East. 

For  a  period  of  many  centuries  history  is 
comparatively  silent  on  the  subject  of  medicine. 
No  great  schools  arose,  yet  the  doctrines  of  the 
ancient  Greeks  were  kept  alive  in  many  places 
by  obscure  scholars  and  by  many  peoples,  al- 
though it  is  known  that  the  Saracens  were 
largely  instrumental  in  keeping  intact  that  which 
Galen  had  handed  down,  without  adding  much, 
however,  to  his  teachings.  A  flourishing  intel- 
lectual development  took  place  in  the  Byzantine 
countries,  and  many  universities  were  founded 
by  the  Arabs,  where  the  Roman-Hellenic  cul- 
ture was  mingled  with  the  Christian-Oriental 
ideas  to  found  a  new  culture.  Among  the  most 
famous  of  the  Oriental  physicians  was  Sergios 
von  Resaina  (536).  He  translated  both  Galen 
and  Hippocrates  into  Syrian.  Orcibasios  was 
also  a  commentator  of  the  Greeks ;  Aviccnna 
(980-1036)  was  the  Galen  of  the  Orientals. 
This  period  of  medical  history  has  been  called 
the  Arabic  period,  and  not  until  the  influence  of 
the  crusades  commenced  to  make  itself  felt 
did  the  period  of  the  Renaissance  begin. 

The  history  of  medicine  (anatomy)  now  be- 
comes more  and  more  multiplex;  new  schools 
begin  to  be  founded.  Salerno,  Naples,  Mont- 
pellier,  Venice,  Bologna,  Prague,  Vienna,  and 
Oxford  successively  built  universities  and  at- 
tracted the  ablest  minds  in  medicine.  Scholars 
traveled  from  university  to  university  to  learn 
from  a  professor  here  and  a  professor  there, 
and  the  fortunes  of  the  universities  rose  and 
fell  like  the  tides  of  the  sea.  In  1224  it  is  said 
that  the  University  of  Bologna  alone  had  10,- 
000  students.  Among  the  early  names  of  this 
period  of  transition  may  be  mentioned  Lisfranc 
(1295);  Mondino  (1275-1327),  who  wrote  the 
first  anatomy  since  the  time  of  Galen,  and 
which  reached  25  editions, —  he  also  suffered 
persecutions  for  his  zeal  in  dissecting;  Linacre, 
(1461-1524)  of  England,  was  one  of  the  earliest 
scholars  to  bring  the  results  of  the  new  awaken- 


ANATOMY-I.     THE  HUMAN  SKELETON. 


ANATOMY 


ing  to  Oxford  and  to  Cambridge;  and  Sylvius, 
or  Jacques  Dubois,  a  Frenchman,  was  another  of 
these  great  early  anatomists  of  the  reconstruc- 
tion period.  Sylvius  first  arranged  all  of  the 
muscles  of  the  human  body  and  gave  them  the 
names  which,  for  the  most  part,  they  now  carry. 

Andreas  Vesalius  (1514-1564),  a  Belgian, 
first  studied  at  Louvain,  and  later  became  a  pu- 
pil of  Sylvius  at  Paris.  At  the  age  of  22  he 
became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Padua,  and  at 
29  issued  a  monumental  work  on  anatomy,  the 
best  that  had  been  given  up  to  that  time.  He 
corrected  many  of  Galen's  errors  and  had  a 
checkered  career.  General  gross  anatomy  under 
Vesalius,  who  was  a  son,  grandson,  and  great- 
grandson  of  a  physician,  began  to  assume  more 
definite  shape.  In  his  student  days  at  Paris 
under  Sylvius,  anatomy  was  taught  upon  the 
animal  cadaver.  Sylvius",  however,  was  an  un- 
compromising Galenist,  and,  although  he  made 
dissections,  he  followed  Galen's  treatises  in 
very  servile  fashion.  He  was  practically  the  last 
of  his  school,  and  his  doctrines  were  swept  away 
by  the  light  thrown  by  this  indefatigable  seeker 
after  truth  as  drawn  from  nature  rather  than 
from  books.  "My  study  of  anatomy,"  said  he, 
"would  never  have  succeeded  had  I,  when  work- 
ing at  medicine  at  Paris,  been  willing  that  the 
viscera  should  be  merely  shown  to  me  and  to 
my  fellow  students  at  one  or  another  public 
dissection  by  wholly  unskilled  barbers,  and  that 
in  the  most  superficial  way.  I  had  to  put  my 
own  hand  to  the  business.8  Human  dissection 
was  rapidly  and  superficially  practised,  but  Ve- 
salius is  known  to  have  haunted  cemeteries  and 
gibbets  to  obtain  human  material.  The  results 
of  his  studies  were  published  in  1543  in  his 
masterpiece,  'De  Humani  Corporis  Fabrica. 
Libri  VII.,'  the  first  of  a  long  series  of  more 
distinct  modern  treatises  on  physiology  as  well 
as  anatomy.  Vesalius  may  truly  be  said  to 
have  been  the  founder  of  modern  biological 
science.  "He  brought  into  anatomy  the  new 
spirit  of  the  time,  the  young  men  of  the  time 
who  listened   to   the   new    voice.* 

Of  the  contemporaries  of  Vesalius  many 
were  almost  as  famous  as  he.  Eustachius  at 
Rome,  and  Fallopius  at  Paris,  Ferrara,  and 
Padua  corrected  many  of  Vesalius's  details,  and 
Eustachius  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  call  attention  to  the  study  of  embryology  as 
an  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  gross  anatomy. 
Both  Eustachius  and  Fallopius  made  note- 
worthy additions  to  the  knowledge  of  the  ear. 
These  were  the  days  of  enthusiasm  in  the  dis- 
covery of  new  facts,  and  so  great  was  the 
striving  for  the  new  culture  that  it  is  said  that 
criminals  were  utilized  for  purposes  of  experi- 
ment and  dissection,  probably  after  smothering. 
A  large  coterie  of  brilliant  men  lived  at  this 
time.  Servetus  (1509-1553),  a  Spaniard,  first 
made  out  many  of  the  true  facts  of  the  pulmo- 
nary circulation.  Cassalpinus  (1517-1603),  a 
highly  cultured  scholar  and  a  great  botanist,  was 
among  the  first  to  speak  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood.  Varolius  (T543_I5"5),  furthered 
the  knowledge  of  the  anatomy  of  the  nervous 
system.  Spigelius  (1578-1625)  made  note- 
worthy studies  of  the  liver.  Realdo  Colombo 
(  1494-1559),  who  succeeded  Vesalius  at  Padua, 
and  was  subsequently  professor  of  anatomy  at 
Pisa,  filled  out  the  outline  of  Servetus.  Some 
authorities   claim  that   he   stole   the   ideas    and 


correctly  described  the  pulmonary  circulation, 
although  he  did  not  appreciate  the  corollaries 
of  his  discovery.  He  imitated  Vesalius  and 
his  work  in  a  bold  reproduction  of  his  friend's 
studies;  and  Fabricius  (1537-1619),  who  suc- 
ceeded Fallopius  at  Padua,  built  a  special  ana- 
tomical amphitheatre  where  he  taught  anatomy 
to  England's  great  anatomist  Harvey. 

The  time  had  now  come  for  a  mind  who 
could  take  this  accumulating  mass  of  anatomi- 
cal facts,  which  after  all  were  extensions  in 
detail  only  of  the  old  Hippocratic  anatomy,  and 
to  discover  new  physiological  principles,  for  it 
was  noteworthy  that  although  newer  and  better 
ideas  of  structure  had  been  given,  yet  many 
of  the  old  notions  of  function  were  still  taught. 

This  was  done  by  William  Harvey  of  Eng- 
land. He  was  born  in  1578,  studied  at  many 
universities,  mainly  at  Cambridge  and  Padua, 
and  in  1615  first  clearly  demonstrated  the  cor- 
rect action  of  the  heart  and  interpreted  the  his- 
tory of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Harvey's 
old  anatomical  preparations  of  this  age  are  still 
in  existence.  From  this  time  onward  newer 
interpretations  were  possible,  and  the  study  of 
anatomy  and  physiology,  now  correctly  linked, 
made  rapid  strides.  These  newer  vantage 
grounds  of  interpretation  were  further  extended 
by  the  discovery  of  the  microscope,  and  by  this 
instrument  the  field  of  microscopical  anatomy, 
or  Histology  (q.v.),  was  opened  up,  leading  to 
far-reaching  and  important  results  to  the  wel- 
fare of  mankind.  The  period  of  detailed  and 
special  advance  may  be  said  to  have  been  fore- 
told in  the  newly  revived  study  of  physics  by 
Borelli  and  his  school,  and  the  newer  chemistry 
of  Van  Helmont  won  from  the  mysticisms  of 
alchemy.  These  united  to  interpret  the  results 
of  anatomical  research,  and  the  general  history 
of  the  subject  of  anatomy  widens  out,  fan-like, 
into  its  several  specialties.  The  subject  of  anat- 
omy now  becomes  lost  in  the  history  of  in- 
terpretations and  applications,  and  the  further 
developments  of  these  are  considered  in  these 
volumes  under  their  special  heads  where  the 
developments  of  the  various  branches  of  anatom- 
ical research  are  considered.  Consult  Anatomy, 
Comparative;  Anthropology;  Biology;  Chemi- 
cal Physiology  ;  Cytology  ;  Embryology  ;  His- 
tology ;  Pathology  ;  Physiology  ;  Surgical 
Anatomy-. 

Bibliography. —  The  most  extensive  of  mod- 
ern works  on  the  history  of  anatomy  is  found 
with  complete  bibliography  in  Neuburger  and 
Pagel's  'Handbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Medi- 
an,' (2  vols.  1903).  See  also  Buck's  'Refer- 
ence Handbook  of  the  Medical  Sciences'  (nth 
ed.  N.  Y.  1902)  ;  Roswell  Park's  cAn  Epitome 
of  the  History  of  Medicine*  (1897).  Of  de- 
scriptive anatomies  there  are  many:  Testut  and 
Poirier  in  French;  Bardelben  and  Spalteholz  in 
German,  the  latter  translated  by  Barker  into 
English  in  1903  ;  Morris,  Quain,  Gray  in  English ; 
Leidy,  Gerrish,  and  Huntington  in  America.  The 
bibliography  of  the  special  subjects  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  their  sections.  See  Medicine.  History 
of.  Smith  Ely  Jeliffe,  M.  D., 

Editor  ^Journal  of  Nervous  Diseases.'' 

Anatomy,  Comparative,  is  that  subdivision 
of  the  science  of  zoology  which  deals  with  adult 
forms  and  structures  of  animals  with  .1  view 
to  determining  their  relationships.  Comparative 
Anatomy    and    Embryology,   the    latter    dealing 


ANATOMY 


With  the  immature  forms  and  structures  of  ani- 
mals, constitute  the  science  of  Morphology,  which 
treats  of  the  structure,  development,  classifica- 
tion, and  relationships  of  animals  as  contrasted 
with  Physiology,  which  deals  with  their  func- 
tions. In  contradistinction  to  special  anatomy, 
which  has  for  its  aim  the  description  of  all  the 
structures  and  parts  of  any  one  animal, —  for 
example,  man, —  the  method  of  comparative  anat- 
omy is  to  compare  corresponding  parts  in 
many  different  species,  noting  their  modifications 
and  transformations  with  the  ultimate  purpose 
of  determining  the  affinities  or  relationships  of 
these  species  to  one  another.  In  the  earlier  his- 
tory of  this  science  the  expressions  "relation- 
ship" or  "affinity"  were  used  in  a  metaphorical 
sense,  signifying  merely  relative  positions  in  a 
system  of  classification.  With  the  growth  of 
the  evolution  idea,  however,  they  have  acquired 
a  new  and  literal  meaning,  since  the  aim  of 
in- "lent  morphology  is  to  determine  the  genetic 
or  hlood  relationships  of  animals  to  one  another 
and  therehy  to  trace  the  evolution  not  only  of 
the  species  but  also  of  the  various  organs  and 
parts.  The  great  value  of  the  comparative 
until,  id  in  science  is  nowdiere  better  illustrated 
than  in  the  study  of  anatomy.  There  are  prob- 
ably not  fewer  than  1,000,000  known  species 
of  animals  belonging  to  at  least  10  or  12 
distinct  types.  These  animals  exhibit  the  va- 
rious organs  of  animal  life  under  a  great  variety 
of  forms,  and  bv  means  of  comparison  it  is 
possible  to  determine  in  each  case  what  is 
universal  and  essential  and  what  is  merely  local 
and  accidental,  and  also  to  indicate  the  steps 
by  which  complexity  of  organization  has  been 
attained.  Furthermore  the  comparative  method 
throws  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  significance  of 
problematical  and  rudimentary  structures  such 
as  the  thyroid,  the  thymus,  and  pineal  glands 
of  man,  the  purpose  of  which  so  puzzled  the 
earlier  anatomists.  In  fact  it  may  fairly  be 
said  that  it  is  impossible  to  properly  comprehend 
any  structure  of  the  human  body  without  con- 
sidering it  in  relation  to  similar  structures  in 
other  animals. 

I.  Principles  of  Comparative  Anatomy. — -It 
is  obvious  that  in  the  study  of  animals  various 
standards  of  comparison  might  be  employed;  for 
example,  they  might  be  compared  as  to  color, 
size,  or  length  of  life,  but  it  is  at  once  apparent 
that  such  comparisons  would  bring  together  ani- 
mals of  the  most  diverse  characteristics  in  other 
respects.  As  contrasted  with  such  a  purely 
artificial  classification  it  was  long  the  aim  of 
naturalists  to  find  a  natural  system  expressing 
the  "affinity"  between  organisms  which  could 
frequently  be  better  felt  than  described.  It  was 
the  great  merit  of  Cuvier,  often  called  the  found- 
er of  comparative  anatomy,  that  he  insisted  upon 
the  importance  of  comparing  the  totality  of  the 
internal  structures  as  well  as  the  external  char- 
acteristics of  animals.  By  means  of  such  compar- 
isons he  reached  the  conclusion  that  there  were 
four  great  independent  branches  or  types  of  ani- 
mal organization,  namely.  J  'ertebrata,  Mollus- 
ca,  Articulate,  Radiata,  each  consisting  of  forms 
fundamentally  like  one  another  but  unlike  those 
of  other  types.  The  principal  criterion  used  by 
Cuvier  for  determining  this  fundamental  like- 
ness or  unlikeness  was  the  relative  positions  of 
corresponding  parts,  particularly  of  the  nervous 
system.     "The   type   is   the   relative   position  of 


parts8  (Von  Baer).  Richard  Owen,  a  pupil 
of  Cuvier,  introduced  the  term  homology  to  de 
scribe  this  fundamental  likeness,  defining  it  as 
"morphological  correspondence  in  the  relative 
po  ition  and  connection  of  parts."  He  Contrasted 
with  this  physiological  correspondence  of  parts, 
which  he  named  analogy.  In  closely  allied  ani- 
mals, organs  which  are  homologous  are  usually 
also  analogous,  but  in  less  closely  related  ones 
this  may  or  may  not  be  the  case.  Organs  having 
the  same  function  may  be  structurally  very  un- 
like, for  example,  the  wing  of  a  bird  and  that  of 
an  insect:  on  the  other  hand,  organs  structurally 
similar  may  have  very  different  functions,  for 
example,  the  fore  leg  of  a  quadruped  and  the 
wing  of  a  bird.  This  conception  of  homology 
lies  at  the  very  foundation  of  all  morphological 
studies;  it  is  the  one  criterion  for  determining 
likeness  or  unlikeness  between  organisms.  Owen 
further  distinguished  between  special  and  general 
homology,  the  former  signifying  fundamental 
likeness  between  corresponding  parts  of  different 
animals,  as  in  the  case  of  the  arm  of  man  and  the 
fore  limb  of  a  quadruped;  while  the  latter  refers 
to  similar  parts  of  the  same  individual,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  of  a  quadruped 
or  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the  body.  Since 
the  term  general  homology  as  used  by  Owen  is 
liable  to  misinterpretation  it  would  be  well  to 
replace  it  by  the  expression  meristic  homology 
(Bateson),  signifying  by  this  term  morphological 
correspondence  between  parts  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual which  may  be  repeated  in  any  relation 
whatever.  Meristic  homology  would  thus  in- 
clude correspondence  between  parts  which  are 
repeated  in  a  series,  for  example,  the  vertebra; 
of  the  spinal  column  (serial  homology,  homody- 
namy),  between  parts  repeated  on  the  right  and 
left  sides  of  the  body,  for  example,  right  and 
left  limbs  (lateral  homology,  homotypy)  and 
between  parts  repeated  in  any  other  relations, 
for  example,  the  fingers  of  one  hand,  upper  and 
lower  teeth,  etc.,  (vertical  homology,  homo- 
nomy ) . 

Significance  of  Homology. — To  Cuvier  and 
his  followers  homology  meant  "conformity  to 
type,"  to  the  "archetypal  plan8  established  by 
the  Creator.  In  the  light  of  evolution,  however, 
homologies  are  believed  to  be  family  or  hered- 
itary likenesses  due  to  inheritance  from  some 
common  ancestor.  For  this  reason  special  ho- 
mology might  better  be  called  homogeny  (Lan- 
kester)  or  homophyly.  Contrasted  with  this  are 
such  morphological  resemblances  as  are  not  due 
to  inheritance,  but  to  similarity  of  environment 
acting  upon  forms  of  dissimilar  descent;  such 
false  homology  is  called  homoplasy  (Lankester), 
homomorphy  (Gcgcnbaur)  or  convergence.  It 
is  the  task  of  comparative  anatomy  to  apply  to 
animal  structures  these  criteria  of  likeness  or 
unlikeness  and  to  distinguish  between  these  va- 
rious kinds  of  homology.  These  various  forms 
of  homology  are  summarized  in  the  following 
table : 


Homology 


(Se- 


Special    Homology 
(Homogeny,    H  o  m  o- 

P'W)  [Homodynamy 

General    Homology       I  T/'a'^ 
< Meristic     Homology)   i    Homotypy  (Lateral) 
Homonomy      (Verti- 
raise    Homology         [      cal,   etc.) 
(Homoplasy,       Homo- 
morphy,   Conver- 
gence) 


ANATOMY— II.  THE  MUSCLES  OF  THE  HUMAN  BODY. 


ANATOMY 


II.  General  Structures  and  Functions  of 
Animals. — Although  the  differences  between  the 
highest  and  the  lowest  animals  are  enormous 
there  are  nevertheless  certain  structures  and 
functions  which  are  practically  the  same  in  all 
animals  whatsoever.  All  animals  and  plants 
without  exception  are  composed  of  cells,  while 
all  the  functions  of  living  things  are  the  result- 
ants of  the  aggregate  functions  of  the  cells  of 
which  they  are  composed.  The  cell  is  thus  the 
universal  unit  of  organic  structure  and  function 
(Cell  Theory  of  Schleiden  and  Schwann),  and 
has  been  defined  as  a  mass  of  protoplasm  enclos- 
ing a  nucleus  (M.  Schultze).  Protoplasm  or 
living  matter  is  a  substance,  usually  semi-solid, 
of  unknown  but  undoubtedly  very  complex 
chemical  composition.  It  is  probably  composed 
of  several  complex  compounds  of  C,  H,  O,  and 
N,  which  do  not  form  a  mere  mixture  but  are 
united  in  a  definite  and  orderly  way.  Both  the 
cell  body  and  the  nucleus  are  composed  of  pro- 
toplasm, though  of  very  different  quality  in  the 
two  cases ;  that  which  forms  the  chief  mass  of 
the  cell,  the  cell  body,  is  called  cytoplasm,  while 
that  constituting  the  nucleus  is  known  as  karyo- 
plasm.  At  least  these  two  kinds  of  protoplasm 
are  found  in  every  cell  and  are  necessary  to  the 
continuance  of  vital  activities.  The  cytoplasm 
and  karyoplasm  are  each  composed  of  two  or 
more  different  substances  of  visibly  different 
structure,  and  all  these  parts  are  put  together  in 
an  orderly  manner  so  that  they  bear  definite 
relations  to  one  another.  The  cell,  therefore,  no 
less  certainly  than  a  complex  animal,  shows  or- 
ganization,, that  is,  differentiation  of  unlike  parts 
and  integration  of  these  parts  into  a  single  and 
complete   whole. 

As  all  organisms  are  composed  of  cells,  so  all 
living  things  have  certain  activities  or  functions 
in  common.  The  most  important  of  these  are 
the  following:  (i)  Metabolism,  or  the  trans- 
formations of  matter  and  energy  within  the 
living  thing;  this  may  be  subdivided  into  anabo- 
lism,  or  the  change  of  the  matter  and  energy  of 
food  into  the  matter  and  energy  of  protoplasm ; 
and  katabolism,  or  the  destructive  changes  in 
protoplasm  by  which  the  living  matter  is  trans- 
formed into  less  complex  substances  (secretions, 
waste  products,  etc.),  while  its  energy  appears 
in  various  forms  (heat,  motion,  etc.).  Metabo- 
lism therefore  includes  nutrition,  growth,  waste 
and  repair,  movement,  secretion,  and  excretion. 
(2)  Irritability,  or  the  capacity  of  receiving, 
transmitting,  and  responding  to  stimuli.  (3)  Re- 
production, or  the  formation  of  new  individuals 
from  the  substance  of  an  old  one.  These  general 
functions  are  characteristic  of  every  living  thing, 
plant  or  animal,  simple  or  complex.  From  them 
all  the  functions  of  the  most  complex  animal  are 
built  up,  and  as  they  are  manifested  in  some  de- 
gree by  every  cell  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cell 
is  the  unit  not  only  of  organic  structure  but  also 
of  organic   function. 

All  animals  begin  their  individual  existence 
as  a  single  cell,  but  while  some  remain  in  this 
condition  throughout  life,  others  by  repeated 
divisions  of  this  initial  cell  become  multicellular; 
the  former  constituting  the  group  Protozoa,  the 
latter  the  Metazoa.  Protozoa  are  animals  in 
which  the  entire  body  consists  of  a  single  cell, 
which  usually  leads  an  independent  existence, 
though  in  some  cases  several  may  be  united  into 
a  colonv.     In  some  forms  the  substance  of  this 


cell  consists  of  protoplasm  showing  very  little 
differentiation ;  in  others  it  is  differentiated  into 
many  unlike  parts,  each  with  its  own  specific 
function.  The  most  general  differentiation,  apart 
from  that  of  nucleus  and  cell  body,  is  into  a 
superficial  dense  layer,  the  ectoplasm,  and  a 
more  fluid,  granular  interior,  the  endoplasm. 
Further  specializations  are  shown  by  the  more 
complex  forms  in  the  formation  from  the  ecto- 
plasm of  contractile  vacuoles,  serving  as  organs 
of  excretion ;  of  thread-like  processes,  serving  as 
organs  of  locomotion  (cilia,  flagella)  ;  of  con- 
tractile fibres  (myophan  striations)  which  act 
like  muscle  fibres;  of  stinging  threads  (tricho- 
cysts)  which  serve  as  organs  of  defense ;  of  a 
mouth  and  gullet  through  which  food  is  taken 
into  the  interior  of  the  cell,  and  of  a  calcareous 
or  silicious  skeleton,  frequently  of  great  com- 
plexity and  beauty.  All  of  these  structures  are 
differentiations  of  a  single  cell;  they  show  how 
complex  such  a  cell  may  become,  and  they  indi- 
cate that  the  Protozoa  are,  in  the  words  of  one 
of  the  old  zoologists,  "perfect  animals." 

In  all  Metazoa  the  body  is  composed  of  many 
cells  differing  among  themselves  in  certain  re- 
spects. These  cells  have  all  arisen  from  a  single 
one,  the  egg,  which  by  repeated  divisions  (cleav- 
ages) gives  rise  to  a  group  of  connected  cells. 
In  typical  cases  these  become  arranged  in  a 
single  layer,  forming  a  hollow  sphere,  the  blastu- 
la,  which  then,  by  the  migration  of  certain  sur- 
face cells  into  the  interior,  becomes  a  two- 
layered  sphere ;  the  gastrula,  containing  a  central 
cavity;  the  archenteron,  or  primitive  digestive 
sack,  which  opens  at  one  place  to  the  exterior 
by  a  pore,  the  blastopore  or  primitive  mouth. 
The  outer  layer  of  the  gastrula  is  called  the 
ectoderm,  the  inner  one  the  endoderm,  while  be- 
tween them  a  third  layer,  the  mesoderm,  usually 
appears,  being  derived  from  one  or  both  of  the 
primary  layers.  These  three  layers  are  known  as 
the  germ  layers  and  from  them  all  the  organs 
of  the  adult  metazoan  are  derived.  The  ecto- 
derm gives  rise  to  the  outer  covering  of  the 
body,  the  nervous  system,  and  sense  organs;  the 
endoderm  to  the  alimentary  canal  and  its  out- 
growths, while  from  the  mesoderm  arise  mus- 
cles, skeleton,  circulatory,  excretory,  and  repro- 
ductive systems. 

In  all  Metazoa  the  ectoderm  and  endoderm 
and  frequently  also  the  mesoderm  consist  of  cells, 
flattened,  cuboid,  or  columnar  in  shape,  pressed 
together  side  by  side  into  a  layer.  This  simplest 
and  earliest  grouping  of  cells  in  the  metazoan 
body  is  called  epithelium.  From  one  or  more  of 
these  epithelial  layers  cells  may  escape  into  the 
space  between  the  ectoderm  and  endoderm  and 
there  become  branched  and  irregular  in  shape, 
forming  a  loose  grouping  of  cells  known  as 
mesenchyme.  Epithelium  and  mesenchyme  are 
the  primary  tissues  of  the  metazoan  body.  They 
are  the  first  formed  in  the  development,  and  from 
them  all  other  tissues  are  derived.  The  cells  of 
one  or  both  of  these  primary  tissues  may  under- 
go further  differentiation  into  contractile  or 
muscle  cells  and  into  irritable  or  nerve  cells, 
while  the  mesenchyme  cells  may  give  rise  to 
non-living  cell  products  such  as  fibres,  spicules, 
cartilage,  bone,  and  fat.  When  cells  of  any 
one  of  these  groups  are  united  they  constitute 
a  tissue,  so  that  in  the  body  of  a  metazoan  we 
recognize,   in  addition   to  epithelial   and  mesen- 


ANATOMY 


chymatous  tissue,  muscular,  nervous,  and  sus- 
ten'.acular  or  connective  tissue.  Further  consid- 
eration of  these  l  iongs  to  Histology 
rather  than  to  Comparative  Anatomy.  In  all 
Metasoa  two  or  more  of  these  tissues  may  be 
united  to  form  organs,  which  are  structures  of 
definite  shape  and  individuality  having  for  their 
purpose  the  carrying  on  of  specific  functions. 
Finally  two  or  more  organs  may  co-operate  in  a 
common  function  and  are  then  known  as  an 
organ  system.  The  principal  systems  of  organs 
in  the  metazoan  body  are  the  following:  (i) 
Integumentary:  (2)  Nervous;  (3)  Motor;  (4) 
Skeletal:  (5)  Alimentary;  (6)  Respiratory;  (7) 
Circulatory;  (8)  Excretory;  (9)  Reproductive. 
III.  Fundamental  Form  of  the  Metazoan 
Body. —  Although  the  forms  of  multicellular  ani- 
mals are  extremely  varied  they  may  all  be  re- 
ferred to  a  single  ground  form,  the  gastrula. 
From  the  egg  stage  to  the  gastrula  all  Metazoa 
travel  essentially  the  same  road  in  their  develop- 
ment; beyond  the  gastrula  stage  they  diverge  in 
many  directions.  The  gastrula  is  therefore  the  lat- 
est developmental  stage  common  to  all  Metacoa 
and  must  he  taken  as  the  ground  form  from  which 
they  all  have  been  derived.  It  is  typically  a 
double-walled  sac  surrounding  the  archenteron 
or  primitive  digestive  cavity,  which  opens  at  one 
pole  to  the  exterior  by  the  blastopore  or  prim- 
itive mouth.  It  is  radially  symmetrical  around 
an  axis  connecting  the  oral  and  aboral  poles ;  this 
i^  the  primary  or  gastrular  axis.  In  a  few  types  — 
for  example,  sponges,  hydroids,  jellyfishes  —  this 
axis  becomes  the  chief  axis  of  the  adult  body; 
such  animals  constitute  the  group  Protaxonia. 
In  others  (all  bilateral  animals)  the  chief  axis 
of  the  adult  lies  almost  at  right  angles  to  the 
gastrular  axis,  and  it  is  derived  in  large  part 
from  one  of  the  secondary  axes  of  the  gastrula ; 
these  forms  are  known  as  Heteraxonia  or  Bilat- 
eralia.  Among  the  Protaxonia  the  adult  form 
is  radially  symmetrical  and  differs  but  little 
from  the  gastrula ;  this  is  especially  true  of  the 


this  is  the  result  not  only  of  the  change  of  axis 
just  mentioned  but  also  of  the  complication  of 
the  gastrular  layers  and  the  formation  From 
them  of  complex  organs  and  parts.  In  the 
change  of  axis  it  usually  happens  that  the  pri- 
mary axis  becomes  so  bent   that   the  oral   and 


Fig.  : 

Fie.  1. —  Types  of  Protaxonia  (=  Ccelenterata)  (from 
Hatschek).  The  chief  axis  of  the  gastrula  coin- 
cides with  that  of  the  adult,  the  apical  pole  of 
the  gastrula  being  indicated  by  the  head  of  the 
arrow. —  A,  ground  form  of  the  Spongiaria.  B, 
ground  form  of  the  Cnidaria.  C,  ground  form  of 
the  Ctenophora. 

hydroids,  some  of  which  are  practically  gastrulas 
throughout  life  which  are  attached  by  the  aboral 
pole  and  with  a  row  of  tentacles  around  the 
mouth.  Among  the  Heteraxonia,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  adult  shows  but  little  if  any  resem- 
blance to  the  gastrula  from  which  it  is  derived; 


Fig.  2 

Fig.  2. —  Types  of  Heteraxonia  (=  Bilaterata).  The 
gastrula  axis  becomes  only  in  part  the  chief  axis 
of  the  adult;  the  apical  pole  of  the  gastrula  is 
shifted  forward  to  the  anterior  end  of  the  adult, 
while  the  oral  pole  of  the  former  lies  on  the 
ventral  side  of  the  latter  or  near  its  anterior  end, 
so  that  a  more  or  less  extensive  bendinR  of  the 
gastrular  axis  occurs;  in  all  cases  the  brain  and 
eye  arise  at  or  near  the  original  apical  pole. —  A, 
gastrula.  B,  C,  larva  and  adult  of  flatworm.  I>. 
larva  of  annelid  (trochophorc).  E,  larva  of  gas- 
tropod   (veliger). 

aboral  poles  approach  each  other  while  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  secondary  axes  elongates, 
becoming  the  principal  axis  of  the  adult,  and  the 
body  becomes  bilaterally  symmetrical  with  ref- 
erence to  a  plane  passed  through  this  axis  and 
the  original  primary  axis.  The  apical  pole  of 
the  gastrula  becomes  the  anterior  pole  of  the 
adult ;  since  brain  and  sense  organs  usually 
develop  at  this  pole  it  might  also  be  called  the 
sense  pole.  The  position  of  the  oral  pole  of  the 
gastrula  with  reference  to  the  adult  axis  shows 
considerable  variation  in  different  groups,  but 
among  invertebrates  it  generally  lies  on  the  ven- 
tral side,  while  in  the  case  of  the  vertebrates  it 
is  dorsal.  The  chief  axis  of  the  adult  connects 
the  anterior  and  posterior  poles  and  is  therefore 
known  as  the  antero-posterior  axis.  The  side  of 
the  body  generally  directed  downward,  and  at  the 
anterior  end  of  which  the  mouth  usually  lies,  is 
ventral,  while  the  opposite  side  is  dorsal  and  the 
line  connecting  these  two  is  the  dorso-ventral 
axis. 

There  are  a  few  apparent  exceptions  to  the 
rule  that  Heteraxonia  are  bilateral  forms;  some 
Heteraxonia  are  apparently  radially  symmetrical 
(starfish,  sea-urchin),  while  others  are  asym- 
metrical (snails,  amphioxus,  flounders,  etc.). 
The  starfishes  and  sea-urchins  are  five-rayed  ani- 
mals which  were  classed  by  Cuvier  among  the 
Radiata,  but  a  careful  study  of  the  larval  as  well 
as  the  adult  form  show-s  that  they  are  really 
bilateral  and  that  their  radial  structure  has 
developed  from  a  bilateral  form,  probably 
through  the  influence  of  peculiar  life  conditions, 
such  as  persistent  attachment  or  fixation  to 
foreign  objects.  Snails  are  generally  spirally 
coiled  and  asymmetrical,  but  here  also  the  study 
of  their  development  shows  that  at  an  early  stage 
they  are  bilateral,  and  even  in  the  adult  condi- 


ANATOMY 


lion  the  head  and  ventral  parts  of  the  body  are 
usually  bilateral ;  the  asymmetry  of  the  dorsal 
part  being  due,  perhaps,  to  its  elongation  and  the 
shell  formation  covering  it.  In  the  case  of  other 
asymmetrical  forms,  like  amphioxus,  flounders, 
etc.,  it  is  certain  that  we  are  dealing  with  modi- 
fications of  bilaterality  due  to  peculiar  conditions 
of  life. 

Another  modification  of  the  original  meta- 
zoan  ground  form,  the  gastrula,  which  almost 
all  Metazoa  show,  is  due  to  the  formation  and 
development  of  a  middle  layer  in  a  space,  the 
blastoccele  or  primary  body  cavity,  between  the 
ectoderm  and  the  endoderm,  namely,  the  meso- 
derm. In  the  lowest  Metazoa  this  consists  of 
branched  cells  (mesenchyme)  which  are  loosely 
packed  together  and  contain  no  considerable 
spaces,  or  if  present  these  spaces  are  only  parts  of 
the  primary  body  cavity.  Among  the  higher  Met- 
azoa the  middle  layer  is  usually  divided  into  an 
inner  portion  lying  next  to  the  endoderm  and  an 
outer  one  next  to  the  ectoderm.  Between  these 
two  layers  of  mesoderm  there  remains  a  space 
which  is  the  secondary  body  cavity  or  ccelom. 
This  is  lined  by  flattened  mesoderm  cells,  the 
peritoneum,  and  is  usually  divided  into  right  and 
left  halves  by  two  longitudinal  partitions,  the 
dorsal  and  ventral  mesenteries,  one  of  which  lies 
dorsal  to  the  alimentary  canal  and  the  other 
ventral  to  it ;  in  some  animals  one  or  both  of 
these  may  be  destroyed.  In  segmented  animals- 
the  coelom  may  be  further  divided  into  a  series 
of  chambers  by  transverse  partitions,  the  dissepi- 
ments. The  excretory  and  sexual  organs  are 
developed  in  large  part  from  the  walls  of  the 
ccelom  and  project  into  its  cavity.  The  portion 
of  the  ccelom  surrounding  the  heart  is  usually 
separated  from  the  remainder  of  this  cavity  and 
is  called  the  pericardium ;  while  in  the  highest 
vertebrates  (mammals)  the  anterior  portion  of 
the  ccelom  which  contains  the  lungs  is  separated 
by  the  diaphragm  from  the  posterior  part  con- 
taining the  abdominal  viscera. 

A  further  complication  of  the  metazoan  body 
is  introduced  by  the  repetition  of  the  principal 
organs  of  the  body  in  a  series,  one  behind  the 
other ;  such  repetition  is  known  as  metameric 
segmentation,  and  each  segment  of  the  body  is 
called  a  metamere  or  somite.  Many  of  the  high- 
er Metazoa  (annelids,  arthropods,  vertebrates) 
show  this  form  of  segmentation.  In  the  simplest 
cases  each  of  these  somites  has  its  own  section 
of  the  ccelom  and  its  own  sensory,  nervous, 
muscular,  alimentary,  respiratory,  excretory,  and 
sexual  organs,  and  each  may  bear  a  pair  of  limbs 
or  locomotor  organs.  Each  somite,  in  short,  con- 
tains all  of  the  important  organs  and  may  prop- 
erly be  called  a  little  body  (somite).  In  more 
highly  organized  segmented  animals  the  various 
segments  are  no  longer  alike  (homonomous), 
but  show  physiological  divisions  of  labor,  some 
being  differentiated  for  one  function  and  some 
for  another  (heteronomous).  In  this  way  some 
of  the  organs  named  above  disappear  in  certain 
segments  while  others  become  greatly  enlarged 
or  modified.  Finally  this  specialization  of  the 
somites  is  carried  one  step  farther  in  higher 
arthropods  and  in  vertebrates  in  which  we  have 
an  intimate  fusion  of  metameres  and  coalescence 
of  organs  in  certain  regions  such  as  to  complete- 
ly mask  the  fundamental  segmentation.  This  is 
especially  true  ot  the  vertebrates,  the  lower 
forms  of  which  group  show  segmentation  of  the 


axial  skeleton  (vertebra  and  ribs)  and  attached 
muscles,  of  the  nerves,  of  the  gills  and  their 
hlood  vessels,  and  of  the  excretory  and  sexual 
organs;  while  in  the  higher  vertebrates  (reptiles, 
birds,  and  mammals)  segmentation  is  limited  in 
the  adult  to  the  axial  skeleton,  muscles,  and 
nerves.  The  fusion  of  somites  is  most  pro- 
nounced at  the  anterior  end  of  the  body ;  the 
head  of  insects  contains  three  or  four  somites, 
while  the  vertebrate  head  is  composed  of  not 
fewer  than  nine.  Among  arthropods  the  section 
of  the  body  immediately  behind  the  head  and 
known  as  the  thorax  is  composed  of  a  number 
of  fused  somites,  while  in  the  posterior  section  of 
the  body,  the  abdomen,  the  somites  do  not 
usually  coalesce.  Primitively  the  limbs  are  all 
alike  and  a  pair  is  borne  on  each  somite:  how- 
ever in  higher  annelids  and  arthropods  they 
disappear  entirely  from  certain  somites  and  in 
others  undergo  great  modifications  of  structure 
to  fit  them  for  particular  functions.  In  the  case 
of  vertebrates  they  are  limited  to  but  two  pairs, 
and  it  is  probable  that  these  are  derived  from  a 
continuous  lateral  fin  by  the  suppression  of  in- 
tervening portions.  The  great  modifications  and 
complications  which  have  here  been  briefly 
sketched  lead  far  from  the  simple  form  of  the 
gastrula,  and  yet  comparative  anatomy  and  em- 
bryology show  that  the  gastrula  is  the  ground 
form  of  all  Metazoa  and  they  indicate  in  many 
cases  the  steps  by  which  these  most  complex 
parts  have  arisen. 

IV.  Classification. — Although  there  is  much 
diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the   number  of  types 


Fig.  3 

Fig.  3. —  Development  of  Amphioxus  (from  Claus  after 
Hatschek),  showing  the  derivation  of  the  chordate 
from  the  gastrula. —  A,  blastula.  B,  C,  D.  ^as 
trulai.  B,  embryo.  F,  larva. —  N,  nerve-tube; 
Oe,  its  opening  to  the  exterior;  Us,  mesoblastic 
somites;  mf,  mesoblastic  fold;  Ch,  notochord; 
o,  mouth;  k,  first  gill-cleft;  d,  gut;  Bl,  ventral 
blood-vessel. 


ANATOMY 


or  phyla  in  the  animal  kingdom  it  is  certain 
that  there  are  more  than  the  four  recognized 
by  Cuvier,  the  number  being  probably  not  less 
than    ten    or    twelve.     The    present     tendency 


Fie.  4 

Fig.  4. —  Diagrams  of  body  layers  and  cavities  in  A, 
ccelenterates;  B.  flatworms;  C,  annelids;  D,  verte- 
brates.—  g.  gastric  cavity;  g,  cavity  of  gonad;  a, 
primary  body  cavity  (blastoccele)  filled  with 
branched  cells  (mesenchyme);  c,  secondary  body 
cavity  (coelom)  ;  d,  dorsal  mesentery;  m,  mesen- 
chyme filling  space  of  original  primary  body  cav- 
ity;   w,   nerve-tube. 

among  zoologists  is  to  increase  this  number 
rather  than  to  reduce  it ;  but  the  absolute  scpa- 
rateness  and  independence  of  these  types  is  not 
now  generally  maintained.  Many  of  them  have 
important  characters  in  common,  and  while  suf- 
ficiently distinct  to  mark  the  primary  subdivi- 
sions of  the  animal  kingdom  are  yet  evidently 
related  to  one  another.  The  primary  divisions 
or  phyla  which  are  now  most  generally  recog- 


Fig.  5 

Fig.  5. —  Diagrammatic  sections  of  an  ideal  vertebrate 
(after  Parker  and  Haswell). —  A,  sagittal  section 
showing  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  on  the  dorsal 
side  of  the  notochord,  and  the  alimentary  canal 
and  viscera  on  the  ventral  side  of  it.  B,  trans- 
verse section  of  the  head,  showing  a  gill-arch 
and  filaments  on  the  left  and  a  gill-cleft  on  the 
right.  C.  transverse  section  of  the  trunk,  showing 
the  gut,  the  genital  glands,  and  the  excretory  or- 
gans in  the  body  cavity.  D,  transverse  section  of 
the  tail. 

nized  are  the  following:  (1)  Protozoa,  (2) 
Spoagiaria,  (3)  Cnidaria,  (4)  Ctenophora,  (5) 
Platyhelminthes,     (6)     Nemathelminthes,     (7) 


Rotifcra,  (8)  Chtclognaiha,  (9)  Annelida,  (10) 
Arthropoda,  (11)  Molluscoida,  (12)  Mollusco, 
(13)  Echinodermata,  (14)  Clwrdata.  Some 
forms  cannot  with  certainty  be  assigned  to 
any  of  these  groups,  and  new  phyla  may  need  to 
be  established  for  them;  on  the  other  hand  fu- 
ture work  may  show  that  two  or  more  of  the 
groups  named  may  be  combined  under  a  single 
phylum.  The  value  of  these  phyla  so  far  as 
the  number  and  variety  of  animals  included  in 
them  is  concerned  is  very  unequal,  some  of 
them  including  but  a  single  order  and  but  a  few 
genera,  while  others  include  many  classes,  or- 
ders, and  genera ;  in  fact,  about  one  half  as  many 
species  are  known  in  a  single  order  of  the  class 
Insecta  as  in  all  the  remainder  of  the  animal 
kingdom  put  together.  A  tabular  classification 
of  each  of  these  phyla  and  of  the  classes  into 
which  it  is  subdivided  is  given  on  the  three  fol- 
lowing pages: 

V.  Organ  Systems. — When  two  or  more  or- 
gans are  associated  in  carrying  on  a  common 
function  they  constitute  an  organ  system.  Those 
systems  most  widely  represented  among  ani- 
mals, and  therefore  the  must  important,  arc 
those  concerned  with  the  general  functions  of 
all  animals,  namely,  metabolism,  reproduction, 
and  irritability.  The  first  of  these  consists  of 
several  distinct  though  related  functions,  each 
with  its  own  system  of  organs;  accordingly  we 
recognize  the  following  systems:  (1)  digestive, 
(2)  respiratory,  (3)  circulatory,  (4)  excretory, 
(5)  motor,  (6)  reproductive,  (7)  nervous,  (8) 
sensory ;  to  these  may  be  added  those  less  im- 
portant systems  which  serve  for  protection  and 
support,  namely,  (9)  integumentary,  (10)  skele- 
tal. These  organ  systems  will  now  be  com- 
pared in  broad  outlines,  with  a  view  to  show- 
ing their  relationships  in  the  leading  phyla  of 
the  Mctazoa.  For  the  sake  of  convenience  the 
integumentary,  skeletal,  and  motor  systems 
will  here  be  considered  before  any  of  the 
others. 

1.  Integumentary  System. —  In  all  animals 
the  outer  covering  of  the  body  consists  of  a  lay- 
er of  epithelial  cells,  the  ectoderm.  Beneath  this 
layer  a  basement  membrane  is  present,  which  in 
some  animals  is  thick  and  serves  for  protection 
and  support  {Cnidaria,  I'latoda).  This  epi- 
thelium is  frequently  ciliated  and  it  always  con- 
tains gland  and  sensory  cells  and  in  addition 
may  contain  nerve  and  muscle  cells  as  well  as 
stinging  cells  (Cnidaria) .  In  some  animals  the 
epithelium,  which  in  these  cases  is  called  hypo- 
dermic, secretes  on  its  outer  surface  a  cuticular 
covering  which  may  be  a  thin  and  flexible  mem- 
brane or  cuticle  (hydroids,  trematodes,  cestodes, 
annelids,  rotifers),  or  it  may  be  thick  and  flexible 
(nemathclminths)  or  dense  and  inflexible  ex- 
cept at  the  joints  (arthropods).  In  other  cases 
the  epithelium  secretes  skeletal  structures  in 
certain  regions  only,  thus  giving  rise  to  calcare- 
ous shells  (corals,  mollusks,  brachiopods).  In 
arthropods  this  epidermal  secretion  is  particu- 
larly dense  and  tough  and  is  known  as  chitin ;  it 
may  become  calcified  in  certain  portions.  In 
mollusks  the  superficial  epithelium  remains 
naked  except  in  a  certain  region,  the  embryonic 
shell-gland,  where  it  first  secretes  a  cuticnlar 
covering  and  then  forms  beneath  this  a  dense 
calcareous  layer,  the  shell ;  at  the  margins  of 
the  shell-gland  (mantle  edges)  the  secretion  of 
these  layers  continues  throughout  life.     ' 


ANATOMY 

CHIEF  SUBDIVISIONS  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

A.  PROTOZOA:  One-celled  animals  without  gastric  cavity,  germ  layers,  or  tissues. 

Class  i.  Rhicopoda:  With    streaming   protoplasmic    processes 

(pseudopodia).     Example,  Amceba. 
Class  2.  Flagellata:   With   one   or   two   vibratile   protoplasmic 

processes    (flagellar).     Example,   Monad. 
Class  3.  Ciliata:  With    many    vibratile    protoplasmic    threads 

(cilia)    Example,  Infusoria. 
Class  4.  Sporozoa:   Parasites  without  mouth  or  organs  of  lo- 
comotion.    Example,  Gregarina. 

B.  METAZOA:  Many-celled  animals  with  gastric  cavity,  germ  layers,  and  tissues. 

A.  PROTAXONIA    (=Ca-lentcrata)  :    Mctacoa    with     gastrula-like    body,    persistent 

gastrular  axis,  and  radial  symmetry. 
I.  SPONGIARIA:  Fixed   aquatic   animals    with   numerous   pores    in   body   wall 

through   which   water  is   drawn   into   the   gastric 
cavity  and  thence  expelled  through  a  large  open- 
ing,    the     osculum.     Complicated     colonies     are 
formed  by  incomplete  budding. 
Order   (1).  Calcarea :  With  skeleton  formed  of  calcare- 
ous spicules.     Example,  calcareous  sponge. 
Order  (2).  Non-calcareous:  With   silicious,   fibrous,  or 
gelatinous       skeleton.         Example,       commercial 
sponge. 
II.  CNIDARIA :  Aquatic    animals    either    attached     (polyps)    or    free-swimming 
I  Medusa)   with  stinging  cells   (cnidae).     By  incomplete 
budding  the  polyps  may  give  rise  to  plant-like  colonies 
(hydroids),    or    by     complete    budding    to    jellyfishes 
(  Medusa). 
Class  1.  Hydrozoa:  Gastric  cavity  without  septa  and  without 
ectodermal  oesophagus. 
Order   (1).  Hydromedusa? :  Usually  with  alternation  of 
hydroid    (asexual)   and  medusoid   (sexual) 
generations.     Examples,      hydroids,      small 
jellyfishes. 
Order   (2).  Siphonophora :  Floating    colonies    of    many 
polymorphic  zooids.     Example,  Portuguese 
man-of-war. 
Class  2.  Scyphozoa:  With   radial   septa   in  gastric  cavity  and 
with  ectodermal  oesophagus. 
Order   (1).  Scyphomedusa? :  The   solitary  polyp  divides 
into    a    series    of   jellyfishes    with    notched 
margins.     Example,  large  jellyfishes. 
Order  (2).  Anthozoa:  The    polyps    divide   but    do    not 
form  jellyfishes.     Examples,  sea-anemones,  corals. 

III.  CTENOPHORA  :  Two-rayed  radiates  with  sense  organ  at  apical  pole  of  gas- 

trula,  with  mouth  and  ectodermal  oesophagus  at  opposite  pole  and  with 
eight  meridional  rows  of  vibratile  plates  which  serve  as  locomotor  organs ; 
without  stinging  cells.     Example,  the  Venus  girdle. 

B.  HETERAXONIA    (=  Bilatcrata)  :   Animals   in  which  the  chief  axis  of  the  adult 

body  is  not  that  of  the  gastrula;  symmetry  bilateral. 

IV.  PLATYHELMINTHES :  Flatworms    with   mouth   usually  on  ventral   surface 

and    with   apical    (sensory)    pole   of  gastrula   near   anterior   end  of 
body ;  primary  body  cavity  filled   with  mesenchyme,  no  true  coelom. 
i.  Platoda  :  Gastric  cavity,  when  present,  with  but  one  opening  to  the  ex- 
terior, the  mouth. 
Class  1.  Turbellaria:  Free    living    forms;    body    covered    by 

cilia.     Example,  planarians. 
Class  2.  Trematoda:   Parasites  without  coat  of  cilia  but  with 
external   cuticle:   with  suckers  for  attachment  to 
host.     Example,  flukes. 
Class  3.  Cestoda:  Parasites  without  mouth  or  alimentary  ca- 
nal ;    with    external    cuticle,    but    without    cilia : 
usually  incompletely  divided  into  segments   (pro- 
glottides).    Example,  tapeworms, 
ii.  Nemertinea  :  Free  living  worms  with  external  covering  of  cilia:   with 
mouth,   alimentary  canal,   and   anus:    with   protrusible   proboscis  at 
anterior  end  of  body.     Example,  Cerebratulus. 

V.  NEMATHFLMINTHF.S:    Round   worms,   mostly  parasitic,   with   long,   unseg- 

mented  bodies  covered  by  a  dense  cuticle:  with  primary  body  cavity: 
without  cilia, 
i.  Nematoda:  Thread    worms    without    mesenteries    or    peritoneum:    with 
nerve  ring  around  oesophagus  and  dorsal  and  ventral  nerve  trunks 
Examples,  pinworms,  vinegar-eels. 


ANATOMY 

ii.  GoRDIACEA:   Hair   worm-   parasitic   during  part   of   life-;   with  mesenteries 
and  peritoni  inn  ;  with  nerve  ling  and  ventral  nerve  trunk.     Example, 
horsehair  worms. 
iii.   A<  w  i  iim  i  rii  \i  \:    Internal     parasites    without    alimentary    canal;     with 
proboscis    and    hooks    for   attachment    to    host.     Example,    Echino- 
rhynchus. 
VI.   ROTIFERA:   Wheel  animalcules  with  body  divisible  into  head  (trochal  disk), 
trunk,  and  tail    (foot)  ;   with   wheel  or  crown  of  cilia  around  head;   with 
primary   body   cavity,   and    with   grinding   stomach    (mastax).     Example, 
wheel  animalcules. 

VII.  CH.ETOGNATHA:  Small  marine  worms  with  three  body  segments,  namely, 

head,  trunk,  and  tail;  with  horizontal  fins  around  tail  and  on  sides  of 
trunk;  with  bristles  (chaetae)  on  sides  of  mouth;  with  true  coelom  (sec- 
ondary  body  cavity).     Example,  arrow-worms. 

VIII.  ANNELIDA:  Ringed    worms    with    segmented   bodies   and   true   ccelom ;    the 

segments  (somites)  are  typically  similar  (ho- 
munomous)  and  each  encloses  a  section  of  the 
cu'lom  and  of  the  vascular,  excretory,  and  ner- 
vous systems. 

Class  i.  Cntetopoda:  Worms  with  bristle-like  appendages 
(chaetae),  wdiich  usually  serve  as  organs  of  loco- 
motion, on  every  somite.     Example,  earthworm. 

Class  2.  Gephyrea:  Marine  worms  with  few  traces  of  seg- 
mentation; with  crown  of  tentacle  around  month 
and  with  U-shaped  alimentary  canal,  the  anus 
opening  near  the  mouth. 

Class  3.  Hirudinea:  Worms  with    flattened   bodies  and   rudi- 
mentary ccelom,  without  chaetae,  but  with  anterior 
and  posterior  suckers.     Example,  leeches. 
IX.  ARTHROPODA:  Animals   with   jointed   bodies   and   legs;   without   cilia,  but 
with  the  entire  surface  of  the  body  covered  by  a  coat  of  dense  sub- 
stance, chitin. 
i.  Branchiata  :  Aquatic  animals  with  gills. 

Class  I,  Crustacea:  With  two  pairs  of  antenna;   (feelers)  and 
usually  with  gills  borne  on  the  legs.     Examples, 
lobster,  crab. 
ii.  Tracheata:  Land   animals    with    internal    respiratory   cavities  (trachea:, 
lung  books). 

Class  1.  Onychophora:  Worm-like  animals  with  numerous 
short  legs.     Example.  Peripatus. 

Class  2.  Myriopoda:  Animals  with  head  and  many-jointed 
body,  every  segment  bearing  one  or  two  pairs  of 
legs.     Example,   centipedes. 

Class  3.  Insccta:  Animals  with  body  divisible  into  head,  tho- 
rax, and  abdomen;  with  four  pairs  of  appendages 
on  head,  three  pairs  of  walking  legs  on  thorax, 
but  without  appendages  on  abdomen. 

Class  4.  Arachnida:  Body  divisible  into  cephalo-thorax  and  ab- 
domen ;   with  six  pairs  of  appendages  on  former, 
but  none  on  latter.     Examples,  scorpions,  spiders. 
X.  MOLLUSCOIDA:  Unsegmented  animals,  usually  stalked  and  attached,  living 

singly  or  in  colonies;  with  a  crown  of  ciliated 
tentacles  around  the  mouth;  generally  with  U- 
shaped  alimentary  canal  and  with  anus  opening 
near  mouth 

Class  1.  Phoronida:  Single,  stalked  animals  with  body  cavity 
partially  divided  into  three  portions.  Example, 
Phoronis. 

Class  2.  Brachiopoda:  Single  animals  with  calcareous  shell 
consisting  of  dorsal  and  ventral  valves.  Ex- 
ample, brachiopods. 

Class  3.  Polycoa:  Stalked  animals  which  usually  give  rise  to 
colonies  by  incomplete  budding. 
XL  MOLLUSCA :  LTnsegmentcd   animals    with   reduced   ccelom:    differing   greatly 

in  form,  but  usually  having  a  head,  with  tentacles 
and  eyes;  with  a  rasping  organ  (the  lingual  rib- 
bon or  radula)  in  the  mouth;  with  dorsal  vis- 
ceral sac  containing  most  of  the  viscera;  with  a 
free  fold  of  the  body  wall,  the  mantle,  which 
usually  secretes  a  shell,  and  with  a  ventral  mus- 
cular  foot. 

Class  1.  Pclccypoda:  Bivalve  mollusks  without  head  or  lin- 
gual ribbon;  with  filiform  or  plate-like  gills.  Ex- 
amples,  clams,   oysters. 


ANATOMY 

Class  2.  Amphineura:  Bilat'eral  animals  with  paired  nerve 
trunks.     Example,  chitons. 

Class  3.  Gasteropoda:  Unsymmetrical  mollusks,  with  uni- 
valve shell,  usually  spirally  coiled.  Example, 
snails. 

Class  4.  Scaphopoda:  Small  mollusks  with  tubular,  uncoiled 
shells.     Example,  Dcntalium. 

Class  5.  Cephalopoda:  Active,  predaceous  mollusks  with   un- 
paired  mantle   and    shell   and    with   eight   or   ten 
arms  which  bear  suckers.     Example,  squid  octo- 
pus. 
XII.  ECHINODERMATA:  Five-rayed   marine   animals,   with    dermal    skeleton   of 

spines  or  plate ;  with  ambulacral  system  of  tubes 
which  are  filled  with  sea-water. 

Class  I.  Holothuroidea:  Soft,  worm-like  animals  with  re- 
duced skeleton ;  the  mouth  surrounded  by  retract- 
ile tentacles.     Example,  sea-cucumbers. 

Class  2.  Echinoidca:  Spherical  or  oval  forms  with  complete 
armor  of  dermal  plates.     Example,  sea-urchins. 

Class  3.  Asteroidca:  With  five  arms  radiating  from  a  central 
disk ;  with  open  ambulacral  grooves  on  the  oral 
side  of  arms.     Example,  starfishes. 

Class  4.  Ophiuroidea:  With  arms  and  central  disk,  but  with 
closed  ambulacral  grooves.  Example,  brittle 
stars. 

Class  5.  Crinoidea:  The      cup-shaped     body     bearing     many 

branching   arms   is   usually   attached   by   a    stem. 

Example,  stone-lilies. 

XIII.  CHORDATA :  Bilateral,  segmented  animals  with  an  axial  skeleton,  the  noto- 

chord,  on  the  dorsal  side  of   which  is  the  tubular  nervous   system 

and  on  the  ventral  side  the  alimentary  canal ;  with  gill  slits  opening 

laterally  through  the  walls  of  the  pharynx. 

i.  Hemichorda  :  Worm-like  animals  which  burrow  in  the  sand.     Example, 

Balanoglossus. 
ii.  Urochorda:  Sac-like    animals    enclosed    in    thick    tunic    (Tutiicata)    in 

which   are    inhalent   and   exhalent   openings.      Example,    sea- 
squirts, 
iii.  Cephalochorda  :  Fish-like  animals,  pointed  at  both  ends,  which  burrow 

in   the   sand;    without   skull    or   brain    (Acrania).      Example, 

Amphioxus. 
iv.  Vertebrata  :  Chordates   with   skull  and  brain :   with    relatively   few   gill 

slits;  the  notochord  serves  as  a  foundation  for  the  vertebral 

column;  usually  with  two  pairs  of  locomotor  appendages, 
(a).  Anamnia:  Aquatic   vertebrates   with    functional   gills;    without 
embryonic    membranes. 

Class  1.  Cyclostomata:  Eel-like  fishes  without  jaws,  but  with 
circular  sucking  mouths;  with  single  olfactory 
organ ;  without  paired  fins.     Example,  lamprey. 

Class  2.  Pisces:  Cartilaginous  and  bony  fishes  with  movable 
jaws,  persistent  gill  clefts,  paired  and  median 
fins,  and  dermal  exoskeleton  of  scales.  Examples, 
sharks,  fishes. 

Class  3.  Amphibia:  Vertebrates  with  pentadactyl  limbs  with 
gills  and  gill  clefts  in  larval  life  which  may  be 
lost  in  the  adult.  Examples,  frogs,  newts, 
(b).  Amniota:  Air-breathing  vertebrates  in  which  the  gills  are 
never  functional ;  the  embryo  is  always  sur- 
rounded by  embryonic  membranes  (amnion  and 
allantois). 

Class  4.  Reptilia:  Body  covered  by  horny  scales  or  plates; 
heart  usually  three-chambered;  one  occipital  con- 
dyle.    Examples,  snakes,  alligators. 

Class  5.  Aves:  Birds  with  body  covered  with  feathers  and 
usually  fitted  for  flight ;  with  four-chambered 
heart  and  single  occipital  condyle.  Examples, 
sparrow,  pigeon. 

Class  6.  Mammalia:  Animals  with  the  body  covered  with 
hair ;  with  mammary  glands  for  suckling  the 
young :  with  four-chambered  heart  and  with  two 
occipital  condyles.    Examples,  dog,  horse,  man. 


ANATOMY 


In  reptiles,  birds,  and  mammals  the  superficial 
epithelium    (epidermis)    becomes    many    layers 

thick,  and  the  outer  layers  of  cells  <lie  and  are 
transformed  into  horny  or  cuticular  substance; 
an  adaptation  to  life  out  of  water.  In  these 
three  classes  of  vertebrates  there  are  also  a  num- 
1  cr  of  characteristic  epidermal  outgrowths :  in 
reptiles  these  take  the  form  of  horny  scales  or 
plates;  in  birds  they  appear  as  feathers,  which 
are  only  modified  scales;  and  in  mammals  as 
hair,  while  nails  or  claws  are  formed  from  the 
epidermis  in  all  of  these  classes.  In  the  mam- 
mals there  are  also  epidermal  ingrowths  which 
give  rise  to  various  types  of  glands,  such  as 
sweat,  oil,  wax.  and  milk  glands,  all  of  which 
are  epidermal  in  origin. 

Beneath  the  surface  epithelium,  which  is  al- 
ways ecto  iermal  in  origin,  there  is  in  many  ani- 
mals a  fibrous  or  connective  tissue  layer  known 
as  the  dermis  or  corium.  This  layer  is  es- 
pecially well  developed  among  echinoderms  and 
vertebrates,  in  both  of  which  it  may  give  rise 
to  skeletal  spicules  or  plates,  thus  forming  a 
dermal  cxoskeleton.  Among  the  vertebrates 
this  is  especially  well  developed  in  the  fishes,  the 
scales  which  cover  the  body  being  of  dermal  ori- 
gin: in  some  cases  these  dermal  scales  are  cov- 
ered by  enamel  which  is  derived  from  the  epi- 
dermis. The  same  is  also  true  of  the  teeth  of 
vertebrates;  the  inner  portion  or  dentine  is  of 
dermal  origin,  while  tin:  enamel  comes  from  the 
epidermis;  teeth  arc  in  fact  only  modified  scales. 

2.  Skeleton. —  An  internal  skeleton,  not  the 
product  of  the  integument,  is  present  in  rela- 
tively few  invertebrates,  but  is  found  in  all  ver- 
tebrates. Such  a  skeleton  is  found  in  sponges  in 
the  form  of  calcareous,  silicious,  or  horny 
spicules;  in  cnidarians  and  ctenophores  as  sup- 
porting jelly ;  in  many  invertebrates  as  a  system 
of  connective  tissue  cells  and  fibres;  in  cephalo- 
pods  and  certain  arthropods  as  cartilages  sur- 
rounding the  central  nervous  system.  On  the 
Other  hand  the  possession  of  a  primitive  axial 
skeleton,  the  notochord,  is  one  of  the  chief 
characteristics  of  the  Chordata;  in  addition  to 
this  there  are  generally  present  in  this  phylum 
many  i  .t her  skeletal  elements  which  are  usually 
cartilaginous  or  bony.  In  all  true  vertebrates 
the  notochord  becomes  surrounded  by  cartilage, 
and  the  whole  is  then  constricted  into  a  series  of 
segments,  the  centra  of  the  vertebrae;  from 
these  centra  cartilaginous  arches  grow  dorsally 
around  the  spinal  cord,  while  other  skeletal 
arches,  the  ribs,  surround  the  trunk  and  become 
connected  with  the  vertebral  column;  finally  the 
ribs  may  be  united  venlrally,  thus  forming  the 
sternum:  these  parts  constitute  the  axial  skele- 
ton. In  addition  there  is  the  skeleton  of  the 
head  (the  skull)  and  that  of  the  limbs  (the  ap- 
pendicular skeleton).  In  the  lower  vertebrates 
and  in  the  embryos  of  all  higher  forms  the  skull 
consi-ts  of  a  cartilaginous  cranium  partially  sur- 
rounding the  brain,  and  of  paired  cartilaginous 
rods  forming  the  skeleton  of  the  jaws  and  gill- 
arches.  In  higher  vertebrates  these  cartilagi- 
nous elements  undergo  ossification,  and  in  addi- 
tion dermal  bones  are  formed  which  partially 
overlie  this  cartilaginous  basis.  The  appendicu- 
lar skeleton  consists  of  the  two  limb-girdlsc 
partially  enclosing  the  trunk  on  the  ventral  side, 
the  pectoral  and  pelvic  arches,  and  of  the  skele- 
ton of  the  limbs  themselves.  In  the  fishes  the 
arches  and  limbs  are  peculiar  and  it  is  difficult 


u<  homologize  their  skeletal  parts  with  those  of 
higher  forms;  in  all  vertebrates  above  the  fishes, 

however,  the  relations  of  these  parts  are  similar 
and  their  homologies  not  difficult  to  determine. 
3.  Motor  System. —  All  animals  at  some  time 
in  their  lives  have  the  power  of  locomotion, 
though  in  some  cases  this  is  lost  before  adult 
life  is  reached  and  the  animal  becomes  fixed 
like  a  plant  ( hydroids,  sponges,  crinoids,  mol- 
luscoids,  and  many  parasites).  However,  in  all 
these  cases  certain  parts  of  the  body  preserve 
the  power  of  movement,  though  the  animal  as 
a  whole  is  incapable  of  locomotion.  Animal 
movement  is  of  three  fundamental  types:  amoe- 
boid, ciliary,  and  muscular.    See  Muscles. 

(1)  Amoeboid  movement  is  manifested  espe- 
cially by  free  cells  and  exhibits  a  streaming  of 
semi-fluid  protoplasm:  it  is  typically  illustrated 
by  the  proteus  animalcule  Anuxbo.  In  this  pro- 
tozoan small  lobes  or  pscudopodia  may  appear 
anywhere  on  the  body,  and  into  one  or  more  of 
these  the  endoplasm,  with  all  that  it  contains,  may 
be  seen  to  stream,  at  the  same  time  being  with- 
drawn from  other  lobes.  This  flowing  may  con- 
tinue for  some  time  in  a  given  direction,  the 
outflow  of  protoplasm  at  one  end  of  the  body 
being  compensated  for  by  the  inflow  at  the  other 
end,  thus  producing  an  actively  progressive 
movement.  The  mechanism  of  this  movement 
is  obscure,  but  in  some  cases  it  seems  to  be  asso- 
ciated with  temporary  inequalities  in  the  tension 
of  the  surface  of  the  cell ;  at  points  where  the 
surface  tension  is  reduced  an  outflow  of  proto- 
plasm occurs,  forming  a  lobe  or  pseudopod,  into 
which  protoplasm  from  the  main  body  continues 
to  flow  so  long  as  the  surface  tension  is  least 
in  this  direction.  Usually  several  points  of  re- 
duced tension  exist  at  the  same  time  on  the  sur- 
face of  an  amoeboid  cell,  so  that  several  lobes  or 
pseudopodia  are  found  radiating  from  a  common 
centre.  In  other  cases  it  is,  perhaps,  due  to  the 
general  contractility  of  protoplasm,  local  contrac- 
tion in  one  part  of  a  cell  causing  an  outflow  in 
another  part. 

(j)  Ciliary  movement  consists  in  the  rhyth- 
mical beating  of  innumerable  small  protoplasmic 
threads  (cilia)  which  project  from  the  free  sur- 
faces of  certain  cells  and  which  act  somewhat 
like  oars.  Among  one-celled  organisms  the  en- 
tire cell  may  be  covered  by  these  cilia;  in  all 
multicellular  animals  they  are  limited  to  the 
free  borders  of  certain  epithelial  cells.  The 
beating  of  a  cilium  includes  two  movements, 
— -the  stroke,  which  is  rapid  and  by  which  the 
cilium  is  sharply  bent  in  one  direction,  and  the 
recovery  of  the  original  position,  which  is  rela- 
tively slow  and  weak.  It  is  probable  that  the 
cause  of  this  beating  is  the  unequal  contraction 
of  the  protoplasm  on  different  sides  of  a  cilium. 
by  which  it  is  bent  first  in  one  direction  and 
then  in  the  other.  All  the  cilia  covering  a  free 
surface  beat  in  unison,  the  stroke  being  in  one 
direction,  and  the  movement  is  so  timed  that  be- 
ginning at  one  end  of  a  ciliated  tract  it  seems 
to  pass  in  a  wave-like  movement  to  the  other 
end. 

(3)  Muscular  movement,  the  principal  type 
of  motion  in  higher  animals,  is  caused  by  the 
contraction  in  one  direction  of  a  muscle  fibre  con- 
sisting of  a  kind  of  protoplasm  especially  differ- 
entiated for  this  purpose.  During  the  contrac- 
tion or  expansion  of  a  muscle  there  is  no  change 
in  its  volume,  the  shortening  of  a  fibre  in  one 


ANATOMY 


axis  being  compensated  for  by  its  expansion  at 
right  angles  to  that  axis.  Such  a  change  in  the 
shape  of  a  fibre  could  be  produced  only  by  a 
change  in  the  shape  of  the  particles  of  which  it 
is  composed  or  by  a  change  in  their  relative 
positions.  The  latter  is  probably  the  real  cause 
of  muscular  contractility. 

All  of  these  types  of  movement  are  found  in 
certain  Protozoa  and  in  many  Metazoa.  Amce- 
boid  movements  are,  however,  usually  restricted 
to  free  cells  without  membranes  or  dense  cor- 
tical layers  of  protoplasm,  such  as  certain  egg 
cells,  embryonic  cells,  endoderm  cells,  excretory, 
pigment,  and  lymph  cells  of  various  Metazoa; 
in  no  case  is  this  type  effective  in  the  movement 
of  large  bodies.  In  the  larvae  of  all  phyla,  ex- 
cept the  nemathelminthes  and  arthropods,  loco- 
motion is  brought  about,  at  least  in  part,  by  cilia, 
and  even  among  the  adult  forms  of  many  lower 
metazoans  this  is  the  principal  type  of  locomo- 
tion (ctenophores,  turbellarians,  nemertines, 
rotifers).  Among  the  nemathelminths  and  ar- 
thropods cilia  are  entirely  lacking  throughout  the 
whole  life  cycle.  Among  large  animals  locomo- 
tion is  effected  entirely  by  muscular  contractility, 
while  cilia  are  limited  to  certain  regions  where 
by  their  beating  they  produce  currents.  Muscle 
fibres  are  found  in  all  Metazoa  with  the  possible 
exception  of  sponges ;  they  are  of  two  kinds, 
striped  and  non-striped  or  smooth;  the  latter 
are  of  very  wide  distribution  throughout  the 
Metazoa.  the  former  are  limited  to  a  few  phyla 
(mollusks,  arthropods,  chordates).  Smooth 
muscle  is  contractile  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  striped  muscle,  but  is  much  slower  in  ac- 
tion. The  muscular  system  may  consist  of  iso- 
lated fibres  such  as  are  found  in  many  cnidarians, 
platodes,  and  rotifers,  or  these  fibres  may  be 
united  into  bundles  or  sheets  as  is  the  case  in 
most  higher  animals ;  these  groups  of  muscles 
show  many  differences  and  can  be  compared  only 
in  a  general  way.  In  general  the  arrangement 
of  the  body  muscles  depends  upon  the  presence 
or  absence  of  a  skeleton.  Animals  which  have 
no  skeleton  usually  have  the  body  musculature 
arranged  in  the  form  of  two  coats :  an  outer 
layer  of  circular  fibres  and  an  inner  of  longi- 
tudinal ones,  while  tHe  intestinal  musculature  is 
also  arranged  in  two  coats,  the  outer  (next  the 
ccelom)  longitudinal  and  the  inner  circular.  If 
an  exoskeleton  is  present,  as  in  arthropods,  these 
muscular  layers  of  the  body  wall  are  broken  up 
into  bundles  which  become  attached  to  the  skele- 
ton :  if  an  endoskeleton  is  present,  as  in  verte- 
brates, the  muscles  become  attached  to  the  bones, 
which  serve  as  levers,  and  thus  the  muscles 
csme  to  lie  at  a  deep  level.  The  locomotor  ap- 
paratus of  echinoderms  is  unique,  consisting  of 
a  great  number  of  tube  feet,  which  are  hollow 
muscular  tubes,  closed  at  the  end  by  a  sucking 
disk.  The  cavity  of  each  tube  is  connected  with 
the  water  vascular  (ambulacral)  system  within 
the  body,  from  which  water  can  be  forced  in- 
to the  tube  feet.  In  this  way  they  are  protruded 
until  the  sucking  disk  touches  and  becomes  at- 
tached to  some  object;  then  by  contraction  of 
the  muscles  of  the  foot  the  water  is  forced 
back  into  the  water  system,  and  by  simultaneous 
action  of  many  of  these  feet  the  body  is  slowly 
warped  along. 

4.  Digestive  System. —  With  the  exception  of 
a  few  internal  parasites  which  absorb  their  food 
in  a  digested  condition  from  the  bodies  of  their 


hosts,  some  form  of  digestive  system  is  present 
in  all  animals. 

Digestion  is  the  process  of  rendering  insolu- 
ble foods  soluble.  One  of  the  distinguishing 
characteristics  of  animals  is  that  they,  unlike 
plants,  take  in  solid  food  (much  of  which  is 
in  an  insoluble  condition)  through  a  mouth 
opening  (ingestion),  and  that  by  the  process  of 
digestion  some  of  this  insoluble  food  is  rendered 
soluble  and  hence  capable  of  diffusing  to  all 
parts  of  the  organism,  where  by  a  mysterious 
process  known  as  assimilation  some  of  it  is  built 
up  into  the  substance  of  the  protoplasm  itself. 
After  the  substances  rendered  soluble  by  diges- 
tion have  been  removed  from  the  food  the  indi- 
gestible remnants  are  cast  out  of  the  body  in 
solid  form  (egestion).  Among  the  Protozoa  di- 
gestion occurs  within  the  body  of  a  single  cell, 
that  is,  it  is  intracellular.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  sponges,  in  which  the  food,  consisting  of 
microscopic  animals  or  plants,  is  taken  in  by 
certain  epithelial  cells  lining  the  cavities  of  the 
the  sponge  and  by  them  passed  over  to  other 
cells  and  tissues  by  which  the  food  particles  are 
ingested,  digested,  and  assimilated.  In  all  ani- 
mals above  the  sponges  intracellular  digestion  is 
iimited  to  the  endoderm  cells  and  to  certain  free 
cells,  such  as  white  blood  corpuscles  (leucocytes) 
and  it  is  of  decreasing  importance  as  one  as- 
cends the  scale.  In  all  animals  except  the  low- 
est, digestion  occurs  principally  in  a  digestive 
cavity  surrounded  by  cells  which  pour  their  se- 
cretions into  the  cavity.  By  the  action  of  these 
secretions  certain  insoluble  food  substances  are 
transformed  into  soluble  ones.  This  digestive 
cavity  is  in  all  cases  derived  from  the  archen- 
teron  or  primitive  digestive  cavity  of  the  gas- 
trula  and  in  the  simplest  cases  is  little  more  than 
a  sac  whose  walls  may  be  folded  into  ridges  or 
septa,  thus  enlarging  the  digestive  surface  { An- 
thozoa) ,  or  they  may  be  extended  to  form  tubu- 
lar canals,  by  means  of  which  the  digested  food 
is  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  animal 
1 '  Scyphozoa,  Ctenophora.  Turbellaria).  In  all 
Cnidaria  except  the  lowest  class,  and  in  all  ani- 
mals above  the  Cnidaria,  the  ectoderm  surround- 
ing the  mouth  is  folded  in  at  the  mouth  opening, 
thus  forming  an  ectodermal  tube,  or  oesophagus, 
which  opens  at  the  inner  end  into  the  gastric 
cavity.  Among  chordates  this  ectodermal  in- 
vagination forms  only  the  mouth  cavity,  the 
oesophagus  being  derived  from  the  endoderm. 
In  all  Cnidaria.  Ctcnophora,  and  Platoda  there 
is  but  one  opening  into  the  gastric  cavity,  the 
mouth,  and  through  this  single  opening  food  is 
taken  in  and  undigested  remnants  cast  out.  In 
the  Ncmertinca.  and  with  a  few  exceptions  in 
all  higher  animals,  there  is  a  second  opening  into 
the  gastric  cavity,  namely,  the  anus,  through 
which  the  ejecta  pass.  The  anus  is  formed  by 
an  infolding  of  the  ectoderm  which  meets  and 
fuses  with  a  portion  of  the  gastric  wall ;  this 
terminal  ectodermal  portion  of  the  digestive 
tract  is  the  hind  gut.  With  the  formation  of 
an  anus  the  digestive  tract  becomes  tubular, 
with  mouth  at  one  end  and  anus  at  the  other, 
and  the  entire  canal  is  divisible  into  three  por- 
tions, an  ectodermal  (esophagus  or  fore  gut.  an 
endodermal  mid  gut  and  an  ectodermal  hind 
gut.  The  relative  development  of  these  three 
portions  differs  much  in  different  phyla;  for  ex- 
ample, among  chordates  the  fore  gut  is  limited 
to  the  mouth  cavity  and  the  hind  gut  to  an  in- 


ANATOMY 


significant  terminal  portion  of  the  intestine, 
while  the  mid  gut  gives  rise  to  all  the  inter- 
vening portions  of  the  digestive  tract.  Among 
arthropods,  on  the  Other  hand,  the  mid  gut  is 
limited  to  an  extremely  small  portion  of  the 
digestive  tube  between  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tine, while  all  the  remaining  portions  are  de- 
rived from  the  fore  and  hind  guts.  In  the 
higher  animals  the  fore  and  mid  guts  may  be 
subdivided  into  mouth  cavity,  pharynx,  oesopha- 
gus, stomach,  and  intestine  and  in  some  cases 
these  portions  may  be  further  subdivided,  as, 
for  example,  in  birds,  where  the  oesophagus  gives 
rise  to  an  enlargement,  the  crop,  the  stomach  is 
divisible  into  a  glandular  stomach  and  a  grinding 
stomach  or  gizzard,  and  the  intestine  consists 
of  two  portions,  the  small  and  the  large  intestine. 
Finally  into  a  portion  of  the  hind  gut  the  ex- 
cretory and  sexual  ducts  as  well  as  the  intes- 
tine may  open,  in  which  case  this  common 
chamber  is  called  the  cloaca.  Various  portions 
of  the  fore  gut  may  be  armed  with  teeth,  usu- 
ally of  a  horny  character  among  invertebrates, 
and  the  pharynx  may  be  protrusible.  The  di- 
gestive  and  absorptive  surfaces  of  the  mid  gut 
may  be  increased  in  three  different  ways,  either 
(  t  )  by  an  increase  in  length,  in  which  case  it 
becomes  folded  or  coiled,  or  (2)  by  folds  which 
project  into  the  canal,  or  (3)  by  diverticula, 
that  is,  blind  sacs  or  tubes,  which  open  out  from 
the  canal;  in  many  higher  forms  all  of  these 
methods  coexist  in  the  same  individual.  The 
extent  of  the  digestive  surface  depends  pri- 
marily upon  the  character  of  the  food ;  if  the 
latter  is  highly  nutritious  the  digestive  surfaces 
are  much  smaller  than  where  it  is  poor  in  nu- 
trition. In  carnivorous  mammals,  for  example, 
the  alimentary  tract  is  from  four  to  five  times 
the  length  of  the  body,  whereas  in  certain 
herbivora  it  may  be  from  20  to  30  times  the 
length  of  the  body.  In  the  simplest  Mrtucoa 
it  is  probable  that  all  the  cells  lining  the  diges- 
tive cavity  are  alike  and  that  they  all  secrete 
the  same  digestive  fluids;  in  more  complex  ani- 
mals the  cells  differ  in  structure  and  function 
in  different  portions  of  the  tract.  By  a  speciali- 
zation of  the  diverticula  or  blind  tubes  opening 
out  from  the  canal,  large  digestive  glands  are 
formed  which  pour  particular  digestive  secretion 
into  the  alimentary  canal.  The  most  generally 
ili-tributed  of  all  these  are  the  salivary  glands, 
opening  into  the  fore  gut,  and  the  liver  and 
pancreas  (or  where  both  are  united,  as  often 
happens  among  the  invertebrates,  the  hepato- 
pancreas),  which  open  into  the  mid  gut.  In  all 
of  the  lower  invertebrates  except  the  round- 
worms the  food  is  moved  about  in  the  alimen- 
tary tract  by  means  of  cilia  or  by  general  con- 
tractions of  the  body.  In  all  higher  forms  the 
contraction  of  muscle  fibres  surrounding  the 
canal  play  an  important  part  in  this  move- 
ment, though  cilia  may  also  be  present.  In  the 
chordates  both  longitudinal  and  circular  mus- 
cles surround  the  canal  and  by  their  rhythmical 
contractions  produce  a  wave-like  contraction  of 
the  canal  (peristalsis),  which  passes  along  the 
canal  from  mouth  to  anus. 

5.  Respiratory  System. —  Respiration  consists 
in  the  exchange  of  gases  between  the  body  and 
the  medium  which  surrounds  it.  The  gas  given 
off  from  the  body  is  principally  carbon  dioxid, 
one  of  the  products  of  combustion  within  the 
body,  while  that   which  must   be  supplied  to  it 


is  oxygen.  Since  oxidation  is  the  one  essen- 
tial feature  of  destructive  metabolism  which  oc- 
curs in  all  living  matter,  it  follows  that  respira- 
tion is  a  universal  function  among  organisms. 
Among  small  and  simple  animals  this  exchange 
of  gases  takes  place  directly  between  the  living 
cells  and  the  surrounding  medium  and  occurs 
all  over  the  surface  of  the  body.  In  more 
complex  forms  with  body  fluids  the  exchange 
takes  place  between  the  tissues  and  the  fluid 
(internal  respiration)  and  then  between  the 
fluid  and  the  surrounding  medium  (external  res- 
piration). This  exchange  may  take  place 
through  the  general  integument  of  the  body 
without  the  aid  of  any  specific  organs,  as  is  the 
case  in  all  small  animals  and  in  many  larger 
ones, —  for  example,  flatworms,  roundworms, 
rotifers,  small  annelids,  and  even  some  vert( 
brates,  such  as  the  lunglcss  salamanders.  How- 
ever, in  most  animals  of  any  considerable  size, 
special  organs  exist  to  facilitate  this  exchange. 
In  such  as  dwell  in  water  vascular  processes 
are  present  which  serve  to  bring  the  blood  into 
close  relation  with  the  water.  These  processes, 
which  are  called  branchiae  or  gills,  are  cov- 
ered by  a  thin  epithelium  through  which  an 
interchange  of  the  gases  contained  in  the  blood 
and  in  the  water  can  readily  take  place.  To 
facilitate  this  interchange  the  gills  are  usually 
much  folded  or  branched  so  as  to  afford  a  large 


Fig.  6. 


Fie.  9 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  6. —  Section  through  the  gill-arch  and  plates  of 
a  bony  fish  (from  Claus). —  b,  gill-plates  with 
capillaries;  c,  afferent  vessel  with  venous  blood; 
d,  efferent  vessel  with  arterial  blood;  a,  skeleton 
of  arch. 

Fie.  7. —  Part  of  a  tracheal  stem  and  branches  of  an 
insect  (from  Claus). —  Z,  cellular  outer  wall.  Sp, 
cuticular   inner   wall   with   spiral    fibre. 

Fig.  8. —  Tracheal  system  of  a  fly  larva  (from  Claus). 
—  Tr,  longitudinal  stem  of  right  side.  St'.  St". 
anterior  and  posterior  Btigmata.     Mhf  mouth  parts. 

Fig.  9. —  Lateral     view     of     grasshopper     {Acrid 

St,    stigmata.      T,    tympanal    organ     (from    Claus). 

surface,  and  they  are  frequently  covered  by  cilia 
which  serve  to  keep  the  water  in  motion,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  blood  is  circulated  through 
them.  The  most  primitive  type  of  gill  is  that 
of  a  simple  ciliated  tentacle,  wdiich  may  also 
serve  other  functions,  such  as  is  found  among 
the  Molluscoida  and  some  Mollusca;  such  gills 
may  become  branched  or  plume-like  or  may  fuse 
together  into  plates  (Lamellibranchia) .  (iills 
are  situated  on  those  parts  of  the  body   where 


ANATOMY 


they  will  be  most  exposed  to  fresh  water,  and 
occur  in  the  most  extraordinarily  different  posi- 
tions in  different  phyla ;  thus  they  may  be  found 
on  the  limbs  (Crustacea1,  some  annelids),  on  or 
around  the  head  (sedentary  annelids,  mollus- 
coids),  along  the  sides  of  the  body  (primitive 
mollusks),  on  the  lateral  walls  of  the  pharynx 
(chordates),  or  as  outgrowths  of  the  hind  gut 
(holothurians).  Homology  being  "correspond- 
ence in  the  relative  position  and  connection  of 
parts,"  there  can  of  course  be  no  homology  be- 
tween structures  occurring  in  such  diverse  posi- 
tions, and  yet  within  a  given  phylum  they  may 
be  homologous  and  of  high  morphological  value 
(for  example,  chordates).  Among  the  chord- 
ates a  series  of  gill-clefts  opens  right  and  left 
through  the  walls  of  the  pharynx,  and  in  the 
lower  classes  of  the  phylum  the  gills  are  found 
as  highly  vascular  plates  or  tufts  on  the  outer 
sides  of  the  arches  separating  these  clefts;  water 
is  taken  in  through  the  mouth  and  then  forced 
out  through  the  gill-clefts  and  thus  over  the 
gills.  In  the  higher  classes  of  the  phylum  (rep- 
tiles, birds,  and  mammals),  the  gill-clefts  are 
present  during  embryonic  life,  though  at  no 
time  in  their  entire  life-history  do  these  ani- 
mals have  gills  and  respire  water.  The  con- 
stancy of  gill-clefts  among  vertebrates  gives  this 
character  a  high  value  in  determining  the 
affinities  of  such  doubtful  forms  as  Balanoglos- 
sus,  Ccphalodiscus,  and  Tunicata. 

In  animals  which  do  not  dwell  in  water  and 
in  some  few  which  do  (insect  larva?,  lung  fishes, 
etc.),  certain  infolded  portions  of  the  body  oc- 
cur into  which  air  is  drawn  and  from  which  it 
is  again  expelled.  Among  invertebrates  these 
infolded  portions  are  generally  derived  from  the 
skin ;  among  vertebrates  from  a  portion  of  the 
alimentary  canal,  the  pharynx.  In  the  case  of 
insects  and  allied  forms  (Trachcata)  these  in- 
folded portions  have  the  form  of  much-branched 
tubes,  the  tracheae,  which  reach  to  all  parts  of 
the  body,  the  terminal  twigs  of  the  tracheal  sys- 
tem of  tubes  being  found  in  connection  with 
almost  every  bit  of  tissue  in  the  body.  These 
tracheae  open  to  the  exterior  through  closeable 
pores,  the  stigmata,  situated  on  the  sides  of  the 
body ;  air  is  taken  in  through  these  pores  and 
by  means  of  the  tracheal  tubes  penetrates  to  all 
parts  of  the  body,  the  exchange  of  gases  taking 
place  directly  between  the  tissues  and  the 
tracheae.  Among  the  vertebrates  the  lungs  are 
an  evaginated  portion  of  the  pharynx,  which  in 
most  fishes  is  a  hydrostatic  apparatus,  the  swim- 
bladder,  but  which  in  the  lung  fishes  {Dipnoi) 
becomes  highly  vascular  and  may  serve  as  a 
lung.  In  all  higher  vertebrates  this  sac  is  paired, 
and  its  walls,  which  in  the  lower  classes  are 
relatively  simple,  become  much  infolded  and  very 
richly  supplied  with  blood  vessels.  The  ex- 
;hange  of  gases  here  takes  place  between  the 
blood  and  the  air  within  the  lung,  and  in  most 
vertebrates  the  oxygen-carrying  capacity  of  the 
blood  is  increased  by  the  presence  of  haemoglo- 
bin (the  coloring  matter  of  red  blood  corpus- 
cles) which  enters  into  a  loose  chemical  combina- 
tion with  the  oxygen. 

6.  Circulatory  System. —  The  physiological 
significance  of  the  circulation  of  fluids  within 
the  body  is  the  distribution  of  nutriment  and  in 
some  cases  oxygen  to  all  the  parts.  In  the  sim- 
plest Mctazoa  (Cnidaria,  Ctenophora)  there  is 
no  need  of  a  special  circulatory  apparatus  other 
Vol.   i — 31 


than  that  which  is  furnished  by  the  gastric  cav- 
ity itself;  this  may  branch  and  extend  to  various 
parts  of  the  body  or  hydroid  colony,  thus  form- 
ing a  gastro-vascular  system,  through  which  the 
distribution  of  nutriment  takes  place;  the 
branched  gastric  cavity  of  certain  turbellarians 
serves  also  a  similar  function.  Circulation  of 
body  fluids  also  occurs  in  many  lower  animals 
without  the  aid  of  any  special  circulatory  appa- 
ratus ;  in  such  cases  lymph,  containing  the  prod- 
ucts of  digestion,  is  distributed  through  all  the 
intercellular  spaces  in  the  primary  body  cavity, 
and  by  the  contractions  of  the  general  muscula- 
ture of  the  body  it  is  kept  in  irregular  move- 
ment. With  the  single  exception  of  the  nemer- 
teans  a  blood  vascular  system  is  found  only 
among  animals  with  a  secondary  body  cavity  or 
true  coelom  and  is  lacking  even  in  some  of  these, 
particularly  such  as  are  quite  small  or  are  evi- 
dently degenerate  forms.  With  a  few  excep- 
tions it  is  present  in  mollusks,  echinoderms,  an- 
nelids, arthropods,  and  all  chordates.  In  its 
simplest  form  it  consists  of  branching  and  anas- 
tomosing tubes  which  contain  blood.  The  walls 
of  the  tubes  are  composed  of  flattened  epithelial 
cells  (endothelium)  which  may  be  surrounded 
on  the  outside  by  muscle  or  connective  tissue 
fibres.  The  blood  which  fills  these  vessels  con- 
sists of  a  fluid  or  plasma  within  which  floating 
cells  or  corpuscles  are  almost  invariably  present. 
With  increasing  complexity  of  this  system  the 
walls  of  the  vessels  become  thicker  by  increase 
of  the  muscular  or  connective  tissue  coats,  and 
in  certain  parts  of  the  system  the  vessels  be- 
come larger.  The  muscular  walls  may  be  pulsa- 
tile throughout  the  entire  length  of  a  vessel,  or 
this  function  may  be  limited  to  a  small  por- 
tion of  a  large  vessel,  which  is  then  known  as 
a  heart;  even  in  the  highest  animals  the  heart 
is  only  a  differentiation  of  a  simple  pulsatile 
blood  vessel.  The  vessels  leading  away  from 
the  heart  are  the  arteries,  those  through  which 
I  he  blood  flows  back  to  the  heart  the  veins,  while 
the  small  thin-walled  vessels  connecting  the  two, 
and  through  the  walls  of  which  plasma  escapes 


Fig.  10 


Fig.   11 


Fig.  10. —  Circulatory  and  nervous  systems  of  a  snail 
(Paludma)  (from  Claus  after  Leydig). —  F,  ten- 
tacles; Oe,  oesophagus;  Cg,  cerebral  gaii 
Pg.  pedal  ganglion  and  otocyst;  Vg.  visceral  gang- 
lion; Phg,  pharyngeal  ganglion;  A.  auricle  of 
heart;  Ve,  ventricle;  A,i.  abdominal  aorta;  Ac, 
cephalic  aorta;  /'.  veins;  {V.  hranchial  veins;  Br, 
gills. 

Fig.  11. —  Anterior  part  of  the  circulatory  system  of  an 
annelid  (Sttnuris). — The  arrows  indicate  the  di- 
rection of  the  flow.  H,  heart-like  enlargement  of 
a   commissural    vessel. 


ANATOMY 


int. >  the  Utiles  are  the  capillaries.  Among  the 
annelids   there   is  a   large   dorsal   vessel   and  a 

ventral  one,  which   are  connected   in  each   somite 

I  ■>  c  immissural  vessels.  The  dorsal  vessel  is 
pulsatile  along  its  whole  length,  and  peristaltic 
contraction  waves  can  be  seen  in  a  living  worm 


Fig.  12 


I'iG.  12. —  Circulatory  and  respiratory  systems  of  the 
crayfish  (from  Claus). —  C.  heart  wuh  three  pairs 
of  ostia;  I's.  pericardium;  Ac,  cephalic  aorta; 
A.  ul>,  alidominal  aorta;  As,  sternal  artery.  The 
arrows   indicate   the   direction    of   the    flow. 

to  pass  from  the  posterior  to  the  anterior  end; 
correspondingly  the  blood  flows  forward  in  the 
dorsal  vessel,  down  through  the  commissural 
vessels  into  the  ventral  one,  and  then  back- 
ward through  the  latter  to  the  posterior  portion 
of  the  body,  where  the  blood  ascends  through 
commissural  vessels  to  the  dorsal  vessel,  after 
which  the  same  circuit  is  repeated.  Through- 
out this  whole  course  the  blood  flows  through 
vessels  with  definite  walls,  and  the  circulation 
is  said  to  be  closed.  Among  the  mollusks  and 
arthropods  a  heart  is  present  which  is  more 
concentrated  and  complete  than  among  the 
annelids.  In  the  arthropods  this  consists  of  a 
thick-walled,  pulsatile  tube  lying  on  the  dorsal 
side  "i  lli.  body  ami  extending  through  several 
somites;  in  each  somite  are  a  pair  of  openings, 
the  ostia,  which  open  into  the  heart  from  the  peri- 
cardium, ami  through  which  returning  blood  en- 
ters the  heart.  Among  the  mollusks  the  heart  is 
also  of  a  compact  type  and  is  divided  into 
auricular  and  ventricular  portions.  Primitively 
two  auricles  are  present,  though  in  some  gas- 
teropods  this  number  is  reduced  to  one;  in  all 
mollusks  there  is  but  one  ventricle.  In  primitive 
arthropods  and  mollusks  the  blood  flows  out  of 
the  ventricle  at  both  the  anterior  and  posterior 
ends  ;  in  more  highly  differentiated  members  of 
these  phyla,  out  of  the  anterior  end  only. 
Among  the  arthropods  the  vascular  system 
is  very  incomplete,  the  arteries  soon  end 
in  lacunar  spaces  in  the  tissues,  and  from 
these  spaces  the  blood  is  gathered  into 
large  sinuses  and  thence  flows  back  to 
the  heart.  These  lacunar  spaces  and  sinuses  arc 
not  true  vessels,  since  they  do  not  have  definite 
walls,  but  arc  derived  from  the  primary  and 
secondary  body  cavities:  the  circulation  is  there- 
fore an  open  one.  Among  mollusks  the  vascu- 
lar system  is  more  extensive  than  among  ar- 
thropods hut  lure  also  the  circulation  is  open, 
the  arteries  being  connected  with  the  veins  by  a 
system  of  lacunar  spaces  instead  of  capillaries. 
Finally  among  the  echinoderms  and  chordates 
the  circulation  is  closed  as  among  the  annelids; 
that  is.  the  blood  throughout  its  entire  circuit  is 
contained  within  definite  vessels. 

The  manner  in  which  blood  is  supplied  to 
the  respiratory  organs  is  of  great  importance  in 
explaining  the   structure   of  the  circulatory  or- 


gans in  air-breathing  vertebrates.  Among  an- 
nelids, arthropods,  and  mollusks  the  blood  flows 
directly  from  the  heart  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 
whence  it  is  gathered  into  trunks  which  carry 
it  to  the  gills;  from  these  organs  it  is  then  re- 
turned purified  to  the  heart.  In  the  fishes  the 
blood  passes  from  the  heart  directly  to  the 
gills,  whence  it  is  gathered  into  the  dorsal 
aorta  and  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  body;  it 
is  then  returned  laden  with  waste  product  from 
the  tissues  to  the  heart.  In  these  animals  the 
heart  consists  of  a  single  auricle  and  ventricle, 
essentially  a  simple  tube  more  or  less  bent  upon 
itself.  In  air-breathing  amphibia  a  part  of  the 
blood  passes  directly  from  the  heart  to  the 
lungs,  whence  it  returns  to  the  heart  oxygenated, 
while  a  part  of  it  goes  at  once  to  the  body;  the 
former  is  known  as  the  pulmonary,  the  latter  as 
the  systemic  circulation.  In  these  animals  the 
heart  is  incompletely  divided  by  a  partition  which 
separates  the  auricular  chamber  into  two  auri- 
cles, but  wdiich  leaves  the  ventricle  undivided. 
The  blood  returning  from  the  body  is  carried 
into  the  right  auricle,  while  that  front  the  lungs 
goes  into  the  left;  in  the  ventricle  both  kinds  of 
blood  mingle  to  a  certain  extent,  though  by  a 
peculiar  arrangement  of  folds  and  valves  the 
larger  part  of  the  oxygenated  blood  which  en- 
ters the  left  auricle  is  pumped  to  the  anterior 
part  of  the  body,  while  the  blood  from  the  right 
auricle  goes  to  the  lungs  and   to  the  posterior 


Fig.  13 


Fig.  14 


Fig.   15 


Fig.    13.  —  Heart    and    treat    hlood-vessels    of    the    turtle 

(from  Claus). — Ad,  right  auricle;  As.  left   auricle; 

■     Ao,    d.    right    arch    of    the    aorta;   Ao.   s,    left   arch 

of   the   aorta;    Ao,    dorsal    aorta;    C,   carotids;    Ap, 

pulmonary    arteries. 

Fig.  14. —  Aortic  arches  of  a  mammal,  and  their  rela- 
tions to  the  live  embryonic  arches  (from  Claus). — 
c,  c' ,  carotids;  A,  aorta;  Ap,  pulmonary  artery; 
Aa,  great  arch  of  aorta. 

Fig.  15. —  Diagram  of  a  heart  completely  divided  into 
right  and  left  halves,  and  of  a  double  (systematic 
and  pulmonary)  circulation  (from  Claus). — Ad, 
right  auricle;  Vcs,  anterior  vena  cava;  Vex,  pos- 
terior vena  cava;  I'd.  right  ventricle;  Ap,  pul- 
monary artery;  V.  lung;  Vp.  pulmonary  vein;  As, 
left  auricle;  i's,  left  ventricle;  Ao,  aorta;  D,  gut; 
L,  liver;   Vp,  portal  vein;  Lv,  hepatic  vein. 

parts  of  the  body.  Finally  in  all  birds  and  mam- 
mals and  in  the  highest  reptiles  (Crocodilia)  the 
heart  is  completely  divided  by  a  partition  into 
two  auricles  and  two  ventricles,  and  a  double 
circulation,  systemic  and  pulmonary,  is  estab- 
lished.    The  blood  from  the  left  ventricle  goes 


ANATOMY 


at  once  to  all  parts  of  the  body,  whence  it  re- 
turns to  the  right  auricle;  it  then  falls  into  the 
right  ventricle  and  is  pumped  from  that  to  the 
lungs;  here  it  is  oxygenated  and  returns  to 
the  left  auricle,  and  then  from  the  left  ventricle 
is  again  sent  out  to  all  parts  of  the  body. 

7.  Excretory  System. —  Excretion  is  the 
process  of  removing  non-gaseous  waste  prod- 
ucts, particularly  urea  and  allied  compounds, 
from  the  body.  These  nitrogenous  waste  sub- 
stances are  formed  as  the  result  of  proleid 
combustion  within  the  body,  and  as  this  form 
of  metabolism  is  universal  among  animals  nitro- 
genous waste  substances  are  everywhere  formed. 
With  few  exceptions  all  animals  possess  some 
form  of  excretory  organ ;  in  fact  this  is  one 
of  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  animals 
as  contrasted  with  plants.  Among  the  Protozoa 
the  excretory  organ  is  a  pulsatile  vacuole  which 
gradually  fills  with  fluid  containing  these  waste 
products  and  then  suddenly  contracts,  forcing 
this  fluid  out  of  the  body.  Among  ccelenterates 
excretion  is  probably  performed  by  isolated 
gland  cells,  so  that  no  single  organ  exists  for 
this  function ;  even  among  higher  animals 
excretion  is  performed  to  a  limited  extent 
by  individual  cells  or  small  glands;  for  exam- 
ple, the  chlorogogue  cells  of  annelids,  the  dermal 
glands  of  Crustacea,  and  the  sweat-glands  of 
mammals.  In  all  higher  animals  a  special  ex- 
cretory organ  exists ;  this  usually  consists  of 
minute  tubules  formed  of  cells  which  take  up 
the  waste  substances  and  pass  them  into  the 
tubule,  whence  they  are  carried  to  the  exterior; 
such  an  excretory  tubule  is  known  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  nephridium.  The  forms  of  nephri- 
dia  differ  considerably  in  different  phyla,  but 
two  principal  types  may  be  recognized ;  these 
are  the  protonephridium.  or  water  vascular  sys- 
tem, and  the  metanephridium  (Hatschek).  The 
protonephridium  is  found  in  the  flat  worms  and 
rotifers ;  that  is,  among  worm-like  animals  with- 


Fig.  16 

Fig.  16. —  Structure  of  the  protonephridium  (excretory 
organ)  of  a  flatworm  (from  Hatschek). — A,  part 
of  tile  excretory  apparatus  of  a  tapeworm;  R, 
edge  of  body;  c,  collecting  tubules. —  B.  Terminal 
cells  with  flame  of  cilia. —  C.  Diagram  of  term- 
inal cell,  excretory   capillary,   and   canal. 

out  a  secondary  body  cavity ;  it  is  also  found  as 
the  larval  excretory  organ  (head  kidney)  in 
annelids.  It  consists  of  a  pair  of  more  or  less 
branched  tubules  opening  at  one  or  more  places 
to  the  exterior,  while  the  internal  terminations 
of  the  tubules  each  end  in  a  single  large  cell 
which  closes  (he   end   of  the  tubule  and  bears 


a  tuft  of  long  cilia  projecting  into  its  lumen. 
This  tuft  beats  with  undulatory  movement  and 
looks  somewhat  like  the  flickering  flame  of  a 
candle,  whence  it  is  called  a  "flame"  and  the 
large  cell  which  bears  it  a  "flame  cell."  The 
tubule  itself  is  usually  composed  of  a  single 
series    of    long    glandular    cells    so    perforated 


.  U'tr 


Fig.  17 


Fig.  18 


Figs.  17,  18. —  Diagrams  of  the  excretory  system  in  an 
annelid  and  in  a  shark  (from  Claus  after  Semper). 
— Ds,  dissepiments;  IVtr,  ciliated  funnels;  Ug, 
segmental    duct. 

that  the  lumen  is  intracellular.  In  larger 
branches  of  the  protonephridium  the  walls  of 
the  tubule  may  be  formed  of  many  cells  which 
are  ciliated  on  the  side  next  the  lumen.  These 
cilia  as  well  as  the  flame  drive  fluids  within 
the  lumen  to  the  exterior.  It  is  probable  that 
these  fluids  are  transuded  body  fluids  and  that 
the  excretion  of  the  waste  substances  is  brought 
about  by  the  activity  of  the  cells  which  form 
the  walls  of  the  lumen. 

The  metanephridium  is  found  among  anne- 
lids, mollusks,  molluscoids,  prototracheates,  and 
chordates,  while  a  modified  form  of  it  exists  in 
crustaceans.  Typically  it  consists  of  a  tubule 
opening  to  the  exterior  at  one  end  and  into  the 
body  cavity  or  some  portion  of  it  (pericardium 
or  blood  sinus)  at  the  other.  Where  it  opens 
into  the  body  cavity  the  tubule  is  widened  and 
covered  with  long  cilia  and  is  known  as  the 
ciliated  funnel  or  nephrostomy  Following  this 
is  the  glandular  portion  of  the  tubule,  consisting 
of  a  single  series  of  perforated  cells,  or  in  other 
cases  of  an  epithelium,  composed  of  many  cells, 
which  forms  the  walls  of  the  lumen.  In  either 
case  these  cells  are  glandular  in  character  and 
are  the  real  excretory  cells,  taking  urea  from 
the  blood  and  passing  it  into  the  lumen  of  the 
tubule.  The  latter  is  ciliated  throughout,  and 
by  the  action  of  these  cilia,  together  with  those 
of  the  ciliated  funnel,  ccelomic  fluid  is  drawn 
into  the  tubule  through  the  funnel  and  driven 
to  the  exterior,  thus  flushing  the  tubule  and 
carrying  away  the  excreted  substances.  Finally 
the  terminal  portion  of  the  tubule,  which  is  de- 
rived as  an  invagination  from  the  ectoderm, 
serves  as  a  collecting  tube  or  reservoir.  Gen- 
erally a  single  pair  of  these  tubules  is  found  in 
unsegmented  animals,  such  as  Mollusca  and 
Molluscoidea;    this    number    may    be    redu 


ANATOMY 


however,  as  in  the  Polyzoa,  where  they  are  en- 
tirely lacking,  or  in  certain  Gasteropoda,  where 
one  of  them  is  suppressed,  or  it  may  be  increased 
as  in  the  case  of  certain  Cephalopoda  (Tetra- 
branchia),  where  two  pairs  are  present.  In 
segmented  animals,  such  as  annelids,  proto- 
tracheates,  and  chordates,  it  is  probable  that 
originally  one  pair  existed  in  every  somite,  and 
this  is  still  approximately  the  case  in  some  of 
the  simplest  members  of  these  phyla,  while  in 
higher  forms  they  are  limited  to  certain  seg- 
ments and  have  disappeared  from  others.  The 
segmental  character  of  these  organs  is  so  char- 
acteristic in  the  phyla  named  that  they  are  called 
"segmental  organs." 

Among  the  Cltordata  these  organs  undergo 
modifications  which  deserve  especial  mention. 
They  lie  at  the  dorsal  side  of  the  body  cavity 
and  on  each  side  of  the  notochord.  Only  in 
Amphioxus  do  they  open  individually  to  the  ex- 
terior ;  in  other  chordates  the  peripheral  ends 
of  the  tubules  unite  on  each  side  into  a  duct 
which  grows  backward  and  opens  into  the 
cloaca  near  the  anus;  this  is  the  segmental  duct. 
This  earliest  system  of  segmental  tubules  in 
chordates  is  known  as  the  pronephros,  and  it 
extends  throughout  the  entire  trunk  region  of 
the  lowest  vertebrates  (cyclostomes),  though 
in  all  higher  forms  it  is  limited  to  a  few  an- 
terior somites  and  is  usually  a  purely  embryonic 
organ.  Among  these  higher  forms  longer  and 
more  complicated  tubules  are  formed  in  the 
somites  behind  the  pronephros,  which  also  open 
into  the  segmental  duct  at  one  end  and  into  the 
body  cavity  at  the  other;  near  the  ciliated  fun- 
nel a  knot  of  blood  vessels  forms  on  the  side 
of  the  tubule  and  projects  into  its  lumen;  this 
is  the  glomerulus  or  malpighian  corpuscle. 
Many  of  the  tubules  in  this  region  then  lose 
their  ciliated  funnels  and  no  longer  open  into 
the  body  cavity,  the  tubule  being  flushed  out  by 
transuded  plasma  from  the  glomerulus ;  at  the 
same  time  the  single  pair  of  tubules  originally 
present  in  each  somite  may  give  rise  to  others 
by  budding,  so  that  several  may  be  found  in 
each  somite.  This  second  form  of  the  nephn- 
dial  system  of  vertebrates  is  known  as  the  meso- 
nephros,  and  is  the  permanent  excretory  organ 
of  fishes  and  amphibians,  while  only  an  em- 
bryonic organ  in  reptiles,  birds,  and  mimmals. 
Finally,  in  the  last  named  classes,  the  definitive 
kidney  or  metanephros  appears  in  several  of  the 
somites  posterior  to  the  mesonephros.  Its 
tubules,  while  similar  to  those  of  the  meso- 
nephros, are  still  more  complex,  having  no  trace 
of  a  ciliated  funnel,  and  by  budding  very  many 
of  them  are  formed  in  each  somite.  The  duct 
into  which  they  open,  the  ureter,  is  an  out- 
growth of  the  segmental  duct.  It  is  thus  to  be 
seen  that  the  very  complex  excretory  system  of 
vertebrates  can  be  derived,  step  by  step,  from 
the  simple  nephridial  system  of  such  inverte- 
brates as  the  annelids. 

Finally,  the  nephridia  may  carry  off  from 
the  body  cavity  not  only  ccelomic  fluid,  but 
also  cells  which  are  set  free  into  this  fluid ; 
some  of  these  cells  in  the  annelids  may  be 
loaded  with  urates  which  are  thus  carried  to 
the  exterior  (chlorogogue  cells),  but  the  most 
important  of  the  cells  which  thus  escape  from 
the  coelom  are  the  sex  cells,  ova  and  spermato- 
zoa. The  nephridia  may  be  especially  modified 
for  carrying  off  these  sex  cells,  in   which  case 


they  are  known  as  gonoducts.  Even  among 
the  vertebrates  the  oviducts  and  spermiducts 
(vasa  defercntia)   are  derived  from  the  nephric 


Fig.  19 


Fig.  19. —  Diagrams  illustrating  the  development  of  the 
urino-gcnital  organs  of  a  vertebrate  (after  Parker 
and  Haswell). — A,  pronephros  and  segmental  duct; 
B,  atrophy  of  pronephros,  development  of  meso- 
nephros; C.  api»earance  of  Mullerian  duct;  P. 
development  01  metanephros,  male  type;  E.  the 
same,  female  type.  The  sex  gland,  ovary,  or  testis 
is  obliquely  shaded;  phonephros  and  mesonephros 
unshaded;  metanephros  stippled;  Mullerian  duct 
heavily  shaded.  The  large  chamber  to  the  right, 
into  which  these  ducts  as  well  as  the  intestine 
open,    is    the    cloaca. 

system.  The  former  in  most  vertebrates  arises 
in  the  embryo  as  part  of  the  segmental  duct  and 
opens  into  the  body  cavity  at  its  anterior  end 
through  a  pronephric  tubule;  the  latter  is  the 
remainder  of  the  segmental  duct,  and  in  animals 
above  the  amphibians,  which  have  a  metanephros 
and  ureter,  acts  exclusively  as  a  spcrmiduct. 

8.  Reproductive  System.  —  Reproduction 
among  animals  is  both  sexual  and  asexual ;  the 
former  occurs  among  all  animals,  the  latter  is 
limited  to  the  lower  forms  and  to  the  constituent 
cells  of  higher  ones.  Sexual  reproduction  or 
amphigony  consists  in  the  union  of  two  cells, 
the  sex  cells  or  gametes,  to  form  a  single  cell 
of  double  origin,  the  oosperm  or  zygote,  from 
which  a  new  individual  similar  to  the  parental 
form  develops.  If  the  gametes  are  approxi- 
mately equal  in  form  and  size  their  union  is 
spoken  of  as  conjugation,  if  they  are  very  unlike 
in  these  respects  they  are  called  ova  and  sperma- 
tozoa, and  their  union  is  known  as  fertilization. 
Both  conjugation  and  fertilization  occur  among 
the  Protozoa,  whereas  all  Metasoa  reproduce 
by  means  of  differentiated  sex  cells,  namely,  ova 


ANATOMY 


and  spermatozoa.  In  a  few  animals  ova  have 
the  power  of  developing  without  previous  fer- 
tilization, the  process  being  known  as  partheno- 
genesis. If  such  development  without  fertiliza- 
tion occurs  in  larval  forms  which  have  not 
completed  their  development  it  is  known  as 
paedogenesis.  In  most  animals  the  sexes  are 
separate, —  that  is,  ova  and  spermatozoa  are 
produced  by  different  individuals,  males  and 
females,  and  the  species  is  dioecious ;  in  some 
cases,  however,  both  kinds  of  sex  cells  are 
produced  by  the  same  individual,  which  is  then 
said  to  be  hermaphrodite,  and  the  species  to  be 
monoecious. 

The  essential  reproductive  organs  are  the 
gonads,  or  the  glands  which  produce  ova  and 
spermatozoa,  namely,  the  ovaries  and  the  testes. 
In  sponges  the  reproductive  cells  are  scattered 
through  the  mesoderm  so  that  in  these  animals 
ovaries  and  testes  cannot  be  said  to  exist.  In 
the  lowest  cnidarians  (Hydrozoa)  the  sex  cells 
are  at  first  widely  scattered  in  the  ectodermal 
epithelium,  but  they  actively  migrate  to  certain 
portions  of  the  hydroid  stem  where  reproduc- 
tive buds  are  being  formed,  and,  aggregating 
here,  form  gonads.  In  all  higher  animals  definite 
gonads  are  present.  No  genital  ducts  are  pres- 
ent in  the  ccelenterates,  and  none  are  needed, 
since  the  sex  cells  can  escape  directly  into  the 
water.  In  animals  above  the  ccelenterates  the 
sex  cells  are  mesodermal  in  origin,  and  in  most 
cases  form  a  part  of  the  epithelium  lining  the 
ccelom.  In  animals  without  a  true  ccelom  the 
sex  cells  arise  within  tubes  or  glands  the  cavi- 
ties of  which  may  perhaps  represent  the  cce- 
lom. In  flatworms  the  gonads  occur  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  a  single  individual.  In 
roundworms  they  are  limited  to  one  or  two 
tubes,  in  rotifers,  mollusks,  molluscoids,  and 
echinoderms  they  are  confined  to  one  or  at 
most  a  few  sex  glands,  while  in  segmented  ani- 
mals they  are  found  in  primitive  forms  in  every 
body  somite,  though  with  advancing  organization 
they  become  limited  to  a  few  segments  or  even 
to  one.  In  most  animals  above  the  ccelenterates 
some  form  of  duct  exists  for  carrying  the  sex 
cells  to  the  exterior ;  among  the  flatworms, 
roundworms,  and  rotifers  these  ducts  are  never 
the  excretory  tubules,  though  they  may  possibly 
represent  the  ccelom  of  higher  animals.  In 
these  higher  forms  they  are  frequently  meta- 
nephridia.  or  modified  excretory  ducts. 

In  many  animals  the  ova  and  spermatozoa 
escape  directly  into  the  water,  and  there  the 
eggs  are  fertilized  and  undergo  development : 
it  is  probable  that  in  these  animals  the  escape 
of  ova  stimulates  the  males  to  eject  spermatozoa 
so  that  both  kinds  of  sex  cells  are  shed  at  about 
the  same  time.  In  such  cases  enormous  num- 
bers of  sex  cells  are  produced  and  very  many 
are  wasted.  A  slight  advance  over  this  con- 
dition is  found  in  those  animals  (frogs,  bony 
fishes,  etc.)  in  which  the  openings  of  the  male 
and  female  ducts  are  placed  close  together  at 
the  time  of  shedding  the  sex  cells;  this  is 
known  as  external  copulation.  In  other  cases 
the  spermatozoa  only  escape  from  the  body,  and 
by  means  of  currents  of  water  they  are  car- 
ried into  the  body  of  the  female,  where  they 
fertilize  the  ova  in  situ,  as  in  sponges,  or  in 
certain  receptacles  into  which  the  eggs  are  col- 
lected, as  in  fresh-water  mussels.  In  other  ani- 
mals copulatory  organs  exirt  which  serve  to  in- 
tioduce   spermatozoa  into  the  sex  ducts  of  the 


female,  thus  increasing  the  chances  for  the 
fertilization  of  the  ova ;  this  is  internal  copula- 
tion. In  many  cases  copulation  occurs  but  once. 
and  the  spermatozoa  are  stored  in  a  seminal 
receptacle  which  opens  into  or  near  the  oviduct. 
Internal  copulation  is  a  necessity  in  all  land 
animals  and  in  parasites,  and  it  also  occurs  in 
many  phyla  of  invertebrates  (flatworms,  round- 
worms, rotifers,  gasteropods,  cephalopods,  anne- 
lids, arthropods). 

In  certain  animals  the  sexes  differ  not  only 
with  respect  to  the  sexual  apparatus  but  also 
in  many  other  regards ;  when  such  differences 
are  very  marked  they  constitute  what  is  known 
as  sexual  dimorphism.  In  such  cases  the  male 
is  frequently  very  degenerate  in  form,  being 
sometimes  not  more  than  a  hundredth  part  the 
size  of  the  female  and  entirely  lacking  alimen- 
tary canal,  sense  organs,  and  nervous  system 
(rudimentary  males  of  rotifers,  barnacles,  etc.). 
Asexual  reproduction,  or  monogony,  consists 
in  the  formation  of  new  individuals  by  division 
of  an  old  one.  In  one-celled  organisms  and  in 
the  constituent  cells  of  higher  animals  this 
takes  the  form  of  cell  division.  In  the  lower 
Metazoa  asexual  reproduction  is  not  limited  to 
cell  division,  but  the  entire  body  or  portions  of 
it  may  undergo  constriction  and  subsequent 
division,  thus  giving  rise  to  new  individuals. 
This  division  may  be  into  equal  parts,  in  which 
case  it  is  called  fission  ;  or  into  unequal  parts, 
when  it  is  known  as  budding  or  gemmation.  In 
animals  which  reproduce  both  sexually  and 
asexually  there  is  a  more  or  less  regular  alter- 
nation of  one  method  with  the  other;  this  is 
known  as  alternation  of  generations  or  meta- 
genesis. The  alternation  of  amphigony  with 
parthenogenesis  is  called  heterogony. 

g.  Nervous  System  and  Sense  Organs. — 
Sensation  and  co-ordination  are  manifestations 
of  protoplasmic  irritability,  or  that  capacity  of 
receiving  and  responding  to  stimuli  characteris- 
tic of  every  cell.  Animals,  even  the  simplest, 
are  sensitive  to  a  variety  of  stimuli,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  mechanical,  chemical, 
thermal,  and  electrical,  as  well  as  light,  gravity, 
etc.  These  stimuli,  acting  on  the  organism, 
start  changes  in  the  protoplasm  (impulst  is  i 
which  are  transmitted  to  portions  of  the  body 
distant  from  the  point  first  stimulated  and  call 
fcrth  the  co-ordinated  activities  of  many  dif- 
ferent parts.  In  higher  animals  there  are  spe- 
cial sense  organs  for  receiving  certain  of  these 
stimuli  and  specialized  protoplasmic  fibres 
(nerve  fibres)  for  transmitting  impulses,  while 
nerve  centres  for  co-ordinating  activities  ap- 
pear very  far  down  in  the  animal  scale.  In  the 
lowest  animals,  however,  there  are  neither  nerv- 
ous system  nor  sense  organs,  and  yet  through 
the  irritability  of  the  general  protoplasm  these 
functions  are  performed. 

A  protozoan  reacts  to  all  stimuli  in  the  same 
way,  and  it  is  probable  that  however  different 
the  stimuli  may  be  they  produce  essentially  the 
same  changes  in  the  protoplasm.  The  sensa- 
tions of  Protozoa,  if  they  can  be  said  to  have 
sensations,  must  be  of  the  most  general  and 
indefinite  sort,  just  as  their  responses  to  stimuli 
show  the  most  monotonous  sameness.  The 
same  thing  is  probably  true  of  sponges,  where 
none  of  the  cells  are  differentiated  for  receiv- 
ing and  transmitting  stimuli.  In  nil  other 
phyla,  however,  certain  cells  of  the  body  are 
set    apart    for    these    particular    functions,    and 


ANATOMY 


the  greater  the  differentiation  in  these  respects 
the  mere  definite  and  varied  arc  the  sensa- 
tions, the  more  swiftly  impulses  are  transmitted 
to  the  motor  system,  and  the  more  complicated 
are  the  responses. 

Nervous  System. —  The  elements  out  of 
which  the  nervous  system  is  built  are  nerve  cells 
and  fibres,  the  latter  being  merely  outgrowths 
of  the  former.  In  practically  all  Metasoa  these 
cells  are  derived  from  ectoderm,  and  in  a  good 
many  animals  the  smse  organs  and  entire 
nervo  m  remain  throughout  life  a  part  of 

tin    superficial  epithelium  which  covers  the  body 

tlenterata,  Chatognatha,  certain  Annelida, 
Molluscoidea,  many  Echinodermata,  Balano- 
h  a  nervous  system  is  said  to  be 
epithelial.  In  all  other  Metasoa  the  nervous 
system,  though  formed  from  epithelium,  sepa- 
rates from  it  m  the  process  of  development,  so 
that  brain,  ganglia,  and  nerve  trunks  come  to  lie 
somi  i     from    the   surface   of  the    body; 

this  is  known  as  an  epitheliogenous  nervous 
system.  In  addition  to  the  two  classes  just 
mentioned,  which  are  based  on  the  relations  of 
the  nerve  cells  to  the  body  layers,  four  types 
of  nervous  system  are  found  among  Metasoa 
which  are  based  upon  the  relations  of  the  nerve 
cells  to  one  another;  these  are  (i)  the  diffuse 
type,  i-M  the  linear  type,  (3)  the  ganglionic 
type,  and   (41   the  tubular  type. 

(1)  A  diffuse  nervous  system  consisting  of 
nerve  cells  and  fibres  scattered  throughout  the 
superficial  epithelium  is  the  simplest  type  known 
and  is  found  among  such  animals  as  sea-anemo- 
nes (Actinosoa)  :  the  nerve  cells  are  here  con- 
nected together  by  means  of  the  fibres  into  a 
ganglionic  plexus.  (2)  The  next  step  in  in- 
creasing complexity  is  represented  by  a  linear 
nervous  system  such  as  is  found  in  the  jelly- 
fishes  ;  here  many  nerve  cells  and  fibres  are  ag- 
gregated  into  a   double   nerve   ring  around   the 


sense  organ  from  which  nerves  radiate,  is  found 
at  the  apical  pole,  and  in  a  great  many  of  the 
higher  animals  the  earliest  formed  and  most 
widely  represented  portion  of  the  nervous  sys- 


Fic 


Fir..   22 


Fig.  23 


Fie.  20. —  Diagram  of  the  nervous  system  of  a  starfish 
(from    Claus). —  N,    nerve    ring. 

Fig.  21. —  Nervous  system  of  a  ftatworm  (Mesostomum) . 
—  G.  cerebral  ganglia  and  eyes;  St,  the  two  late- 
ral   nerve    trunks;    I),    intestine    with    mouth. 

Fig.  22. —  Nervous  system  of  the  larva  of  a  ladybug 
{Coccinella). — dfr.  frontal  ganglion;  G,  cerebral 
ganglia;  Sg.  suhecsophage.tl  ganglion;  G'-  -G"p 
ganglia    "f    the    ventral    chain. 

Fig.   2.3. —  N<  1  1  m    of    adult    ladybug. —  Ag,    op- 

tic  ganglion. 

margin  of  the  umbrella,  thus  forming  a  cen- 
tralized nervous  system;  other  nerve  cells  re- 
maining, scattered  throughout  the  epithelium, 
s-rve  to  connect  the  ganglia  with  the  muscles. 
(3)     The    ganglionic    type.     In    ctenophores,    a 


Fig. 


Fig.  24. —  Diagrams     of     the     vertebrate     brain     (after 
Parker   and    llaswell). —  A,   first   stage,   with    three 
brain  vesicles;  B.  second  stage,  four  brain  vesii  li 
C,     D,     side    view    and    sagittal     section    of     fully 
formed   brain   without   cerebral    hemispheres. 

tern  is  a  sense  organ  and  ganglion  which  ap- 
pear at  the  apical  pole  of  the  gastrula,  and 
becomes  in  the  adult  the  cerebral  ganglion  or 
brain,  lying  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the  oesopha- 
gus. Nerve  trunks  are  always  given  off  from 
this  ganglion,  and  very  generally  two  of  them 
run  down  on  each  side  of  the  oesophagus 
to  its  ventral  side,  thus  forming  a  circuni- 
resophageal  nerve  ring.  In  different  phyla 
longitudinal  nerve  trunks  may  be  given  off  from 
different  parts  of  this  ring;  among  annelids, 
arthropods,  mollusks,  and  molluscoids  from  the 
ventral  side,  and  in  annelids  and  arthropods 
this  forms  the  "ventral  chain,"  which  consists 
typically  of  a  pair  of  ganglia  in  each  somite  con- 
nected with  those  in  front  and  behind  by  nerve 
cords.  The  first  one  in  the  chain  is  the  sub- 
cesophageal  ganglion,  connected  with  the  cere- 
bral ganglion  by  the  circumcesophageal  com- 
missures. In  the  mollusks  the  nervous  system 
consists  of  a  pair  of  supra-  and  sub-oesophagi  al 
ganglia  (cerebral  and  pedal)  which  with  their 
connectives  form  an  oesophageal  ring.  To 
these  is  usually  added  a  pair  of  pleural  and  1  I 
parietal  ganglia  forming  a  loop  which  extend 
back  into  the  body,  while  ventral  trunks  (pedal 
cords)  may  lie  present  in  the  foot.  (4)  The 
tubular  type  of  nervous  system  is  found  only 
among  the  chordatcs  ;  here  the  nervous  sysl<  m 
develops  from  an  epithelial  plate  (neural  plate) 
on  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  embryo,  which  be- 
comes invaginated  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a 
longitudinal  groove,  the  neural  groove.  This 
then  separates  from  the  epithelium  as  a  tube, 
which  in  all  vertebrates  is  enlarged  at  its  an- 
terior end  to  form  the  brain.     This  neural  tube. 


ANATOMY 


while  apparently  a  continuous  structure,  is  really 
composed  of  segments,  the  neuromeres,  one 
neuromere  being  found  in  each  body  somite ; 
the  neuromeres  are  thus  comparable  to  the 
ganglia  of  the  ventral  chain  of  arthropods  and 
annelids.     This     segmentation     of     the     central 


Fig.  25 

Fig.  25. —  Diagrams  of  vertebrate  brain  (after  Parker 
and  Haswell). —  E — H,  transverse  sections  of 
brain  at  different  levels;  E,  of  the  cerebrum;  F, 
of  the  'tween  brain;  G,  of  the  mid  brain;  H,  of 
the  hind  brain;  /,  /,  side  view  and  sagittal  section 
of    a   brain    with    cerebral    hemispheres. 

nervous  system  of  vertebrates  is  indicated  even 
in  the  adult  by  the  segmental  arrangement  of 
the  spinal  and  cranial  nerves.  In  the  embryonic 
development  of  all  vertebrates  the  brain  con- 
sists of  three  enlargements  or  vesicles,  the  fore 
brain,  mid  brain,  and  hind  brain ;  the  first  gives 
rise  to  the  cerebrum  and  'tween  brain  of  the 
adult,  the  second  remains  as  the  mid  brain,  while 
the  third  gives  rise  to  the  cerebellum  and  medul- 
la. The  portion  of  the  neural  tube  posterior  to 
the  brain  becomes  the  spinal  cord  of  the  adult. 
With  the  differentiation  of  nerve  cells  and  fibres 
in  the  walls  of  the  neural  tube  these  walls  in- 
crease greatly  in  thickness,  while  the  originally 
large  cavity  of  the  tube  becomes  restricted  in 
size,  forming  in  the  adult  the  ventricles  of  the 
brain  and  the  central  canal  of  the  cord. 


Fig.  26 


Fig.  26. —  Dorsal  view  of  vertebrate  brain  with  the  cav- 
ities of  the  right  side  exposed  (after  Parker  and 
Haswell). 

Sense  Organs. —  The  simplest  sense  organs 
are  the  scattered  sensory  cells  found  in  the 
superficial  epithelium  of  many  animals ;  these 
may  be  solitary  or  aggregated  into  buds.  They 
are  elongated  epithelial  cells  with  a  hair- 
like process  at  the  free  border  and  a  fibre  at  the 
deeper  end   connecting  with   the  branches  of  a 


ganglion  cell.  They  are  organs  of  general  sen- 
sation,—  that  is,  they  are  capable  of  receiving 
various  kinds  of  stimuli,  such  as  mechanical, 
thermal,  electrical,  and  chemical,  and  are  there- 
fore largely  undifferentiated,  though  probably 
chiefly  subserving  the  sense  of  touch.  These 
integumentary  sense  organs  are  found  in  almost 
every  group  of  animals.  Among  the  verte- 
brates they  are  present  in  primitive  form  over 
the  general  body  surface ;  in  the  fishes  and 
amphibia  they  are  aggregated  into  buds,  form- 
ing the  lateral  line  organs,  while  among  those 
vertebrates  which  do  not  dwell  in  water  deeper- 
lying  organs,  of  modified  type,  are  found  (tactile 
cells,  corpuscles,  and  bulbs).  In  addition  to 
these  organs  of  general  sensation,  higher  Mcta- 
zoa  generally  possess  specific  sense  organs,  name- 
ly, those  differentiated  for  the  reception  of  par- 
ticular kinds  of  stimuli.  These  are  organs  of 
(1)  smell  and  taste,  (2)  equilibrium  and  hear- 
ing. (3)   vision. 

( 1 )  Organs  of  smell  and  taste  are  present  in 
all  vertebrates  and  in  many  invertebrates.  Their 
structure  is  extremely  simple,  being  but  slightly 
modified  from  the  type  of  the  primitive  organs 
described  above.  In  fact  the  olfactory  sense 
cells  of  vertebrates  are  merely  scattered  sensory' 
cells,  while  the  organs  of  taste  (taste  buds) 
are  simple  aggregations  of  such  cells.  Through- 
out the  Metazoa  the  organs  of  taste  and  smell 
are  generally  located  in  ciliated  pits  or  depres- 
sions of  the  integument  either  on  the  head  or 
at  least  near  the  mouth  or  respiratory  organs. 
In  these  positions  they  serve  in  the  one  case  to 
test  food  and  in  the  other  the  quality  of  the 
medium  used  in  respiration.  Among  fishes  the 
olfactory  organs  are  located  in  pits  on  the  front 
of  the  head ;  in  all  air-breathing  vertebrates 
these  open  posteriorly  into  the  mouth  cavity  or 
pharynx,  and  thus  form  the  anterior  part  of 
the  respiratory  tract.  The  organs  of  taste  are 
of  course  in  or  near  the  mouth.  Among  the 
mollusks  a  sense  organ  which  is  probably  ol- 
factory in  function,  the  osphradium,  is  located 
near  the  gills.  Among  the  arthropods  we  find 
notable  modifications  of  these  organs  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  entire  body  surface  is  there 
covered  with  an  impermeable  chitinous  coat. 
These  sense  organs  are  here  peculiar  hollow 
tubes,  the  olfactory  tubes  or  cones,  which  are 
borne  on  the  anterior  portion  of  the  body,  usu- 
ally on  the  antennae  and  mouth  parts;  these 
hairs  are  filled  with  fibrillar  protoplasm  which 
connects  with  sense  cells  at  the  base  of  the 
hair. 

(2)  Organs  of  hearing  and  equilibration  are 
very  widely  represented  throughout  the  animal 
kingdom.  It  is  advisable  to  consider  these  two 
organ  systems  together,  since  the  two  functions 
which  they  subserve  are  united  in  the  same 
general  organ  in  the  vertebrates,  while  in  lower 
forms  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  two.  It  has  long  been  customary  to 
speak  of  all  vesicular  sense  organs  containing 
free  solid  bodies  as  auditory  in  function,  but 
it  is  much  more  likely  that  in  the  lower  Mei 
they  serve  to  acquaint  the  animal  with  its  bodily 
positions, —  that  is.  that  they  are  organs  of  equil- 
ibration. In  many  respects  the  simplest  type  of 
organ  of  this  class  is  found  among  certain 
jellyfishes.  It  here  consists  of  a  short  tentacle 
situated  in  a  depression  of  the  ectoderm  and 
bearing  a  solid  body  or  otolith  near  its  free 
end ;    by    the    movements    of    the    tentacle    the 


ANATOMY 


hairs  or  protoplasmic  processes  of  surrounding     are  generally   found,  owing  to  the  fact  that  tin 


sensory  cells  are  stimulated.     In  other  Medusa 
the  sensory  cells  may  entirely  enclose  the  ten- 


body  is  here  covered  by  chitin  and  that  the  fine 
protoplasmic  processes  or  cilia  arc  absent 
Among  the  crustaceans  the  auditory  organ 
usually  consists  of  a  cavity  in  the  basal  joint  "i 
the  first  antenna,  which  is  open  to  the  exterior 
and  which  contains  water  and  grains  of  sand  ; 
the  wall  of  the  cavity  bears  chitinous  processes 
or  auditory  hairs  which  have  a  nervous  conn<  i 
tion  at  their  base;  these  hairs  are  stimulated  by 
the  movements  of  the  water  and  sand  within  tin 
auditory  sac.  Many  insects  have  a  true  torn 
perceiving  organ,  the  chordotonal  organ ;  in 
principle  this  consists  of  a  few  elongated  cells, 
the  chord,  which  are  attached  directly  to  the 
integument  at  one  end  and  by  a  ligament  to  an 
opposite  point  of  the  integument  :  when  this 
apparatus  is  thrown  into  vibration  impulses  are 
conveyed  to  the  nerve  cells  attached  to  some 
portion  of  the  chord.  In  other  insects  (Ortlio[>- 
I,  iii )  a  tympanal  organ  may  be  present,  con- 
sisting of  a  vibrating  membrane  overlying  a 
tracheal  chamber;  sense  cells  are  present  be- 
tween the  membrane  and  chamber,  and  when 
the  membrane  is  set  into  vibration  by  sound 
waves  the  sense  cells  are  stimulated.  Among 
aquatic   vertebrates   a   system   of   integumentary 


Fie.  27 

Fig.  27. — Auditory  or  equilibrative  organs  of  jelly- 
fishes  (from  Hatschelc). —  A.  of  Cunarcha.  B.  of 
Pectis.  C.  of  Rlwpalonema.  Ih  of  Cumarina. 
Ok,  auditory  tentacle;  Ol,  Otolith;  Oh,  auditory 
hairs;    «.   nerve. 

tacle,  thus  forming  an  auditory  vesicle  or  oto- 
cyst.  The  auditory  organs  of  most  vertebrates, 
as  well  a-  of  most  invertebrates,  can  be  traced 
back  to  this  simple  type.  The  sensory  cells 
forming  the  walls  of  the  otocyst  are  similar 
to  tactile  cells. —  that  is.  they  bear  processes 
projecting  into  the  cavity  of  the  otocyst.  while 
the  bases  of  these  cells  are  connected  with 
ganglion  cells.  By  the  movements  of  the  oto- 
lith, usually  a  calcareous  concretion,  these  cells  Fig.  25. —  Internal  ear  of  different  vertebrates.  I, 
are   Stimulated   and   the    impulses   thus   generated  r's,h«-    "..    Birds.    III.    Mammals.      (From    Claus.) 

,  ,       xu  £l  r\.  — e/.    utnculus    with    semicircular    canals;    .s.    sac- 

Conveyed  away  by  the  nerve  fibre.     Otocysts  of  cuius;    vs.    utriculus    and    sacculus;    C.   cochlear 

this    type    are    possessed    by    mollusks,    certain  duct;  L.  lagena;  Cr,  canalis  reuniens;  1\.  recessus 

vestibuli. 

sense  buds  is  found  along  the  lateral  borders  of 
the  body  and  over  the  head,  which  is  known 
as  the  lateral  line  system.  The  function  of 
these  organs  is  not  surely  known,  but  it  is 
probable  that  they  are  organs  of  touch  and  also 
of  equilibration.  In  all  vertebrates  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  auditory  organs,  as  well  as  the  or- 
gans of  smell  and  taste,  have  been  derived  from 
integumentary  sense  organs  homologous  with 
those  of  the  lateral  line.  In  the  process  of 
development  the  car  appears  as  a  pit-like  in- 
vagination of  the  skin  which  is  then  infolded 
to  form  a  vesicle;  this  vesicle  then  becoming 
partially  divided  into  two  chambers,  the  utricle 
and  the  saccule.  In  most  vertebrates  the  for- 
mer bears  three  pairs  of  semicircular  canais 
which  are  organs  of  equilibration,  while  the 
latter  gives  rise  to  a  recess,  the  lagena,  which 
becomes  the  cochlear  duct  in  mammals  and  is  a 
true  auditory  organ.     Calcareous  concretions  or 


Fig.  28 

Fig.  28. —  Auditory  or  equilibrative   organs   of  mollusks 
(from    Hatschelc). 

annelids,  turbellarians,  and  brachiopods.     In  the 
case   of  arthropods   organs   of  a   different   type 


ANATOMY 


otoliths  are  present  in  this  much-folded  and 
complicated  otocyst.  This  sensory  portion  of 
the  auditory  organ  is  known  as  the  inner  ear ; 


Fig.  30. — A,  section  through  the  open  eye-pit  of  a 
limpet  (Patella);  B,  the  two  kinds  of  retinal  cells, 
pigmented    and    sensory    (from    Hatschek). 

to  this  is  added  in  all  animals  above  the  frogs 
and  toads  a  middle  ear  or  tympanum  which 
transmits  the  sound  waves  from  the  surface 
to  the  inner  ear.  Finally,  in  the  mammals  there 
are  folds  of  the  integument  around  the  tym- 
panic membrane  which  serve  to  collect  sound 
waves  and  which  constitute  the  external  ear. 

(3)  Visual  Organs. —  Animals  without  any 
trace  of  eyes  are  sensitive  to  light  (certain 
Protozoa,  Turbcllaria,  Larva) ,  and  it  must  there- 
fore be  assumed  that  protoplasm  may  be  di- 
rectly stimulated  by  light  without  the  interven- 
tion of  any  special  organ.  In  its  simplest  form 
an  eye  consists  of  one  or  a  few  transparent  cells 
partially  surrounded  by  pigment  in  the  form  of 
a  cup,  so  that  the  light  can  enter  only  from 
one  side;  the  pigment  not  only  absorbs  light 
rays,  but  it  optically  isolates  the  cells  within 
from  those  without  this  cup  (some  Medusa, 
Turbcllaria,  Annelida).  The  function  of  such  an 
eye  is  probably  to  determine  the  direction  of 
light,  since.it  could  give  no  image  of  luminous 
objects.  A  slight  advance  over  this  simplest 
type  of  eye  is  found  in  the  cup-shaped  eyes  of 
certain  mollusks ;  here  certain  superficial  epithe- 

P9     ce   I 


V  - 


are  the  sensory  cells  and  are  connected  at  their 
bases  with  nerve  fibres.  If  this  cup-shaped 
eye  becomes  infolded  still  further  and  its  open- 
ing grows  smaller  and  finally  closes  altogether, 
it  forms  a  vesicular  eye  such  as  is  present  in 
certain  mollusks  and  annelids.  The  wall  of 
this  vesicle,  which  is  turned  toward  the  epithe- 
lium, is  transparent  and  may  become  thickened 
to  form  a  lens ;  the  opposite  wall  of  the  vesicle 
is  pigmented  and  is  known  as  the  retina.  In 
such  an  eye  the  free  ends  of  the  retinal  cells 
are  turned  toward  the  cavity  of  the  vesicle, 
while  the  opposite  ends,  which  are  directed  away 
from  the  vesicle,  are  prolonged  into  fibres ;  such 
an  eye  has  a  direct  retina.  This  type  of  eye 
reaches  its  highest  development  among  the 
cephalopods,  where  it  bears  a  striking  super- 
ficial resemblance  to  the  vertebrate  eye.  A  rudi- 
mentary eye  of  this  type  is  present  in  all  ver- 
tebrates as  the  pineal  organ  or  gland.  This  is 
an  unpaired  structure  on  the  dorsal  side  of  the 


Fig.  31 

Fig.  31. —  Section  through  the  eye  of  a  water-beetle 
(Hydrophilus)  (from  Hatschek);  /,  chitinous 
lens;  cv,  transparent  cells;  pg,  pigment  cells; 
R,    retina. 

Hal  cells  are  infolded  to  form  a  cup  ;  in  some 
cases  deeply  pigmented,  while  other  intermediate 
cells  remain  clear  and  unpigmented.     The  latter 


Fig.  32 

Fig.  32. —  Section  through  the  cup-shaped  eye  of  a 
gasteropod  (Haliotis)  (from  Hatschek). —  e, 
epithelium  covering  body;  cv,  vitreous  body;  R, 
retina;    .V.    nerve. 

'tween  brain  and  in  certain  reptiles  is  plainly 
a  vesicular  eye  with  direct  retina.  The  paired 
eyes  of  vertebrates  are  also  vesicular,  but  in 
them  the  retina  is  inverse, — that  is,  the  free  ends 
of  the  retinal  cells  are  directed  away  from  the 
cavity  of  the  vesicle,  while  the  ends  which  bear 
the  fibres  are  directed  toward  it.  The  explanation 
of  this  remarkable  condition  is  found  in  the 
study  of  the  development  of  these  eyes.  They 
arise  as  lateral  evaginations  of  the  walls  of  the 
embryonic  fore  brain,  are  then  constricted  from 
the  brain,  and  become  vesicles  connected  with 
the  fore  brain  by  only  a  stalk.  At  this  stage 
the  vertebrate  eye  is  like  the  invertebrate  one 
save  only  that  it  has  arisen  from  the  neural  in- 
stead of  the  superficial  epithelium.  All  the  cells 
which  form  the  vesicle  have  their  free  ends 
directed  toward  its  cavity,  while  their  basal  ends 
are  directed  away  from  it.  The  outer  wall  of 
this  optic  vesicle  is  then  infolded  until  it  comes 
into  contact  with  the  inner  wall,  thus  forming 
a  cup  open  toward  the  skin.     The  ectoderm  over 


ANATOMY  OF  MELANCHOLY;    ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS 


FJo.  33 

Fig.  33. —  T.ongituelinal  section  through  the  pineal  eye 
of  a  lizard  (Sfhenodon)  (after  Baldwin  Spencer), 
The  eye  is  located  in  the  middle  of  the  dorsal  side 
of  the  head  and  is  covered  by  translucent  scales. 
The  outer  wall  of.  the  eye  vesicle  is  thickened  to 
form  a  lens,  while  the  inner  pigmented  wall  is 
the    retina   from    which    the   nerve  proceeds. 


Fig.  34 


Fig.  34. —  A.  section  through  the  compound  eye  of  a 
crayfish  (from  Hatschck). —  1,  cornea;  2.  crystal- 
line cones;  3,  rctinula;;  4,  pigment  cells;  5,  cuti- 
cle; 6,  epithelium;  n,  optic  nerve,  g,  ganglia. 
!;     V  sing]  ment    fommatidium)   from  the  com- 

pound eye  of  a  crayfish. —  1,  corneal  lens;  2,  cor- 
neal cells;  3.  crystalline  cone  cells;  4,  5,  outer  and 
inner  partr.  of  the  crystalline  cone;  /».  pigment 
cells;  r,  rctinula;  K,  rhahdomc;  b,  basement  mem- 
brane. 


the  opening  of  the  oplic  cup  is  then  infolded 
to  form  the  lens,  which  completely  separates 
from  the  surface  and  Iks  in  the  mouth  >i  ihe 
cup.  The  infolded  wall  of  the  cup  alone  forms 
tin-    retina,    and    therefore    the    free    enils    of    the 

retinal   cells  are   directed   away   from   the   lens 

and  the  cavity  of  the  cup.  1  he  lens  and  optic 
cup  arc  then  surrounded  hy  fibrou  cular 

coats,  the  sclerotic  and  choroid;  a  chamber  is 
formed  in  front  of  the  lens  which  is  filled  with 
water  or  aqueous  humor,  while  one  behind  the 
lens  and  in  front  of  the  retina  is  filled  with 
vitreous  humor. 

The   compound    eye    is    another   type 
chiefly    among     arthropods.     It     1  of    a 

large  number  «it"  closely-packed  single  eyes  or 
ommatidia,  each  of  which  is  surrounded  hy  pig- 
ment and  is  optically  isolated  from  the  others. 
Each  ommatidium  consists  of  (l)  a  hexagonal 
cornea  at  the  surface,  (2)  a  crystalline  cone 
below  this,  and  (3)  the  rctinula  or  group  of 
retinal  cells  which  are  connected  with  nerve 
fibres.  The  cornea  and  crystalline  cone  are  re- 
fractive and  serve  in  the  capacity  of  a  lens, 
while  the  rctinula  alone  is  the  sensory  element. 
Edwin  Grant  Conklin, 
University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Anatomy  of  Melancholy,  The,  a  famous 
work  by  Robert  Burton  (1577-1(140).  It  was  first 
issued  in  1621  under  the  name  'Democritus 
Junior,'  and  was  revised  five  times  by  the  author 
before  his  death.  It  is  divided  into  three  sys- 
tematic sections  devoted  respectively  to  the 
causes  and  symptoms  of  melancholy,  its  cure, 
and  of  amorous  and  religious  melancholy.  It 
is  in  effect  an  omnium  gatherum  of  all  sorts  of 
out-of-the-way  lore,  from  diet  to  demonology, 
and  its  literary  felicity  and  humor  have  aided 
in    keeping    it    alive    as    genuine    literature. 

Anatomy  of  Plants.  The  cell,  the  elemen- 
tary organ  of  plants  and  animals,  was  first  ob- 
served hy  the  English  micrographcr  Robert 
Hooke  (1667),  who  suggested  the  name  "cell  " 
because  of  its  resemblance  to  the  cell  of  a  honey- 
comb. A  few  years  later  another  English  au- 
thor, Nehemiah  Grew,  extended  this  observation 
and  published  the'  first  work  on  plant-anatomy 
(1672),  in  which  he  described  the  minor  struc- 
ture of  leaves,  stems,  and  roots,  anil  introduced 
several  anatomical  terms  still  in  use.  Grew- 
was  soon  followed  by  an  Italian.  Marcello  M.tl- 
pighi.  the  author  of  the  illustrious  work,  'Ana- 
tome  Plantarum'  (1675).  and  these  three  men 
are  thus  the  founders  of  the  science  of  plant 
anatomy.  Many  years  later  Robert  Brown 
(1833)  detected  the  nucleus  in  the  cell,  and  the 
German  botanist  Schleidcn  (1838)  pointed  out 
the  general  occurrence  of  this  new  body  within 
the  cells  of  plants  and  its  importance  to  the 
cell-division.  These  discoveries  soon  led  to  the 
apprehension  of  the  cell  as  being  the  elementary 
organ  of  plants,  and  when  the  occurrence  of 
nucleus  had  been  proved  also  in  the  cells  of 
animals  the  German  naturalist  Schwann  (1839) 
advanced  the  important  doctrine  that  bodies  of 
animals  and  plants  consist  of  cells  and  the 
products  of  these 

While  the  nucleus  had  thus  been  detected 
and  described  to  some  extent,  there  still  re- 
mained a  closer  examination  to  he  made  of  the 
other  parts  of  the  cell-content,  which  some  of 
the  earlier  investigators  had  already  observed 
and  described  as  a  soft,  gritty  matter,  capable 


ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS 


of  motion  in  the  cell.  This  cell-content  was 
studied  by  Mohl  (1846),  who  gave  it  the  name 
protoplasm.  The  constituents  of  the  cell  were 
thus  properly  defined  as  the  cell-wall,  the 
protoplasm,  and  the  nucleus.  Of  these  the 
protoplasm  and  the  nucleus  are  the  most  essen- 
tial parts,  since  the  wall  is  not  always  developed, 
but  is  totally  absent  in  numerous  animal-cells 
and  also  in  those  of  several  plants  among  the 
lower  Alga  and  Fungi,  at  certain  stages,  for  ex- 
ample. A  completely  developed  plant-cell  may 
for  the  most  part  be  defined  as  a  microscopical, 
closed  vesicle  consisting  of  a  wall,  and  the  con- 
tents, nucleus,  protoplasm,  and  cell-sap.  The 
shape  of  the  cell  presents  a  vast  number  of 
forms,  generally  referred  to  only  two  types: 
the  parenchymatic  and  the  prosenchymatic.  Of 
these  the  parenchymatic  is  either  isodiametric 
or  elongated,  but  with  blunt  ends  and  usually 
thin-walled,  while  the  prosenchymatic  is  mostly 
elongated  with  pointed  or  sharp  endings,  and 
is  more  or  less  thick-walled.  A  third  type  of 
cell  may  be  mentioned,  the  "hypha"  of  certain 
Alga  and  Fungi,  which  is  very  thin,  thread- 
like, and  composed  of  a  single  cell  or  many. 
There  are  plants  consisting  of  one  cell  only, 
but  most  plants  are  composed  of  an  enormous 
number,  which  together  constitute  the  so-called 
"cellular  tissues,"  parenchyma  and  prosenchyma, 
in  respect  to  the  shape  of  the  cells  of  which 
they  are  composed.  The  function  performed 
by  these  tissues  is  very  different,  and  the  classi- 
fication as  parenchyma  and  prosenchyma  is  thus 
not  sufficient,  since  this  only  applies  tD  the 
external  shape  of  the  cells.  In  accordance  with 
both  structure  and  function  the  following  tissues 
are  observable  in  the  higher  plants :  Epidermis, 
the  mechanical  tissue,  the  conductive  tissue,  and 
the  fundamental  tissue;  the  first  and  the  last 
of  these  tissues  being  parenchymatic,  the  others 
prosenchymatic. 

The  minor  structure  of  these  various  tis- 
sues may  be  described  as  follow- : 

Epidermis. —  This  is  the  outermost  cell- 
covering  of  a  plant-organ,  such  as  the  leaf,  stem. 
and  root,  and  consists  of  at  least  one  layer  of 
cells.  The  outer  cell-wall  is  often  considerably 
thickened  and  invariably  covered  by  a  thin  mem- 
brane, the  so-called  cuticle  (c  in  Fig.  1)  which 


tion  of  a  leaf  of  aloe  (Fig.  1)  in  which  all 
three  epidermal  peculiarities  are  quite  well  de- 
veloped.    The  thick  cuticle  and  cuticular  layers 


Fig.    i. —  Epidermal    cells    of    the    leaf    of    aloe: 
cuticle;   c.s.,   cuticular  layers;   b,  cellulose. 


the 


is  highly  impermeable  to  water,  and  especially 
well-developed  in  land-plants;  in  submerged 
water-plants  the  cuticle  is.  on  the  other  hand, 
much  reduced.  The  epidermal  system  of  plants 
has  a  threefold  significance:  it  protects  the 
more  delicate  parts  of  the  organs  against 
mechanical  injuries,  pressure,  etc.;  it  forms  a 
protection  against  evaporation  by  being  im- 
permeable to  water  and  water-vapor,  and  forms 
also  a  water-supplying  system.  These  three 
functions  are  expressed  by  various  development 
of  the  cells,  which  may  he   illustrated  by  a  scc- 


Fig.  2. —  a,     simple     hair    of     Mcrtensia:     d,     glandular 
hair  of  Saxifrage 

form  an  excellent  protection  against  loss  of 
moisture,  while  the  thickening  of  the  outer  cell- 
wall  and  portion  of  the  radial  walls  furnishes 
the  mechanical  support.  Characteristic  of  epi- 
dermis, furthermore,  is  its  covering  of  hairs, 
which  present  a  number  of  forms,  and  of  which 
the  majority  are  developed  from  the  epidermis 
itself.     Some  of  them  consist  only  of  a  single 


Fie.  3. —  Branched   hair   of   Croton. 

cell,  hut  usually  they  are  composed  of  several. 
The  hairs  may  be  simple  (Fig.  2.  a)  or  branched 
(  Fig.  .? ),  and  attain  various  forms  from  sharply- 


ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS 


pointed  to  globose,  scale-like  (Fig.  4)  or  star- 
shaped.  The  ordinary  hairs  contain  only  air, 
and  when  oecurring  as  a  dense  covering  of  the 


ing-hairs, —  that  is,  hairs  in  the  shape  of  hooks 
by  which  the  weak  steins  of  certain  plants  —  for 
instance,  hop,  cleavers,  etc. —  are  able  to  climb  by 
attaching  themselves  to  other  plants. 

Finally  to  he  mentioned  are  the  stomata.  If 
the  epidermis  be  able  to  regulate  the  evapora- 
tion, it  is  readily  understood  that  this  tissue 
must  be  compact  and  without  intercellular 
spaces  unless  these  be  capable  of  closing  and 
opening  themselves  under  certain  conditions. 
Such  intercellular  spaces  occur  in  the  epidermis 


Fig.  4. —  Scale-like  hair  of  Tillandsia. 

plant-organ  aid  materially  in  the  protection 
against  loss  of  moisture,  thus  entering  directly 
into  the  function  of  epidermis.  Other  hairs 
contain  and  secrete  ethereal  oils,  the  so-called 
glandular  hairs  (Fig.  2  d),  which  may  serve  for 
attracting  insects  to  carry  the  pollen,  or  if  the 
secretion  is  of  a  sticky  consistence,  the  function 
may  be  to  keep  off  injurious,  crawling  insects, 
less  adapted  for  aiding  in  cross-fecundation. 
Several  hairs  contain  poisonous  matters  and 
cause  great  pain  when  touched,  as  for  instance 
the  hairs  of  the  common  nettle,  but  the 
physiological  significance  of  such  and  other  hair 
structures   is  not   satisfactorily  explained. 

A  very  simple  structure  is  possessed  by  the 
root-hairs,  which  consist  of  only  a  single  epider- 


FlG.  6. —  Epidermis,    with    stomata,    of    Commelina:    g, 
guard-cell ;  s,   subsidiary  cells. 

and  were  by  De  Candolle  named  "stomata." 
Each  stoma  consists  of  two  crescent-shaped 
cells  (g  in  Fig.  5),  the  guard-cells,  which  turn 
their  concave  faces  against  each  other,  thus 
forming  an  intercellular  space  leading  into 
a  wide  cavity,  the  so-called  air-chamber  (ac 
in  Fig.  7).     Adjoining  the  guard-cells  are  usu- 


tp. 


Fig.  7. —  Cross-section  of  a  stoma  from  the  leaf  of 
Commelina :  ac,  the  air-chamber;  g,  guard-cells; 
s,   subsidiary   cells. 

ally  two  or  more  epidermis-cells  of  a  shape 
somewhat  different  from  the  01  hers,  and  these 
have  been  called  the  subsidiary  cells  (s  in  Fig. 
5)  ;  their  number  and  manner  of  arrangement 
is  often  very  variable  in  several  orders  of  tin 
the  phanerogams.  The  guard-cells  are,  as  a  rule, 
the  only  cells  of  epidermis  which  contain  chloro- 
phyll and  starch  ;  they  have  the  power  of  closing 
mis-cell,  and  of  which  the  function  is  to  absorb  or  opening  the  orifice  of  the  intercellular  space, 
and  conduct  food  substances  in  solution.  A  purely  a  phenomenon  that  has  been  studied  and  ex- 
mechanical   function   is   exhibited  by   the  climb-     plained    by     Schwcndener.     When    moist    these 


Fig.   5. —  Epidermis,    with    etomata,    of    Medeola 
two  guard-cells;  *,  the  subsidiary  cells. 


ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS 


cells  become  swollen,  and,  as  they  lengthen, 
curve  outward  in  the  middle  so  as  to  leave  a 
free  opening.  An  opposite  movement  takes 
place  when  they  become  dry :  they  are  then 
shortened  and  straightened  with  their  inner 
faces  applied  to  each  other,  closing  the  orifice. 
Stomata  occur  as  a  rule  on  all  green  plant- 
organs,  stems,  and  leaves,  but  lack  in  those 
that  are  constantly  under  water,  and  they  are 
totally  absent  in  the  thallophytes.  The  location 
of  the  stomata  varies  somewhat,  but  they  are 
more  numerous  on  the  lower  face  of  the  leaves 
than  on  the  upper.  Their  position  offers  a 
number  of  variations  and  is  sometimes  de- 
pendent upon  the  nature  of  the  surroundings, 
especially  of  the  climate,  the  dryness  of  the  air, 
etc.  The  guard-cells  may  be  free,  reaching 
above  the  surrounding  epidermis  (Fig.  7),  or 
they  may  be  sunk  below  this.  A  very  peculiar 
arrangement  is  noticeable  in  Nerium,  where 
the  stomata  are  located,  several  together,  in  de- 
pressions of  the  leaf-surface.  A  modification 
of  stomata  are  the  so-called  water-pores,  ex- 
hibiting a  like  structure,  but  somewhat  larger 
than  these  and  unable  to  open  or  close  them- 
selves. They  are  mostly  located  on  the  margins 
of  leaves  near  the  ends  of  the  nerves. 

The   Cork. — ■  While  the  epidermis  is    seldom 
of  any   long   duration    in   plant-organs     which 


Fie.  8. —  Cross-section  of  the  stem  of   Trifolium,  show- 
ing the   cork   (c). 

persist  for  more  than  one  season,  another  cov- 
ering becomes  necessary  and  is  represented  by 
the  so-called  cork.  This  tissue  may  be  de- 
veloped by  the  epidermis  itself,  but  in  most 
instances  it  originates  in  the  parenchymatic  lay- 
ers underneath  the  epidermis,  or  sometimes 
much  deeper,  in  the  innermost  portion  of  the 
cortex,  for  instance.  The  cork  is  able  to  con- 
tinue its  growth,  following  the  increase  in  thick- 
ness of  the  stem,  and  consists  of  several  strata 
of  quadratic  or  rectangular  cells,  arranged  in 
compact  rows,  vertical  on  the  surface  of  the 
plant-organ    (Fig.  8). 

The  Mechanical  Tissue. —  The  best  known 
elements  of  this  tissue  are  the  so-called  "stere- 
ome-cells,"  which  are  thick-walled,  very  long 
prosenchymatic  cells,  of  which  the  walls  have 
narrow  pores  and  consist  of  cellulose.  The 
stereome-cells  are  mostly  arranged  in  strands 
and  located  in  such  portions  of  leaves  or  stems 
as  are  the  most  exposed  to  injury.  The  cells 
are  very  flexible,  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
layers  is  remarkably  well  fitted  for  rendering 
the  plant-organ  the  greatest  possible  support 
by  means  of  the  smallest  quantity  of  material, 
as  demonstrated  by  Schwendener.  Besides  this 
function  the  mechanical  tissue  is  also  observed 
to  form  protective  layers  around  the  mestome- 
bundlcs,  especially  near  the  leptome-elements. 


Another  thick-walled  but  parenchymatic 
cell-form  is  the  so-called  sclerotic,  occurring  in 
the  cocoa-nut,  walnut,  etc. 

The  collenchymatic  cells  may  be  mentioned 
here:  they  are  elongated,  prismatic  cells  of 
which  the  walls  are  thickened  only  in  the 
corners  and  consist  mainly  of  cellulose.  Collen- 
chymatic tissue  is  frequent  in  the  periphery  of 
stems  of  herbaceous  plants,  and  in  leaves,  near 
the  larger  nerves  of  these. 

The  Conductive  Tissue. —  This  tissue  is  rep- 
resented by  the  so-called  "mestome-bundles," 
or  "vascular  bundles"  of  earlier  authors,  which 
traverse  the  plant-organs  mostly  in  a  longitudi- 
nal direction ;  they  constitute  a  part  of  the 
nerves  in  leaves  and  of  the  wood  in  trees.  Their 
composition  is  often  very  complicated,  especially 
in  stems  and  roots,  where  they  are  often  asso- 
ciated with  some  of  the  other  tissues,  from 
which  they  are  not  always  readily  distinguished. 
At  present  "mestome,"  as  proposed  by  Schwen- 
dener, comprises  only  two  elements,  "leptome" 
and  "hadrome,"  of  which  the  former  conducts 
albuminous  matters  and  contains  the  sieve- 
tubes  and  the  medullary  ray-parenchyma.  The 
hadrome  contains  the  vessels  and  the  woody 
parenchyma  and  conducts  the  water.  These 
terms,  leptome  and  hadrome,  are  not  identical 
with  the  "phloem"  and  "xylem"  formerly  sug- 
gested by  Nageli,  since  this  author  included  the 
mechanical  tissue,  the  stereome,  which  is  often 
developed  in  almost  immediate  connection  with 
the  true  conductive  tissue. 

Mestome-bundles,  containing  leptome  and 
hadrome,  are  observable  in  all  the  higher  plants : 
vascular  cryptogams  and  phanerogams,  but 
are  not  developed  in  any  of  the  thallophytes 
(Fungi  and  Alga)  or  in  the  mosses.  In  re- 
gard to  the  various  cell-forms  represented  in  the 
conductive  tissue  or  mestome,  the  so-called  ves- 
sels play  an  important  role  by  their  characteris- 
tic structure.  Vessels  are  tubes  which  have 
been  developed  from  cell-rows  whose  transverse 
walls  have  either  entirely  or  partially  disap- 
peared, leaving  ridges  or  rings,  and  of  which 
the  longitudinal  walls  are  strengthened  by  va- 
rious thickenings.  The  so-called  "tracheids" 
are  somewhat  modified  forms  of  vessels,  but 
hardly  distinguishable  from  them  except  by 
their  narrower  width.  Both  vessels  and  tra- 
cheids  occur  under  the  same  types  as  "spiral," 
"reticular,"  "scalariform"  and  "porous,"  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  manner  of  thickening  ob- 
servable in  their  walls ;  of  these  the  porous 
tracheids  are  particularly  numerous.  The  wood 
of  conifers  consists  exclusively  of  such  porous 
tracheids,  which  are  especially  characteristic  by 
the  pores  being  bordered. 

The  woody  parenchyma  and  medullary  rays 
resemble  in  structure  those  parenchymatic  cells 
having  numerous  rounded,  simple  pores,  but  dif- 
fer in  their  position  and  arrangement :  the 
former  usually  extending  longitudinally  in  the 
shape  of  bands,  while  the  medullary  rays  repre- 
sent radial  bands  or  plates.  Some  distinction  is 
also  noticeable  in  the  shape  of  these  cells :  that 
of  the  wood-parenchyma  being  elongated  in  the 
direction  of  the  axis  of  growth,  while  the  cell 
of  the  medullary  ray  is  chiefly  elongated  in  a 
radial  direction. 

The  leptome  contains,  as  stated  above,  the 
sieve-tubes  with  the  cambiform.  This  tissue 
differs   widely   from   the   hadrome   in   the   great 


ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS 


softness  and  much  narrower  lumen  of  its  in- 
dividual cells.  The  sieve-tubes  are  usually 
elongated  cells  of  which  the  transverse  walls 
exhibit  a  very  distinct  perforation,  whence  the 
term  sieve-plate  is  generally  given  to  this  par- 
ticular cell-wall.  The  openings  in  the  sieve- 
plates  permit  the  circulation  of  undissolved  al- 
buminous matters.  The  sieve-tubes  and  plates 
are  often  difficult  to  on  account  of  their 

delicate  structure  and  minute  size;  they  are, 
however,  well  distinguishable  in  the  stems  of 
the  grape-vine  and  "t'  the  Cucurbitacea. 

There  is  still  a  small  conducting  system, 
which  may  be  mentioned  here,  although  belong- 
ing either  to  the  leptome  or  the  hadrome.  It 
is  the  lactiferous  tissue,  containing  the  so-called 
milk-tubes,  often  located  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  leptome.  The  cell-wall  consists  of  cellu- 
:  it  is  as  a  rule  very  thin  and  without  pores 
or  thickenings.  The  milk-tubes  of  certain  spe- 
cies of  Euphorbia  differ  from  the  type  by  being 
thick-walled  and  slightly  porous.  The  content 
is  a  milky  juice,  mostly  whitish,  seldom  yellow, 
as  in  celandine  (Chelidonium) ,  or  reddish  as 
in  bloodroot.  Milk-tubes  occur  as  "ducts"  or 
"cells."  and  are  developed  in  different  ways. 
The  "ducts"  are  formed  by  parencbymatic  cells 
arranged  in  rows,  and  of  which  the  radial  cell- 
walls  become  dissolved  entirely.  The  "cells* 
are,  on  the  other  hand,  single  cells,  which  grow 
out  into  long  and  branched  tubes  similar  in 
some  respects  to  the  so-called  "hyphx"  of  cer- 
tain  fungi. 

The  Fundamental  Tissue. —  This  tissue  com- 
prises all  the  other  tissues  of  the  plant  not  refer- 
able to  the  epidermis,  the  mechanical,  or  the 
conductive  tissue,  and  is  as  a  rule  composed  of 
thin-walled,  parenchymatic  cells  with  distinct 
intercellular  spaces.  Its  function  is  principally 
to  prepare  and  store  nutritive  matters,  hence  the 
chlorophyll,  the  starch,  and  similar  matters  are 
contained  in  this  tissue.  Several  types  of  fun- 
damental tissue  have  been  distinguished  in  the 
various  plant-organs,  such  as  the  cortex  in  stems 
and  roots ;  the  pith  in  stems,  but  only  occa- 
sionally in  roots;  the  mesophyll  with  the  pali- 
sade- and  pneumatic-tissue  in  leaves;  and  finally 
the  parenchymatic  sheaths,  which  often  sur- 
round the  mestome-bundles  as  the  endodermis, 
the  mestome-sheath,  etc. 

The  location  of  these  various  types  of  the 
fundamental  tissue  is  as  follows:  The  cortex, 
whose  outermost  layers  are  often  designated  as 
the  "hypoderm,"  is  in  the  stem  located  beneath 
the  epidermis  and  borders  inwardly  on  the 
mestome-bundles  or  on  the  mechanical  tissue, 
supporting  these.  The  cortex  contains  often 
ducts  and  cells  with  chrystals,  and  is  in  not  a 
few  instances  traversed  by  acriferous  lacuncs 
of  quite  considerable  width,  which  prevail  in 
aquatic  plants.  The  cortex  in  the  root  occupies 
the  same  position,  and  its  innermost  layer  is 
here  constantly  differentiated  as  an  endodermis, 
bordering  on  the  pericambium.  The  endoder- 
mis of  both  stem  and  root  differs  from  the 
Other  strata  of  the  cortex  by  the  cells  being 
prismatic  and  often  quite  long,  by  the  cell-walls 
sometimes  attaining  a  prominent  thickening,  and 
by  the  corky  substance  of  the  cell-wall. 

In  many  respects  the  pith  resembles  the  cor- 
tex, but  is  usually  of  a  more  regular  and  uni- 
form structure,  as  a  rule  constituting  the  inner- 
most portion  of  the  central  cylinder  of  stems. 
M. -tome-bundles,  ducts,   Iacunes,  and  chrystal- 


bearing  cells  may  also  be  observed  in  the  pith, 
but  not   so    frequently  as   in  the   cortex. 

A  tissue  corresponding  in  many  respects  to 
the  cortex   is   the  chlorophyll  bearing  palisadi 

and  pneumatic-tissue  in  leaves.  I  he  cells  of 
the  palisade-tissue  arc  very  thin-walled,  rectan- 
gular, and  placed  vertically  on  the  Upper  surface 
< >f  the  leaves;  tiny  contain  chlorophyll  in  abun- 
dance. The  pneumatic-tissue  is  located  under- 
neath the  palisade-tissue  and  borders  on  the 
epidermis  of  the  lower  face  of  the  leaf.    It  is 

of  a  very  open  structure  on  account  of  the  fre- 
quently very  irregular  shape  '>f  the  cells,  winch 
may  vary  frum  roundish  to  polyhedric  Or  even 
stellate,  a  structure  corresponding  well  with  its 

function  and  its  location  near  the  lower  epider- 
mis,  where   the   stomala   are  most   numerous. 

These  tissues,  briefly  described  above,  are 
the  most  characteristic  ones  of  plant-organs, 
but  their  mutual  position  in  these  organs  offers 
not  a  few  variations,  hence  it  will  be  necessary 
to  present  a  discussion  of  their  occurrence  as 
constituting  the  structure  of  roots,  stems,  and 
leaves. 

The  Anatomy  of  the  Root. —  The  fact  that 
the  root  is  only  slightly  susceptible  of  modifica- 
tion in  respect  to  its  external  structure  is  espe- 
cially expressed  by  the  great  uniformity  that 
prevails  in  its  internal  structure.  Roots,  however, 
are  not  always  quite  as  uniformly  developed 
as  generally  described,  but  very  few  botanists 
have  paid  much  attention  to  their  structural 
peculiarities.  Some  types  of  roots  have  been 
suggested, —  for  instance  "nutritive,"  "attach- 
ment," "contractile,"  and  "storage,"  —  all  of 
which  possess  a  somewhat  modified  structure 
corresponding  to  their  functions.  But  common  to 
all  roots  arc  the  following  tissues;  Epidermis, 
cortex,  pericambium.  and  the  conductive  ti 

The  epidermis  is  as  described  above,  but 
lacks  the  cuticle,  at  least  partly,  and  the  only 
hair-formations  that  occur  Inn1  are  the  long, 
unicellular  root-hairs,  observable  on  nearly  all 
young  roots  excepting  at  the  apex  of  these, 
which  is  covered  by  the  root-cap.  The  cortex 
consists  of  parenchymatic  cells,  frequently  ar- 
ranged in  regular  concentric  rings;  the  outer- 
most strata  beneath  the  epidermis  an'  often 
differentiated  as  a  more  or  less  thick-walled  and 
persisting  hypoderm,  while  the  inner  ones  are 
usually  thin-walled  and  liable  to  collapse  radially 
or  tangcntially,  thus  giving  rise  to  wide  Iacunes. 
The  innermost  layer  of  the  cortex  differs  from 
all  the  others  and  represents  the  endodermis 
(c  in  Fig.  9),  whose  structure  offers  several 
excellent  characteristics  for  its  distinction  from 
the  adjoining  cortical  parenchyma  and  the  peri- 
cambium (/>  in  Fig.  5).  Such  characteristics 
may  be  expressed  by  the  different  manner  in 
which  the  cell-walls  are  thickened,  or  by  the 
presence  of  the  peculiar  dots  named  after  Cas- 
pary.  which  are  seldom  lacking  in  thin-walled 
endodermis-cells.  These  dots,  readily  visible  in 
transverse  sections,  are  due  to  foldings  of  the 
cell-wall.  Inside  the  endodermis  is  a  layer,  and 
commonly  a  single  one,  of  usually  thin-walled 
cells,  called  the  pericambium  or  the  pericycle. 
This  tissue  is  a  most  important  one,  since  it 
is  capable  of  cell-division,  and  it  is  in  this  layer 
that  all  lateral  roots  of  phanerogams  become 
developed,  and  usually  also  the  root-shoots.  In 
ferns  the  lateral  roots  do  not  originate  in  this 
tissue,  but  in  the  endodermis.  The  pericam- 
bium  surrounds  the  conductive  tissue  in   roots 


ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS 


represented  by  strands  of  leptome  and  hadrome 
in  alternation  with  each  other,  sometimes  en- 
closing a  central  mass  of  conjunctive  tissue,  or 
a  wide  central   vessel.     The   leptome  is  not  as 


Fig.  9. —  Cross-section  of  the  root  of  Commelina:  b, 
the  cortex;  e,  endodermis;  p,  the  pericambium; 
the  six  rays  of  vessels  alternate  with  six  groups  of 
leptome. 

well  differentiated  as  in  the  stem,  and  the  vessels 
are  arranged  in  radial  groups  of  which  the  out- 
ermost are  the  oldest  and  generally  known  as 
the  "proto-hadrome  vessels."  The  position  of 
the  proto-hadrome  is  variable,  since  it  is  not 
unusual  to  observe  some  of  the  vessels  border- 
ing on  endodermis,  having  thus  broken  through 
the  pericambium,  a  structure  not  uncommon  in 
grasses  and  sedges.  The  normal  position  of 
these  earliest  developed  vessels  is,  however,  in- 
side the  pericambium.  But  whatever  the  posi- 
tion may  be  of  these  primordial  vessels,  the 
development  of  the  hadrome  is  in  roots  con- 
stantly centripetal  in  contrast  to  the  stem ;  the 
central  arrangement  of  the  conducting  elements 
in  the  roots  offers  also  an  excellent  distinction 
between  root-  and  stem-structure,  besides  the 
tangential  and  alternating  position  of  the  lep- 
tome and  hadrome.  It  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  roots  of  trees  and  certain  herbaceous  plants 
increase  in  thickness.  This  is  due  to  the  de- 
velopment of  a  cambium,  a  formative  tissue, 
inside  the  leptome,  but  forming  an  arch  outside 
the  proto-hadrome.  In  general  this  cambium 
behaves  like  that  of  the  stem,  forming  hadrome 
inwardly,  leptome  and  mechanical  tissue  out- 
wardly, thus  the  structure  of  such  roots  becomes 
exactly  like  that  of  a  stem  unless  the  central 
portion  is  still  preserved.  For  in  the  root  the 
centre  must  be  occupied  by  three  or  more  ra- 
diating primordial  vessels  instead  of  a  pith. 

The  Anatomy  of  the  Stem. — -The  minor 
structure  of  the  stem  of  the  above-  and  under- 
ground differs  materially  from  that  described 
as  characteristic  of  normal  roots,  even  if  the 
tissues  themselves  are  much  the  same.  There 
is  an  epidermis,  a  cortex,  a  mechanical-  and 
conductive-tissue  besides  a  pith,  but  no  pericam- 
bium. The  stem,  however,  exhibits  a  much 
larger  plasticity  than  the  root,  and  the  numer- 


ous modifications  that  occur  in  respect  to  the 
mere  external  structure  are  usually  accompanied 
by  a  corresponding  variation  in  its  interior. 
Marked  distinctions  are  noticeable  in  stems 
when  we  compare  the  herbaceous  with  the 
woody,  the  annual  with  the  perennial,  the  ter- 
restrial with  the  aquatic,  and  the  aerial  with 
the  subterranean, —  distinctions  that  have  been 
very  extensively  studied  and  have  rendered  it 
possible  to  identify  fragments  of  such  stems 
merely  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope. 

When  compared  with  the  root,  the  presence 
of  a  pith  is  characteristic  of  the  stem,  while  on 
the  other  hand  a  pericambium  is  observable  only 
in  roots.  The  minor  structure  of  the  stem  is 
thus  very  variable,  but  may  be  described  more 
generally  as  follows :  The  epidermis  consists 
mostly  of  a  single  layer ;  the  outer  cell-wall 
always  possesses  a  more  or  less  distinct  cuticle, 
and  the  cells  may  be  extended  into  hairs  of 
very  different  aspect  and  functions  as  already 
described.  When  the  epidermis  is  not  sufficient 
to  protect  the  inner  tissues, —  as,  for  instance,  in 
perennial  stems  or  such  as  increase  in  thick- 
ness,— >a  cork  develops  either  in  the  epidermis 
itself  or  in  the  cortical  parenchyma.  The  cor- 
tex is  often  prominently  represented  by  nu- 
merous layers  of  parenchymatic  tissue  in 
which  bundles  of  stereome  and  mestome  fre- 
quently occur,  in  addition  to  which  lacunes  and 
ducts  are  commonly  observed.  The  inner- 
most layer  of  the  cortex  is  usually  modified  as 
an  endodermis  (End,  in  Fig.  10),  surrounding 
the  central  mass  of  conductive  tissue.  The 
mechanical  tissue  occurs  either  as  isolated 
strands  or  as  a  partial  or  complete  covering  of 
the  mestome-bundles.  The  arrangement  of  the 
mechanical  tissue  is  extremely  variable  and  the 
monocotyledonous  plants  are  especially  instruc- 
tive in  respect  to  this  particular  tissue.  The 
conductive  tissue  represented  by  the  mestome- 
bundles  contains  the  elements  as  described 
above,  and  most  frequently  each  bundle  consists 
of  both  leptome  and  hadrome,  usually  arranged 
radially  with  the  leptome  as  the  outermost.  A 
very  delicate  tissue  is  observable  between  both 


Fig.  10. —  Cross-section  of  the  stem  of  Lobelia;  Ep, 
epidermis;  C,  cortex;  End.  endodermis;  L,  lep- 
tome;  Cb,  cambium;   //,  hadrome. 

of  these,  the  so-called  cambium  ( Cb  in  Fig. 
10)  which  by  continuous  cell-division  develops 
leptome  outwardly  and  hadrome  inwardly.  The 
cambium  is  only  characteristic  of  the  dicotyle- 


ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS 


donous  plants.  When  the  cambium  occurs  be- 
tween the  leptome  and  the  hadrome  it  is  called 
intrafascicular  in  contrast  to  the  interfascicular, 


Fig.  ii. —  Cross-section  of  the  leaf  of  Cypcrus,  show- 
ing a  mestome-bundle  surrounded  by  palisade- 
tissue  (FT):  M,  the  mestome-sheath;  I'  the  inner 
parenchyma-sheath;  H,  the  hadrome;  L,  the  lep- 
tome. 

located  between  the  mcstome-bundles,  thus  the 
cambium  in  such  plants  constitutes  a  closed 
ring.  The  mestome-bundles  do  not  always  ex- 
hibit this  radial  structure  where  the  leptome 
is  located  outside  the  hadrome,  a  type  that  is 
called  collateral  (Figs,  ii  and  12),  but  some 
modified  structures  have  been  described,  namely 
the  "bicollateral"  and  the  "concentric."  The  bi- 
collatcral  arc  characterized  by  the  presence  of 
leptome  on  both  sides  of  the  hadrome,  outside 
and  inside,  and  this  structure  has  been  observed 
in    several    of    the    dicotyledonous    orders,    for 


Fig.  12. —  Cross-section  of  a  mestome-bundle  from  the 
leaf-stalk  of  a  fern  (Polypodium) :  C,  the  inner- 
most layer  of  cortex;  £,  endodermis  surround- 
ing the  conductive  tissue  with  the  vessels  in  the 
middle. 

instance  in  the  Cucurbitacca  and  Solanaeecc. 
The  latter  type,  the  concentric,  represent  a  sin- 
gular arrangement  of  the  leptome  and  hadrome, 


the  one  being  surrounded  by  the  other;  when 
the  hadrome  surrounds  the  leptome  the  bundle 
is  called  "peri-hadromatic"  (Fig.  13),  while 
in  the  peri-leptomatic  bundle  the  hadrome  oc- 
cupies the  central  space  (Fig.  12).  These  types 
of  concentric  bundles  are  not  so  very  frequent, 
but  the  perihadromatic  are,  however,  quite  cha- 
racteristic of  the  rhizomes  of  the  majority  of  the 
monocotyledons.  The  perihptomatic  bundles  are 
very  rare  among  the  phanerogams,  but  constitute 
the  only  form  of  mestome-bundles  in  ferns  and 
lycopods. 

When  we  consider  the  general  arrangement 
of  the  mcstome-bundles  in  transverse  sections 
of  mono-  and  dicotyledons,  we  notice  a  striking 
difference  by  the  fact  that  in  the  former  these 
bundles  are  scattered  without  any  order,  while 
they  form  concentric  rings  in  the  latter. 

While  thus  these  systems  of  tissues  exhibit 
many  variations  in  the  stems,  the  last  tissue. 
the  pith,  is  almost  uniformly  developed  as  a 
central    parenchyma,    and    as    a    rule   is   always 


Fig.   13. —  Cross-section    of   a   mestome-bundle  from   the 

rhizome  of  a  sedge   (Carex   incurva)  :     S,  the  stere- 

ome,    surrounding   the    conductive    tissue  with    the 
leptome  in  the  middle. 

present  in  stems.  The  thickness  of  various  un- 
derground stems,  such  as  tubers,  is  due  to  the 
prominent  development  either  of  the  pith  or  of 
the  cortex,  in  which  starch  and  similar  nutritive 
matters  may  be  stored. 

The  Anatomy  of  the  Leaf. —  The  manifold 
variation  exhibited  by  leaves  corresponds  also 
with  certain  modifications  of  the  internal  struc- 
ture, but  to  a  much  less  extent  than  observable 
in  stems.  The  various  functions  performed  by 
the  leaves  do  not  require  such  great  internal 
modification  as  is  necessary  to  the  stem,  even  if 
the  leaves  exhibit  a  metamorphosis  of  no  small 
importance.  The  stem-leaves  and  the  floral 
leaves  naturally  show  conspicuous  anatomical 
distinctions,  and  the  fleshy  leaves  of  bulbs  are 
of  course  very  different  in  structure  from  the 
thin,  scale-like  leaves  of  tubers  and  stolons. 
However,  the  principal  structure,  such  as  is  ex- 
hibited by  the  relative  development  and  arrange- 
ment of  the  main  tissues,  for  instance  the  meso- 
phyll       (the      chlorophyll-bearing      parenchyma 


ANAXAGORAS;  ANAXIMANDER 


including  the  palisade-  and  the  penumatic-tis- 
sue),  the  stereome,  and  the  conductive  tissue,  is 
not  very  variable  in  leaves  when  we  consider 
the  enormous  variation  in  the  shape  and  size 
of  their  outline.  In  the  leaves  the  epidermis 
is  perhaps  the  tissue  that  is  subject  to  the  most 
conspicuous  modification,  which  is  especially 
noticeable  in  the  development  of  the  cells  when 
examined  on  both  surfaces  of  the  leaf,  above 
and  between  the  nerves.  The  various  arrange- 
ments of  the  stomata  often  cause  a  modifica- 
tion of  the  surrounding  strata,  which  is  less 
pronounced  in  the  stems.  Thus  the  epidermis, 
when  examined  superficially,  exhibits  several 
distinct  forms  of  cells,  rectangular,  polyhedric, 
or  with  the  outline  very  prominently  modulate 
(Fig.  5).  The  covering  with  hairs  is  especially 
characteristic  of  leaves,  and  several  types  of 
these  may  be  found  to  occur  on  the  same  leaf. 
The  cuticle  is  usually  very  distinct,  and  renders 
by  its  various  consistence  the  most  essential 
protection  to  the  leaf  while  performing  its  func- 
tions. Besides  the  epidermis,  corky  layers  may 
be  developed,  at  least  locally,  in  leaves   which 


Fig.  I4._ — Cross-section  of  the  leaf  of  Obolaria:  Ep, 
epidermis  of  upper  surface;  ep,  epidermis  of  the 
lower;   M,   the  mesophyll. 

persist  for  several  seasons ;  for  instance,  the 
evergreen,  in  which  the  outer  cell-wall  of  epi- 
dermis often  becomes  very  considerably  thick- 
ened. 

The  mesophyll  is  generally  differentiated  as 
a  palisade-  and  a  pneumatic-tissue,  the  former 
located  on  the  upper  face  of  the  leaf,  just 
beneath  the  epidermis,  while  the  latter  occupies 
the  lower  portion.  In  some  leaves  the  meso- 
phyll is  not  differentiated  into  these  two  tissues, 
but  only  as  a  homogeneous  (Fig.  14)  tissue; 
such  leaves  are  called  "isolateral"  in  contradis- 
tinction to  the  others,  the  "bifacial."  Otherwise 
the  mesophyll  possesses  the  same  forms  of  reser- 
voirs, ducts,  and  lacunes  as  are  characteristic 
of  the  cortex. 

The  mestome-bundles  are  generally  collateral 
with  the  hadrome  located  above  the  leptome, 
and  we  find  in  the  leaves  the  same  mechanical 
support  as  observed  in  the  stem.  But  while 
the  mestome-bundles  of  the  stem  may  show  such 
modifications  as  "bicollateral"  or  "concentric," 
they  lose  this  peculiarity  as  soon  as  they  enter 
the  leaves,  in  which  they  occur  only  as  col- 
lateral. , . 

Vol.  1—32 


The  leaf-structure  thus  possesses  less  varia- 
tion than  that  of  the  stem,  if  we  compare  the 
relative  development  and  the  arrangement  of  the 
tissues,  especially  of  the  mesophyll,  the  stereome, 
and  the  mestome.  The  main  variation  seems 
to  lie  in  the  epidermis,  and  becomes  especially 
noticeable  in  the  comparison  of  leaves  of  plants 
that  grow  under  diverse  conditions, —  of  terres- 
trial and  aquatic  plants,  for  instance.  Among  the 
former  the  desert-plants  are  known  to  possess 
highly  complicated  structures,  which  naturally 
are  expressed  by  the  epidermis  and  the  meso- 
phyll rather  than  by  the  other  elements.  But 
considered  as  a  whole,  the  leaves  show  less 
modification  of  the  inner  tissues  than  the  stem, 
and  when  some  prominent  variations  are  found 
to  occur  in  leaves  these  are  generally  observable 
also  in  the  stems  of  the  same  plants. 

The  object  of  the  study  of  plant-anatomy  is 
to  ascertain  the  structure  of  the  various  plant- 
organs,  and  to  bring  this  in  connection  with  the 
functions  performed  by  these,  thus  physiological 
botany  must  necessarily  be  preceded  by  anatom- 
ical studies.  But  in  later  years  plant-anatomy 
has  been  extended  still  further,  and  a  special 
branch  of  this  science,  "plant-anatomy,"  is  now 
recognized  as  the  "anatomical  method"  by  which 
modifications  in  structure  are  brought  in  con- 
nection with  the  systematic  position  of  the 
plants.  And  anatomical  investigations  have 
proved  that  certain  precise  characteristics  do 
exist  in  most  of  the  natural  orders ;  thus  these, 
their  genera,  and  in  many  instances  even  their 
species,  may  be  distinguished  simply  by  a  few 
anatomical  characters. 

This  method  was  founded  by  the  French 
botanist  Mirbel,  who  was  followed,  but  many 
years  later,  by  Vesgne  and  Radlkofer,  whose 
works  constitute  the  real  foundation  of  this 
particular  branch  of  anatomy.  In  later  years 
the  arutomical  method  has  been  studied  very 
extensively,  but  is  of  course  of  less  importance 
than  the  former,  where  the  structure  is  brought 
in  connection  with  physiological  problems,  the 
life  of  the  plant  under  various  conditions  of 
environment.  Theo.  Holm, 

Expert  Botanist,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Anaxag'oras,  a  Greek  philosopher:  b.  in 
Clazomenae,  in  Ionia,  about  500  B.C. ;  d.  in  Lani- 
psacus,  about  428.  Settling  at  Athens,  his  pupils 
included  Pericles,  Euripides,  and  Socrates. 
In  middle  life  he  was  publicly  charged  with 
impiety  and  condemned  to  death,  but  the 
sentence  was  commuted  to  perpetual  ban- 
ishment. Anaxagoras  held  that  there  was 
an  infinite  number  of  different  kinds  of  ele- 
mentary atoms,  and  that  these,  in  themselves 
motionless  and  originally  existing  in  a  state  of 
chaos,  were  put  in  motion  by  an  eternal,  imma- 
terial, spiritual,  elementary  being,  from  which 
motion  the  world  was  produced. 

Anaxarchus,  a  native  of  Abdera,  who  was 
a  friend  and  counselor  of  Alexander.  He  was 
put  to  death  by  Nicocreon,  prince  of  Cyprios. 

Anaximan'der,  a  Greek  philosopher,  math- 
ematician, and  astronomer  :  b.  in  Miletus  611  B.C.: 
d.  547.  The  substance  of  his  philosophical 
teaching  is  that  the  source  of  all  things  is  an 
undefined  substance  infinite  in  quantity.  Accord- 
ing to  his  theory  the  universe  is  a  series  of 
concentric  cylinders  surrounding  the  cylindrical 


ANAXIMENES  — ANCHOR 


earth.  Anaximander  occupied  himself  much 
with  mathematics  and  geography,  and  to  him  are 
ascribed  the  invention  oi  geographical  maps, 
the  first  application  of  the  gnomon  or  style  fixed 
on  a  horizontal  plane  to  determine  the  solstices 
and  equinoxes,  and  the  discovery  of  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic. 

Anaximenes  of  Lampsacus,  a  Greek  histo- 
rian:  1).  in  Lampsacus,  Asia  Minor,  about  mo 
b.c.  To  him  is  attributed  the  'Ars  Rhetorica 
ad  Alexandrum'  found  among  the  writings  of 
Aristotle.  Only  fragments  of  his  histories  of 
Philip  of  Macedon,  Alexander,  and  Greece  re- 
main. 

Anaximenes  of  Miletus,  a  Greek  philoso- 
pher: b.  in  .Miletus,  and  flourished  about  550 
B.C.  He  affirmed  that  air  was  the  first  principle 
of  all  things.  Finite  things  were  formed  from 
the  infinite  air  by  compression  and  rarefaction 
produced  by  eternally  existent  motion;  and  heat 
and  cold  resulted  from  varying  degrees  of  den- 
sity of  the  primal  element. 

Anaya,  a-na'ya,  Pedro  Maria,  a  Mexican 
commander:  b.  in  Huichapan  1795;  d.  1854.  En- 
tering the  army  in  181 1  he  attained  the  rank  of 
brigadier  general  in  iS.s.i.  lie  held  several  cab- 
inet positions,  was  acting  president  of  Mexico 
for  a  few  weeks  in  1S47.  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death  was  postmaster-general  under  Santa  Anna. 

Ancachs,  a  department  of  northern  Peru, 
extending  from  the  Andes  to  the  Pacific:  capital, 
Huaraz.  Agriculture  and  cattle-raising  are  the 
chief  occupations,  the  silver-mines  in  the  moun- 
tains being  but  ineffectively  worked.  Area,  17,- 
405  square  miles.     Pop.  about  429,000. 

Ancaeus,  the  name  of  two  of  the  Greek 
Argonauts,  one  the  son  of  Poseidon  and  steers- 
man of  the  Argo,  the  other  a  son  of  the  Ar- 
cadian Lycurgus.  Each  was  killed  by  a  wild 
boar. 

Ancelot,  Jacques  Arsene  Francois  Poly- 
carpe,  a  French  novelist,  dramatist,  and  poet: 
b.  Havre.  9  Feb.  1794;  d.  Paris,  7  Sept.  1854. 
His  tragedy,  'Louis  IX..'  brought  him  a  pension 
in  1 S 1  < j.  but  he  lost  it  through  the  revolution  of 
1830.  He  produced  pleasing  verses,  epigrammat- 
ic satires;  an  epic.  .Mane  de  Brabant'  (1825); 
a  novel,  'L'Homme  du  Monde1  (1829),  as  well 
as  other  works,  but  "Louis  IX'  remains  his  most 
important  achievement.  His  wife,  Marguerite 
Virginie  Chardon,  b.  Dijon,  15  March  1792;  d. 
Paris,  21  March  1875.  wrote  novels  and  plays 
sometimes  with  him,  but  also  independently,  and 
won  some  attention  as  an  artist. 

Ancestor,  one  who  has  preceded  another 
in  a  direct  line  of  descent;  an  ascendant,  a 
former  possessor;  the  person  last  seised. 
Termes  de  la  Ley;  2  Shars.  131.  Com.  201.  In 
the  common  law,  the  term  is  understood  as  well 
of  the  immediate  parents  as  of  those  that  are 
higher;  as  may  appear  by  the  statute,  2$  Edw. 
Ill  .  De  nalis  ultra  mart-,  by  the  statute  (1  Rich. 
II.  c.  6,  and  by  many  others.  But  the  civilians' 
relations  in  the  ascending  line,  up  to  the  great- 
grandfather's parents,  and  those  above  them. 
they  term  majores,  which  common  lawyers  aptly 
expound  antecessors  or  ancestors,  for  in  the  de- 
scendants of  like  degree  they  are  called  pos- 
it riores.  Gary,  Litt.  45.  The  term  ancestor  is 
applied  to  natural  persons.  The  words  prede- 
cessors and  successors  are  used  in  respect  to  the 


persons  composing  a  body  corporate.  See  2 
Bl.  Com.  209;  Bacon,  Abr . ;  Ayliffe,  I'and.  58; 
Reeve,  1  lescents. 

Ancestor-Worship.       See  Max. 

Anchieta,  an-shyi-ta,  Jose  de,  a  Portu- 
guese missionary  in  Brazil:  b.  Laguna,  Teneriffc, 
'533;  d.  159".  He  was  a  Jesuit  and  founded 
in  Brazil  the  first  institution  for  the  conversion 
of  the  inhabitants.  He  was  the  author  of  'Nat- 
ural Productions  of  Brazil.' 

Anchisaurus,  a  carnivorous  dinosaur  of 
the  Triassic  period.  It  has  many  primitive 
characteristics,  notably  small  size,  four  com- 
plete toes  in  the  hind  foot  and  live  in  the 
fore  foot. 

Anchises,  a  legendary  hero  of  Troy,  to 
whom  Venus,  in  the  guise  of  a  Phrygian  shep- 
herdess, bore  a  son,  /Eneas.  At  the  burning  of 
Troy  /Eneas  carried  his  father  away  on  his 
shoulders,  and  their  voyage  to  Sicily  is  de- 
scribed  in   Virgil's   '.V.neid." 

Anchitherium.      See   Fossil;  Horse. 

Anchor,  a  heavy  instrument  of  iron,  in- 
tended to  be  dropped  from  a  ship  to  the  sea- 
bottom,  to  hold  her  in  a  desired  position. 
It  usually  consists  of  a  shank,  having  at 
one  end  a  ring,  to  which  the  cable  is  fas- 
tened with  a  cross-piece  or  stock,  and  at  the 
other  end  two  arms  with  blades  at  the  end,  called 
ilukes.  In  one  form  of  anchor  the  stock  is  not 
a  cross-piece  in  the  sense  of  lying  transversely 
to  the  direction  of  the  arms,  but  lies  in  the  same 
direction.  In  the  Homeric  times  large  stones 
were  used  for  anchors;  afterward  they  are  said 
to  have  been  sometimes  of  wood  loaded  with 
lead.  In  some  places  baskets  full  of  stones 
or  sacks  filled  with  sand  were  employed  for  the 
same  use.  All  these  were  let  down  by  cords 
into  the  sea,  and  by  their  weight  stayed  the 
course  of  the  ship.  Among  the  Greeks  of  later 
limes  anchors  were  composed  of  iron.  Some- 
times there  was  only  one  tooth  or  fluke,  but 
generally  there  were  two.  Anchors  with  two 
Ilukes  appear  from  ancient  monuments  to  have 
been  much  the  same  as  those  used  as  present, 
but  the  transverse  piece  of  wood  fastened  to  the 
shank  (the  stock)  is  wanting  in  all  of  them. 
Every  ship  had  several  anchors,  one  of  which, 
surpassing  all  the  rest  in  bigness  and  strength, 
was  peculiarly  termed,  in  Greek,  hiera,  and  in 
Latin  sacra,  and  was  never  used  but  in  extreme 
danger ;  wdicnce  sacram  ancoram  solvere  is  pro- 
verbially applied  to  such  as  are  forced  to  their 
last  refuge.  When  an  anchor  of  the  usual  form 
is  let  fall  from  the  vessel,  it  generally  strikes 
the  bottom  with  the  crown  or  curve  of  the  arms, 
and  then  falls  over  on  one  of  the  ends  of  the 
stock,  the  arms  lying  flat  on  the  ground.  In  this 
position  it  cannot  bite,  so  that  it  has  to  be 
canted  or  turned  over  till  the  stock  lies  flat,  and 
the  point  of  one  of  the  flukes  (the  bill  or  peak) 
rests  on  the  ground.  The  canting  is  effected  by 
the  vessel  pulling  at  the  cable,  and  the  longer  the 
stock  and  the  shorter  the  arms  the  less  is  the 
force  required  to  perform  the  operation ;  for  this 
reason  the  stock  is  always  made  longer  than  the 
arms.  The  anchor  will  now  either  drag  or  pen- 
etrate the  ground,  the  readiness  with  which  it 
does  the  latter  depending  on  the  sharpness  of 
the  bill,  the  angle  at  which  the  fluke  rests  on 
the  ground,  and  of  course  the  nature  of  the  bot- 
tom.    Formerly  the  arms  used  to  be  rigidly  at- 


ANCHORAGE  — ANCHOVY 


lached  to  the  shank  of  the  anchor;  but  in  1838 
Mr.  Porter  took  out  a  patent  for  an  anchor  of 
a  new  construction  (though  the  principle  was 
known  before,  however),  in  which  the  arms  were 
movable  around  a  pivot  at  the  end  of  the  shank, 
the  plane  of  their  movement  being  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  direction  of  the  stock.  The  advan- 
tages of  this  anchor  are,  that  there  is  almost  no 
possibility  of  fouling  it, —  that  is,  of  the  cable 
becoming  entangled  with  one  of  the  arms;  it  can- 
not lodge  on  the  stock  end ;  it  presents  no  upper 
fluke  to  injure  the  vessel  to  which  it  is  attached, 
or  others,  in  shoal  water  (since  the  swivel  move- 
ment enables  the  peak  of  the  upper  fluke  to  come 
close  to  the  shank  when  the  anchor  is  fixed)  ; 
it  is  not  so  liable  to  break,  is  more  conveniently 
stowed  on  board,  etc.  This  form  of  anchor  as 
improved  by  Trotman  is  now  largely  used  in 
the  merchant  service.  In  the  navies  both  of 
Great  Britain  and  of  foreign  countries  the  an- 
chor perhaps  most  commonly  employed  is  the 
admiralty  anchor  with  fixed  arms,  the  chief 
recommendation  of  which  is  the  excellence  of 
its  proportions.  Another  favorite  is  Rodgers', 
the  chief  peculiarity  of  which  is  its  small  flukes. 
The  inventor  claims  for  this  anchor  that  it  holds 
the  ground  better  than  those  with  large  flukes. 
Another  excellent  anchor  is  that  patented  by  a 
Frenchman  named  Martin.  In  his  anchor  the 
stock  lies  in  the  same  direction  as  the  arms,  the 
consequence  of  which  is  that  when  the  anchor 
reaches  the  ground  it  inevitably  falls  flat,  with 
both  stock  and  arms  resting  on  the  bottom.  The 
arms  are  capable  of  turning  in  a  socket  through 
an  angle  of  ,30°  in  such  a  manner  that  when  the 
anchor  is  lying  flat  on  the  ground  the  flukes  of 
both  arms  may  sink  into  the  ground  at  an  angle 
of  15°.  The  weight  of  the  arms  and  the  pull 
of  the  vessel  cause  them  to  do  this.  It  will  be 
understood  that  the  flukes  are  not,  as  in  other 
anchors,  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  the 
arms,  but  lie  in  the  same  direction.  Besides 
holding  the  ground  more  firmly  than  any  other 
anchor  of  equal  weight,  this  anchor  has  the  ad- 
vantages of  being  free  from  liability  to  foul 
and  easily  stowed.  The  latter  circumstance 
particularly  recommends  it  for  use  in  unmasted 
turret  ships,  almost  all  of  which  are  equipped 
with  it. 

The  different  anchors  carried  by  a  ship  are 
called  bower,  sheet,  stern,  and  kedge  anchors. 
The  bower  anchors  are  so  called  from  their  be- 
ing stowed  in  the  bow.  When  one  bower  an- 
chor is  heavier  than  the  other  it  is  called  the 
best  bower  and  is  stowed  on  the  starboard  side. 
Sheet  anchors  arc  stowed  in  the  waist  of  the 
ship  as  far  forward  as  convenient.  The  stream 
anchor  is  used  in  a  river  or  sheltered  place 
where  a  large  anchor  is  not  required.  The 
stern  anchor  is  stowed  in  the  stern,  and  is  em- 
ployed with  a  bower  anchor  where  there  is  no 
room  for  a  vessel  to  swing  with  the  tide.  The 
kedge  anchor  is  used  to  warp  a  ship  from  place 
to  place;  that  is,  the  anchor  is  carried  to  a  dis- 
tance in  a  boat,  and  the  ship  is  then  pulled  up 
to  it  by  means  of  the  cable.  A  large  ironclad 
carries  eight  anchors:  two  bower,  two  sheet, 
and  two  kedge  anchors,  with  one  stream  and 
one  stern  anchor.  The  anchor  is  said  to  be 
a-peak  when  the  cable  is  perpendicular  between 
the  hawse  and  the  anchor ;  and  to  come  home 
when  it  does  not  hold  the  ship.  To  shoe  an 
anchor  is  to  fix  boards  upon  the  flukes  so  that  it 


may  hold  better  in  a  soft  bottom.  Riding  at 
anchor  is  the  state  of  the  vessel  when  moored 
by  the  anchor  or  anchors.  Dropping  or  casting 
anchor  is  letting  it  down  into  the  sea.  Weigh- 
ing anchor  is  raising  it  from  the  bottom.  A 
mooring  anchor  is  a  stationary  anchor  in  a  har- 
bor or  roadstead,  with  a  buoy  attached  to  it  by 
a  cable,  enabling  a  ship  to  moor  by  simply  fas- 
tening itself  to  a  ring-bolt  on  the  buoy.  These 
anchors  should  not  project  above  the  bottom,  or 
the  ship  may  receive  injury  by  grounding  on 
them.  Mooring  anchors  are  of  various  kinds,  and 
in  some  cases  a  heavy  block  of  stone  or  cast  iron 
serves  as  such.  One  of  the  most  powerful 
mooring  anchors  yet  invented  consists  of  a 
wrought-iron  shaft  with  a  pointed  screw  end, 
and  near  the  lower  end  a  cast-iron  screw  flange 
y/2  feet  in  diameter.  The  anchor  is  screwed 
down  into  the  solid  ground,  and  its  holding 
power  is  more  than  equal  to  that  of  a  cast  iron 
anchor  weighing  7  tons.  The  making  of  anchors 
used  to  be  a  most  formidable  piece  of  smith 
work,  but  it  has  been  much  facilitated  by  the  in- 
vention of  the  steam  hammer.  The  shank  of  a 
large  anchor,  nearly  20  feet  long  and  10  or  12 
inches  thick,  requires  to  be  built  up  of  a 
number  of  bars  of  iron  which  are  then  welded 
together.  Crucible  steel  is  now  to  some  extent 
used  for  anchors. 

Anchorage,  a  suitable  place  for  anchoring. 
A  good  anchorage  should  have  a  soft  bottom 
and  a  depth  of  from  10  to  20  fathoms.  When 
deeper  than  this  the  cable  bears  too  nearly  per- 
pendicular and  is  apt  to  drag  up  the  anchor. 
The  length  of  cable  paid  out  by  a  ship  in  an- 
choring in  ordinary  weather  is  about  three 
times  the  depth  of  the  water.  Anchorage  also 
means  dues  paid  by  a  vessel  anchoring.  As  a 
rule  a  ship  sheltering  from  stress  of  weather 
and  not  discharging  cargo  at  the  place  where 
it  anchors  is  not  required  to  pay  dues,  but 
shore-dues  are  payable  whether  a  ship  anchors 
or  not. 

Anchorite,  Anchoret,  or  Anachoret,  one 
who  has  renounced  the  world  and  retired  into  a 
seclusion  remote  from  inhabited  places.  The 
desire  is  not  distinctively  Christian:  it  manifest., 
itself  in  all  religions  and  in  all  ages.  Anchorites 
of  various  Hindu  ascetic  sects  are  at  present  to 
be  found  among  the  jungles  and  hills  of  India, 
and  the  Orient  has  always  been  a  land  of 
them.  The  peculiarity  of  the  ancient  anchorites 
was  that,  though  retiring  for  solitude  to  the 
wilderness,  they  lived  there  in  fixed  abodes, 
generally  caves  or  hovels,  in  place  of  wandering 
about.  When  they  did  travel  they  slept  wher- 
ever night  overtook  them,  so  lli.it  visitors  might 
not  know  where  to  find  them.  They  were  most 
numerous  in  the  Egyptian  desert,  where  they 
lived  on  roots  and  plants,  believing  that  to  af- 
flict the  body  was  the  best  method  of  spiritually 
benefiting  the  soul.  The  most  of  them  were 
laymen.  There  were  also  female  anchorites. 
These  first  arose,  it  is  said,  about  the  middle  of 
the  3d  century;  in  the  ;th  the  Church  extended 
its  control  over  them,  ultimately  throwing  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  anyone  who  wished  to 
adopt  such  a  mode  of  life. 

Anchovy,   an-cho'vi    (of   uncertain    origin, 
perhaps    literally    a    dried   or   pickled    fish,    from 
Basque,   antsua,  dry),  a  small,    richly   tl.i 
hernng-like  fish    (Engraulis   encrasicholus),   of 
the  family  Engrquliduitc.     It  is  caught  abundant- 


ANCHOVY-PEAR  — ANCONA 


ly  along  the  sea-coasts  of  southern  Europe  when 
coming  in  from  the  deep  sea  to  spawn  in 
early  summer.  The  Mediterranean  fishers  in 
particular  salt  and  dry  it  in  large  quantities  for 
export.  Closely  allied  species  are  found  on  the 
mi  and  western  coast  of  America  and  off 
southern  Asia.  A  Californian  species  (/:n- 
graulis  mordax)  is  extremely  abundant  in  large 
schools  and  is  a  valuable  fond  fish.  In  gen- 
eral, anchovies  are  5  to  7  inches  long,  shaped  like 
herrings,  and  have  a  pointed  head  and  project- 
ing upper  jaw. 

Anchovy-pear  (Grias  cauliftora),  a  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Myrtacee,  found  in  moist  dis- 
tricts of  the  West  Indies.  It  grows  to  the 
height  of  50  feet,  has  oblong  leaves  2  or  3  feet 
long,  and  large  white  blossoms  carried  on  short 
peduncles.  Its  fruit,  somewhat  larger  than  a 
Inn's  egg.  is  pickled  and  eaten  like  the  mango, 
which  it  strongly  resembles  in  taste. 

Anchusa.    See  Alkanet. 

Anchylosis,  an-kl-lo'sTs.      See  Joints. 

An'chylo'stomiasis,  a  disease  due  to  the 
presence  of  an  intestinal  parasite,  the  Anchy- 
lostomum  duodenale  (Uncinaria  ditodenalis). 
This  parasite  lives  in  the  upper  portion  of  the 
small  intestine,  where,  by  means  of  a  series  of 
tooth-like  hooks  about  the  mouth,  it  attaches 
itself  to  the  mucous  membrane.  It  is  particu- 
larly prevalent  among  Italian  and  Polish  labor- 
ers, especially  among  those  who  work  in  con- 
fined  spaces,  as  mines,  tunnels,  etc. 

The  chief  symptoms  are  those  due  to  the  loss 
of  blood  which  the  worm  constantly  sucks  from 
the  wall  of  the  intestine.  Gastro-intestinal  dis- 
turbance, progressive  anaemia,  diarrhoea,  and 
colicky  pains  with  shortness  of  breath  and  swell- 
ing of  the  limbs  are  among  the  important  symp- 
toms. The  diagnosis  can  be  made  by  means  of 
a  microscopical  examination  of  the  faeces,  in 
which  the  eggs  are  found,  and  also  by  the  mi- 
croscopical examination  of  the  blood.  Careful 
attention  given  to  the  drinking  water  is  one  of 
the  most  important  prophylactic  measures.  See 
Parasite. 

Ancient  Demesne,  a  term  employed  in 
English  law  to  denote  ancient  estates  belonging 
to  the  crown.  They  are  mentioned  in  Domesday 
Book  as  Terra  Regis. 

Ancient  Lights,  a  term  denoting  windows 
so  long  existent  that  they  have  obtained  a  right 
to  the  light  entering  them,  and  cannot  be  inter- 
fered with  by  the  owner  of  the  property  whence 
the  light  enters.  Rights  of  this  nature  cannot 
commonly  be  acquired  by  prescription  in  the 
United  States.  Ancient  lights  in  England  are 
now  regulated  by  a  statute  calling  for  but  20 
years'  existence  to  create  the  right. 

Ancient  Mariner,  Rime  of  the,  a  cele- 
brated poem  (1817)  by  Samuel  Taylor  Cole- 
It  is  one  of  the  most  original  poems  in 
the  English  language.  A  wedding  guest  on  his 
way  to  bridal  festivities  is  stopped  by  an  old 
man,  the  Ancient  Mariner.  The  Ancient  Mar- 
iner describes  his  voyage,  how  his  ship  was 
locked  in  the  ice,  and  how  he  shot  with  his 
cross-bow  the  tame  albatross,  the  bird  of  good 
omen  which  perched  upon  the  vessel.  The  en- 
tire universe  seemed  stunned  by  this  wanton 
act  of  cruelty;  and  the  albatross  is  hung  around 
the    neck   of   the   Ancient    Mariner.     A    spectre 


ship  appears,  and  the  crew  die,  leaving  the  gray- 
beard  alone.  After  a  time  he  is  moved  to 
prayer,  whereupon  the  evil  spell  is  removed. 
The  albatross  sinks  into  tin-  sea,  and  the  Mar- 
iner's heart  is  once  again  a  part  of  the  universal 
spirit  of  love.  The  weird  ballad  is  capable  of 
many  interpretations,  and  in  its  small  compass 
it  contains  a  tragedy  of  remorse  and  of  re- 
demption  through  repentance. 

Ancient  Order  of  Hibernians.  See  Hiber- 
nians, Ancient  Order  of. 

Ancient  Regime,  The,  an  historical  work 
by  11.  A.  Taine  (1875),  a  masterly  study  of 
the  France  which,  after  1.200  years  of  devel- 
opment, existed  in  1789,  of  great  value  for  the 
history  of  France  and  for  judgment  of  the  fu- 
ture of  the  French  Republic.  Taine's  brilliant 
Style  and  picturesque  narrative,  his  philosoph- 
ical contemplation  of  data,  and  his  keen  reason- 
ing, have  never  been  more  strikingly  exhibited 
than  here. 

Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent 
Discoveries,  an  archaeological  work  by  Ko- 
dolfo  Lanciani :  b.  184;.  In  his  character  of 
official  investigator  Prof.  Lanciani  has  grouped 
in  this  volume  various  illustrations  of  the  life  of 
ancient  Rome  as  shown  in  its  recovered  antiqui- 
ties. From  these  he  reads  the  story  of  the 
wealth,  taste,  habits  of  life,  ambitions,  and  ideals 
of  a  vanished  people. 

Ancients,  Council  of,  the  upper  one  of 
two  branches  of  the  legislative  body  of  France, 
I795_99-  It  included  250  members  and  its  func- 
tion was  to  consider  measures  submitted  by  the 
r  branch,  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred. 

Ancile,  a  shield  reported  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven  in  the  time  of  Numa.  It  was  be- 
lieved to  be  the  shield  of  Mars;  and  as  the 
prosperity  of  Rome  was  held  to  depend  upon 
its  preservation,  11  facsimiles  of  it  were  made, 
that  anyone  wishing  to  steal  it  might  not  know 
which  to  take.  It  is  conjectured  to  have  been 
originally  a  lump  of  meteoric  iron. 

Ancillon,  an'se'yon,  Johann  Peter  Fried- 
rich,  a  German  historian  of  French  extrac- 
tion: b.  Berlin,  30  April  1767;  d.  there,  19  April 
1837.  Besides  'Melanges  of  Literature  and  Phi- 
losophy* (1801)  he  was  the  author  of  a  'View 
of  the  Revolutions  of  the  Political  System  of 
Europe  since  the  15th  Century'  (1803-5),  which 
secured  him  the  post  of  royal  historiographer. 
From  1832  till  his  death  be  was  minister  of 
foreign  affairs. 

Ancona,  Allessandro  d\  a  prominent 
Italian  critic  and  philologist :  b.  Pisa,  1835,  and 
from  i860  a  professor  of  literature  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pisa.  Among  his  many  works  are 
*I  Precursori  di  Dante'  (1874);  'Origini  del 
Teatro  in  Italia'  (1877);  'La  Pocsia  Popolare 
Italiana)  (1878)  ;  'Varieta  Storiche  e  Lettarie' 
(1883-5)  :  'Studi  sulla  Letteratura  Italiana  de' 
Primi   Secoli'    (1884;. 

Ancona,  an  Italian  province  of  the  king- 
dom of  Italy,  between  Pesaro  cd  Urbino  on  the 
north,  Macerata  on  the  south,  and  the  Apennines 
and  Adriatic  on  the  west  and  east ;  area,  736 
square  miles.  It  is  a  mountainous  region 
watered  by  the  rivers  Cesano,  Esino,  and  Mu- 
9one,  and  produces  grain,  wine,  oil,  olives,  silk, 
and  fruit  Capital,  Ancona,  Pop.  (1894; 
2/3,941. 


ANCONA  —  ANDALUSITE 


Ancona,  an  important  Italian  port  on  the 
Adriatic,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name.  Its  site  is  an  amphitheatre  between 
two  headlands,  and  on  its  ancient  mole,  designed 
by  Trajan,  is  a  triumphal  arch  by  Apollodorus. 
The  modern  mole  is  adorned  by  a  triumphal 
arch  by  Vanvitelli.  Among  important  buildings 
are  the  cathedral  of  St.  Cyriac  dating  from  the 
nth  and  12th  centuries,  a  13th-century  town 
hall,  and  a  museum.  Sugar-refining,  ship- 
building, and  manufactures  of  silk,  paper,  and 
sail-cloth  are  the  main  industries.  A  United 
States  consul  is  stationed  here.  The  city  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Syracusans  fleeing 
from  the  persecutions  of  the  Elder  Dionysius. 
Pop.   (1901)   57,000. 

Ancre,  ax'kr,  Concino  Concini,  Marshal 
and  Marquis  d',  a  Florentine  who  went  to 
France  in  1660,  where  he  obtained  rapid  pro- 
motion, more  especially  after  the  assassination 
of  the  king  (1610).  Successively  governor  of 
Normandy,  marshal  of  France,  and  last  of  all 
prime  minister,  he  was  thoroughly  detested  by 
all.  At  last  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him  and  he  was  shot  dead  on  the  bridge  of  the 
Louvre  in  1617. 

Ancud,  a  Chilian  port,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Chiloe.  It  is  situated  on  the  island 
of  Chiloe,  about  580  miles  from  Valparaiso,  a 
line  of  steamships  connecting  the  two.  First 
settled  in  1768,  it  was  the  last  place  surrendered 
by  the  Spaniards  to  the  Chilians  in  1826.  Pop. 
(1895)  3,182. 

Ancus  Marcius,  the  fourth  king  of  Rome: 
b.  638  b.c.  ;  d.  614  B.C.  The  son  of  Numa's 
daughter,  he  attempted  to  imitate  his  grand- 
father by  reviving  the  neglected  observances  of 
religion.  His  peaceful  pursuits  were  disturbed 
by  the  Latins,  whom  he  subdued  and  caused  to 
be  brought  to  Rome,  where  he  assigned  them 
the  Aventine  to  dwell  upon.  These  conquered 
Latins,  according  to  Niebuhr,  formed  the  origi- 
nal plcbs.  He  fortified  the  Janiculum  against 
Etruria,  connecting  it  with  the  city  by  the  wood- 
en bridge  across  the  Tiber  known  as  the  Sub- 
lician;  dug  the  ditch  of  the  Quirites;  con- 
structed the  harbor  of  Ostia ;  and  built  the  first 
Roman  prison  of  which  there  is  any  record. 
Ancy'ra.     See  Angora. 

An'da,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Euplwrbiacea:.  The  A.  brasilicnsis,  the 
single  species,  is  an  inhabitant  of  Brazil. 
The  wood  is  spongy  and  light,  the  flower  yellow 
and  large,  and  the  fruit  a  gray  nut  which  en- 
closes two  kernels  in  a  double  rind.  The  fruit 
is  strongly  purgative  and  is  used  by  Brazilians 
as  a  remedy  in  cases  of  indigestion,  jaundice, 
and  other  diseases.  Oil  is  pressed  from  these 
kernels,  with  which  the  natives  anoint  their 
limbs.  It  is  said  to  be  a  good  drying  oil  and 
excellent  for  painting.  The  rinds  of  the  fruit, 
thrown  into  ponds,  destroy  the  fish. 

Andalusia,  an'da-loo'zt-a  (Spanish.  Anda- 
lucia),  a  district  of  southern  Spain,  celebrated 
for  its  fertility  and  picturesque  beauty ;  bounded 
north  by  Estremadura  and  New  Castile,  east  by 
Murcia,  south  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
west  by  Portugal  and  the  Atlantic.  Length 
east  and  west  about  310  miles;  average  breadth 
about  120:  area  about  33,650  square  miles.  It 
is  traversed  throughout  its  extent  by  ranges  of 
mountains.     The   Sierra  Morena  runs  along  its 


northern  border,   and   in  the  southeast  rise  the 
mountains  of  Granada  and  the  Ronda,  including 
numerous    sierras,    and    among    them    those    of 
the  famous  Sierra  Nevada.     Many  summits  of  the 
latter  ranges  are  covered  with  perpetual   snow; 
the   Mulahacen   rising   11,678   feet,   and   the    Pi- 
cacho  de  Veleta  11,378  feet  above  the  sea.     All 
the    mountains    abound    with    mineral    wealth, 
yielding   chiefly   copper,   cinnabar,   and   lead,   as 
well   as   some   silver,   copper,   and   coal.     Mines 
have   been   opened   recently  by   English   compa- 
nies, especially  in  the  province  of  Huelva  in  the 
west,  where  the  Tharsis  and  Rio  Tinto  copper 
mines  are  situated.     The  principal  river  of  An- 
dalusia is  the  Guadalquivir,  which  rises  in  the 
east  part  of  the  province  of  Jaen,  near  Carzola, 
and    thence    flows    west-southwest,    and    below 
Seville    south-southwest,    entering    the    sea    at 
San  Lucar.     Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Gua- 
dalimar,  Guadiato,  and  Xenil.     The  rivers  south 
of    the    Sierra    Nevada    are    quite    insignificant. 
The  basin  of  the  upper  Guadalquivir  lies  at  an 
elevation   of   from   500   to    1,500   feet,   and   con- 
sists mainly   of  saline  wastes  and  other  sterile 
tracts.     The    lower    basin    presents    sharp    con- 
trasts :    around    Cordova    and    Seville   luxuriant 
gardens ;  on  the  Xenil  a  desert  without  a  drop  of 
water ;   on  the  left  bank  of  the  lower  Guadal- 
quivir the  extensive  marshy  district  of  Marisma ; 
and   stretching  from  the  mouth  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir to  that  of  the  Rio  Tinto.  a  sandy  depres- 
sion   (Arenas    Gordas)    partially    clothed    with 
pine-woods.     The  vegetation  is  of  the  character 
peculiar  to  the  extreme  south  of  Europe  and  the 
north    of   Africa.     Wheat,   maize,   barley,   many 
varieties     of     fruit,     grapes,     honey,     silk,     and 
cochineal  form  important  articles  of  culture.     A 
large   portion    of   the    soil    is    in    pasture.     The 
horses  are  the  best  breed  in  the  Peninsula :  the 
bulls  of  Andalusia  are  sought  for  bull-fighting 
over  all  Spain;  sheep  are  reared  in  vast  num- 
bers, and   bear  an  abundance  of  good    but  not 
fine    woo! :  and  the  hogs  reared  on  the  acorns 
of   the   mountain    forests    furnish   hams   unsur- 
passed in  any  part  of  Europe.     The  chief  manu- 
factures   are    woolens,     silk,    and    leather,    and 
are  by  no  means  extensive.     The   name  Anda- 
lusia is  commonly  taken  to  have  been  originally 
Vandalusia,  the  land  of  the  Vandals.     The  pop- 
ulation was  in  1897  about  4.000,000. 

Andalu'site,  a  native  anhydrous  silicate  of 
aluminum,  first  discovered  in  Andalusia.  Its 
chemical  formula  is  AUSiOs,  and  it  crystallizes 
in  the  orthorhombic  system.  It  usually  occurs 
in  coarse  crystals,  prismatic  in  form,  and  nearly 
square.  Its  hardness  is  7.5.  at  least  on  the  basal 
face,  and  its  specific  gravity  about  3.18.  Anda- 
lusite  is  commonly  subtranslucent  and  varies 
greatly  in  color.  Some  specimens  are  strongly 
pleochroic.  changing  from  olive  green  to  blood 
red  according  to  the  angle  at  which  the  inci- 
dent light  strikes  them.  A  variety  known  as 
chiastolite  contains  carbonaceous  impurities  dis- 
tributed through  the  prismatic  crystal  according 
to  a  definite  geometric  plan,  so  that  a  trans- 
verse section  of  the  crystal  presents  a  curious 
tesselated  or  cruciform  appearance.  A  variety 
from  eastern  Finland  has  been  called  (<malte- 
site."  from  the  regularity  of  the  Maltese  cross  it 
exhibits  when  seen  in  section.  Andalusite  is 
found  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  usually  in  schist 
or  gneiss.  Fine  specimens  also  come  from  the 
province  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil.     In  the  Unit- 


ANDAMANS  — ANDERSON 


eel  States  it  occurs  in  Maine  New  Hampshire, 
Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Pennsyl- 
vania, South  Dakota,  and  California. 

Andamans,  an'da  man/,  a  chain  of  volcan- 
ic lands  cm  thi  ■■    of  th.    Hay  of  Bengal, 
isting   of   four   principal   is'ands  called   the 
North,    Middle,    South    and    Little    Andamans, 

with  a  number  of  islets.  Middle  Andaman,  the 
largest,  is  about  50  miles  long  and  15  or  16  miles 

id.       North    and    South    Andaman    are    each 

about   44   miles    long,   and   the   former   has   near 

a   mountain  called   Saddle    Peak, 

about   2,400   feet   high.     The   vegetation   on    the 

islands    is    very    luxuriant  —  so   much    so   as   to 

der  parts  almost  impenetrable.  The  aborigi- 
nes, about  10,000  in  number,  are  small  (gen- 
1  i.illy  much  lc"  than  5  feet),  will  formed,  and 
active,  skilful  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  in  the 
management  of  their  canoes,  and  excellent 
swimmers  and  clivers.  These  islands  have  been 
occupied  -nice  1858  as  a  penal  colony  by  the 
British  government  of  India,  the  settlement  be- 
ing at  Port  Blair  on  South  Andaman,  line 
cultivation  has  been  introduced,  rice,  coffee,  nut- 
megs, etc.,  being  grown,  and  the  neighboring 
hills  now  afford  pasturage  for  numerous  cattle. 

A  _U'  "  "1  deal  of  thoroughly  cleared  land  has  been 
en  over  to  ticket  1  d  leave  men  to  cultivate. 
The  coffee  produced  is  very  well  flavored,  fruits 
thrive  excellently,  and  the  pineapples  of  Port 
Blair  have  already  a  good  reputation  in  India. 
Edible  birds'  nests  are  found  in  large  numbers. 
1  he  natives  in  the  vicinity  of  the  settlement  have 
Imii  taken  under  the  protection  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  have  become  to  some  extent  civilized. 
The  climate  is  moist,  but  fairly  healthy.  Area, 
2,700  square  miles.  Pop.  of  Port  Blair  settle- 
ment i  11)02;  about  20,000,  of  which  four  fifths 
are  convicts. 

Andersen,  an'der-sen,  Hans  Christian,  a 
Danish  novelist,  poet,  and  writer  of  fairy  tales: 
b.  in  Odense,  2  April  [80s;  d.  Copenhagen,  4 
Aug.  1875.  He  learned  to  read  and  write  in  a 
charity  school,  whence  he  was  taken  when  only 
nine  years  old,  and  was  put  to  work  in  a  manu- 
factory in  urder  that  his  earnings  might  assist 
his  widowed  mother.  In  his  leisure  time  he 
erly  read  national  ballads,  poetry,  and  plays, 
and  wrote  several  tragedies  which  In'  tailed  to 
get  accepted.  His  abilities  at  last  brought  him 
under  tin-  notice  of  Councilor  Collin,  a  man  of 
considerable  influence,  who  procured  for  him 
free  entrance  into  a  government  school  at  Sla- 
gelse.  From  this  school  he  was  transferred  to 
the  university  and  soon  became  favorably 
known  by  his  poems.  His  first  considerable 
work.  'A  Journey  on  Foot  from  Holmen's  Canal 
to  the  East  Point  of  Anger,'  was  published  in 
1828,  the  year  of  his  admission  to  the  univer- 
sity. Through  the  influence  of  Oehlenschlager 
he  111  rived  a  royal  grant  to  enable 
him  to  travel,  and  in  1833  he  visited  Italy,  his 
impressions  of  which  he  published  in  'The 
[mprovisatoren'  (1835),  a  work  which  ren- 
dered his  fame  European.  The  scene  of  his 
following  novel,  '().  T,,'  was  laid  in  Denmark, 
and  in  'Only  a  Fiddler'  he  described  his  own 
early  Struggles.  In  [853  appeared  the  first  vol- 
ume of  his  'Fairy  1  li  '  of  which  succes 
volumes  continued  to  he  published  year  by  year 
at  Christmas,  and  which  have  been  the  most 
ilar  and  widespread  of  his  books.  Among 
his  other  works  are  '  Picture-books  without  Pic- 


tures,1 'A  Pint's  Bazaar,'  and  a  number  of 
dramas.  In  1845  he  received  an  annuity  from 
the  government.  He  visited  England  in  [848 
and  acquired  such  a  command  of  the  language 
that  lus  next  work,  'The  Two  Baronesses,' 
was  written  in  English.  In  1853  he  published 
an  autobiography  under  the  title,  'My  Life's 
Romance,'  an  English  translation  of  winch,  pub- 
lished in  1871,  contained  additional  chapters  by 
the  author,  bringing  the  narrative  to  [867. 
Among  his  later  works  are,  'In  Sweden' 
1  [849)  ;  'To  Be  or  Not  to  Be'  (1857)  ;  'Tales 
from  lutland'  (1859);  'The  Sand-hills  of  Jut- 
land' (i860):  'The  Ice  Maiden'  (1803);  'In 
Spain'    (.18031. 

Anderson,  Edwin  Hatfield,  American  libra- 
rian:  b.  Zionsville,  lnd.,  27  Sept.  1S01.  II.  was 
ted  from  Wabash  College  1883;  librarian 
Carnegie  Free  Library,  Braddock,  Pa.,  fur  three 
years;  organized  and  became  first  librarian  of 
gie  Library,  Pittsburg,  1895.  He  is  the 
author  of  numerous  papers  on  library  economy 
in   'Library  Journal.' 

Anderson,  George  B.,  an  American  Con- 
federate soldier:  b.  Wilmington,  N.  C,  1831  ;  d. 
16  Oct.  1862.  He  was  graduated  from  West 
Point  in  1852,  and  in  1855  obtained  his  commis- 
sion as  first  lieutenant  in  the  United  States 
army,  and  served  as  regimental  adjutant  after 
1858.  Entering  the  Confederate  service  in  1861, 
he  was  made  a  brigadier-general  and  placed  in 
command  of  the  North  Carolina  coast  defenses. 
While  leading  a  brigade  at  the  battle  of  An 
tietam,  17  Sept.  18(12,  he  received  the  wound 
which  caused  his  death. 

Anderson,  Henry  John,  an  American  edu- 
cator:  b.  New  York.  (1  Feb.  1799;  d.  Lahore, 
Hindustan,  19  Oct.  1875.  Was  graduated  from 
Columbia  College.  [818;  M.l).  College  of  Physi- 
cians and  Surgeons,  1823.  Professor  of  mathe- 
matics and  astronomy  at  Columbia,  1825-50; 
trustee  1851.  and  professor  emeritus  1866;  geol- 
ogist to  the  Dead  Sea  expedition  under  Lieut. 
Lynch;  member  of  the  scientific  expedition  to 
observe  the  transit  of  Venus,  1873.  He  died 
while  exploring  the  Himalayas.  He  early  be- 
came converted  to  the  Catholic  faith  and  was 
active  in  promoting  its  interests  in  New  York 
city.  The  United  States  government  published 
his  'Geology  of  the  Expedition  to  the  Dead 
Sea'   (  18481: 

Anderson,  James,  a  Scottish  agricultural 
economist:  b,  Hermiston,  in  Midlothian,  Scot- 
land,  1739;  d.  Islcwort,,,  1808.  When  scarcely 
20  years  of  age  he  invented  the  small  two-horse 
plow  without  wheels,  known  as  the  Scotch 
plow.  Four  years  later  he  left  Hermiston  and 
rented  a  large  moorland  farm  of  1,300  acres  in 
Aberdeenshire,  where  he  devoted  his  leisure 
hours  to  writing  on  agricultural  subjects,  his 
first  production  being  a  series  of  essays  on  plant- 
ing contributed  Pi  the  'Edinburgh  Weekly  Mag- 
azine.' His  principal  works  are,  'Encourage- 
ment of  the  National  Fisheries'  ;  'An  Inquiry 
into  the  Nature  of  Corn  Laws';  'Observations 
mi  Slavery.'  and  'Recreations  in  Agriculture, 
Natural  History,  Arts,  and  Miscellaneous  Liter- 
ature'   (1799-1802). 

Anderson,  John,  a  Scottish  philosopher, 
founder  of  Anderson  College.  Glasgow:  b.  Rose- 
neath,  Dumbartonshire,  1726;  d.  1796.     He  stud- 


ANDERSON 


ied  at  the  University  of  Glasgow,  where  he  was 
afterward  professor  of  Oriental  languages,  and 
later  of  natural  philosophy.  In  addition  to  his 
usual  class  in  physics  he  instituted  one  for  ar- 
tisans, which  he  continued  to  conduct  to  the 
end  of  his  life.  In  l"86  appeared  his  'Institutes 
of  Physics,'  which  went  through  five  editions 
in  10  years.  He  invented  a  gun  whose  recoil 
was  stopped  by  air  condensation  ;  but  having  in 
vain  endeavored  to  attract  the  attention  of  the 
British  government  to  it.  he  went  to  Paris 
in  1791  and  presented  his  model  to  the  National 
Convention.  It  was  hung  up  in  their  hall  with 
tins  inscription  over  it,  "The  Gift  of  Science  to 
Liberty."  When  the  allies  had  drawn  a  military 
cordon  around  the  frontiers  of  France  Ander- 
son suggested  the  expedient,  which  was  adopted, 
of  making  small  paper  balloons,  to  which  news- 
papers and  manifestos  were  fastened  and  car- 
ried to  Germany.  Anderson  by  his  will  directed 
that  his  entire  effects  should  be  devoted  to  the 
establishment  of  an  educational  institution  in 
Glasgow  for  the  use  of  the  unacademical 
classes.  This  college,  opened  with  a  single 
course  of  lectures,  has  now  nearly  20  professors 
and  lecturers ;  courses  of  instruction  are  given 
in  physical  and  medical  science  and  in  chemis- 
try ;  mathematics,  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  French, 
music,  etc.,  are  also  taught.  As  a  school  of 
medicine  in  particular  it  possesses  a  high  repu- 
tation. 

Anderson,  John,  Scotch  physician  and 
scientist :  b.  Edinburgh,  4  Oct.  1833 ;  d.  1900. 
He  obtained  his  medical  degree  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  in  1862,  and  three  years  later 
was  appointed  superintendent  of  the  Indian 
Museum  at  Calcutta,  and  was  called  to  the  chair 
of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  Calcutta  Medi- 
cal College.  In  1868-69  and  again  in  1874-75 
he  accompanied  expeditions  to  western  China 
as  scientific  officer.  In  1881  the  trustees  of  the 
Indian  Museum  commissioned  him  to  investi- 
gate the  marine  zoology  of  the  Mergui  archi- 
pelago, the  results  of  his  researches  being  pub- 
lished in  'Fauna  of  Mergui  and  its  Archipelago' 
( 1889)  ;  and  also  in  the  Journal  of  the  Linnasan 
Society  (vols.  XXI  and  XXII).  In  18S7  he  re- 
tired from  the  service  of  the  Indian  Govern- 
ment. Among  his  writings,  which  are  mainly 
reports  to  the  government  and  scientific  papers, 
the  most  noteworthy  are:  'Mandalay  to  Mo- 
mien'  (1875);  'Anatomical  and  Zoological  Re- 
searches' (1878);  'Two  Expeditions  to  West- 
ern China'  (1876);  'Herpetology  of  Arabia,' 
also  containing  a  list  of  Egyptian  reptiles  and 
batrachians  (1896);  'Handbook  of  the  Archae- 
ological Collections  in  the  Indian  Museum;' 
'  Catalogue  of  the  Mammalia  in  the  Indian  Mu- 
seum,'  etc. 

Anderson,  John  Jacob,  an  American  au- 
thor and  educator:  b.  New  York,  30  Sept.  1821 ;  d. 
14  March  1906.  Graduated  at  Normal  School,  Col- 
lege of  City  of  New  York,  1846.  Teacher  for  30 
years  in  public  schools  of  New  York  city;  traveled 
oyer  North  and  Central  America,  Europe,  and  Af- 
rica. He  published  a  large  number  of  text-books 
on  history,  chief  of  which  are:  'Manual  of 
General  Hi^torv'  (1867");  "School  History  of 
the  United  States'  (1868);  'Manual  of  Mediae- 
val and  Modern  History';  'History  of  France' 
(1877);  'Complete  Course  in  Historv,  Part  1' 
(1881). 


Anderson,  Larz,  an  American  diplomat: 
b.  Paris,  France,  15  Aug.  1866;  d.  1902.  Gradu- 
ated at  Harvard,  1888 ;  second  secretary  United 
States  legation,  London.  1891-3;  first  secretary, 
Rome,  1893-7;  assistant  adjutant  general.  United 
States  Volunteers,  during  the  Spanish-American 
war,  1898. 

Anderson,  Martin  Brewer,  an  American 
educator:  b.  in  Brunswick.  Me.,  12  Feb.  1815; 
d.  26  Feb.  1890;  was  graduated  at  Waterville 
College,  now  Colby  University,  in  1840;  became 
professor  of  rhetoric  and  organized  and  taught 
the  course  in  modern  history  at  Waterville;  and 
was  president  of  the  University  of  Rochester, 
N.  Y.,  1853  to  18S8. 

Anderson,  Mary  Antoinette,  American 
actress:  b.  Sacramento,  Cal.,  28  July  1859.  She 
was  educated  at  the  Ursuline  Convent  and  the 
Academy  of  the  Presentation  Nuns  in  Louisville. 
and  when  13  years  of  age  began  to  study  for  the 
stage.  She  first  appeared  at  Louisville  on  27 
Nov.  1875,  in  the  character  of  Juliet.  Her  suc- 
cess was  immediate,  and  during  the  following 
years  she  played  with  increasing  popularity  in 
the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States  in  vari- 
ous roles.  In  1883  she  appeared  at  the  Lyceum 
Theatre  in  London  and  opened  the  Memorial 
Theatre  at  Stratford-on-Avon  in  the  character 
of  Rosalind  in  'As  You  Like  It,'  and  speedily 
became  well  known  in  England.  At  the  age  of 
28  she  married  Antonio  de  Navarro  and  retired 
from  the  stage.  In  1896  she  published  a  volume 
entitled,   'A  Few  Memories.' 

Anderson,  Melville  Best,  American  edu- 
cator and  author:  b.  Kalamazoo,  Mich.  28 
March  1851.  He  was  educated  at  Cornell  Uni- 
versity (1870-74);  the  University  of  Gottingen 
(i87S-"6);  and  at  the  University  of  P.-ir^ 
(1876^77).  Returning  to  the  United  States  he 
occupied  several  professorships  in  some  of  the 
principal  colleges,  notably  Butler  University, 
Purdue  University,  the  State  University  of  low  a. 
and  in  1891  became  professor  of  literature  in 
Leland  Stanford,  Jr.  University,  which  chair  he 
has  since  occupied.  He  has  translated  and 
edited  'Paul  and  Virginia':  Hugo's  'William 
Shakespeare';  Boissicr's  'Mine,  de  Sevigne' ; 
Caro's  'George  Sand'  ;  Simon's  'Victor  Cousin'  ; 
Sorel's  'Montesquieu';  Say's  'Turgot';  Re- 
musat's  'Thiers'  ;  Joutel's  'Journal  of  La  Salle's 
Last  Voyage'  (1896);  Tonty*s  'Relation' 
(189S);  'Nicholas  de  La  Salle's  Narrative' 
(189S)  ;  'Cavalier  de  La  Salle's  Discovery  rj 
the  Mississippi  River'  (1901),  etc.  He  also 
edited  'Bacon's  Essays,  with  Introduction  and 
Notes'  (1800);  and  wrote  'Representative 
Poets  of  the  Nineteenth  Century'   (1896). 

Anderson,  Rasmus  Bjorn,  an  American 
author:  b.  Albion,  Wis..  12  Jan.  1846.  Gradu- 
ated at  Luther  College,  Iowa.  1866.  and  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin,  1869.  Professor  of  Scandi- 
navian languages  and  literatures  in  University 
of  Wisconsin,  1875-83:  L'mted  States  minister 
to  Denmark.  1885-9.  Author  of  'America  Nol 
Discovered  bj  Columbus1  (1874);  'Norse' 
Mythology'  (1875);  'Viking  Tales  of  the  North 
(1876);  translator  of  Horn's  'Historj 
Literature  of  the  Scandinavian  North1'  (1884), 
of  various  stories  by  Bjomson,  'The  Younger 
Fddas'  (1880).  and  G.  Brandes'  'Eminent 
Authors  of  the  19th  Century'   (1886). 


ANDERSON 


Anderson,  Richard  Henry,  an  American 
Confederate  soldier:  l>.  South  Carolina,  7  Oct. 
[821;  d.  Beaufort,  S,  C,  20  Feb.  1879.  Gradu- 
ated from  West  Point  in  [842;  served  in  Mexi- 
can war.  In  May  [86)  he  resigned  from  the 
United  States  army  to  join  the  Confederate  ser 
vice.  lie  assisted  in  the  bombardment  of  I  ort 
Sumter  and  distinguished  himself  for  gallantry 
throughout  the  war,  especially  at  Fair  Oaks, 
Gaines  Mills.  Frazier's  Farm,  Bull  Run,  and 
Gettysburg,  lie  had  the  rank  of  major-general 
I  and  lieutenant-general  (1864),  command- 
ing the  4th  corps  of  Lee's  army  in  the  last  cam- 
paign. 

Anderson,  Robert,  Scotch  biographer  and 
critic:  b.  Carmvath,  Lanarkshire,  7  Jan.  1750; 
d.  jo  Feb.  1830.  In  1784  he  became  a  resident 
and  practitioner  in  Edinburgh,  but  soon  after 
his  marriage  turned  his  attention  to  literary  pur- 
suits and  finallj  ceased  the  practice  of  medicine 
altogether.  lie  became  editor  of  the  'Edin- 
burgh Magazine.'  wrote  a  "Life  of  Dr.  Johnson,' 
and  published  'A  Complete  Edition  of  tin' 
of  Great  Britain,  with  Prefaces  Biographical  and 
Critical'    (  14  vols.  1792-1807). 

Anderson,  Robert,  an  American  soldier: 
b.  near  Louisville,  Ky.,  14  June  1805;  d.  in 
France,  26  Oct.  1871.  Graduating  at  West  Point 
1825,  he  entered  the  artillery  as  second  lieuten- 
ant. He  was  on  Scott's  staff  in  the  Seminole 
war.  1837-8:  in  the  Mexican  war  was  badly 
wounded  at  Molino  del  Rey.  Commissioned  ma- 
jor in  [857,  m  i860  he  was  given  command  of  the 
troops  in  Charleston  harbor,  with  headquarters 
at  Fort  Moultrie.  Threatened  with  attack,  the 
fort  untenable,  and  the  Buchanan  administration 
making  no  reply  to  his  appeals  for  its  strength- 
ening or  for  instructions,  on  26  December  he  re- 
moved the  garrison  to  Fort  Sumter.  An  at- 
tempt of  the  government  to  provision  it  being 
assumed  by  the  Confederates  as  a  declaration  of 
war,  they  invested  it  and  compelled  its  surren- 
der by  a  bombardment,  12-13  April  1861 ;  its 
commander  leaving  with  the  honors  of  war. 
Appointed  brigadier-general,  he  was  assigned 
to  the  department  of  the  Cumberland;  hut  Ins 
health  failing,  he  was  relieved  from  active  duty 
in  October  and  retired  in  1S63.  Brevetted 
major-general  in  1865,  in  1S69  he  went  to  Nice, 
France,  for  his  health.  lie  wrote  works  on  tac- 
tics, and  was  instrumental  in  organizing  the 
Soldiers'  Home  at  Washington. 

Anderson,  Sir  Robert,  an  Irish  barrister 
and  author:  h.  29  May  184I.  He  was  assistant 
commissioner  of  police  in  London,  1888-1901, 
and  was  knighted  in  the  year  last  named.  His 
published  works  include  'The  Coming  Prince'; 
'A  Doubter's  Doubts  about  Science  and  Re- 
;  'Human  Destiny';  'The  Gospel  and 
its  Ministry';  'Daniel  in  the  Critics'  Hen'; 
'The  Silence  of  God'  (1807);  'The  Buddha  of 
'Christendom'  (1899)  ;  (  The  Bible  and  Modern 
Criticism'    ( 1902  1 . 

Anderson,  Rufus,  American  Congrega- 
tional clergyman,  and  Secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Board  of  Foreign  Missions :  b.  North  Yar- 
mouth. Me.,  17  Aug.  1796;  d.  Boston,  Mass.,  30 
May  1880.  Having  graduated  at  Bowdoin  Col- 
lege in  1818,  he  studied  theology  at  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  completing  his  course  in 
1822.  In  1824  he  became  assistant  secretary  to 
the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  serving  as  such 


till  1832,  when  he  became  full  secretary.  In 
this  position  he  continued  for  34  years,  till  [866, 
when  owing  to  his  advanced  age  and  failing 
health  he  retired.  lie  inspected  the  missions 
in  the  Mediterranean  in  1828-29  and  again  in 
1843-44,  the  results  of  his  tours  of  these  years 
being  chronicled  in  his  'Observations  on  the 
Peloponnesus  and  Greek  Islands'  (Boston, 
1830).  He  also  visited  the  Indian  Missions  in 
'854-55,  and  the  Sandwich  Islands  in  1863. 
From  1867  to  1869  he  was  lecturer  on  Foreign 
Missions  in  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary. 
lie  with  others  founded  the  Mount  Holyoke 
Female  Seminary,  at  South  lladlev.  Mass.,  was 
for  several  years  president  of  the  hoard  of  trus- 
tees of  Bradford  Academy,  Mass.,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary.  Besides  his  'Observa- 
tions' he  also  wrote:  'The  Hawaiian  Islands, 
Their  Progress  and  Condition  under  Mission- 
ary Labors'  (1864);  'A  Heathen  Nation  Civi- 
lized'; 'A  History  of  the  Sandwich  Islands' 
Missions'  (1870);  'History  of  the  Missions  of 
the  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  For- 
eign Missions  to  the  Oriental  Churches'  (3 
vols.,  1872-4),  etc. 

Anderson,  Ind.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Madison  County;  on  the  White  River,  36  miles 
northeast  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  the  junction  of 
four  steam  railroads,  trunk  lines,  and  is  the 
centre  of  one  of  the  most  extensive  systems  of 
electric  traction  lines  in  the  middle  west.  The 
power  house  is  the  largest  in  the  State,  gener- 
ating the  power  which  carries  cars  to  every  im- 
portant city  in  northern  and  central  Indiana. 

Industries. — Anderson  lies  in  the  centre  of  a 
rich  agricultural  region  and  is  also  an  import- 
ant manufacturing  centre.  Here  was  established 
one  of  the  first  and  largest  tin  plate  mills,  in- 
troducing that  industry  into  the  United  States. 
Over  100  shops  are  engaged  in  industrial  enter- 
prises where  nearly  every  commodity  known  to 
trade  is  made.  Chief  among  these  are  tin  plate, 
glass,  wire  fence,  steel  springs,  nails,  automo- 
biles, carriages,  shovels,  files,  wind  pumps,  steel 
tanks,  shovel  handles,  carriage  and  buggy  ma- 
terials, tools  and  tool  workers'  supplies,  encaus- 
tic tiles,  etc.  Natural  gas  was  discovered  in 
1887,  and  while  the  flow  has  diminished  to  some 
extent  it  is  still  sufficient  in  supply  for  heating 
and  small  manufacturing  purposes. 

Banks,  Public  Works.  Buildings,  Etc. —  The 
city  has  five  banks,  with  a  c?pitalization  of 
$1,500,000,  and  deposits  of  $3,000,000;  three  daily 
papers;  a  city  electric  railway  covering  over  10 
miles;  20  miles  of  brick  paved  streets;  50  miles 
of  cement  sidewalk ;  an  excellent  fire  department, 
and  owns  and  operates  its  own  water  and  elec- 
tric lighting  plants.  Among  the  prominent 
buildings  are  the  Court  House,  erected  in  1882 
at  a  cost  of  $200,000,  the  Government  building 
for  postal  service,  a  handsome  public  library,  an 
Orphan's  Home,  and  numerous  hotels.  There 
are  many  substantial  school  buildings,  valued  at 
$,100,000,  with  a  school  enumeration  of  6.500 
children.  Nearly  all  religious  denominations 
are  represented  and  well  housed  in  the  city. 

History.  Government,  and  Population. —  The 
first  settlement  was  111  1822.  when,  as  the  home 
of  the  Delaware  Indians,  it  was  known  as  Ander- 
son's Town,  the  chief  of  the  Delaware  tribe 
being  known   as   "Kik-tha-we-nund,   or  Ander- 


ANDERSON  —  ANDES 


son."  Anderson's  Town  became  a  county-seat 
in  1827.  The  name  was  changed  to  Anderson 
by  act  of  the  Legislature  in  1838,  and  in  1865  the 
city  was  incorporated.  The  city  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor  and  council,  elected  by  the 
people.  Pop.  (1900)  20,178;  (1905)  26,000. 
John  L.  Forkner, 

Mayor  of  Anderson. 

Anderson,  S.  C,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Anderson  County,  on  the  Charleston  &  West- 
ern Carolina,  and  Blue  Ridge  railroads ;  127 
miles  northwest  of  Columbia.  The  city  was 
settled  in  1827.  It  is  in  the  centre  of  a  large 
and  fertile  cotton-growing  and  agricultural  re- 
gion. It  contains  the  city  hall,  court  house 
and  other  large  buildings,  and  numerous 
churches  and  schools.  It  has  cotton-seed  oil, 
eight  cotton  mills,  lumber,  and  flour  mills,  and 
manufactures  of  fertilizers,  clothing,  machinery, 
and  numerous  small  manufactories.  The  city 
is  supplied  by  a  private  corporation  with  light 
and  power  from  an  electric  plant  located  on  the 
banks  of  the  Seneca  River,  10  miles  distant. 
The  same  company  supplies  the  water  supply 
for  the  city.  The  municipal  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor  and  a  council,  elected  every 
two  years,  under  a  charter  of  1882.  Pop. 
(1890)  3,018;   (1900)  5,498;   (1904)  8,500. 

G.  P.  Browne, 
Publisher  < Daily  Mail? 

Andersonville,  Ga.,  a  village  of  Sumter 
County,  62  miles  southwest  of  Macon,  noted  as 
the  seat,  during  the  Civil  War,  of  a  military 
prison  of  the  Confederate  States.  This  prison 
was  established  in  November  1863,  and  con- 
sisted of  an  unsheltered  enclosure  containing  at 
first  22  acres,  an  area  subsequently  increased  to 
27.  It  was  commanded  by  Gen.  W.  S.  Winder, 
but  the  superintendent  was  one  Henry  Wirz,  a 
Swiss.  It  has  been  stated  that  Andersonville 
was  selected  as  a  suitable  site  because  secure 
against  Federal  raiders  and  generally  considered 
healthful;  but  that  the  laying  waste  of  the  fields 
of  the  South  and  the  destruction  of  the  means 
of  transportation  brought  upon  the  Southern 
army  and  people  great  suffering,  in  which  pris- 
oners of  war  necessarily  shared.  It  is  true  that 
rations  were  meagre  for  Confederate  soldiers, 
to  whose  fare  such  prisoners  were  legally  en- 
titled. But  evidence  shows  that  the  conditions 
which  prevailed  at  Andersonville  were  due  to 
mismanagement  and  cruelty ;  such  evidence  in- 
cluding ample  Confederate  testimony,  as  for  ex- 
ample, that  rendered  by  Dr.  G.  S.  Hopkins  and 
Surgeon  H.  E.  Watkins,  constituting  a  Confed- 
erate medical  commission  (1864),  and  that  by 
Colonel  Chandler  of  the  Confederate  war  de- 
partment in  an  inspection  report  (5  July  1864). 
Into  the  enclosure  as  many  as  33,000  prisoners 
were  at  times  crowded,  for  the  most  part  com- 
pletely without  shelter,  and  supplied  with  insuf- 
ficient and  unsuitable  food.  Between  February 
1864  and  April  1865  there  were  received  at  the 
prison  49,485  prisoners,  of  whom  26  per  cent, 
or  over    12,800,   died   there.     In   the   autumn   of 

1864  the  Confederate  government  removed  many 
to  Florence,  S.  C,  and  Millen,  Ga.,  where  they 
fared  decidedly  better.     Wirz  was  convicted  in 

1865  by  a  military  court  under  an  indictment 
charging  him  with  injuring  the  health  and  de- 
stroying the  lives  of  prisoners,  and  was  hanged 
ro  November.  The  prison  burying-ground  was 
made  a  national  cemetery.     Consult :  Stevenson. 


R.  R.,  'The  Southern  Side;  or  Andersonville 
Prison'  (1876);  Chipman,  'The  Horrors  of 
Andersonville  Rebel  Prison'  (1891)  ;  Schouler, 
'History  of  the  United  States,'  Vol.  VI.  (1899). 

Andes,  an'dez,  or,  as  called  in  Spanish 
South  America,  Cordilleras  (ridges)  de  los 
Andes,  or  simply  Cordilleras,  a  range  of  moun- 
tains extending  along  the  whole  of  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  from  Cape  Horn  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
Sometimes  it  is  spoken  of  as  a  continuation  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  in  North  America,  but 
there  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  this  other  than 
the  continuity  of  the  two  divisions  of  America, 
and  the  fact  that  both  ranges  lie  in  the  west  of 
their  respective  continents.  There  is  a  suffi- 
ciently marked  break  between  the  ridges  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  range  of  the  Andes 
of  South  America,  and  a  still  more  distinct  hia- 
tus between  the  sierras  of  Central  America  and 
Mexico  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  south  part  of  this  huge  chain  begins 
to  be  continuous  about  lat.  520  S.,  and  from  this 
point  to  about  lat.  42°  S.,  a  distance  of  nearly 
1,100  miles,  the  range  presses  close  to  the  Pa- 
cific Ocean.  Its  average  height  in  this  part  is 
only  about  3,000  feet,  though  several  summits 
rise  some  thousands  of  feet  higher,  namely. 
Mount  Melimoyu,  Yanteles  (the  highest,  above 
8.000  feet),  and  the  volcanoes  of  Corcobado  and 
Minchinmadiva.  The  width  of  the  chain  in  the 
extreme  south  is  about  20  miles,  further  north 
it  increases  to  40  miles,  and  it  attains  a  still 
greater  width  before  reaching  lat.  420  S.  About 
this  latitude  the  chain  begins  to  recede  from  the 
coast,  leaving  wide  plains  on  the  west  1,000  or 
1,500  feet  above  sea-level.  North  of  lat.  350  S. 
a  double  range  may  be  traced,  and  the  whole 
system  of  mountains  widens  out  to  about  130 
miles.  At  about  lat.  21°  S.  the  direction  of  the 
chain,  which  up  to  this  point  is  north  and 
slightly  east,  begins  to  change  a  little  to  the 
west,  and  around  this  elbow,  as  it  were,  is  a 
knot  of  mountains,  partly  in  Argentina  and 
partly  in  Bolivia,  consisting  of  chains  running 
in  various  directions,  some  of  which  are  uncon- 
nected with  the  chain  of  the  Andes.  This  knot 
forms  part  of  the  watershed  dividing  the  rivers 
of  the  La  Plata  from  those  of  the  Amazon  basin. 
Among  the  peaks,  up  to  21  °  S.  lat.,  are  the 
active  volcanoes  of  Antuco,  Maypu,  and  Tupun- 
gato;  but  the  culminating  point  of  this  portion, 
and  so  far  as  is  known  of  the  whole  Andes, 
is  Aconcagua,  rising  to  the  height  of  23,028  feet, 
and  distinctly  visible  from  Valparaiso,  100  miles 
distant.  The  Chilean  Andes,  under  the  35th 
parallel  of  south  latitude,  are  about  150  miles 
from  the  Pacific ;  but  this  distance  decreases  to 
about  80  miles  in  the  latitude  of  Valparaiso. 

At  lat.  210  S.  the  Andes  range  bifurcates, 
forming  two  chains  of  great  elevation,  the  Andes 
of  Bolivia  and  Peru,  enclosing  the  lofty  table- 
land or  longitudinal  valley  of  the  Desaguadero 
and  Lake  Titicaca.  Of  these  two  chains  the 
western  or  Permian  has  the  peaks  of  Sahama, 
Parinacota,  Gualateiri,  and  Pomarape,  above 
21,000  feet  in  height;  and  the  eastern  or  Bolivian 
(Cordillera  Real)  those  of  Illimani  and  Sorata 
or  Illampu  (21.484  feet).  The  highest  seems 
to  be  Gualateiri,  the  loftiest  active  volcano 
in  the  chain.  21,960  feet  in  height.  Sa- 
hama. another  active  volcano,  is  21,054  feet. 
These  parallel  Cordilleras,  the  united  breadth  of 


ANDES 


which  nowhere  exceeds  250  miles,  are  united 
at  various  points  by  enormous  transverse  groups 
or  mountain  knots,  or  else  by  single  ranges 
crossing  lulu-tin  them  like  dikes.  The  descent 
to  the  l'acitic  is  exceedingly  steep;  the  dip  is 
also  very  rapid  to  the  east,  whence  offsets  di- 
verge to  the  level  plains.  The  tahle-land  of  the 
Desaguadero,  thus  enclosed,  has  itself  an  ab- 
solute altitude  of  12,000  feet  and  an  area  of 
150,000  square  miles.  A  large  eastern  offset,  the 
Sierra  de  Cochabamha,  leaves  the  eastern  Cor- 
dillera under  the  17th  parallel,  bounding  the 
rich  plain  of  Cochabamha  north,  and  ending 
nearly  under  the  ('.id  meridian  of  west  longi- 
tude at  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra.  The  two 
main  Cordilleras  once  more  unite  in  the  group 
of  Vilcanota,  in  lat.  150  S.,  and  the  united  range 
then  runs  about  280  miles  northwest  to  about 
lat.  io°  S.,  where  the  Andes  separate  into  three 
nearly  parallel  chains  —  the  eastern,  central,  and 
western  Cordilleras,  which  enclose  between 
them  the  Iluallaga  and  Upper  Maranon  rivers; 
the  western  or  coast  Cordillera  running  north 
as  far  as  the  group  of  Loja,  near  the  southern 
extremity  of  Ecuador. 

About  lat.  6°  S.,  opposite  the  Point  Aguja, 
the  Andes  chain  again  takes  a  course  north  and 
slightly  cast,  forming,  as  in  Chile,  a  single  mass 
or  rocky  plateau,  80  miles  broad,  covered  with 
a  double  series  of  highly  elevated  summits  en- 
closing longitudinal  valleys,  one  of  which,  that 
of  Cuenca,  in  the  group  of  Assouan,  is  upward 
of  15,000  feet  high,  or  nearly  within  the  region 
of  perpetual  snow.  North  of  this  point  the 
chain  again  divides,  the  western  range  com- 
prising Mounts  Chimborazo  (21,240  feet),  Ili- 
niza,  and  Pichincha;  while  on  the  eastern  range 
arc  the  volcanoes  Sangay,  Tunguragua,  Colo- 
paxi,  Antisana  (19,137  feet),  and  Mount  Cay- 
ambc  (19,535  feet).  Shortly  after  entering  New 
Granada,  crossing  the  equator,  the  chain,  in  lat. 
1°  5'  N.,  again  meets  in  the  knot  or  plateau  of 
Los  Pastos,  on  which  is  the  volcano  of  Cumbal 
(16,620  feet)  ;  but  a  little  north  of  the  city  of 
Pastos  it  once  more  bifurcates,  enclosing  the 
mountain  plain  of  Almagucr,  comprising  the 
volcano  of  Purace  (17,034  feet)  on  its  eastern 
branch ;  and  finally,  somewhat  north  of  the 
town  of  Popayan,  the  Andes  separate  into  three- 
distinct  ridges  —  the  Sierra  di  Choco,  running 
north  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama;  the  Sierra  di 
Quindiu,  running  east  of  the  Cauca  River;  and 
the  Sierra  Sunia  Paz,  extending  east  of  the 
Magdalena  to  Lake  Maracaibo  and  the  city  of 
Valencia  in  Venezuela.  North  of  the  fifth 
northern  parallel  the  only  summits  within  the 
snow  line  on  these  Cordilleras  belong  to  the 
eastern  chain,  which  also  is  very  precipitous  on 
its  eastern  slope.  On  the  Quindiu  or  central 
chain  is  the  volcano  of  Tolima  (18,325  feet),  in 
lat.  40  46'  N.  The  Choco  or  coast  chain  is  of 
comparatively  small  elevation,  its  highest  point 
not  exceeding  9.000  feet.  The  total  length  of 
the  Andes  has  been  estimated  at  about  4,400 
miles. 

Passes,  Roads,  and  Railways. —  This  gigan- 
tic mountain  chain  is  traversed  in  its  different 
parts  by  numerous  roads  or  passes  at  heights 
almost  equal  to  those  of  the  extreme  summits 
of  the  European  ranges.  Most  of  them  are 
narrow,  steep,  and  sometimes  dangerous,  pass- 
ing through  gorges,  across  yawning  chasms,  and 
up  nearly  perpendicular  rocks ;  nor  can  they  be 


attempted  with  success  except  by  the  active  and 
well-practised  native  or  the  courageous  and 
well-provided  traveler.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
likewise,  that  nearly  all  these  roads  cross  the 
ridge  transversely  and  direct,  not,  as  is  some 
times  the  case  in  the  Alps,  by  a  circuitous 
course  through  the  longitudinal  valleys.  Sub- 
joined is  a  list  of  most  of  the  known  mountain 
passes,  with  their  position,  connected  localities, 
and  highest  elevation,  commencing  with  those 
on  the  south. 


33° 


33 


Names 

Portillo,       lat. 

40'    S 

Peuquenes,    Lit 

40'    S 

Cumhrc,      lat.       3.'0 

5-'     S 

Pass  of  Tolapalca. 

Pass       of       Condur 

Pachcta     

Pass  of  Pacuani... 

Pass  of  Gualillas, 
lat.    17°    50'    S... 

Pass  of  Chullun- 
quiani      

Pass  of  Alto  tie  To- 
ledo, lat.  16°  2'  S. 

Angostura    

Pass  1>\-  San  M  iteo, 
lat.    u      48'    S. 

Alto  de  Tacaibam- 
ba    Pass 

Alto  de  Lachagual 
Pass    

Road  over  the  Pa- 
ramo  de    Assuay 

Road  over  the  Quin- 

diu  r.-iss 


Feet 

I  from    Santiago   to    Estaca- 

)      da     above   14,000 

/  from    Santiago    to    Estai 

f      da    above   13,000 

I  from    Valparaiso    to    Men* 

)      doza     above   12,400 

i  from    Potosi    to   Oruro.... 

(      above   14,000 

/from    Potosi    to   Oruro.... 

J       above    14,000 

i  from    La    Paz    to    the    Y.il- 

}     ley  of  tlu-    Beni.. .above  15,000 

j  from   Arica  to   La    Paz....    14,750 
(from    Arica   to    La    Paz.... 

above   15,000 

(from  Arequipa  to  Puno.... 

J       above   1 5,500 

j  between  Tacora  &  Lake    1 1 

t      ticaca    above   10,500 

c  from    Lima    to    Tarma    and 

>       Pasco    above   15,700 

(from    Jauja    to    Huanuco.. 

J      aoovc   1 5,000 

(from    Jauja    to    Huanuco.. 

'      above  1 5,000 

(from    Alausi    to    Cuenca.. 

J above   1 5,500 

J  from   Alausi   to   Cartago.  .  .    11,502 


Besides  the  routes  just  mentioned,  a  great 
commercial  road  runs  longitudinally  along  the 
Andes  the  whole  distance  from  Truxillo,  lat. 
8°  5'  S.,  to  Popayan,  lat.  2°  25'  N.,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Cauca,  not  much  less  than  1,000  miles, 
and  attaining  at  its  highest  point,  the  Paramo 
de  Bolicha,  an  elevation  of  11,500  feet.  Two 
railways  across  the  Andes  have  already  been 
completed,  both  in  the  republic  of  Pern.  The 
first  in  operation  extends  from  the  port  of 
Mollcndo,  near  the  south  of  Peru,  by  Arequipa 
to  Puno  on  Lake  Titicaca,  a  distance  of  217 
miles.  The  eastern  terminus  of  this  railway 
is  situated  in  a  table-land  12,196  feet  above  the 
level  of  'he  sea.  The  first  locomotive  n 
the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca  on  1  Jan.  1S74. 
The  other  and  more  recent  railway  is  from  Lima 
to  Oroya,  a  distance  of  145  miles.  The  crest 
of  the  Andes  is  traversed  by  a  short  tunnel  at 
an  altitude  of  15,645  feet  above  sea-level ;  the 
steep  and  irregular  slope  up  to  this  point  being 
ascended  by  a  series  of  sharp  curves,  and  the 
ravines  spanned  by  bridges.  A  transandean 
railway  from  Buenos  Ayres  to  Valparaiso  is 
nearly  completed. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. —  From  the  Andes  rise 
two  of  the  largest  water  systems  of  the  world 
—  the  Amazon  and  its  affluents,  and  the  La 
Plata  and  its  tributaries.  Besides  which,  in  the 
north,  from  its  slopes  flow  the  Magdalena  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  and  some  tributaries  to  the 
Orinoco,  but  no  streams  of  importance  flow 
from  its  western  slopes.  The  number  of  lakes 
interspersed  through  this  vast  mountain  system 
is  not  great,  and  in  this  respect  it  presents  a 
striking     contrast     to    the     Swiss     Alps.     The 


MOUNT  CHIMBORAZO  IN  THE  ANDES 


21.420     FEET     HIGH 


A  SOUTH  AMERICAN   INN. 

NATIVE    HOTEL  IN    THE   CORDILLERAS 


ANDES 


largest,   and   the  only  one   worthy  of  notice,   is 
that  of  Titicaca  on  the  Bolivian  plateau. 

Geology,  etc. —  In  considering  the  geology 
of  the  Andes,  the  first  fact  that  strikes  the  ob- 
server is  the  vast  development  of  volcanic  force 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  chain,  which  is 
continued  north  through  Guatemala  and  Mex- 
ico. These  volcanic  vents  occur  in  three  linear 
groups,  the  extreme  southern  extending  from 
the  42d  to  the  33d  parallel  of  south  latitude ; 
the  next  from  the  27th  to  the  15th  parallel,  and 
the  last  '  from  lat.  2°  S.  to  about  lat.  5°  N. 
Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  principal 
volcanoes.  Another  striking  circumstance  in 
the  geology'  of  this  range  is  that  it  consists 
almost  entirely  of  sedimentary  rocks,  showing 
that  its  highest  parts  must  at  one  time  have 
been  submerged.  Granite  comes  so  rarely  to 
the  surface  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  chain, 
that,  according  to  Humboldt,  a  person  might 
travel  for  years  in  the  Andes  of  Peru  without 
meeting  this  species  of  rock ;  and  he  never 
saw  any  at  a  greater  absolute  elevation  than 
11,500  feet.  Gneiss  is  sometimes  found  in  con- 
nection with  the  granite ;  but  mica-schist  is  by 
far  the  commonest  of  all  the  crystalline  rocks. 
Quartz  is  likewise  extremely  abundant,  gen- 
erally mixed  with  mica,  and  rich  in  gold  and 
specular  iron.  Vast  tracts  of  red  sandstone, 
with  gypseous  and  saliferous  marls,  occur  in 
Peru.  Porphyry  and  greenstone  abound  all 
over  the  range  at  every  elevation,  both  on  the 
slopes  and  extreme  ridges ;  and  trachyte  is  al- 
most as  abundant  as  porphyry,  both  in  Peru  and 
Chile,  great  masses  of  it,  from  14,000  to  18,- 
000  feet  thick,  being  visible  on  Chimborazo  and 
Pichincha.  As  respects  volcanic  products,  the 
western  face  of  the  Andes  presents  immense 
quantities  of  lava,  tufa,  and  obsidian,  none  of 
which  are  found  on  the  eastern  side ;  this  ap- 
plies especially  to  that  part  of  the  chain  lying 
between  Chile  and  the  equator.  Fossil  remains 
are  by  no  means  common ;  but  in  the  limestone 
strata  of  the  coast  toward  the  northern  extrem- 
ity of  the  range  Humboldt  found  many  marine 
shells  of  the  Silurian  period,  about  30  miles 
from  the  coast ;  and  Pentland  observed  others 
of  the  same  era  at  a  height  of  17.500  feet  on 
Mount  Antakawa  in  Bolivia,  as  well  as  in  sev- 
eral other  parts. 

Earthquakes. —  Many  of  the  volcanoes,  as  be- 
fore observed,  are  in  a  state  of  either  constant 
or  occasional  action ;  it  cannot,  therefore,  be 
matter  of  surprise  that  there  should  be  fre- 
quent and  violent  earthquakes.  All  the  districts 
of  the  Andes  system,  but  Chile  especially,  have 
suffered  more  severely  from  these  oscillations 
than  any  other  part  of  the  world ;  and  among 
the  towns  either  destroyed  or  greatly  injured 
by  these  visitations  may  be  mentioned  Bogota, 
Quito,  Riobamba,  Lima,  Callao,  Valparaiso,  and 
Concepcion.  In  1819  Copiapo  was  entirely 
overturned,  not  a  house  being  left  standing. 
Concepcion  was  twice  destroyed  —  in  1730  and 
1751  ;  and  in  November  1822  an  earthquake  was 
felt  on  the  same  day  at  this  town,  in  lat.  370 
S.,  and  at  Lima  in  lat  12°  N.,  more  than  1,700 
miles  distant :  it  was  on  this  occasion  that  Val- 
paraiso, Melipella,  and  Quillota  were  all  but 
completely  annihilated.  This  earthquake,  too, 
had  the  remarkable  effect  of  upheaving  the  land 
on  the  coast,  upward  of  100  miles  in  extent,  to 
the  height  of  three  or   four  feet,  and  elevating 


a  portion  of  the  shore  above  high-water  mark. 
These  shocks  continued  at  brief  intervals  till 
the  autumn  of  1823 ;  and  since  that  time  the  vol- 
canoes of  Maypu,  until  then  for  many  years 
quiescent,  have  had  frequent  eruptions.  In  Au- 
gust 1868  the  towns  of  Arequipa,  Iqulque, 
Tacna,  and  many  other  smaller  towns  in  Peru 
and  Ecuador,  were  destroyed.  Earthquakes, 
slight  or  more  serious,  are  of  yearly  occurrence, 
and  faint  oscillations  of  the  soil  are  regarded 
with  scarcely  more  attention  than  a  hail-storm 
in  the  temperate  zone. 

Mineral  Productions. —  The  Andes  are  ex- 
tremely rich  in  the  precious  metals.  In  Chile, 
Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Colombia  gold  is  obtained. 
Silver  occurs  in  Chile  in  the  provinces  of  Co- 
quimbo  and  Atacama,  and  the  mines  of  these 
districts  are  remarkable  for  the  richness  of  their 
ores.  The  Peruvian  Andes  have  numerous  sil- 
ver mines  scattered  over  their  whole  extent  from 
the  province  of  Caxamarca  south  to  the  confines 
of  Chile ;  but  incomparably  the  richest  are  the 
mines  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  which  have'  been 
worked  upward  of  two  centuries.  The  mines  of 
Chota  likewise,  which  are  situated  on  Mount 
Hualgayoc,  are  productive.  The  ore,  which  is 
richer  even  than  that  of  Pasco,  lies  either  on  or 
very  near  the  surface.  Close  to  the  Pacific,  at 
Huantajaya,  in  the  district  of  Arica,  are  sev- 
eral mines  celebrated  for  the  quantity  of  virgin 
silver  found  therein,  sometimes  in  masses  of 
great  weight.  The  most  famous  mines  are 
those  of  the  Cerro  de  Potosi,  in  Bolivia,  lat. 
IO°  3°'  S.,  which  is  perforated  in  all  directions 
by  thousands  of  openings,  some  of  which  are 
within  100  feet  of  the  summit  (16,000  feet). 
Quicksilver  is  found  in  several  parts  of  the 
Andes,  but  in  combination  with  sulphur,  form- 
ing the  red  sulphuret  of  mercury  commonly 
known  as  cinnabar.  Copper  is  found  both  in 
the  east  and  west  Cordilleras  of  Peru ;  but  the 
eastern  chain  is  too  far  from  the  coast  to  admit 
of  mines  being  profitably  worked.  The  copper 
mines  of  Chile  are  the  most  valuable.  They  are 
situated  chiefly  in  the  desert  of  Atacama.  Tin 
also,  wrought  in  Chile,  forms  an  article  of  ex- 
port; but  lead  and  iron,  though  plentiful,  are 
not  worked.  Considerable  platinum  is  ob- 
tained from  the  state  of  Choco  in  Colombia. 

Climate  and  Meteorology. —  On  the  western 
side  of  the  range  little  or  no  rain  falls,  except 
at  the  southern  extremity ;  and  scanty  vegeta- 
tion appears  only  in  spots,  or  in  small  valleys, 
watered  by  streams  from  the  mountains ;  while 
on  the  opposite  slope  excessive  heat  and  mois- 
ture combine  to  give  the  range  a  thick  covering 
of  tangled  forest  trees  and  dense  brushwood. 
Currents  of  cold  west  and  northwest  winds 
blow  nearly  all  the  year  from  the  ice-topped 
Cordilleras  on  the  plateau  beneath,  daily  accom- 
panied during  four  months  by  thunder,  light- 
ning, and  snow  storms.  Currents  of  warm  air 
are  also  occasionally  found  on  the  crest  of  the 
Andes :  they  usually  occur  two  hours  after  sun- 
set, being  both  local  and  narrow,  like  the  hot 
blasts  in  the  Alps,  not  exceeding  a  few  yards  in 
width.  They  run  parallel  to  each  other,  and  so 
closely  that  five  or  six  of  them  may  be  passed 
in  a  few  hours.  They  blow  chiefly  from  south- 
southwest  to  north-northeast  and  are  especially 
frequent  in  August  and  September.  Notwith- 
standing the  great  number  of  snow-clad  sum- 
mits,   glaciers    are    of    rare    occurrence    in    the 


ANDES  AND  THE  AMAZON  —  ANDOVER 


Andes,  being  found  only,  and  then  of  but  small 
extent,  in  the  narrow  ravines  which  furrow  the 
sides  of  some  of  its  Riant  summits. 

I  •  fetation. —  In  the  low  torrid  plains  that 
flank  the  bases  of  the  Andes  reign  the  banana, 
cycas,  plainlain,  cassava,  cacao,  the  cotton  tree, 
indigo  and  coffee   plant,  and  i  cane,  all  of 

which  are  extensively  and  profitably  grown  be- 
low the  altitude  of  4,000  feet.  Maize  is  like- 
wise plentiful,  and  may  be  said  to  form  the 
bread  of  the  Peruvians;  it  is  of  three  different 
kinds,  and,  according  to  Humboldt,  is  cultivated 
7,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Within  the  same  lim- 
its also  are  found,  either  wild  or  cultivated,  the 
pineapple,  pomegranate,  shaddock,  orange,  lime, 
lemon,  peach,  apricot,  together  with  olives,  aji 
or  pepper  plants,  tomatoes,  sweet  potatoes,  gum 
copal,  copaiba  balsam,  dragon's  blood,  sar- 
saparilla,  and  vanilla.  To  these  groups  suc- 
ceed, in  tin-  humid  and  shaded  clefts  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Cordilleras,  the  tree-ferns,  and  cin- 
chona or  cascarilla,  whence  we  derive  the  febri- 
fuge bark  and  quinine.  Between  the  heights  of 
6.000  and  9,000  feet  is  the  climate  best  suited 
for  the  European  cereals.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  quinoa  (Chenopodium  tiuinoa),  a 
most  useful  production  for  domestic  uses.  In 
this  region  also,  and  a  little  above  it,  grow  the 
putatu,  indigenous  to  Chile  and  thence  intro- 
duced into  Europe,  and  various  tuberose  con- 
geners,  all  extensively  used  as  food;  and  here 
likewise  grow  the  chickpea,  broad  bean,  cab- 
bage, and  other  European  vegetables.  Within 
the  cereal  limits  are  found  the  oak,  elm,  ash, 
and  beech,  which  never  descend  lower  than 
5,500  feet,  and  seldom  rise  higher  than  9,200 
feel  above  the  sea.  Above  this  level  the  larger 
forest  trees,  except  the  pine,  begin  to  disappear. 

Zoology. —  The  fauna  of  the  Andes  is  still 
very  imperfectly  known.  Among  the  carniv- 
orous animals  the  principal  arc  the  jaguar, 
puma,  ounce,  ocelot,  and  wild-cat.  There  are 
also  bears,  tapirs,  raccoons,  wild  hogs,  foxes, 
and  otters,  with  both  red  and  roe  deer.  The 
characteristic  animals  of  the  Andes,  however, 
are  the  llama  and  its  different  congeners  —  the 
guanaco,  vicuna,  and  paco  or  alpaca.  They  are 
the  chief  beasts  of  burden  on  the  Andes.  The 
forests  of  the  warmer  regions  abound  with 
members  of  the  monkey  tribe,  etc.  Many  vari- 
eties of  serpents  are  found.  Bats  are  numerous 
and  of  large  size,  the  vampire  bat  being  one  of 
the  most  remarkable.  The  condor  soars  over 
the  highest  summits,  making  its  nest  among  the 
highest  and  least  accessible  rocks ;  other  birds 
of  prey  are  also  numerous.  Curassows,  wild  tur- 
keys, parrots,  and  parrakeets  are  common  in 
the  woods,  and  there  are  also  a  great  many 
varieties  of  smaller  birds. 

Makrion  Wilcox, 
Authority  on  Latin-America. 

An'des  and  the  Amazon,  The,  a  volume  of 
travels  by  James  Orton  (i8;o,  enlarged  ed. 
1876).  Under  the  auspices  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  the  author,  who  for  many  years  was 
professor  of  natural  history  at  Vassar  College, 
led  an  exploring  expedition  to  the  equatorial 
Andes  and  the  river  Amazon.  Its  experiences 
are  set  forth  in  this  work. 

Andesine,  an'dez-Tn,  a  triclinic  feldspar, 
intermediate  in  composition  between  albite  and 
anorthite.      Albite    and    anorthite    are    isomor- 


pbous,  and  andesine  includes  those  mixtures  of 
the  two  in  which  the  ratio  of  albite  to  andesine 
ranges  from  1:1  to  3:2.  Andesine  may  be  de- 
scribed as  an  anhydrous  silicate  of  sodium, 
aluminum,  and  calcium.  Its  hardness  is  from  5 
to  6,  and  its  specific  gravity  about  2.68.  In 
color  it  is  white,  gray,  greenish,  yellowish,  or 
pink.  It  was  first  found  in  the  Andes  (whence 
the  name),  but  has  since  been  observed  in 
Alsace,  in  Iceland,  and  in  other  localities.  In 
the  United  States  it  occurs  at  Sanford,  Me. 

Andesite,  an'dcz-It,  a  common  volcanic 
rock,  consisting  of  a  triclinic  feldspar  (such  as 
andesine)  mixed  with  hornblende  or  augite  and 
sometimes  also  with  quartz.  It  varies  in  color 
from  green  to  gray  and  occasionally  has  a 
purplish  cast.  It  is  difficult  to  define  andesite 
accurately  because  basalt,  andesite,  and  trachyte 
are  similar  in  composition,  and  intermediate  va- 
rieties exist,  which,  with  the  typical  rocks  of  the 
three  classes,  form  an  almost  continuous  series. 
Andesite  is  more  fusible  than  trachyte,  but  less 
fusible  than  basalt. 

Andigan,  a'n'di-jan',  a  city  of  the  Russian 
khanate  of  Khokandin,  central  Asia.  It  is  the 
centre  of  an  immense  cotton-raising  district, 
whence  Russia  received  three  fourths  of  all  the 
cotton  used  in  the  empire.  In  1002  the  city 
was  totally  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  which 
killed  over  5,000  of  the  47,000  inhabitants. 

Andira,  an-di'ra,  a  genus  of  leguminous 
typical  American  trees,  with  fleshy  plum-like 
fruits.  The  wood  is  well  fitted  for  building. 
The  bark  of  A.  inermis,  or  cabbage-tree,  is 
narcotic,  and  is  used  as  an  anthelminthic  under 
the  name  of  worm  bark  or  cabbage  bark.  The 
powdered  bark  of  A.  araroba  is  employed  as  a 
remedy  in  certain  skin  diseases,  as  herpes. 

Andocides,  an'dos'T-dez,  an  Athenian  ora- 
tor :  b.  467  B.C. ;  d.  about  393  B.C.  Active  in 
public  affairs,  he  was  four  times  exiled;  the  first 
time  along  with  Alcibiades,  for  profaning  the 
Eleusinian  mysteries.  Three  of  his  orations  are 
extant. 

Andorra,  an-dor'ra,  a  small  republic  in  the 
Pyrenees  between  Ariege,  a  department  of 
France,  and  Lerida,  a  province  of  Spain.  It  is 
only  partially  independent,  being  under  the  su- 
zerainty of  both  France  and  Spain.  The  town 
covers  an  area  of  175  square  miles  and  the  in- 
habitants arc  devoted  chiefly  to  cattle-raising 
and  iron  and  lead  mining.  The  republic  and  its 
history  have  attracted  much  attention  from  stu- 
dents of  governmental  institutions.  Pop.  6.000. 
Sec  Tucker,  'The  Valley  of  Andorra'  (1882)  : 
Deverell,  'History  of  the  Republic  of  Andorra' 
(1885);  Spender,  'Through  the  High  Alps' 
(1898). 

An'dover,  an  English  market  town  in 
Hampshire,  12  miles  west  of  Winchester.  Its 
large  parish  church  was  built  about  1850  on  the 
site  of  a  Norman  predecessor.  The  Massachu- 
setts Andover  was  named  in  honor  of  the  Hamp- 
shire town.     Pop.  about  6,000. 

An'dover,  Mass.,  a  town  in  Essex  County, 
on  the  Merrimac  River  and  the  Boston  &  M. 
R.R. ;  23  miles  north  of  Boston.  It  is  widely 
known  as  the  seat  of  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  fq.v.),  the  Phillips  Academy  for  boys, 
and  the  Abbot  Academy  for  girls,  and  has  manu- 
factories of  flax,  shoes,  and  woolen  goods,  two 
national  banks,  Memorial  Hall,  and  school  libra- 


ANDOVER  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY  —  ANDRE 


ries,  a  free  public  library  of  over  12,000  volumes, 
and  a  property  valuation  of  over  $4,000,000. 
Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  lived  here  many  years, 
and  it  was  long  the  home  of  Elizabeth  Stuart 
Phelps  Ward.  It  was  first  settled  in  1646.  Pop. 
(1900)  6,813. 

Andover  Theological  Seminary,  Andover, 
Mass.,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous  theo- 
logical schools  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
founded  in  1807,  at  a  period  when  there  was 
little  provision  for  special  education  in  theology, 
the  Greek  or  Hebrew  languages,  Biblical  criti- 
cism, etc. ;  and  it  was  usual  for  ministerial  can- 
didates to  study  for  a  time  under  the  private 
tuition  of  some  noted  divine.  These  private 
divinity  schools  were  often  very  effective  intel- 
lectually and  practically,  but  could  not  supply 
the  minute  and  accurate  scholarship  of  regular 
institutions  with  longer  set  terms,  the  need  of 
which  was  now  sharply  felt.  At  this  time  also, 
not  only  was  New  England  divided  into  strenu- 
ous Calvinists  and  semi-Calvinists  or  outright 
Arminians,  but  the  former  were  themselves  di- 
vided into  Calvinists  proper  and  Hopkinsians, 
a  more  extreme  type.  Under  a  common  alarm 
at  the  inroads  of  religious  liberalism,  however, 
the  former  drew  together  and  united  in  up- 
holding a  general  theological  seminary.  This 
was  founded  by  Samuel  Abbot,  a  Boston  mer- 
chant, who  associated  with  him  Phoebe  Phillips, 
widow  of  the  founder  of  Phillips  Academy,  and 
her  son  John ;  and  the  three  drew  up  a  consti- 
tution for  the  seminary,  submitted  it  to  the 
General  Assembly  June  1807,  and  committed  it 
to  the  board  of  trustees  31  Aug.  1807.  The  ar- 
ticles were  rigidly  drawn  to  prevent  the  teach- 
ing of  anything  but  the  especial  form  of  Cal- 
vinism held  by  the  founders,  the  endowment 
to  be  forfeited  if  these  restrictions  were  dis- 
regarded. But  no  such  provision  could  be 
enforced  in  an  age  of  free  thought  and  con- 
sequent flux  of  belief  without  shutting  up 
the  seminary.  The  trustees  have  had  twice 
to  choose  between  relaxing  the  iron-bound 
rules  of  the  deed  and  closing  the  doors. 
By  the  irony  of  fate  the  defenders  against 
assaults  for  heresy  in  the  one  generation 
were  the  chief  prosecutors  of  it  in  the 
next.  The  seminary  makes  no  charge  for 
tuition  or  room  rent,  the  endowment  fund 
($850,000  in  1901)  providing  for  all ;  and  though 
under  Congregational  control  it  is  free  to  all 
Protestants  who  can  present  a  college  diploma. 
The  latter  requirement  can  be  waived  by  the 
trustees.  The  library  contains  over  30,000  vol- 
umes. In  1900  there  were  six  professors  be- 
sides five  lecturers  and  tutors.  President,  Geo. 
Foot  Moore,  D.D.  (For  its  foundation  and 
history  from  a  rigidly  orthodox  standpoint 
see  Leonard  Woods'  'History  of  Andover,' 
Boston,  1884.) 

An'dradite  (named  for  the  Portuguese 
mineralogist,  dAndrada),  the  common  or  black 
garnet.     See  Garnet. 

Andral,  an'dral',  Gabriel,  a  distinguished 
French  physician  and  pathologist :  b.  in  Paris, 
6  Nov.  1797;  d.  13  Feb.  1876.  In  1827  he  was 
called  to  the  chair  of  hygiene,  in  1830  to  that 
of  pathology  in  the  University  of  Paris.  An- 
dral may  be  said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
apply  an  analytical  and  inductive  method  to 
pathology.     His   'Medical  Clinic'    (1824)   estab- 


lished his  reputation,  and  his  'Summary  of 
Pathological  Anatomy'  (1829)  was  equally  suc- 
cessful. Other  works  of  importance  are  his 
'Essay  on  Pathological  Hematology'  (1843)  ; 
'Course  in  Pathology — Interne';  and  'Investi- 
gations into  the  Modification  of  the  Relative 
Proportions  of  Haematic   (Blood)   Principles.' 

Andrassy,  an'dra-shi,  Julius,  Count,  Hun- 
garian statesman :  b.  Zempben,  8  March  1823 ; 
d.  18  Feb.  1900.  He  took  part  in  the  revolution  of 
1848  and  was  condemned  to  death,  but  escaped 
and  went  into  exile.  Appointed  premier  when  self- 
government  was  restored  to  Hungary  in  1867,  he 
became  imperial  minister  for  foreign  affairs  in 
1871  ;  drew  up  the  famous  Andrassy  note  to  the 
Porte  in  1876 ;  was  a  conspicuous  member  of  the 
Congress  of  Berlin  in  1878;  negotiated  the  Ger- 
man-Austrian alliance  with  Bismarck  in  1879; 
retiring  the  same  year  from  public  life.  The 
Andrassy  "Note"  was  a  declaration  relating  to 
the  disturbed  condition  of  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina, formulated  by  the  governments  of 
Austria,  Russia,  and  Germany,  with  the  approval 
of  England  and  France.  It  commanded  the  es- 
tablishment of  religious  liberty,  the  application 
of  local  revenues  to  local  purposes,  and  other 
reforms,  and  was  formally  presented  to  the 
Porte,  31  Jan.  1876. 

Andre,  an'dra,  or  an'dri,  John,  a  British 
soldier:  b.  London,  of  Swiss-French  parentage, 
1751 ;  executed  at  Tappan,  N.  Y.,  2  Oct.  1780. 
His  fate  is  peculiar;  failure  has  given  him  a 
monument  in  Westminster  Abbey  from  his  own 
side,  and  undying  romantic  pity  from  the  other, 
where  success  would  have  loaded  him  with  in- 
famy from  one,  and  made  the  other  glad  to  for- 
get him.  He  entered  the  English  army  at  20, 
and  was  sent  to  Canada  in  1774:  November  1775 
he  was  taken  prisoner  at  St.  John's  by  Mont- 
gomery's expedition  and  sent  to  Lancaster,  Pa. 
Exchanged  in  December  1776,  he  was  made  cap- 
tain in  1777,  aide  to  Gen.  Charles  Grey,  major  in 
1778,  and  in  1779  aide  to  Clinton  and  adjutant- 
general  of  the  forces  in  America.  He  owed  this 
rapid  advancement,  as  he  has  owed  his  en- 
shrinement  by  posterity,  to  his  extraordinary 
and  somewhat  feminine  charm  of  person  and 
manner,  which  won  the  hearts  not  only  of  his 
chiefs  and  associates,  but  of  the  very  officers 
who  put  him  to  death.  He  was  full  of  wit  and 
vivacity,  a  most  entertaining  companion,  a  good 
amateur  musician  and  artist,  and  a  fluent,  pleas- 
ing writer,  which,  more  than  all  else,  made  him 
Clinton's  adjutant  and  secretary.  He  was  also 
a  fair  society  poet,  known  in  London  literary 
circles;  and  his  casual  ? !< i t ^  in  verse,  'The  Cow 
Chase,'  'Yankee  Doodle's  Expedition  to  Rhode 
Island,'  'The  Affair  Between  Generals  Howe 
and  Gadsden,'  etc.,  were  great  favorites  in  the 
English  army.  During  that  army's  winter  in 
Philadelphia,  1777-8,  Andre  was  the  promoter  of 
and  a  chief  actor  in  all  the  festal  occasions  and 
social  events,  including  the  'Mischianza,'  a  pa- 
geant in  honor  of  Howe  on  his  departure.  In 
1780  it  fell  to  his  official  duty  to  conduct  Clin- 
ton's negotiations  with  Benedict  Arnold  (q.v.) 
for  the  betrayal  of  West  Point,  the  key  of  the 
Hudson,  whose  command  Arnold  had  solicited 
in  order  to  betray  it,  with  its  magazines  and  the 
entire  stock  of  powder  of  the  American  armv. 
Both  sides  were  wary  and  suspicious  of  each 
other,  and  Clinton  uncertain  of  his  correspond- 
ent's identity  or  whether  the  affair  might  not  be 


ANDRE  — ANDREASBERG 


a  trap.  After  various  abortive  attempts  at  a 
rel  interview,  Andre,  on  19  September,  went 
as  "John  Anderson"  up  the  Hudson  in  the  sloop- 
"i  war  Vulture,  nearly  to  tbe  American  lines 
above  Fort  Montgomery.  Tbe  plan  was  to  meet 
under  a  flag  of  truce,  on  pretense  of  arranging 
as  to  the  confiscated  property  of  tbe  loyalist 
Col.  Beverly  Robinson,  whose  bouse  was  Ar- 
nold's headquarters;  but  this,  too,  failed,  and 
finally  on  the  night  of  2]  September  Arnold  in- 
duced a  loyalist  fanner,  Joshua  Sniitb,  to  carry 
a  packet  from  Robinson  to  "Anderson"  on  the 
Vulture.  Andre  returned  with  Smith,  was  met 
on  the  shore  by  Arnold,  and  after  a  private  con- 
ference tbe  two  went  to  Smith's  bouse,  where 
they  spent  tbe  nigbt  and  part  of  tbe  next  day 
arranging  the  betrayal,  which  was  fixed  for 
the  day  of  Washington's  expected  return.  Ar- 
nold gave  him  six  papers  containing  drawings 
of  the  West  Point  defenses  and  full  information 
concerning  them,  and  passes  to  return  to  New 
Vork  either  by  land  or  water.  He  also  sent 
Smith  as  escort,  charged  not  to  leave  Andre  till 
he  bad  readied  the  English  lines  in  safety.  But 
in  the  morning  tbe  American  batteries  bad  fired 
on  tbe  Vulture  and  driven  her  so  far  down 
stream  that  tbe  boatmen  would  not  carry  him 
to  her.  Andre,  therefore,  disguising  himself  as 
a  civilian,  set  out  on  horseback,  carrying  the  pa- 
pers in  his  boots.  Smith,  despite  Arnold's  in- 
junction, left  Andre  on  tbe  way.  probably  in  fear 
for  himself.  About  9  A.M.  of  tbe  23d,  near  Tar- 
rytown,  and  almost  in  sight  of  the  British  lines, 
he  was  stopped  by  three  patriot  militiamen,  John 
Paulding,  David  Williams,  and  Isaac  Van  Wart 
Supposing  them  to  be  Tory  "cowboys,"  he  told 
them  he  was  an  English  officer,  and  offered  them 
money.  Finding  that  they  were  not  loyalists,  he 
offered  more  and  his  horse,  showing  also  Ar- 
nold's pass.  Their  suspicions  thoroughly  aroused, 
they  searched  him,  found  the  papers,  and  car- 
ried him  to  one  Lieut-Col.  Jamison,  who,  not 
suspecting  treachery  on  Arnold's  part,  notified 
him  of  the  capture  and  proposed  to  hand  the 
prisoner  over  to  him.  The  gleam  of  hope  was 
delusive,  and  Andre  was  finally  sent  to  Washing- 
ton, while  Arnold  fled  to  the  Vulture  and  saved 
his  own  life.  By  military  law  Andre  was,  of 
course,  subject  to  immediate  hanging;  but  in 
consideration  of  his  rank,  Washington  on  29 
September  convened  a  military  court  of  six 
major-generals  and  eight  brigadier-generals,  with 
Gen.  Nathanael  Greene  as  president,  who  unani- 
mously convicted  him  of  being  a  spy  and  sen- 
tenced him  to  death  on  2  October.  Clinton,  of 
course,  did  his  best  to  save  Andre,  protesting 
that  he  was  not  a  spy  because  he  was  under  a 
flag  of  truce  (which  was  false),  and  that  his 
movements  were  in  obedience  to  the  directions 
of  Arnold,  an  American  commander, —  a  grimly 
humorous  defense  under  tbe  circumstances;  but 
Washington  replied  with  firm  courtesy  that  the 
circui  lustified  no  exception  to  tbe  rules 

of  war.  Andre  died  like  a  man,  and  need  not 
be  grudged  our  pity;  but  he  was  treated  with 
a  generous  humanity  curiously  in  contrast  with 
the  treatment   accorded   to   Nathan   Hale. 

A  monument  to  Andre  was  placed  in  West- 
minster and  in  1821  his  remains  were  taken  up 
and  reburicd  near  it.  See  Sparks,  <Life  of 
Andre*  in  'American  Biographies';  Sargent, 
'Life  of  Andre'  (1861)  :  Lossing,  'Two  Spies,' 
1886.     Lord  Mahon  in  his  'History  of  England' 


assumes   Clinton's  case    for  Andre  as  good  both 

in  law  and  in  equity.  In  185S  Charles  J.  Biddle, 
a  Philadelphia  editor  and  ex-soldier,  reviewed 
Mahon's  opinions  before  the  Pennsylvania  His- 
torical   Society.    See   its    'Memoirs,'    Vol.    \i 

For  documents  see  II.  W.  Smith's  'Andrcana' 
(1865)  ;  Dawson's  'Collection'    (1866). 

Andre,  an'dra,  Louis  Joseph  Nicolas,  a 
French  military  officer:  b.  in  Nuits,  Burgundy, 
29  March  1838.  lie  was  graduated  at  the  I' 
technic  School,  and  in  [865  became  captain, 
•  ling  in  that  capacity  throughout  the  Franco 
Prussian  war  of  1870-1.  He  was  made  general 
of  brigade  in  1893  and  placed  in  charge  of  the 
Polytechnic  School.  On  29  May  1900  he  was 
appointed  minister  of  war  by  President  Loubet, 
succeeding  General  the  Marquis  de  Gallifet, 
who  held  the  office  during  the  exciting  period  of 
the   Dreyfus   revision. 

Andre,  an'dra,  St.,  Jacques  d'Albon,  Mar- 
quis of  Fronsac,  generally  known  as  Marcchal 
de  St.  Andre,  a  French  nobleman,  made  gen- 
tleman of  the  bedchamber  by  Henry  II.  In 
1550  he  was  deputed  to  bear  the  collar  of  bis 
order  to  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  by  whom  he 
was  invested  with  that  of  the  Garter.  On  his 
return  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
army  in  Champagne,  where  be  greatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  till  taken  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  St.  Quentin.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
II.  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  regency.  Killed 
at  the  battle  of  Dreux  in  1562.  The  Huguenots 
called  St.  Andre  «Tbe  Harquebusier  of  the 
West." 

Andrea,  an'dra,  Jakob,  a  German  Protes- 
tant theologian:  b.  in  Waiblingen  25  March 
1528;  d.  in  Tubingen  7  Jan.  1590;  became  pro- 
lessor  of  theology  and  chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen  in  1562,  and  was  the  author 
of  over  150  works,  nearly  all  of  a  polemical 
character,  besides  being  the  chief  author  of  tbe 
'Formula   Concordia:.' 

Andrea,  an'dra,  Johann  Valentin,  a  Ger-  ■ 
man  theologian:  b.  Ilerrenberg  in  1586,  near 
Tubingen;  d.  Stuttgart,  1054.  He  studied  at 
Tubingen,  became  a  Protestant  pastor,  and 
was  chaplain  to  the  court  at  Stuttgart.  Emi- 
nently practical  in  mind,  he  was  grieved  to  see 
tbe  principles  of  Christianity  made  the  subject 
of  mere  empty  disputations,  and  accordingly 
devoted  his  life  to  the  correction  of  this  ten- 
dency of  his  age.  His  writings  are  remarkable 
for  the  wit  and  humor  as  well  as  for  the  acute- 
ness  and  moral  power  which  they  display.  He 
was  long  regarded  as  the  founder  or  restorer  of 
the  order  of  the  Rosicrucians,  a  view  based  on 
his  quaint  but  misunderstood  'Chemical  Jubilee 
of  Christian  Rozenkreuz'  (1616).  But  "hi^  in- 
tention was  certainly  not  to  originate  or  promote 
a  secret  society  of  mystics,  but  to  ridicule  the 
follies  of  the  age,  including  the  theosophic 
Rosicrucians.  He  wrote  mainly  in  Latin,  but 
also  in  the  Suabian  dialect.  Among  the  best  of 
his  works  are  his  'Menippus,  or  a  Hundred 
Satyric  Dialogues'  (1617),  and  his  'Spiritual 
(Clerical)    Relaxation*    (1619). 

An'drea  del  Sarto.     See    Sarto. 

Andreasberg,  an-dra'as-bcrg.  Saint,  a  Prus- 
sian mining  town  in  tbe  province  of  Hanover, 
57  miles  southeast  of  tbe  town  of  Hanover,  on 
a  site,  1,800  feet  above  sea-level,  a  little  to  the 


ANDREE  —  ANDREW 


southwest  of  the  Brocken.  The  minerals  ob- 
tained in  the  mines  of  the  district  are  silver, 
copper,  lead,  arsenic,  etc.  The  Samson  shaft, 
2,950  feet  deep,  is  the  deepest  mine  in  the 
Harz  Mountains.     Pop.  4,000. 

Andree,  an'dra,  Salomon  Auguste,  a 
Swedish  aeronaut:  b.  in  Grenna,  18  Oct.  1854; 
date  of  death  unknown.  He  was  educated  in 
Stockholm.  In  1882  he  took  part  in  a  Swedish 
meteorological  expedition  to  Spitzbergen.  In 
1884  he  was  appointed  chief  engineer  to  the  pat- 
ent office,  and  from  1886  to  1889  he  occupied 
a  professor's  chair  at  Stockholm.  In  1892  he 
received  from  the  Swedish  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences a  subvention  for  the  purpose  of  undertak- 
ing scientific  aerial  navigation.  From  that  time 
he  devoted  himself  to  aerial  navigation,  making 
his  first  ascent  at  Stockholm  in  the  summer  of 
1893.  In  1895  he  presented  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  a  well-matured  project  for  explor- 
ing the  regions  of  the  North  Pole  with  the  aid 
of  a  balloon  at  an  estimated  cost  of  about  $40,- 
000.  A  national  subscription  was  opened,  which 
was  completed  in  a  few  days,  the  king  of  Sweden 
contributing  the  sum  of  $8,280.  With  two  com- 
panions. Dr.  S.  T.  Strindberg  and  Herr  Fraenck- 
ell,  Andree  started  from  Dane's  Island.  Spitzber- 
gen, 1 1  July  1897.  His  balloon  was  67%  feet  in  di- 
ameter, with  a  capacity  of  170,000  cubic  feet. 
Its  speed  was  estimated  at  from  12  to  15  miles 
an  hour,  at  which  rate  the  Pole  should  have 
been  reached  in  six  days  provided  a  favorable 
and  constant  wind  had  been  blowing.  Two 
days  after  his  departure  a  message  was  received 
from  Dr.  Andree  by  carrier  pigeon,  which  stated 
that  at  noon.  1.3  July,  they  were  in  lat.  82.20 
and  Ion.  15.5°  E.,  and  making  good  progress  to 
the  east,  10°  southerly.  Several  expeditions 
sent  in  search  of  Andree  have  returned  without 
obtaining  any  further  intelligence  of  the  ex- 
plorer. 

Andreini,  an'dra-e'ne,  Giovanni  Battista, 
an  Italian  comedian  and'  poet :  b.  in  Florence, 
1578;  d.  in  Paris  about  1650.  From  his  sacred 
drama,  'Adam'  (1613),  Milton  is  by  some  sup- 
posed to  have  derived  the  idea  of  'Paradise 
Lost.' 

An'dreolite,  an'dre-6'llt  (from  Andreas- 
berg,  in  the  Harz  Mountains),  a  mineral  better 
known  as  harmotome  (q.v.).  The  name  an- 
dreolite  should  be  retained  for  it  according  to 
the  law  of  priority;  but  mineralogists  have  pre- 
ferred to  adopt  the  name  harmotome,  as  given 
by  Haiiy,  although  no  good  reason  can  be  as- 
signed  for   so   doing. 

Andreossy,  an'dra'o'se',  Antoine  Francois, 
Count,  a  French  general  and  statesman:  b. 
Castelnaudary  in  Languedoc,  6  March  1761 ;  d. 
at  Montaubon,  10  Sept.  182&  He  entered  the 
artillery  in  1781,  joined  the  revolutionists,  served 
under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  and  took 
part  in  the  revolution  of  the  18th  Brumaire. 
He  was  ambassador  at  London,  at  Vienna,  and 
at  Constantinople,  from  which  latter  post  he 
was  recalled  at  the  restoration.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  by  Napoleon  after  his  return 
from  Elba.  After  Waterloo  he  advocated  the 
recall  of  the  Bourbons,  but,  as  deputy,  generally 
took  part  with  the  Opposition.  He  was  elected 
to  the  Academy  in  1826.  He  was  a  man  of  em- 
inent scientific  attainments,  one  of  his  earliest 
works   being   the    'Histoire   Generate   du    Canal 


du   Midi    (1800).     Besides   his   scientific   works 
he  wrote  several  military  "Memoirs." 

An'drew,  a  Neapolitan  king,  assassinated 
with  the  connivance  of  his  queen  in  1345. 

An'drew,  James  Osgood,  an  American 
Methodist  bishop:  b.  in  Wilkes  County,  Ga., 
3  May  1794;  d.  in  Mobile,  1  March  1871.  He 
was  an  itinerant  preacher  in  South  Carolina 
from  1816  till  consecrated  bishop,  1832.  His 
social  relations  were  the  immediate  cause  of  the 
division  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
into  "North"  and  "South."  His  second  wife 
whom  he  married  in  1844  was  a  slave  holder; 
and  the  General  Conference  of  that  year  re- 
solved that  he  should  "desist  from  the  exercise 
of  his  office"  on  the  ground  that  the  fact  of 
his  wife's  owning  slaves  "would  greatly  em- 
barrass if  not  in  some  places  entirely  prevent" 
the  exercise  of  this  office.  The  Southern  dele- 
gates protesting  against  this  action,  the  diffi- 
culty was  settled  only  by  dividing  the  churches 
and  property  into  the  Northern  and  Southern 
jurisdiction.  Bishop  Andrew  adhered  to  the 
South,   retiring  from  active  work  in   1868. 

An'drew,  John  Albion,  an  American 
statesman,  the  "War  Governor"  of  Massachu- 
setts: b.  Windham,  Me.,  31  May  1818;  d.  Bos- 
ton, 30  Oct.  1867.  He  was  graduated  from 
Bowdoin  College  in  1837,  and  practised  law  in 
Boston  1840-61.  He  was  an  earnest  anti- 
slavery  advocate  and  defended  the  fugitive 
slaves  Shadrach,  Burns,  and  Sims.  Elected  to 
the  State  legislature  in  1858,  was  a  delegate  to 
the  Chicago  Convention  in  i860,  and  being  nom- 
inated governor  was  elected  by  an  immense 
majority.  He  forecast  the  war,  announced  in 
his  message  the  intention  to  put  the  State  mi- 
litia on  a  war  footing,  and  privately  invited  co- 
operation from  other  governors.  On  Lincoln's 
first  call  for  troops,  15  April  1861,  he  sent  them 
so  promptly  that  on  19  April  the  6th  Massachu- 
setts shed  the  first  blood  of  the  war  in  passing 
through  Baltimore,  and  within  a  week  he  had  dis- 
patched to  the  front  five  regiments  of  infantry, 
a  battalion  of  riflemen,  and  a  battery  of  ar- 
tillery. In  1862  he  urged  the  national  aboli- 
tion of  slavery  and  the  enrollment  of  colored 
troops,  and  in  1863  sent  out  the  first  colored 
regiment,  154th  Massachusetts;  yet  he  repeatedly 
interfered  to  prevent  harrying  Southern  sympa- 
thizers by  arbitrary  arrests,  and  after  the  war 
was  foremost  in  urging  conciliation  and  ab- 
stinence from  vindictive  or  humiliating  mea- 
sures. He  was  re-elected  regularly  till  1866, 
when  he  refused  further  honors  from  pecuniary 
grounds  and  impaired  health,  continuing  his  law 
practice  till  death.  He  was  a  man  of  great  per- 
sonal charm  and  oratorical  force,  intensely  sym- 
pathetic and  humane,  and  of  simple  and  frank- 
nature.  In  religion  he  was  a  moderate  Uni- 
tarian, believing  in  Christ's  supernatural  char- 
acter, and  was  president  of  the  first  Unitarian 
National  Convention  in  1865. 

An'drew,  Saint,  one  of  the  twelve  Apos- 
tles, and  the  brother  of  Peter.  There  are  four 
important  references  to  him  in  the  gospels.  John 
i.  40.  the  only  account  of  his  introduction  to 
Jesus,  in  which  as  a  disciple  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist he  follows  Jesus  on  John's  word  and 
brings  his  brother  Peter  to  him ;  John  vi.  8, 
where  he  calls  attention  to  the  boy  with  the 
barley   loaves,   when   the   miracle   of   the   loaves 


ANDREW  —  ANDREWS 


and  fishes  occurs;  John  xii.  22,  where  Philip, 
asked  by  the  Greeks  if  they  may  see  Jesus, 
consults  Andrew  before  laying  the  request  be- 
fore Jesus;  and  Mark  xiii.  3,  where  he  is  one 
of  the  four  who  privately  aske  '  Jesus  the  mean- 
ing of  his  utterance  about  lh  ruin  of  the  tem- 
ple. The  other  two  synoptics  do  not  allude  to 
him.  John  i.  44  says  he  was  from  Bethsaida  in 
Galilee.  Tradition  early  gave  him  a  conspicu- 
ous place  among  the  Twelve,  and  very  impor- 
tant "acts  of  the  Apostle  Andrew"  were  in  cir- 
culation as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second 
century,  but  have  survived  only  in  later  re- 
casting. There  were  also  acts  of  Matthew  and 
Andrew,  and  of  Peter  and  Andrew,  and  a 
"Martyrdom  of  Andrew."  A  gospel  of  An- 
drew is  mentioned  later,  but  not  otherwise 
known.  A  tradition  of  unknown  date  and  no 
value  accredits  him  with  preaching  in  north 
Greece  and  Epirus  and  in  Scythia,  and  being 
martyred  on  a  cross  shaped  like  an  X  at  about 
70  A.D. 

Andrew  I.,  a  king  of  Hungary,  1046-1061; 
compelled  his  subjects  to  embrace  Christianity, 
exiled    his    brother    Bela,    and    died    in    battle. 

Andrew  II.,  king  of  Hungary,  1205-12.35, 
who  fought  in  the  crusades,  and  displayed 
great  valor ;  granted  the  Golden  Voull,  styled 
the  Hungarian  Magna  Charta. 

Andrew  III.,  king  of  Hungary,  1290-1301. 
He  was  opposed  in  his  claims  to  the  throne, 
and  involved  in  a  civil  war  during  his  reign; 
he  died  in  1301. 

An'drew,  Saint,  Cross  of,  is  a  white  sal- 
tire  on  a  blue  ground,  to  represent  the  X- 
shaped  cross  on  which  the  patron  saint  of  Scot- 
land suffered  martyrdom,  from  an  early  date 
adopted  as  the  national  banner  of  Scotland. 
It  is  combined  with  the  crosses  of  St.  George 
and  St.  Patrick  in  the  Union  Jack.  The  Scot- 
tish Order  of  the  Thistle  is  sometimes  known 
as  the  Order  of  St  Andrew. 

An'drew,  Saint,  The  Russian  Order  of,  the 

most  important  of  Russian  orders,  founded  by 
Peter  the  Great  in  1698.  It  has  but  one  class 
and  is  confined  to  members  of  the  imperial 
family,  princes,  and  persons  of  the  rank  of 
general  who  already  hold  two  other  important 
orders.  The  badge  of  the  order  displays  on 
the  obverse  the  double-headed  eagle,  crowned, 
on  which  is  a  St.  Andrew's  cross  enameled  in 
blue,  with  a  figure  of  the  saint  and  bearing  in 
the  four  corners  the  letters  S.  A.  P.  R.  (Sanctus 
Andreas  Paironus  Russia). 

An'drewes,  Lancelot,  an  eminent  bishop 
of  the  English  Church :  b.  near  Barking,  Essex, 
1555;  d.  London,  25  Sept.  1626.  Having  taken 
orders  he  was  appointed  to  the  parsonage  of 
Alton,  afterward  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Giles, 
Cripplegate,  and  in  1589  was  made  a  prebend 
and  canon  of  St.  Paul's,  and  master  of  Pem- 
broke Hall.  Queen  Elizabeth,  esteeming  him 
highly,  appointed  him  one  of  her  chaplains  in 
ordinary,  besides  bestowing  other  preferment 
upon  him;  and  he  was  in  no  less  favor  with 
James  I.  In  1605  he  became  bishop  of  Chiches- 
ter, in  1609  was  translated  to  Ely  and  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  king's  privy  councilors,  and 
in  1618  was  translated  to  Winchester.  He  was 
one  of  the  greatest  preachers  of  his  time,  and 
was    one    of    those    engaged    in    preparing   the 


authorized  version  of  the  Scriptures.  He  left 
sermons,  lectures,  and  other  writings,  a  manual 
of  private  devotions  compiled  by  I11111  in  Greek 
and  Latin  being  well  known  through  several 
English  translations. 

An'drews,  Charles  Bartlett,  an  American 
jurist:  b.  Sunderland,  Mass.,  4  Nov.  1834;  d. 
Litchfield,  Conn.,  12  Sept.  1902.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  Amherst  College;  member  Con- 
necticut Senate  1868^9;  of  the  House  1878; 
governor  of  Connecticut  1870-81 ;  judge  of  the 
supreme  court  1882-9,  and  chief  justice  1889- 
1901.  He  presided  over  the  Connecticut  con- 
stitutional convention  of  1902. 

An'drews,  Charles  McLean,  an  American 
historical  and  descriptive  writer:  b.  in  Weth- 
ersfield,  Conn.,  22  Feb.  1863 ;  became  professor 
of  history  at  Bryn  Mawr  College :  author  of 
'Historical  Development  of  Modern  Europe;' 
'River  Towns  of  Connecticut;'  'The  Old  Eng- 
lish Manor,'  etc. 

An'drews,  Christopher  Columbus,  an 
American  diplomat  and  writer:  b.  in  Uillsboro, 
X.  11..  27  Oct.  1829;  was  brevetted  major- 
general  in  the  Civil  War;  United  States  min- 
ister to  Sweden  from  1869  to  1877,  and  consul- 
general  to  Brazil  from  1882-1885.  Among  his 
many  works  are  'Minnesota  and  Dakota' 
(1857)  ;  'Practical  Treatise  on  the  Revenue 
Laws  of  the  United  States'  (1858);  'History 
of  the  Campaign  of  Mobile'  (1867),  and  'Bra- 
zil, Its  Condition  and  Prospects'    (1887). 

An'drews,  Edward  Gayer,  an  American 
clergyman:  b.  New  Hartford,  N.  Y.,  7  Aug. 
1825.  Graduated  from  Wesleyan  University, 
Conn.  1847;  entered  the  Methodist  ministry 
1848;  principal  of  Casenovia  Seminary.  1854-64; 
pastor  in  Stamford,  Conn.,  and  Brooklyn,  N. 
Y.,  1864-72;  and  elected  bishop  24  May  1872. 
He  visited  missions  in  Europe  and  India 
1876-7;  Mexico  1881  ;  Japan  and  China  1889-90; 
and  was  delegate  to  English  and  Irish  Meth- 
odist Churches  1894. 

An'drews,  Elisha  Benjamin,  an  American 
college  president :  b.  Hinsdale,  N.  H,  10  Jan. 
1844.  Served  in  Connecticut  regiments  through 
the  Civil  War.  rising  to  the  rank  of  2nd  lieu- 
tenant: graduated  at  Brown  University  1870, 
and  Newton  Theological  Institution  [874. 
Teacher  and  pastor,  1874-82.  professor  of  his- 
tory and  political  economy  at  Brown  1882-8:  of 
political  economy  and  finance  at  Cornell 
1888-9.  In  the  year  last  named  he  was  elected 
president  of  Brown  University  and  under  his 
administration  that  institution  greatly  increased 
its  efficiency.  In  1897  he  resigned  the  presi- 
dency on  account  of  criticism  of  his  views  on 
the  silver  question,  but  complied  with  the  re- 
quest of  his  trustees  to  withdraw  his  resigna- 
tion. He  was  elected  superintendent  of  schools 
in  Chicago  1898.  and  in  July  1900.  chancellor 
of  the  University  of  Nebraska.  He  has  writ- 
ten: 'Institutes  of  General  History'  (1887); 
'Institutes  of  Economies'  (1892)  ;  'An  Hon- 
est Dollar'  (tSoj)  :  'Wealth  and  Moral  Law' 
(18041;  'History  of  the  Last  Quarter  Cen- 
tury in  the  United  States'  (1896).  Colby  Uni- 
versity conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  D.D., 
and  the  University  of  Nebraska  that  of  LL.D. 

An'drews,  Ethan  Allen,  an  American 
scholar:  b.  New  Britain,  Conn.,  7  April  1787; 
d.  there  4  March  1858.    Graduated  at  Yale  in 


ANDREWS 


1810,  studied  law  and  practised  for  some  years. 
Then  taught  ancient  languages  in  University 
of  North  Carolina,  the  New  Haven  gymna- 
sium, 1822-9 ;  established  New  Haven  Young 
Ladies'  Institute,  1830 ;  succeeded  Jacob  Ab- 
bott as  head  of  a  young  ladies'  school  in  Bos- 
ton 1833-9.  Returning  to  New  Britain  he  de- 
voted himself  to  the  publication  of  a  series  of 
Latin  text-books,  which  soon  became  widely 
used  throughout  the  United  States.  The  most 
important  of  these  were  'Andrews'  and  Stod- 
dard's Latin  Grammar'  ;  and  'Latin-English 
Lexicon'  (1850),  an  abridged  translation,  with 
alterations  and  additions,  of  Freund's  'Worter- 
buch  der  Lateinischen  Sprache.' 

Andrews,  George  Pierce,  American  jurist: 
b.  North  Bridgeton,  Maine,  29  Sept.  1835 ;  d. 
New  York  24  May  1902.  He  was  educated  at 
Yale,  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1861.  He  was  LTnited  States  district  attorney 
for  six  years,  assistant  and  corporation  counsel, 
New  York,  1872-84,  and  associate  justice  of  the 
New  York  supreme  court,  1884-1001.  He  was 
esteemed  a  high  authority  on  municipal  and  cor- 
poration law  and  his  opinions  in  tax  cases  were 
especially  valued.  A  very  notable  event  in  his 
career  was  his  conviction  of  Capt.  Nathaniel 
Gordon  in  i860  for  slave  trading.  Gordon  was 
captured  with  a  crew  of  nearly  900  negroes,  was 
twice  tried  for  piracy  and  finally  convicted  as  a 
result  of  the  convincing  argument  of  Andrews. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  conviction  and 
execution  of  Gordon  ended  the  slave  trade  in  the 
United  States.  It  had  existed  for  more  than 
300  years,  and  for  42  years  after  Congress  had 
made  it  piracy,  punishable  with  death.  Thou- 
sands of  negroes  had  suffered  tortures  on  the 
long  voyages  between  African  and  American 
ports,  and  thousands  more  had  died  and  been 
cast  overboard,  but  not  a  person  engaged  in  the 
nefarious  traffic  had  been  punished  in  this  coun- 
try until  Mr.  Andrews  obtained  the  conviction 
and  execution  of  Gordon.  Prior  to  that  event 
130  vessels  had  been  engaged  in  the  slave  trade, 
and  New  York  was  their  headquarters.  See 
United  States  —  Slavery  in  the. 

An'drews,  Jane,  an  American  juvenile 
story-writer :  b.  in  Massachusetts  in  1833 :  d. 
1887.  Among  her  stories  for  children  which 
have  enjoyed  great  popularity  are  'Seven  Little 
Sisters  Who  Live  on  the  Round  Ball  That 
Floats  in  the  Air'  (1876)  ;  'The  Stories  Mother 
Nature  Told'  ;  'The  Seven  Little  Sisters  Prove 
their  Sisterhood'  (1878)  ;  'Ten  Boys  on  the 
Road  from  Long  Ago  to  Now'  (1885)  ;  'Only 
a  Year  and  What  It  Brought'    (1887). 

An'drews,  John  N.,  an  American  military 
officer :  b.  in  Delaware,  1838.  He  was  graduated 
at  West  Point  in  i860;  served  with  distinction 
through  the  Civil  War;  commissioned  colonel 
of  the  12th  United  States  infantry  in  1895 ;  and 
appointed  a  brigadier-general  of  volunteers  for 
the  war  against  Spain  in  1898. 

An'drews,  Lorrin,  an  American  mission- 
ary :  b.  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  29  April  1795 ;  d. 
Honolulu,  29  Sept.  1868.  He  was  educated  at 
Jefferson  College  and  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary ;  missionary  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
1827,  until,  in  1840,  from  anti-slavery  scruples, 
he  resigned  connection  with  the  American 
Board.  He  became  a  judge  and  secretary  of  the 
privy  council,  1845-55;  translated  a  part  of  the 
Bible  into  Hawaiian  and  compiled  the  following 

Vol.  I— H 


works:  'Vocabulary   of  Words    in   Hawaiian* 

(1836)  ;  'Grammar  of  the  Hawaiian  Language' 

(1854)  ;  'Dictionary  of  the  Hawaiian  Language' 

(1805;  ;  all  published  in  the  island. 

An'drews,  Samuel  James,  an  American 
clergyman :  b.  Danbury,  Conn.,  31  July  1817. 
Graduated  at  Williams  College,  1839,  he  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar  in  Connecticut  and  Ohio  and 
practised  law  in  those  States  1842-4.  He 
then  studied  at  Lane  Theological  Seminary; 
ordained  in  Congregational  ministry,  1846 ;  pas- 
tor, East  Windsor,  Conn.,  1848-55 ;  adopted  the 
Irvingite  doctrines  and  has  been  in  charge  of 
a  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church  congregation 
in  Hartford,  Conn.,  from  1868  to  the  present. 
Author  of  'Life  of  Our  Lord  Upon  Earth' 
(1862)  ;  'God's  Revelations  of  Himself  to  Men' 
'1885):  'Christianity  and  Anti-Christianity  in 
Their  Final  Conflict'  (1898)  ;  'The  Church  and 
Its  Organic  Ministries'  (1899)  ;  'William  Wat- 
son Andrews:  A  Religious  Biography'   (1900). 

An'drews,  Stephen  Pearl,  an  American 
author :  b.  Templeton.  Mass.,  22  March  1812 ;  d. 
New  York  city,  21  May  1886.  Educated  at  Am- 
herst ;  practised  law  in  New  Orleans  and  Texas. 
His  enthusiastic  advocacy  of  the  abolition  of 
slavery  took  him  to  England  in  1S43  to  raise 
money  to  pay  for  the  slaves  and  make  Texas 
free.  He  learned  in  England  phonography,  and 
became  the  founder  in  this  country  of  the 
present  system  of  phonographic  reporting,  edit- 
ing journals  devoted  to  it,  and  publishing  nu- 
merous instruction  books.  Early  in  life  he 
announced  the  discovery  of  the  unity  of  law  in 
the  universe,  and  devoted  the  last  half  of  his 
life  to  developing  this  philosophy,  called  by 
him  "Integralism,"  and  to  the  construction  of  a 
universal  language  which  he  named  "Alwato," 
as  a  part  of  this  system  of  "universology."  He 
spoke  several  languages  and  is  said  to  have  had 
a  knowledge  of  thirty.  In  1882  he  instituted  the 
"Colloquium,"  a  series  of  conferences  for  the 
exchange  of  opinions  between  leading  New  York 
clergymen  and  others  of  the  widest  diversity  of 
religious,  philosophical,  and  political  views.  His 
chief  works  are  'Discoveries  in  Chinese' 
(1854)  ;  'Synopsis  of  Universology  and  Alwato' 
(1871);  'Basic  Outline  of  Universology' 
(1872);  'Grammar  of  Alwato'  (1877);  'Trans- 
actions of  the  Colloquium.'  (Vols.  I.,  II., 
1882-3)  :  'The  Church  and  Religion  of  the  Fu- 
ture'   (1886). 

An'drews,  William,  an  English  author  and 
compiler:  b.  Kirkby  Woodhouse,  Nottingham- 
shire, 11  Aug.  1848.  He  established  the  Hull 
Press  in  1890,  and  is  the  librarian  of  the  Royal 
Institution  at  Hull.  Among  his  many  publica- 
tions are  'Old  Church  Lore'  (189O  :  'Bygone 
England'  (1892)  :  'Modern  Yorkshire  Poets'  : 
'Historic  Byways  and  Highways'  ;  'Bygone 
Punishments.' 

An'drews,  William  Draper,  an  American 
inventor:  b.  Grafton.  Mass..  1818;  d.  1896.  In 
1844  he  invented  the  centrifugal  pump  which 
made  it  possible  to  save  goods  not  injured  by 
water  from  abandoned  wrecks ;  the  pump  was 
manufactured  in  England  as  the  Gwynne  pump ; 
was  patented  in  the  L'nited  States  in  1846. 
Later  he  invented  and  patented  the  anti-friction 
centrifugal  pump :  made  various  modifications 
of  centrifugal  pumps,  and  patented  a  widely- 
used  system  of  gangs  of  tube-wells. 


ANDROCONIA  —  ANDROS 


Androconia,  In'dro-co'ni-a,  certain  highly 
modified  scent-scales  shaped  like  battledores, 
en  the  wings  of  certain  butterflies  and  caddis 
(Trichoptera).  In  certain  butterflies 
{Thecla,  Danais.  etc.)  they  occur  on  the  upper 
of  the  tore  wings  in  limited  areas,  such  as 
lr  the  discal  spots,  or  they  may  be  scattered  in 
rows  or  irregularly  over  the  upper  surface, 
or  in  the  folds  of  the  wings.  Fritz  Midler  has 
shown  that  these  minute  scales  function  as 
scent-scales,  and  are  confined  to  the  males. 
mas  has  proved  by  sections  of  the  wings  of 
Dana  that    the    androconia    ari-e    from 

glands  situated  in  a  fold  of  the  wing,  and  that 
the  material  elaborated  by  the  local  glands,  and 
distributed  upon  the  surface  of  the  wing  by  the 
androconia  is  that  which  gives  to  many  of  the 
Lepidoptera  their  characteristic  odor.  Scudder, 
who  named  them,  says  that  they  are  very  capri- 
cious in  their  occurrence.  A  number  of  allied 
Tenera  may  possess  them,  while  a  single  genus, 

closely  allied,  may  be  quite  destitute.  They 
occur  in  the  Nymphalida,  Pieride,  Lycamidoe. 
Papilionidcc,     and     Hcspcridcc. 

Andromachus,  an-drom'ak-iis,  a  physician 
1.  the  Emperor  Nero,  and  the  inventor  of  a  cele- 
brated compound  medicine  called  theriake,  de- 
scribed in  Galen's  works. 

Andronicus  I.,  an'dro-m'cus  (Comnentjs), 
a  Byzantine  emperor:  b.  mo;  d.  12  Sept.  1185. 
In  his  youth  he  served  against  the  Turks,  in 
1 141  was  for  some  time  a  prisoner,  and  was 
afterward  appointed  to  a  military  command  in 
Cilicia,  but  was  unsuccessful.  Engaging  in  a 
treasonable  correspondence  with  the  king  of 
Hungary,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by  his 
cousin,  the  Emperor  Manuel:  but  after  12  years 
he  succeeded  in  making  his  escape  and  reached 
Kiev,  the  residence  of  Prince  Jaroslav.  He  re- 
gained the  favor  of  his  cousin  by  persuading 
Jaroslav  to  join  him  in  the  invasion  of  Hungary, 
and  by  his  gallantry  in  that  war:  hut  again  in- 
curred his  displeasure  and  was  sent  in  honor- 
able banishment  to  Cilicia.  After  a  pilgrimage 
to  Jerusalem  and  his  scandalous  seduction  of 
Theodora,  the  widow  of  Baldwin,  king  of  Je- 
rusalem, he  settled  among  the  Turks  in  Asia 
Minor  with  a  band  of  outlaws,  making  frequent 
inroads  into  the  province  of  Trebizond ;  but 
at  length  made  his  peace  with  the  emperor  and 
was  sent  to  tEnoe  in  Pontus.  Upon  the  death 
of  Manuel  in  1 182  he  was  recalled  to  become, 
first  guardian,  then  colleague,  of  the  young  Em- 
peror Alexius  11.  Soon  after  he  caused  the 
empress-mother  to  be  strangled,  and  afterward 
Alexius  himself,  whose  youthful  widow  he  mar- 
ried. His  reign,  though  short,  was  vigorous, 
and  restored  prosperity  to  the  provinces:  but 
tyranny  and  murder  were  its  characteristics  in 
the  capital.  At  last  a  destined  victim,  Isaac 
Angelus,  one  of  his  relatives,  having  fled  to  the 
Church  of  St.  Sophia  for  sanctuary,  a  crowd 
gathered,  and  a  sudden  insurrection  placed  Isaac 
on  the  throne,  while  Andronicus.  now  73  years 
of  age.  was  put  to  death  by  the  infuriated  popu- 
lace after  horrible  mutilations  and  tortures. 

Andronicus  of  Rhodes,  a  Roman  philoso- 
pher who  interpreted  the  works  of  Aristotle 
(q.v.).  He  lived  in  Cicero's  time.  None  of  his 
known  works  are  extant. 

Andropogon,  an'dro-po'gon,  a  genus  of 
about  200  species  of  grasses  of  very  diverse  util- 


ity, distributed  widely,  especially  over  dry  plains 
throughout  the  temperate  and  tropical  zones. 
The  species  are  usually  characterized  by  long, 
narrow  leaves;  terminal  and  axillary  spikes;  ses- 
sile perfect  spikelets  paired  with  pedicelled 
staminate,  empty  ones  or  scales;  and  straight  or 
twisted  awns.  .(.  halepeusis,  or  Sorglium  halc- 
pense  of  some  authors.  Johnson  grass,  attains  a 
height  of  from  3  to  6  feet  from  stout,  perennial 
creeping  rootstocks,  which  being  ditticult  to 
eradicate  make  the  plant  a  troublesome  weed 
where  not  needed  for  pasture  or  hay.  for  which 
it  is  largely  grown  in  South  America,  Australia. 
and  the  southern  United  States,  where  it  was 
introduced  about  1830.  It  makes  quick  growth. 
yields  abundantly,  and  may  be  cut  several  times 
in  a  season.  It  is  not  fully  hardy  in  the  north, 
where,  as  in  Europe,  it  is  often  grown  for  orna- 
ment. ./.  schoenanthus,  lemon  grass,  and  A. 
nardus,  citronella  grass,  are  handsome  tropical 
species  cultivated  in  India  and  Ceylon  for  the 
fragrant  oils  they  contain,  ami  which  are  used 
in  perfumery,  soap-making,  and  in  the  former 
case  for  the  adulteration  of  certain  perfumes, 
notably  attar  of  roses.  A.  sorghum,  or  Sorghum 
vulgare  of  some  authors,  is  of  wide  economic 
importance,  its  numerous  varieties  or  sub- 
being  cultivated  for  fodder,  sugar,  alcohol, 
brushes,  brooms,  and  its  seeds,  which  last  are 
used  for  poultry,  stock,  and  human  food.  (See 
Sorghum.)  A.  provincialis,  A.  scoparius,  and 
various  other  species  known  as  blue-Stem  grass, 
are  valued  as  fodder  grasses  in  arid  1 
where  they  are  native. 

Andros,   Sik  Edmund,   an   American    

nial  governor:  born  in  London,  England.  6  Dec 
1637;  died  there  24  Feb.  1714.  His  father  was 
master  of  ceremonies  to  Charles  I. ;  shared  with 
distinguished  service  the  Stuarts'  exile,  made  his 
son  a  page,  and  put  him  early  into  the  army  of 
Henry  of  Nassau.  His  uncle  was  cupbearer 
to  Charles'  sister,  the  queen  of  Bohemia,  and  in 
1660  Edmund  was  made  her  gentleman  in 
ordinary.  Her  adviser  in  her  widowhood  was 
William,  Earl  of  Craven,  and  Andros  in  1671 
married  the  sister  of  Craven's  kinsman  and  heir. 
He  earned  the  favor  of  the  Stuarts  by  steady 
and  laborious  service,  unwavering  loyalty  and 
honor,  and  a  military  and  executive  ability  which 
was  equally  appreciated  by  their  successors.  In 
i'  oil  he  was  made  major  of  an  infantry  regi- 
ment  and  sent  to  America,  where  he  won  laurels 
against  the  Dutch,  and  in  1672  was  titular  com- 
mander of  the  British  forces  in  Barbados,  with 
the  reputation  of  being  skilled  111  American 
affairs.  At  this  time  he  was  in  England,  and  in 
April  1672  was  made  major  in  a  regiment  of 
dragoons  raised  for  Prince  Rupert;  also  a  "land- 
grave8 in  Carolina,  two  years  later  succeeding 
his  father  as  bailiff  of  Guernsey. 

In  1(174  Andros  was  made  "lieutenant  and 
governor"  of  "all  the  Duke  of  York's  territories 
in  America,"  including  New  York  (just  restored 
by  the  Dutch,  who  had  retaken  it  the  year  be- 
fore), New  Jersey,  and  Delaware,  Martha's 
Vineyard,  and  parts  of  Maine,  and  a  claim  to  all 
Connecticut  west  of  that  river.  He  arrived  in 
November,  and  the  next  year  began  to  push  the 
Connecticut  claim ;  but  the  duke  did  not  desire 
an  appeal  to  force,  and  after  making  formal 
declarations  at  Saybrook,  Andros  retired.  Dur- 
ing the  next  two  years  the  Indian  troubles  were 
acute;  and  he  proved  himself  one  of  the  ablest 


ANDROS 

and   most   useful   of   Indian   managers,   winning    law,    and     he    enforced    it     in     the    most     hu- 
the  good  will  of  the  Iroquois  at  a  critical  time,    mane  way   by  bringing  test  suits  against  a  few 
and  not  only  keeping  his  own  colony  protected,    of    the     wealthiest    citizens     before    proceeding 
but  sending  help  to  the  outlying  points  in  Rhode     further.      As   a    fact,   only    a    part    had    yielded 
Island,  Massachusetts,  and  Maine.     He  spent  a    when  the  Revolution  interrupted  it.    He  granted 
few    months    in    England    in    1677-8,    and    was    waste  common-lands  to  individuals  who   would 
knighted.     In  1678-80  there  was  increasing  fric-    improve:    a    venial    crime.      Heavy    fees    were 
tion,  religious  and  otherwise.     He  was  an  Epis-    charged   by  the  public  officials ;   but  he  neither 
copalian,  and  one  of  his  appointees  to  a  coadju-    fixed  the  rates,   received  the  proceeds,  nor  ap- 
torship    in    an    Albany    church    was    tried    for    pointed  the  officers  who  did.     He  had  Episcopal 
heresy,  but  acquitted ;  Andros,  however,  tactfully    services    held    in    the    Old    South    Church,    but 
quieted  the  disturbance   and  contributed  to  build    only    when    its    regular    congregation    was    not 
a   Reformed   church   in    New   York.     Then   the    using  it;  this  sacrilege,  however,  has  blackened 
merchants  charged  him  with  unfairness  in  trade    his  memory  worse  than  anything  else.     He  was 
matters,   and   with   suppressing  part   of   his   re-    sometimes    sharp    in    speech;    but    when    some 
ceipts  in  his  public  accounts,  with  the  object  of    wickedly    foolish   people   charged   him    with    se- 
inducing   James   to    sell    to   some    of   them    the    cretly     fomenting     an     Indian     war.     he     only 
right  to  farm  the  New  York  revenues.     At  this    laughed  at   them  and   left   the  courts  to  attend 
period   Philip   Carteret   was  acting  as  governor     to  the  matter.     In  a  word,  there  was  neither  a 
of  East  Jersey  under  the  Duke  of  York's  grant    political    nor    a    religious    reign    of    terror    set 
to  his  brother  and  Berkeley;  there  were  compli-     UP :  no  one  was  persecuted  for  nonconformity, 
cations  inherited   from  previous  changes   which    or   executed   or    whipped   for   political   offenses, 
forced   Andros   to    keep    interfering,    under    his    Andros    behaved    like    a    statesman,    an    honest 
superior  commission,  and  at  last  he  sent  a  body    man,  and  a  humane  one.     He  early  extended  his 
of  soldiers  to  seize  Carteret  and   bring  him  to    authority  over  Plymouth.   New   Hampshire,  and 
New    York,    to    be   tried    for    exercising    illegal     Rhode  Island,  as  well  as  Maine  and  Massachu- 
jurisdiction.      Andros   acted   as   judge,   but    the    setts.     In  October  1687  he  visited  Hartford,  to 
jury  acquitted   Carteret,  who  was  triumphantly    take   up   the   Connecticut  charter:   the   story  of 
reinstalled.    Lady  Carteret  complained  to  James,    its  being  hidden  in  the  Charter  Oak  is  classic, 
who  recalled   Andros,  and  sent  out  a  commis-     and  it  's  certain  enough  that  one  copy  was  hid- 
sioner  to  investigate  this  and  the  other  charges:     4en   and   was   efficient   in   restoring  the   charter 
he  reported  that  Andros  was  not  in  fault,  but  the    rights  of  the  colony  later ;  but  there  was  another 
latter  was  retained  at  home,  made  gentleman  of    C,°P.V  .and   the   event   was   of   no   significance   at 
the  privy  chamber  to  Charles  II.,  and  received  a     tle   time.     Andros.   on   returning  to   Boston    in 
90-years'  grant   of   the   island  of  Alderney  and     l688»  received  the  news  that  he  was  made  gov- 
other  favors.  ernor    also     of    all    the     British     provinces    in 

The  accession  of  James  II.  (February  1685),  America  except  Pennsylvania.  Delaware.  Mary- 
brought  him  a  great  though  ill-starred  position,  la.nd-  ancl  Virginia.  While  making  a  tour  of 
which  has  loaded  his  memory  with  unjustifiable  P'f  northern  provinces  he  was  checked  by  the 
abuse.  The  Massachusetts  charter  had  been  va-  information  that  the  Penobscot  Indians,  stirred 
cated  in  October  1684.  and  Charles  II.  had  ap-  llP  b>'  Castine  (q.v.),  whose  property  had  been 
pointed  the  notorious  Col.  Piercy  Kirke  govern-  taken,  were  about  to  go  on  the  war-path,  lie 
or;  but  as  he  never  entered  on  his  duties  Andros  coIIected  700  troops,  and  111  November  pro- 
was  commissioned  governor  of  all  New  Eng-  ceeded  to  Maine  and  garrisoned  several  p. 
land  as  one  consolidated  colony  on  3  June  1686.  °n.4  April  1689  news  was  received  of  the  de- 
Dislike  to  James  has  done  injustice  to  the  Position  of  James  II.;  on  the  iSth  the  citizens 
scheme,  which  was  statesmanlike,  distasteful  as  rose  and  captured  Andros,  and  kept  him  pns- 
it  was  to  the  New  Engenders:  to  make  one  °ner,  t''1  2  August,  when  he  escaped  to  New 
powerful  province  with  a  militia  army  strong  *  °,rk-  but  was  recaptured  and  brought  back, 
enough  to  resist  French  and  Indian  aggres-  ?"d  not  released  till  February  1690.  William 
sion,  and  under  one  command,  instead  of  sev-  1U;  needed  officials  as  able  and  upright  as  he. 
eral  weak  ones  fighting  each  other  rather  than  ?"d  ln  :6?2  made  him  governor  of  Virginia, 
the  common  enemy.  As  to  Andros.  the  plan  He  carried  w,h  him  the  charter  of  Wilharn 
was  not  his.  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  sought     t"  y  T'  k,  •  '^i  remalned    ,n 

the  place,  there  was  no  reason  why  he  should  *  ,rg,tn,a;  a  ,mosj  jmWrc-smnted  hard-work 
not  accept  it,  and  there  was  no  way  to  execute  £Lcer  ?'  ruler-  dolnS  much  for  the  progress  of 
it  but  the  one  he  adopted:  we  cannot  justify  tr^nCO,1ony  3"d  es,te.emed  b>'  ls  Pe°P  e.  H.s 
the  end  and  blame  the  indispensable  mean  .  He  'e™°™  ,Y?h  i  L  ?  T^^T'  W,t5  *'  T'" 
could  only  be  blamed  for  needless  harshness  "f;aO^  the  Bishop  of  London  and  president 
or  blundering  or  corruption  in  obeying  his  in-  °rfn^  COJlege'  who  l"""^  ™&  a"  the  in- 
structions: and  despite  the  current  opinion  TkilifflfX  iSI°n  'h^  7^' 
ti,„„    ,„_„    _„_-    „r    ii.-       t   .        tv        „v  and  bailitt  ot  the  island  for  life.     He  had  been 

verse      On    arriving    -i  I  ^n n  £?      pernor    of    every    mainland    English    province 

r^,^Tg  '      9    ?ea    $%     in  North  America,  and  won  the  esteem  of  four 

he     organized     his     new     government,     which,     successive  monarchs,  of  hostile  lines.     Even 

<hemseP1vl°P f    -^    "°    °T r  thlr|?fc£  *°   taX  New    England,   his    departure    was    not   an   „n- 

nemselves    levied   a  new  tax.   which    however.  mixed  good,  for  it  was  followed  by  one  of  her 

was    exactly    the    same    as    the    old.     Ipswich  bloodiest     and     most  disastrous     Indian     wars 

retused     to     pay,     and     the     ringleaders     were  which  his  presence  might  have  averted 
fined    and     imprisoned,    as    must    happen     tin- 

al7  land     ri!L  *!*    T/    0Tfmd    *%  P™^3™  ,„  An'dr°s  Elands,  a  group  of  islands  of  the 

all     land    titles    invalid    unless    confirmed    by  West  Indies  belonging  to  the  English  colony  of 

he    Crown     for    a     quit-rent     Outrageous    as  the    Bahamas,    about    150    miles    southeas" 

this    may    seem,    it     was    held    to    be    sound  Florida 


ANEMOMETER  —  ANEURISM 


Anemometer,    an-e-mom'e-tcr     (from    the 
Greek    words    anemos,    "wind,"    and    metron, 

"measure"),  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
velocity  of  an  air  current,  or  the  force  such  a 
current  exerts  against  an  obstacle.  The  two 
problems  here  suggested  are  widely  different  in 
nature;  for  while  the  velocity  of  an  air  current 
can  easily  be  obtained  with  a  fair  degree  of  pre- 
cision, the  determination  of  the  wind  pressure 
exerted  against  buildings  and  other  structures 
involves  many  considerations  that  cannot  be 
•looked  without  falsifying  the  results.  The 
problem  of  wind  pressure  is  so  complicated,  in 
fact,  that  the  numerous  forms  of  apparatus  pro- 
posed for  its  solution  are  mostly  unreliable,  mis- 
leading, and  incapable  of  furnishing  even  ap- 
proximate values  of  the  real  forces  in  play. 
For  further  discussion  of  the  force  of  the  wind 
see  Wind. 

Of  the  numerous  forms  of  anemometer  pro- 
!  for  the  determination  of  the  velocity  of 
an  air  current,  only  two  are  in  general  use. 
These  are  (i)  Robinson's,  and  (2)  Casella's. 
The  Robinson  instrument  is  designed  for  mete- 
orological use,  and  consists  of  four  hemispher- 
ical cups,  mounted  upon  horizontal  arms,  and 
capable  of  rotating  freely  about  a  vertical  axis. 
The  wind  strikes  the  convex  surfaces  of  the 
cups  on  one  side  of  the  axis  of  rotation,  and  the 
concave  surfaces  on  the  other  side;  and  as  it 
exerts  more  force  against  a  concave  surface  than 
against  an  equal  convex  one,  the  system  of  arms 
and  cups  is  caused  to  rotate  continuously,  with 
a  speed  depending  upon  the  velocity  of  the 
wind.  Dr.  Robinson,  the  inventor  of  this  type 
of  instrument,  concluded  that  the  linear  speed 
of  the  centre  of  the  cups  is  one  third  of  the 
velocity  of  the  wind  causing  the  rotation,  but  it 
is  now  certain  that  this  ratio  varies  somewhat 
with  the  proportions  of  the  arms  and  cups,  and 
that  the  real  velocity  of  the  wind  may  be  from 
2-5  to  3-5  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  centre  of 
the  cups.  Before  accurate  results  can  be  ob- 
tained from  a  Robinson  anemometer  of  given 
proportions  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  deter- 
mine the  constant  of  this  particular  design  of 
instrument  experimentally,  either  by  exposing 
it  by  the  side  of  another  instrument  previously 
studied,  or  by  whirling  it  through  the  air  at  the 
extremity  of  a  revolving  arm  whose  speed  of 
rotation  is  known.  The  Robinson  anemometer 
i<  the  official  instrument  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  for  the  measurement  of  wind- 
1.  3. 

The  Casella  anemometer  is  designed  for 
measuring  the  velocities  of  air  currents  in  minis, 
ventilating  shafts,  and  like  places.  It  consists 
essentially  of  a  set  of  spokes  radiating  from  an 
axis  and  each  carrying  at  its  extremity  a  small 
fan  or  blade,  set  at  an  oblique  angle  to  the  cen- 
tral shaft.  The  instrument  is  placed  in  the  cur- 
rent whose  velocity  is  to  be  measured,  its  axis 
of  rotation  being  set  parallel  to  the  direction 
of  flow  of  the  air.  The  velocity  of  the  current  is 
determined  by  observing  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions made  by  the  fan  in  a  given  time,  as  re- 
corded upon  a  graduated  dial  whose  index  is 
actuated  by  the  fan,  through  a  suitable  train  of 
wheels.  In  some  forms  of  the  Casella  anemom- 
eter a  half-minute  sand  glass  is  provided,  which, 
when  inverted,  automatically  throws  the  re- 
cording needle  into  gear  and  out  again.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  Casella  instru- 
ment,   like    the    Robinson,    must    be    carefully 


tested  by  experiment,  or  by  comparison  with 
another  instrument  which  has  been  so  t> 
before  its  indications  can  be  considered  reliable. 
(See  Abbe's  'Meteorological  Apparatus  and 
Methods,'  also  Prof.  C.  F.  Marvin's  paper  in 
the  'Report,  for  1800,  of  the  Chief  Signal  Of- 
ficer of  the  United  States  Army.') 

Anemone,  a-nem'o-ne,  wind-flower,  a 
genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the  Buttercup 
family  (Ranunculacecc)  containing  many  species 
found  in  temperate  regions.  Many  of  them 
occur  in  the  United  States,  where  their  bloom 
whitens  the  fields  in  spring  and  summer.  The 
most  important  are:  A.  nemorasa,  the  com- 
mon wood-anemone ;  flowers  white,  externally 
tinged  with  purple:  A.  patens  mittalania,  the 
American  Pasque  flower;  A.  quinquefolia,  A. 
caroliniana,  and  A.  narcissifiora,  found  in  moun- 
tainous regions. 

An'eroid  Barometer,  a  species  of  barom- 
eter in  which  no  fluid  is  employed,  an  ingen- 
ious and  delicate  instrument  invented  by  M. 
Vidi,  of  France,  in  1844.  Its  mechanism  consists 
of  a  hollow  metal  cylinder,  with  thin  and  cor- 
rugated ends,  which  contract  or  expand  accord- 
ing to  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  the  air 
within  having  been  previously  exhausted  by  the 
air-pump.  The  motion  of  the  ends  of  the  cylin- 
der acts  upon  a  principal  lever  attached  to  it, 
and  connected  with  two  smaller  levers,  to  one 
of  which  a  chain  is  attached,  working  upon  a 
roller,  and  to  the  axis  of  the  roller  a  hand  is 
fixed,  exhibiting  the  variations  of  the  atmosphere 
by  means  of  an  index  on  the  face  of  the  barome- 
ter. A  pocket  aneroid  is  very  useful  for  mea- 
suring small  heights.     See  Barometer. 

An'eurism,  a  disease  of  the  walls  of  the 
arteries  resulting  in  the  formation  of  a  pulsating 
sac  or  swelling.  At  times  the  disease  process 
leads  to  rupture  of  the  walls  of  the  blood-vessels 
with  an  extravasation  of  blood  into  the  adjacent 
tissues,  making  a  tumor-like  formation.  Such 
an  aneurismal  swelling  is  known  as  a  false 
aneurism.  In  the  true  aneurism  the  sac  is 
formed  by  one  or  more  of  the  arterial  coats. 
True  aneurisms  vary  in  shape  and  size,  being 
fusiform,  cylindrical,  cirsoid  (in  which  a  branch 
of  the  artery  is  included  in  the  swelling),  cir- 
cumscribed, or  sacculated.  Most  aneurisms  are 
fusiform,  the  dilatation  of  the  vessel  usually  be- 
ing uniform.  Another  type  of  aneurism  usually 
occurring  in  the  aorta  is  known  as  a  dissecting 
aneurism.  In  this  the  inner  wall  of  the  artery 
ruptures  and  the  blood  dissects  its  way  between 
the  coats  of  the  artery  wall.  When  an  aneuris- 
mal swelling  occurs  at  the  junction  of  an  artery 
and  a  vein,  an  arterio-venous  aneurism  results. 
Aneurismal  varix  is  a  type  of  this  form  of 
aneurism. 

The  causes  of  aneurisms  are  manifold.  The 
most  important  feature  is  a  chronic  disease  of 
the  connective  tissue  of  the  blood-vessels,  arte- 
riosclerosis (q.v.)  that  results  in  the  weaken- 
ing of  the  wall  and  gradual  distention  of  the 
vessel  with  the  formation  of  a  sac.  The  symp- 
toms are  often  extremely  obscure  and  depend  in 
large  part  on  the  presence  of  a  tumor  that  makes 
pressure  symptoms  on  important  organs.  These 
will  vary  widely  according  to  the  situation  of 
the  aneurism.  The  treatment  is  largely  sur- 
gical and  the  details  are  dependent  upon  the 
variety  and  situation  of  the  aneurismal  swelling. 


ANGEL  OF  THE  BATTLEFIELD— ANGLES 


Angel  of  the  Battlefield.     See  Anthony, 

Sister. 

Angell,  an'jel,  George  Thomdike,  Ameri- 
can reformer :  b.  Southbridge,  Mass.,  1823.  He 
was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1846, 
and  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1851.  He  has  been 
active  in  promoting  measures  for  the  prevention 
of  crime,  cruelties,  and  the  adulteration  of  food. 
He  founded  and  is  president  of  the  American 
Humane  Educational  Society. 

Angell,  James  Burrill,  an  American 
educator :  b.  in  Scituate,  R.  I.,  7  Jan.  1829.  He 
was  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1849; 
and  was  professor  of  modern  languages  and  lit- 
erature there,  1853-60 ;  editor  Providence  Jour- 
nal, 1860-6 ;  president  of  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont, 1866-71  ;  president  of  the  University  of 
Michigan  since  1871.  United  States  minister  to 
China,  1880-1  ;  minister  to  Turkey,  1897-8;  mem- 
ber of  the  Anglo-American  Commission  on 
Canadian  Fisheries,  1887,  and  of  the  Deep  Water- 
ways Commission,  1896.  Author  of  "Manual  of 
French  Literature'  (1857);  'Progress  in  In- 
ternational Law'  (1875)  ;  and  many  articles  in 
the   leading  American   reviews. 

Angell,  Joseph  Kinnicut,  an  American 
legal  writer:  b.  Providence,  R.  I.,  30  April 
1794;  d.  Boston,  Mass.,  I  May  1857.  Graduated 
at  Brown  University,  1813.  Edited  the  'Law 
Intelligencer  and  Review,'  1829-31,  and  pre- 
pared the  first  published  law  reports  of  Rhode 
Island.  Alone  or  in  collaboration  he  produced  a 
number  of  valuable  and  much  used  legal  text- 
books, chief  of  which  are,  'Treatise  on  Corpora- 
tions' (4th  ed.  1858),  highly  commended  by 
Chancellor  Kent;  'Common  Law  in  Relation  to 
Watercourses'  (4th  ed.  1850)  ;  'Liabilities  and 
Rights  of  Common  Carriers'  (2d  ed.  1845)  ; 
'Law  of  Fire  and  Life  Insurance.' 

Angelo,  an'jelo,  Michael.  See  Michelan- 
gelo. 

Angelus,  the  Catholic  prayer  and  practice 
by  which  the  mystery  of  the  Incarnation  is  re- 
called to  mind  and  is  honored,  morning,  noon, 
and  evening.  It  forms  the  subject  of  a  famous 
painting  by  Millet   (q.v.). 

Angina  Pec'toris,  a  symptom  of  dis- 
ordered heart  action,  frequently  called  a  neuro- 
sis. It  is  a  rare  disease  and  is  characterized 
by  paroxysmal  attacks  of  excruciating  pain  in 
the  heart  region.  These  pains  frequently  radi- 
ate into  the  arms  and  neck  and  sometimes  are 
so  severe  as  to  cause  a  sense  of  suffocation  and 
fear  of  death.  It  is  a  suffocative  breast  pang. 
True  angina  pectoris  —  for  there  are  false  varie- 
ties that  occur  largely  in  hysterical  and  neu- 
rasthenic women  —  often  causes  death,  whereas 
the  false  variety  is  rarely  as  severe  and  never 
fatal.  Men  are  more  frequently  affected  than 
women,  and  it  is  a  disease  of  adult  life.  It  is 
sometimes  found  in  families  for  several  genera- 
tions. Gout,  syphilis,  diabetes,  excessive  tea  or 
coffee  drinking,  and  even  influenza  are  im- 
portant factors  in  bringing  about  certain  changes 
in  the  arteries,  notably  the  coronary  arteries  of 
the  heart,  that  are  nearly  always  found  as  con- 
comitants of  this  condition.  This  change  of  the 
arteries  is  a  true  arterio-sclerosis  (q.v.).  The 
attacks  are  usually  brought  on  by  sudden  acute 
exercise,  or  by  marked  emotional  excitement, 
notably  worry  and  anger. 


References. —  Osier,  'Lectures  on  Angina 
Pectoris'  (1897)  :  Hoffman,  'Die  Herzneurosen 
und  die  funktionellen  Kreislaufstorungen' 
(1903L 

An'gle,  the  point  where  two  lines  meet,  or 
the  meeting  of  two  lines  in  a  point.  Techni- 
cally, the  inclination  of  two  lines  to  one  another. 
A  plane  angle  is  the  inclination  cf  two  lines  to 
one  another  in  a  plane,  which  two  lines  meet 
together.  A  solid  or  polyhedral  angle  is  that 
made  by  the  meeting  in  one  point  of  more  than 
two  plane  angles,  which,  however,  are  not  in 
the  same  plane.  A  dihedral  angle  is  formed  by 
the  intersection  of  two  planes.  Angles  may 
again  be  subdivided  into  rectilinear,  curvilinear, 
and  mixed  angles.  A  plane  rectilinear  angle  is 
the  inclination  to  each  other  of  two  straight 
lines  which  meet  but  are  not  in  the  same 
straight  line.  A  curvilinear  angle  is  the  in- 
clination to  each  other  of  two  curved  lines 
which  meet  in  a  point,  and  is  equal  to  the  in- 
clination of  the  tangents  to  the  curves  at  their 
intersection.  A  mixed  angle  is  one  formed  by 
the  meeting  of  a  curve  and  a  straight  line. 

Angles  are  measured  by  arcs,  and  it  is  im- 
material with  what  radius  the  latter  are  de- 
scribed. The  result  is  generally  stated  in  de- 
grees, minutes,  and  seconds  °  '  ";  thus  36°  14' 
23"=  36  degrees,  14  minutes,  and  23  seconds. 
Angles  are  also  measured  in  radians,  a  radian 
being  the  arc  equal  to  the  radius  of  the  circle, 
or  about  57.30.  The  quadrant,  or  right  angle, 
is  also  a  convenient  unit  for  many  purposes. 
When  an  angle  is  isolated  from  other  angles  it 
may  be  named  by  a  single  letter;  but  when  two 
or  more  angles  meet  at  one  point  they  are  named 
by  three  letters,  never  by  one  or  two.  In  such 
cases  the  letter  at  that  point  is  always  named 
in  the  middle.  The  point  at  which  the  lines 
forming  the  angle  meet  is  called  the  angular 
point  or  vertex  of  the  angle,  and  the  lines 
themselves  are  called  the  sides  or  legs  of  the 
angle. 

Plane  rectilinear  angles  are  generally  divided 
into  right  and  oblique,  or  into  right,  obtuse, 
and  acute.  When  a  straight  line  standing  upon 
another  straight  line  makes  the  two  adjacent 
angles  (those  on  the  right  and  left  of  it )  equal 
to  one  another,  each  of  them  is  called  a  right 
angle.  An  oblique  angle  is  one  which  is  not  a 
right  angle.  An  obtuse  angle  is  that  which  i- 
greater  than  one  right  angle,  but  less  than  two. 
An  acute  angle  is  that  which  is  less  than  a 
right  angle :  both  are  oblique.  A  spherical  angle 
is  one  formed  by  the  intersection  or  the  meeting 
of  two  great  circles  of  a  sphere. 

An'gle  Iron.  See  Rails  and  Structural 
Shapes. 

An'gler.      See  Goosefish. 

Angles,  a  German  tribe  who  probably 
lived  originally  on  the  east  side  of  the  Elbe,  be- 
tween the  Saale  and  Ohre  rivers,  whence  they 
moved  to  what  is  now  the  district  of  Angeln  in 
Schleswig-Holstein,  lying  between  the  territories 
of  the  Jutes  and  Saxons.  They  never  ap- 
proached the  Rhine  and  the  Roman  frontiers, 
hence  we  do  not  find  their  name  mentioned  by 
the  Roman  authors,  who  comprehended  them, 
with  many  others,  under  the  general  name  of 
Chauci  and  Germani,  till  the  conquest  of  Britain 
made  them  better  known  as  a  separate  nation. 
In   the   5th   century   they  joined   their   powerful 


ANGLESEY  —  ANGLING 


northern  neighbors,  the  Saxons,  and  took  part 
in  the  conquest  of  Britain,  winch  from  them 
derived  its  future  name  of  Kngland.  A  part  re- 
mained in  their  Continental  homes  and  gave 
their  name  also  to  the  district  of  Angeln. 

Anglesey,  an'gl'-se,  Henry  William  Paget, 
Marquis  of,  an  English  soldier  and  states- 
man: b.  1708;  d.  1854.     lie  was  educated  at  Ox- 

!.  and  in  1790  entered  Parliament  as  member 
for  the  Carnarvon  boioughs.  In  1794  he  took 
part  in  the  campaign  111  blunders  under  the 
Duke;  of  York,  and  in  1808  was  sent  into  Spain 
with  two  brigades  of  cavalry  to  join  Sir  John 
Moore,  and  in  the  retreat  to  Coruna  commanded 
the  rear  guard.  In  1812  lie  became,  by  his  fa- 
ther's death,  Earl  of  Uxbridge.  On  Napoleon's 
escape  from  Elba  he  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  British  cavalry,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  overthrew  the  Imperial  Guard.  For 
his  services  he  was  created  Marquis  of  Anglesey. 
In  1828  he  became  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland 
and  made  himself  extremely  popular,  but  was 
recalled  in  consequence  of  favoring  Catholic 
emancipation.  He  was  again  lord-lieutenant  in 
1830;  bin  lost  his  popularity  by  opposition  to 
O'Connell  and  his  instrumentality  in  the  passing 
of  the  Irish  coercion  acts,  and  he  quitted  office 
in  1833. 

Anglesey,  an'gl'-se,  or  Anglesea,  an  island 
and   county  of   North   Wales,   in  the   Irish   Sea, 

trated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Mcnai 
Strait.  It  is  about  20  miles  long  and  17  miles 
broad,  with  an  ana  of  175836  acres,  of  which 
fully  150.000  acres  are  under  rotation  crops  and 
permanent  pasture,  exclusive  of  mountain  and 
heath  land  used  for  pasturage  (about  7,600 
acres).  It  is  divided  into  three  cantrefs,  and 
each  nf  these  int"  two  cwmwds,  equivalent  to 
the  English  hundreds.  The  surface  of  the  is- 
land, with  the  exception  of  Holyhead.  Parys,  and 
Bodafon  Mountains,  is  comparatively  flat,  and 
the  climate,  though  milder  than  that  of  the  ad- 
joining coast,  is  nut  so  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  trees.  There  are  no  streams  of  any  impor- 
tance, but  the  coast  affords  some  natural  har- 
bors, the  principal  of  which  are  Holyhead  and 
Beaumaris.  The  principal  crops  arc  oats,  bar- 
ley, turnips,  and  potatoes.  Cattle  and  sheep  are 
the  staple  productions  of  the  island,  and  large 
numbers  of  both  are  annually  exported.  Of 
minerals,  Anglesey  contains  copper,  lead,  and 
silver  ore,  limestone,  marble,  asbestos,  and  marl, 
but  the  copper  mines  at  Parys  and  Mona,  once 
so  celebrated  and  productive,  have  much  de- 
creased in  value.  The  Menai  Strait  is  crossed 
by  a  magnificent  suspension-bridge,  580  feet  be- 
tween the  piers  and  100  feet  above  high-water 
mark,  allowing  the  largest  vessels  which  navi- 
gate  the  -.trait  to  .-ail  under  it;  and  also  by  the 

■  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge,  for  the  con- 
veyance of  railway  trains,  Holyhead  being  the 
point  of  departure  for  the  Irish  mails.  The 
markel  towns  are  Holyhead,  Beaumaris,  Llan- 
gefni, and  Amlwch,  the  first-named  by  far  the 
largest.  The  county  itself  returns  a  member  to 
Parliament.  On  the  coast  are  several  small  is- 
lands, the  chief  being  Holyhead  and  Puffin  Is- 
land.    Pop.   (1901)  50,590. 

An'glesite,  an'gle-slt  (from  the  island  of 
Anglesea,  where  it  was  first  observed,  a  native 
sulphate  of  lead,  ThSOt.  It  crystallizes  in  the 
orthorhombic    system    and    has    a    hardness    of 


from  2.75  to  3,  and  a  specific  gravity  varying 
from  6.1  to  6.4.  It  may  be  transparent  or 
opaque,  and  in  color  white,  greenish,  yellowish, 
or  gray.  It  occurs  in  many  localities,  usually 
in  connection  with  galena,  whence  it  is  appar- 
ently derived  by  oxidation.  Beautiful  trans- 
parent crystals  of  it,  several  inches  in  diameter, 
are  known.  Anglesitc,  in  a  massive  form,  is  ex- 
tensively mined  as  an  ore  of  lead  (q.v.). 

Angleworm.     See  Earthworm. 

An'glia,  East,  an  English  kingdom  founded 
by  the  Angles  (q.v.)  in  the  6th  century  in  the 
eastern  part  of  England  in  what  now  form-  the 
present  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  It 
was  conquered  by  the  Danes  in  87X.  and  Inc. 11,1c 
part  of  the  English  kingdom  in  021,  under  Ed- 
ward, son  and  successor  of  Alfred.  The  mod- 
ern see  of  Norwich  corresponds  in  extent  to  the 
East  Anglian  kingdom,  and  the  name  East 
Anglia  is  still  frequently  employed  to  denote 
these  two  shires. 

An'glican  Church.  See  Chlrch  of  F.xo- 
i.and. 

An'glin,  Margaret,  an  American  actress: 
b.  in  Ottawa.  Canada.  187O.  She  studied  at  the 
Empire  School  of  Dramatic  Acting  in  New 
York  city  and  made  her  debut  in  1894  in  'Shen- 
andoah.' Her  roles  include  Roxane  with  Mans 
field  in  'Cyrano  de  Bergerac'  Mimi  in  'The 
Only  Way,'  Mrs.  Dane  in  '.Mrs.  Dane's  De- 
fense,1 and  Mabel  Vaughn  in  "The  Wilder- 
ness.' 

Angling  is  one  of  the  words  which  have 
made  themselves  a  specific  meaning  that  has 
eluded  the  lexicographer,  or  nearly  so.  Of 
course  it  is,  as  he  says,  "to  fish  with  an  angle 
or  rod  and  line  and  bait":  but  to  those  of  the 
craft  it  is  so  much  more  and  so  much  less  it 
is  to  fish  in  a  certain  way,  and  not  with  any 
rod  and  line  and  bait.  When  the  real  disciple 
of  the  gentle  Izaak  uses  the  words  "Let  us  go 
angling,"  it  means  Let  us  wander  away  with  the 
lightest  of  bamboo  rods,  the  multiplying  reel, 
the  thinnest  and  most  perfect  of  lines,  and  a 
book  full  of  artificial  Hies.  Angling  is  for  the 
knights  of  the  craft,  and  for  the  kings  of  fight- 
ing fish. 

After  fixing  the  separate  pieces  of  his  rod 
together  and  attaching  the  winch  on  which  his 
line  is  wound,  the  angler  passes  the  line  through 
the  rings  along  the  length  of  the  rod,  and 
through  the  loop  at  the  top.  He  then  attaches 
a  length  of  gut.  and  on  that  he  fastens  tiie 
artificial-fly  hook.  After  unwinding  as  much 
of  the  line  as  will  be  necessary  to  reach  the 
spot  on  the  water  where  he  thinks  the  fish  is, 
he  is  ready  for  the  sport.  There  are  two 
school,  of  fly-casters  among  anglers,  the  old- 
fashioned  wet  caster,  who  was  not  restricted 
to  any  number  of  dies,  and  who  moved  up  or 
down  the  stream  casting  frequently  as  he  went. 
and  the  modern  school  of  dry  casters  who  re- 
strict themselves  to  a  single  artificial  fly,  made- 
very  small,  dressed  with  upstanding  wings,  so 
as  to  ensure  its  floating  on  the  surface,  and 
sometimes  anointed  with  an  odorless  oil  to 
keep  it  dry.  The  dry  caster  remains  inactive 
until  the  trout  is  seen  to  rise. 

In  either  school  the  casts  are  divided  into 
six  classes :  the  overhand,  the  underhand,  the 
spray  cast,  the  wind  cast,  the  flip  cast,  and  the 
switch  cast.     The  object  of  them  al!  is  to  cause 


ANGLO-AMERICAN  COMMISSION-ANGLO-JAPANESE  TREATIES 


the  fly  to  fall  upon  the  water  as  if  it  were  a 
natural  fly  which  had  alighted  on  the  surface 
in  its  natural  habit,  or  had  fallen  off  some  over- 
hanging branch,  or  been  blown  from  the  grass 
and  was  floating  down  stream.  The  most  com- 
monly used  cast  is  the  overhand.  To  perform 
it  the  angler  standing  on  the  river's  brim  un- 
winds a  few  yards  of  his  line  and  lets  the  fly 
float  down  stream,  raising  his  rod  until  it  is 
at  an  angle  of  some  60  to  80  degrees  in  front 
of  him.  With  a  swift  movement  of  the  wrist, 
he  lifts  it  so  that  it  passes  over  his  shoulder: 
the  line  follows  and  passes  away  beyond  it.  At 
a  moment  only  to  be  learned  from  experience, 
but  which  every  angler  soon  feels,  he  throws  the 
rod  forward  and  onward  in  the  direction  in 
front  of  him  which  he  wants  the  fly  to  take, 
and  it  falls  there,  gently.  This  cast  is  possible 
wherever  there  are  neither  trees  nor  rocks  for 
the  necessary  distance  behind  the  angler.  When 
these  are  present  the  switch  cast  is  used :  in 
that  the  fly  is  drawn  along  the  top  of  the 
water  toward  the  angler's  feet,  and  then,  lower- 
ing his  rod  by  a  quick  downward  movement, 
the  line  is  sent  forward  rolling  over  and  over 
itself  in  curves.  When  all  the  curves  are  un- 
wound the  fly  falls  back  into  the  water  at  the 
extreme  end  of  the  line.  The  first  movements 
in  the  wind  cast  are  the  same  as  those  of  the 
switch  cast :  the  difference  is  in  the  thrash  by 
which  the  line  is  made  to  travel  up  against  the 
wind.  The  flip  cast  is  made  by  taking  the  fly 
between  the  thumb  and  finger,  pulling  the  top 
of  the  rod  down  until  it  is  a  bow,  and  then 
letting  it  slip  back.  The  force  will  carry  the 
fly  to  the  desired  spot.  The  spray  cast  is  used 
now  when  a  great  length  of  line  is  out.  The 
fly  is  then  drawn  up  to  the  feet  of  the  angler 
and  the  pole  thrown  forward  up  stream,  not, 
as  in  the  overhead  cast,  swished  behind  the 
line  of  the  shoulders. 

An'glo-Amer'ican  Commission,  a  joint  in- 
ternational commission  appointed  in  1898  by 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  for  the 
negotiation  of  a  plan  for  the  settlement  of  all 
controversial  matters  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  The  subjects  submitted  for  the 
consideration  of  the  commission  were  officially 
determined  as  follows :  "The  Behring  Sea  seal- 
ing question,  reciprocal  mining  regulations,  the 
preservation  of  the  fisheries  of  the  Great  Lakes, 
the  North  Atlantic  fishery  question,  the  boun- 
dary question,  the  alien  labor  laws,  and  reci- 
procity of  trade."  Lord  Herschell,  Sir  Wilfred 
Laurier,  Sir  Richard  Cartwright,  Sir  Louis  H. 
Davies,  and  Mr.  J.  Charlton,  a  member  of  the 
Dominion  Congress,  were  appointed  British 
commissioners.  The  American  commissioners 
were  United  States  Senators  Fairbanks  and 
Gray,  Congressman  Dingley,  Reciprocity  Com- 
missioner Kasson,  and  ex-Secretary  of  State 
Foster.  The  commission  met  at  Quebec,  23 
August,  Lord  Herschell  being  chosen  chairman: 
W.  C.  Cartwright,  of  the  Foreign  Office,  and 
H.  Bourassa,  member  of  Parliament  for  La- 
belle  County,  Quebec,  were  chosen  British  sec- 
retaries, and  C.  P.  Anderson  L'nited  States 
secretary.  Later  in  the  year  an  adjourned  ses- 
sion was  held  in  Washington,  D.  C,  which  ad- 
journed without  practical  results. 

An'glo-Amer'ican  League,  The,  an  organ- 
ization formed  13  July  1898  at  a  meeting 
held  at  Stafford  House,  London.     Its  object  is  to 


give  practical  effects  to  the  terms  of  the  follow- 
ing resolution,  passed  at  that  meeting: 

"  Considering  that  the  peoples  of  the  British  Em- 
pire and  of  the  United  States  of  America  are  closely 
allied  in  blood,  inherit  the  same  literature  and  laws, 
hold  the  same  principles  of  self-government,  recog- 
nize the  same  ideas  of  freedom  and  humanity  in  the 
guidance  of  their  national  policy,  and  are  drawn  to- 
gether by  strong  common  interests  in  many  parts  of 
the  world,  this  meeting  is  of  opinion  that  every  effort 
should  be  made,  in  the  interest  of  civilization  and 
peace,  to  secure  the  most  cordial  and  constant  co-opera- 
tion between  the  two  nations." 

Membership  is  open  to  all  British  subjects 
and  citizens  of  the  United  States.  A  strong 
and  representative  committee  was  formed,  with 
the  Right  Hon.  James  Bryce,  M.  P.,  as  chair- 
man. 

An'glo-Cath'olic,  a  term  applied  to  those 
members  of  the  Anglican  communion  whose 
beliefs  and  religious  forms  most  nearly  approach 
those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Ritual- 
ists, as  Anglo-Catholics  are  frequently  called, 
lay  especial  emphasis  on  the  "Catholic  prin- 
ciples" of  apostolic  succession,  regeneration  in 
baptism,  the  Eucharistic  real  presence,  and  the 
authority  of  tradition. 

An'glo-Is'raelite  The'ory,  a  peculiar  belief 
as  to  English  origins.  It  assumes  that  the 
English  are  descended  from  the  lost  10  tribes 
of  Israel ;  but  the  theory  is  untenable  on  any 
scientific  grounds,  for  the  tribes  vanished 
through  absorption  in  neighboring  peoples  and 
were  not  lost  in  any  real  sense.  See  Streator, 
(The  Anglo-Alliance  in  Prophecy,  or  the  Prom- 
ises to  the  Fathers'    (1900). 

Anglo- Japanese  Treaties.  The  first  treaty 
between  England  and  Japan  was  signed  30  Jan. 
1902.     The  text  is  as  follows : 

The  Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  Japan, 
actuated  solely  by  a  desire  to  maintain  the  status 
quo  and  general  peace  in  the  extreme  East,  being 
moreover  specially  interested  in  maintaining  the 
independence  and  territorial  integrity  of  the  Em- 
pire of  China  and  the  Empire  of  Korea,  and  in 
securing  equal  opportunities  in  those  countries 
for  the  commerce  and  industry  of  all  nations, 
hereby  agree  as  follows  : 

Article  1.  The  High  Contracting  Parties, 
having  mutually  recognised  the  independence  of 
China  and  Korea,  declare  themselves  to  be  en- 
tirely uninfluenced  by  any  aggressive  tendencies 
in  either  country.  Having  in  view,  however, 
their  special  interests,  of  which  those  of  Great 
Britain  relate  principally  to  China,  while  Japan. 
in  addition  to  the  interests  which  she  p<  issesses  in 
China,  is  interested  in  a  peculiar  degree  politically, 
as  well  as  commercially  and  industrially,  in  Korea, 
the  High  Contracting  Parties  recognise  that  it 
will  be  admissible  lor  either  of  them  to  take  such 
measures  as  may  be  indispensable  in  order  to  sale- 
guard  those  interests  if  threatened  either  by  the 
aggressive  action  of  any  other  Power,  or  by  dis- 
turbances arising  in  China  or  Korea,  and  neces- 
sitating the  intervention  of  either  of  the  High 
Contracting  Parties  for  the  protection  of  the  lives 
and  property  of  its  subjects. 

Article  2.  If  either  Great  Britain  or  Japan, 
in  the  defence  of  their  respective  intei 
above  described,  should  become  involved  in  war 
with  another  Power,  the  oilier  High  Contracting 
Party  will  maintain  a  strict  neutrality,  and  use  its 
efforts  to  prevent  other  Powers  from  joining  in 
hostilities  against  its  ally. 


ANGLO-JAPANESE  TREATIES 


Article  3.  If  in  the  above  event  any  other 
Power  or  Powers  should  join  in  hostilities  against 
that  ally,  the  other  High  Contracting  Party  will 
come  to  its  assistance,  and  will  conduct  the  war 
in  common,  and  make  peace  in  mutual  agree- 
ment with  it. 

Article  ■/.  The  High  Contracting  Parties 
agree  that  neither  of  them  will,  without  consult- 
ing the  other,  enter  into  separate  arrangements 
with  another  Tower  to  the  prejudice  of  the  inter- 
ests above  described. 

Article  5.  Whenever,  in  the  opinion  of  Great 
Britain  or  Japan,  the  above-mentioned  interests 
are  in  jeopardy,  the  two  Governments  will  com- 
municate with  one  another  fully  and  frankly. 

Article  6.  The  present  agreement  shall  come 
into  effect  immediately  after  the  date  of  its  signa- 
ture, and  remain  in  force  for  five  years  from  that 
In  case  neither  of  the  High  Contracting 
Parties  should  have  notified  twelve  months  before 
the  expiration  of  the  said  five  years  the  intention 
of  terminating  it,  it  shall  remain  binding  until 
the  expiration  of  one  year  from  the  day  on  which 
either  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  shall  have 
denounced  it.  But  if.  when  the  date  fixed  for  its 
expiration  arrives,  either  ally  is  actually  engaged 
in  war,  the  alliance  shall,  ipso  facto,  continue 
until  peace  is  concluded. 

The  second  treaty  was  signed  at  London  12 
Aug.  1905.  The  following  letter  explains  its 
objects  and  purposes. 

Despatch  to  his  Majesty's  Ambassador  at  St. 
Petersburg,  forwarding  a  copy  of  the  Agree- 
ment between  the  United  Kingdom  and  Japan, 
signed  at  London,  Aug.  12,  1905. 

The  Masquis  of  Lansdowne  to  Sir  C.  Hardinge 
Foreign  Office,  Sept.  6,  1905. 

Sir,  — I  inclose,  for  your  Excellency's  infor- 
mation, a  copy  of  a  new  Agreement  concluded  be- 
tween his  .Majesty's  Government  and  that  of 
Japan  in  substitution  for  that  of  Jan.  30,  1902. 
You  will  take  an  early  opportunity  of  commu- 
nicating the  new  Agreement  to  the  Russian 
Government. 

It  was  signed  on  Aug.  12,  and  you  will  explain 
that  it  would  have  been  immediately  made 
public  but  for  the  fact  that  negotiations  had 
at  that  time  already  commenced  between  Russia 
and  Japan,  and  that  the  publication  of  such  a 
document  whilst  those  negotiations  were  still 
in  progress  would  obviously  have  been  improper 
and  i  t  1 .  ipportune. 

The  Russian  Government  will,  I  trust,  recog- 
11  e  that  the  new  Agreement  is  an  international 
instrument,  to  which  no  exception  can  be  taken 
by  any  of  the  Powers  interested  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Far  East.  You  should  call  special  attention 
t"  the  objects  mentioned  in  the  preamble  as 
those  by  which  the  policy  of  the  contracting 
parties  is  inspired.  His  Majesty's  Government 
believe  that  they  may  count  upon  the  goodwill 
and  support  of  all  the  Powers  in  endeavouring  to 
maintain  peace  in  Eastern  Asia,  and  in  seeking 
to  uphold  the  integrity  and  independence  of 
the  Chinese  Empire  and  the  principle  of  equal 
opportunities  for  the  commerce  and  industry  of 
all  nations  in  that  country. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  special  interests  of 
the  contracting  parties  are  of  a  kind  upon 
which  they  are  fully  entitled  to  insist,  and  the 
announcement  that  those  interests  must  be  safe- 


guarded is  one  which  can  create  no  surprise,  and 
need  give  rise  to  no  misgivings. 

I  call  your  especial  attention  to  the  wording 
of  Article  II.,  which  lays  down  distinctly  tli.it 
it  is  only  in  the  case  of  an  unprovoked  attack 
made  on  one  of  the  contracting  parties  by 
another  Power  or  Powers,  and  when  that  party 
is  defending  its  territorial  rights  and  special 
interests  from  aggressive  action,  that  the  other 
party  is  bound  to  come  to  its  assistance. 

Article  III.,  dealing  with  the  question  of 
Korea,  is  deserving  of  especial  attention.  It 
recognises  in  the  clearest  terms  the  paramount 
position  which  Japan  at  this  moment  occupies 
and  must  henceforth  occupy  in  Korea,  and  her 
right  to  take  any  measures  which  she  may  find 
necessary  for  the  protection  of  her  political, 
military,  and  economic  interests  in  that  coun- 
try. It  is,  however,  expressly  provided  that 
such  measures  must  not  be  contrary  to  the  prin- 
ciple of  equal  opportunities  for  the  commerce 
and  industry  of  other  nations.  The  new  Treaty 
no  doubt  differs  at  this  point  conspicuously 
from  that  of  1902.  It  has,  however,  become 
evident  that  Korea,  owing  to  its  close  proximity 
to  the  Japanese  Empire  and  its  inability  to 
stand  alone,  must  fall  under  the  control  and 
tutelage  of  Japan. 

His  Majesty's  Government  observe  with  satis- 
faction that  this  point  was  readily  conceded  by 
Russia  in  the  Treaty  of  Peace  recently  con- 
cluded with  Japan,  and  they  have  every  reason 
to  believe  that  similar  views  are  held  by  other 
Powers  with  regard  to  the  relations  which  should 
subsist  between  Japan  and  Korea. 

His  Majesty's  Government  venture  to  antici- 
pate that  the  alliance  thus  concluded,  designed 
as  it  is  with  objects  which  arc  purely  peaceful 
and  for  the  protection  of  rights  and  interests 
the  validity  of  which  cannot  be  contested,  will 
be  regarded  with  approval  by  the  Government 
to  which  you  are  accredited.  They  are  justified 
in  believing  that  its  conclusion  may  not  have 
been  without  effect  in  facilitating  the  settlement 
by  which  the  war  has  been  so  happily  brought 
to  an  end,  and  they  earnestly  trust  that  it  may, 
for  many  years  to  come,  be  instrumental  in  secur- 
ing the  peace  of  the  world  in  those  regions  which 
come  within  its  scope.  —  I  am,  &c, 

(Signed)  Landsdowne. 

The  text  is  as  follows  : 

Enclosure.  Agreement  between  the  United 
Kingdom  and  Japan,  signed  at  London,  Aug.  12, 
1905. 

Preamble.  The  Governments  of  Great  Britain 
and  Japan,  being  desirous  of  replacing  the  Agree- 
ment concluded  between  them  on  Jan.  30,  1902, 
by  fresh  stipulations,  have  agreed  upon  the  fol- 
lowing articles,  which  have  for  their  object  :  — 

(a)  The  consolidation  and  maintenance  of  the 
general  peace  in  the  regions  of  Eastern  Asia  and 
of  India ; 

(b)  The  preservation  of  the  common  interests 
of  all  Powers  in  China  by  insuring  the  indepen- 
dence and  integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire  and 
the  principle  of  equal  opportunities  for  the  com- 
merce and  industry  of  all  nations  in  China ; 

(c)  The  maintenance  of  the  territorial  rights 
of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  in  the  regions 
of  Eastern  Asia  and  of  India  and  the  defence 
of  their  special  interests  in  the  said  regions : 

Article  1.     It  is  agreed  that  whenever,  in  the 


ANGLO-JAPANESE  TREATIES-ANGLO  SAXON 


opinion  of  either  Great  Britain  or  Japan,  any  of 
the  rights  and  interests  referred  to  in  the  preamble 
of  this  Agreement  are  in  jeopardy,  the  two  Gov- 
ernments will  communicate  with  one  another 
fully  and  frankly,  and  will  consider  in  common 
the  measures  which  should  be  taken  to  safeguard 
those  menaced  rights  or  interests. 

Article  2.  If  by  reason  of  unprovoked  attack 
or  aggressive  action,  wherever  arising,  on  the 
part  of  any  other  Power  or  Powers  either  con- 
tracting party  should  be  involved  in  war  in  de- 
fence of  its  territorial  rights  or  special  interests 
mentioned  in  the  preamble  of  this  Agreement, 
the  other  contracting  party  will  at  once  come  to 
the  assistance  of  its  ally,  and  will  conduct  the  war 
in  common,  and  make  peace  in  mutual  agreement 
with  it. 

Article 3.  Japan  possessing  paramount  politi- 
cal, military,  and  economic  interests  in  Korea, 
Great  Britain  recognises  the  right  of  Japan  to  take 
such  measures  of  guidance,  control,  and  protec- 
tion in  Korea  as  she  may  deem  proper  and  neces- 
sary to  safeguard  and  advance  those  interests, 
provided  always  that  such  measures  are  not  con- 
trary to  the  principle  of  equal  opportunities  for 
the  commerce  and  industry  of  all  nations. 

Article  4.  Great  Britain  having  a  special  in- 
terest in  all  that  concerns  the  security  of  the 
Indian  frontier,  Japan  recognises  her  right  to  take 
such  measures  in  the  proximity  of  that  frontier  as 
she  may  find  necessary  for  safeguarding  her 
Indian  possessions. 

Articles.  The  High  Contracting  Parties 
agree  that  neither  of  them  will,  without  consult- 
ing the  other,  enter  into  separate  arrangements 
with  another  Power  to  the  prejudice  of  the  objects 
described  in  the  preamble  of  this  Agreement. 

Article  6.  As  regards  the  present  war  be- 
tween Japan  and  Russia,  Great  Britain  will  con- 
tinue to  maintain  strict  neutrality  unless  some 
other  Power  or  Powers  should  join  in  hostilities 
against  Japan,  in  which  case  Great  Britain  will 
come  to  the  assistance  of  Japan,  and  will  conduct 
the  war  in  common,  and  make  peace  in  mutual 
agreement  with  Japan. 

Article  7.  The  conditions  under  which  armed 
assistance  shall  be  afforded  by  either  Power  to  the 
other  in  the  circumstances  mentioned  in  the 
present  Agreement,  and  the  means  by  which  such 
assistance  is  to  be  made  available,  will  be  arranged 
by  the  naval  and  military  authorities  of  the  con- 
tracting parties,  who  will  from  time  to  time  con- 
sult one  another  fully  and  freely  upon  all  questions 
of  mutual  interest. 

Article  S.  The  present  Agreement  shall,  sub- 
ject to  the  provisions  of  Article  VI.,  come  into 
effect  immediately  after  the  date  of  its  signature, 
and  remain  in  force  for  ten  years  from  that  date. 

In  case  neither  of  the  High  Contracting  Par- 
ties should  have  notified  twelve  months  before  the 
expiration  of  the  said  ten  years  the  intention  of 
terminating  it,  it  shall  remain  binding  until  the 
expiration  of  one  year  from  the  day  on  which 
either  of  the  High  Contracting  Parties  shall  have 
denounced  it.  But  if,  when  the  date  fixed  for  its 
expiration  arrives,  either  ally  is  actually  engaged 
in  war,  the  alliance  shall,  ipso  facto,  continue 
until  peace  is  concluded. 

In  faith  whereof,  the  undersigned,  duly  author- 
ised by  their  respective  Governments,  have 
signed  this  Agreement,  and  have  affixed  thereto 
their  seals. 


Done  in  duplicate  at  London,  the  I2th  day  of 
August,  1905. 

Landsdowne, 
His  Britannic  Majesty's  Principal  Secretary 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs. 

Tadasu  Hayashi, 
Envoy  Extraordinary   and  Minister  Pleni- 
potentiary of  His  Majesty  the  Emperor  of 
Japan  at  the  Court  of  St.  James. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  whereas  the  first 
treaty  referred  to  China  and  Korea  exclusively, 
and  only  became  operative  upon  the  intervention 
of  a  third  Power,  the  treaty  which  is  superseded 
applies  also  "to  the  regions  of  Eastern  Asia  and 
of  India, "  and  becomes  operative  when  either 
party  to  the  agreement  becomes  the  object  of 
wanton  attack  or  aggression  with  respect  to  the 
special  interests  in  the  regions  coming  within  the 
scope  of  the  agreement.  In  effect  this  new  treaty 
guarantees  the  status  quo  for  very  nearly  the  entire 
continent  of  Asia,  of  course  omitting  Turkey. 
England  will  have  Japan's  support  to  withstand 
any  foreign  aggression  in  Persia  and  Afghanis- 
tan or  against  India,  while  Japan  has  the  offensive 
and  defensive  backing  of  England  in  the  new  rela- 
tions which  she  occupies  toward  Asiatic  countries. 
The  terms  of  this  treaty  are  eminently  satisfactory 
to  neutral  nations  in  that  they  practically  give  the 
"open-door"  to  all  and  present  vast  permanent 
commercial  opportunities.  Many  of  the  prin- 
ciples agreed  upon  and  incorporated  in  the  agree- 
ment were  known  before  the  Battle  of  the  Sea 
of  Japan. 

An'gloman'ia,  a  term  denoting  undiscrim- 
inating  imitation  of  everything  English  on  the 
part  of  persons  of  other  nationalities.  In  the 
United  States  it  is  applied  to  a  recent  fad  of 
fashionable  society. 

An'glo-Sax'on,  the  name  given  by  modern 
historians  to  the  Angles,  Jutes,  and  Saxons 
who  migrated  to  Britain  from  Germany  in  the 
5th  and  6th  centuries  a.d.  They  emigrated 
from  the  districts  about  the  mouths  of  the  Elbe 
and  Weser,  and  the  first  body  of  them  who 
gained  a  footing  in  England  are  said  to  have 
landed  in  449,  and  to  have  been  lead  by  Hcngist 
and  Horsa.  The  Jutes  settled  chiefly  in  Kent, 
the  Saxons  in  the  southern  and  middle  country, 
and  the  Angles  in  the  northern.  Among  the 
various  Anglo-Saxon  states  that  afterward  arose 
those  founded  by  the  Angles  first  gained  the 
preponderance,  and  gave  to  the  whole  country 
the  name  of  Engla-land,  that  is,  the  land  of  the 
Angles. 

Among  the  Anglo-Saxons  we  find  the  Eng- 
lish constitution  already  existing  in  all  its  essen- 
tials, but  its  origin  is  not  to  be  attributed  to 
Alfred,  though  he  brought  it  to  a  greater  pitch 
of  completeness.  In  a  rudimentary  form  it  was 
the  common  property  of  the  Germanic  peoples 
before  the  emigration  of  the  Saxons  and  Angles 
from  the  Continent.  It  developed  itself  more  in- 
dependently, however,  among  the  Anglo-Saxons 
than  among  those  Teutonic  races  who  came 
into  closer  connection  with  the  Romans,  and 
afterward  with  the  Roman  hierarchy.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  community  was  frequently  spoken 
of  as  consisting  of  the  eorls  and  the  ceorls.  or 
the  nobles  and  common  freemen.  The  former 
were  the  men  of  property  and  position,  and 
were   themselves   divided   into   different   ranks; 


ANGLO-SAXONS 


the  latter  were  the  small  landholders,  handi- 
craftsmen, etc.,  who  generally  placed  them- 
st  Ives  under  the  protection  of  some  nobleman, 
who  was  hence  termed  their  hlaford  or  lord. 
Besides  these  there  was  the  class  of  the  serfs 
or  slaves  (theowas),  who  might  be  either  born 
slaves  or  freemen  who  had  forfeited  their  lib- 
erty by  their  crimes,  nr  whom  poverty  or  the 
fortune  of  war  had  brought  into  this  position. 
They  served  as  agricultural  laborers  on  their 
i 'is'  estates,  and  though  mere  chattels,  as 
absolutely  the  property  of  their  master  as  his 
cattle,  their  lot  d.as  not  appear  to  have  been 
very  uncomfortable  They  were  frequently 
manumitted  by  the  will  of  their  master  at  his 
death,  and  were  also  allowed  to  accumulate  sav- 
ings of  their  own,  so  as  to  be  able  to  purchase 
their  freedom  or  that  of  their  children. 

One  of  the  peculiar  features  of  Anglo-Saxon 
society  was  the  wergyld,  or  life-price,  estab- 
lished for  the  settling  of  feuds.  "A  sum,  paid 
either  in  kind  or  in  money  where  money  existed, 
was  placed  upon  the  life  of  every  freeman  ac- 
cording to  his  rank  in  the  state,  his  birth,  or 
his  office.  A  corresponding  sum  was  settled 
for  every  wound  that  could  be  inflicted  upon 
his  person;  for  nearly  every  injury  that  could 
be  done  to  his  civil  rights,  his  honor,  or  his 
domestic  peace;  and  further  fines  were  ap- 
pointed according  to  the  peculiar  adventitious 
circumstances  that  might  appear  to  aggravate 
or  extenuate  the  offense.  From  the  operation 
of  this  principle  no  one  was  exempt,  and  the 
king  as  well  as  the  peasant  was  protected  by  a 
wergyld,  payable  to  his  kinsmen  and  his  people" 
(Kemblc,  'Saxons  in  England'). 

The  king  (cyning,  cyng)  was  at  the  head  of 
the  state;  he  was  the  highest  of  the  nobles 
and  the  chief  magistrate.  He  was  not  looked 
upon  as  ruling  by  any  divine  right,  hut  by  the 
will  of  the  people,  represented  by  the  witan,  or 
Great  Council  of  the  nation.  Accordingly  we 
find  that  the  new  king  was  not  always  the  direct 
and  nearest  heir  of  the  late  king,  but  one  of  the 
royal  family  whose  abilities  and  character  rec- 
ommended him  for  the  office.  The  king  was 
invested  with  certain  honors  and  privileges  in 
order  that  he  might  maintain  his  position  with 
becoming  dignity.  Besides  his  wergyld  as  an 
aHhcling  or  person  of  royal  blood,  his  life  was 
further  guarded  by  a  sum  of  equal  amount, 
called  cynebot,  or  price  of  royalty,  and  the  for- 
mer sum  was  to  be  paid  to  his  relations,  the 
latter  to  the  people.  As  king  he  held  posses- 
sion of  the  Crown  lands,  which  were  national 
property,  distinct  from  any  private  estates  he 
might  himself  purchase.  Among  other  privi- 
leges he  was  entitled  to  a  portion  of  the  fines 
and  confiscations  laid  upon  offenders ;  he  had 
the  right  of  maintaining  a  standing  army  of 
household  troops,  the  duty  of  calling  together 
the  Council  of  the  Witan,  and  of  laying  before 
them  measures  which  concerned  the  welfare  of 
the  state,  with  certain  distinctions  of  dress, 
dwelling,  etc.,  all  his  privileges  being  possessed 
and  exercised  by  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
witena-gemdt,  or  Parliament. 

The  queen  also  was  held  in  high  honor.  She 
sat  by  the  king  in  the  assemblies,  and  she  pos- 
sessed a  separate  establishment  from  that  of  the 
king,  though  on  a  smaller  scale.  Next  in  rank 
and  dignity  to  the  king  were  the  caldormcn. 
These  were  at  the  head  of  the  administration 
of  justice  in  the  shires,  possessing  both  judicial 


and  executive  authority,  and  had  as  their  officers 
the  scir-gerifan,  or  sheriffs.  One  of  their  most 
important  functions  was  the  leading  of  the 
aimed  force  of  the  county,  a  duty  which  often 
fell  to  their  share  during  the  period  of  the 
Danish  invasions.  The  ealdorman,  as  such, 
held  possession  of  certain  lands  attached  to  the 
office,  and  he  was  also  entitled  to  a  share  of 
fines  and  other  moneys  levied  for  the  king's  use 
and  passing  through  his  hands.  "Thus  the  posi- 
tion which  his  nobility,  his  power,  and  his 
wealth  secured  to  the  ealdorman  was  a  brilliant 
one.  In  fact,  the  whole  executive  government 
may  be  considered  as  a  great  aristocratical  asso- 
ciation, of  which  the  ealdormen  were  the  mem- 
bers, and  the  king  little  more  than  the  president. 
They  were  in  nearly  every  respect  his  equals, 
and  possessed  the  right  of  intermarriage  with 
him ;  it  was  solely  with  their  consent  that  he 
could  be  elected  or  appointed  to  the  Crown, 
and  by  their  support,  co-operation,  and  alliance 
that  he  was  maintained  there.  Without  their 
concurrence  and  assent,  their  license  and  per- 
mission, he  could  not  make,  abrogate,  or  alter 
laws;  they  were  the  principal  witan  or  coun- 
sellors, the  leaders  of  the  great  gamot  or  na- 
tional inquest,  the  guardians,  upholders,  and 
regulators  of  that  aristocratical  power  of  which 
he  was  the  ultimate  representative  and  head" 
(.Kemblc,  Vol.   II..  p.   142). 

Under  the  Danish  kings  the  ealdorman  fell 
into  a  subordinate  position,  the  eorl  or  earl  tak- 
ing his  place  in  the  county.  The  ealdorman 
and  the  king  were  both  surrounded  by  a  number 
of  followers  calied  thegns  or  thanes,  bound  bj 
close  tics  to  their  superior.  The  king's  thanes 
were  the  higher  in  rank,  and  formed  a  kind  of 
nobility  by  themselves.  They  possessed  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  land,  smaller  in  amount  than 
that  of  an  ealdorman.  and  tilled  offices  connected 
with  the  personal  service  of  the  king  or  with 
the  administration  of  justice.  According  to 
Lcppenberg  they  were  in  all  respects  the 
predecessors  of  the  Norman  barons.  We  fre- 
quently hear  of  a  class  of  functionaries  called 
gerefan  or  reeves,  such  as  the  scir-gerifa  (shire- 
reeve  or  sheriff),  the  port-gerifa  (port-reeve J, 
the  tun-gerifa  (farm-reeve  or  bailiff;  Scotch, 
grieve).  These,  of  course,  had  different  duties 
to  perform,  those  of  the  shire-reeve  being  the 
most  important.  He  presided  at  the  county 
court  along  with  the  ealdorman  and  bishop,  or 
alone  in  their  absence;  and  hail  to  carry  out 
the  decisions  of  the  court,  to  levy  fines,  collect 
taxes,  etc.  In  virtue  of  his  office  he  had  a  por- 
tion of  land  allotted  to  him,  hence  called  reeve- 
land.  The  shires  were  divided  into  hundreds 
and  tithings,  the  former  being  equal  to  10  of 
the  latter.  The  tithing  consisted  of  10  hcaas 
of  families,  jointly  responsible  to  the  state  for 
the  good  conduct  of  any  member  of  their  body. 
For  the  trial  and  settlement  of  minor  causes 
there  was  a  hundred  court  held  once  a  month. 
The  place  of  the  modern  Parliament  was  held 
by  the  witena-gemdt,  the  representative  council 
of  the  nation.  Its  members,  who  were  not  elect- 
ed, comprised  the  .Tthclings  or  princes  of  the 
blood  royal,  the  bishops  and  abbots,  the  ealdor- 
men. the  thanes,  the  sheriffs,  etc. 

Agriculture,  including  especially  the  raising 
of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  was  the  chief  occu- 
pation of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  I^arge  tracts  of 
the  marshy  land  in  the  east  of  England  were 
embanked   and   drained   by   them    and   brought 


ANGLO-SAXON  LANGUAGE 


into  cultivation.  Gardens  and  orchards  are  fre- 
quently mentioned,  and  vineyards  were  common 
in  the  southern  counties.  The  forests  were  ex- 
tensive, and  valuable  both  from  the  mast  they 
produced  for  the  swine  and  from  the  beasts  of 
the  chase  which  they  harbored.  Hunting  was 
a  favorite  recreation  among  the  higher  ranks, 
both  lay  and  clerical.  Fishing  was  largely  car- 
ried on,  herrings  and  salmon  being  the  principal 
fish  caught.  The  whale  fishery  was  also  pur- 
sued, when  the  Anglo-Saxon  vessels  used  to  go 
as  far  as  Iceland.  The  manufactures  were 
naturally  of  small  moment.  Iron  was  made  to 
some  extent,  and  some  cloth,  and  salt  works 
were  numerous.  In  embroidery  and  working 
in  gold,  however,  the  English  were  famous  over 
the  continent,  and  very  elegant  specimens  of 
gold  work  have  come  down  to  our  times.  There 
was  already  a  considerable  trade  at  London, 
which  was  frequented  by  Normans,  French, 
Flemings,  and  the  merchants  of  the  Hanse 
towns.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forefathers  were  no- 
torious for  their  excessive  fondness  for  eating 
and  drinking,  and  in  this  respect  formed  a 
strong  contrast  to  the  Normans  who  invaded  the 
country.  Ale,  mead,  and  cider  were  the  com- 
mon beverages,  wine  being  limited  to  the  higher 
classes.  Pork  was  a  favorite  article  of  food, 
and  so  were  eels,  which  were  kept  and  fattened 
in  eel  ponds  and  sometimes  paid  as  rent.  The 
houses  were  rude,  ill-built  structures,  mostly  of 
wood  and  without  proper  chimneys,  but  were 
often  richly  furnished  and  hung  with  fine  tapes- 
try. The  dress  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  was  loose 
and  flowing,  the  materials  being  linen,  woolen, 
and  also  silk;  and  their  garments  were  often 
adorned  with  embroidery.  The  men  looked 
upon  the  hair  as  one  of  their  chief  ornaments, 
and  wore  it  long  and  flowing  over  their  shoul- 
ders, while  they  also  usually  wore  beards. 

Christianity  was  introduced  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons  in  the  end  of  the  6th  century  by 
St.  Augustine,  who  was  sent  by  Pope  Gregory 
the  Great  and  became  the  first  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  Kent,  then  under  King  Ethelred, 
was  the  first  place  where  it  took  root,  and  thence 
it  soon  spread  over  the  rest  of  the  country.  It 
must,  of  course,  be  remembered  that  the  Britons 
and  Scots  had  already  embraced  Christianity, 
and  missionaries  from  these  labored  in  the  con- 
version of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Monasteries  were 
founded  at  an  early  period  and  became  numer- 
ous. For  a  time  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church  main- 
tained customs  different  in  discipline  from  Rome, 
but  uniformity  was  established  in  670  by  Theo- 
dore, the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Many 
Anglo-Saxon  ecclesiastics  were  distinguished 
for  learning,  but  the  Venerable  Bede  holds  tin- 
first  place.  St.  Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Christi 
anity  to  the  Germans,  was  an  Anglo-Saxon. 

An'glo-Sax'on  Lan'guage,  the  oldest  form 
of  modern  English,  is  the  name  generally  given 
to  the  tongue  spoken  in  Britain  by  its  Teu- 
tonic settlers  and  invaders  of  the  5th  and  fol- 
lowing centuries.  The  term  Old  English, 
though  much  to  be  preferred  to  Anglo-Saxon, 
has  not  yet  met  with  general  acceptance.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  belongs  to  the  Teutonic  branch  of 
the  Indo-European  family  of  languages,  which 
includes  also  the  German.  Dutch.  Flemish,  and 
Scandinavian  tongues,  and  the  oldest  representa- 
tive of  which  is  the  Gothic.  The  invading 
tribes    spoke    substantially    the    same    language, 


though  with  marked  differences  of  dialect,  and 
this  common  tongue  seems  to  lie  midway  be- 
tween the  Friesic  and  Old  Saxon.  The  Angles 
settled  in  the  north  and  east  of  Britain ;  the 
Saxons  possessed  themselves  of  most  of  the 
south  and  southwest ;  and  the  Jutes  (numer- 
ically by  far  the  smaller  portion)  established 
themselves  in  the  southeast,  chiefly  in  Kent  and 
Surrey.  Four  distinct  speech  divisions  arose: 
the  two  Anglian  dialects,  Northumbrian,  spoken 
between  the  Humber  and  the  Forth,  and  Mer- 
cian or  Midland,  spoken  between  the  Thames 
and  the  Humber ;  the  Saxon,  spoken  generally 
south  of  the  Thames,  except  in  Kent  and  Sur- 
rey ;  and  Kentish,  spoken  in  Kent  and  Surrey. 
The  poems  brought  from  the  Continent  were 
first  written  down  in  the  Northumbrian  dialect, 
and,  indeed,  most  of  the  poetry  composed  in 
England  seems  to  have  been  Northumbrian  also. 
The  Danish  invasions  destroyed  the  Northum- 
brian literature  in  great  part;  but  during  the 
West  Saxon  supremacy,  in  the  great  literary 
revival  headed  by  King  Alfred  in  the  gth  cen- 
tury, the  old  poems  were  copied  in  the  West 
Saxon  dialect,  and  we  know  them  only  in  that 
form. 

The  following  are  the  chief  features  of  the 
grammar  of  Anglo-Saxon,  which  was  a  synthetic 
language,  in  contradistinction  to  Modern  Eng- 
lish, which  is  analytic,  or  uninflected : 

The  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  was  the  Latin 
with  modifications  made  by  English  scribes. 
The  letters  F,  G,  R.  and  s,  however,  were  quite 
unlike  the  usual  forms.  For  two  English 
sounds,  w  and  ih,  there  were  no  convenient 
Latin  signs,  so  two  letters  were  adopted  from 
the  old  Runic  alphabet :  P  wen,  J>  thorn ;  5S 
(edh)  is  a  crossing  of  the  Roman  d.  The  most 
of  the  older  editions  of  Anglo-Saxon  texts  have 
been  printed  with  type  made  in  imitation  of  the 
manuscript  characters.  In  modern  editions,  the 
Roman  characters  are  almost  universally  pre- 
ferred, with  the  addition  ofJS,  j>,and  S  (repre- 
senting g). 

Pronunciation. —  In  general  the  vowels  were 
pronounced  as  in  modern  German ;  the  follow- 
ing table  gives  the  approximate  sounds: 

a  as  in  ask    (short).         The  diphthongs  ic,  ic,  ea,  ea,  Co, 

a      "  father.  co,   io,  ~>o,  receive   the  stress 

a      "  man.  upon  the  first  element. 

a      "  there.  The   consonants  b,  d,  f.  I,  m,  n, 

e  e  "  nu*n.  y.  r,  s,  t.  w,  x,  z,    were    like 

e       "  they.  mod.    Kng.   equivalents. 

•       "  hit.  c  had  two  sounds:  as  c  in  cat, 

1       "  stv.  and  k  in   kink;   g  as  in   go, 

00"  not  but    in    gc,    gi    it    was    pro- 

u'     "  i ull.  nounccd    as    y    in    yet ;    gca, 

u      "  rule.  gia    pronounced    like    ya    in 

y      "  it.  yard, 

y      "  see. 

Phonology. —  One  of  the  commonest  phe- 
nomena of  Anglo-Saxon,  as  of  German,  is  what 
is  called  mutation,  or  sometimes  by  the  German 
name  umlaut.  M.  in  general  is  the  influ- 
ence exercised  by  a  vowel  on  a  vowel  of  the 
preceding  syllable  by  which  the  first  vowel  is 
modified  in  the  direction  of  the  second,  the 
result   being   a    new    vowel    intern:.  the 

other  two.  The  change  may  also  1..-  produced 
by  a  consonant  in  a  succeeding  syllable.  For 
example  the  following  changes  are  mutations: 

a  to     e  as  in   mann    Cman).    plur.    menn. 
ea  to  IE       "       cold    (old).    iWoVu    (older). 

u  to    v       *'       burg    (city),   plur. 
_o    toj  tight),    sSean    (to   seek). 

Io  to  Te      "      stcor   (.rudder),   stieran    (steer). 


ANGLO-SAXON  LANGUAGE 


Gradation  (German  ablaut)  is  the  name 
given  to  a  distinct  vowel  variation  by  which  a 
root  may  appear  in  two  or  more  forms  even 
in  the  inflection  of  a  single  word:  for  example, 
begin,  began,  begun.  Modern  English  write, 
wrote,  written  corresponds  stem  for  stem  to 
Anglo-Saxon  writan,  writ,  writen,  Anglo-Saxon 
i  and  a  having  become  Modern  English  ai 
(written  7),  and  6,  short  i,  being  preserved. 
Gradation  is  important  because  it  is  the  charac- 
teristic means  of  distinguishing  tense  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  strong  verb. 

Grammar. —  There  are  three  genders  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter, 
but  they  are  grammatical  rather  than  natural 
in  their  dependence;  for  example  w%f  (wife)  is 
neuter;  sunne  (sun)  is  feminine;  mono  (moon) 
i^  masculine.  Of  most  words  the  gender  can 
only  lie  learned  by  practice.  There  are  four 
cases:  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  and  accusa- 
tive. The  accusative  and  nominative  are  the 
same    in    all    plurals,    in    the     singular    of    all 

ter  nouns,  and  of  all  strong  masculines. 
The  dative  plural  of  nearly  all  nouns  ends  in 
■  uin. 

There  are  two  schemes  of  noun  inflection : 
the  strong  (or  vowel)  declension,  and  the  weak 
(or  neuter)  declension.  Weak  nouns  form  their 
inflection  with  n;  all  others  are  strong.  The 
following  shows  typical  examples  of  each: 


Masc. 
Singular. 
V.  A.    stan 

(stone). 
G.  stanes. 
D.  stane. 

Plural. 
A.  stanas. 
<  I.  stflna. 
D.  stanum. 


Strong    Declension. 

Fem. 
sing. 
N.  giefu 


N 


ig'l 
G.  D.  A.  giefe. 

Plural. 
N.  A.  giefa. 
( >.  giefena. 
D.  giefum. 

Weak    Declension. 


Neut. 
sing. 
N.  A.  scip 

(ship). 
G.  scipes. 
1  >.  sctpe. 
Plural. 
N.  A.  scipu. 
G.  scipa. 
D.  scipum. 


Masc. 
Singular. 
N.  nama 
(name). 
G.    D^  A.   naman. 
Plural. 
N.  A.  naman. 
G.  namena. 
G.  namuni. 


Fern. 

Singular, 
sunne    (sun). 

sunnan. 

Plural, 
sunnan. 
sunnena. 
si.nnum. 


Neut. 

Singular. 
N.  A.  eage    (eye). 

G.  D.  eagan. 

Plural. 
N.  A.  eagan. 

G.  eagena. 

D.  eagum. 


Adjectives  also  have  three  genders,  the  same 
cases  as  nouns,  though  with  somewhat  different 
endings,  and  a  strong  and  a  weak  inflection.  In 
the  masculine  and  neuter  singular  they  have  an 
instrumental  case  for  which  in  the  feminine 
and  plural  and  in  the  Weak  inflection  the  dative 
is  used.  The  Strong  and  Weak  inflections  are 
employed  according  as  the  adjectives  arc  re- 
spectively Indefinite  or  Definite.  The  weak 
forms  are  used  when  the  adjective  is  preceded 
by  a  demonstrative;  the  comparatives  always, 
and  superlatives  usually,  follow  this  declension, 
which  agrees  throughout  with  the  weak  declen- 
sion of  nouns,  except  that  the  genitive  plural 
often  ends  in  -ra.  The  strong  declension  is 
used  when  none  of  the  conditions  for  the  use 
of  the  weak  declension  are  present,  and  with 
few  exceptions  it  agrees  with  the  strong  declen- 
sion of  nouns. 

The  pronouns  are  peculiar  in  that  they  have 
a  dual  number:  for  example,  N.  wit  (we  two), 
N.  git  (ye  tici>)  :  Gen.  uncer,  incer;  Dat.  and 
Ace.  uttc,  inc.  respectively. 


The  verb  had  a  single  inflected  voice,  two 
tenses,  two  complete  modes,  besides  an  impera- 
tive in  the  present  tense  only;  two  numbers, 
three  verbal  nouns,  the  infinitive,  the  present. 
and  the  past  participle.  The  verbs  are  divided 
into  two  classes:  (i)  those  which  form  theil 
principal  parts  with  a  variation  of  the  root 
vowel  (strong  verbs),  and  (2)  those  which 
form  the  preterite  and  the  past  participle  by  the 
addition  of  d  (-ode,  -ede,  de)  to  the  root  syl- 
lable (weak  verbs).  The  following  is  the  con- 
jugation of  the  strong  verb  bindau  (bind),  and 
shows  the  endings  common  to  all  verbs : 


Ind 

icative. 

Subjunctive, 
bind-e. 

Pres.  sing. 

1. 

bind-e. 

2. 

bind-est,   bintst. 

bind-e. 

3- 

bind-e/\  bint. 

bind-e. 

plur. 

bind-a/>. 

bind-cn. 

Prct.  sing. 

1. 

band. 

bund-e. 

2. 

bund-e. 

bund-e. 

3- 

band. 

bund-e. 

plur. 

bund-on. 

bund-cn. 

Impcr.  sing. 

bind,                Infin. 

bind-an. 

plur. 

bind-a/\ 

Partic.  pres. 

bind-ende; 

prct. 

Re-bund-cn. 

Gerund,     to  bind 

-enne. 

For  the  future  tense  the  present  is  used,  and 
periphrastic  tenses  are  sometimes  foimed  as  in 
Modern  English  by  liaebbe  (have)  and  haefde 
(had)  with  the  past  participles.  The  passive 
is  formed  with  wesan  (to  be)  or  weorpan  (be- 
come) with  the  past  participle.  These  forms 
are  extremely  vague,  but  ivesan  seems  to  indi- 
cate a  state,  weorpan  an  action.  The  subjunc- 
tive is  used  to  express  wish,  conditions,  doubt, 
etc. 

The  order  of  words  in  Anglo-Saxon  strongly 
resembles  that  of  German,  the  verb  coming 
before  its  nominative  when  the  sentence  is 
headed  by  an  adverb  or  adverbial  group,  or 
when  the  object  or  predicate  is  put  at  the  head 
of  the  sentence.  In  principal  sentences  there  is 
a  tendency  to  put  the  verb  at  the  end,  or  at 
least  to  bring  it  near  the  end. 

Bibliography. —  General. —  O.  F.  Emerson's 
'History  of  the  English  Language'  (1897),  and 
T.  N.  Toller's  'Outlines  of  the  History  of  the 
English  Language'  (1900)  will  be  found  useful. 
For  exhaustive  bibliography  of  Anglo-Saxon 
language  and  literature  see  Korting's  'Grund- 
riss  der  Gcschichtc  der  Englischen  Litteratur) 
(3d  ed.  1890),  and  R.  P.  Wuclker's  'Grundriss 
zur  Geschichte  der  Angelsachsischen  Litteratur' 
(1885). 

Grammars. — '  Angel  sachsischer  Grammatik 
von  E.  Sievers'  (1886),  English  translation  by 
A.  S.  Cook  (2d  ed.  1899)  ;  P.  J.  Cosign,  <Alt- 
westsachsische  Grammatik'  (1883-8);  F.  A. 
March,  'Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Language'  (1870).  There  are  excellent 
grammatical  introductions  to  the  'Anglo-Saxon 
Readers'  of  H.  Sweet  (7th  ed.  1897),  and  J.  W. 
Bright  (3d  ed.  1894).  Grimm's  'Deutsche 
Grammatik'  (1840),  E.  Maetzner's  'English 
Grammatik'  (3d  vol.,  3d  ed.  1880),  are  indis- 
pensable   for  the   advanced   student. 

Dictionaries. —  Bosworth's  'Dictionary  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Language,'  edited  and  en- 
larged by  T.  N.  Toller  (1882-1900)  ;  H.  Sweet's 
'Student's  Dictionary  of  Anglo-Saxon'  (1897)  ; 
J.  R.  C.  Hall's  'Concise  Anglo-Saxon  Diction- 
ary* (1894)  ;  and  Vols.  III.  and  IV.  of  Grein's 
invaluable  'Bibliothek  der  Angelsachsischen 
Poesie>  (1861-4).  W.  N.  C.  Carlton, 

Librarian  Trinity  College. 


ANGLO-SAXON  LITERATURE 


An'glo-Sax'on  Literature,  the  term  given 
to  the  literary  remains  of  the  English  people 
from  their  earliest  settlement  in  Britain  to 
about  1 100  a.d.  It  possesses  a  peculiar  inter- 
est and  importance  because  it  is  the  oldest  of  the 
vernacular  literatures  of  modern  Europe.  Its 
beginning,  so  far  as  it  can  be  treated  chrono- 
logically, lies  between  658-680,  the  years  of  the 
abbacy  of  Hild  at  Whitby.  Its  oldest  fragments 
give  us  a  close  view  of  the  social  conditions  of 
the  heathen  Germanic  age.  Poetry  antedates 
prose  and  was  first  cultivated  in  the  north,  in 
the  Anglian  kingdom  of  Northumbria  more 
particularly.  Later,  when  Northumbria  lost  her 
supremacy,  and  the  kingdom  of  Wessex  under 
Alfred  rose  to  political  leadership,  the  literary 
pre-eminence  also  was  transferred  to  the  latter. 
There  are  therefore  two  periods  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  literature:  the  Anglian  and  the  Saxon. 
The  first  produced  only  poetry;  the  second  was 
largely  a  period  of  recasting  and  imitation,  but 
possesses  an  independent  interest  in  that  it 
raised  Anglo-Saxon  prose  to  its  highest  point 
of  efficiency  as  a  literary  vehicle.  Practically 
all  the  poetry  has  come  down  to  us  only  in  its 
West  Saxon  dress,  the  Northumbrian  originals 
being  almost  wholly  lost. 

Anglo-Saxon  Versification. —  Anglo  -  Saxon 
poetry  is  composed  in  a  kind  of  blank  verse, 
in  unrimed,  ungrouped,  but  alliterative  lines. 
Every  line  consists  of  two  parts,  or  half-lines, 
separated  by  a  caesura  and  united  by  alliteration; 
for  example : 


"  Me  sendon   to   the 
heton    the   secgan 
fceagas  with  gefreorge^ 
th^t   ge   thisne   garraes 
thonne    we    swa    /tearde 


1  Me  have  sent  to  thee 
They  bade  to  thee  say 
Bracelet?   for  safety; 


.sremen    jnelle, 
tha't  thu  most  sendan  rathe 
and    eow    6etere    is 
mid  gafoJe  forgyldon, 
/iilde    daelon. 

Maldon,    11.    29-33. 

the  seamen  swift: 

that  thou  must  quickly  send 

and  to  you  it  better  is 


That  ye   the  spear-rush    with  tribute   buy  off, 
Than  that  we  so  hard       a  battle  shall  deal  out.' 


Every  half-line  has  two  rhythmical  accents 
(stresses),  and  two  rhythmical  measures  (feet)  ; 
it  is  a  structural  unit  having  a  scansion 
of  its  own  independent  of  the  complementary 
half-line.  In  its  simplest  form  the  measure 
(foot)  consists  of  two  parts,  an  accented  and 
an  unaccented.  Alliteration, —  that  is,  the  rim- 
ing of  the  initial  sounds  of  words  or  syllables, 
is  employed  to  unite  the  two  half-lines  into 
the  larger  rhythmical  unit  of  the  complete  line. 
It  is  confined  to  rhythmically  accented  syllables. 
Alliterating  syllables  have  the  same  initial  con- 
sonant (st,  s^.  sc  alliterate  each  with  itself 
only),  or  they  have  an  initial  vowel  sound,  any 
vowel  or  diphthong  whatever  alliterating  with 
itself  or  with  any  other  vowel  sound.  The 
rhythmical  accentuation  coincides  in  general 
with  the  accentuation  required  by  the  sense. 
The  four  chief  stresses  of  a  complete  line  there- 
fore fall  upon  the  four  most  significant  words 
or  syllables  of  that  line.  Cf.  Siever's  'Altger- 
manische  Metrik'  (Halle  1893),  and  his  article 
in  Paul's  'Grundriss  der  Germanischen  Philolo- 
gie,>  Vol.  II. 

Poetry. — -The  epic  of  'Beowulf,'  the  oldest 
extant  heroic  poem  in  any  Germanic  tongue, 
celebrates  the  deeds  of  a  Swedish  hero  of  that 
name,  particularly  his  victory  over  a  man-eating 
monster  called  Grendel.  and  his  final  victory, 
which  costs  him  his  life,  over  a  fiery  dragon. 
The  material  is  mythical  and  heathen,  and  the 


scene  is  laid  in  Denmark  and  southwest  Sweden. 
Discussion  as  to  its  origin,  date,  and  composi- 
tion has  become  the  "Homeric  question"  of 
Anglo-Saxon  scholars.  In  many  respects  the 
most  satisfactory  theory  regarding  it  is  still 
that  of  Benjamin  Thorpe:  "From  the  allusions 
to  Christianity  I  do  not  hesitate  to  regard  it 
as  a  Christian  paraphrase  of  a  heathen  saga, 
and  those  allusions  as  interpolations  of  the 
paraphrast,  whom  I  conceive  to  have  been  a 
native  of  England  of  Scandinavian  parentage." 
It  is  unquestionably  a  genuine  production  of 
the  time  when  the  old  heathen  tales  still  had 
their  traditional  interest,  even  though  the  Sax- 
ons had  become  thoroughly  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. It  was  edited  at  an  Anglian  court,  and 
the  text  took  substantially  the  shape  in  which 
it  has  come  down  to  us  about  the  beginning 
of  the  8th  century.  The  poem  is  preserved  in 
but  one  manuscript  (Cott.  Vitt.  A.  XV.)  in 
the  British  Museum,  which,  according  to 
palaeographers,  dates  from  the  10th  century. 

Caedmon,  a  Northumbrian  herdsman  of  the 
7th  century,  is  the  reputed  author  of  some 
metrical  paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  so-called  "sacred  epics"  include  para- 
phrases of  portion  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  and 
Daniel.  In  the  manuscript  volume  containing 
them  are  fragments  of  three  other  poems  re- 
lating to  (1)  the  fall  of  the  angels,  (2)  Christ's 
descent  into  hell,  and  (3)  his  temptation  in 
the  wilderness.  The  Exodus  is  the  work  of  a 
true  poet,  but  modern  criticism  has  shown  that 
the  various  portions  of  the  "Caedmon  poetry" 
exhibit  differences  of  style  inconsistent  with  the 
supposition  of  a  common  authorship.  The  most 
probable  conclusion  seems  to  be  that  Caedmon's 
rude  Northumbrian  verses  were  regarded  by 
the  writers  of  King  Alfred's  age  as  raw  ma- 
terial which  they  worked  over  with  unequal 
degrees  of  poetic  skill.  The  poems  are  pre- 
served in  a  10th  century  manuscript  in  the  Bod- 
leian Library.  Printed  editions  are:  Junius' 
(1655)  ;  Thorpe's  (London  1832)  ;  Boutewek's 
(2  vols.  Gutersloh,  1849-54)  ;  and  in  the  Grein- 
Wiilker  'Bibliothek  der  Angelsachsischen 
Poesie.' 

Cynewulf,  like  Caedmon,  was  a  Northum- 
brian, but  we  have  no  certain  knowledge  of 
the  time  or  place  at  which  he  lived.  The  certain 
works  of  his  composition  are  the  'Legend  of 
St.  Guthlac,'  'Legend  of  St.  Juliana.'  'Christ,' 
'Andreas,'  'Elene.'  the  'Fortunes  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles,'  and  some  'Riddles.'  Krai- 
ble  first  discovered  that  the  runes  in  the  'Rid- 
dles,' 'Christ,'  'Juliana,'  and  'Elene'  gave 
the  name  Cynewulf,  and  thus  recognized  the 
name  of  their  author.  The  Cynewulf  poems 
show  us  the  artist  with  whom  Christian  ideas 
have  become  native  and  spontaneous,  and  who 
disposes  like  a  master  of  the  rich  legacy  of 
epic  diction  and  perception.  Shorter  poems  and 
fragments  whose  material  dates  from  the  ear- 
liest times,  and  careful  study  of  which  throws 
much  light  upon  Anglo-Saxon  manners  and  cast 
of  thought,  are:  'Widsith'  (the  far-traveler'), 
'Lament  of  Deor,'  'The  Scop'  (Gleemanl. 
'The  Wanderer,'  'The  Departed  Soul's  Address 
to  the  Body.'  and  'Waldhere.'  The  'Wan- 
derer' is  thoroughly  representative  of  the  lyrics 
produced  during  the  Anglian  period.  Of  West 
Saxon  composition  and  much  later  date  are  the 
two  fine  battle-pieces  inserted  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  chronicle:    'The  Battle  of  Brunanburh' 


ANGORA  — ANILINE 


and  'The  Battle  of  Maldon.'  In  the  latter  the 
relation  between  a  lord  and  his  nun  is  seen 
under  the  severest  test  ;  the  former  throbs  with 
patristic  enthusiasm. 

Prose.—  With  the  accession  of  Egberht  (800) 
Wessex  began  to  take  rank  as  the  leading  power 
in  Britain.  King  Alfred  (871-901  )  pushed  this 
movement  forward,  and  through  bis  successive 
repulses  of  the  Danish  invasion  made  it  an  es- 
ished  fact.  His  services  to  literature  and 
education  were  no  less  important.  Knowdedge 
of  Latin  having  apparently  died  out  in  England, 
Alfred  himself  began  translating  important  and 
lulpful  works  into  his  native  tongue,  and  un- 
ceasingly  encouraged  the  learned  men  of  his 
court  and  clergy  t"  similar  efforts.  He  revived 
interest  in  keeping  the  national  annals;  and  the 
Chronicle,'  in  the  form  in  which 
it  has  come  down  to  us,  was  the  result.  For 
the  years  of  his  reign  it  is  of  great  value  his- 
torically. (  For  his  translations,  etc.,  see 
Alfred.)  He  was,  in  truth,  the  first  to  give 
his  people  a  national  prose  literature. 

Besides  the  compilation  of  laws  made  by 
Alfred  there  is  extant  a  large  body  of  legal 
documents  such  as  grants  of  land,  purchases, 
memorials,  wills,  royal  writs,  etc..  extending 
from  the  7th  to  the  12th  century.  At  first  all 
were  entirely  in  Latin;  then  a  few  Anglo-Saxon 
w.irds  crept  in,  and  then  the  native  element  goes 
on  increasing  until  we  have  entire  documents  in 
m.  I  Ins  literature  fills  six  volumes  of 
Kemble's  'Codex  Diplomaticus.' 

The  religious  prose  forms  an  extensive  por- 
tion of  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  comprising 
translations  of  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
of  the  do, pels  in  the  New,  large  collections  of 
homilies,  and  almost  all  the  work  of  /Elfric 
1  and  Wulfstan.  The  period  of  literary 
productivity  initiated  by  ^Slfric  was  practical 
and  popular  rather  than  scholarly.  It  produced 
chiefly  homilies,  lives  of  the  saints,  translations, 
and  service  books.  But  all  bad  a  direct  effect 
upon  the  people  and  language,  and  the  mere  ex- 
istence  of  this  literature  proves  that  the  English 
clergy  were  neither  so  ignorant  nor  so  idle  as 
sometimes  represented. 

Other   writings   deserving  mention   as   show- 
ing the  variety  of  the  literature  are :  the  trans- 
lation of  the  late  Greek  romance,  'Apollonius  of 
Tyre'    in   flowing   English   by  a  skilful   pen;  an 
English  'Herbarium'  of  the  first  half  of  the  nth 
century,    which   analyzes   the   medicinal    uses   of 
plants,   and   another   work  treating   similarly   of 
animals.     'The  Lsece  Boc>    (Leech  Book)   is  a 
remarkable     and    comprehensive     collection     of 
medical  prescriptions  and   recipes   for  the  most 
diverse  diseases,  whose  causes  are  also  touched 
upon.     ("Leechdoms,    Wortcunning,    and    Star- 
craft  of  Early  England.'     Ed.  by  O.  Cockayne, 
Is.  Lond.  1864-6.) 
Bibliography. — -For  elaborate  surveys  of  the 
literature  relating  to  Anglo-Saxon  language  and 
literature  see  Wiilker,  'Grundriss  zur  Geschichte 
der       Angelsachsischen       Litteratur'        (1885); 
Korting.    'Grundriss   der  Geschichte  der  Engli- 
schen  Litteratur'   (3d  ed.  1899).    For  histories  of 
the  literature  see  II.  Morlev.  'English  Writers,' 
Vols.   I.,   II.;   Ten   Brink,    'Early   English   Lit- 
erature,' translation  by  Kennedy  (1883)  ;  Earle, 
'Anglo-Saxon      Literature'       (1884)  ;      Brooke, 
'History  of   Early  English  Literature'    (1899). 
W.  N.  C.  Carlton, 
Librarian  Trinity  College- 


Angora,  or  Engour  (the  ancient  AncyRA), 
■•in  of  Asiatic  Turkey;  215  miles  east  of 
Constantinople,  with  which  there  is  now  rail- 
way communication.  It  has  rum.  ins  walls,  and 
there  are  Some  remains  of  Byzantine  architec- 
ture belonging  to  the  ancient  city,  and  a  few 
relics  of  earlier  times,  both  Greek  and  Roman. 
Among  the  latter  are  the  remnants  of  the 
Monumentum  Aeyranum,  raised  in  honor  of 
the  Emperor  Augustus,  who  much  embellished 
the  ancient  city.  Angora  is  celebrated  for  the 
long-haired  goats  bred  in  its  vicinity  called 
by  the  Arabs  the  chamal  goat.  me. mini;  "silky 
or  soft."  Goat's  hair  forms  an  important  ex- 
port ;  other  exports  being  goats'  skins,  dye- 
stuffs,  principally  madder,  and  yellow  berries; 
mastic,  tragacanth,  and  other  gums  ;  also  honey 
and  wax.  British  manufactures  arc  imported 
to  some  extent.    Estimated  pop.  35,000. 

Ango'ra  Cat.      See  Cat. 

Ango'ra  Goat.     See  Goat. 

Anhy'drid,  an-hi'-drid  (from  a  Greek  word 
signifying  "without  water"),  an  oxid  which  pro- 
duces an  acid  when  it  combines  with  water,  or 
which  is  obtained  by  removing  water  from  an 
acid.  Oxids  which  yield  salts  by  combining 
directly  with  other  more  basic  oxic'ts  may  also 
be  classed  as  anhydrids.  I  lie  oxids  of  most 
of  the  non-metallic  elements  are  anhydrids. 

Anhydrite,  a  mineral  having  the  composi- 
tion of  calcium  sulphate,  CaSO«,  and  differing 
from  gypsum  in  its  lack  of  water.  In  its  com- 
mon white,  massive  form  it  much  resembles  the 
snowy-white  gypsum  (q.v.),  but  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished by  its  superior  hardness,  3  to  3.5. 
Anhydrite  also  occurs  in  orthorhombic  crystals 
and  in  cleavable-lamellar  and  fibrous  masses.  Its 
colors  are  very  varied,  white  or  gray  being  the 
most  common,  but  blue  and  even  brick-red  not 
being  uncommon.  It  is  brittle,  breaking  with  an 
uneven  or  splintery  fracture,  or  when  crystal- 
lized, cleaving  with  ease  into  rectangular  chips. 
Its  lustre  is  also  very  varied,  the  crystals  appear- 
ing pearly,  greasy  or  vitreous  according  to  the 
faces   examined. 

Ani,  a'ne,  a  lustrous  blackbird  (Crotofhaga 
ani),  of  Florida,  the  West  Indies,  and  tropical 
America,  which  is  one  of  the  cuckoo  family. 

Aniline,  an'i-lin,  an  organic  substance, 
discovered  by  Unverdorben  in  1826,  but  of  no 
commercial  importance  until  W.  H.  Perkin  pre- 
pared a  purple  dye  from  it  in  1856  Since  that 
time  aniline  and  its  derivatives  have  been  used 
in  great  quantities  for  the  preparation  of  the 
aniline  dyes,  of  which  a  great  number  are  now 
known.  (See  Coal-Tar  Colors.)  Aniline,  in 
its  chemical  aspect,  is  an  amine  of  the  organic 
radical  "phenyl."  C„H5,  with  the  formula 
C.HsNHj.  (See  Amine.)  It  may  be  prepared 
from  benzene,  C«H„,  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid 
and  (subsequently)  a  reducing  agent.  Thus 
the  effect  of  nitric  acid  upon  benzene  is  repre- 
sented by  the   follow  ing  equation  : 

C,H,  +  HNO,  =  C,Hr,.NO=  +  H,0. 

The  compound  CeHs.NOj,  known  as  nitro- 
benzene, is  a  yellow  liquid,  boiling  at  4000  F. 
By  the  action  of  nascent  hydrogen  (which  may 
be'  conveniently  generated  by  adding  acetic  acid 


ANILINE  POISONING;  ANIMAL 


and  iron  filings)  nitro-benzene  is  converted 
into  aniline,  hydrogen  being  substituted  for 
the   oxygen    in   the   group    N02.     The   equation 

C.H5.NO,+  6H  =  C,H5.XH2+  2H20. 

In  the  commercial  manufacture  of  aniline  the 
nascent  hydrogen  is  generated  by  the  action  of 
hydrochloric  acid  upon  scrapings  from  soft 
iron  castings.  It  may  be  noted  as  an  interesting 
fact  that  lathe  chips  or  borings  from  wrought 
iron  or  from  hard  castings  do  not  answer  the 
purpose  satisfactorily.  Pure  aniline  is  a  color- 
less liquid,  freezing  at  18°  F.,  and  boiling  at 
about  363°.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  1.024 
at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  unites  with  many 
other  substances  to  form  compounds,  and  is 
expelled  from  its  salts  by  potash,  soda,  and 
lime.  Aniline  does  not  mix  with  water,  but 
can  dissolve  about  five  per  cent  of  its  own 
bulk  of  water.     See  Rosaniline. 

An'iline  Poisoning.  The  use  of  the  anilines, 
and  particularly  of  the  new  synthetic  drugs  de- 
rived from  this  product,  has  become  so  universal 
that  many  instances  of  poisoning,  both  acute  and 
chronic,  are  observed.  In  acute  aniline  poison- 
ing the  chief  effects  are  on  the  blood.  It  pre- 
vents the  oxidation  of  haemoglobin  in  the  red 
blood-cells,  forms  methemoglobin,  causes  the 
destruction  of  red  blood-cells  (haemolysis),  and 
thus  results  in  death.  The  chief  symptoms  are 
headache,  vertigo,  weakness,  and  stumbling 
walk,  blue  color  of  defective  blood  oxidation 
(cyanosis),  disturbances  of  respiration,  increase 
of  urine,  which  is  frequently  colored  reddish 
to  dark  brown  from  the  broken-down  blood- 
cells,  depression  of  temperature,  chills,  dilated 
pupils,  and  death  from  asphyxia.  In  non-fatal 
cases  recovery  may  be  much  protracted.  Treat- 
ment consists  in  withdrawal  of  all  of  the  poison, 
washing  the  stomach,  fresh  air,  artificial  respi- 
ration, and  infusion  of  normal  salt  solution. 
The  aniline  derivations  mostly  used  are  acetan- 
ilid  (antifebrin),  phenacetin,  exalgen,  lacto- 
phenin,  methacetin,  malakin,  phenocoll,  citro- 
phen,  apolysin,  cosaprin,  malarin,  etc.  Chronic 
aniline  poisoning,  found  chiefly  among  work- 
ers in  color  factories,  is  of  much  the  same  char- 
acter, but  the  symptoms  develop  slowly. 
There  are  skin  symptoms,  urinary  changes, 
and  various  nervous  attacks,  with  headache, 
tremors,  changes  in  sensation,  anesthesise,  etc. 
The  treatment  should  involve  the  ventila- 
tion of  the  factories,  thus  getting  rid  of  the 
color-dust  floating  in  the  moisture  of  the 
rooms. 

An'imal,  the  word  animal  being  derived 
from  niiiimi.  breath,  soul,  suggests  the  distinction 
popularly  accorded  to  animals  as  contrasted 
with  plants.  Linne  said  that  plants  grow  and 
live,  but  that  animals  grow,  live,  and  feel.  As 
will  be  seen  below,  however,  animals  do  not 
fundamentally  and  in  their  simplest  forms  dif- 
fer from  the  simplest  plants,  as  both  are  con- 
stituted of  protoplasm,  which  is  equally  contrac- 
tile in  both  kingdoms,  and  thus  we  now  recognize 
the  fact  that  nature  is  divided  into  the  inor- 
ganic world  and  the  organic,  and  we  arc  com- 
ing more  and  more  to  speak  of  living  beings 
as  organisms,  since  plants  and  animals  have 
so  much  in  common.  All  organized  beings 
agree  in  beinc;  formed  of  protoplasm,  "the  physi- 
cal basis  of  life." 


Differences   between    Plants   and   Animals. — 
It   is   difficult,    when    we   consider   the   simplest 
forms    of    either    kingdom,    to    define    what    an 
animal  is  as  distinguished  from  a  plant,  for  it 
is   impossible  to   draw   hard  and   fast   lines  be- 
tween them.     In  defining  the  limits  between  the 
animal    and    vegetable   kingdoms     our    ordinary 
conceptions  of  what  a  plant  or  an  animal  is  will 
be  of  little  use  in  dealing  with  the  lowest  forms 
of    either    kingdom.     A    horse,    fish,    or    worm 
differs   from   an   elm-tree,   a   lily,   or   a    fern   in 
having   organs   of    sight,   of   hearing,   of    smell. 
of  locomotion,  and  special  organs  of  digestion, 
circulation,  and  respiration,  but  these  plants  also 
take  in  and  absorb  food,  have  a  circulation  of 
sap,    respire    through    their    leaves,    and    some 
plants   are   mechanically   sensitive,   while   others 
are  endowed  with  motion, —  certain   low  plants, 
such    as    diatoms,   etc.,   having   this   power.     In 
plants     the    assimilation    of    food    goes    on    all 
over   the   organism,   the  transfer   of   the   sap    is 
not  confined  to  any  one  portion  or  set  of  or- 
gans as  such.     It  is  always  easy  to  distinguish 
one  of  the  higher  plants  from  one  of  the  higher 
animals.     But  when  we  descend  to  animals  like 
the    sea-anemones    and    coral-polyps,    called    by 
Wotton     zoophytes,     from     their     general     re- 
semblance  to  flowers,   so   striking  is  the  exter- 
nal   similarity    between   the    two    kinds    of    or- 
ganisms that  the  early  observers  regarded  them 
as    "animal    flowers ;"    and    in    consequence    of 
the  confused  notions  originally  held   in   regard 
to   them   the   term   zoophytes   has   been   perpet- 
uated in  works  of  systematic  zoology.     Even  at 
the   present   day   the   compound   hydroids,    such 
as  the  Sertularia,  are  gathered  and  pressed   as 
sea-mosses  by  many  persons  who  are  unobser- 
vant of  their  peculiarities    and  unaware  of  the 
complicated  anatomy  of  the  little  animals  filling 
the    different    leaf-like    cells.     Sponges    until    a 
very    late    day    were    regarded    by    our    leading 
zoologists    as    plants.     The    most    accomplished 
naturalists,  however,  find    it   impossible   to   sep- 
arate by  any   definite   lines   the   lowest   animals 
and  plants.     So-called   plants,   as   Bacterium   or 
Bacillus  and  their  allies,  and  so-called  animals, 
as    Protamarba,    or    certain   monads,    which    are 
simple    specks   of   protoplasm     without    genuine 
organs,  may  be  referred  to  either  kingdom.     In- 
deed, a  number  of  naturalists,  notably  Haeckel, 
relegate    to    a    neutral    kingdom    (the    Protista, 
q.v.),  certain  lowest  plants  and  animals.     Even 
the  germs    (zoospores)    of   monads   like    Uvella 
and    those    of    other    flagellate    infusoria    may 
be   mistaken   for   the   spores   of   plants;    indeed, 
the    active    flagellated    spores    of    plants    were 
described  as  infusoria  by  Ehrenberg ;  and  there 
are  certain  so-called  flagellate  infusoria  so  much 
like  low  plants    (such   as  the  red-snow  or  Pro- 
tococcus),  and  the  slime  molds  {Myxomycetes) 
in    the    form,    deportment,    mode    of    reproduc- 
tion,  and   appearance   of  the   spores,    that    even 
now  it  is  possible  that  certain  organisms  placed 
among  them   are  plants.     It   is  only   by  a   study 
of   the    connecting   links   between    these    low 
organisms,   leading   up   to   what   are   undoubted 
animals  or  plants,  that  we  are  enabled  to  refer 
these  beings  to  their  proper  kingdom. 

As  a  rule,  plants  have  no  special  organs  of 
digestion  or  circulation  and  nothing  approach- 
ing to  a  nervous  system.  They  differ  from 
animals  in  their  metabolic  processes.  Most 
plants  absorb  inorganic   food,   such  as  carbonic 


ANIMAL 


acid  gas,  water,  nitrate  of  ammonia,  and  some 
phosphates,  silica,  etc.;  all  of  these  substances 
being  taken  up  in  minute  quantities.  Low 
fungi  live  on  dead  animal  matter  and  promote 
the  process  of  putrefaction  and  decay,  but  the 
food  of  these  organisms  is  inorganic  particles. 
1  he  slime  molds,  however,  envelop  the  plant 
nr  low  animals  much  as  an  amoeba  throws  it- 
self around  some  living  plant  and  absorbs  its 
protoplasm;  but  Myxomycetes,  in  their  manner 
of  taking  food,  are  an  exception  to  other  molds 
and  are  now  regarded  as  animals.  The  lowest 
animals  swallow  other  living  animals  whole  or 
in    pi  rtain    forms,    like    Amoeba    (q.v.), 

into  minute  algse  and  absorb  their  proto- 
plasm;  others  engulf  silicious-shelled  plants 
(diatoms),  absorbing  their  protoplasm.  No 
animal  swallows  silica,  lime,  ammonia,  or  any 
of  the  phosphates  as  food.  On  the  other  hand, 
plants  manufacture  or  produce  from  inorganic 
matter  starch,  sugar,  and  nitrogenous  substances 
which  constitute  the  food  of  animals.  During 
milation  plants  absorb  carbonic  acid  and  in 
sunlight  exhale  oxygen  ;  during  growth  and  work 
they,  like  animals,  consume  oxygen  and  exhale 
carbonic  acid. 

Animals  move  and  have  special  organs  of  lo- 
comotion ;  few  plants  move,  though  some  climb, 
and  minute-  forms  have  thread-like  processes  or 
vibratile  lashes  (cilia)  resembling  the  flagella 
of  monads,  and  Rowers  open  and  shut;  but  these 
motions  of  the  higher  plants  are  purely  me- 
chanical and  are  not  performed  by  special  organs 
controlled  by  nerves.  The  mode  of  reproduc- 
tion of  plants  and  animals,  however,  is  funda- 
mentally identical,  and  in  this  respect  the  two 
kingdoms  unite  more  closely  than  in  any  other. 
Plants  also,  like  animals,  are  formed  of  cells, 
the  latter  in  the  higher  forms  combined  into 
tissu<  5. 

Physiological  Distinctions  and  Resemblances. 
— As  has  been  said,  the  bodies  of  the  lowest 
plants  and  animals  are  plainly  enough  made  up 
of  protoplasm.  The  irritability,  contractibility, 
and  metabolism  of  a  plant-cell  or  a  living,  free 
unicellular  plant  do  not  differ  from  those  of 
a  unicellular  animal  (Protocoon)  of  the  same 
morphological  grade.  The  movements  of  the 
lowest  algae,  the  sensitiveness  of  the  leaves  of 
the  mimosa-tree,  of  the  sun-dew  and  other  in- 
sectivorous plants,  are  due  to  the  same  primary 
cause  as  the  movements  of  animals  of  all 
grades,  as  the  power  of  lifting  one's  arm  is 
fundamentally  due  to  the  contractibility  of  the 
protoplasm  forming  the  cells  of  the  muscles. 

Also,  as  has  been  said,  the  differences  in 
metabolism  are  not  fundamental,  those  molds 
which  do  not  contain  chlorophyll,  and  bacteria, 
performing  the  same  metabolic  functions  as  re- 
gards carbon  dioxid  as  animals.  Also  the 
power  of  forming  cellulose  in  plants  is  not  pe- 
culiar to  them,  as  this  substance  is  found  in 
several  types  of  animals,  as  rhizopods  and  Tuni- 
cata.  Animals  are  also  subject  to  the  same  gen- 
eral tropisms  as  plants;  they  are  geotropic, 
heliotropic,  thermotropic,  hydrotropic,  chemo- 
tropic,  etc.  (See  Tropisms.)  To  a  much 
greater  extent  than  formerly  supposed  even  in- 
sects so  highly  developed  as  ants  are  subject  to 
the  influences  of  the  primary  factors  of  growth, 
morphogenesis,  and  of  the  conduct  of  life,  and 
the    instincts    of   animals    in    general    are    more 


dependent  on  these  agents,  on  external  stimuli, 
than  was  previously   tin  night  to  be  the  case. 

Plants  Fixed  Organisms;  Animals  as  a  Rule 
Free-moving. —  While  the  lowest  plants  (Pro- 
tophytes)  are,  as  entire  organisms,  often  motile, 
'.miming,  closely  resembling  monads,  the 
higher  or  more  specialized  forms,  comprising 
the  great  majority  of  the  vegetable  world,  are 
fixed,  and  have  always  remained  so.  It  is  this 
fixed  condition  of  life  which,  so  to  speak,  has 
held  the  plant  world  in  an  iron  grasp  and  kept 
it  within  its  natural  limits.  On  the  Other  hand 
animals  as  a  rule  are  active,  free  to  move,  rest- 
less. Whenever  animals,  though  born  as  free- 
swimming  germs  or  larva;,  are  constrained  by 
change  of  circumstances  to  become  attached  or 
fixed  to  the  sea-bottom  or  solid  objects,  they 
degenerate  and  become  more  and  mure  sub- 
ject to  the  influence  during  growth  of  those 
cosmic  and  physical  forces,  such  as  gravity, 
light,  air,  currents  of  water,  etc.,  which  deter- 
mine the  shapes  and  morphology  of  plants. 
Fixed  animals,  like  the  zoophytes  or  the  polyps, 
sea-anemones,  all  sponges,  ccelenterates,  Poly- 
coa,  etc.,  which  lead  a  purely  vegetable  life,  tend 
to  assume  plant-like  shapes.  Even  the  echino- 
derms,  as  the  fixed  crinoids,  are  plant-like, 
hence  their  name,  sea-lilies.  It  is  freedom  of 
motion,  greater  activity,  which  led  to  the  vast- 
ly more  complex  and  higher  types  of  life  in 
animals,  to  the  development  of  a  nervous 
system,  and  to  the  origin  of  mind  and  intelli- 
gence. 

Plants  Not  the  Primitive  Basis  of  Ani- 
mal Life. —  As  the  lowest  plants  and  ani- 
mals are  scarcely  distinguishable,  it  is  prob- 
able that  plants  and  animals  first  appeared 
contemporaneously :  and  while  plants  arc  gen- 
erally said  to  form  the  basis  of  animal  life, 
this  is  only  partially  true;  a  large  number  of 
fungi  are  dependent  on  decaying  animal  matter ; 
and  most  of  the  Protozoa  live  on  animal  food. 
as  do  a  large  proportion  of  the  higher  animals. 
The  two  kingdoms  supplement  each  other,  are 
mutually  dependent,  and  probably  appeared  si- 
multaneously in  the  beginning  of  things.  It 
should  be  observed,  however,  that  the  animal 
kingdom  greatly  overtops  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, culminating  in  man. 

The  Animal  Series  Tree-like. —  It  was  an 
old  idea  that  the  living  world  forms  a  regular 
or  linear  series,  more  or  less  regularly  gradu- 
ated. The  older  naturalists  spoke  of  "the  scale 
of  being,"  "the  chain  of  being."  Lamarck  was 
the  first  to  show  that  such  a  series  does  not 
exist.  He  compared  the  animal  kingdom  to  a 
tree,  "a  branching  series,  irregularly  graduated," 
and  he  recognized  that  there  were  breaks,  miss- 
ing branches  "owing  to  the  extinction  of  some 
species."  He  explains  that  the  animal  kingdom 
begins  by  at  least  two  special  branches,  then 
ending  in  branchlets.  He  thus  broke  entirely 
away  from  the  idea  of  a  continuous  ascending 
series  imagined  by  Bonnet  and  others  in  the  18th 
century.  While  therefore  there  is,  speaking  in 
general  terms,  a  progressive  series  of  animal 
forms  from  monad  to  man,  the  animal  kingdom 
more  truly  resembles  a  tree  which  began  to 
send  out  branches  very  near  its  base ;  many  of 
the  branches  being  inextricably  interlaced,  while 
others  —  representing  the  degenerate  types,  as 
sponges,  stationary  or  fixed  groups,  such  as 
polyps,     barnacles,     many    parasites,     etc. —  are 


ANIMAL  ALKALOIDS  — ANIMAL  HEAT 


downward-bent  branches.  As  a  whole,  how- 
ever, the  branches  show  a  tendency  to  ascend 
and  spread  out  more  or  less  upward.  See 
Zoology. 

An'imal  Alkaloids.  Ptomains  (q.v.)  was 
the  name  originally  given  to  a  large  class  of 
products  resulting  from  the  putrefactive  process 
Occurring  in  animal  substances.  These  pos- 
sessed many  of  the  chemical  reactions  of  the 
vegetable  alkaloids  and  have  been  termed  ani- 
mal alkaloids.  Similar  products  formed  in  the 
human  body,  as  the  result  of  normal  metabo- 
lism chiefly  of  lecithin,  or  proteids,  are  termed 
leucomains.  Many  of  these  ptomains  and 
leucomains  are  highly  poisonous  toxins.  See 
Alkaloids;  Metabolism;  Ptomains;  Toxi- 
cology. 

Animal  Charcoal.     See  Charcoal. 

An'imal  Chemistry,  the  department  of 
organic  chemistry  which  investigates  the  com- 
position of  the  fluids  and  the  solids  of  animals, 
and  the  chemical  action  that  takes  place  in  ani- 
mal bodies.  There  are  four  elements,  sometimes 
distinctively  named  organic  elements,  which  are 
invariably  found  in  living  bodies,  namely,  carbon, 
hydrogen,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  To  these  may 
be  added,  as  frequent  constituents  of  the  human 
body,  sulphur,  phosphorus,  lime,  sodium,  potas- 
sium, chlorin,  and  iron.  The  four  organic  ele- 
ments are  found  in  all  the  fluids  and  solids  of 
the  body.  Sulphur  occurs  in  blood  and  in  many 
of  the  secretions.  Phosphorus  is  also  common, 
being  found  in  nerves,  in  the  teeth,  and  in  fluids. 
Chlorin  occurs  almost  universally  throughout 
the  body ;  lime  is  found  in  bone,  in  the  teeth, 
and  in  the  secretions;  iron  occurs  in  the  blood, 
in  urine,  and  in  bile ;  and  sodium,  like  chlorin, 
is  of  almost  universal  occurrence.  Potassium 
occurs  in  muscles,  in  nerves,  and  in  the  blood 
corpuscles.  Minute  quantities  of  copper,  sili- 
con, manganese,  lead,  and  lithium  are  also  found 
in  the  human  body.  The  compounds  formed  in 
the  human  organisms  are  divisible  into  the  or- 
ganic and  inorganic.  The  most  frequent  of  the 
latter  is  water,  of  which  two  thirds  (by  weight) 
of  the  body  are  composed.  The  organic  com- 
pounds may,  like  the  foods  from  which  they  are 
formed,  be  divided  into  the  nitrogenous  and 
non-nitrogenous.  Of  the  former  the  chief  are 
albumen  (found  in  blood,  lymph,  and  chyle), 
casein  (found  in  milk),  myosin  (in  muscle), 
gelatin  (obtained  from  bone),  and  others.  The 
non-nitrogenous  compounds  are  represented 
by  organic  acids,  such  as  formic,  acetic,  buty- 
ric, stearic,  etc. ;  by  animal  starches,  sugars ; 
by  fats  and  oils,  as  stearin  and  olein,  and  by 
alcohols  (two  compounds,  cholesterin  and  gly- 
cerin). 

An'imal  Col'ors.  See  Cochineal;  Kermes; 
Purple  Shells. 

An'imal  E'lectric'ity,  electricity  which  cer- 
tain species  of  animals,  particularly  those  in- 
habiting the  water,  have  the  power  of  producing. 
The  amount  which  they  can  produce  varies  with 
different  animals.  The  electric  eel  or  torpedo 
can  give  a  severe  shock.  Contact  between  the 
nerve  and  muscle  of  a  frog  will  produce  a  feeble 
current  of  electricity. 

An'imal  Flow'er,  a  term  applied  to  sea 
anemones  or  similar  polyps  on  account  of  the 
resemblance  which  their  expanded  tentacles  bear 
to  flower  petals 

Vol.  I— 14 


An'imal  Heat,  nearly  all  animals  possess 
a  heat-regulating  mechanism  by  which  they 
maintain  a  temperature  necessary  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  life  processes.  In  many  cold- 
blooded animals  this  sustains  a  temperature  only 
slightly  above  that  of  the  surrounding  media, 
and  thus  in  winter  they  relapse  into  a  torpid 
state.  Some  few.  however, —  bees  being  an  ex- 
ample,—  have  a  higher  temperature  and  are  not 
torpid.  In  warm-blooded  animals,  especially 
those  high  in  the  evolutionary  scale,  a  high  con- 
stant temperature  is  usually  sustained.  Some 
warm-blooded  animals  occupy  an  intermediary 
position.  In  summer  the  temperature  is  high  and 
constant,  in  winter  they  hibernate,  and  the  tem- 
perature is  low  and  dependent  upon  that  of  the 
surrounding  medium.  Some  cold-blooded  ani- 
mals living  in  the  tropics  may  really  show  very 
high  degrees  of  temperature,  thus  the  terms 
warm-blooded  and  cold-blooded  are  relative 
onlv.  The  mean  average  temperature  in  man  is 
36.97°  C.  (98.40  F.)  in  the  mouth,  36.98°  C. 
(98.5°  F.)  in  the  axilla,  and  37.20  C.  (99°  F.) 
in  the  rectum.  There  are  slight  daily  variations, 
the  lowest  temperature  usually  being  between 
midnight  and  early  morning  during  sleep.  Cer- 
tain warm-blooded  animals  show  interesting 
average  temperatures.  Thus,  the  horse  is 
99-100°  F.,  ox  100-1010  F.,  cow  101-102°  F., 
sheep  104-105°  F.,  dog  100-101°  F.,  cat  ioi°  F., 
(pig  101-103°  F.,  rabbit  101-107°  F.,  rhesus  mon- 
key ioi°  F.,  duckbill  platypus  76°  F.,  hen  106- 
109°  F.,  duck  107-110  F.,  sparrow  iio°  F.  In 
cold-blooded  animals  the  temperature,  as  has 
been  noted,  varies  widely.  The  study  of  the 
temperature  of  bees  is  of  much  interest  in  this 
connection. 

Several  conditions  modify  the  regulation  of 
the  animal  heat :  day  and  night,  age,  muscular 
work,  sleep,  sex,  race,  pregnancy,  idiosyncrasies, 
surrounding  temperature,  season  of  the  year, 
baths,  and  certain  drugs,  all  have  a  distinct  in- 
fluence on  the  heat  regulatory  apparatus.  The 
variations  in  temperature  in  man  compatible 
with  life  are  wide;  a  range  of  less  than  2°  F. 
is  normal,  but  variations  from  75°  to  112°  F. 
have  been  recorded  and  the  patients  recovered. 
Temperatures  below  80°  F.  and  above  106°  F. 
are  dangerous. 

The  chief  sources  of  animal  heat  are  the 
chemical  processes  of  the  body  and  they  are  de- 
pendent on  the  food  supply.  Every  kind  of 
food  has  its  definite  percentage  of  heat-producing 
elements  measured  in  units,  or  calories.  Thus 
1  gm.  (15  grains)  of  the  white  of  egg  has  4.806 
calories ;  the  same  amount  of  cow's  milk  5,733 
calories,  of  fat  9,600  calories,  etc.  These  are 
purely  physical  values,  but  they  have  their 
physiological  equivalents.  The  chief  sources  of 
heat  production  in  the  human  body  are  the  mus- 
cles, the  heart  contraction  being  a  very  impor- 
tant one.  and  the  glands  (intestines,  liver,  etc.). 
Loss  of  heat  takes  place  through  the  skin  by 
radiation  and  conduction,  by  evaporation,  from 
the  .respiration,  and  from  the  dejecta. 

Regulation  of  these  many  factors  is  in  the 
province  of  the  nervous  system.  The  vaso- 
motor system  controls  the  heat  loss  by  regu- 
lating the  amount  of  blood  in  the  deep  and  su- 
perficial portions  of  the  body,  the  respiratorv 
centre  regulates  the  amount  of  respiration,  and 
the  cerebral  cortex  regulates  the  amount  of  mus- 
cular activity  that  is  the  main  source  of  the 
heat  production.     See  Fever. 


ANIMAL  MAGNETISM;  ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


Animal  Magnetism,  a  science  or  art,  so 
called  because  it  was  once  believed  that  it 
taught  the  method  of  producing  on  persons  of 
susceptible  organization  effects  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  those  which  a  magnet  exerts  upon  iron. 
Paracelsus  (h.  1493)  maintained  that  the  human 
body  was  endowed  with  a  double  magnetism;  on 
the  one  side  attracting  to  itself  the  planets, 
whence  comes  wisdom  and  the  senses,  on  the 
other  side  attracting  the  elements  and  nourished 
by  their  disintegration;  that  the  attractive  virtue 
resembles  that  of  the  magnet,  and  that  healthy 
persons  attract  the  enfeebled  magnetism  of  the 
sick.  Many  writers  of  the  16th  century  sought 
to  explain  all  natural  phenomena  by  this  princi- 
ple. 

Mesmer  (b.  1734)  drew  largely  from  these 
sources  in  preparing  his  thesis  on  'The  Influence 
of  the  Planets  in  the  Cure  of  Diseases.'  Be- 
lieving in  a  subtle  fluid  through  which  the 
heavenly  bodies  acted  upon  living  beings,  he 
called  this  animal  magnetism,  because  of  certain 
properties  he  believed  it  to  possess  in  common 
with  the  magnet.  The  sick  were  said  to  have 
been  cured  by  the  influence  of  magnets  manipu- 
lated by  the  Jesuit  Father  Hell,  in  1774,  in  Vi- 
enna. Mesmer  began  the  use  of  the  magnet, 
but  soon  gave  it  up,  restricting  himself  to  passes 
of  the  hand  over  or  near  the  body  of  the  pa- 
tient, or  to  placing  the  hand  in  contact  with  the 
body  in  the  hypochondriac  region,  or  the  lower 
part  of  the  abdomen.  He  declared  animal  mag- 
netism to  be  distinct  from  the  magnet.  His 
doctrine  obtained  notice  for  a  time.  As  the 
patients  increased  in  number  it  became  impossi- 
ble for  him  to  treat  each  one  separately,  and  he 
devised  a  trough  about  which  30  persons  or 
more  could  be  magnetized  at  once.  This  baquet 
or  trough  consisted  of  a  circular  oaken  case 
about  one  foot  deep,  surrounded  by  curtains 
through  which  a  subdued  light  was  permitted 
to  penetrate.  In  the  bottom  of  the  case  was  a 
layer  of  powdered  glass  and  iron  filings;  on  this 
lay  bottles  arranged  with  their  necks  all  point- 
ing toward  the  centre ;  a  second  lot  of  bottles 
were  arranged  with  their  necks  in  the  opposite 
direction:  the  trough  might  be  filled  with  water 
or  remain  dry.  Through  the  lid  of  the  trough 
jointed  iron  rods  projected  and  branched  in 
various  directions :  these  were  held  by  the  pa- 
tients. Should  the  numbers  be  very  large  a  sec- 
ond row  of  patients  might  be  connected  with  the 
first  row  by  cords  about  their  bodies ;  and  a 
third  row  could  be  arranged  by  joining  hands 
with  the  second  row.  During  an  interval  of  si- 
lence a  melodious  air  was  heard  from  an  ad- 
joining room.  Soon,  influenced  by  the  magnetic 
effluvia  issuing  from  the  baquet,  curious  phe- 
nomena were  produced.  Some  of  the  persons 
under  treatment  seemed  to  experience  no  change 
in  their  condition ;  others  coughed,  experienced 
pain,  and  sweat ;  others  suffered  from  convul- 
sions of  greater  or  less  violence  which  lasted 
for  hours.  These  convulsions  were  preceded  or 
followed  by  a  state  of  languor  and  depression. 
Such  a  state  of  convulsions,  when  produced  in 
one  person,  was  quickly  followed  by  similar  con- 
ditions in  others.  The  movements  of  the  limbs 
and  body,  the  twitchings  of  the  hypochondriac 
and  epigastric  regions  are  manifest  signs  of  hys- 
teria and  may  be  referred  to  the  nervous  ante- 
cedents of  the  group  of  persons  and  to  the  in- 
fluence of  imitation  and  suggestion.  Mesmer, 
in  a  coat  of  lilac  silk,  walked  around  among  the 


crowd,  touching  the  diseased  parts  of  the  bodies 
of  the  patients  with  a  long  iron  rod  which  he 
carried  in  his  band. 

His  cures  in  Paris  attracted  so  much  atten- 
tion that  in  1784  a  commission  was  appointed 
by  the  government  to  examine  into  the  matter. 
The  commission  consisted  of  members  of  the 
Faculty  of  Medicine  and  of  the  Academy  of 
Science-. 

A  second  commission  from  the  Royal  Society 
of  Medicine  was  charged  to  make  a  distinct  re- 
port on  the  same  subject.  Mesmer  and  his  as- 
sistant- desired  that  the  cures  that  had  been  ef- 
fected be  accepted  as  proof  of  the  existence  of 
animal  magnetism.  The  commissioners,  how- 
ever, placed  themselves  under  treatment  once  a 
week;  they  experienced  no  convulsive  move- 
ments or  other  effects  that  appeared  to  be  shown 
in  some  patients.  They  found  that  patients  un- 
aware of  the  fact  that  they  were  being  magnet- 
ized experienced  none  of  its  effects,  and  that 
patients  who  were  told  they  were  being  magnet- 
ized experienced  the  symptoms,  though  the 
magnetizer    was   not   near   them. 

The  conclusion  of  the  report  of  the  commis- 
sioners is  as  follows:  "The  commissioners  have 
ascertained  that  the  animal  magnetic  fluid  is  not 
perceptible  by  any  of  the  senses ;  that  it  has  no 
action,  either  on  themselves  or  on  the  patients 
subjected  to  it.  .  .  .  Finally,  they  have  demon- 
strated by  decisive  experiments  that  imagina- 
tion apart  from  magnetism  produces  convulsions, 
and  that  magnetism  without  imagination  pro- 
duces nothing.  They  have  come  to  the  unani- 
mous conclusion  with  respect  to  the  existence 
and  utility  of  magnetism  that  there  is  nothing 
to  prove  the  existence  of  the  animal  magnetic 
fluid;  that  this  fluid,  since  it  is  non-existent,  has 
no  beneficial  effect ;  that  the  violent  effects  ob- 
served in  patients  under  public  treatment  are 
due  to  contact,  to  the  excitement  of  the  imagina- 
tion, and  to  the  mechanical  imitation  which  in- 
voluntarily impels  us  to  repeat  that  which 
strikes  our  senses." 

The  existence  of  a  magnetic  fluid  is  yet  to  be 
proved.  All  of  the  phenomena  which  Mesmer 
produced  and  attempted  to  explain  by  the  ex- 
istence of  such  a  fluid  are  now  explained  by 
the  principle  of  hypnotic  suggestion.  See  HYP- 
NOTISM. Consult  Binet  and  Fere,  'Animal 
Magnetism'  (1888);  Albert  Moll,  'Hypnotism' 
(1898). 

An'imal  Psychology  is  the  science  which 
investigates  the  phenomena  of  the  life  of  ani- 
mals lower  than  man  with  reference  to  their 
mental  endowment.  It  seeks  to  know  the  ani- 
mal mind,  its  nature  and  functions,  in  the  differ- 
ent orders  of  animal  life.  In  ordinary  use  the 
term  is  synonymous  with  comparative  psychol- 
ogy,—  a  term  expressing  the  fact  of  the  neces- 
sary starting-point  of  the  science  from  the 
human  mind,  of  which  alone  we  have  direct 
knowledge.  This  term,  however,  may  be  applied 
to  any  department  of  psychology  whose  method 
is  comparative  —  for  example,  folk  psychology, 
the  study  of  the  mental  life  of  different  races  of 
men  —  and  the  more  definite  name,  animal  psy- 
chology, is  therefore  to  be  preferred.  The  in- 
terest of  the  science  is  threefold:  in  itself  it 
grants  insight  into  animal  nature  and  life;  in 
relation  to  man  it  lends  light  to  anthropology 
and  psychology,  especially  with  reference  to 
human  instincts  and  impulses;  and  it  has  a  deep 


ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


bearing  upon  the  problems  of  evolution,  both 
biological  and  mental.  With  regard  to  these  lat- 
ter two  interests,  it  is  a  branch  of  genetic  psy- 
chology (q.v.),  treating,  together  with  folk 
psychology,  the  phylogenetic  as  distinct  from 
the  autogenetic  problem  ;  that  is,  the  question  of 
mental  evolution  as  distinct  from  mental  devel- 
opment of  the  individual. 

Animal  psychology,  as  a  science,  dates  from 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  finding  its  rise 
in  the  movement  of  thought  inaugurated  by 
Charles  Darwin.  The  first  suggestion,  how- 
ever, of  a  genetic  psychology  was  made  by 
Aristotle  (385-322  n.c. ),  who  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  so  much  of  modern  thought.  The  or- 
ganic world,  he  said,  forms  an  ascending  scale, 
all  of  whose  numbers  are  differentiated  from 
inorganic  bodies  by  an  inner  impelling  principle, 
a  "psyche"  or  soul,  which  employs  a  number  of 
organs  to  realize  its  purposes.  The  soul  of  the 
plant  performs  the  functions  of  assimilation  and 
reproduction  only ;  that  of  the  animal  has  besides 
the  faculty  of  feeling,  and,  in  the  higher  orders, 
memory.  The  soul  of  man,  in  addition  to  all 
these,  possesses  the  faculty  of  knowledge  or 
reason,  and  is  the  end  or  goal  of  the  process 
of  nature's  ascent.  Despite  this  profound  hint  of 
the  father  of  logic  and  psychology,  almost  the 
only  reference  to  the  animal  mind  for  many 
centuries  is  in  form  of  very  doubtful  anecdotes 
of  individual  cases  of  animal  sagacity.  Pliny 
tells  the  story  of  an  elephant  that  was  punished 
during  a  performance  for  his  bad  dancing,  and 
set  to  work  in  the  night  to  practise,  so  that  he 
could  do  it  better  the  next  time  —  a  good  ex- 
ample of  a  familiar  type.  Descartes  (1596-1650) 
looked  upon  the  body  as  a  mere  automaton,  to 
which  mind  or  soul  is  essentially  opposed  in 
nature  —  man,  however,  being  a  combination  of 
the  two.  But  the  animal  does  not  possess  mind 
and  is  thus  merely  an  unconscious  machine. 
The  logical  outcome  of  this  doctrine  is  that  ani- 
mals cannot  even  feel  pain ;  for  sensations,  he 
says,  belong  to  the  body,  but  the  soul  alone  can 
be  conscious  of  them.  It  is  somewhat  doubtful 
whether  Descartes  himself  was  not  inconsistent 
here,  and  admitted  that  animals  could  feel  while 
denying  them  the  cognitive  aspect  of  sensations. 
His  followers,  however,  notably  Bossuet  and 
Malebranche,  held  that  sensations  in  the  animal 
are  nothing  more  than  mechanical,  unfelt  move- 
ments, and  used  the  argument  to  justify  vivi- 
section. Pascal  welcomed  the  doctrine  because 
it  relieved  the  divine  goodness  of  the  charge  of 
animal  suffering.  The  most  interesting  appli- 
cation of  the  view,  however,  is  that  of  La  ^let- 
trie  (1709-51),  one  of  Darwin's  precursors  in 
holding  a  theory  of  evolution.  If  the  animal  is 
a  machine,  he  said,  man  is  just  as  much  a  ma- 
chine, and  his  so-called  soul  or  mind  is  merely 
a  higher  development  of  the  material  animal 
functions.  The  animal  is  thus  made  the  measure 
of  man,  a  false  animal  psychology  the  basis  of 
a  false  human  psychology. 

But  the  modern  theory  of  evolution,  noted  in 
the  work  of  Darwin,  took  precisely  the  opposite 
standpoint.  Man  is  not  a  machine,  but  pos- 
sesses mind;  the  animals,  too,  must  then  pos- 
sess mind  of  some  sort  or  degree.  Physically 
man  is  related  to  the  lower  animals  through  a 
long  process  of  evolution:  we  should  expect, 
then,  a  mental  evolution  co-ordinate  with  this 
biological  evolution.  This  conviction  gave  birth 
to  animal  psychology,  first  undertaken,  in  sup- 


port of  a  theory  which'  had  to  win  its  way,  by 
Darwin  himself,  Romanes  and  Lindsay  as  pi- 
oneers. Their  works  are  marked  by  industrious 
observation  and  collection  of  facts ;  but  the 
first  flush  of  a  theory  prevented  the  most  sober 
elimination,  collation,  and  interpretation.  Now, 
relieved  from  the  burden  of  proof  first  cast  upon 
it,  animal  psychology  is  being  investigated  with 
an  increasing  degree  of  scientific  accuracy  and 
careful  experimental  method. 

There  must,  of  course,  always  be  one  funda- 
mental difference  between  the  methods  of  human 
and  animal  psychology.  The  former  is  always, 
in  the  last  analysis,  introspective ;  the  latter 
never  can  be.  We  are  conscious  of  our  own 
minds;  but  that  of  the  animal  is  forever  outside 
of  such  direct  knowledge.  The  animal  psychol- 
ogist, therefore,  can  only  study  phenomena,  the 
objective  manifestations  of  the  animal's  mental 
life ;  and  from  these  he  must  infer  what  that  inner 
life  is.  In  this  fact  lie  the  fundamental  diffi- 
culty of  the  science  and  its  most  fruitful  source 
of  error.  The  observer  may  of  course  underesti- 
mate the  animal  mind- — a  mistake  hardly  prob- 
able now.  The  great  danger  lies  rather  in 
overestimation.  The  "psychologist's  fallacy"  of 
importing  into  other  minds  the  processes  of  his 
own  is  here  possible  as  nowhere  else.  We  know 
no  mind  save  that  of  man :  there  can  be  no 
thought  or  discussion  of  mental  processes  except 
from  this  basis.  Through  lack  of  language  the 
animal  can  tell  us  nothing  of  its  mind  —  we 
must  infer ;  and  even  the  most  careful  psychol- 
ogist is  liable  to  read  into  the  facts  too  high  an 
interpretation.  This  danger  is  often  increased 
by  an  inclination  to  see  things  in  the  best  light 
and  to  observe  facts  as  interesting  as  possible ; 
or  by  a  false  ideal  of  generosity  to  the  animal, 
denying  man  the  "conceit"  of  usurping  the  high- 
est faculties.  Special  care  must  be  observed  in 
regard  to  the  animal  anecdote,  liable  to  be  colored 
by  imagination  or  to  be  ill-authenticated;  and  it 
must  be  remembered  that  such  stories  relate  in 
general  to  pets,  individual  cases  of  specially 
gifted  animals  living  in  a  human  environment. 
Thorndike  well  says:  "Most  of  the  books  do  not 
give  us  a  psychology,  but  rather  a  eulogy,  of 
animals.  .  .  .  Anecdotes  give  really  the  abnor- 
mal or  super-normal  psychology  of  animals." 
All  these  latter  dangers  may  be  avoided ;  but  the 
"psychologist's  fallacy"  of  unintentionally  hu- 
manizing the  animal  is  an  inevitable  difficulty 
which  must  always  be  reckoned  with.  W'und't 
cites  and  comments  upon  one  of  the  stories 
about  ants  from  Romanes'  'Animal  Intelligence,' 
which  is  full  of  instances  of  the  various  fallacies 
mentioned :  "A  friend  of  the  ants  gives  this 
account:  At  one  formicary  half  a  dozen  or 
more  young  queens  were  out  at  the  same  time. 
They  would  climb  up  a  large  pebble  near  the 
gate,  face  the  wind,  and  assume  a  rampant  pos- 
ture. Several  having  ascended  the  stone  at  one 
time,  there  ensued  a  little  playful  passage-at- 
arms  as  to  position.  They  nipped  each  other 
gently  with  their  mandibles  and  chased  one 
another  from  favorite  spots.  They,  however, 
never  nipped  the  workers.  These  latter  evi- 
dently kept  a  watch  upon  the  sportive  princesses, 
occasionally  saluted  them  with  their  antennae 
in  the  usual  way,  or  touched  them  upon  the 
abdomen,  but  apparently  allowed  them  full  lib- 
erty of  action.  .  .  .  Why  should  not  a  number 
of  young  queens  have  been  crowded  together 
upon   a   pebble,   and    some    workers   have   been 


ANIMAL  PSYCHOLOGY 


with  them,  and  occasionally  touched  them  with 
their  antennae,  as  ants  do  everywhere?  But 
that  they  'sported'  and  played,  that  the  others 
"kept  a  watch  upon  them'  like  chaperones,  and 
now  and  then  did  homage  to  them  by  'saluting' 
—  that  is  all  due  to  the  imagination  of  the  ob- 
server. He  would  hardly  have  told  the  story  as 
it  stands  had  not  zoology  introduced  the  mis- 
leadingly  suggestive  term  'queens'  for  the  ma- 
ture female  insects.  If  the  adults  are  'queens,' 
the  young  females  must,  of  course,  be  'prin- 
c<  sses,'  and  since  no  princess  ever  went  out 
without  an  attendant  or  chaperone,  the  rest  of 
the  narrative  follows  as  a  matter  of  course." 
Even  the  most  sober  observation  may  err  if 
there  be  no  variation  of  circumstances  by  ex- 
periment. Huber  found  that  an  ant,  if  taken 
from  the  nest  and  returned  after  four  months, 
was  received  in  a  friendly  way  by  its  former 
companions,  while  ants  from  a  different  nest, 
though  of  the  same  species,  were  driven  away. 
This  was  considered  evidence  of  the  accuracy 
of  memory  in  these  insects.  But  Lubbock 
found  that  ant  larvae  taken  from  the  nest  and 
not  returned  until  they  were  fully  developed 
were  received  with  the  same  cordiality;  and 
Bethe,  that  a  strange  ant  was  so  "recognized" 
if  it  had  been  previously  dipped  into  an  im- 
pounded mess  of  the  home  ants.  This  recogni- 
tion was  thus  seen  to  be  merely  a  chemo-reflex, 
perhaps  through  a  specific  odor. 

The  only  sound  basal  principle  for  a  true 
animal  psychology  is  that  laid  down  by  Lloyd 
Morgan :  "In  no  case  may  we  interpret  an 
action  as  the  outcome  of  the  exercise  of  a  higher 
psychical  faculty  if  it  can  be  interpreted  as  the 
outcome  of  the  exercise  of  one  which  stands 
lower  in  the  psychological  scale."  Wundt  points 
out  that  this  is  nothing  other  than  the  well- 
known  law  of  economy  which  is  so  fundamental 
in  physical  science;  and  that  animal  psychology, 
by  often  refusing  the  simplest  explanation,  has 
thus  adopted  an  implicit  principle  exactly  oppo- 
site to  that  of  all  other  exact  science.  Groos 
points  out  an  important  truth  in  relation  to  this 
law  of  economy,  and  indicates  the  trend  of 
present  scientific  method  in  animal  psychology, 
when  he  says:  "If  the  observation  of  animals 
is  to  be  rendered  fruitful  for  the  unsolved  prob- 
lems of  anthropology  .  .  .  attention  must  be  di- 
rected less  to  particular  resemblances  to  man 
and  more  to  specific  animal  characteristics." 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  observer  of  animals 
need  not  be  a  psychologist  in  the  proper  sense ; 
for  lack  of  training  in  human  psychology  has 
been  a  fruitful  source  of  error  in  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  animal  mind.  Mental  facts  cannot 
be  interpreted  at  all  by  one  who  does  not  know 
the  laws  and  processes  of  the  human  mind,  since 
it  is  the  only  mind  we  know.  No  more  can  the 
animal  psychologist  dispense  with  training  in 
biology.  "It  is  necessary,"  says  Morgan,  "that 
accurate  observation  and  a  sound  knowledge  of 
the  biological  relationships  of  animals  should 
go  hand  in  hand  with  a  thorough  appreciation 
of  the  methods  and  results  of  modern  psychol- 
ogy." "The  animal  psychologist,"  says  Groos, 
"must  harbor  in  his  breast  not  only  two  souls, 
but  more ;  he  must  unite  with  a  thorough  train- 
ing in  physiology,  psychology,  and  biology,  the 
experience  of  a  traveler,  the  practical  knowledge 
of  the  director  of  a  zoological  garden,  and  the 
outdoor  lore  of  a  forester.8 


Exact  experimental  methods  are  gradually 
taking  the  place  of  the  animal  anecdote  and  the 
more  loose  general  observation.  Laboratory 
study  of  animals,  where  conditions  can  be  stan- 
dardized and  environment  controlled,  even  at  the 
risk  of  some  degree  of  artificiality,  is  leading  to 
surer  results  than  were  ever  possible  through 
former  haphazard  methods.  Of  course  such 
investigation  is  most  practicable  in  the  cases  of 
the  micro-organisms  whose  investigation  would 
be  otherwise  impossible.  Careful  study  of  these 
under  the  microscope  has  yielded  data  pointing 
to  the  presence  of  mind  far  down  in  the  scale  of 
life,  as  evolution  would  lead  us  to  expect.  Says 
Binet :  "If  the  existence  of  psychological 
phenomena  in  lower  organisms  is  denied,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  assume  that  these  phenomena 
can  be  superadded  in  the  course  of  evolution 
in  proportion  as  an  organism  grows  more  per- 
fect and  complex.  Nothing  could  be  more  in- 
consistent with  the  teachings  of  general  physi- 
ology, which  shows  us  that  all  vital  phenomena 
are  already  present  in  undifferentiated  cells." 
Jennings  thinks  that  the  poramecium,  one  of  the 
Protozoa,  is  the  lowest  in  the  scale,  its  actions 
being  explicable  by  "simple  irritability,  or  the 
property  of  responding  to  a  stimulus  by  a  fixed 
set   of  movements." 

With  regard  to  methods  of  experiment  upon 
the  larger  animals,  such  as  dogs  and  cats, 
Thorndike's  investigations  may  be  cited.  He 
placed  a  number  of  animals  in  cages  and  studied 
their  actions  when  under  the  powerful  motive 
of  hunger.  His  results  have  tended  to  lessen, 
rather  than  increase,  opinion  as  to  the  high 
character  of  the  intelligence  of  these  animals. 
His  work,  he  says,  "has  rejected  reason,  com- 
parison or  inference,  perception  of  similarity, 
and  imitation.  It  has  denied  the  existence  in 
animal  consciousness  of  any  important  stock  of 
free  ideas  or  impulses,  and  so  has  denied  that 
animal  association  is  homologous  with  the  asso- 
ciation of  human  psychology."  Mills  strongly 
opposes  this  method,  and  inclines  toward  the  ex- 
planation of  animal  action  by  the  higher  mental 
powers.  Groos  has  made  a  most  important 
contribution  to  the  science  by  pointing  out  the 
psychological  and  biological  significance  of  ani- 
mal   play. 

In  general,  Aristotle's  statement  of  the 
chasm  between  man  and  the  lower  animals 
still  stands.  There  is  not  sufficient  evidence  to 
declare  animals  rational.  The  primary  acts  of 
the  animal  mind  are  cognition  and  recognition, 
which  involve  the  associative  faculties ;  and 
there  have  been  observed  no  activities  which 
would  be  sufficient  ground  for  attributing  to  the 
animals  the  higher  powers  of  conception  and 
reasoning.  Emotions  they  certainly  do  possess; 
they  manifest  an  aesthetic  sense.  Yet  there  is  no 
proof  of  aesthetic  judgment  in  relation  to  an 
ideal ;  the  powers  of  imagination  and  thought 
are  essentially  human.  Even  in  their  play,  says 
Wundt,  there  is  no  inventiveness,  no  imag- 
inative activity.  Neither  is  it  necessary  to  pos- 
tulate on  animal  conscience  for  explanation  of 
the  facts  which  seem  to  point  toward  such  an 
ethical  sense.  Most  of  the  problems  of  the  ani- 
mal mind  and  of  its  varying  degrees  in  different 
orders  centre  in  the  theory  of  instinct  (q.v.). 

As  animal  psychology  had  its  real  birth  in 
the  theory  of  evolution,  it  is  in  connection  with 
this  that  its  greatest  importance  lies.  Most  of 
its  problems  are  common  to  biology  and  psychol- 


ANIMAL  SYMBOLISM  — ANIO 


ogy.  All  of  its  questions  have  a  deep  bearing 
upon  biological  evolution  which,  it  is  now  seen, 
must  take  account  of  the  mental  processes  at 
different  stages  in  the  life-forms  if  it  is  to  be 
at  all  adequate;  just  as  mental  evolution,  on 
the  other  hand,  must  recognize  the  influence  of 
the  evolution  of  the  physical  organism.  The 
future  theory  of  evolution  will  be  psycho-physi- 
cal. This,  mental  factor  in  biological  evolution 
is  already  seen  in  the  theories  of  sexual  selection, 
of  mimicry,  and  of  organic   selection. 

Bibliography. — The  best  introduction  to  the 
subject,  eminently  sane  and  modern,  is  C.  Lloyd 
Morgan's  'Introduction  to  Comparative  Psy- 
chology' (Lond.  1894)  !  Wundt,  'Human  and 
Animal  Psychology'  (  trans.  1896)  ;  Groos,  'The 
Play  of  Animals'  (trans.  1898)  ;  The  Play  of 
Man'  (trans.  1901)  ;  Morgan,  Animal  Life  and 
Intelligence'  (1891);  'Habit  and  Instinct' 
(1896);  Morgan,  'Animal  Behavior'  (1900); 
Thorndike,  'Animal  Intelligence'  (1898)  ;  Dar- 
win, 'The  Origin  of  Species'  (Lond.  1859,  N. 
Y.  1901)  ;  'The  Descent  of  Man'  (Lond.  1871, 
N.  Y.  1901);  Romanes,  'Mental  Evolution  in 
Animals'  (1883);  'Animal  Intelligence'  (1883); 
Binet,  'Psychic  Life  of  Micro-organisms' 
(1894)  ;  Lubbock,  'Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps' 
(1882). 

Animal  Symbolism  in  Ecclesiastical 
Architecture,  a  work  by  E.  P.  Evans;  a  work 
designed  to  trace  the  wide  use  of  animal  sym- 
bols in  religious  relations.  The  story  of  this 
symbolism  in  its  application,  with  modifications, 
in  architecture,  is  told  with  fullness  of  knowledge 
and  sound  judgment  of  significance  of  facts. 

Animal  Worship,  a  practice  found  to 
prevail  or  to  have  prevailed  in  the  most  widely 
distant  parts  of  the  world :  in  India,  where  it  is 
a  consequence  of  the  belief  in  the  transmigration 
of  souls,  according  to  which  the  soul  of  a  god 
may  pass  into  the  body  of  an  animal ;  in  the 
heart  of  Africa,  where  it  is  still  in  life;  in  South 
America,  where  very  remarkable  instances  of 
it  were  met  with  by  the  earliest  Spanish  visitors; 
but  its  most  extraordinary  developments  were  in 
ancient  Egypt.  Nearly  all  the  more  important 
animals  found  in  the  country  were  regarded  as 
sacred  in  some  part  of  Egypt.  Some  animals 
were  held  sacred  throughout  the  whole  land, 
but  in  many  cases  the  animals  enjoyed  a  local 
reverence  only,  an  animal  that  was  worshipped 
in  one  nome  might  be  an  object  of  aversion  in 
the  next  and  destroyed  at  every  opportunity. 
The  degree  of  reverence  paid  to  the  sacred  ani- 
mals was  such  that  the  voluntary  killing  of  one 
was  punishable  with  death,  and  if  any  one 
killed  an  animal  involuntarily  in  a  nome  in 
which  it  was  held  sacred  he  was  punished  by  a 
fine.  Throughout  Egypt  the  killing  of  a  hawk 
or  an  ibis,  whether  voluntary  or  not,  was  pun- 
ished with  death.  So  strong  was  the  feeling  of 
the  people  on  this  point  that  when  it  was  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  Egyptians  that  they 
should  conciliate  the  Romans,  even  the  inter- 
cession of  the  king  was  impotent  to  save  from 
the  fury  of  the  people  a  Roman  soldier  who  had 
killed  a  cat.  The  animals  were  regarded  as 
sacred  to  the  deities,  and  the  worship  paid  to 
them  was  symbolical.  The  Egyptian  idols  al- 
ways bore  on  a  human  body  the  head  of  the 
animal  sacred  to  the  god  represented  by  the 
idol.  Only  in  three  cases  were  certain  animals 
believed  to  be  incarnations  of  the  deities  them- 


selves. These  were  at  Memphis,  where  the  bull 
Apis  was  worshipped  as  an  incarnation  of 
Phtha;  at  Heliopolis,  where  the  bull  Mnevis 
was  reverenced  as  an  incarnation  of  Osiris ;  and 
at  Mendes,  where  a  goat  received  worship  as  an 
incarnation  of  Khem. 

Animalcule,  the  diminutive  of  animal;  an 
old  name  applied  to  animals  of  microscopic  size, 
and  now  frequently  used  for  many  Protozoa, 
such  as  the  Amoeba  and  various  Infusoria.  The 
term  is  not  now  used  in  zoology  in  any  strict 
significance,   nor  employed  in  classification. 

Animals,  Cruelty  to.  The  earliest  laws  for 
the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals  were  passed 
in  England,  whence  the  movement  spread  to  the 
Continent  and  the  United  States.  The  first  so- 
ciety for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals  in 
the  United  States  was  chartered  in  1866 ;  and 
the  agitation  by  similar  societies  has  resulted  in 
laws  in  almost  every  State  providing  for 
the  punishment  of  cruelty  to  domestic  animals 
by  fines  from  $5  to  $100.  imprisonment  from 
30  to  60  days,  or  both.  These  societies  work 
also  to  prevent  cruelty  by  education,  advice,  and 
personal  effort  in  enforcing  the  law. 

An'ima  Mun'di,  an'i-ma  mun'di  ("soul  of 
the  world"),  an  ethereal  essence  considered  by 
ancient  philosophers  as  the  informing  principle 
of  the  universe  of  matter  and  bearing  the  same 
relation  to  it  that  the  human  mind  does  to  the 
body.  The  conception  originated  in  the  East 
and  was  held  by  the  Egyptians.  Anaxagoras 
(q.v.),  one  of  its  earliest  Western  exponents, 
believed  that  it  gave  form  to  the  universe ;  Plato 
treats  of  it  at  large  in  his  'Timseus'  ;  Aristotle 
considered  the  world  a  living  entity,  but  in- 
formed by  an  external  spirit.  Nearly  all  philo- 
sophical sects  dallied  with  the  idea.  The  Stoics 
thought  it  the  sole  vital  principle  of  the  universe, 
but  not  the  universe  itself  in  a  different  shape. 
as  the  doctrine  of  pantheism  imputed  to  them 
would  imply.  In  modern  times  it  appears  in  the 
works  of  Cornelius  Agrippa  (who  calls  it  spi- 
ritus  mundi) .  Paracelsus,  Van  Helmont,  Giorda- 
no Bruno,  Sebastian  Franck,  Jacob  Boehme, 
etc.,  in  More  and  Cudworth,  in  the  later  Platon- 
ists,  and  in  the  philosophy  of  Schelling,  who 
has  incorporated  it  into  his  whole  system. 

Anime,  a-ne-ma,  a  resin  supposed  to  be 
obtained  from  the  trunk  of  an  American  tree 
(Hymenaa  courbaril).  It  is  of  a  transparent 
amber  color,  has  a  light,  agreeable  smell,  and 
is  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  strongly  resembles  co- 
pal, and,  like  it.  is  used  in  making  varnishes. 
Specific  gravity  is  1.028  to  1.054. 

An'imism,  the  system  of  philosophy  pro- 
pounded by  Stahl,  and  based  on  the  idea  that 
the  soul  (anima)  is  the  seat  of  life.  In  mod- 
ern usage  a  term  applied  to  express  the  general 
doctrine  of  souls  and  other  spiritual  beings,  and 
especially  to  the  tendency,  common  among  sav- 
age races,  to  explain  all  the  phenomena  in  na- 
ture not  due  to  obvious  natural  causes  by  at- 
tributing them  to  spiritual  agency.  Among  the 
beliefs  most  characteristic  of  animism  is  that 
of  a  human  apparitional  soul,  bearing  the  form 
and  appearance  of  the  body,  and  living  after 
death  a  sort  of  semi-human  life. 

Anio,  a'ne-6,  Aniene,  or  Teverone,  an 
Italian  river  tributary  to  the  Tiber,  which  it 
enters  from  the  east  a  short  distance  above 
Rome. 


ANKERITE  — ANNAS 


Ankeiite,  a  carbonate  belonging  to  the 
calcite  group  of  minerals.  It  is  intermediate 
between  calcite,  magncsite  and  siderite,  the 
normal  mineral  being  a  carbonate  of  calcium, 
magnesium  and  iron,  having  the  formula 
aCaCOj.MgCOa.FeCOa.  It  occurs  in  rhombo- 
hedral  crystals  which  have  perfect  rhombohedral 
cleavage,  a  hardness  of  3.5  to  4,  specific  gravity 
of  about  3,  vitreous  to  pearly  lustre,  and  usually 
white  color.  It  also  occurs  in  granular,  crystal- 
line and  compact  masses. 

An'nals  of  a  Sportsman,  a  work  by  Ivan 
Turgencff,  consists  of  22  short  sketches  of  Rus- 
sian peasant  life,  appearing  in  book  form  in 
1852  and  establishing  the  author's  reputation  as 
a  writer  of  realistic  fiction.  Turgeneff  repre- 
sents himself  as  on  a  hunting  trip  through  the 
country  districts,  noting  the  local  life  and  social 
conditions,  and  giving  truthful  studies  of  the 
state  of  the  serfs  before  their  liberation  by 
Alexander  II.;  his  book  being  one  of  the  agen- 
cies that  brought  about  that  reform. 

Annam,  an'nam'.     See  Anam. 

Annamaboe,  a'na-ma-bo',  a  seaport  town, 
with  a  fort,  on  the  Gold  Coast,  in  western 
Africa,  10  miles  east  of  Cape  Coast  Castle.  It 
was  at  one  time  a  principal  mart  for  slaves,  in 
trafficking  in  which  many  of  its  inhabitants  be- 
came wealthy,  and  is  still  a  place  of  consider- 
able trade.     Pop.   about  5,000. 

An'nan,  a  Scottish  seaport  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  in  Dumfriesshire,  on  the  Annan 
River.  It  has  railroad  connection  with  Glasgow, 
Carlisle,  and  Edinburgh,  and  water  connection 
with  Liverpool  and  Whitehaven.  The  important 
manufactures  are  tanning,  rope-weaving,  and 
cotton-spinning.     Pop.  (1901)  5,804. 

Annan,  a  river  of  Scotland,  having  a 
course  of  about  50  miles,  flowing  from  north  to 
smith  through  the  centre  of  Dumfriesshire  to 
the  Solway  Firth,  its  sources  being  not  far 
from  those  of  the  Tweed  and  Clyde. 

Annap'olis,  Md.,  the  capital  and  port  of 
entry  of  .Maryland  and  county-seat  of  Anne 
Arundel  County;  on  the  Severn  River,  near 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  several  railroads ;  40  miles 
east  of  Washington,  D.  C.  It  is  in  a  fruit  and 
berry-growing  region;  has  oyster-packing  plants, 
marine  railway,  glass  factory,  a  national  bank, 
daily,  weekly  and  other  periodicals,  and  a  prop- 
erty valuation  of  $3,000,000;  is  widely  known 
as 'the  seat  of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy, 
and  contains  also  St.  John's  College,  several 
State  buildings,  a  convent,  a  house  of  Redemp- 
torist  Fathers,  residences  of  many  naval  officers, 
and  bronze  statues  of  Gen.  John  de  Kalb  and 
Chief-Justice  Roger  B.  Taney.  The  city  was 
founded  in  1649  and  was  first  named  Providence. 
It  received  a  city  charter  and  its  present  name, 
in  honor  of  Queen  Anne,  in  1708.  The  first  Fed- 
eral Constitutional  Convention  was  held  here 
in  1786,  and  Washington  surrendered  his  com- 
mission in  the  Senate-room  of  tne  State  House. 
Pop.  (1900)  8,525.  (Powell,  'Historic  Towns 
of  the  Southern  States,'    1900.) 

Annapolis,  a  town  in  Nova  Scotia,  the 
capital  of  Annapolis  County,  and  up  to  1750 
of  the  whole  peninsula,  situated  on  an  arm  of 
the  Bay  of  Fundy,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  also 
called  Annapolis,  95  miles  west  of  Halifax.  The 
place   was  originally  called   Port   Royal,   and   is 


one  of  the  oldest   European   settlements  on   the 
American  continent.     Pop.   (1901)   1,019. 

Annap'olis  Convention.  This  small  gather- 
ing was  held  11  Sept.  [786,  to  discuss  proposed 
changes  in  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  By 
the  time  it  met,  the  Confederation  had  utterly 
broken  down:  Congress  could  not  find  means 
to  carry  on  the  government,  and  the  Annapolis 
Convention  was  anxiously  looked  to  as  the  last 
hope  by  the  business  interests.  Only  five  Stales 
were  actually  represented, —  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Virginia. 
These,  however,  were  precisely  the  ones  which 
wished  the  entire  Confederation  remodeled.  New- 
Jersey  had  instructed  its  delegates  to  accept 
nothing  but  a  new  federal  government  ;  and  the 
New  York  group,  headed  by  Alexander  Ham- 
ilton, was  equally  zealous  for  a  stronger  system. 
John  Dickinson,  one  of  the  chief  authors  of  the 
Articles  of  Confederation,  was  made  chairman; 
and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  re- 
port, which  was  drafted  by  Hamilton,  though 
lie  was  not  on  the  committee.  This  report  rec- 
ommended that  the  States  they  represented 
should  agree,  and  try  to  induce  the  others  to 
agree,  "to  meet  at  Philadelphia  on  the 
second  Monday  of  the  next  May,  to  consider 
the  situation  of  the  United  States  and  devise 
such  further  provisions  as  should  appear  neces- 
sary to  render  the  Constitution  of  the  Federal 
government  adequate  to  the  exigencies  of  the 
nation ;  and  to  report  to  Congress  such  an  act 
as,  when  agreed  to  by  them  and  confirmed  by 
the  legislatures  of  every  State,  should  effectually 
provide  for  the  same."  They  then  adjourned; 
but  this  call  led  to  the  convention  of  1787,  where 
the  Constitution  was  adopted. 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  city  and  county-seat  of 
Washtenaw  County,  on  the  Huron  River,  and 
the  Michigan  Central ;  Detroit,  Ypsilanti  & 
Ann  Arbor  and  the  Ann  Arbor  Railroads.  It  is 
situated  among  the  picturesque  hills  of  South- 
ern Michigan,  38  miles  from  Detroit,  and  is  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  most  desirable  residential 
cities  in  the  middle  West.  Here  is  the  seat  of  a 
famous  school  of  learning,  the  University  of 
Michigan.  (See  Michigan,  University  of.) 
Ann  Arbor  has,  among  prominent  buildings,  a 
homoeopathic  hospital,  county  court  house,  post- 
office  building,  high  school  and  numerous 
churches  and  public  and  private  schools.  It  is 
the  business  centre  of  a  large  agricultural  and 
fruit  growing  region  and  an  important  shipping 
point.  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  agri- 
cultural implements,  furniture,  pumps,  engines, 
boilers,  lumber  products,  organs,  pianos,  flour, 
wagons,  etc.  The  municipal  government  is 
vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and 
a  city  council.  The  subordinate  city  officials  are 
mostly  appointed  by  the  mayor,  who  acts  under 
a  revised  charter  of  1895.  The  city  has  an  ex- 
tensive electric  light  system,  water  works  plant 
and  electric  traction  lines  connecting  with  Jack- 
son, Kalamazoo.  Battle  Creek,  Detroit  and  other 
cities.  It  has  daily  and  weekly  newspapers  and 
four  national  banks.  It  was  originally  settled 
in  1824  and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1851. 
Pop.  (1890)  9,431;  (1900)  14,509;  (1903)  est. 
17,200. 

Annas,  an'as  (Hebrew,  "merciful"),  a  Jew- 
ish high  priest;  appointed  high  priest  by  Quiri- 
nus,  proconsul  of  Syria,  about  7  ad.,  and  deposed 


ANNATES  —  ANNECY 


by  Valerius  Gratus,  procurator  of  Judea,  in  14  a.d. 
His  family  was  wealthy  and  he  was  evidently 
very  influential,  as  the  office  of  high  priest  was 
held  by  five  of  his  sons  and  his  son-in-law,  Caia- 
phas  before  36  a.d.  In  the  New  Testament 
(Luke  iii.  2,  John  xviii.  13,  Acts  iv.  6)  Annas 
is  mentioned  as  high  priest  conjointly  with 
Caiaphas.  The  first  hearing  of  Jesus  was  be- 
fore Annas,  who   sent   him  bound  to  Caiaphas. 

Annates,  a  certain  portion  of  the  year's 
fruits  or  revenues  paid  to  the  Pope  and  his 
court.  The  term  properly  denotes  the  sum  of 
half  a  year's  revenue  of  a  vacant  benefice  (q.v.) 
payable  by  the  new  incumbent  to  the  Pope.  It 
was  also  used  to  indicate  the  tribute  every  bishop 
or  mitred  abbot  was  obliged  to  pay  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  Pope  and  cardinals,  and  the  lesser 
sums  they  contributed  for  the  support  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Papal  household.  These  tributes  or 
taxes  were  frequently  a  cause  of  contention  be- 
tween ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities.  An 
effort  was  made  to  put  an  end  to  these  conten- 
tions in  the  Councils  of  Pisa  and  Constance, 
and  gradually  all  the  minor  tributes  were  abol- 
ished. In  the  Council  of  Basel  it  was  decided 
to  abolish  every  tribute  of  this  kind,  but  to  raise 
revenues  for  the  antipope  Felix  exactions  doubly 
severe  were  imposed  on  his  adherents.  In  Ger- 
many the  payment  was  satisfactorily  regulated  in 
the  Concordat  of  Vienna  (1448)  and  after  several 
modifications  it  was  finally  abolished  in  1803. 
In  France  the  payment  was  stipulated  in  a  Con- 
cordat between  Innocent  X.  and  Francis  I. ;  it 
was  finally  refused  entirely  in  1789,  and  its  aboli- 
tion recognized  in  the  Concordat  of  1801.  In 
England  such  sums  were  first  paid  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  later  to  the  Pope,  and 
transferred  to  the  Crown  in  1534,  the  sovereign 
at  present  retaining  only  those  derived  from 
bishoprics  and  Crown  livings,  the  rest,  since 
Queen  Anne's  time  (see  Queen  Anne's  Boun- 
ty), going  to  increase  the  poorer  livings.  The 
Pope  used  them  to  support  himself,  the  cardi- 
nals, and  other  papal  officials ;  to  defray  the  ex- 
penses of  nuncios,  legates,  bishops  exiled  from 
their  sees,  princes  deprived  of  their  thrones,  en- 
voys and  vicars  apostolic  to  missionary  coun- 
tries. As  this  source  of  revenue  has  been  con- 
stantly falling  off  during  the  past  century,  the 
deficit  is  made  up  by  the  voluntary  contribu- 
tions of  Catholics,  known  as  "Peter's  Pence  * 
(q.v.).  See  Ferraris,  'Prompta  Bibliotheca.' 
See  First  Fruits. 

Anne,  an,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land :  b.  at  Twickenham,  near  London,  6  Feb. 
1664:  d.  20  July  1714.  She  was  the  second 
daughter  of  James  II.,  then  Duke  of  York,  and 
Anne,  his  wife,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Claren- 
don, and  was  educated  according  to  the  princi- 
ples of  the  English  Church.  In  1683  she  was 
married  to  Prince  George,  brother  to  King 
Christian  V.  of  Denmark.  On  the  arrival  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange  in  1688  Anne  desired  to 
remain  with  her  father:  but  was  prevailed  upon 
by  Lord  Churchill,  afterward  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough, and  his  wife,  to  join  the  triumphant 
party.  After  the  death  of  William  III.  in 
1702  she  ascended  the  English  throne.  Her 
character  was  amiable  but  lacking  in  firmness, 
and  she  was  influenced  first  by  Marlborough 
and  his  wife  and  afterward  by  her  favorite, 
Mrs.  Manham.     Most  of  the  principal  events  of 


her  reign  are  connected  with  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession.  The  only  important  ac- 
quisition that  England  made  by  it  was  Gibraltar, 
captured  in  1704.  Another  very  important 
event  of  this  reign  was  the  union  of  England 
and  Scotland,  under  the  name  of  Great  Britain, 
which  was  accomplished  in  1707.  She  seems  to 
have  long  cherished  a  wish  to  secure  the 
succession  to  her  brother  James,  but  this  was 
frustrated  by  the  internal  dissensions  of  the 
Cabinet.  Grieved  at  the  disappointment  of  her 
secret  wishes,  she  fell  into  a  state  of  weakness 
and  lethargy  and  died.  The  reign  of  Anne  was 
distinguished  not  only  by  the  brilliant  suc- 
cesses of  the  British  arms,  but  also  on  account 
of  the  number  of  admirable  and  excellent  writ- 
ers who  flourished  at  this  time,  among  whom 
were  Pope,  Swift,  and  Addison.  See  Oldmixon, 
'Life  of  Queen  Anne'  (1716)  ;  Ashton,  'Social 
Life  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne'    (1882). 

Anne,  Sister,  the  sister  of  Fatima  in  the 
tale  of  'Bluebeard.'  From  the  top  of  the  cas- 
tle tower  she  awaits  the  arrival  of  their  broth- 
ers to  rescue  them. 

Annealing,  a  process  to  which  metals  and 
glass  are  subjected  in  order  to  increase  their 
ductility,  or  lessen  their  liability  to  fracture 
under  sudden  stress.  It  is  usually  effected  by 
heating  the  substance  to  be  annealed  until  it 
approaches  softness,  and  then  allowing  it  to 
cool  very  slowly.  Copper,  however,  is  best  an- 
nealed by  heating  it  to  a  high  temperature  and 
then  plunging  it  immediately  into  water.  Met- 
als that  are  to  be  annealed  should  be  heated  in 
close  vessels,  so  that  they  may  not  be  affected 
by  direct  contact  with  the  fuel.  It  is  not  un- 
common to  anneal  large  masses  of  metal  or 
glass  by  allowing  the  fires  in  the  heating  fur- 
nace to  go  out,  and  permitting  the  furnace  and 
its  contents  to  cool  together.  The  articles  to  be 
annealed  are  also  often  buried,  while  still  hot, 
in  lime,  ashes,  or  some  other  poor  conductor  of 
heat,  and  left  until  cold.  Metals  that  are  to  be 
drawn  into  wire,  or  rolled  into  sheets,  or  pressed 
into  complicated  shapes,  usually  require  an- 
nealing during  the  process,  as  otherwise 
they  are  likely  to  become  brittle  and  crack 
or  break.  Zinc,  however,  grows  strong  and 
flexible  as  it  is  drawn  into  wire,  though  it 
loses  its  flexibility  and  regains  its  crystalline 
structure  if  kept  in  boiling  water  for  a  time. 
It  is  usually  taught  that  the  object  of  anneal- 
ing is  to  soften  the  material  sufficiently  to  al- 
low molecules  to  move  slightly  among  them- 
selves, and  thus  relieve  the  strains  previously 
introduced  by  sudden  cooling,  or  by  the  violent 
stresses  to  which  the  material  has  been  subjected 
in  the  process  of  working.  This  theory  is  very 
possibly  true  to  a  certain  extent,  but  the 
anomalous  cases  of  copper  and  zinc,  cited  ab<'\  e, 
show  that  it  can  be  regarded  only  as  a  first 
approximation  to  the  ideal  theory  of  annealing, 
which  has  yet  to  be  discovered.  See  Temper- 
ing. 

Annecy,  an'se',  a  town  of  eastern  France, 
situated  in  the  central  part  of  the  department 
of  Haute  Savoie  at  the  northwest  end  of  Lake 
Annecy.  It  lias  manufactures  of  silk.  1  -uton, 
wool,  and  steel,  and  contains  many  buildings  of 
historical  interest,  including  a  cathedral  and 
tin-  old  castle  of  the  counts  of  Gencvois.  Pop. 
(1901)    13,611. 


ANNEXATION  —  ANNUALS 


An'nexa'tion,  politically,  the  formal  in- 
corporation by  a  State  with  itself  of  territory 
previously   under  another  government;   usually 

territory  contiguous  to  itself  or  its  colonial  pos- 
sessions, or  an  insular  neighbor,  but  only  be- 
cause other  annexations  are  rarely  desired,  not 
from  any  principle  of  international  law.  The 
annexation  may  be  by  purchase,  peaceful  cession, 
or  conquest.  Existing  laws  and  local  authori- 
ties do  not  lose  their  binding  force  and  title  to 
obedience  till  the  formal  act  of  annexation  is 
passed  by  the  new  power,  or  treaty  or  proclama- 
tion validates  it,  even  after  cession  by  the  old ; 
though  that  cession  cancels  all  legal  relation  to 
the  former  sovereign  power. 

Annexation!  to  the  United  Stales. —  (i) 
Louisiana  Purchase  (q.v.)  from  Napoleon, 
180.3:  [,171,931  square  miles,  including  Alabama 
and  Mississippi  south  of  lat.  310  S. ;  the 
whole  of  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa, 
Nebraska,  North  and  South  Dakota,  Idaho, 
Montana,  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Indian  Ter- 
ritory; Colorado  and  Wyoming  east  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains;  Kansas,  except  the  southwest 
portion  south  of  the  Arkansas  River,  and  Minne- 
sota west  of  the  Mississippi.  This  was  bought 
by  Jefferson's  administration  for  $15,000,000, 
$3,750,000  of  it  in  assumption  of  claims  of  Amer- 
ican citizens  against  France.  The  preliminary 
convention  was  signed  by  Livingston  and  Mon- 
roe 30  April  1803,  and  was  confirmed  by  the 
Senate  in  special  s.ession  19  Oct.  1803,  and  by  the 
House  the  25th, —  the  extreme  Federalists  op- 
posing it  as  unconstitutional,  and  the  President 
acknowledging  it  to  be  so,  but  necessary. 

(2)  Florida  (q.v.),  1819-21,  from  Spain: 
59,268  square  miles;  price  $5,000,000,  entirely  in 
assumption  by  the  United  States  of  claims  of 
its  citizens  against  Spain,  and  the  relinquish- 
ment by  it  of  claim  to  Texas  and  the  boundary 
of  the  Rio  Grande.  The  treaty  was  signed  by 
the  Spanish  minister  at  Washington,  22  Feb. 
1819;  Spain  refused  to  ratify  it  till  after  two 
years  of  vain  insistence  that  the  United  States 
should  refuse  to  recognize  the  independence 
of  the  South  American  States. 

(3)  Texas  (q.v.),  1845:  376,133  square  miles. 
Texas,  originally  part  of  the  Mexican  province 
of  Coahuila,  obtained  its  de  facto  independence 
in  the  war  of  1836  against  Mexico,  was  acknow- 
ledged by  the  other  powers  in  1837,  and  at  once 
began  the  attempts  for  admission  into  the 
United  States  which  had  been  the  ultimate  object 
of  its  first  colonization  by  Southern  settlers. 
In  the  previous  April  a  treaty  of  annexation 
with  Texas  had  been  concluded,  but  was  re- 
jected by  the  Senate.  President  Tyler  on  the 
last  day  of  his  term  sent  a  special  messenger  to 
secure  the  consent  of  the  Texas  Congress  to 
annexation ;  it  acceded  unanimously,  a  popular 
convention  of  4  July  ratified  the  action,  and  the 
annexation  was  completed  by  a  joint  resolution 
of  the  United  States  House  16  Dec.  1845,  and 
of  the  Senate  on  the  22d.  It  claimed  west  to 
the  Rio  Grande,  taking  in  all  the  immemorially 
Spanish  province  of  Coahuila,  a  circumstance 
which  led  to  the  Mexican  war. 

(4)  New  Mexico  and  Upper  California, 
seized  from  Mexico  in  the  war  of  1847,  and 
annexed  by  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo, 
2  Feb.  1848:  545,783  square  miles.  Besides  the 
present  State  of  California  it  included  Utah 
and  Nevada,  the  most  of  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico,  and  Colorado  west  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 


tains. Price,  $15,000,000,  and  the  assumption  by 
the  United  Slates  of  $3,250,000  in  claims  of  its 
citizens  against  Mexico.  The  portion  of  New 
Mexico  east  of  the  Rio  (inutile  was  claimed  by 
rexas,  which  afterward  received  $10,000,000 
from  the   United    States   in   release. 

(5)  The  Gadsden  Purchase  (q.v.),  1853, 
from  Mexico:  southern  Arizona  and  New  Mex- 
ico from  the  Gila  valley  to  Chihuahua  (the 
Mesilla  valley),  45,535  square  miles;  price 
$10,000,000. 

(6)  Alaska  (q.v.),  1867:  590,884  square 
miles;  price,  $7,200,000.  Bought  by  the  United 
States  from  Russia  by  treaty  of  30  March,  rati- 
fied by  the  Senate  in  special  session  20  June. 

(7)  Hawaii,  6  July  1898;  6,740  square 
miles;  price,  a  compensation  to  the  queen, 
Liliupkalani,  recently  adjusted  at  $200,000. 
Annexed  by  a  joint  resolution  of  Congress. 

(8)  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and 
Guam  of  the  Ladrone  Islands,  1898;  taken  from 
Spain  as  the  result  of  war;  ceded  by  Treaty  of 
Paris,  10  Dec.  1898;  about  150,000  square  miles; 
price,  $20,000,000,  plus  $100,000  subsequently 
paid  for  two  small  islands  omitted  from  the 
treaty. 

(0)  Tutuila,  with  the  smaller  islets  of  Tau, 
Onesinga,  and  Ofu,  of  the  Samoan  group,  1899; 
54  square  miles,  including  the  harbor  of  Pago- 
Pago;  obtained  by  tripartite  treaty  with  Great 
Britain   and   Germany. 

(10)  A  number  of  small  scattered  islands 
in  the  Pacific,  taken  at  different  recent  times, 
including  Wake,  January  1899.  See  United 
States —  Territorial  Expansion. 

An'nie  Kil'burn,  a  novel  of  New  England 
life,  by  W.  D.  Howells,  published  in  1888.  It 
is  a  character  study  of  a  woman  in  her  later 
youth  who  returns  to  her  native  town  after  a 
long  sojourn  in  Rome,  unfitted  by  her  life  abroad 
for  sympathy  with  her  girlhood  friends,  yet 
with  no  diminution  in  the  strength  of  her  Puri- 
tan conscience. 

Anniston,  an'nis-ton,  Ala.,  a  city  in  Cal- 
houn County ;  on  the  Louisville  &  N.,  and 
Southern  R.R.'s.  It  is  in  one  of  the  most  in- 
portant  coal-  and  iron-mining  regions  of  the 
country ;  is  a  trade  centre  for  cotton  and  agri- 
cultural products ;  and  is  noted  for  its  manu- 
factures of  iron  and  steel,  cotton  goods,  bricks, 
cordage,  and  other  articles.  Anniston  is  the 
scat  of  the  Southern  Female  College  and  the 
Noble  Female  Institute;  has  three  national 
banks,  30  churches,  10  daily  and  weekly  period- 
icals, and  a  property  valuation  of  $5,500,000.  If 
was  founded  by  the  Woodstock  Iron  Co.  in  1872. 
Pop.  (1900)  9,695. 

An'nuals,  or  Monocylic  Plants,  are  those 
that  complete  their  life  histories  —  germinate, 
grow,  mature,  seed,  and  die  —  in  a  single  vege- 
tative period.  In  garden  parlance  the  term  is 
extended  to  plants  that  are  preferably  raised 
from  seed  planted  each  year.  Annuals  are  es- 
pecially common  in  dry  climates  and  waste 
places,  and  among  them  are  some  of  the  most 
brilliantly  colored  and  otherwise  attractive  of 
ornamental  plants. 

Annuals,  in  literature,  the  name  given  to 
a  class  of  publications  enjoying  at  one  time  an 
immense  yearly  circulation,  and  distinguished  by 
great  magnificence  both  in  binding  and  illus- 
tration, which  render  them  much  sought  after 


ANNUITY 


as  Christmas  and  New  Year  presents.  Their 
contents  were  chiefly  prose  tales  and  ballads, 
lyrics  and  other  verse.  The  earliest  was  the 
'Forget-me-not,'  started  in  1822,  and  followed 
next  year  by  the  'Friendship's  Offering.'  The 
'Literary  Souvenir'  was  begun  in  1824,  and  the 
'Keepsake'  in  1827.  Among  the  names  of  the 
editors  occur  those  of  Alaric  A.  Watts,  Mrs. 
S.  C.  Hall,  Harrison  Ainsworth,  Lady  Blessing- 
ton,  and  Mary  Howitt.  The  popularity  of  the 
annuals  reached  its  zenith  about  1829,  when  no 
less  than  17  made  their  appearance;  in  1856  the 
'Keepsake,'  the  last  of  the  series,  ceased  to 
exist. 

Annu'ity,  a  yearly  payment  of  money  to  a 
specified  person  or  persons,  for  a  term  of  years, 
for  life  or  perpetually.  The  varieties  and  com- 
binations of  annuity  payments  are  almost  as  nu- 
merous as  the  contingencies  or  desiderata  of 
human  life ;  each  having  figured  so  largely  in 
law  as  to  receive  a  specific  legal  title.  If  the 
annuity  is  for  a  definite  term  of  years,  it  is 
called  an  annuity  certain;  if  forever,  continuing 
to  heirs  or  specified  successors,  a  perpetual  an- 
nuity or  perpetuity;  if  for  a  limited  period,  a 
term  annuity ;  if  during  the  whole  of  a  given 
period,  not  cut  short  by  any  contingent  event,  a 
whole-term  annuity ;  if  for  a  short  period,  a 
short-term  annuity ;  if  it  does  not  begin  till 
after  a  certain  date,  a  deferred  annuity ;  if  not 
till  after  the  occurrence  of  some  specified  event, 
a  contingent  annuity ;  if  its  beginning  or  dura- 
tion is  based  on  the  continuance  of  a  life  or  lives, 
it  is  called  a  life  annuity ;  if  for  the  time  that 
certain  persons  survive,  a  temporary  life  annuity; 
if  on  any  life  provided  another  is  living,  or  some 
event  happen  or  not,  a  contingent  life  annuity ; 
if  it  begin  only  after  some  death  or  deaths, 
a  reversionary  annuity;  if  for  the  duration  of 
the  longest  of  two  or  more  lives,  a  joint-life  an- 
nuity ;  if  to  the  survivor  of  two  or  more,  a  sur- 
vivorship annuity.  There  are  increasing  and 
decreasing  annuities,  their  nature  obvious  from 
their  titles.  An  annuity  ceasing  only  with  the 
death  of  the  annuitant,  and  with  a  proportionate 
part  of  the  next  payment  made  to  the  heirs,  is 
called  a  complete  annuity ;  if  it  ceases  with  the 
last  payment  made  to  the  living,  a  curtate  annu- 
ity. This  by  no  means  exhausts  the  forms  or 
combinations  possible  or  even  actual ;  nor  does 
it  fully  define  even  those  mentioned.  Thus, 
in  a  joint-life  annuity,  what  is  to  happen  on  the 
successive  deaths  up  to  the  last?  The  shares 
of  the  dead  might  return  to  the  estate,  but  in 
practice  are  successively  added  to  those  of  the 
survivors  in  equal  portions  till  the  last  sur- 
vivor receives  the  whole.  In  contingent  an- 
nuities the  commonest  contingency  which  ter- 
minates it  is  that  the  annuitant  shall  become 
self-supporting,  as  on  marriage  or  remarriage 
or  the  attaining  of  majority;  as  when  a  man 
provides  for  his  widow  or  daughter  or  son  by 
will. 

In  respect  of  object,  annuities  may  be 
broadly  divided  into  two  sorts :  those  providing 
for  others  and  those  providing  for  one's  self. 
The  former  are  probably  the  oldest,  and  are  of 
course  testamentary,  taking  the  place  of  a  leg- 
acy in  the  lump.  Till  modern  times  these  were 
chiefly  (and  with  great  European  houses  are 
still  so)  charged  directly  on  the  private  property 
of  the  testator  in  the  hands  of  legatees  or  trus- 
tees.    In    Europe   these   permanent   charges   on 


property  form  a  feature  of  the  highest  social 
and  even  political  importance.  The  entailed  es- 
tates are  always  incumbered  with  multitudes  of 
annuities  to  connections  or  dependents  of  the 
houses,  absolutely  fixed,  while  the  income  from 
which  they  are  to  be  paid  may  shrink  indefinite- 
ly. But  for  a  century  and  a  half  it  has  been 
gradually  taken  up  by  great  incorporated  com- 
panies and  combined  with  the  business  of  life 
insurance  (q.v.).  The  insurance  companies 
pay  the  annuities  on  contracts  matured  by  the 
death  of  the  testator,  the  payments  beginning 
either  then  or  at  a  specified  time  thereafter. 
In  America  this  system  has  also  absorbed  al- 
most entirely  the  old  contractual  annuities,  in 
which  the  annuitants  buy  incomes  for  them- 
selves by  paying  a  lump  sum  to  a  person,  com- 
pany or  public  body  for  a  term  or  life. 

These  contractual  annuities,  though  based  on 
the  same  calculations  and  mathematically  iden- 
tical, are  historically  of  two  distinct  kinds  as 
respects  their  object:  the  one  seeking  security, 
the  other  investment.  The  latter  is  the  older, 
and  resulted  from  conditions  now  obsolete;  part- 
ly the  paucity  of  investment  securities,  partly  the 
laws  against  usury,  which  could  be  evaded  by 
annuities,  as  a  given  sum  was  paid  for  by  a 
return  of  services,  and  the  element  of  interest 
did  not  formally  enter  into  it  at  all.  Hence 
the  favorite  method  of  borrowing  money  by  the 
great  medkeval  companies  and  houses,  and  mu- 
nicipalities and  States  as  well,  was  by  annui- 
ties, sold  on  a  rough  estimate  of  the  chances 
of  life ;  in  which  the  buyers  were  always  keen- 
er than  the  sellers,  and  till  very  modern  times 
the  bargain  was  always  against  the  payers  of 
the  annuity.  Many  shrewd  investors  accumu- 
lated great  properties  by  careful  selection  of 
annuities  on  good  lives,  being  allowed  to  pro- 
pose the  lives  upon  whose  duration  they  laid 
this  wager  (until  scientific  mortality  tables  were 
constructed).  The  interest  on  government 
debts  is  a  perpetual  annuity;  and  of  course  any 
investment  at  interest  is  an  annuity  for  its  term, 
but  such  investments  are  not  classed  among  an- 
nuities as  the  term  is  currently  used. 

The  other  object,  that  of  securing  one's  self 
against  the  chances  of  fortune,  though  reached 
by  the  same  means,  has  till  recently  had  one 
broad  distinction, —  it  was  done  at  once  and 
usually  in  early  life,  instead  of  in  small  lots  as 
money  accumulated.  It  was  commonly  the  sink- 
ing of  an  inherited  property  (rarely  an  ac- 
quired one),  by  women,  or  by  men  of  quiet 
tastes  and  unsuited  for  the  struggle  of  business 
life,  to  produce  a  sure  moderate  income  free 
from  care  and  business  chances.  Naturally 
such  annuities  are  much  commoner  in  the  older 
countries  than  in  America,  though  steadily  grow- 
ing here  from  the  same  causes.  Large  inher- 
ited fortunes  are  rare  in  new  countries,  and 
the  desire  to  live  in  unventuring  ease  equally  so, 
but  as  family  properties  increase  and  the  strug- 
gle for  life  grows  harder,  the  annuity  system 
grows  likewise.  But  it  has  been  vastly  ex- 
tended in  recent  years  by  its  junction  with  the 
insurance  system,  enabling  even  relatively  poor 
men  to  buy  an  income  for  their  dependents  after 
death,  or  themselves  in  old  age,  in  small  install- 
ments instead  of  an  impossible  lump  sum ;  and 
also  leaving  to  a  widow  a  steady  income  for  a 
term  of  years  or  life,  in  place  of  a  lump  sum  to 
be  invested  by  herself  or  trustees,  and  possibly 


ANNULARIA;  ANNULATA 


mismanaged  or  lost  or  embezzled.  Therefore, 
both  in  its  ease  of  purchase  and  in  us  advan- 
tages of  payment,  it  is  steadily  growing  in  favor, 
and  becoming  larger  in  proportion  to  the  total  of 
life-insurance  dealings. 

Historically,  annuities  are  probably  as  old  as 
the  great  Assyrian-Babylonian  times,  in  the 
7th  and  6th  centuries  before  Christ,  when  gnat 
banking  houses  that  lasted  for  generations,  and 
commercial  and  mercantile  facilities,  were  well 
developed;  but  the  first  positive  mention  is 
brought  out  bv  the  Falcidian  Law  of  Rome,  40 
B.C,  which  enacted  that  not  more  than  three 
fourths  of  a  property  should  be  willed  away  in 
specific  legacies.  As  this  could  not  be  obeyed 
unless  some  method  of  valuing  annuity  legacies 
was  devised,  the  following  rough  estimate  was 
accepted:    up  to  30,   30  years  more  of   life;    up 

o,  as  many  as  were  wanting  to  make  up  60. 
This  extremely  defective  calculation  —  which 
assumed  that  a  life  over  60  was  not  worth  even 
a  year's  purchase,  and  was  very  inaccurate  for 
others  —  was  replaced  by  the  great  Roman 
jurist  Ulpian  (d.  228  a.d.  I  witli  one  much  bet- 
ter, though  still  imperfect;  but  interesting  as 
the  first  known  table  of  life  probabilities  grad- 
uated with  reference  to  age,  and,  strangely 
enough,  revived  and  used  by  the  Tuscan  gov- 
ernment in  the  early  10th  century,  long  after 
more  scientific  ones  were  in  use.  It  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

Birth  to    20,  30  years 

20  to   25,  28  " 

2S  to  30,  25  " 

30  to   35,  22 

35  to  40,  20  " 

40  to   41,  19  " 

41  to   42,  18  " 

42  to  43,  17 

43  to  44,  16 

This  contained  no  interest  computation.  Un- 
til the  18th  century  there  was  little  advance  in 
the  scientific  aspects  of  the  business:  it  re- 
mained a  speculation,  though  an  extensive  and 
recognized  one,  and  England  under  William  of 
Orange  may  almost  be  said  to  have  maintained 
her  national  existence  by  borrowing  money  on 
annuities,  as  the  Dutch  had  to  some  extent  be- 
fore it.  The  researches  of  Pascal,  Fermat,  and 
Huygens  in  the  17th  century  into  the  theory  of 
probabilities  greatly  advanced  the  accuracy  of 
calculations:  in  1742  Mr.  Thomas  Simpson  pub- 
lished Ins  'Doctrine  of  Annuities  and  Rever- 
sions,1 one  of  the  landmarks  of  the  business; 
and  in  1762  the  Equitable  Assurance  Society, 
the  first  insurance  company  of  the  world,  was 
started  primarily  to  do  annuity  business,  which 
is  the  parent  of  life  insurance,  though  now  but 
a  minor  incident  in  it.  Several  other  companies 
were  founded  shortly  after.  The  real  founda- 
tion of  modern  life  insurance,  however,  and  of 
scientific  annuities  as  well,  was  the  publication 
in  1 771.  by  Richard  Price,  of  his  Northampton 
Table  of  Mortality.  This  estimated  the  term 
of  life-average  too  low,  but  it  was  the  prede- 
cessor of  the  Carlisle  and  other  tables  on  which 
modern  life  insurance  is  built,  now  supplanted 
by  the  actual  experience  for  generations  in 
numberless    great   offices. 

It  is  obvious  that  while  the  rate  of  mortality 
is  a  determining  factor  in  annuity  rates  as 
much  as  insurance  rates,  its  incidence  is  exact- 
ly in  reverse.  That  is,  the  higher  the  rate  of 
mortality  and  the  shorter  the  average  term  of 


44 

to  45. 

1  5  years 

45 

to   46, 

14 

46 

to   47. 

13 

47 

to  48, 

12 

4« 

to   49, 

1 1 

4'l 

to    50, 

10       " 

50 

to    55, 

9 

55 

to    60, 

7 

60 

and  up, 

5 

life,  the  less  money  in  gross  will  have  to  be 
paid  on  a  contingent  annuity  contract,  and  con- 
sequently the  less  will  be  the  sum  needed  to 
sink  in  it,  or  in  current  phrase,  the  lower  the 
rate  of  annual  premium.  Conversely,  the  older 
the  buyer  is,  and  consequently  the  shorter  his 
<  Xpectation  of  life,  the  less  his  annuity  is  worth. 
On  the  contrary,  the  less  an  individual's  ex- 
pectation of  life  under  an  insurance  contract, 
the  higher  must  his  premium  be  to  accumulate 
sufficient  money  in  the  assumed  period  to 
amount  to  the  promised  sum.  The  factor  of  in- 
terest is  the  same  for  both:  the  higher  the  inter- 
est, the  lower  the  premium  or  the  initial  sum 
paid.  In  the  now  frequent  insurance  contracts, 
where  the  principal  sum  is  paid  to  the  benefici- 
ary in  annuity  installments,  the  question  is  one 
of  interest  complicated  by  the  probabilities  of  the 
beneficiary  dying  before  the  payments  are  com- 
pleted. More  usually  now,  however,  this  lat- 
ter element  is  eliminated  by  providing  that  in 
such  case  the  remainder  shall  be  paid  to  the 
iegal  representatives,  so  that  it  becomes  an  an- 
nuity certain.  An  interesting  concrete  illus- 
tration of  the  effect  of  overrating  the  mor- 
tality is  the  sale  of  annuities  by  the  English 
government  under  the  Northampton  Table. 
This  table  had  figured  a  correct  total  of  deaths 
against  an  incomplete  table  of  births  in  a  given 
population,  and  consequently  assumed  too  high 
a  death  rate;  the  government,  therefore,  fixed 
the  annuity  rate  too  low;  and  vast  quantities  of 
annuities  were  sold  under  Mr  Perceval's 
scheme  of  1808  for  funding  the  national  debt. 
The  actuaries  discovered  Lhe  miscalculation,  and 
one  of  them  in  1819  warned  the  government 
that  it  was  losing  £8,000  a  month  on  these  con- 
tracts ;  the  advice  was  unheeded ;  buyers  con- 
tinued to  be  shrewder  than  the  government  and 
purchased  largely  of  the  attractive  bargain,  and 
in  1827  another  actuary  publicly  announced  that 
the  government  was  losing  £8,000  a  week.  The 
next  year  the  sale  was  suspended,  with  a  total 
loss  to  the  government  of  not  less  than  $25,- 
000,000. 

The  calculations  for  annuities  are  a  part  of 
actuarial  science.  In  the  United  States  the  fol- 
lowing are  the  approved  rates  of  the  best-man- 
aged companies:  In  consideration  of  $1,000 
paid  to  a  company  the  annuity  granted  to  a  per- 
son aged  40  would  be  $52.75;  45,  $58.10;  50. 
$64.70;  55,  $73.50;  60,  $86.20;  65.  $100:  70, 
$123.45;  75.  $145-95;  80.  $180.15.  But,  as  stated, 
the  pure  annuity,  sinking  a  large  sum  to  buy  a 
yearly  income,  docs  not  figure  largely  in  America. 

Legally  the  annuity,  whether  charged  to  the 
person  of  the  grantor  or  on  specific  real  or  per- 
sonal estate,  is  treated  as  personal  property 
except  for  purposes  of  inheritance  or  devise- 
ment,  when  it  is  held  to  be  real  property.  A 
rent-charge,  however,  is  a  charge  on  specific 
real  estate  only,  and  is  held  to  be  real  prop- 
erty  under  all   circumstances. 

An'nular'ia.     See  Calamities. 

An'nula'ta,  or  Annelida,  a  term  applied  to 
the  phylum  of  sea-worms,  comprising  the  most 
specialized  worms.  They  are  represented  by  the 
leeches,  the  earthworm,  the  nais  of  fresh  water, 
and  the  marine  annelids.  The  phylum  is  divided 
into  four  classes:  (11  Cluctopoda,  (2)  Gepky- 
rca,  (3)  Archi-annelida,  and  (4)  Hirudinca. 
In  the  more  typical  form  they  are  characterized 
by    their    long,    bilaterally    symmetrical    body, 


ANNULATA,  OR  ANNELIDS. 


?\      u* 


■JZH^-^P* 


i.  Heteronereis. 

2.  Phyllodocc  Lami  i 

3.  Glycera. 

4.  Arenicola. 

V   Rock  Needle  (Pontobdella  muricata). 


.  .i*  Proboscidea. 
-.  Terrebilla  Emmalina. 

S.  Hermella. 

nion  Earth  Worm  (Lumbrtcus  agricola). 
I  ubes  of  Hermella  Alveolata, 


ANNUNCIATION  — ANOINTING 


which  is  cylindrical,  consisting  of  numerous 
segments  either  unarmed,  or  more  usually  pro- 
vided with  seta  alone,  or  with  seta  and  paddle- 
like appendages  {rami).  The  head  is  simple, 
with  a  few  simple  eyes,  or  provided  with  tenta- 
cles (antenna)  alone,  or  with  tentacles  and 
brancliia.  An  eversible  pharynx,  armed  with 
teeth,  is  usually  present.  The  alimentary  canal  is 
straight,  the  tubular  stomach  sometimes  saccu- 
lated ;  the  vent  is  always  situated  in  the  last 
segment  of  the  body.  The  nervous  system  is 
well  developed,  consisting  of  a  brain  and  a  ven- 
tral ganglionated  cord.  The  circulatory  sys- 
tem is  closed,  with  a  dorsal  and  ventral,  and  lat- 
eral vessels  connected  by  anastomosing  branches 
in  nearly  each  segment.  A  system  of  numerous 
paired  segmental  organs,  the  sexes  are  united 
in  the  same  individual  or  separate.  The  embryo 
passes  through  a  cleavage-stage  (morula  or 
blastula),  gastrula,  sometimes  a  neurula  stage, 
and  after  hatching,  development  is  either  di- 
rect or  there  is  a  marked  metamorphosis,  the 
larva  passing  through  a  trochosphere  and  ceph- 
alala  stage.  Consult  Parker  and  Haswell, 
( Text-book  of  Zoology'    (1897). 

Annuncia'tion,  the  declaration  of  the  angel 
Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary  that  she  was  to  be- 
come the  mother  of  our  Lord  (Luke  i.  26-38). 
Annunciation  or  Lady  Day  is  a  feast  of  the 
Church  in  honor  of  the  annunciation,  celebrated 
in  the  western  Churches  on  25  March.  The 
institution  of  this  festival  is"  generally  as- 
signed to  the  ~th  century.  The  Italian,  for- 
merly Sardinian,  order  of  Knights  of  the  An- 
nunciation (Ordine  Supremo  dell'  Annunziata) 
was  instituted  by  Amadeus  VI.,  Duke  of  Savoy, 
in  1360.  It  received  statutes  from  Amadeus 
VIII.  in  1409,  was  renewed  in  1518,  and  raised 
to  the  first  order  of  the  Sardinian  monarchy  in 
1720.  The  subject  of  the  Annunciation  has  been 
a  favorite  with  artists  from  Fra  Angelico  to 
Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti. 

Annunzio,  Gabriele  d',  an-noon'tse-6,  an 
Italian  novelist  and  poet :  b.  near  Pescara  in 
1864.  He  was  educated  at  Prato,  where  he 
published  at  14  his  'Primo  Vere.'  He  is  now 
one  of  the  most  conspicuous  Italian  writers  of 
the  day,  having  abandoned  Italian  traditions  for 
modern  French  realism.  His  poems  and  nov- 
els are  brilliant,  but  often  frankly  sensual  as 
well  as  pessimistic,  and  both  prose  and  verse 
have  been  severely  criticised  for  their  licentious 
spirit.  'II  Piacere,'  his  first  novel  (The  Child 
of  Pleasure,  1889),  was  followed  by  others  en- 
titled 'LTnnocente'  (The  Intruder,  1S91)  ; 
'Giovanni  Episapo'  (1892)  :  <I1  Trionfo  della 
Morte'  (The  Triumph  of  Death,  1849);  'Le 
Vergini  delle  Rocce'  (Virgins  of  the  Rocks, 
1896);  'Fuoco'  (Flame  of  Life.  1900).  His 
plays  include  "II  Sogno  d'un  Mattino  di  Prima- 
vera'  (1897)  :  'II  Sogno  d'un  Tramonto  d' 
Autunno'  (1898)  :  (La  citta  Morte1  (1898)  ;  <La 
Gioconda'  (1898)  ;  'Francesca  da  Rimini1 
(1901).  D'Annunzio's  reputation  is  now  in- 
ternational, his  writings  having  been  translated 
into  English,  French,  and  German.  Among  his 
poems  are:  'The  New  Song*  (1882);  'Inter- 
ludes of  Verse'  (1883)  ;  and  'Marine  Odes' 
(1893)- 

An'nus  Mirab'ilis  (Latin),  "the  wonderful 
year,"  1666.  A  year  memorable  for  the  great 
fire    of    London    and    the    successes    of    British 


arms  over  the  Dutch.  Dryden  has  written  a 
poem  with  this  title,  in  which  these  events 
are  described. 

Ann'ville,  Pa.,  a  village  in  Lebanon  Coun- 
ty five  miles  west  of  Lebanon,  the  seat  of  Leb- 
anon Valley  College,  an  institution  controlled 
by  the  United  Brethren  in  Christ.  It  was 
founded  in  1762.     Pop.   (1900)   about  2,000. 

Ano'a,  a  genus  of  Malayan  buffaloes,  par- 
ticularly the  small  black  species,  with  low.  erect 
horns,  called  sapi-utan  (.-/.  depression  nis  I .  and 
found  in  the  highlands  of  Celebes.  The  genus 
was  once  classed  with  the  antelopes. 

Anob'ium,  a  genus  of  beetles  belonging 
to  the  family  Ptinida.  It  contains  the  death- 
watch  insects,  A.  striatum,  A.  tesselatum,  etc. 

An'ode,  the  name  given  by  Faraday  (in 
183s)  to  the  electrode,  or  terminal,  at  which  a 
current  of  positive  electricity  enters  a  battery 
or  other  electrical  apparatus  in  which  chemical 
work  is  performed.  The  term  has  since  been 
extended  so  as  to  include  the  electrode  by  which 
a  positive  electric  current  enters  a  vacuum  tube. 
The  other  electrode,  in  every  case,  is  known  as 
the  "cathode.*  The  anode  of  a  primary  battery 
(see  Battery)  commonly  consists  of  a  plate  or 
rod  of  zinc,  while  the  cathode  consists  of  a  plate 
of  carbon,  or  copper,  or  platinum.  In  electrolysis 
the  anode  and  cathode  both  consist,  usually,  of 
platinum  or  carbon.  In  a  vacuum  tube  the 
anode  commonly  consists  of  a  wire  or  disk  'if 
platinum,  while  the  cathode  (which  is  varied  in 
shape  according  to  the  purpose  to  which  the 
tube  is  to  be  put)  is  usually  made  of  aluminum 
or  platinum. 

An'o-don'ta,  a  subdivision  of  the  fresh- 
water mussels  (q.v.),  abundant  in  the  streams 
and  lakes  of  the  United  States  and  most  temper- 
ate countries.  They  have  smooth,  thin  shells 
without  hinge-teeth. 

An'odynes.      See  Analgesics. 

Anointing,  an  Oriental  custom  of  apply- 
ing oil  to  the  head  or  unguents  to  the  body. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans,  particularly  the  for- 
mer, anointed  themselves  after  the  bath.  \\  rest- 
lers  used  unguents  in  order  to  render  it 
more  difficult  for  their  antagonists  to  get  hold 
of  them.  The  use  of  oil  for  ceremonial  pur- 
poses is  equally  ancient.  Its  first  mention  is 
in  Gen.  xxviii.  18,  where  Jacob,  in  commemora- 
tion of  a  remarkable  dream,  is  said  to  have  set 
up  a  pillar  and  poured  oil  upon  it.  In  the 
Mosaic  law  and  several  ancient  religions  a 
sacred  character  was  attached  to  the  anointing 
of  the  garments  of  the  priests  and  things  be- 
longing to  the  ceremonial  of  worship.  This 
could  be  done  only  with  oil  made  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  signified  a  consecration  of  the  articles 
to  the  service  of  religion.  Jewish  priests  and 
kings  were  anointed  when  inducted  into  office, 
and  were  called  the  anointed  of  the  Lord,  to 
show  that  their  persons  were  sacred  and  their 
office  from  God.  The  Old  Testament  prophecies 
respecting  the  Redeemer  style  him,  on  account 
of  his  royal  descent  and  his  dignity.  Messias, 
that  is,  the  Anointed,  which  is  also  the  meaning 
of  his  Greek  name  Christ.  The  custom  of 
anointing  still  exists  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  Oriental  Churches  (see  Sacraments),  and 
is  also  frequently  a  part  of  the  ceremony  of 
coronation. 


ANOKA  — ANSELM 


Anoka,  a-no'ka,  Minn.,  a  small  city,  the 
county-seat  <>f  Anoka  County,  with  manufac- 
tures of  lumber,  tlour,  and  machinery.  Pop. 
(1900)  3,769. 

Ano'lis,  a  genus  of  slender,  long-tailed, 
iguanid  lizards  of  the  American  tropics,  which 
are  expert  climbers  and  seek  their  insect  food 
principally  in  trees  and  bushes.  They  have  a 
pouch  under  the  throat  and  the  ability  to  change 
color.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  one 
of  the  species  1./.  carolinensis) ,  a  beautiful 
golden-green  lizard,  very  common  in  our  South- 
ern Sl;u>-.  and  .'full  kept  as  a  pet,  should  be 
called  the  American  chameleon.  Ahout  100 
other  species  are   known.     See   CHAMELEON. 

Anom'aly,  a  deviation  from  a  rule.  That 
which  deviates  is  called  anomalous.  In  astron- 
omy die  true  anomaly  is  the  angle  which  a  line 
drawn  from  a  planet  to  the  sun  has  passed 
through  since  the  planet  was  last  at  its  peri- 
helion or  nearest  distance  to  the  sun.  On  ac- 
count of  the  planets  not  moving  with  the  same 
velocity  at  all  parts  of  their  orbits,  this  angle 
does  not  increase  uniformly;  hence  its  name. 
The  anomalistic  year  is  the  interval  between  two 
successive  times  at  which  the  earth  is  in  peri- 
helion, or  365  days  6  hours  13  minutes  48 
seconds.  In  consequence  of  the  advance  of  the 
earth's  perihelion  among  the  stars  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  earth's  motion,  and  of  the  pre- 
cession of  the  equinoxes,  which  carries  the 
equinoxes  back  in  the  opposite  direction  to  the 
earth's  motion,  the  anomalistic  year  is  longer 
than  the  sidereal  year,  measured  by  the  sun's  re- 
turn to  the  same  position  among  the  stars,  and 
still  longer  than  the  tropical  or  common  year, 
measured  by  the  earth's  return  to  the  same 
equinox.     It  exceeds  the  latter  by  25  minutes. 

Anonaceae,  an-6-na'ce-e,  the  custard-apple 
family,  a  natural  order  of  trees  and  shrubs  with 
simple,  alternate  leaves,  destitute  of  stipules,  by 
which  character  they  are  distinguished  from  the 
Magnoliacea,  to  which  they  are  otherwise  close- 
ly allied.  Their  flowers  arc  commonly  axillar, 
sometimes  terminal.  The  calyx  is  persistent, 
with  three  deep  divisions.  The  corolla  is  formed 
of  six  petals,  disposed  in  two  series.  The  sta- 
mens are  very  numerous,  forming  several  scries; 
their  filament  short,  their  anthers  almost  sessile. 
The  carpels,  generally  aggregated  in  great  num- 
ber in  the  centre  of  the  (lower,  are  sometimes 
distinct,  sometimes  connected;  each  of  them  has 
a  single  cell  which  contains  one  or  more  ovules 
attached  to  the  inner  suture,  and  often  forming 
as  many  distinct  fruits  (rarely  one  only  in  con- 
sequence of  abortion);  sometimes  they  are 
united  together  and  form  a  kind  of  fleshy,  scaly 
cone.  The  seeds  have  a  horny  endosperm  deeply 
grooved,  and  this  is  another  character  which 
distinguishes  them  from  the  Magnoliacea.  The 
Anonaceee  are  mostly  tropical  plants  belonging 
both  to  the  Old  and  New  Worlds,  the  papaw 
being  the  best-known  American  species.  They 
are  generally  aromatic,  a  quality  found  chiefly 
in  the  bark,  but  also  in  the  leaves  and  flowers, 
and  to  some  extent  in  the  fruit,  all  of  which 
parts  are  consequently  employed  in  the  countries 
of  which  the  plants  are  native  as  remedies  and 
for  seasoning.  Many  of  them  yield  likewise  an 
edible  and  nutritious  fruit,  extremely  agreeable 
to  the  taste. 

Anoph'eles,  a  genus  of  Culicida  (mos- 
quitoes),    embracing    those    species    of    blood- 


sucking mosquitoes  which  carry  and   communi- 
cate    to     human     beings,     by     biting,     malarial 

diseases.        See    Mosul  no. 

An'oplothe'rium,  an  extinct  primitive 
ruminant  fossil  in  the  Upper  Eocene  formations 
of  Europe.  It  was  among  the  first  fossil  ver- 
tebrates discovered  in  the  gypsum  quarries  of 
Montmartre  in  Paris,  and  was  named  by  Cuvier 
in  1822  from  its  defenseless  character  (Gr. 
&vott\os,  unarmed;  6-qplov,  beast),  as  it  has 
neither  tusks  nor  horns  to  protect  itself  from 
its  carnivorous  enemies.  They  form  the  type  of 
a  distinct  family,  in  many  respects  intermediate 
between    the    swine    and    the    true    ruminants. 

Anorthite,  a  triclinic  feldspar,  having  the 
composition  of  a  silicate  of  aluminum  and  cal- 
cium. CaAltSUOa.  It  is  especially  interesting  to 
the  chemical  mineralogist  because  it  stands  at 
one  end  of  the  albite-anorthite  .series  of  feld- 
spars (see  Feldspars).  Its  cleavage  is  per- 
fect parallel  with  the  base,  and  distinct  paral- 
lel with  the  brachypinacoid.  It  is  brittle,  break- 
ing with  a  conchoidal  to  uneven  fracture.  Its 
hardness  is  6  to  6.5,  and  specific  gravity  about 
2.75.  It  is  usually  colorless  or  white,  sometimes 
grayish  or  inclining  to  brick-red.  It  occurs  in 
glassy_  crystals  in  the  ejected  blocks  at  Mount 
Vesuvius,  Italy. 

Anos'mia,  the  loss  of  the  sense  of  smell. 
This  may  be  produced  by:  (O  Injury  to  the 
nerves  of  smell  as  they  originate  in  the  mucous 
membrane  of  the  nose,  in  chronic  nasal  catarrh, 
in  polypi,  or  in  injury  to  the  nose.  (2)  By  in- 
jury to  the  olfactory  bulbs  or  to  the  olfactory 
tracts.  Such  injuries  occur  in  severe  blows  or 
falls,  particularly  in  fracture  of  the  ethmoid 
plate  accompanying  fracture  of  the  skull.  (3) 
By  injury  to  the  brain  centres  of  smell,  which 
are  located  in  and  about  the  uncinate  gyrus. 
See  Smell. 

An'selm,  Saint,  a  celebrated  theologian,  re- 
garded by  some  as  the  founder  of  scholasticism : 
b.  Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  1033;  d.  Canterbury,  21 
April  1 109.  At  27  he  became  a  monk  at  Bee, 
in  Normandy,  whither  he  had  been  attracted  by 
the  celebrity  of  his  countryman  Lanfranc,  then 
prior  of  the  monastery  there.  When  Lanfranc 
was  promoted  to  the  abbacy  of  Caen,  Anselm  was 
elevated  to  the  dignity  of  prior,  and  in  1078  he 
was  made  abbot,  which  office  he  retained  for 
15  years.  During  this  period  he  wrote  his  first 
philosophical  and  religious  works:  the  dialogues 
on  'Truth  and  Free-will,'  'De  Veritate,'  and 
(De  Libertate  Arbitrii,'  and  the  treatises  'Mon- 
ologion*  and  'Proslogion,'  and  at  the  same  time 
his  influence  made  itself  so  strongly  felt  that 
Bee  became  the  chief  seat  of  learning  in  Europe. 
In  1093  Anselm  was  offered  the  archbishopric  of 
Canterbury,  which  bad  Iain  vacant  since  the 
death  of  Lanfranc  in  1089,  and  accepted  the 
offer,  though  with  great  reluctance  and  with  the 
condition  that  the  king  of  England,  William 
Rufus,  should  acknowledge  Pope  Urban  in  op- 
position to  the  antipope  Clement,  which  the 
king  ultimately  consented  to  do.  In  1097,  a 
new  difficulty  having  arisen  between  Anselm  and 
William,  the  former  set  out  for  Rome  to  consult 
with  the  Pope.  Urban  received  him  with  great 
distinction,  but  did  not  venture  to  declare  him- 
self on  the  side  of  the  prelate  in  his  dispute 
with  the  king.  Meanwhile  William  had  seized 
on  the  revenues  of  the  see  of  Canterbury,  which 


ANSERES  — ANT 


he  retained  till  his  death  in  noo.  Anselm  ac- 
cordingly remained  abroad,  where  he  wrote  his 
celebrated  treatise  on  the  atonement,  'Cur  Deus 
Homo.'  When  William  Rufus  was  succeeded 
by  Henry  I.,  Anselm  was  recalled.  His  canon- 
ization seems  to  have  taken  place  in  1494.  All 
the  works  of  Anselm  are  directed  toward  found- 
ing a  reasoned  system  of  Christian  truth.  Such 
a  system  he  considered  to  be  a  legitimate  demand 
of  reason,  although  he  repeats  again  and  again 
the  doctrine  that  faith  is  necessary  to  the  in- 
telligence of  the  Christian  mysteries,  that  the 
teaching  of  revelation  must  first  be  accepted  by 
faith  and  afterward  shown  to  have  the  support 
of  reason.  His  celebrated  ontological  proof  of 
the  existence  of  God  is  to  be  found  in  the 
'Proslogion.'  The  'Cur  Deus  Homo,'  treat- 
ing, as  already  mentioned,  of  the  atonement,  is 
the  most  important  of  Anselm's  works.  In 
order  to  satisfy  the  reason  of  the  need  of  an 
atonement  and  of  the  efficacy  of  the  particular 
atonement  that  the  Christian  religion  represents 
as  having  been  made  in  the  death  of  Christ, 
Anselm  endeavors  to  establish  the  following 
positions :  First,  that  God's  honor  is  wounded 
by  sin  and  his  justice  therefore  requires  satis- 
faction ;  second,  that  this  satisfaction  can  be 
given  only  through  one  who  is  at  once  God  and 
man ;  and  third,  that  the  voluntary  death  of 
Christ  actually  accomplished  this  satisfaction. 
The  works  of  Anselm  have  often  been  pub- 
lished. The  last  complete  edition  forms  the 
155th  volume  of  Abbe  Migne's  'Patrologia?  Cur- 
sus  Completus.'  Among  the  numerous  sepa- 
rate editions  of  the  'Cur  Deus  Homo'  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Lammer  (Berlin  1857)  and 
Fritzsche  (Zurich  1868).  Anselm's  personal 
character,  distinguished  by  single-mindedness, 
gentleness,  large-heartedness,  and  piety,  makes 
him  one  of  the  brightest  ornaments  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church. 

Bibliography. —  Eadmer,  'Vita  AnselmP  ; 
the  works  of  Franck  (1842)  ;  Hasse  (1843-52)  ; 
Remusat  (1853);  R.  W.  Church  (1870);  Rigg 
(1896);  and  Welch  (1900). 

An'seres  (Lat.  nom.  pltir.  of  anser,  goose), 
an  order  of  water-birds,  chiefly  marked  by  the 
series  of  tooth-like  projections  on  the  edges  of 
both  mandibles,  so  placed  that  those  on  the 
upper  mandible  fit  into  the  spaces  between  those 
on  the  lower  when  the  mandibles  are  closed. 
Ducks,  geese,  and  swans  (qq.v.)  belong  in  this 
order,  and  some  classifications  also  include  the 
screamers.  They  live  and  breed  near  the  wa- 
ter, are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
are  usually  of  large  size.  As  a  rule,  they  are 
swimming-birds  and  their  numerous  young 
need  but  little  care.  About  200  species  are 
known. 

An'son,  George,  Lord,  a  celebrated  Eng- 
lish navigator :  b.  Shugborough,  23  April  1697 ; 
d.  Moor  Park,  6  June  1762.  He  entered  the 
navy  at  an  early  age  and  became  a  captain  in 
1724.  In  1740  he  was  made  commander  of  a 
fleet  sent  to  the  South  Sea,  directed  against  the 
trade  and  colonies  of  Spain.  The  expedition 
consisted  of  five  men-of-war  and  three  smaller 
vessels,  which  carried  1,400  men.  After  much 
suffering  and  many  stirring  adventures  he 
reached  the  coast  of  Peru,  made  several  prizes, 
and  captured  and  burned  the  city  of  Paita.  His 
squadron  was  now  reduced  to  one  ship,  the 
Centurion,    but    with    it    he    took    the    Spanish 


treasure  galleon  from  Acapulco,  arriving  in 
England  in  1744,  with  treasure  to  the  amount 
of  £500,000,  after  having  circumnavigated  the 
globe.  His  adventures  and  discoveries  are  de- 
scribed in  the  well-known  Anson's  'Voyage,' 
compiled  from  materials  furnished  by  Anson. 
His  victory  over  the  French  admiral  Jonquiere, 
near  Cape  Finisterre  in  1747,  raised  him  to  the 
peerage  with  the  title  of  Lord  Anson,  Baron  of 
Soberton.  Four  years  afterward  he  was  made 
first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1758  he  com- 
manded the  fleet  before  Brest,  protected  the 
landing  of  the  British  at  St.  Malo,  Cherbourg, 
etc.,  and  received   the  repulsed   troops   into  his 

Anso'nia,  Conn.,  a  city  of  New  Haven 
County,  situated  on  the  Naugatuck  River,  a 
few  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Housa- 
tonic,  and  on  the  New  York,  N.  H.  &  H.  R.R., 
being  also  the  terminus  of  the  New  Haven  and 
Derby  branch.  Two  newspapers  are  published 
here,  and  the  city  contains  two  banks,  many 
stores,  public  buildings,  etc.,  besides  extensive 
manufactories  of  brass  and  copper  goods,  clocks 
and  clock  equipments,  movements,  etc.,  electrical 
supplies,  flour,  lumber,  and  lumber  products, 
foundries,  and  machine  shops,  etc.  It  was  for- 
merly a  part  of  Derby,  and  received  its  city 
charter  from  the  legislature  in  1892.  Pop. 
(1900)    12,681. 

An'swer,  in  law,  a  defense  in  writing, 
made  by  a  defendant  to  charges  contained  in  a 
complaint  filed  by  the  plaintiff  against  him  in  a 
court  of  law.  In  all  the  code  States  a  statute 
similar  in  its  provisions  to  §  500  of  the  New 
York  Code  of  Civil  Procedure  has  been  adopted. 
This  section  provides  that  the  answer  of  the  de- 
fendant must  contain:  (1)  a  general  or  specific 
denial  of  each  material  allegation  of  the  com- 
plaint controverted  by  the  defendant,  or  of  any 
knowledge  or  information  thereof  sufficient  to 
form  a  belief ;  (2)  a  statement  of  any  new  mat- 
ter constituting  a  defense  or  counterclaim,  in 
ordinary  and  concise  language,  without  repe- 
tition. 

Ant,  a  small  social  insect  of  the  family  of 
Hymenoptera,  characterized  by  unusual  distinct- 
ness of  the  three  regions  of  the  body,  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen,  and  by  the  stack  or  petiole 
of  the  abdomen  having  either  one  or  (rarely) 
two  "scales"  or  "nodes,"  so  that  the  abdomen 
moves  very  freely  on  the  trunk  or  thorax.  The 
antennae  are  elbowed  as  in  wasps  and  bees.  Ants 
live  in  societies,  consisting,  besides  the  males 
and  females,  of  smaller  wingless  workers.  In 
all  ants  except  the  Odontomachida  and  Doryli- 
dic  the  mandibles  are  wide  apart  at  their  base  or 
insertion,  so  that  they  can  be  used  without  the 
other  appendages  of  the  mouth  being  opened  or 
even  moved.  Both  males  and  females  are 
winged,  but  the  males  are  much  smaller  than 
the  females,  while  the  wingless  workers  are 
smaller  than  the  males.  In  these  wingless  forms 
the  segments  of  the  thorax  become  more  or  less 
separated,  making  the  body  much  longer  and 
slenderer,  and  less  compact  than  in  the  winged 
normal  sexual  forms,  the  prothorax  being  more 
developed  than  in  the  males  and  females.  The 
workers  often  consist  of  two  forms:  one  with  a 
larsre  cubical  head,  or  worker  major,  sometime; 
called    a    soldier,    and    the    usual    small-headed 


ANT 


form,  or  worker  minor.  In  certain  genera  this 
polymorphism  (q.v.)  is  still  more  marked  The 
legs  are  usually  long  and  slender,  the  tarsi  are 
five-jointed  as  usual  in  Hymenoptera,  but  the 
front  or  basal  joint  is  disproportionately  long, 
SO  that  it  functions  as  if  part  oi  the  tibia;  the 
tibias  of  the  fore  pair  of  legs  are  furnished  with 
comb  for  cleaning  the  antennae  and  mouth  ap- 
p(  ullages.  A  stint;  is  sometimes  present,  as  in  the 
Ponenda,  which  sting  like  wasps  and  bees,  and 
in  the  Myrmiciiuc.  while  in  the  workers  of  ordi- 
nary ants  it  is  either  vestigial  or  entirely  want- 
ing. Some  ants  secrete  an  active  poison  (formic 
acid),  which  they  inject  into  the  wound  made 
by  their  jaws  in  biting.  In  the  Formtcuuc, 
whose  sting  is  atrophied,  the  amount  of  poison 
secreted  is  "relatively  enormous"  (Janet).  Our 
Formica  obscuripes  is  a  very  ferocious  species, 
and.  like  the  European  F.  pratensis,  rises  upon 
its  hind  legs,  curves  the  abdomen,  and  ejects  its 
i  -Jul.  Muckermann  adds  that  the  ejection 
of  formic  acid  is  so  copious  as  to  enforce  the 
observer  to  momentarily  retire. 

The  larva;  of  ants  are  uniformly  maggot- 
like, being  legless,  soft  bodied,  cylindrical,  and 
with  a  small  bead  bent  on  the  breast.  They  are 
helpless  and  are  fed  by  the  workers. 

Wheeler  has  shown  that  different  species  of 
ants  employ  very  different  methods  of  feeding 
their  larvae.  Some  (those  of  Camponotus,  For- 
mica, Lasius,  and  Myrmica)  feed  their  young 
with  liquid  food  regurgitated  from  their  crops, 
and  possibly  also  with  the  secretion  of  the  sali- 
vary glands.  Other  species,  however,  Ponerinte 
and  some  Myrmicina,  feed  their  larvae  with  com- 
minuted insects.  Wheeler  states  that  the  larva; 
of  certain  ants  "are  not  only  able  to  subsist  on 
solid  food,  but  even  on  food  of  a  vegetable 
nature." 

I  In-  larvae  of  the  stingless  genera  usually 
spin  a  delicate  silken  cocoon,  while  those  of  the 
aculeate  genera  do  not.  Within  the  cocoon  the 
larva  transforms  into  the  pupa. 

Nesting  Habits. —  The  history  of  a  formica- 
rium,  or  ants'  nest,  is  as  follows:  The  workers 
only  (but  in  some  species  the  winged  ants) 
hibernate,  and  arc  found  early  in  spring  taking 
care  of  the  eggs  and  larva;  produced  by  the 
autumnal  brood  of  females.  Every  ant  colony 
is  founded  by  a  single  fertilized  female.  In  the 
course  of  the  summer  the  adult  forms  are  de- 
veloped, swarming  on  a  hot,  sultry  day.  The 
small  yellow  ants,  abundant  in  paths  and  about 
houses  in  New  England,  generally  swarm  on  the 
afternoon  of  some  hot  day  in  the  first  week  of 
September,  when  the  air  is  filled  toward  sunset 
with  myriads  of  them.  The  females,  after  their 
marriage  flight  in  the  air.  may  then  be  seen  en- 
tering the  ground  to  lay  their  eggs  for  new 
colonies,  or  they  are  often  seized  by  the  workers 
and  retained  in  the  old  colonies.  Having  no 
more  use  for  their  wings,  they  pluck  them  off, 
and  may  be  seen  running  about  wingless.  The 
female,  after  laying  her  eggs,  does  not  go  abroad 
in  search  of  food,  but  feeds  the  young  larva; 
with  food  regurgitated  from  her  stomach  and 
derived  from  her  fat-bodies ;  thus  the  larvae  are 
poorly  fed  and  become  workers. 

Nests. —  The  nests  of  some  species  of 
Formica  are  six  feet  in  diameter  and  contain 
many  thousand  individuals.  Ants  also  build 
nests  of  clay  or  mud  and  inhabit  hollow  trees. 
Ants  in  Europe  build  true  mounds,  sometimes 
three  feet  high,  but  in  North  America  they  are 


mostly  subterranean,  though  in  Wisconsin  one 
ant  (F.  obscuripes)  erects  a  true  mound  about 
20  inches  high. 

Formica  sanguinea  is  one  of  our  most  abun- 
dant species,  making  hillocks  of  sand  or  clay, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  ground.  From 
the  formicary  walks  and  underground  galleries 
radiate  in  a  labyrinth  in  all  directions;  and  deep 
down,  where  the  soil  is  perpetually  moist,  the 
galleries  descend  to  a  relatively  greater  depth 
than  in  Europe.  Packard  has  found  a  variety 
of  this  species  in  Labrador,  where  it  is  common. 
It  does  not  throw  up  hillocks,  but  tunnels  in  the 
earth.  The  nest  of  CEcophylla  smaragdina  is 
formed  by  drawing  together  a  number  of  green 
leaves,  which  arc  united  with  a  fine  web.  Some 
nests  are  a  foot  in  diameter.  This  species 
swarms  in  hilly  forests  in  New  Guinea.  Its 
sting  is  not  very  severe. 

It  is  in  argillaceous  countries  especially  that 
the  CEcodomas  build  their  enormous  formicaries, 
so  that  one  perceives  them  from  afar  by  the 
projection  which  they  form  above  the  level  of 
the  soil,  as  well  as  by  the  absence  of  vegetation 
in  their  immediate  neighborhood.  These  nests 
occupy  a  surface  of  many  square  metres,  and 
their  depth  varies  from  one  to  two  metres.  Very 
many  openings,  of  a  diameter  of  about  one  to 
three  inches,  are  contrived  from  the  exterior, 
and  conduct  to  the  inner  cavities  which  serve  as 
storehouses  for  the  eg£s  and  larvae.  The  cen- 
tral part  of  the  nest  forms  a  sort  of  funnel, 
designed  for  the  drainage  of  water,  from  which, 
in  a  country  where  the  rains  are  often  abundant, 
they  could  hardly  escape  without  being  entirely 
submerged  if  they  did  not  provide  some  outlet 
for  it. 

The  "agricultural  ant"  myth  has  been  explod- 
ed by  Wheeler,  who  shows  that  these  ants  do 
not  plant  grass  seeds  or  "ant-rice"  for  a  harvest. 
It  is  probable  that  Lincecum's  error  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  sprouted  seeds  stored  up  and 
then  cast  away  as  inedible  take  root  and  thus 
form  a  partial  circle  of  tall  grass  around  the 
nest. 

Mushroom  Gardens. —  Moller  has  described 
what  he  calls  "mushroom  gardens"  made  by 
several  South  American  species  of  Atta.  The 
ants  cut  and  bring  the  large  pieces  of  leaves  into 
their  cellars,  then  cut  them  into  smaller  frag- 
ments, and  finally  comminute  these  still  further 
till  they  form  a  flocculent  greenish-brown  pulp. 
This  pulp  is  heaped  up  and  soon  becomes  in- 
vaded by  the  mycelium  of  a  fungus  (JRozites 
gongy lop hora).  The  mycelium  is  kept  aseptical- 
ly  clean  —  that  is,  free  from  all  other  species  of 
fungi  and  even  from  bacteria  —  and  induced  to 
grow  in  an  abnormal  way  by  bringing  forth  mi- 
nute swellings  which  constitute  the  only  food  of 
the  ant  colony.  Moller  likens  these  swellings  to 
the  koltlrabi  of  the  German  kitchen  gardens. 

Forel  has  studied  the  habits  of  two  other  spe- 
cies (Atta  cephalotcs  and  A.  sexdens)  in  Co- 
lombia, in  relation  to  this  process  of  collecting 
and  comminuting  the  leaves  and  in  cultivating 
the  mushroom.  He  has  found  that  the  largest 
workers  (soldiers)  triturate  the  leaves  and  de- 
fend the  nest.  They  draw  blood  when  they  fight. 
The  indigenes  are  said  to  use  these  insects  for 
closing  wounds.  They  induce  them  to  bite  the  two 
lips  of  the  wound,  and  thereupon  sever  the  bodies 
from  the  heads,  which  then  serve  as  a  suture. 
The  medium-sized  workers  cut  the  leaves  from 
the  trees,  while  in  the  nest  the  workers  of  the 


ANTS. 


Uppc   Sec. ion:— A.     Red    Ant   (Formica    tufa  l"i                           i     id.     ;.  Larva.     4.  Male.     5.   Pupa. 

6.  Female.     7.  Egg.      All    magnified.        B.  Horse  Ant  (1                                           1).     1.  Male.     ...  fe- 
male,    i.   Worker. 

Middle    Section:      \.      11    nej     Inl    (M;  ttexicanus).         B.     March    of  th<    I 
1  1       noma  cephalotes). 

I             Section:     1      Veil    v  Ants  (1             '  rith  Root  Lice; 


ANT 


minim  caste  are  forever  clipping  the  threads 
of  the  mycelium  of  the  Rozitcs,  which  then 
develops   the  kohlrabi  on  which  the  ants  feed. 

Wheeler  has  more  recently  excavated  a  large 
nest  of  leaf-cutting  ants  (Atta  fcrrcns)  in  a 
piece  of  woodland  in  Texas.  The  large  bur- 
rows, nearly  an  inch  in  diameter,  were  found  to 
extend  down  to  a  depth  of  from  three  to  five 
feet,  and  to  open  into  large  chambers,  some  of 
which  were  fully  ten  inches  across  and  five  to 
eight  inches  high.  A  few  of  these  chambers 
were  traversed  by  the  roots  of  a  large  cedar, 
in  the  shade  of  which  the  ants  had  dug  their 
formicary.  Mushroom  gardens  were  found 
heaped  upon  the  floor,  or,  more  rarely,  en- 
veloping, as  aerial  or  "hanging"  gardens,  the 
roots  that  extended  across  the  chambers. 

The  shape  of  a  mushroom  garden  is  that  of 
a  discoidal  sponge.  On  its  upper  surface  the 
ants  pile  up  the  flocculent  vegetable  debris, 
threaded  in  all  directions  with  fungus  hyphae, 
in  the  form  of  thin,  vertical,  anastomosing  plates, 
so  that  as  much  surface  as  possible  is  exposed 
to  the  atmosphere  of  the  chamber.  This  at- 
mosphere must  contain  a  great  amount  of 
carbon-dioxid  and  a  very  small  amount  of  oxy- 
gen. The  ants  leave  several  tubular  or  funnel- 
shaped  openings,  varying  in  diameter,  and  ex- 
tending down  into  some  chambers  excavated  in 
the  base  of  the  vegetable  mass.  In  these  cham- 
bers lives  the  huge  queen  of  the  colony  (an 
insect  nearly  an  inch  long),  the  newly-fledged 
males  and  virgin  queens,  together  with  the  lar- 
va;, pupae,  and  attendant  ants.  The  whole  mush- 
room garden  swarms  with  workers  representing 
all  the  different  castes  so  characteristic  of  the 
genus  Atta.  The  big-headed  soldiers  stalk  about 
slowly  over  the  surface  of  the  comb,  descending 
from  time  to  time  into  the  interior,  as  if  to 
make  sure  that  the  great  family  is  properly  at- 
tending to  its  multifarious  occupations,  while 
thousands  of  minims  keep  moving  about  through 
the  meshes  of  the  mycelium,  weeding  the  garden. 

Relation  of  Quality  and  Quantity  of  Food  to 
the  Production  of  the  Sexless  Workers. —  As 
is  obvious,  since  the  workers  rarely  lay  eggs, 
the  worker  caste  is  not  inherited  either  directly 
or  collaterally  from  the  parents.  The  view  now 
suggested,  and  supported  by  a  considerable  body 
of  facts,  is  that  the  larvae  on  hatching  are  at  first 
all  alike,  and  that  those  which  become  workers 
are  fed  with  different  as  well  as  less  food  than 
those  which  develop  into  sexual  individuals. 
We  know  that  the  differences  between  the  queen 
and  the  worker  bees  are  due  to  differences  in 
the  nature  of  the  food.  The  worker  white  ants 
have  been  found  by  Grassi  to  be  the  result  of 
having  different  food  and  less  of  it  than  the 
males  or  females.  Wasmann  believes  that  the 
large  workers  of  Polyergus  rufescens  ("ergatoid 
females")  are  produced  by  the  slave  ants  {For- 
mica fusca),  living  in  the  colony,  through  ex- 
cessive care  and  feeding  of  certain  larvae, —  that 
is,  that  the  fusca  workers  or  slaves  attempt  to 
change  worker  larvae  of  Polyergus  into  queens, 
but  succeed  only  in  producing  the  wingless 
ergatoids.  Emery  also  holds  that  the  sexual 
polymorphism  of  the  ant  colony  is  the  result  of 
the  development  of  an  instinct  in  the  workers  to 
feed  the  larvae  in  different  ways,  and  thus  the 
characters  in  which  the  worker  differs  from  the 
corresponding  sexual  forms  are  not  congenital 
but  acquired. 


As  has  been  said,  the  female  ant.  on  found- 
ing a  new  colony,  herself  lives  and  nourishes 
the  freshly-hatched  larvae  with  food  from  her 
stomach,  ultimately  from  the  fat-body.  Hence 
these  larvae  of  the  first  brood  are  poorly  fed  and 
become  small  or  dwarf  workers  (micro-ergate^ ). 
These  workers  leave  the  nest  and  bring  in  food 
to  their  half-starved  parent.  Thus  fed  she  be- 
comes more  prolific,  lays  another  batch  of  eggs, 
and  the  larvae  become  larger,  and  finally  change 
into  larger-sized  workers.  The  colony  thus  be- 
comes more  populous  and,  as  Wheeler  states, 
the  workers  of  successive  broods  grow  larger 
until  they  attain  the  full  stature  of  the  species. 
Then  and  no'  till  then  do  the  workers  bring  up 
the  males  and  queens,  which  are  carefully  herd- 
ed, fed,  and  groomed  by  the  workers  until  ready 
for  the  marriage  flight.  In  some  species  of  ants 
the  males  and  virgin  queens  do  not  appear  till 
the  second  or  third  year  after  the  colony  is 
founded.  In  a  few  American  species  of  the 
huge  cosmopolitan  genus  Phcidole,  Wheeler  and 
others  find  that  the  large-headed  and  small- 
headed  or  dwarf  workers,  are  connected  by  a 
perfect  series  of  intermediate  forms,  and  this  is 
due  to  the  varying  quantity  of  food.  After  an 
unfavorable  season  (autumn  and  winter)  of 
drought  and  cold  the  number  of  Pheidole  sol- 
diers was  unusually  small.  Thus  Grassi's  view- 
as  to  the  origin  of  the  polymorphic  forms  in  the 
termites  being  dependent  on  the  quality  and 
quantity  is  borne  out  by  recent  observations  on 
ants. 

Polymorphism  and  Variability  of  Ant  Castes. 
—  No  solitary  ants  are  known  to  exist,  in  all 
besides  the  males  and  females  there  are  workers, 
and  this  is  the  direct  result  of  their  social  mode 
of  life.  In  our  common  species  there  is  only 
one  kind  of  worker,  those  in  which  the  head  is 
of  uniform  size,  no  big-headed  ones  or  soldiers. 
But  in  ants  collectively,  though  not  in  any  one 
genus,  there  may  be  eight  sets  of  individuals, — 
that  is,  ordinary  males  and  "ergatoid"  males, 
ordinary  females  and  ergatoid  fertile  females, 
and  exceptionally  (Formica  rufa).  a  set  inter- 
mediate between  the  female  and  worker ;  there 
are  also  soldiers,  worker-majors,  and  one  or 
more  kinds  of  worker-minors.  The  adult,  sex- 
ually capables  though  wingless  forms,  are  called 
by  Forel  "ergatoids"  from  their  resemblance  to 
workers  (  ''Kpyar-qs,  a  worker ),  this  term  is 
applied  to  both  sexes.  The  worker  females  dif- 
fer from  the  normal-winged  female  in  the  lack 
of  a  receptaculum  scminis.  The  greatest  num- 
ber of  castes  in  any  one  genus  is  five,  occurring 
in  Eciton.  Cryptocerus. 

Wheeler  shows  that  polymorphism  and  va- 
riability depends  on  the  amount  and  nature  of 
the  food  and  the  increase  in  the  population  of 
the  colony,  and  on  the  care  and  protection  af- 
forded to  the  reproductive  individuals  of  the 
colony.  There  is,  on  the  other  hand,  little  va- 
riation in  colonies  which  are  poorly  fed,  and 
therefore  unable  to  increase  rapidly  in  number. 

Primitive  Ants. —  Two  primitive  subfamilies 
of  ants,  the  Dorylina;  and  Ponerinee,  appear  to 
have  been  evolved  from  a  still  more  primitive 
and  ancestral  group,  the  Ccrapachymc.  which 
Wheeler  with  good  reason  claims  to  be  "the 
most  archaic  and  generalized  of  existing  Formi- 
cider.  This  group,  species  of  which  occur  in 
Africa,  southeastern  Asia.  Australia,  and  the 
southwestern   United   States    (Texas)    is  repre- 


ANT 


ientcd  in  this  country  by  Ccrapachys,  which 
mines  the  ground  for  a  few  inches  under  stones. 
The  colony  appears  to  be  unusually  small,  the 
queen  is  wingless  and  the  workers  quite  blind, 
and  its  life  appears  to  be  wholly  subterranean, 
yet  possesses  senses  of  contact,  odor  (judging  by 
the  thick  antennae),  and  of  hearing  (it  has  "a 
beautifully  developed  stridulatory  apparatus, 
which  occupies  the  whole  of  the  large  membrane 
between  the  postpetiolar  and  first  gastric  seg- 
ment") (Wheeler).  This  form,  as  Emery  points 
out.  seems  to  be  the  nearest  of  any  ants  to  the 
MutiUida,  especially  the  genus  Apterogyna, 
which  has  an  ant-like  pedicel  to  the  abdomen, 
and  also  resembles  the  ants  in  other  features. 
That  this  group  is  also  a  very  primitive  one  is 
shown  by  the  plastic  forms  of  females,  of  which 
there  are  four  kinds,  significant,  as  Wheeler  re- 
marks, "as  the  phyletic  source  to  which  the  dif- 
ferent female  forms  of  all  the  subfamilies  of 
ants  are  to  be  traced." 

Slavery. —  This  phase  of  social  life  is  not  in- 
frequent among  ants,  and  it  reacts  upon 
the  slaveholders  by  rendering  them  helpless. 
Formica  sanguined  has  been  observed  in  Europe 
by  P.  Hul>er  to  go  on  slave-hunting  expeditions. 
They  attack  a  "negro  colony"  belonging  to  a 
smaller  black  species,  pillaging  the  nests  and 
carrying  off  merely  the  larvx  and  pupa:.  The 
victors  educate  them  in  their  own  nests,  and  on 
arriving  at  maturity  the  negroes  take  the  entire 
care  of  the  colony.  Polyergus  rufescens  is  also 
a  slave-making  ant,  and  Latrcille  very  justly  ob- 
serves that  it  is  physically  impossible  for  the 
rufescent  ants  (P.  rufescens"),  on  account  of 
the  form  of  their  jaws,  and  the  accessory  parts 
of  their  mouths,  either  to  prepare  habitations 
for  their  family,  to  procure  food,  or  to  feed 
them.  Formica  sanguinea  sallies  forth  in  im- 
mensely long  columns  to  attack  the  negro  ant. 
Huber  states  that  only  five  or  six  of  these  forays 
are  made  within  a  period  of  a  month,  at  other 
seasons  they  remain  at  peace.  Huber  found  that 
the  slave-making  PolyergUS  rufescens,  when  left 
to  themselves,  perish  from  pure  laziness.  They 
are  waited  upon  and  fed  by  their  slaves,  and 
when  they  are  taken  away  their  masters  perish 
miserably.  Sometimes  they  are  known  to  labor, 
and  were  once  observed  to  carry  their  slaves  to 
a  spot  chosen  for  a  nest.  The  Formica  sanguinea 
arc  not  so  helpless ;  they  assist  their  negroes  in 
the  construction  of  their  nests,  they  collect  their 
sweet  fluid  from  the  Aphides;  and  one  of  their 
most  usual  occupations  is  to  lie  in  wait  for  a 
small  species  of  ant  on  which  they  feed ;  and 
when  their  nest  is  menaced  by  an  enemy  they 
show  their  value  of  these  faithful  servants  by 
carrying  them  down  into  the  lowest  apartments, 
as  to  a  place  of  the  greatest  security.  Pupa:  of 
both  the  slave-making  species  were  placed  in 
the  same  formicary  by  Huber,  where  they  were 
reared  by  the  "negroes,"  and  on  arriving  at  ma- 
turity lived  together  under  the  same  roof  in  the 
most  perfect  amity.  Darwin  states  that  in  Eng- 
land Formica  sanguinea  does  not  enslave  other 
species. 

In  this  country  forays  of  a  colony  of  Formica 
sanguinea  upon  a  colony  of  a  black  species  of 
Formica,  for  the  purpose  of  making  slaves  of 
them,  has  been  not  infrequently  observed. 
Slavery  (duloris)  is  known  to  exist  only  be- 
tween ants  belonging  to  the  same  subfamily,  the 
species  of  only  four  genera  being  known  to  prac- 


tise slavery.  In  Europe  the  "paragon  of  dulotic 
ants"  is  Folycrgus  rufescens,  or  the  "amazon" 
ant,  as  the  workers  are  very  warlike,  though 
they  are  in  other  respects  helpless  and  com- 
pletely dependent  on  their  slaves,  dying  of 
starvation  if  deprived  of  them.  Darwin's  ex- 
planation of  the  origin  of  the  slave-making 
habits  is  that  they  were  originally  due  to  the 
predatory  instincts  of  ants  in  general,  seen  in 
their  carrying  off  the  pupa:  of  other  species, 
which,  becoming  stored  as  food,  and,  finally  de- 
veloping, would  in  their  new  abode  do  what 
work  they  could;  and  this  habit  of  collecting 
pupae  for  food  might  be  rendered  permanent  for 
the  purpose  of  raising  slaves. 

Sound  Produced  by  Ants. —  Certain  species 
of  ants  are  evidently  not  deaf,  because  capable 
of  producing  sounds  which  must  be  heard  by 
others  of  their  own  kind.  Thus  Myrmica  rubra 
has  a  sound-producing  apparatus,  a  strigil,  or 
file  on  the  seventh  abdominal  segment  (Janet)  ; 
another  ant  of  this  group  (Sima  lecviceps)  is 
provided  with  a  stridulating  file;  and  in  the 
ronerids  there  is  a  stridulating  organ  consisting 
of  a  band  of  very  fine  raised  lines  on  the  second 
segment  behind  the  node.  Other  ants  (Poly- 
rhachis)  tap  on  the  surface  of  a  leaf  with  their 
heads,  producing  a  sound  audible  to  human  ears, 
as  docs  an  Assamese  species  by  scraping  the  end 
of  its  abdomen  on  the  dry  leaves  of  its  nest. 

Senses  of  Ants. —  While  ants  may  be  blind 
and  deaf,  none  are  known  to  be  destitute  of  the 
sense  of  smell.  The  olfactory  organs  are  little 
sensory  pits  in  the  antenna.  It  is  undoubtedly 
by  means  of  their  sense  of  smell  that  ants  recog- 
nize the  members  of  their  own  nest,  and  those  of 
other  species  which  they  treat  as  enemies.  It  is 
probably  by  this  means  that  they  distinguish 
their  friends  from  their  enemies.  Thus  t  be- 
cause may  be  the  result  of  reflex  action,  rather 
than  any  special  degree  or  kind  of  intelligence. 

Parasitic  Ants  with  No  Workers. —  Such  are 
the  ants  of  the  genera  Ancrgates  and  Epoccus; 
in  the  former  the  male  and  females  are  helpless, 
incapable  of  leaving  the  nest,  and  dependent  on 
the  attentions  of  the  workers  of  another  genus 
(Tctramorium)  which  live  with  them.  This 
strange  relationship  seems  thus  far  inexplicable. 

Symbiosis  in  Ants. —  The  relation  between 
ants  and  plants  is  very  intimate,  and  it  assumes 
different  phases.     See  SYMBIOSIS. 

Commensalism. —  Ants'  nests  are  so  many 
apartment  or  boarding  hives.  A  vast  number 
of  beetles,  aphides,  cockroaches,  flies,  and  arach- 
nids take  up  their  abode  in  the  nests  of  ants, 
where  they  are  allowed  by  their  willing  or  un- 
willing hosts  to  feed  on  the  excretions  of  the 
ants  themselves  or  their  food.  The  fostering 
instincts  of  ants  thus  seem  to  be  extended  in 
various  degrees  to  their  guests  and  thus  lay  the 
foundation  for  this  semi-parasitic  community. 
Upward  of  1,500  species  of  Arthropoda  are 
known  to  live  in  more  or  less  cordial  relations 
with  their  hosts. 

Bibliography. —  Huber,  'Rccherches  stir  Ies 
Moeurs  des  Fourmis  Indigenes'  (Paris  and 
Geneva,  1810)  ;  Forel,  'Les  Fourmis  de  la 
Suisse'  (Geneva  1874)  ;  Lubbock,  'Ants,  Bees, 
and  Wasps'  (New  York  1894)  ;  McCook,  <The 
Natural  History  of  the  Agricultural  Ant  of 
Texas'  (Philadelphia  1879);  'The  Honey  Ants 
of  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,'  etc  (Philadelphia 
1882);    Emery,    'Beitrage    zur    Kenntniss    der 


ANTACID  — ANTARCTIC  REGIONS 


Nordamerikanischen  Ameisenfauna5  ('Zoolog- 
Jalirbuch,5  Vols.  VII.  and  VIII.  1893-4)  : 
Wheeler,  "The  Compound  and  Mixed 
Nests  of  American  Ants,'  'American  Natural- 
ist,' Vol.  XXXV.  (Boston  1901),  with  the  writ- 
ings of  Darwin,  Bates,  Belt,  Bethe,  Emery, 
Fabre,  Forel,  McShering,  Janet,  Lincecum,  Loeb, 
Mayr,  Wasmann,  and  Wheeler.  For  a  good  list 
of  the  chief  works  on  ants  see  Wheeler's  'Nests 
of  American  Ants'  ('American  Naturalist,' 
Vol.  XXXV.,  p.  815). 

A.  S.  Packard, 
Late  Prof.  Zoology,  Brown  University. 

Antacid,  ant'as-id,  an  alkali,  or  any  rem- 
edy for  acidity  in  the  stomach.  Dyspepsia  and 
diarrhoea  are  the  diseases  in  which  antacids  are 
chiefly  employed.  The  principal  antacids  in  use 
are  magnesia,  lime,  and  their  carbonates,  and 
the  carbonates  of  potash  and  soda. 

Antaus,  an-te'iis,  the  giant  son  of  Posei- 
don (Neptune),  and  Ge  (.the  earth),  who  was 
invincible  so  long  as  he  was  in  contact  with  the 
earth.  But  Heracles  (Hercules),  whom  he  chal- 
lenged to  combat,  perceiving  the  secret  of  his 
strength,  lifted  him  in  the  air  and  strangled  him. 

Antal'cidas,  a  Spartan  statesman,  chiefly 
known  by  the  celebrated  treaty  he  concluded 
with  Persia  at  the  close  of  the  Corinthian  war 
in  387  B.C.  The  peace  which  followed  was  styled 
"The  Peace  of  Antalcidas." 

Antali'kali,  any  substance  which  neutralizes 
an  alkali,  used  medicinally  to  counteract  an  alka- 
line tendency  in  the  system.  All  true  acids 
have  this  power. 

Antananarivo,  an'ta-na'na-re-vo,  or  Tana- 
RTVo,  the  former  capital  of  Madagascar,  situated 
in  the  province  of  Imerina.  In  recent  years 
it  has  been  almost  entirely  rebuilt,  its  old  tim- 
ber dwellings  having  been  replaced  by  buildings 
of  sun-dried  brick  on  European  models.  It 
contains  two  royal  palaces,  immense  timber 
structures,  one  of  which  is  surrounded  with  a 
massive  stone  veranda  with  lofty  corner  towers. 
It  has  manufactures  of  metal  work,  cutlery,  silk, 
etc.,  and  exports  sugar,  soap,  and  oil.  Pop. 
about  100,000,  of  which  but  few  are  Europeans. 
See  Madagascar. 

Antar,  an'tar,  or  Antara,  an'ta-ra,  an  Ara- 
bian warrior  and  poet  of  the  6th  century,  author 
of  one  of  the  seven  Moallakas  hung  up  in  the 
Kaaba  at  Mecca,  and  the  hero  of  a  romance 
analogous  in  Arabic  literature  to  the  Arthurian 
legend  of  the  English.  This  romance,  which 
has  been  called  the  'Iliad  of  the  Desert,'  is 
composed  in  rhythmic  prose  interspersed  with 
fragments  of  verse,  many  of  which  are  attribut- 
ed to  Antar  himself,  and  has  been  generally 
ascribed  to  Asmai  (b.  740  a.d.  ;  d.  about  830  a.d.), 
preceptor  to  Harun  al-Raschid.  See  Hamilton's 
'Antar:  a  Bedouin  Romance'   (1820). 

Ant'arc'tic  Regions,  the  name  given  to 
part  of  the  earth's  surface  surrounding  the 
South  Pole.  Its  limits  are  variously  denned  by 
geographers;  some  consider  it  to  be  co-exten- 
sive with  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  which  in  a  strict 
sense  is  bounded  by  the  Antarctic  Circle,  while 
others  include  also  that  portion  of  the  great 
Southern  Ocean  affected  by  Antarctic  influ- 
ences. According  to  the  latter  interpretation 
the  region  is  approximately  defined  by  the 
northern  limit  of  the  drifting  pack-ice  or  about 

Vol.  1— J5 


lat.  6o°  S.,  although  icebergs  are  sometimes 
encountered  as  far  north  as  lat.  45°  S.  The 
Antarctic  region  is  surrounded  by  a  great  ex- 
panse of  shoreless  water  which  further  north 
is  divided  bv  the  continental  lands  into  the  At- 
lantic, Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans.  The  area 
comprised  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  is  about 
8,200,000  square  miles. 

Exploration. —  The    early    explorations     into 
the  region  south  of  the  equator  and  the  discov- 
ery of  numerous  lands  gave  rise  to  the  belief 
that   a   vast    continent    existed   near    the    South 
Pole.     The  first  voyage  of  Capt.   Cook  in   1769 
showed,   however,   that    New   Zealand,   contrary 
to   the   general   opinion,   was  an   island,   and   in 
his  second  voyage,  in   1772,  it  was  proved  that 
the  continent,   if  it  existed,  did  not  extend  be- 
yond the  Antarctic  Circle.     In  1773  Cook  sailed 
south    again    and    the    following    year    reached 
lat.   71  °    10'    S.   in   Ion.    1060   54'   W,   where   he 
was  prevented  from  advancing  further  by  enor- 
mous    ice-floes.     No    land     was     seen    on     this 
voyage,  although  its  presence  was  indicated  by 
flights   of   birds.     In    1819   Capt.    Smith   round- 
ed Cape  Horn  and   sighted  the  South  Shetland 
1 -lands,   while  in  the  following  year  Alexander 
Land    still    farther    south    was    discovered    by 
Bellingshausen.     Morrell,    an    English   explorer, 
sailing    in    1822.    visited    the    Falkland    Islands, 
Bouvet  Islands,  and  South  Georgia,  and  reported 
that  he  found  the  temperature  of  both  air  and 
water    to    be    milder    the    farther    he    advanced 
southward.     Biscoe  circumnavigated   the   south- 
ern ice  region  in  1831-2,  penetrating  beyond  lat. 
670    S. ;    he   discovered   Enderby    Land    and    its 
southwestern   extension,   which   he   named   Gra- 
ham  Land.     Kemp   sighted   and   marked    Kemp 
Land   in   1833.     The   Balleny   Islands   were   dis- 
covered by    Balleny  in    1839,  and   D'Urville,    in 
1839-40,  made  a  long  voyage,  during  which  he 
visited  many  of  the  previously  discovered  lands, 
changing    their    names    to   make    room    for    se- 
lections   of    his    own.     The    latter    also    found 
Adelie    Land,    an    immense    tract    situated    far 
south   of    New   Zealand    and    stretching   for   an 
unknown  distance  toward  the   Prle.     The  voy- 
ages of  Wilkes  (1838-42)  and  of  Ross  (1841-42) 
were   of   great    importance,   especially   in    tluir 
scientific  aspects.     Ross  encountered  land  in  700 
41'  S.  lat.,  1720  30'  E.  Ion.,  which  had  a  steep, 
rocky    coast-line ;    farther    south    in    77°    ^2'    S. 
lat.   he   found  a  lofty,  active  volcano  which  he 
named  Mt.  Erebus  and  an   inactive  cone  called 
Mt.    Terror.     He   sailed    for   a   distance   of  450 
miles  along  an  unbroken  ice  barrier  rising   150 
feet  above  the  water.     During  the  next  30  years 
little  was  added  to  our  knowledge  of  the  Ant- 
arctic region.     Dallman  in  1873-4,  however,  vis- 
ited many  of  the  localities  marked  by  previous 
explorers,  and  was  able  to  confirm  their  reports. 
The  Challenger  expedition,  which  started  out  in 
1874,  returned  with  proof  of  a  floating  ice  bar- 
rier  and   also   accomplished   a    vast   amount    of 
oceanographic  investigation.     More  recently  the 
expedition   of  Gerlache,  who  penetrated  to   lat. 
71°  36'  S.,  was  fruitful  in  scientific  results  and 
added  over  100  islands  to  the  list  of  those  pre- 
viously known.     Borchgrevink,  a  Norwegian,  in 
charge  of  an  English  expedition,  passed  the  win- 
ter of  1898-9  in  the  Antarctic  and  in  the  follow- 
ing summer  reached  lat.  780  50'  S.,  the  farthest 
then  attained.    In  1900  he  set  nut  again  and  suc- 
ceeded  in   locating  the   south   magnetic  pole   in 


ANTARCTIC  REGIONS 


lat.  73°  20'  S.,  Ion.  1400  E.  Tlircc  expedi- 
tions were  fitted  out  in  1901  with  a  view  of 
testing  the  theory  of  an  antarctic  continent; 
they  are  in  charge  of  Scott  (English),  Von  Dry- 
galski  (German),  and  Nordenskjold  (Norwe- 
gian). In  March  1903  a  vessel  sent  to  relieve 
Capt.  Scott's  party  returned  to  Auckland,  N.  Z., 
and  reported  that  Capt.  Scott  had  reached  lat. 
820  17';  Ion.  163°, —  thus  penetrating  the  farthest 
south  recorded.    See  Polar  Research. 

Antarctic  Ocean. —  The  depths  of  the  Antarc- 
tic Ocean  have  been  explored  in  various  parts 
by  Ross,  Wilkes,  Nares  (Challenger  expedition), 
ami  Gerlache.  Ross  sounded  in  4.000  fathoms 
in  the  vicinity  of  South  Georgia  without  reach- 
ing bottom.  The  Challenger  found  depths  of 
from  1,300  to  1.950  fathoms  near  the  Antarctic 
Circle,  south  of  Australia,  while  farther  north 
the  soundings  ranged  from  950  to  2,600  fath- 
oms. Between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
Kerguelen  Islands  depths  of  2,500  to  3,100 
fathoms  have  been  reported.  There  seems  to 
be  a  gradual  shoaling  of  the  waters  toward  the 
pole,  for  Wilkes  sounded  in  500  to  800  fathoms 
off  Adelie  Land  and  in  100  to  500  fathoms  off 
Victoria  Land,  while  Gerlache  recorded  less  than 
200  fathoms  west  of  Palmer  Land.  The  bottom 
in  the  extreme  south  is  covered  with  a  layer  of 
diatom  ooze  composed  of  the  frustules  of  di- 
atoms which  lived  near  the  surface,  together 
with  shells  of  pelagic  organisms  and  debris 
dropped  by  the  floating  ice.  The  diatom  ooze 
has  a  chalky  appearance  when  dried  and  is 
white  or  yellowish-white  in  color.  Farther  north- 
ward the  bottom  is  covered  with  deposits  of 
globigerina  ooze  made  up  of  the  casts  of  Fora- 
minifera,  and  in  still  deeper  water  the  charac- 
teristic red  clay,  found  at  great  depths  in  all 
the  oceans,  occurs.  The  temperature  of  the  sur- 
face waters  of  the  ocean  range  from  a  few  de- 
grees lu-lou  to  a  few  degrees  above  the  freezing 
point.  Ross  reported  an  average  of  29.8°  F. 
south  of  630,  with  extremes  of  27.30  and  33.6°, 
and  the  Challenger  found  a  temperature  of  290 
F.  at  65°  S.  In  the  deepest  water  the  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  32°  to  35°,  or  about  the  same 
as  is  found  elsewhere  in  the  deep  ocean. 

Antarctic  Continent. —  The  question  whether 
there  is  a  large  land  area  of  continental  char- 
acter within  the  Antarctic  Circle  has  not  yet 
been  definitely  settled,  although  most  geogra- 
phers and  explorers  express  an  affirmative  opin- 
io m  based  upon  strong  evidence.  In  the  first 
place  land  areas  of  indefinite  extent  have  been 
sighted  by  Wilkes,  D'Urville,  Ross,  Kemp,  Bel- 
lingshausen, and  others,  and  these  areas  together 
form  an  interrupted  ring  about  the  Pole.  The 
mountain  ranges  and  peaks  discovered  by  Ross 
in  Victoria  Land  are  apparently  of  continental 
character,  being  composed  of  ancient  crystalline 

ks  and  rising  from  7,000  to  15,000  feet  above 
tin-  sea.  Granite  and  gneiss  were  found  by 
D'Urville  near  Adelie  Land,  and  Borchgrevink 
states  that  the  rock  at  Cape  Adare  is  mica- 
schist;  these  are  distinctly  continental  types. 
Indirect  evidence  is  furnished  by  the  materials 
transported  from  the  far  south  by  the  icebergs. 
Sandstone,  basalt,  and  boulders  of  massive  rocks 
were  found  by  Wilkes  on  the  ice,  and  the  Chal- 
lenger returned  with  fragments  of  gneiss,  gran- 
ite, diorite,  and  sedimentary  rocks  which  had 
been  dredged  from  the  floor  of  the  ocean.  In  ad- 
dition fossil  wood  and  shells  of  mollusks  closely 
resembling  forms  found  in  the  Tertiary  rocks  of 


Patagonia  were  discovered  on  Seymour  Island. 
The  great  icebergs  which  drift  far  into  the  re- 
gion of  the  Southern  Ocean  are  difficult  to  ac- 
count for  on  any  other  theory  than  that  they 
have  been  broken  off  from  a  vast  sheet  of  land 
ice  like  that  covering  Greenland.  The  meteoro- 
logical phenomena,  especially  the  system  of 
winds  prevailing  within  the  Antarctic  Circle,  in- 
dicate continental  land  about  the  Pole.  If  it  is 
assumed  that  Alexander  Land,  Victoria  Land, 
Graham  Land,  Enderby  Land,  and  other  lands 
sighted  by  explorers  represent  the  borders  of 
the  continent,  its  area  would  amount  to  ap] 
mately  4,000,000  square  miles  or  about  one  half 
of  the  region  comprised  within  the  Antarctic 
Circle. 

Antarctic  Ice. —  The  conditions  of  ice  forma- 
tion in  the  Antarctic  differ  materially  from  those 
of  the  Arctic  region.  In  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere the  polar  ocean  is  enclosed  by  [and,  so 
that  sea  ice  is  much  more  important  than  laud 
ice,  the  latter  occurring  only  on  the  edge  of 
the  area,  while  in  the  Antarctic  the  reverse  is 
true.  Enormous  masses  of  floating  ice.  flat- 
topped  with  perpendicular  walls  and  oftentimes 
measuring  many  miles  in  width  and  length,  are 
found  throughout  the  Antarctic  Ocean.  Wilkes 
and  Bruce  encountered  icebergs  3  to  90  miles 
in  length,  extending  200  feet  above  the  water  and 
about  1,800  feet  below,  or  about  2.000  feet  thick. 
The  newly  formed  bergs  exhibit  a  parallel 
structure  marked  by  the  alternation  of  strata  of 
snow-white  and  cobalt-blue  ice  in  horizontal 
planes.  They  have  evidently  been  broken  off 
ftom  the  edge  of  a  thick  ice-cap  covering  the 
Antarctic  lands  and  gradually  pushed  over  the 
surface  toward  the  sea.  The  thickness  of  the 
ice  near  the  Pole  is  estimated  by  Croll  upon 
theoretical  grounds  at  from  12  to  14  miles,  but 
such  an  enormous  depth  of  ice  seems  hardly 
probable.  Off  the  coast  of  Victoria  Land  the 
ice-wall  is  only  10  to  20  feet  high. 

Climate. —  The  climatic  conditions  of  the  Ant- 
arctic are  imperfectly  understood,  but  as  re- 
gards temperature  they  may  be  characterized 
as  extremely  severe.  Compared  with  the  Arc- 
tic the  region  is  placed  at  a  disadvantage  in  hav- 
ing its  summer  during  perihelion  and  winter  in 
aphelion.  Observations  made  by  Ross  in  tin- 
vicinity  of  Victoria  Land  from  6o°  to  "8°  S. 
showed  a  mean  summer  temperature  of  28.85° 
F.  for  the  sea  and  28.31°  for  air;  in  lat.  66°  29' 
S.  the  maximum  temperature  in  the  month 
of  December  was  45.52°  F.  Wilkes  found  the 
mean  temperature  for  January  and  February 
near  Wilkes  Land  to  be  30.2°  F„  with  extremes 
of  34.52°  and  23°,  while  Gerlache  reported  a 
winter  minimum  in  71°  30'  S.  of  — 45°.  The 
German  station  in  South  Georgia  gave  a  mean 
temperature  of  37.52°.  The  glaciation  of  the 
land  areas,  the  great  ice-floes,  and  the  saturated 
condition  of  the  atmosphere  producing  heavy 
fogs,  are  influential  in  producing  the  extreme 
cold.  Barometric  observations  by  Ross  indicate 
a  gradual  increase  in  pressure  south  of  75°  S., 
and  it  is  believed  that  an  area  of  extreme  high 
pressure  exists  around  the  Pole,  producing  a 
permanent  anticyclone  with  winds  blowing  in  a 
southeasterly  direction  toward  the  higher  lati- 
tudes. No  estimate  of  the  precipitation  has  been 
made,  but  the  atmosphere  is  probably  compara- 
tively dry  over  the  land  areas  in  the  extreme 
south  and  the  precipitation  is  in  the  form  of 
fine    ice    crystals.     Farther    north    there    is    a 


ANTARES  —  ANTELOPE 


heavy    precipitation    of    snow    and    sleet;    rain 
seldom  falls  within  the  ice-bound  region. 

Fauna  and  Flora. —  The  largest  of  the  Ant- 
arctic mammals  are  the  whales  which  frequent 
the  cold  waters  in  great  numbers.  Many  of  the 
species  are  similar  to  if  not  identical  with  those 
inhabiting  the  Arctic  seas ;  rorquals,  humpback 
whales,  pilot  whales,  grampuses,  and  dolphins 
are  known,  also  a  small  whalebone  whale  (Ba- 
lana  australis),  but  the  right  whale  does  not 
exist  in  the  Antarctic.  There  are  13  species  of 
seals,  including  four  of  fur  seals,  which  are 
closely  related  to  those  found  in  the  North  Pa- 
cific, the  sea-lion  and  the  sea-elephant.  Among 
birds  the  penguins  are  most  abundant,  their 
rookeries  being  found  on  the  borders  of  all 
lands  free  from  ice.  The  largest  species  is 
the  king  penguin :  a  specimen  captured  by  Wilkes 
measured  4  feet  6  inches  in  height  and  weighed 
65  pounds.  A  gull-plover  (Chionis)  is  found 
exclusively  in  the  Antarctic.  A  small  teal  fre- 
quents Kerguelen,  and  stormy  petrels,  alba- 
trosses, gulls,  skuas,  and  terns  breed  on  most  of 
the  islands.  Borchgrevink  found  II  species  of 
fish  in  Antarctic  waters,  most  of  them  new  to 
science.  Explorers  have  usually  reported  that 
fishes  were  scarce.  A  few  species  of  insects 
have  been  described  by  Arctowski  and  Borchgre- 
vink. It  is  believed  that  no  land  animals  ex- 
ist in  the  extreme  south.  Of  plant  and  inverte- 
brate life  inhabiting  the  Antarctic  Ocean  there 
is  a  great  abundance.  The  pelagic  animals  in- 
clude cephalopods,  brac'hiopods,  and  gastropods, 
which  furnish  food  for  the  whales,  ccelenterates, 
and  Protozoa.  The  deep-sea  fauna  is  much 
more  strongly  developed  than  the  shallow-water 
fauna  living  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Antarctic 
lands.  Thirteen  species  of  phanerogamous  and 
numerous  cryptogamous  plants  have  been  found 
near  South  Georgia.  Hooker  obtained  from 
Cockburn  Island  four  species  of  marine  alga, 
three  of  fresh-water  plants,  and  twelve  land 
plants,  the  last-named  mostly  lichens  and  mosses. 

Antares,  an-ta'rez  ("corresponding  to 
Ares"  or  Mars,  because  assumed  to  be  like  Mars 
in  color),  or  Alpha  Scorpii,  a  red  double  star 
of  the  first  magnitude,  the  middle  one  of  three 
in  the  body  of  the  constellation  Scorpio ;  much 
used  by  sailors  in  ascertaining  longitude. 

Ant'-bear',  the  great  ant-eater,  or  tama- 
noir.     See  Ant-eater. 

Ant-birds',  a  general  term  applicable  to 
members  of  certain  groups  of  birds  within  the 
Fonnicariida:  (q.v.),  a  South  American  group, 
all  of  which  subsist  largely  upon  ants.  They 
have  no  proper  oscine  or  singing  organs,  yet 
some  of  them  have  clear  musical  voices,  and  their 
notes  of  excitement  when  following  the  moving 
columns  of  destructive  tropical  ants,  feeding  not 
only  upon  them,  but  upon  the  insects  they  put 
to  flight,  are  a  warning  which  the  natives  under- 
stand and  heed.  All  these  birds  are  small  and 
long-billed.  The  sub-family  Thamnophilina  is 
made  up  of  the  "ant-shrikes."  The  "ant-wrens" 
belong  to  the  sub-family  Formicivorinte ;  and  the 
"ant-thrushes"  are  a  species  of  the  Formicarihuc. 
a  typical  sub- family.  The  pitta  (q.v.)  is  also 
sometimes  improperly  called  an  "ant-thrush." 

Ant'-eat'er,  a  name  given  to  several  quite 
different  mammals,  but  particularly  applied  to 
the  Myrmecophagidcc.  a  South  American  family 
of  Edentata,  with  the  head  extremely  long;  the 


snout  slender ;  the  mouth,  ears,  and  eyes  small ; 
the  tongue,  long,  cylindrical,  and  covered  with 
a  viscid  saliva  which  holds  whatever  insects  are 
licked  up  until  the  tongue  can  be  withdrawn 
into  the  mouth.  When  not  in  use  the  tongue 
lies  doubled  up  in  the  mouth.  The  legs  are 
strong  and  heavy;  the  toes  vary  in  number  in 
the  different  species,  but  in  all  species  are 
united  as  far  as  the  base  of  the  large  claws, 
which  are  adapted  to  digging,  but  are  turned 
under  the  feet  when  the  animal  walks.  The 
great  ant-eater,  or  ant-bear  (Myrmecophaga  ju- 
bata),  found  in  tropical  South  America,  is  a 
sluggish  animal,  forest-dwelling,  but  entirely 
terrestrial ;  it  grows  to  a  height  of  two  feet  and 
a  length  of  four  feet,  not  including  its  long  and 
very  shaggy  tail,  which  is  often  carried  turned 
over  its  back  like  an  umbrella.  Though  timid, 
it  is  capable  of  effective  self-defense,  using  its 
strong  fore-arms  to  hug  and  tear  its  opponents. 
Its  body  color  is  gray,  set  off  by  a  black  band 
which  crosses  the  breast  and  tapers  to  the 
top  of  the  shoulders,  and  by  white  feet  and  fore- 
legs. The  hair  is  long,  particularly  on  the  back 
toward  the  tail,  and  on  the  tail  itself.  It  is 
very  unsocial,  spending  much  time  asleep,  curled 
up  with  its  tail  spread  over  it  as  a  protection 
from  sun  or  rain.  As  more  than  one  is  seldom 
produced  at  a  birth,  the  great  ant-eater  is  not 
numerous. 

Another,  much  smaller,  species  (Tamandua 
tctradactyla),  which  is  also  tropical,  is  arboreal 
and'has  a  prehensile  tail.  It  is  about  the  size  of 
a  cat;  its  head  is  broader  in  proportion  than 
that  of  the  great  ant-eater ;  its  hair  is  bristly 
and  short,  black  on  the  body,  yellowish  white 
on  the  head,  neck,  fore-legs,  and  hind-quarters. 
A  third  species  (Cycloturus  didactylns),  the  lit- 
tle or  two-toed  ant-eater,  is  still  smaller  than  the 
tamandua,  and  is  also  arboreal.  Its  claws  are 
curved  and  very  sharp  for  climbing,  and  its 
whole  structure  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  life  in 
trees. 

Besides  the  animals  of  this  family,  called 
the  true  ant-eaters,  are  their  allies,  the  scalv 
ant-eaters,  or  Manids  (see  Manis),  the  aard- 
vark,  the  porcupine  ant-eaters  (see  Echidna), 
and  certain  insectivorus  marsupials  found  in 
Australia  and  belonging  to  the  genus  Myr- 
rnecobius.  Certain  birds,  such  as  the  ant- 
shrike,   are  also  called  ant-eaters.     (See   Ant- 

BIRDS.) 

An'tedilu'vian  ("before  the  flood"),  theo- 
logically referring  to  the  period  previous  to  the 
Deluge  recorded  in  Genesis.  Geologically  a 
term  now  disused,  meaning  before  the  waters  of 
the  earth  had  transformed  its  surface  into  the 
present  form  by  submergence,  erosion,  etc. 

An'telope  (Greek,  antholops,  a  horned  ani- 
mal), a  bovine  animal  of  the  group  formerly 
called  the  family  Antilopids,  now  placed  as  a 
subfamily  between  the  cattle  and  the  goats  in 
the  family  Bovida?.  Its  members  are  all  short- 
haired,  lightly  and  gracefully  built,  and  carry 
their  heads  uplifted  :  in  size  they  vary  from 
that  of  a  kid  to  the  height  of  a  tall  horse,  and 
almost  all  are  timid  and  fleet-foote.d.  Although 
no  very  definite  external  differences  separate 
the  antelopes  from  the  other  groups  of  the 
Bovidcc,  they  are  easily  recognized  by  these  gen- 
eral characteristics.  Popularly,  the  antelopes  in- 
clude such  widely  varying  species  as  the  goat 
antelopes  (the  chamois  and  the  Rocky  Mountain 


ANTENNATA  —  ANTHOLOGY 


goat)  at  one  extreme,  and  at  the  other  the 
American  prong-horn  (q.v.)i  which  has 
branched  deciduous  horns;  but  scientifically  both 

these  extreme  forms  must  be  excluded,  and  the 
term  confined  to  Asian  and  Vfrican  species  hav- 
ing horns  present  in  both  sexes,  the  cores  of 
which  are  solid,  and  which  tend  to  grow  upward 
rather  than  outward.  I"  these  rules  there  are 
exceptions,  however,  and  a  scientific  distinction 
of  the  group  from  the  cattle,  and  still  more  from 
the  slurp,   is  very  difficult 

Antelopes  have  heen  pronounced  the  most 
generalized  of  the  living  Bovidce,  and  conse- 
quently are  regarded  as  representing  the  form 
from  which  the  other  types  within  the  family 
have  descended.  Their  earliest  fossil  remains 
are  found  in  the  Miocene,  when  they  flourished 
all  over  Europe  and  Asia,  and  their  migration 
into  Africa  seems  to  have  been  comparatively 
recent.  When  Africa  was  first  explored  by 
Europeans,  however,  they  were  established  there 
and  had  so  enormously  multiplied  as  to  be  the 
chief  resource  for  meat  of  the  natives  and  of 
carnivorous  animals.  Colonization  so  wasted 
and  scattered  them,  however,  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  19th  century,  that  some  species  are 
already  extinct,  and  others  would  be  except  for 

preservation   on    private   estates. 

Antelopes  may  be  ranged  in  certain  groups, 
such  as  the  antelopine  gazelles,  including  many 
species  which  are  beautiful  in  form  hut  do  not 
often  exceed  30  inches  in  height,  with  goat-like 
teeth,  hairy  muzzles,  and  ringed  horns,  usually 
either  spiral  or  lyre-shaped.  This  group  in- 
habits deserts  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 
India,  and  among  them  are  the  ariel  ami  other 
gazelles,  the  springbok,  the  blackbuck  of  India, 
the  saiga,  and  various  others.  Another,  the 
Cervicaprine  group,  contains  the  little  African 
reedbuck,  the  small  klipspringer  and  rehbok, 
the  tiny  stcinhok,  and  the  larger  waterhucks, 
etc.  A  third  group  comprises  several  African 
forest-ranging  species,  among  others  the  pygmy 
antelope,  only  13  inches  tall  and  the  smallest 
known  ruminant.  Another  group  is  far  larger 
and  has  many  of  the  characteristics  of  cattle, 
while  still  another  section  diverges  toward  the 
goals.  The  largest,  most  beautiful  and  valu- 
able group  of  all  is  that  which  contains  the 
Indian  nilgai  and  the  African  bushbuck  and 
eland. 

There  is  an  erroneous  notion  abroad  that 
antelopes  all  live  in  large  bands,  or  even  vast 
herds,  that  roam  over  flat  plains  and  perform 
migrations  in  large  bodies  from  one  place  to 
another  as  scarcity  of  food  and  the  weather 
compel  them.  Instead  of  this  uniformity,  how- 
e\  1 ,  there  exists  great  variety  in  size,  shape, 
color,  speed,  agility,  and  habits,  in  adaptation 
to  the  varied  circumstances  in  which  they  live. 
Some  dwell  altogether  in  mountains  and  are  as 
expert  in  climbing  about  the  rocks  as  are  the 
goats.  Others  frequent  forests  and  rarely  leave 
their  shade.  Still  others  remain  entirely  among 
hills  where  dense  thickets  cover  the  rough  sur- 
face, and  dart  in  and  out  among  the  bushes  so 
rapidly  and  expertly  that  the  sportsman  finds  the 
greatest  difficulty  in  getting  a  shot  at  them. 
Aquatic  antelopes  exist,  especially  in  South  Af- 
rica, where  certain  kinds,  as  for  example,  the 
reedbucks,  spend  nearly  all  their  time  in  marshes, 
wading  and  swimming  about  and  feeding  upon 
aquatic  vegetation.  It  is  indeed  only  the  larger, 
stronger,  and  better-armed  kinds  that  can  endure 


existence  in  plains  where  they  have  little  means 
of   protection   against    leopards,    lions,   and   other 

enemies,  and  must  trust  entirely  to  escape  by 
Ihglit  or  by  being  overlooked.  The  result  has 
been  the  development  among  them  of  great 
speed,  but  this  has  not  been  accompanied  by  en- 
durance, since  few  are  required  or  tire  able  to 
continue  to  run  swiftly  any  great  distance.  As 
an  aid  to  their  safety,  nature  has  developed  in 
the  desert-  and  plain-dwelling  species  an  adap- 
tation in  color  to  their  surroundings,  making 
them  almost  invisible  when  lying  down  or  stand- 
ing against  the  rock  and  thicket.  As  a  rule  their 
coats  have  the  dull  colors  of  a  plains  landscape, 
the  only  somewhat  conspicuous  markings  being 
those  upon  the  face  and  tail,  which  serve  the 
purpose  of  "recognition  marks"  but  are  not  suf- 
ficiently large  to  attract  attention  at  any  great 
distance.  Sometimes  this  protective  color  of 
antelopes  is  very  striking,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
red  hartbeest  of  East  Africa,  winch  frequents 
the  open  country  where  the  soil  is  rust-red  and 
termite  hills  are  exceedingly  numerous.  It  is 
said  that  the  most  experienced  hunters  are  con- 
stantly deceived  by  the  exact  resemblance  be- 
tween one  of  these  antelopes  when  lying  down 
and  an  ant-hill. 

The  flesh  of  most  antelopes  is  regarded  as 
excellent  food  and  some  of  them  yield  meat  that 
is  most  delicate  eating.  The  hides  of  the  larger 
ones  make  good  leather,  and  the  destruction 
which  has  overtaken  the  race  in  South  Africa 
has  been  brought  about  mainly  by  hide-hunters. 
The  horns  were  put  to  many  uses  by  the  native 
Africans  and  Asiatics  and  are  still  in  demand 
for  the  making  of  fancy  handles  and  other  arti- 
cles of  ornament. 

For  additional  information  see  BlackbuCK,* 
Gazelle;  Gnu;  Hartbeest,  and  other  names  of 
groups  and  species  in  this  family. 

An'tenna'ta,  a  name  given  by  Lang  to  a 
group  of  tracneate  arthropods  embracing  his 
sub-classes  Myriapoda  and  Hexapoda  {Insecta) . 

Consult  Lang,  'Text-book  of  Comparative  Anat- 
omy'   (N.  Y.   1891). 

Anthol'ogy  ("nosegay"),  a  name  originally 
given  to  a  collection  of  short  unconnected  Greek 
poems  from  many  sources,  and  till  lately  applied 
only  to  that  and  its  various  enlargements.  In 
recent  limes  it  has  been  extended  to  any  col- 
lection of  detached  pieces  of  miscellaneous  au- 
thorship, prose  or  verse,  to  represent  a  lan- 
guage, a  literature,  a  country,  an  epoch,  or  any 
sort  of  subjective  idea  as  a  thread  on  which  to 
group  it.  The  most  famous  anthologies  of  the 
past   are  the  following: 

The  Greek  Anthology. —  This  originated  in  a 
class  of  poems,  invented  by  the  Greeks,— the 
epigram,  properly  meaning  mere  inscription,  and 
used  for  epitaphs,  votive  offerings,  or  other  com- 
memorative occasions.  The  modern  restriction 
of  the  term  to  mean  "short  pungent  witticism" 
is  due  to  the  characteristics  of  the  original  epi- 
gram imposed  by  its  uses. —  brevity,  pregnancy, 
singleness  of  idea,  and  purity  of  style.  Any  piece 
which  fulfilled  this  idea  was  later  called  an 
epigram  by  the  Greeks  themselves.  The  species 
was  thoroughly  developed  and  cultivated  by  the 
Alexandrian  school.  Polemon,  Alcetas,  and 
others  made  collections  of  poems  on  spe>...%* 
subjects:  but  about  80  or  90  b.c.  Meleager  of 
Gadara  in  Syria,  a  poet  and  rhetorician,  for  the 
first  time  made  a  comprehensive  selection  from 
all   the   best   Greek  poems   in   this   genus   from 


ANTHON  — ANTHONY 


Sappho  down,  46  in  all,  besides  contributing 
130  of  his  own.  He  called  it  Stephanos,  'The 
Garland' ;  and  so  great  were  his  taste  and  judg- 
ment that  no  other  collection  has  ever  averaged 
so  high  in  quality.  It  was  the  "Golden  Trea- 
sury" of  Greece. 

In  the  1st  century  a.d.  one  Philip  of  Thessa- 
lomca  enlarged  Meleager's  group  by  13  new 
poets  and  called  the  whole  '  1  he  Anthology.' 
Not  very  long  after,  the  sophist  Diogenianus 
again  supplemented  it;  and  under  Hadrian,  Stra- 
lo  of  Sardis  made  a  new  collection  called  the 
'Muse  of  Love,' — a  very  earthly  muse.  Under 
Justinian  and  after,  there  was  a  revival  of  epi- 
gram-writing by  a  literary  circle  of  whom 
Agathias  the  lawyer  and  Paulus  the  Silentiary 
(privy  councilor)  were  the  heads,  and  who  did 
some  very  beautiful  work  of  this  kind ;  and 
Agathias  made  a  fresh  collection  based  on  Me- 
leagcr,  called  'The  Circle,'  divided  into  books, 
and  for  the  first  time  arranged  by  subject. 

There  were  therefore  five  Greek  anthologies 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages.  About 
the  beginning  of  the  10th  century,  apparently,  a 
monk  named  Constantinus  Cephalas  made  a  fresh 
gathering  from  these  and  from  the  works  of 
other  epigrammatists  which  had  been  published 
separately,  classifying  it  after  Agathias'  fashion. 
For  much  of  his  matter  we  are  indebted  to  this 
collection  solely,  the  originals  or  earlier  editions 
having  perished.  Another  monk,  Maximus 
Planudes,  made  a  further  recension,  rather  by 
mutilating  Cephalas'  work  than  by  new  research  ; 
though  he  added  some  on  works  of  a>"*  and  some 
of  his  own  of  little  value.  His  edition  was  first 
published  at  Florence  in  1594,  and  was  for  nearly 
two  centuries  the  only  one  known  to  the  public ; 
that  by  Cephalas  discovered  in  1606  not  being 
published  until  1772.  From  its  being  found  in 
the  Palatine  Library  at  Heidelberg  this  MS.  is 
usually  known  as  the  Palatine  MS.  It  repre- 
sents over  300  poets  of  all  ages  of  Greece,  and 
therefore  all  sides  and  aspects  of  Greek  emotion 
and  poetic  art  as  well  as  intellectual  observation 
and  reflection,  with  the  greatest  brilliancy  and 
beauty. 

Through  all  the  tips  and  down  of  Greek 
civilization  this  series  of  poems  forms  a  living 
bond  closely  united  with  the  feeling  and  spirit 
of  each  age.  To  read  it  has  been  justly  com- 
pared to  excavating  an  ancient  city,  where  the 
strata  succeed  each  other  with  scarcely  percepti- 
ble change,  but  form  a  continuous  history  of  its 
development.  Dr.  Garnett  divides  it  into  four 
stages :  The  Hellenic,  of  which  Simonides  is 
the  most  typical,  characterized  by  the  bona  fide 
nature  of  the  inscriptions  (not  mere  literary 
exercises),  simplicity,  dignity,  and  transparency: 
the  Alexandrian  era,  of  which  Callimachus 
stands  first,  when  it  was  a  play  of  the  imagina- 
tion, often  anecdotal,  sportive,  amorous,  or 
satirical, —  much  richer  and  more  interesting, 
less  pure  and  sincere ;  the  Roman-Oriental,  of 
which  Meleager  is  the  greatest,  luxurious,  gor- 
geous, fanciful ;  this  passes  later  into  the  mod- 
ern epigram,  stinging  satire  and  lampoon,  or 
ethical  reflection :  and  finally,  the  circle  of  Aga- 
thias or  the  Byzantine  school,  imitators,  but  of 
real  power  and  originality,  of  genuine  feeling 
and  much  ingenuity  and  elegance  of  style.  Its 
effect  on  European  literatures  has  been  enor- 
mous; it  has  supplied  them  with  imagery,  tilled 
them  with  expressions  that  are  household  words 


with  us,  been  a  model  of  style  most  beneficial  in 
inculcating  brevity,  simplicity,  and  accuracy  of 
language,  and  a  treasure-house  of  information 
as  to  life. 

The  best  of  recent  translators  are,  in  verse,  J. 
A.  Symonds  and  Richard  Garnett;  in  prose, 
J.  W.  Mackail. 

The  Latin  Anthology. — A  selection  of  Latin 
poems  from  Ennius  to  about  1000  a.d.,  was 
formed  by  Peter  Burmann  the  younger  in  1759. 
The  Romans  had  nothing  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  Anthology,  though  collections  of  senten- 
tious thoughts  were  published,  and  individual 
poets  like  Martial  wrote  books  of  epigrams  and 
published  them.  The  great  Scaliger  in  1573 
made  a  collection  of  Latin  pieces,  and  Pitthceus 
another  and  larger  one  in  1594.  These  were 
added  to  by  others  from  time  to  time ;  but 
Burmann  edited  them  all  into  his  'Anthology 
of  the  Ancient  Latin  Epigrams  and  Poems.'  In 
1869  Alexander  Riese  brought  out  the  first  vol- 
ume of  a  better  edition  of  the  Latin  Anthology 
(2d  ed.  1894),  discarding  Burmann's  arrange- 
ment and  placing  the  poems  found  in  MSS.  first, 
the  inscriptions  following  in  another  volume. 
As  these  Latin  anthologies  had  no  literary  pur- 
pose, being  designed  only  to  preserve  all  frag- 
ments good  or  bad,  so  they  have  slight  literary 
value  as  wholes,  the  good  pieces  being  swamped 
by  grammarians'  exercises  and  conceits  of 
worthless  writers.  Being  mostly  of  late  date 
they  are  not  nearly  so  valuable  historically  as 
the  Greek.  There  are  also  Arabic,  Persian, 
Turkish,  and  other  anthologies,  including  several 
by  authors  of  the  United  States. 

An'thon,  Charles,  an  American  educator: 
b.  in  New  York  city,  17  Nov.  1797;  d.  there, 
29  July  1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1815  and  admitted  to  the  bar  1819, 
but  never  practised.  He  was  adjunct  professor 
of  Greek  and  Latin  at  Columbia  1820-30,  and 
full  professor  and  head  master  of  the  grammar 
school  connected  with  the  college  1830-64.  In 
1835,  in  connection  with  the  Harper  publishing 
house,  he  projected  a  'Classical  Series'  to  in- 
clude works  used  in  academies,  preparatory 
schools,  and  colleges.  It  proved  the  most  suc- 
cessful enterprise  of  its  kind  ever  undertaken 
in  America.  Of  the  more  than  50  volumes  ed- 
ited by  Anthon  the  following  are  the  best 
known:  an  edition  of  Lempriere's  'Classical 
Dictionary'  (1822)  ;  'Horace.'  with  notes 
(1830);  'Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  An- 
tiquities'  (1843)  :  'Classical  Dictionary'    (  1S41  ). 

Anthony,  an'to-ni,  Clemens  Theodor:  b. 
1755:  d.  1836.  King  of  Saxony,  who  succeeded 
his  brother  Friedrich  August  I.  5  May  1827. 
The  French  revolutionary  movement  of  1830, 
spreading  to  Saxony,  compelled  him  to  grant  a 
constitutional  government  in  1831. 

Anthony,  an'toni,  Henry  Bowen,  an  Amer- 
ican legislator:  b.  in  Coventry,  R.  I.,  1815;  d. 
1889.  He  was  graduated  from  Brown  Univer- 
sity in  1833  and  was  editor  of  the  Providence 
Journal  for  over  20  years.  He  was  governor  of 
Rhode  Island  in  1849  and  1850,  and  United 
States  Senator  from  1859  till  his  death. 

Anthony,  an'to-nT,  John  Gould,  an  Ameri- 
can naturalist :  b.  in  Providence,  R  I..  17  May 
1S04:  d.  in  Cambridge.  Mass.,  16  Oct.  [877. 
Leaving  school  at  12  years  of  age  he  followed  a 
business  career  for  35  years.    Hfc  early  developed 


ANTHONY  OF  PADUA  —  ANTHOSIDERITE 


a  taste  for  natural  history,  and  his  publications 
attracted  the  attention  of  Agassi/,  through 
whom  in  1863  he  became  head  of  the  concho- 
logical  department  of  the  .Museum  of  Compar- 
ative Zoology,  a  post  he  held  until  his  death. 
He  was  a  recognized  authority  on  the  subject  of 
American   Molhtsca. 

Anthony  of  Padua,  Saint:  b.  Lisbon  15 
Aug.  1195;  d.  in  Padua  13  June  1231.  Shortly 
after  his  ordination  to  the  priesthood  he  was 
deeply  stirred  by  the  recital  of  the  cruel  martyr- 
dom of  five  Franciscan  missionaries  whose  bod- 
ies had  just  been  brought  from  Morocco  to 
Coimbra,  where  Anthony  was  then  living.  Hav- 
ing entered  the  Franciscan  order,  he  soon  started 
for  Africa  in  the  hope  of  being  permitted  to  die 
for  Christ.  He  had  scarcely  landed  when  illness 
obliged  him  to  leave.  Hearing  about  the  general 
council  of  his  order  which  was  going  on,  he 
started  fur  Assisi,  where  he  met  Saint  Francis, 
the  founder  of  the  order.  His  profound  know- 
ledge of  sacred  things,  joined  to  his  sanctity, 
caused  him  to  be  made  the  first  teacher  in  the 
Franciscan  order  and  later  on  the  Provincial 
of  all  the  convents  of  the  order  in  upper  Italy. 
His  feast  is  celebrated  June  13. 

Bibliography.— Coleridge,  S.  J.,  'Life  and 
Works';  Meyer.  'I.eben  des  H.  Antonius>  ; 
Lepitre,  'Saint  Anthony  of  Padua,'  translated 
by  E.  Guest  (1903). 

Anthony,  an'to-ni,  Saint,  the  patriarch  nf 
-tic  institutions:  b.  near  Heraclea,  in  Up- 
per Egypt,  251  ad.  :  d.  356.  Giving  up  all  his 
property,  he  retired  to  the  desert,  where  he  was 
followed  by  a  number  of  disciples,  who  thus 
formed  the  first  community  of  monks. 

Anthony,  an'to-r.I,  Saint,  Cross  of,  a  cross 

in   the   shape   of  the   letter  T,  often   styled   the 

Tau   Cross.     In  heraldry   the  name  is  given  to 

two    stripes,    a    horizontal    and    a    vertical    one 

ng  in  the  middle  of  the  escutcheon. 

Anthony,  an'to-ni.  Saint,  Falls  of,  a  noted 
fall  in  the  Mississippi  River,  within  the  limits  of 
Minneapolis,  Minn.  (q.v. ).  The  entire  descent 
of  the  stream  for  three  quarters  of  a  mile  is  65 
feet.  The  falls  and  surrounding  scenery  are 
exceedingly  picturesque. 

Anthony,  an'to-ni,  Saint,  Fire  of,  a  name 
now  applied  to  a  form  of  erysipelas.  A  dis- 
temper of  this  character  became  epidemic  in 
!•  ranee  in  1089.  Many  miraculous  cures  having 
been  effected  by  the  imputed  intercession  of 
Saint  Anthony,  the  order  of  Canons  Regular  of 
Saint  Anthony  was  founded  the  next  year  for 
the  relief  of  those  afflicted  with  this  disease. 
The  order  continued  to  exist  till  1790. 

Anthony,  Sister,  American  nurse  and  nun, 
knov  entering    religion?;   life  as   Mary 

O'Connell:  b.  Limerick.  Ireland.  15  Aug.  1815  : 
d.  Cumminsvillc,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  18  Dec. 
She  came  with  her  parents  to  this  coun- 
try in  childhood  and  in  1835  entered  the  order 
of  Sisters  of  Charity  at  Emmittsburg,  Md.,  re- 
moving to  Cincinnati  in  1837.  there  to  take 
charge  of  work  in  Saint  Peter's  Orphan  Asylum. 
On  the  establishment  of  Saint  Joseph's  Orphan 
him  at  Cumminsville,  in  1854.  Sister  An- 
thony was  placed  in  charge  and  the  next  year 
she  was  transferred  to  Saint  John's  Hospital, 
where  she  remained  10  years.  The  terrible 
slaughter  at  the  battle  of  P'ittsburg  Landing  ap- 
pealed so  strongly  to  her  sympathies  that  with 


two  companions  she  accompanied  the  noted  sur- 
geon, George  C.  Blackmail,  to  Nashville  to  niin- 
to  the  wounded,  there  winning  her  title  of 
"The  Angel  of  the  Battlefield.*  She  returned  to 
Cincinnati  on  a  hospital  steamer  with  many 
wounded  soldiers  whom  she  cared  for  at  Saint 
John's  Hospital.  In  1866  two  prominent  Prot- 
estant business  men  of  Cincinnati  purchased 
the  United  States  Marine  Hospital  and  trans- 
ferred it  to  the  Sisters  of  Charity  in  the  hands 
of  Sister  Anthony.  The  name  was  then  chai 
to  "The  Good  Samaritan,"  and  she  remained  in 
charge  till  1882.  Not  only  was  she  in  charge  of 
various  institutions  of  her  order,  but  was  several 
times  procuratrix  of  the  community.  She  is 
buried  at  the  mother  house  of  Mount  Saint 
Joseph  and  her  grave  is  annually  strewn  with 
flowers  on  Memorial  Day  by  the  soldiers  of  the 
Grand  Army  of  the  Republic. 

Thomas    P.   Hart,    M.D., 
Editor  (The  Catholic  Telegraphy  Cincinnati,  O. 

Anthony,  Susan  Brownell,  American  re- 
former:  b.  South  Adams,  Mass.,  15  Feb. 
[820;  d.  Rochester,  X.  Y.,  13  Mar.  1906. 
She  taught  school  in  New  York  in  1835-50, 
in  1852  assisted  in  organizing  the  Woman  s 
Xew  York  State  Temperance  Society,  and 
in  1854-5  held  conventions  in  each  county 
in  Xew  York,  in  behalf  of  female  suffrage.  In 
1857  she  became  a  leader  in  the  anti-slavery 
movement,  and  in  1858  advocated  the  co-educa- 
tion of  the  sexes.  She  was  influential  in  secur- 
ing the  passage  by  the  Xew  York  legislature,  in 
i860,  of  the  act  giving  married  women  the 
possession  of  their  earnings,  and  guardianship 
1  i  their  children.  In  1868.  with  Mrs.  F.  C. 
Stanton  and  Parker  Pillsbury,  she  began  the 
publication  of  the  'Revolutionist,'  a  paper  de- 
voted to  the  emancipation  of  woman.  In  1872 
-he  cast  ballots  at  the  State  and  Congressional 
election  in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  to  tesl  the  appli- 
cation of  the  14th  and  15th  Amendments  of  the 
United  States  Constitution.  She  was  indicted 
for  illegal  voting  and  fined,  but  the  fine  was 
never  exacted.  Her  last  public  appearance  of 
note  was  as  a  delegate  to  the  International 
Council  of  Women,  in  London,  England,  in 
1809.  In  1900  her  birthday  was  celebrated  by 
an  affecting  popular  demonstration  in  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  and  she  retired  from  the  presidency 
of  the  National  American  Woman  Suffrage  As- 
sociation, which  she  had  held  for  manv  ye 
See  'Life  and  Work  of  Susan  B.  Anthony' 
(1898). 

Anthony,  an'to-ni,  William  Arnold,  an 
American  physicist:  b.  in  Coventry,  R.  I.,  17 
Nov.  1835.  He  was  graduated  from'Yale  Scien- 
tific School  i860,  and  taught  science  in  various 
secondary  schools  1860-67.  He  held  chairs  of 
physics  and  chemistry  in  Antioch  College  and 
Iowa  Agricultural  College  1860-72,  was  profes- 
sor of  physics  at  Cornell  1872-87,  and  consult- 
ing electrician,  Manchester,  Conn,  1887-93. 
Since  the  last-named  year  he  has  followed 
profession  in  New  York  city  and  is  professor  of 
physics  in  Cooper  Union  School  of  Science.  He 
has  contributed  many  papers  to  the  volumes  of 
the  scientific  societies  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

Anthosid'erite,  an-tho-sTd'er-it  (from  the 
Greek  anthos.  "a  flower,"  and  siderites.  "iron"), 
a  mineral  related  to  chloropal,  occurring  in 
fibrous  tufts  and  sometimes  in  feathery  forms 
resembling   flowers.      It   is   harder   and   heavier 


ANTHOZOA  —  ANTHRACITE 


than  chloropal,  is  usually  yellowish  in  color,  and 
has  the  composition  2Fe2O3.9SiO2.2H2O.  It  is 
found  in  Brazil. 

An'thozo'a.      See  Actinozoa. 

An'thracene(from  anthrax,  or  anthrac-, 
"coal"),  a  hydrocarbon  having  the  chemical 
formula  CuHw,  and  the  molecular  structure 


It  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  coal-tar, 
occurring  in  that  portion  of  the  distillate  which 
passes  over  at  temperatures  above  5000  F.  The 
"anthracene  oil,"  as  this  part  of  the  crude  dis- 
tillate is  called,  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  cold 
for  a  week  or  so,  until  the  greater  part  of  the 
anthracene  has  crystallized  out.  The  solidified 
portion  when  freed  from  the  mother-liquor  by 
pressure  or  by  a  centrifugal  separator  is  ground 
up  and  washed  with  petroleum  spirit  to  remove 
as  much  as  practicable  of  the  paraffin  and  other 
impurities.  Anthracene  so  obtained  is  then  sub- 
limed and  placed  on  the  market  as  "50  per  cent 
anthracene,"  although  it  may  contain  as  much 
as  65  per  cent  of  the  pure  substance.  Its  precise 
strength  is  best  determined  by  treating  a  known 
weight  with  boiling  glacial  acetic  acid  and 
chromium  trioxid,  and  observing  the  quantity 
of  anthra-quinone  that  is  formed.  The  crude 
anthracene  of  commerce  may  be  further  purified 
by  distillation  with  caustic  potash  to  which  a 
little  caustic  lime  has  been  added.  Most  of  the 
impurities  are  removed  in  this  way,  and  the 
product  is  further  improved  by  subsequent  wash- 
ing with  petroleum  spirit,  or  with  carbon  disul- 
phid,  and  finally  by  re-crystallization  from  a  hot 
mixture  of  benzene  and  aniline.  Pure  anthra- 
cene crystallizes  in  white,  monoclinic  tablets 
melting  at  4150  F.,  and  boiling  at  about  68o°. 
It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  dissolves  but  slightly 
in  other  common  solvents.  It  is  soluble,  how- 
ever, in  boiling  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  also  in 
hot  benzene.  It  is  used  in  large  quantities  for 
the  manufacture  of  alizarin  (q.v.).  Anthracene 
is  changed,  by  the  action  of  sunlight,  into  an 
isomeric  substance  known  as  para-anthracene 
(or  paranthracene),  which  melts  at  4720  F.,  and 
is  reconverted  into  anthracene  by  fusion.  See 
also  Coal-Tar  Colors. 

Anthracite,  a  variety  of  coal  distinguished 
from  other  coals  by  its  high  proportion  of  car- 
bon and  small  quantity  of  volatile  matter.  It 
has  a  conchoidal  fracture,  bright  lustre,  dense 
black  color,  and  superior  hardness.  The  per- 
centage of  carbon  is  variable,  ranging  from  a 
minimum  of  about  80  per  cent  to  a  maximum 
of  95  per  cent.  Anthracite  grades  by  imper- 
ceptible stages  into  bituminous  coal,  from  which 
it  has  been  produced  by  the  action  of  heat  or 
intense  pressure.  The  coal-seams  of  eastern 
Pennsylvania  are  included  in  a  series  of  strata 
which  have  been  compressed  and  thrown   into 


folds,  while 'westward  in  the  bituminous  fields 
of  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  the  strata  he  nearly 
horizontal.  Beds  of  bituminous  coal  are  fre- 
quently observed  to  grade  into  anthracite  in  the 
vicinity  of  igneous  intrusions,  as  at  Crested 
Butte,  Colorado,  and  near  Santa  Fe,  New  Mex- 
ico. Where  the  heat  has  been  very  intense, 
however,  the  volatile  matter  is  entirely  driven 
off  and  graphite  is  formed. 

Anthracite  occurs  in  extensive  deposits  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  The  most  productive 
deposits  are  those  of  eastern  Pennsylvania 
which  occur  in  several  detached  fields,  located 
as  follows :  The  Northern  field  extending 
through  the  middle  of  Luzerne  and  Lackawanna 
counties ;  the  Eastern  Middle,  between  the  Le- 
high River  and  Catawissa  Creek :  the  Western 
Middle,  between  the  eastern  healwaters  of  the 
Little  Schuylkill  River  and  the  Susquehanna; 
and  the  Southern,  or  Pottsville  field,  extending 
from  the  Lehigh  River  at  Mauch  Chunk  south- 
west to  near  the  Susquehanna  River.  These 
fields  comprise  an  area  of  something  over 
480  square  miles  and  are  classed  under  three 
general  divisions,  namely,  Wyoming,  Lehigh,  and 
Schuylkill  regions.  The  Bernic?  field  in  Sullivan 
County  produces  a  semi-anthracite  coal  and  is 
sometimes  included  with  the  anthracite  fields. 
The  strata  with  the  beds  of  coal  have  been  up- 
turned and  the  outcropping  edges  subjected  to 
long-continued  erosion.  The  most  important 
and  persistent  seam  is  the  Mammoth,  which  in 
the  Eastern  Middle  field  has  a  thickness  of  from 
60  to  90  feet  and  is  over  100  feet  thick  in  parts 
of  the  Southern  and  Western  Middle  fields.  Al- 
together the  workable  seams  number  15  or  more, 
with  a  total  thickness  (increasing  from  west  to 
east)  ranging  from  70  to  150  feet.  The  anthra- 
cite fields  of  Colorado  and  New  Mexico  are  of 
much  less  importance.  In  foreign  countries 
anthracite  is  mined  in  South  Wales,  Ireland, 
Belgium,  France,  Westphalia,  and  Russia,  and 
it  is  known  to  occur  in  very  large  deposits  in 
the  province  of  Shan-Si,  China.  In  the  South 
Wales  field  only  the  northern  portion  yields  an- 
thracite, the  rest  of  the  output  being  semi-bitu- 
minous and  bituminous  coals. 

Owing  to  its  cleanliness  and  freedom  from 
smoke  anthracite  is  especially  suited  for  house- 
hold fuel ;  for  steaming  and  metallurgical  pur- 
poses it  is  inferior  to  bituminous  coal.  It  ignites 
with  difficulty  and  burns  slowly  with  little 
flame,  giving  out  intense  heat.  The  amount  of 
ash  is  small,  ranging  from  15  per  cent  to  6  or  7 
per  cent.  The  color  of  the  ash  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  basis  of  classification  in  trade,  as  in 
Pennsylvania  anthracites,  which  are  denominat- 
ed white-ash  and  red-ash  coals.  But  the  color 
depends  entirely  upon  the  amount  of  iron  present 
and  is  no  criterion  of  the  value.  The  following 
analyses  show  the  relative  proportions  of  fixed 
carbon,  volatile  matter,  ash,  etc.,  in  various  an- 
thracites: 


Fields 

_  = 

r  a 

V 
> 

"9 

(A 

oa 
< 

Eastern   Middle,  Pa. . . . 
Crested    Hutte,    Colo.  . 

86.38 
Sj.81 
82.33 
92.42 

3.08 
427 
9.96 
5-97 

4.12 

3°9 
O.81 

I.62 
O.64 
0.8l 

5-93 
8.18 
6.9« 
1.60 

The  preparation  of  anthracite  for  the  market 
consists  in   freeing  it  from  slate  and  dust  and 


ANTHRACNOSE  —  ANTHRAX 


sorting  it  into  suitable  sizes.  Owing  to  the 
practical  absence  of  volatile  matter,  anthracite 
will  not  burn  unless  the  lumps  are  of  fairly  uni- 
form size.  When  hoisted  from  the  mine  it  is 
first  passed  over  a  screen  which  allows  most  of 
the  tine  coal  to  pass  through.  The  lump  coal 
is  then  sorted  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the 
shale,  and  slate,  and  the  pure  material  is  crushed 
between  rolls  and  screened  into  the  market 
sizes.  In  the  United  States  the  sizes  generally 
recognized  are  the  following :  Broken  or  grate. 
which  passes  through  a  screen  of  4-inch  mesh 
but  not  through  2.5-inch  mesh;  egg,  2.5-inch- 
175  inch;  stove.  175  inch.-i.25  inch;  chestnut, 
l.25-inch-075-mch  :  pea,  075-inch-o. 50-inch  ;  and 
buckwheat,  o.50-inch-o.25-inch.  Larger  sizes 
than  the  above  are  known  as  lump  and  steam- 
boat, and  smaller  sizes  as  rice,  mustard-seed, 
etc.  The  sizes  from  broken  to  chestnut  inclusive 
are  known  as  the  domestic  prepared  sizes  and 
constitute  at  present  about  do  per  cent  of  the 
output.  The  waste  or  fine  coal  which  commonly 
amounts  to  as  much  as  10  per  cent  of  the  ma- 
terial mined  is  known  as  culm.  Immense  heaps 
of  this  fine  coal  have  accumulated  at  the  mines, 
but  with  the  improved  processes  of  screening 
and  separation  much  of  it  is  now  saved  and  sold 
to  manufacturing  plants. 

The  growth  of  the  anthracite  mining  indus- 
trv  in  the  United  States  has  been  very  rapid. 
There  are  records  showing  that  Pennsylvania 
anthracite  was  used  for  fuel  as  early  as  1768, 
but  mining  was  not  carried  on  to  any  extent 
until  about  1820.  The  growth  of  the  industry 
from  this  time  to  the  close  of  the  century  is 
shown   in  the  following  table: 


1820. 
1830. 
1840. 
1850. 
i860. 


Long  tons 

36s 

174.734 

864.379 

.   3.358,890 

.   8,513.1-3 


Long  tons 

1870 16,182,191 

1880 23,437.242 

1890 36,615.459 

1900 45,107,484 


The  production  and  value  of  Pennsylvania 
anthracite  and  the  number  of  employees  engaged 
in  the  industry  during  the  period  1897-1901 
were  as  follows : 


1897. 
1898. 
1899. 

1900. 
1901. 


46,974.715 
47.663,076 
53.944.647 
51.221,353 
60.242.560 


79.301,954 
75.414.537 
88,142,130 
85.757.851 
1 12,504,020 


:?  w 


149.557 
145.184 
139,608 
144.206 
■45.309 


Almost  the  entire  output  of  anthracite  is 
consumed  as  domestic  fuel.  A  small  portion  is 
used  for  manufacturing  purposes  in  large  cities, 
but  it  is  being  gradually  superseded  for  this 
purpose  by  the  cheaper  bituminous  coal.  See 
Coat.. 

Anthrac'nose,  a  group  of  fungous  diseases 
caused  by  various  species  of  Gl<Pos[>orium  and 
Colletotrichum,  which  appear  upon  the  green 
parts  of  plants  as  roundish  spots  with  more 
or  less  sunken  light  centres  and  darker  mar- 
gins. They  often  cause  serious  damage  to 
cultivated  crops,  especially  grape,  strawberry, 
raspberry,  spinach,  egg-plant,  cotton,  and  cu- 
cumber,  under   which   titles   they   will  be   more 


fully    discussed.      For    methods   of   control    see 

1mm. 1 

An  thracother'ium,  an  extinct  pig-like  ani- 
mal, inhabiting  Europe  and  North  America  dur- 
ing the  Oligoccne  and  Miocene  epochs.  The 
teeth  are  intermediate  between  those  of  pigs 
.unl  ruminants,  but  it  is  not  in  the  direct  line 
of  descent  of  either,  forming  a  side  branch 
which   left    no  desi  The   name,   given 

by  Cuvier  in  1822,  means  "beast  of  the  coal1 
(Av6pa£  coal,  8r)plov  beast),  and  is  derived  from 
the  fact  that  its  remains  were  first  discovered 
in  the  Tertiary  lignite  beds  of  France. 

Anthraquinon'e,  an'thra-quin-dn'  (from 
anthra-cene -{•  quinone) ,  a  substance  derived 
from  anthracene  by  the  action  of  oxidizing 
agents,  and  used  in  the  preparation  of  alizarin. 
It  may  be  conveniently  prepared  on  a  small 
scale  by  dissolving  anthracene  in  glacial  acetic 
acid,  adding  potassium  bichromate,  and  heat- 
ing to  2120  F.  The  acetic  acid  is  then  distilled 
off,  and  the  anthraquinone  precipitated  by  wa- 
ter. On  the  large  scale  sulphuric  acid  is  used 
in  the  place  of  the  acetic  acid.  Anthracene  has 
the  formula  CuHaO:,  and  is  insoluble  (or  near- 
ly so)  in  water  and  alcohol,  and  but  slightly 
soluble  in  benzene.  It  dissolves  in  hot  sulphuric 
acid,  separating  out  again,  without  change,  upon 
cooling. 

Anthrax,  the  name  of  1  disease  occurring 
epidemically  among  herbivora,  chiefly  oxen  and 
sheep,  and  occasionally  affecting  man.  It  is 
also  called  malignant  pustule,  splenic  fever, 
wool-sorters'  disease,  charbon,  milzbrand.  It  is 
caused  by  a  rod-shaped  bacterium,  the  Bacillus 
anthracis,  first  seen  in  1849  and  isolated  in  1863, 
and  conclusively  proved  by  Koch  in  1876  to 
be  the  cause  of  the  disease,  this  being  one 
of  the  first  diseases  demonstrated  to  be  caused 
by  bacteria. 

In  man  the  bacillus  is  usually  acquired  by 
handling  the  hide  of  an  animal  having  died  from 
the  disease.  A  local  lesion,  the  malignant  pustule, 
is  formed,  and  this  may  lead  to  wide-spread 
infection  with  cedema  and  lymphatic  invasion, 
attended  by  fever,  gastro-enteritis,  collapse,  and 
death.  The  infection  may  remain  localized, 
however,  and  the  patient  may  recover.  Less 
often  the  infection  takes  place  in  the  respiratory 
tract,  the  patient  having  breathed  the  bacillus  in 
the  dust  arising  from  handling  hides  or  sort- 
ing wool;  in  such  cases  a  rapidly  fatal  form  of 
hemorrhagic  ccdema  may  develop.  A  still  rarer 
form  of  the  disease  in  man  affects  the  in- 
testinal tract.  The  bacillus  of  anthrax  is  one 
of  the    largest  of   the   pathogenic   bacteria.     It 

(    6-8    ) 
is  6-8  microns    i    .  „,,  \    inches    long    and    1.5 
i  2^,000  ) 

microns  thick,  being  a  short  rod  with  square 
edges,  and  growing  in  chains.  The  protoplasm 
is  finely  granular  and  it  forms  spores  about  the 
centre  of  the  bacillus.  It  grows  very  rapidly 
on  all  of  the  commonly  used  bacteriological 
culture  media,  best  at  a  temperature  of  350  C, 
but  its  multiplication  ceases  at  temperatures 
below  12°  C.  or  above  450  C.  The  bacilli  are 
readily  killed  by  temperatures  of  6o°  C,  but 
the  spores  are  very  resistant,  and  dry  heat  at 
1400  C.  must  be  applied  for  several  hours  to 
kill  them.  In  a  dry  condition  they  remain  via- 
ble for  several  years  and  will  resist  boiling  wa- 
ter for  at  least  five  minutes.     The  gasfic  juice 


ANTHRENUS  — ANTHROPOLOGY 


also  does  not  destroy  them  readily.  The  bac- 
teria are  found  in  the  blood  and  throughout  the 
organs  of  animals  dying  of  anthrax.  They  are 
particularly  numerous  in  the  spleen  and  in  the 
lymphatic  structures.  They  poison  the  body 
by  the  development  of  a  toxin  or  toxins  which 
in  turn  cause  degeneration  of  the  tissues  of 
the  body. 

Anthrax  is  one  of  the  diseases  in  which  a 
serum  therapy  was  instituted  early.  Thus  far 
it  has  not  proved  of  signal  service,  although  a 
protective  serum  has  been  made  by  which  an- 
imals may  be  immunized  against  the  disease. 

Anthrax  in  animals  is  a  comparatively  com- 
mon disease,  affecting  sheep,  cattle,  and,  more 
rarely,  horses  and  members  of  the  deer  family. 
It  is  rare  among  the  carnivora.  The  disease  is 
not  geographically  confined,  and  animals  in 
various  parts  of  the  world  are  affected  by  it.  It 
is  naturally  less  common  in  countries  in  which 
there  is  some  legislative  control,  and  rarer  at 
present  than  in  former  times.  In  Britain  the 
mortality  is  small ;  in  France,  at  one  time,  as 
many  as  10  per  cent  of  the  sheep  died  annually 
of  anthrax.  Since  the  modern  method  of  im- 
munizing cattle  has  been  introduced  the  mor- 
tality has  been  much  lessened.  The  symptoms 
vary  widely,  but  at  least  three  marked  groups 
are  observable.  In  some  instances  the  affected 
animal  develops  symptoms  of  extreme  collapse; 
it  drops  to  the  ground ;  the  pulse  and  respira- 
tion are  quickened,  there  is  difficulty  in  breath- 
ing, and  the  animal  dies  in  convulsions  within 
a  comparatively  short  time.  A  commoner  type 
of  attack  is  begun  by  symptoms  of  general  dis- 
tress, the  animal  is  "off  its  feed,"  the  pulse  and 
respiration  are  quickened,  chills  develop,  the 
temperature  rises  to  103  or  104°  F.,  bloody 
diarrhcea  occurs,  bloody  nasal  catarrh.  There 
then  may  develop  convulsive  movements ;  there 
is  rapid  loss  of  strength,  and  the  animal  may 
die  in  from  10  to  48  hours,  sometimes  at  the 
end  of  3  to  4  days.  A  third  type  is  characterized 
by  a  slow  onset,  the  lymphatic  structures  are  in- 
volved, they  swell  and  form  carbuncles,  which 
may  ulcerate.  General  symptoms  of  infection 
may  develop — the  spleen  may  enlarge,  bloody 
discharges  are  common,  and  the  animal  dies  of 
generalized  hemorrhagic  oedema.  The  diagnosis 
is  readily  made  in  all  cases  by  a  microscopical 
examination  of  the  blood.  Different  animals 
show  marked  variations  in  susceptibility.  The 
sheep,  save  Algerian,  ox,  guinea-pig,  and  mouse, 
are  all  very  susceptible,  but  the  goat,  horse, 
deer,  and  pig  are  less  often  attacked.  Man 
may  be  placed  next  in  the  order  of  liability ;  the 
white  rat,  adult  carnivora,  birds,  and  amphibia 
are  immune.  The  disease  is  conveyed  to  ani- 
mals largely  by  way  of  the  intestinal  canal.  The 
bacilli  are  ubiquitous  in  the  grass  and  hay 
about  an  infected  area. 

Preventive  inoculation. — Pasteur  first  evolved 
a  method  of  inoculation  by  an  attenuated  virus, 
a  sort  of  hardening  the  animal,  as  it  were,  that 
subsequently  made  it  resistant  to  the  virile  bac- 
teria. Although  other  methods,  notably  the  use 
of  anti-anthrax  serum,  have  been  used,  the  at- 
tenuated virus  method  seems  to  give  the  best 
results.  Surgical  methods  are  the  only  mode  of 
treatment   for  man. 

References. —  Pollender,  'Vierteljahrschrift 
fur  Gerichtliche  Medicin,  VIII.'  :  Davaine, 
'Comptes   Rendus   Acad,   des   Sciences,'    57,   p. 


220  et  seq.;  Koch,  'Cohn's  Beitrage,'  Vol.  II., 
1876.  For  all  later  literature  see  Flugge,  'Die 
Mikroorganismen'  ;  Sternberg,  'Manual  of 
Bacteriology'  ;  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry 
Reports,  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. 

An'threnus.     See  Carpet  Beetle. 

An'thropoid  Apes,  a  term  applied  to  those 
apes  (family  Simiidce)  nearest  in  their  organ- 
ization to  man.    See  Ape. 

An'thropol'atry,  the  worship  of  man,  a 
term  always  employed  in  reproach.  It  was  ap- 
plied by  the  Apollinarians  to  the  orthodox 
Christians  of  the  4th  and  5th  centuries,  who  in 
their  devotion  to  Christ  worshipped,  as  was  de- 
clared, only  a  man  in  whom  God  dwelt. 

An'thropol'ogy  (from  Greek  anthropos, 
man,  and  logos,  doctrine),  the  science  or  branch 
of  knowledge  dealing  with  mankind  in  its  most 
general  aspects  and  characteristics,  and  as  form- 
ing an  organic  whole.  It  derives  its  materials 
from  the  most  varied  sources,  and  rests  upon 
other  sciences,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
physiology,  psychology,  ethnology,  archaeology, 
ethics,  and  the  study  of  religion,  the  rise  of  arts 
and  science,  and  the  history  of  civilization. 
Anthropology  takes  account  of  the  totality  of 
the  moral  and  physical  characteristics  of  mar 
and  of  the  different  races  of  man;  deals  with 
the  ethnological  relationship  existing  betweef 
the  races  of  former  times  and  those  now  living, 
treats  of  man's  place  in  nature,  the  relation  in 
which  he  stands  to  the  animals  whose  structure 
most  nearly  approaches  his  own,  and  the  theory 
of  evolution  and  development  from  lower  to 
higher  forms  as  applied  to  man.  Anthropology 
considers  also  the  how,  when,  and  where  of 
man's  first  appearance  on  the  earth,  the  condi- 
tion in  which  he  originally  existed,  and  the  in- 
fluences, means,  and  methods  which  have  given 
rise  to  existing  civilization.  (See  Archeology; 
Civilization;  Ethnology;  Man.)  Consult: 
Tyler,  'Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Man  and 
Civilization'  (1881),  and  see  also  the  bibliogra- 
phy appended  to  the  next  article. 

Anthropology,  American.  Although  an- 
thropology, or  the  science  of  man.  is  sometimes 
classed  among  the  older  branches  of  knowledge, 
it  is,  in  its  modern  aspects,  the  youngest  of  all. 
Its  relations  to  the  older  sciences  are  seen 
clearly  when  the  object-matter  or  the  special 
phenomena  treated  in  the  several  sciences  are 
compared.  The  special  phenomena  considered 
in  the  simplest  of  the  sciences  are  cosmic  bodies 
controlled  by  gravity, —  that  is,  by  a  wholly  ex- 
ternal force.  The  phenomena  treated  in  the 
second  of  the  objective  sciences  in  order  of 
development  are  elementary,  and  their  sub- 
stances controlled  especially  by  affinity,  though 
incidentally  by  gravity, —  that  is.  in  part  by 
what  may  be  considered  intrinsic  forces,  though 
chiefly  by  extrinsic  factors.  The  phenomena 
dealt  with  in  the  next  science  in  order  of  devel- 
opment (and  also  in  complexity)  are  plants,  of 
which  the  essential  property  is  vitality,  which 
is  superadded  to  affinity  and  gravity; "and  the 
phenomena  are  controlled  in  considerable  mea- 
sure by  intrinsic  forces  maturing  in  heredity. 
The  object-matter  of  the  next  science,  or  group 
of  sciences,  is  animals,  whose  special  property 
is  motility  —  a  property  coexisting-  with  the 
vitality,    affinity,    and    gravity    of    the    simpler 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


sciences;  and  among  the  self-motile  organisms 
the  controlling  forces  are  largely  intrinsic.  In 
the  remaining  class  of  natural  phenomena,  or 
mankind,  the  special  property  is  that  of  men- 
tality, superadded  in  turn  to  the  special  at- 
tributes of  the  simpler  classes ;  and  through 
the  possession  of  this  property  mankind  rise 
largely  above  environment  and  pass  under  the 
control  of  essentially  intrinsic  forces,  merely 
adjusted  to  such  external  forces  as  those  of 
gravity,  affinity,  etc.  Viewed  thus  with  respect 
to  primary-object  matter,  the  sciences  are  seen 
to  fall  into  a  natural  series  expressing  at  once 
the  order  of  historical  development  and  the 
degree  of  complexity.  The  series  is  of  interest 
nol  merely  as  showing  the  place  of  anthropology 
among  the  sciences,  but  as  indicating  the 
breadth  of  the  foundation  on  which  the  science 
of  man  is  built  ;  it  may  be  deemed  the  offspring 
of  all  the  older  sciences,  and  borrows  methods 
and  principles  from  all  ;  yet  it  occupies  an  es- 
sentially distinct  field,  defined  by  a  special  at- 
tribute existing  only  in  organized  bodies  and 
playing  the  leading  role  only  in  the  single 
sapient  species  of  a  unique  genus  —  Homo  sa- 
piens. 

While  anthropology  treats  of  a  single  class 
of  phenomena,  these  are  of  such  variety  and 
complexity  that  the  field  of  the  science  is 
broad  —  indeed,  the  general  science  may  prop- 
erly be  regarded  as  made  up  of  a  number  of 
special  sciences  of  which  several  were  cultivated 
long  before  the  full  extent  of  the  human  sci- 
ence was  appreciated.  The  order  of  develop- 
ment of  these  special  sciences  is  of  much  in- 
terest, and  well  illustrates  (as  does  the  history 
of  science  in  general)  the  passage  of  definite 
science  from  the  abnormal  to  the  normal  and 
from  the  remote  to  the  near.  Probably  the  first 
of  the  anthropologic  sciences  which  came  up  in 
prehistoric  times  was  pathology :  certainly  the 
ieast  developed  savages  known  to  students  are 
cognizant  of  pathologic  conditions  and  possess 
systems  of  action  and  thought  connected  with 
those  conditions.  Probably,  too,  the  second 
germ  of  definite  knowledge  related  to  physi- 
ology ;  for  primitive  folk  usually  display  some 
notion  of  the  normal  reverse  of  pathologic  con- 
ditions, and  impute  physiologic  properties  to 
animate  and  other  bodies  even  before  the  or- 
gans are  clearly  defined.  It  is  probable  also 
that  a  mystical  etiology  followed,  leading  to  a 
thaumaturgic  or  sortilcgic  practice  which  may 
be  called  primitive  medicine  and  surgery;  cer- 
tainly during  prehistoric  times  such  major 
operations  as  trepanning  were  performed  in 
many  widely  separated  regions,  with  greater 
frequency  than  in  modern  hospital  practice,  and 
with  fair  if  not  excellent  success,  despite  the 
fact  that  the  diagnosis  was  wholly  irrational 
and  the  apparatus  and  processes  astonishingly 
crude.  Within  the  historical  period  these  primi- 
tive systems  were  gradually  rendered  definite 
and  rational  chiefly  through  the  practice  of  the 
healing  art ;  and  as  the  spirit  of  exploration 
and  discovery  advanced,  thought  was  stimu- 
lated by  observations  on  other  races ;  yet  it  was 
not  until  after  Linne,  Cuvier,  and  others  laid 
the  foundations  for  botany  (or  phytology)  and 
zoology  that  the  science  of  man  began  to  take 
definite  form.  In  the  centuries  from  Linne  to 
Darwin  and  Huxley  man  was  regarded  either 
as  entirely  outside  the  domain  of  scientific  re- 


search or  else  as  an  animal  genus  merely ;  and 
during   this  period   most  students   were  content 
to    investigate    the    purely    physical     (and    indi- 
vidual)   characters  of  the  genus.     Through   the 
researches  of  the  tunes  anthropology  was  raised 
to  a   place  among   the  recognized   sciences,  and 
various  special  methods   were  introduced,  nota- 
bly,    anthropometry     (including    craniometry); 
the  science  of  the  time  being  that  which  is  now 
commonly     called     physical     anthropology,     or 
somatology.     Concurrently    with     the    objective 
investigations,   studies    of   the   mental   attributes 
of  mankind  were  carried   forward,  and  a  fairly 
definite  system  of  introspective  psychology  grew 
up.     The  development  of  physical  anthropology 
and    introspective    psychology    may    he    deemed 
the  gift  of  Europe  and   of   17  centuries   to   the 
science  of  man.     With  the  extension  of  coloni- 
zation  in  America,   the   pioneers   were  brought 
into  contact   with   alien   tribes;   these   were   ob- 
jects first  of  curiosity  and  afterward  of  careful 
study    with    a    view    to    the    maintenance    of 
amicable    relations.     The    great    lesson    of    tin- 
contact   was  the  discovery  that  the  actions  and 
thoughts    (or   the    conduct)    of   the   alien    folk 
were  of  immeasurably  greater  consequence  than 
their  physical  characters.     It  was  soon  perceived 
that  the  key  to  primitive  thought  is  the  language 
by   which    it    is   expressed;   and   John    Eliot,   in 
Massachusetts,    with    scores    of    other    students 
and  missionaries,  mastered  the  languages  of  the 
tribesmen  with  the  view  of  promoting  harmony 
and    friendship.     The    early    work    was   that   of 
philanthropists   and   statesmen    rather  than    sci- 
entists;   but    Gallatin    went    so    far   beyond    his 
predecessors  as  to  classify  the  American  abori- 
gines on   the  basis  of  language,  thereby  laying 
the   foundation    for   a   new    anthropology,    or   a 
science  of  human  activities.     Morgan   extended 
the    study    to    the    social    organization    of    the 
tribes,   and   Brinton   to   their  mythologic  or   re- 
ligious    systems;     while,     still     later,      Powell 
brought    the    earlier    studies    together    and    de- 
veloped the   science  of  human   activities,   which 
he  called  demology,  or  demonomy.     It  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  unit  of  demology  is  not  the  indi- 
vidual,   as    in    physical    anthropology   or    soma- 
tology,  but   the   group  —  the   pair,   family,   clan, 
tribe,  city,  or  nation.     This  science  itself  covers 
so  broad  a  field  that  subdivision  has  been  found 
convenient.     Accordingly    recent   workers  recog- 
nize a  science  of  arts,  or  cesthetology,  treating 
of   the   characters   and    the   natural   history    (or 
development)   of  aesthetic  symbols  and  devices; 
a    science   of   industries,    or   technology,    which 
treats  similarly  of  implements,  tools,  machines, 
and  other  industrial  instrumentalities;  a  science 
of  laws,  or  sociology,  dealing  with  the  charac- 
ters and  development  of  social  organization  and 
institutions;  a  science  of  languages,  or  philology, 
devoted  to  the  study  of  human  speech  and  writ- 
ing;  and   a    science    of   philosophies,   including 
myths,  opinions,  beliefs,  and  attendant   customs 
and   observances,    which    is   conveniently    called 
sophiology.     With  the  progress  of  research  and 
the  definition  of  the  special  sciences    it  became 
clear    to    American     students    that    while    the 
human    characters    may    conveniently   be    inter- 
preted in  terms  of  physical  activities,  they  may 
be  still  more  conveniently  and  simply  expressed 
in   terms   of  psychic  or  mental  activities.     Fol- 
lowing this  mode  of   interpretation   it  has  been 
found  feasible  to  classify  mankind  in  four  great 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


groups,  each  representing  a  fairly  well-defined 
stage  in  intellectual,  social,  and  moral  develop- 
ment. The  first  of  these  stages  is  that  com- 
monly called  savagery,  in  which  law  is  based 
on  kinship  traced  in  the  female  line,  and  in 
which  language  and  belief,  as  well  as  the  arts 
and  industries,  are  more  or  less  inchoate.  The 
second  is  that  of  barbarism,  or  patriarchy,  in 
which  the  law  rests  on  kinship  traced  in  the 
paternal  line,  and  in  which  arts,  industries,  lan- 
guages, and  faiths  attain  distinctive  develop- 
ment. The  third  (sometimes  connected  with 
the  second  through  feudal  systems)  is  that  of 
civilization,  or  the  phase  of  civilization  charac- 
terized by  monarchical  government,  in  which  the 
law  rests  on  recognition  of  property  right,  espe- 
cially in  land ;  this  stage  is  characterized  by 
writing,  conventional  art,  differentiated  indus- 
tries, and  especially  by  the  Christian  religion. 
The  fourth  stage  is  that  properly  called  en- 
lightenment, in  which  the  law  rests  on  recogni- 
tion of  human  rights  to  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness,  and  in  which  arts  are 
perfected,  industries  multiplied,  languages  blent 
and  simplified,  and  faiths  refined  and  ennobled. 
The  recognition  of  these  stages  reacted  on  the 
primary  motive  of  modern  anthropology,  and 
led  to  a  clearer  view  of  the  significance  of 
mentality  not  only  in  human  affairs  but  in  the 
economy  of  the  universe.  Accordingly  an- 
thropology may  be  said  to  have  contributed  to 
human  knowledge  one  of  the  five  cardinal  prin- 
ciples of  science.  The  first  of  these,  contributed 
chiefly  by  chemistry,  is  the  indestructibility  of 
matter ;  the  second,  established  by  the  aid  of 
several  sciences,  is  the  conservation  of  energy 
or  the  persistence  of  motion ;  the  third,  derived 
largely  from  biology,  is  the  development  of 
species ;  the  fourth,  obtained  by  comparison  of 
several  sciences,  is  the  uniformity  of  Nature ; 
while  the  fifth,  contributed  by  modern  an- 
thropology (although  forecast  by  Bacon  in  his 
Novum  Organum)  is  the  responsivity  of  mind. 
The  applications  of  these  principles,  especially 
that  last  named,  are  innumerable  and  highly 
useful ;  in  large  measure  they  give  shape  to  the 
anthropologic  researches  of  recent  times. 

Various  instrumentalities  for  anthropologic 
research  have  grown  up  in  America,  especially 
during  the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  century. 
Perhaps  the  most  efficient  of  these  is  the  Bu- 
reau of  American  Ethnology,  established  in 
1879  through  the  efforts  of  J.  W.  Powell ;  its 
work  has  been  directed  wholly  to  the  aborigines, 
yet  the  researches  have  been  so  shaped  as  to 
bring  out  the  essential  principles  of  demology, 
or  the  science  of  mankind  considered  in  a  col- 
lective aspect.  Important  investigations  have 
been  conducted  also  in  various  museums, 
notably,  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory in  New  York,  whose  work  has  been  great- 
ly enhanced  through  the  Jesup  North  Pacific 
expeditions,  organized  as  a  part  of  the  Museum 
establishment.  The  Peabody  Museum  connect- 
ed with  Harvard  University,  the  Field  Colum- 
bian Museum  of  Chicago,  the  Free  Museum 
attached  to  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
Golden  Gate  Park  Museum  of  San  Francisco, 
and  the  Carnegie  Museum  of  Pittsburg,  have 
also  made  rich  contributions  to  the  science  of 
anthropology  in  America,  while  the  United 
States  National  Museum  has  been  a  centre  of 
richly    productive    activity.     Various    volunteer 


organizations  have  served  to  guide  and  co-ordi- 
nate the  work  of  individual  investigators.  One 
of  the  most  influential  of  these  has  been  the 
Anthropological  Society  of  Washington,  a  pio- 
neer in  systemizing  anthropology.  It  is  organ- 
ized in  sections  corresponding  to  the  principal 
divisions  of  the  science,  namely :  A,  somatology ; 
B,  psychology ;  C,  sesthetology ;  D,  technology ; 
E,  sociology;  F,  philology;  G,  sophiology.  An- 
other efficient  organization  is  the  American 
Ethnological  Society,  with  headquarters  in  New 
York ;  while  the  section  of  anthropology  of 
the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science  until  recently  afforded  the  sole  op- 
portunity for  national  gatherings  of  anthro- 
pologists. The  Archaeological  Institute  of 
America  and  the  American  Folk-Lore  Society 
may  be  said  to  occupy  portions  of  the  field ; 
and  a  number  of  other  societies  and  sections 
have  encouraged  research.  In  the  summer  of 
1902  a  national  organization  of  anthropologists 
was  created,  under  the  title  American  Anthro- 
pological Association;  its  membership  includes 
the  leading  anthropologists  of  America.  Sev- 
eral universities  and  colleges  support  anthro- 
pology either  through  established  chairs  or 
otherwise;  Columbia,  California,  Chicago,  and 
Harvard  offer  excellent  facilities  for  both  in- 
struction and  research  in  anthropology. 

As  customarily  defined  in  American  writing, 
anthropology  includes  ethnology  and  arche- 
ology, but  does'  not  embrace  the  closely  cognate 
science  of  psychology.  This  science  has  been 
successfully  cultivated  in  America  during  re- 
cent years ;  departments  of  experimental 
psychology  are  maintained  in  several  universi- 
ties, two  or  three  excellent  journals  are  con- 
ducted, and  the  experimental  science  is  co-ordi- 
nated with  the  older,  or  introspective,  psychology 
so  effectively  that  America  must  be  placed  in  the 
foremost  rank,  if  not  in  the  lead,  of  the  coun- 
tries in  which  the  science  is  undergoing  devel- 
opment. The  special  instrumentalities  and  re- 
sults are  indicated  elsewhere. 

Ethnology,  or  the  science  of  races,  ranks 
among  the  more  important  aspects  of  anthro- 
pology. Until  the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury it  was  customary  to  define  the  races  of 
mankind  on  the  basis  of  color,  character  of  hair, 
form  of  head,  stature,  color  and  attitude  of 
eyes,  and  various  other  physical  characters ; 
and  most  of  the  applications  of  anthropometry 
and  craniometry  were  made  in  connection  with 
the  description  of  races  (ethnography)  or  in  the 
systematic  classification  and  discussion  to  which 
the  term  ethnology  is  properly  applied.  The 
ethnic  characters  recognized  by  various  students 
are  numerous  and  diverse :  many  are  of  local 
or  special  value  only ;  and  the  definitions  of 
races  have  been  nearly  as  numerous  as  the 
writers  on  ethnologic  subjects.  The  number  of 
human  races  recognized  by  different  authors 
varies  from  four  or  five  to  several  score;  but 
the  modern  tendency  is  to  recognize  only  four 
or  five  leading  types  as  ethnic  varieties,  or  dis- 
tinct races  of  mankind,  namely,  (1)  the  Cauca- 
sian or  white  race,  (2)  the  Mongolian  or  yellow 
race,  (3)  the  Malayan  or  brown  race,  (4)  the 
American  or  red  race,  and  (5)  the  African  or 
black  race.  The  principal  American  contribu- 
tions to  the  subject  of  ethnology  have  been 
made  since  1875,  when  Powell  began  the  classi- 
fication of  the  aboriginal  tribes  on  the  demotic 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


basis, —  that  is,  on  the  basis  of  the  human  ac- 
tivities. As  the  studies  pr  I  was  found 
that  the  native  tribes  (and  other  primitive  peo- 
ples as  well)  might  be  classified  on  the  basis  of 
aesthetic  or  industrial  character,  on  the  basis 
of  belief,  or  mythology,  and  still  more  satisfac- 
torily on  the  basis  of  social  organization,  or 
law ;  but  that  the  most  convenient  classification 
was  that  on  the  basis  of  language.  Accordingly 
Gallatin's  classification  was  revived  and  ex- 
tended to  the  aborigines  of  North  America 
(chiefly  north  of  Mexico;  ;  and  the  thousand 
or  more  tribes  known  through  current  research 
and  early  record  were  grouped  in  some  (X)  lin- 
guistic stocks.  These  are  as  follows,  in  alpha- 
betic but  not  geographical  order: 


Tribes 

Alzonquian    36 

Athapascan    53 

Attacapan    2 

Beothukan    1 

a    9 

Chimakuan 2 

Chimarikan    2 

Chimmesyan 8 

•  an    II 

Chitimachan    1 

Chumashan    6 

Coahuiltecan    J  J 

11    22 

lan    5 

Eskimauan   70 

aian    1 

Iroquoian   13 

Kalapooian     8 

Karankawan    1 

Tl        17 

Kiowan  1 

kitun.ilian    4 

Koluschan    1  2 

Kulanapan   30 

4 

Latuamian    4 

Mariposan    24 

Uoquelumnan   35 

Muskhopean    9 

Nahuatlan    ? 


Tribes 

Natchesan    2 

Palaihmhan    3 

Piman   7 

Pujunan    26 

guoratean    3 
alinan   2 

Salisban   64 

Sastean   1 

Serian 3 

Shahaptian   7 

Shoshonean    12 

Siouan    68 

Skittagetan    1/ 

Takilman    I 

Tanoan     14 

Timuquanan    60 

Tonikan    3 

Tonkawan    1 

Uchean     1 

VVaiilatpuan    2 

Wakasban    37 

Washoan     I 

Weitspekan    6 

Wishoskan  3 

Yakoan   4 

Vanan      I 

Yukian    S 

Yuman    9 

Zunian    1 


In  connection  with  the  classification  of  the 
tribes  much  information  has  been  gained  as  to 
the  migrations  and  other  movements  of  the 
aborigines.  As  indicated  by  the  linguistic 
diversity,  the  red  race  is  by  no  means  to  be 
considered  a  unit ;  it  comprises,  on  the  con- 
trary, an  assemblage  of  distinct  or  slightly  re- 
late,! peoples,  whose  movements  must  have  been 
largely  independent  during  many  centuries  of 
prehistoric  time.  There  was,  indeed,  a  strong 
t.  ndency  toward  the  absorption  of  weaker  tribes 
by  stronger,  and  toward  the  enlargement  of 
by  confederation;  the  most  important 
deracies  of  North  America  being  the  Iro- 
quoian confederacy  or  "Six  Nations,"  the  Da- 
kota or  Sioux  confederacy  or  "Seven  Peoples," 
luskhogcan  confederacy  of  the  eastern 
Gulf  slope,  and  the  indefinitely  known  Nahuat- 
lan  or  Aztec  confederacy  of  Mexico.  The 
courses  of  migration  of  typical  groups  have 
been  traced.  The  best  known  example  is  that 
of  the  Siouan  Indians,  who  apparently  pushed 
up  the  Atlantic  coast,  perhaps  under  pressure 
from  a  southern  competitor,  to  Chesapeake  Bay, 
by  which  they  were  diverted  inland;  reaching 
the  habitat  of  the  buffalo,  which  crossed  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Potomac  River,  they  followed  this  easy  food 
source  westward,  across  the  mountains,  down 
the  Ohio  to  the  Mississippi,  and  thence  in 
northern  and  southern  columns  (the  "up- 
stream" and  the  "down-stream"  people)  far  out 


on  the  great  plains,  where  most  of  the  Siouan 
tribes  were  found  by  Caucasian  explorers. 
There  are  clear  indications  that  many  of  the 
Algonquian  tribes  also  pushed  inland  from  the 
northern  Atlantic  coast,  spreading  over  the  Lake- 
region  largely  through  the  effective  aid  of  the 
birch-bark  canoe;  and  there  are  similar  indica- 
tions that  the  Athapascan  tribes  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  continent  likewise  pushed  from 
the  coast  toward  the  interior  and  southward 
into  the  Pueblo  region  by  means  of  the  same 
simple  transportation  device;  while  the  Eskimo 
clung  to  the  coasts,  pushing  east  to  northern 
Greenland  and  west  to  and  across  Bering  Strail 
into  northeastern  Asia.  The  intertribal  rela- 
tions farther  south  on  the  Pacific  coast  were 
such  as  to  force  maritime  peoples  into  the  and 
interior,  along  tin-  canons  and  upon  the  pla- 
teaus—  where  some  of  the  Pueblo  tribes,  like 
the  desert  peoples  of  the  Gila  Valley,  still  re- 
tain clear  vestiges  of  a  cult  of  the  sea.  On 
the  whole,  the  traces  of  tribal  migrations  clearly 
indicate  a  tendency  to  move  inland  from  the 
coasts  and  substitute  agricultural  habits  for  the 
simpler  customs  of  fishery  and  chase.  Natural- 
ly all  inquiries  bear  on  the  question  of  the 
peopling  of  America;  but  it  is  significant  that 
the  careful  researches  of  a  quarter-century  have 
added  practically  no  evidence  of  the  peopling 
of  the  New  World  from  the  Old  —  the  only 
known  aboriginal  crossing  of  Bering  Strait 
being  that  by  the  Eskimo  migrating  west.  The 
records  of  the  Jesup  expedition  tend  to  indicate 
that  traditions  were  carried  from  America  to 
Asia  during  prehistoric  limes,  but  not  in  the 
other  direction ;  while  certain  studies  of  culti- 
vated plants  suggest  a  westerly  migration  from 
South  America  to  Polynesia,  and  no  trust- 
worthy indication  of  aboriginal  immigration  has 
been  found.  A  few  ethnologists  incline  to  the 
opinion  that  mankind  developed  in  America 
earlier  than  in  Asia,  and  passed  westward  per- 
haps during  the  Pliocene  or  the  early  Pleisto- 
cene; but  the  dearth  of  human  relics  of  geologic 
antiquity  tends  against  this  opinion.  Some  of 
the  most  competent  students  favor  the  view 
that  howsoever  the  human  prototype  may  have 
been  introduced  in  America,  the  tribes  originat- 
ed independently  before  speech  was  develop'  d, 
and  that  since  this  early  time  the  lines  of 
development  have  converged ;  so  that  the  pre- 
scriptorial  history  of  America  may  be  likened 
to  the  written  history  of  Europe,  in  which 
tribes,  peoples,  languages,  and  customs  have 
progressively  blent  and  united  throughout  the 
last  two  millenniums.  On  the  whole  it  must 
be  said  that  ethnologic  researches  have  thus  far 
failed  to  answer  many  of  the  mooted  questions 
concerning  the  origin  and  early  movements  of 
the  American  aborigines;  yet  it  is  not  to  be  for- 
gotten that  they  have  resulted  in  the  fullest  and 
most  faithful  descriptions  of  primitive  men  ever 
given  to  the  world. 

The  ethnologic  inquiries  in  America  have 
constantly  stimulated  archseologic  research  — 
indeed,  the  special  merit  of  American  archaeology 
grows  out  of  the  fact  that  the  American  inter- 
pretations of  relics  are  based  on  actual  observa- 
tion of  primitive  peoples  rather  than  on  infer- 
ences peculiar  to  an  entirely  distinct  culture 
stage.  In  general,  archaeology,  as  the  term  is 
employed  in  this  country,  may  be  defined  as  a 
special  aspect  of  anthropology;  more  strictly,  it 


ANTHROPOMETRY 


represents  the  archaic  or  prehistoric  division  of 
technology  and  aesthctology.  In  many  respects 
America  has  been  found  to  afford  a  peculiarly 
instructive  field  for  the  archaeologist:  relics  of 
the  Stone  Age  abound  in  unequaled  profusion ; 
the  great  mounds  and  earthworks  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley  are  practically  unique;  the 
cemeteries,  filled  with  fictile  ware  in  North 
America,  and  the  rich  huacas  of  the  Andes,  are 
without  parallel  elsewhere;  the  ruined  cities  of 
Yucatan,  Mexico,  and  Peru  have  awakened  the 
interest  of  the  world ;  and  all  of  these  monu- 
ments of  the  past  may  be,  and  most  of  them 
have  been,  studied  in  the  light  of  surviving 
customs  of  the  descendants  of  their  makers. 
The  investigation  of  relics  pertaining  to  the 
arts  has  supplemented  the  studies  among  living 
tribes,  and  has  shown  that  aesthetic  concepts 
arise  in  symbolism  and  pass  through  a  crude 
conventionalism  before  they  mature  in  faithful 
representations ;  and  in  like  manner  the  pre- 
historic industrial  devices  fall  into  a  series  coin- 
ciding with  that  found  among  living  tribes, 
which  passes  from  the  symbolic  first  to  the 
conventional  and  only  long  afterward  to  the 
simply  useful.  Thus,  the  earliest  weapons  were 
teeth,  claws,  beaks,  or  shells  of  animal  tutela- 
ges ;  in  the  next  stage  they  were  imitations  of 
the  natural  weapons ;  the  devices  next  under- 
went slow  modification,  determined  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  material ;  and  in  a  relatively 
advanced  stage  of  thought  the  germ  of  inven- 
tion was  introduced.  The  tracing  of  the  devel- 
opment of  industrial  devices  of  primitive  men 
is  one  of  America's  chief  contributions  to  the 
science  of  archaeology ;  and  it  is  especially  sig- 
nificant by  reason  of  its  conformity  with  the 
course  of  social  development  established  through 
ethnologic  researches.  The  sequence  is  a  direct 
record  of  growing  mentality ;  and  it  runs  from 
the  stage  in  which  men  thought  as  beasts  up  to 
that  in  which  some  of  the  aboriginal  tribesmen 
were  able  to  meet  Caucasian  invaders  on  terms 
of  approximately  equal  psychic  development. 
The  record  indicates  that  perhaps  the  longest 
step  in  industrial  development  was  that  leading 
to  the  use  of  the  edged  implement  of  stone  or 
other  material ;  and  that  next  to  this  the  hardest 
step  was  that  leading  to  the  smelting  of  metals, 
which  some  of  the  aborigines  had  j  list  approached 
at  the  time  of  the  Columbian  discovery.  The 
principal  stages  in  industrial  development,  at- 
tested alike  by  the  prehistoric  relics  of  America 
and  the  customs  of  the  lowest  living  tribes,  are 
as  follows : 


Some  of  the  more  interesting  archaeologic 
investigations  of  the  western  hemisphere  relate 
to  the  antiquity  of  man.  From  time  to  time 
discoveries  of  human  relics  in  deposits  of  ge- 
ologic antiquity  are  reported,  and  it  has  become 
customary  for  archaeologists  and  geologists  to 
visit  the  localities  and  investigate  the  associa- 
tions critically.  In  most  cases  the  examina- 
tions have  led  to  the  rejection  of  the  evidence 
on  one  ground  or  another,  so  that  very  few 
cases  can  be  regarded  as  indicating  extreme 
human  antiquity  in  the  western  hemisphere. 
There  is,  indeed,  a  strong  presumption  that  man 
has  lived  in  the  western  world  many  thousands 
of  years ;  almost  certainly  he  was  there  before 
the  last  ice  invasion,  possibly  before  the  fir^t 
advent  of  Pleistocene  ice ;  for  otherwise  it 
would  be  difficult  to  account  for  the  differentia- 
tion of  the  Eskimauan  from  the  Athapascan 
and  other  peoples,  to  explain  the  development 
of  complex  social  organization  by  the  slow 
processes  of  primitive  life,  or  to  understand  va- 
rious other  lines  of  development  —  yet  the 
tangible  evidence  remains  meagre.  Probably 
the  most  trustworthy  indication  is  that  afforded 
by  an  apparently  wrought  human  femur,  re- 
ported by  Putnam,  from  the  glacial  gravel  at 
Trenton. 

The  finding  of  a  human  skull  at  a  con- 
siderable depth  in  apparently  undisturbed 
deposits  near  Lansing,  Kansas,  has  attracted 
much  attention,  but  the  modern  aspect  of  the 
cranium  and  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  age  of 
the  deposits  greatly  weaken  its  testimony.  On 
the  whole,  the  conservative  American  archaeolo- 
gist is  compelled  to  rest  the  case  for  the  higher 
antiquity  of  man  on  the  western  hemisphere 
rather  on  a  strong  presumption  than  on  decisive 
evidence  of  relics  in  deposits  of  known  geolog- 
ical age.  See  Arch.eology  (American)  ;  In- 
dians;  Mound  Builders. 

Bibliography. —  Abbott,  'Primitive  Industry' 
(Salem  1881)  ;  Baldwin,  'Ancient  America' 
(1872);  Dellenbaugh,  'The  North  Americans 
of  Yesterday'  (1901)  ;  and  'Reports'  of  the 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (.Washington), 
since  1880. 

W  J  McGee, 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

An'thropom'etry  (from  the  Greek  an- 
thropos,  man,  and  metron,  measure),  a  term 
denoting  the  science  having  for  its  object  the 
systematic  examination  of  the  height,  weight, 
and  other  physical  characteristics  of  the  human 
body.  In  1875  the  British  Association  appoint- 
ed a   committee  to  collect  observations  in  con- 


STAGES  IN  INDUSTRIAL  DEVELOPMENT. 


STAGES 

TYPICAL     MATERIALS 

TYPICAL    PRODUCTS 

ESSENTIAL     IDEAS 

1.  Zoomimic 

A.  Transitional 

2.  Protolithic 

B.  Transitional 
8.  Technolithic 

C.  Transitional 

4.  Metallurgic 

Bestial  organs 

Symbolized  organs 

Natural  stones 

Cleft   stones 

Artificialized   stones 

Malleable    native 
metals 

Smelted    ores 

Awls,        spears,        harpoons, 

arrows 
Piercing    and    tearing    imple- 

ments 
Hammers       and       grinders — 

hupfs    and    ahsts 
Grinders  and  cutters 

Chipped,  battered  and  pol- 
ished  implements 

Copper  celts,  gold  orna- 
ments, etc. 

Steel  tools,  etc. 

Zootheistic  faith 

Faith  + 

craft 
Mechanical  chance 

Chance   -+-    craft 

Designed  shapement  by  mo- 
lar action 

rV signed  shapement  by  mo- 
lar action  -f-  chance  heat- 
ing 

Shapement  by  molar  and 
molecular  action 

ANTHROPOMETRY 


nection  with  this  department,  and  in  1883  they 
submitted  to  the  association  their  final  report, 
from  which  is  derived  the  following  informa- 
tion. The  variations  in  stature  weight,  and 
complexion  existing  in  different  districts  of  the 
British  isles  appear  to  be  chiefly  due  to  differ- 
ences of  racial  origin,  and  this  influence  pre- 
dominates over  all  others.  We  have  reason  to 
believe,  from  historical  and  antiquarian  re- 
searches, that  the  ancient  Caledonii.  the  Belgse, 
and  Cimbri,  and  the  Saxons  and  Frisians,  as 
well  as  the  Danes  and  Normans,  were  all  people 
of  great  stature.  On  the  other  hand,  the  pre- 
historic (neolithic)  race  or  races  of  Great  Brit- 
ain appear  to  have  been  of  low  or  moderate 
stature.  Accordingly  the  higher  statures  are 
found  in  the  Pictish  and  Cimbro-British  dis- 
tricts of  Galloway;  in  the  Anglo-Danish  districts 
of  North  and  East  Yorkshire,  Westmoreland, 
and  Lincolnshire,  and  in  Cumberland,  whose 
people  are  ethnologically  intermediate  between 
the  two.  Lothian  and  Berwickshire  are  mainly 
Anglian,  while  the  Perthshire  Highlanders  are 
the  most  clearly  identified  as  the  descendants  of 
the  Caledonii.  Norfolk  holds  a  high  position  in 
regard  to  stature,  owing  to  a  large  admixture  of 
Danish  blood  on  the  coast.  There  is  a  fringe 
of  moderately  high  stature  all  round  the  coast 
from  Norfolk  to  Cornwall,  while  the  inland  peo- 
ple, retaining  more  of  the  ancient  British  blood, 
yield  lower  averages.  Middlesex  and  Hertford- 
shire, which  stand  very  low,  were  later  and  less 
perfectly  colonized  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  than 
the  surrounding  counties,  and  nearly  the  same 
may  be  said  of  the  counties  surrounding  the 
Severn  estuary  and  the  Welsh  border.  Corn- 
wall stands  higher  than  the  surrounding  coun- 
ties, and  this  is  probably  due  to  its  having 
become  the  refuge  of  the  military  class  of  south 
Britain,  in  the  main  of  Belgic  origin.  Flint  and 
Denbigh  owe  their  superiority  to  the  other 
Welsh  counties  to  the  immigration  of  the  Cum- 
brian and  Strathclyde  Britons.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  western  provinces  of  Ireland  possess  a 
high  stature  similar  to  that  found  in  the  Scotch 
Highlands,  with  which  they  may  have  a  common 
racial  origin,  while  the  lower  stature  of  the 
eastern  provinces  is  probably  traceable  to  the 
comparatively  recent  Scotch  and  English  immi- 
grations. As  to  geographical  distribution,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  more  elevated  districts  pos- 
sess a  greater  stature  than  those  of  alluvial 
plains.  The  counties  forming  the  river  valleys 
of  the  Severn  and  Wye,  the  Thames,  the  Dee, 
and  Mersey,  the  Clyde,  the  Trent,  and  the  fen 
district  of  Cambridge  and  Huntingdon,  show  a 
lower  stature  than  the  surrounding  counties  in- 
habited by  persons  of  a  similar  racial  origin. 
With  respect  to  latitude  and  climate,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  northern  and  colder  districts 
possess  greater  stature  than  those  of  the  south- 
ern and  warmer  parts  of  the  island;  those  of 
the  irn    and    drier    regions    are    taller 

than  those  of  the  southwestern  and  damper 
climates.  A  similar  disposition  of  stature  has 
been  found  to  exist  in  France  and  Italy,  the 
inhabitants  of  both  these  countries  being  taller 
in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  provinces. 
The  same  rule  applies  to  the  whole  of  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe  with  respect  to  each  other. 
Grouping  the  observations  according  to  the 
place  of  birth  in  England,  Wales,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland    the  general   results   may   be  sum- 


marized as  follows:  The  Scotch  male  adults 
stand  first  in  height  (0X71  inches),  the  Irish 
second  (.67.90  inches),  the  English  third  107.68 
inches),  and  the  Welsh  last  (.(Ki.Oo  inches).  In 
weight  the  Scotch  take  the  first  place  (165.3 
pounds),  the  Welsh  the  second  (158.3  pounds), 
the  English  the  third  (155.0  pounds),  and  the 
Irish  the  last  (154. 1  pounds).  For  each  inch 
of  stature  a  Scotchman  weighs  2.406  pounds,  a 
Welshman  2.375  pounds,  an  Englishman  2.301 
pounds,  and  an  Irishman  2.270  pounds.  The 
chest-girth  of  the  adult  British  male  (the  mea- 
surements being,  however,  mainly  those  of  Eng- 
lishmen) varies  from  45  to  27  inches,  the  mean 
being  36  inches.  The  strength  of  the  arms  ex- 
erted as  in  drawing  a  bow  ranges  from  150  to 
30  pounds,  the  mean  being  70  pounds.  The 
average  height  of  adult  females  in  England  is 
62.65  inches,  being  4.71  inches  less  than  the 
male  average;  the  average  weight  of  females 
is  122.8  pounds,  being  32.2  pounds  under  that 
of  the  males.  The  females  are  stated  to  aver- 
age little  more  than  half  the  strength  of  males 
measured  by  straining  the  arms,  but  the  ob- 
servations were  obtained  from  pupils  in  training 
schools  for  mistresses,  and  from  shop  assistants, 
so  that  the  average  is  no  doubt  much  lower 
than  if  the  laboring  classes  had  been  included. 
The  average  height  of  the  adult  males  of  the 
principal  races  or  nationalities  of  the  world  may 
be  given  as  under ;  but  more  numerous  measure- 
ments might  alter  some  of  the  figures  consider- 
ably: Polynesians,  69.33  inches;  Patagonians, 
69  inches ;  Negroes  of  the  Congo,  69  inches ; 
Scotch  68.71  inches;  Iroquois  Indians,  68.28 
inches;  Irish,  67.90  inches;  United  States 
(whites)  67.67  incites;  English,  67.68  inches; 
Norwegians,  67.66  inches;  Zulus,  67.19  inches; 
Welsh,  66.66  inches ;  Danes,  66.65  inches ; 
Dutch,  66.62  inches ;  American  negroes,  66.62 
inches ;  Hungarians,  66.58  inches ;  Germans, 
66.54  inches  ;  Swiss,  66.43  inches ;  Belgians,  66.38 
inches;  French,  66.23  inches;  Berbers,  66.10 
inches;  Arabs,  66.08  inches;  Russians,  66.04 
inches ;  Italians,  66  inches ;  Spaniards,  65.66 
inches;  Esquimaux,  65.10  inches;  Papuans, 
64.78  inches ;  Hindus,  64.76  inches ;  Chinese, 
64.17  inches;  Poles,  63.87  inches;  Finns,  63.60 
inches;  Japanese,  63.11  inches;  Peruvians,  63 
inches;  Malays,  62.34  inches;  Lapps,  59.2  inches; 
Bosjesmans,  52.78  inches.  The  average  stature  of 
man  is  thus  about  65.25  inches.  With  respect  to 
the  measurement  of  children  at  birth  it  is  found 
that  the  average  length  of  a  British  male  infant 
is  19.52  inches,  and  of  females  19.32  inches. 
The  average  naked  weight  of  male  infants  is 
7.12  pounds,  of  females  6.94  pounds.  Growth 
is  most  rapid  during  the  first  five  years  of  life, 
and  during  that  period  the  rate  of  increase  is 
about  the  same  in  both  sexes,  the  gain  being 
21.51  inches.  From  5  to  10  years  boys  grow  .1 
little  more  rapidly  than  girls,  the  male  increase 
being  10.81  inches,  the  female  10.50  inches. 
From  10  to  15  years  girls  grow  more  rapidly 
than  boys,  and  at  the  ages  of  11 J^  to  145/2  are 
actually  taller,  and  from  12V2  to  15J/2  actually 
heavier  than  boys.  From  15  to  20  years  boys 
again  take  the  lead,  and  grow  at  first  rapidly, 
then  gradually  slower,  and  complete  their 
growth  at  about  23  years.  After  15  girls  grow 
very  slowly,  and  attain  their  full  stature  about 
the  20th  year.  The  strength  of  males  increases 
rapidly  from  12  to  19  years  and  at  a  rate  simi- 


ANTHROPOMORPHISM  —  ANTICHRIST 


'ar  to  the  weight ;  more  slowly  and  regularly  up 
to  30  years,  after  which  it  declines  at  an  increas- 
ing rate  to  the  age  of  60.  The  strength  of 
females  increases  at  a  more  uniform  rate  from 
9  to  19  years,  more  slowly  to  30,  after  which 
it  decreases  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of 
males. 

Anthropomorphism,  a  term  expressing 
the  representation  or  conception  of  Deity  under 
a  human  form,  or  with  human  attributes  and 
affections.  Such  a  conception  springs  from  the 
natural  inaptitude  of  the  human  mind  for  con- 
ceiving spiritual  things  except  through  sensuous 
images,  and  in  its  consequent  tendency  to  ac- 
cept such  expressions  as  those  of  Scripture 
when  it  speaks  of  the  eye,  the  ear,  and  the  hand 
of  God,  of  his  seeing  and  hearing,  of  his  re- 
membering and  forgetting,  of  his  making  man 
in  his  own  image,  etc.,  in  a  too  literal  sense. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  that  doctrine  which 
attributes  to  animals  mental  faculties  of  the 
same  nature  as  those  of  man,  though  much 
lower  in  degree :  strictly  called  biological  an- 
thropomorphism, to  distinguish  it  from  anthro- 
pomorphism proper,  or  theological  anthropomor- 
phism. 

An'thropoph'agi,  the  name  given  to  indi- 
viduals or  tribes  by  whom  human  flesh  is  eaten : 
man-eaters,  cannibals.  The  Caribs  are  said  to 
have  been  cannibals  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
conquest  of  America,  and  the  word  "cannibal" 
is  derived  from  their  name. 

An'ti,  or  Campa,  a  warlike  tribe  of  south- 
ern Peru  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes. 
Their  principal  garment  is  a  poncho  belted  at 
the  waist.  The  men  are  workers  in  metal  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  the  women  are  skilful 
weavers.  They  cultivate  the  ground,  wild  ani- 
mals, tamed,  serving  as  beasts  of  burden. 

An'tia'rin,  the  poisonous  principle  found 
in  the  milky  juice  of  the  upas  tree  (Antians 
wxicaria)  in  Java.  It  has  the  probable  formula 
CuH:oOs+  2H2O.  The  gum  prepared  from  the 
upas  juice  is  used  by  the  natives  of  Java  for 
poisoning  arrows.  Antiarin,  when  taken  into 
the  stomach  or  introduced  into  the  circulation 
through  a  wound,  causes  great  prostration,  and, 
in  sufficient  quantity,  paralysis  of  the  heart. 

Antibes,  ah-teb,  a  fortified  town  and  sea- 
port of  France,  on  the  Mediterranean,  11  miles 
south-southwest  of  Nice;  founded  about  340 
B.C.  by  a  colony  of  Greeks,  who  named  it  An- 
tipolis.  It  has  a  naval  school,  and  exports  olives, 
anchovies,  perfumery,  etc.  Pop.  (1901),  town, 
5,512 ;  commune,  10,947. 

An'tibo'dy.     See  Immunity. 

Anti-Catholic  Riots.     See  Orangemen. 

An'tichlor,  an'ti-klor  (from  chlorine  and 
auti).  In  bleaching,  any  substance  used  to 
eliminate,  by  chemical  means,  the  last  traces  of 
chlorine  from  a  material  that  has  been  bleached 
by  the  action  of  a  chlorine  compound.  The 
free  chlorine  can  be  largely  removed  by  mere 
washing,  but  it  cannot  be  entirely  eliminated 
in  this  manner,  and  the  residuum,  if  not  re- 
moved by  chemical  means,  is  injurious  to  the 
material  and  causes  it  to  disintegrate  slowly. 
Sulphur  dioxid  was  long  used  as  an  antichlor, 
its  action  being  indicated  by  the  following 
formula :    SO.  +  2H:0  +  2CI  =  H2SO«  +  2HCI ; 


that  is,  it  combines  with  the  chlorine  to  form 
sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids.  Sulphite  of 
soda,  Na-S03,  is  equally  effective,  its  action  be- 
ing as  follows :  Na.SOs  +  HsO  +  2CI  =  Na.SO, 
+2HCI.  Sodium  thiosulphate  (better  known 
in  the  arts  as  hyposulphite  of  soda,  or  "hypo,") 
is  now  more  commonly  used  as  an  antichlor, 
since  it  is  both  cheaper  and  more  efficacious. 
Its  formula  is  Na2S203,  and  its  action  is  as 
follows :  Na,S203+  sH.O  +  8C1  =  Na,SO.+  8H 
CI  +  H»SOi.  (Sodium  thiosulphate,  water,  and 
chlorine  yield  sodium  sulphate,  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  sulphuric  acid.)  In  practice  carbonate 
of  soda  is  often  added  to  the  antichlor  to  neu- 
tralize the  acids  formed  by  the  absorption  of  the 
chlorine.  The  resulting  salts  of  soda  are  easily 
washed  out  of  the  material  treated ;  and  no 
damage  results  even  if  they  are  not  entirely 
removed. 

An'tichrist,  a  term  of  Biblical  origin,  but 
occurring  only  in  the  Epistles  of  John,  where 
it  signifies  a  person  or  persons  who  deny  the 
Father  and  the  Son  and  disown  the  incarna- 
tion and  messiahship  of  Jesus.  They  are  de- 
ceivers whose  presence  in  the  world  betokens 
the  last  time.  This  writer  seems  to  have  in 
mind  numerous  false  human  teachers,  originally 
members  of,  but  always  alien  to  the  followers 
of  Christ.  He  seems  also  to  refer  to  some 
single  arch-deceiver  of  whom  all  false  teachers 
are  exponents,  and  in  whom  is  concentrated 
^11  antagonism  of  error  and  ill  will  to  Christ 
and  his  kingdom  of  truth  and  grace.  There 
are,  however,  other  Biblical  passages  in  which 
such  antagonisms  find  acute  and  culminating 
expression,  and  it  has  been  the  custom  of 
students  to  handle  all  these  sections  under  the 
study  of  the  Antichrist.  Such  passages  are 
Matt,  xxiv.,  with  its  allusions  to  false  prophets 
and  false  Christs;  2  Thess.  ii.,  with  its  "man 
of  sin" ;  Rev.  xi.,  xii.,  and  xiii.,  with  its  dragon 
and  beast ;  and  Daniel  vii.  and  viii.,  with  its  fig- 
ures of  the  terrible  beast  and  the  he-goat.  In 
all  these  passages  a  central  feature  is  the  mighty 
opponent  and  assailant  of  the  people  and  pur- 
poses of  God.  Clustered  about  this  central  per- 
sonified or  personal  antagonist  of  all  wor- 
shippers of  the  true  God  numerous  significant 
features  continually  recur.  Such  are  names, 
times,  places,  forms.  These  features,  variant 
in  themselves,  when  differently  combined  by 
would-be  interpreters,  yield  perplexingly  mani- 
fold and  divergent  schemes,  as  the  history  of 
the  theme  abundantly  displays. 

The  history  of  interpretation  shows  four 
names  to  have  special  eminence  alongside  the 
name  Antichrist,  thus:  Dragon,  Satan,  Demon, 
Belial.  The  efforts  to  identify  him  cluster 
around  typical  views.  Some  deem  him  to  be  a 
form  of  Jewish  antagonism  to  the  Christian 
faith.  Here  he  is  traced  to  Capernaum,  Chora- 
zin,  Bethsaida,  or  to  Jerusalem.  Frequently  he 
is  described  as  hostile  to  the  Jews,  being  the 
counterfeit  and  foe  of  the  Jewish  Messiah. 
Very  many  identify  him  in  some  way  with 
Rome,  naming  pre-eminently  Nero,  or  a  Nero 
redivivus,  or  Titus,  or  Caligula.  Quite  com- 
monly in  the  Middle  Ages  he  was  seen  in  Mo- 
hammed or  in  the  Turks.  Still  later  some 
Catholics  identified  him  with  Luther.  Many 
emphasized  in  the  Antichrist,  whatever  his 
form,  the  energy  or  wisdom  or  very  being  of 
Satan  or  the  Dragon.    As  to  times/the  diver- 


ANTICLINE  —  ANTIETAM 


si.y  of  views  falls  into  throe  classes.  Many 
writers  refer  all  the  Biblical  allusions  to  events 
current  at  the  tune  of  writing.  Many  others 
deem  the  reference  to  events  still  future.  Still 
others  hold  the  Biblical  teachings  to  be  pre- 
eminently predictive.  but  find  their  fulfilment 
partial  and  manifold  throughout  all  Christian 
history,  until  their  final  consummation  will  mark 
the  end.  As  to  the  place  "t  his  appearance  or 
activity  mention  may  be  found  of  the  Jewish 
Temple,  Jerusalem,  Mount  of  Olives,  heaven  it- 
self. Closely  connected  with  these  central  fea- 
tures are  various  attendant  elements  such  as  Mi- 
chael, his  great  antagonist  and  victor;  Gog  and 
Magog  and  the  nations  which  are  his  minions; 
the  miracles  which  he  works:  the  two  witnesses, 
Enoch  and  Elijah,  whom  he  slays;  the  sign  of 
tin-  Antichris!  and  the  Son  of  Man;  his  world 
dominion;  and  his  final  doom.  It  is  manifest 
that  this  theme  presents  a  programme  of 
thought  and  activity  of  most  profound  signifi- 
cance, however  perplexing  its  solution.  The 
persistence  of  its  main  elements  through  such  a 
long  train  of  history  attests  something  vital  in 
human  life.  But  its  outline  is  nowhere  com- 
plete. In  recent  years  the  effort  to  solve  its 
mystery  and  find  its  meaning  has  taken  new 
fi  'rin  and  course.  Scholars  are  trying  to  trace 
v  element  of  the  Antichrist  tradition  to  its 
historical  source.  The  leaders  here  are  Dieter- 
ich,  who,  in  his  'Abraxas'  and  'Nekyia,'  traces 
parallelisms  in  Greek  myths;  Gunkel,  who,  in 
his  'Schopfung  und  Chaos,'  attempts  the  same 
task  in  old  Babylonian  mythology;  Bousset, 
who,  in  his  (Der  Antichrist,'  explores  post- 
Christian  literature  of  all  types  for  echoes  of 
the  tradition;  and  Friedliindcr.  who.  in  his  'Der 
Antichrist  in  den  Vorchristlichen  Jiidischen 
Zuellen,:  tries  to  show  that  every  essential  trait 
of  the  Antichrist  is  traceable  in  Jewish  circles 
before  the  destruction  of  the  temple.  The 
writer  last  named  conceives  the  Babylonian 
dragon  myth,  the  Hebrew  sons  of  Belial,  the 
foes  of  God  and  his  Messiah  in  Ps.  ii.,  the 
Zedim  of  Ps.  cxix.,  the  minim  of  various  Jew- 
ish writings,  the  Belial  of  the  Sybilline  oracle, 
the  Gnostics,  the  great  antagonist  of  Daniel,  the 
man  of  sin  in  2  Thess.  ii.,  the  false  Christ  of 
Matt,  xxiv.,  the  Antichrist  of  John's  Epistles,  and 
the  dragon  of  Rev.  xi.,  to  be  all  and  severally 
various  phases  in  one  consistent  development 
of  the  Antichrist  idea.  These  studies,  though 
but  the  early  stages  of  a  mighty  task,  disclose  a 
commanding  theme.  For  a  history  of  the  ex- 
position of  2  Thess.  ii.  see  Borncmann's  'Com- 
mentary' in  the  Meyer  series.  For  a  thorough 
statement  of  the  Nero  speculations  see  De 
Wette's  'Excursus'  in  his  'Commentary  on 
Rev.  xvip  ;  also  R.  H.  Charles,  'The  Ascension 
of  Isaiah,'  §  17. 

An'ticline,  a  geological  term  applied  to  an 
up-arching  of  strata  into  a  fold  from  whose 
summit  the  beds  dip  outward  on  both  sides. 
Such  a  fold  resembles  an  ordinary  roof  whose 
sides  correspond  to  the  limbs  of  the  fold,  while 
the  ridge  represents  the  anticlinal  axis.  An 
anticline  may  be  broad  with  its  limbs  lying  al- 
most flat,  or  it  may  be  compressed  and  sharp, — 
sometimes  the  strata  stand  in  vertical  positions. 
The  anticlinal  axis  is  never  perfectly  horizontal, 
and  while  the  fold  frequently  persists  for  a 
distance  of  several  miles,  it  eventually  dies  out. 
The  inclination  of  the  axis  is  called  the  pitch  of 


the  fold.  A  complex  anticline  composed  of 
several  parallel  folds  is  known  as  an  anticlino- 
rium.  The  anticline  is  the  complement  of  the 
syncline  (q.V.),  in  which  the  strata  are  bent 
into  a  trough  with  the  axis  at  the  bottom.  Both 
types  of  folds  are  the  characteristic  features  of 
mountain  regions.  See  Geolucv  ;  Mountains; 
Strata. 

An'ticos'ti,  a  barren  island  in  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  135  miles  long  and  40  miles 
at  its  greatest  width.  The  hills  in  the  interior 
rise  to  about  600  feet.  The  climate  is  seven  ; 
while  the  surface  is  an  alternation  of  rock-  and 
swamps.  It  is  visited  by  fishermen  in  the  sum 
mer,  but  there  are  few  inhabitants  save  light- 
house keepers  and  official  residents.  The 
island,  which  is  attached  to  the  Canadian  prov- 
ince of  Quebec,  has  considerable  salmon,  trout, 
cod,  and  herring  fisheries,  and  is  a  resort  for 
seal-  and  bear-hunting.  In  1895  the  island  was 
purchased  by  M.  Henri  Menier  of  France,  who 
had  much  litigation  over  the  rights  of  some 
settlers.  A  decision  in  his  favor  was  made  in 
1900.     Pop.  250. 

An'ticy 'clone,  an  atmospheric  condition 
characterized  by  high  barometric  pressure  and 
outblowing  winds, —  the  opposite  of  cyclone. 
An  anticyclone  extends  over  a  wide  area  and 
in  the  temperate  zones  usually  appears  in  the 
west  and  moves  eastward  with  slow  velocity. 
At  the  centre  of  the  area  the  winds  move  down- 
ward, thus  bringing  the  cool,  dry  air  of  the 
upper  regions  into  contact  with  the  earth's  sur- 
face. Anticyclones  are  generally  accompanied 
by  clear,  pleasant  weather,  but  when  following  a 
storm  in  winter  they  may  result  in  cold  waves. 
See  Meteorology. 

Anticyra,  an-tls'I-ra,  the  name  of  three 
Grecian  towns  in  Thessaly,  Phocis,  and  Locris, 
famous  for  the  hellebore  which  grew  in  their 
neighborhood.  This  plant  was  in  high  repute 
as  a  medicine,  and  was  thought  to  have  the 
effect  of  clearing  the  brain  and  curing  stupidity; 
hence  the  expression  of  Horace,  "Nuviget  An- 
ticyram?  "Let  him  sail  to  Anticyra." 

An'tidotes.      See  Poisons. 

An'tiemet'ic,  a  remedy  employed  to  re- 
lieve nausea  and  vomiting.  The  choice  of  an 
antiemetic  depends  very  largely  on  the  nature 
of  the  cause  of  the  nausea  and  vomiting.  There 
are  local  antiemetics,  acting  solely  on  the  mu- 
cous membrane  of  the  pharynx,  oesophagus,  or 
stomach,  and  central  antiemetics,  acting  on  the 
nervous  system.  Among  the  best  local  remedies 
are  cracked  ice,  cold  beer,  cold  carbonated 
waters,  cold  champagne,  small  doses  of  tincture 
of  iodine,  chloroform,  belladonna,  cocaine,  bro- 
mides, or  chloral.  The  most  reliable  general 
antiemetics  are  ipecac,  opium,  and  its  alkaloids. 
See  Emetics. 

Antietam,  an-te'tam,  The  Battle  of,  fought 
on  17  Sept.  1862,  in  Maryland;  sometimes  called 
the  battle  of  Sharpsburg.  It  was  one  of  the  de- 
cisive engagements  of  the  Civil  War,  as  it  end- 
ed the  first  Confederate  attempt  at  invasion  of 
the  North,  though  tactically  a  drawn  battle. 
Lee's  army  of  about  50,000  crossed  the  Poto- 
mac near  Leesburg,  some  30  miles  above  Wash- 
ington, and  concentrated  around  Frederick, 
about  40  miles  from  Washington  and  20  from 
the  Pennsylvania  line.     When  it  became  known 


ANTIETAM 


that  Lee  had  crossed  into  Maryland  Gen.  Mc- 
Clellan,  in  command  of  the  Army  of  the  Poto- 
mac, pushed  forward  several  corps  with  the  left 
on  the  Potomac. 

Meanwhile  Lee  had  ordered  a  movement  on 
Harper's  Ferry  (q.v.),  in  his  rear  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Potomac  and  Shenandoah.  It  was  a 
valuable  defense  against  invasion  through  the 
Valley  of  Virginia,  but  once  the  Confederates 
were  across  it  became  not  only  worthless  but  a 
trap.  Nevertheless  Gen.  Halleck  ordered  it 
held ;  and  Lee  grasped  the  chance  of  capturing 
its  defenders  (with  the  Martinsburg  outpost) 
and  opening  up  his  communications  at  once. 
This  involved  dividing  his  army  for  days,  with 
a  much  superior  force  two  or  three  days'  march 
off,  but  he  gauged  his  foes  justly  enough  to  take 
the  risk.  The  operation  was  effected  with  great 
skill  and  success  and  accurate  co-ordination; 
but  it  took  longer  than  Lee  expected,  and  a  mis- 
chance befell  which  should  have  undone  him.  A 
copy  of  his  order  fell  into  McClellan's  hands  on 
the  13th,  telling  him  of  the  dividing  of  that  army 
not  far  off,  its  object,  the  position  of  the  sepa- 
rate detachments,  and  the  premium  on  ex- 
pedition ;  but  the  opportunity  was  lost  to  the 
Federals  through  McClellan's  unexplained  de- 
lay in  giving  orders  for  an  advance. 

Lee,  advised  by  the  night  of  the  13th  at 
Hagerstown  that  McClellan  was  advancing  on 
South  Mountain,  marched  back  to  resist  his  ad- 
vance but  was  defeated  and  on  night  of  14th 
fell  back  to  Sharpsburg,  a  few  miles  southwest 
cf  Boonsboro,  as  the  nearest  strong  position  for 
his  Harper's  Ferry  detachments  to  rejoin  him, 
as  on  the  flank  and  rear  of  any  force  menacing 
Maryland  Heights  which  they  occupied,  and  a 
very  defensible  position  in  itself.  Six  or  seven 
miles  above  the  Heights  the  Potomac  receives 
Antietam  Creek,  flowing  through  a  ravine,  with 
banks  rising  on  the  west  to  a  low  ridge  having 
wooded  patches,  ledges,  stone  and  wooden 
fences,  cornfields,  etc.,  as  natural  bulwarks,  and 
sloping  on  the  western  side  to  the  Potomac. 
Two  and  a  half  miles  above  the  confluence  a 
sharp  eastern  bend  of  the  Potomac  brings  it 
within  2}4  miles  of  the  Antietam ;  and  at  about 
the  centre  of  the  peninsula  thus  formed  lies 
Sharpsburg,  in  a  hollow  on  the  western  slope. 
Lee's  line,  about  three  miles  along  the  crest, 
was  to  rest  one  flank  on  an  elevation  near  the 
Potomac,  with  the  village  in  the  rear  centre,  and 
a  secure  retreat  by  the  Shepherdstown  ford  of 
the  Potomac  in  the  rear. 

The  Union  troops  having  forced  South 
Mountain  (q.v.)  by  two  sharp  battles  on  the 
14th,  the  main  body  issued  therefrom  next  morn- 
ing, marched  the  eight  miles  to  Antietam  Creek, 
and  formed  in  line  along  the  east  ridge.  By 
afternoon  some  50,000  troops  were  opposed  to 
about  30,000  under  Lee,  with  Longstreet  and  D. 
H.  Hill.  Late  in  the  afternoon  McClellan  came 
up.  was  received  with  immense  enthusiasm,  and 
decided  that  it  was  too  late  to  attack  that  day. 
On  the  16th  Jackson  and  Walker  had  joined 
Lee  with  fully  10,000  more.  The  chance  of 
splitting  the  Confederate  army  being  now  lost, 
McClellan  waited  for  his  ammunition  and  supply 
trains  to  arrive  and  ordered  no  attack  save  of 
Hooker's  corps  on  the  right  late  in  the  after- 
noon. A  list  of  divisions  and  commanders  now 
becomes  requisite  for  brevity  and  intelligibility 
in  describing  the  battle. 

Vol.  1—36 


Union  Army. 

Right  Wing. —  Jos.  Hooker.  First  Corps: 
Jos.  Hooker ;  three  divisions ;  commanders, 
Abner  Doubleday,  J.  B.  Ricketts,  G.  G.  Meade. 

Centre. —  E.  V.  Sumner.  Second  Corps:  E. 
V.  Sumner;  three  divisions;  commanders,  I.  B. 
Richardson,  John  Sedgwick,  W.  H.  French. 
Twelfth  Corps :  J.  K.  F.  Mansfield ;  two  divi- 
sions; commanders,  A.  S.  Williams,  G.  S. 
Greene. 

Left  Wing. —  A.  E.  Burnside.  Ninth  Corps: 
J..  D.  Cox ;  four  divisions ;  commanders,  O.  B. 
Willcox,  S.  D.  Sturgis,  I.  P.  Rodman,  J.  D. 
Cox  (in  the  battle,  E.  P.  Scammon).  But 
Burnside  refused  to  take  personal  command  of 
the  corps  because,  while  he  had  previously  com- 
manded the  right  wing  with  the  First  and  Ninth 
under  him  on  the  day  previous,  the  former 
(Hooker's)  had  been  taken  from  him  and  made 
an  independent  command ;  he  feared  that  ac- 
quiescence would  lose  it  to  him  permanently,  and 
merely  transmitted  orders  through  Cox.'  The 
corps  therefore  had  a  technical  commander  who 
would  not  exercise  initiative  and  a  real  one 
who  could  not. 

Reserve.—  Fifth  Corps:  Fitz-John  Porter; 
two  divisions ;  commanders.  Geo.  Morell,  Geo. 
Sykes.  Sixth  Corps :  Wm.  B.  Franklin ;  two  di- 
visions ;  commanders,  H.  W.  Slocum,  W.  F. 
Smith.  Temporarily  attached,  D.  N.  Couch's  di- 
vision from  the  Fourth  Corps.  This  came  from 
Pleasant  Valley  during  the  forenoon,  and  por- 
tions were  used  as  reserves.  Couch's  division 
did  not  reach  the  field  until  after  dark  of  17th. 

Cavalry. —  Alfred  Pleasonton. 

Confederate  Army. 

First  Corps. —  Jas.  Longstreet.  Five  divi- 
sions ;  commanders,  Lafayette  McLaws,  R.  H. 
Anderson,  D.  R.  Jones,  J.  G.  Walker,  J.  B. 
Hood. 

Second  Corps. — T.  J.  ("Stonewall")  Jack- 
son ;  four  divisions ;  commanders,  I.  R.  Jones 
A.  R.  Lawton,  A.  P.  Hill,  D.  H.  Hill. 

Some  crucial  points  of  the  battle-ground 
must  be  noted.  The  heart  of  the  righting  was 
north  and  east  of  a  Dunkard  chapel  of  red 
brick,  a  mile  north  of  Sharpsburg,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Hagerstown  turnpike,  witli  tall 
woods  free  from  underbrush  to  the  west  and 
north  ( the  "west  woods"),  and  elevated  ground 
with  ledges,  hollows,  etc..  to  the  north  (Nico- 
demus'  Hill  1  ami  west.  Next  to  and  across  the 
road  was  open  ground,  with  a  field  of  high 
strong  corn  opposite  the  north  end  of  the  west 
woods,  and  then  the  "east  woods,"  also  inter- 
spersed with  rocks,  with  a  commanding  ridge 
running  south,  cut  by  a  sunken  road  (the 
"Bloody  Lane")  running  east  from  the  turn- 
pike. 

On  the  morning  of  the  17th  Fitzhugn  Lee's 
cavalry  brigade  and  some  artillery  formed  the 
extreme  Confederate  left,  holding  Nicodemus' 
Hill;  next  Jackson,  Jones'  division,  in  and  in 
front  of  the  west  woods,  ami  the  bulk  of 
Ewell's  division  on  Jones'  right,  in  the  open 
ground  east  of  the  Hagerstown  turnpike:  1).  H. 
Hill  on  the  left  centre.  Longstreet  formed  the 
centre  and  right,  and  A.  P.  Hill  on  the  extreme 
right  came  up  in  the  afternoon.  Hood  on  the 
left  was  relieved  by  Ewell  the  night  before,  and 
formed  a  reserve  near  the  Dunkard  church. 
McLaws  withdrew  from  Maryland  Heigh 
the    15th   and    16th,   crossed   and   recrossed   the 


ANTIETAM 


Potomac,  and  rejoined  Lee  early  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  17th,  also  taking  post  on  the  left. 

On  the  Union  side.  Hooker  having  crossed 
the  Antietam,  Mansfield  also  crossed  in  the 
night  and  took  position  in  the  rear.  Sumner 
and  Burnside  remained  east  of  the  stream.  '1  he 
Com.  lightly    inferred    from    the    Union 

dispositions  that  the  force  of  the  attack  was  to 
be  on  their  left,  and  strengthened  it  accordingly: 
10  of  the  best  brigades  in  their  army  were  placed 
in  the  west  and  east  woods  and  south  of  the 
cornfield.  They  had  marly  40,000  men  in  the 
battle;  the  I  "  troops  engaged  numbered 
about  55,000.  This  superiority  was  little  enough 
against  the  immense  advantages  of  the  Confed- 
erate position;  and  even  so,  it  was  frittered  away 
in  a  series  of  disconnected  attacks,  which  left  a 
large  part  of  the  Confederate  force  usable  at 
one  time  against  15.000  Federal  troops  at  most. 

1.  Hooker,  lying  nearly  a  mile  north  of  the 
Dunkard  church,  moved  down  against  Jackson 
early  in  the  morning;  reported  strength  14,856; 
actual,  under  10,000.  The  objective  point  was 
the  elevated  ground  about  the  church.  The 
march  had  its  right  on  the  turnpike  and  its  left 
along  the  west  edge  of  the  east  woods,  from 
which  a  withering  tire  checked  it  a  little;  the 
right  was  raked  by  a  Banking  fire  from  the  west 
woods.  Al  length  the  line  gained  the  southern 
edge  of  the  cornfield  and  engaged  the  Confeder- 
ate s  in  the  open  ground  about  220  yards  distant. 
Under  the  storm  of  bullets,  shot,  and  shell  that 
rained  upon  them,  they  broke  and  tied  through 
the  corn,  to  re-form  in  a  hollow  beyond ;  the 
Confederates  assailed  the  Union  lines  in  turn, 
and  in  turn  were  riddled  by  a  concentrated  fire 
that  drove  them  back.  Again  the  Union  troops 
advanced,  to  be  forced  back  in  disorder;  and 
again  the  Confederates  followed,  to  break  and 
fly.  This  was  one  of  the  most  frightful  car- 
nages of  the  Civil  War:  Jackson's  famous 
"Stonewall"  division  was  nearly  annihilated, 
more  than  half  of  two  brigades  killed  or 
wounded  and  more  than  a  third  of  another,  and 
all  the  regimental  commanders  but  two.  On 
the  Union  side  1,051  in  Rickett's  division  were 
cut  down,  a  third  of  its  whole  number,  and  two 
brigades  losl  over  40  per  cent;  Hooker  was 
wounded  and  was  succeeded  by  Meade.  Hood 
and  I).  H.  Hill  now  came  up  to  replace  Jack- 
son's lo-^es;  and  Hooker's  remnants  slowly 
withdrew  northward  just  as  the  advance  of  the 
Twelfth  came  up.  though  Ricketts  still  held  the 
edge  of  the  east  wood. 

2.  Mansfield  was  mortally  wounded  while 
deploying  bis  troops  about  7  a.m..  and  A.  S. 
Williams  took  command:  reported  strength. 
10.12(1:  actual,  about  7.000.  Marching  more 
obliquely  to  the  road,  facing  southwest,  they 
cleared  the  cornfield,  and  about  8.40  a.m.  drove 
the  Confederates  across  the  turnpike  and  into 
the  west  woods. 

3.  The  Second  Corps,  under  Sumner,  had 
not  received  orders  to  march  till  7 .20.  after  the 
First  was  crippled  and  the  Twelfth  in  the 
thick  of  action;  and  Richardson's  waiting  for 
Morell's  division  of  the  Fifth  corps  to  occupy 
the  ground  he  vacated  caused  him  to  be  an  hour 
later  still.  Sedgwick's  division,  with  Sumner  at 
the  head,  went  first,  French  following ;  each  with 
perhaps  5,000  men ;  they  crossed  the  Antietam, 
moving  west  by  north,  till  the  centre  was  nearly 
opposite  the  Dunkard  church ;  then  deploying, 
faced    west,    French    forming   on   Greene's   left. 


Sedgwick   passed   through   the   east   woods   and 
the  cornfield ;  advanced  swiftly  in  three  lines,  no 
regiments  111  column  or  ready  to  face  to  either 
flank   if   attacked,   swept   by  Greene's   right  and 
pressed    through   the    west    woods   with    left   on 
the   church,   to   the    western    edge   and   a   wood 
road  along  it.     Meantime   McLawS  and   Walker 
with  six  brigades  had  come  up,  one  brigade  had 
been  drawn  from  the  right  to  reinforce  Early's 
forces    of    Ewell's    division;   and    all    fell    upon 
Sedgwick's    left   flank   and   rear.     Nearly   2,000 
Union    soldiers    were    struck    clown    at    a    blow 
without  a  chance  to  retaliate ;  this  division  lost 
2,255  nien  in  all,  more  than  40  per  cent   of  its 
entire     number,     including     Sedgwdck     severely 
wounded.     Sumner   tried   to   change   front,   but 
the  lines  broke  and  scattered  northward,  sweep- 
ing away  everything  in  their  rush,  and  only  re- 
formed on  the  north  hill  where  Meade  and  the 
First  corps  had  taken  refuge.    A  brigade  of  the 
Twelfth  came  up  to  help,  but  lost  a  third  of  its 
number,  one  regiment  losing  60  per  cent.     The 
right  of  the  Confederate  attacking  line  crossed 
the  turnpike  at  the  Dunkard  church   and  made 
two  assaults  upon  Greene's  position  east  of  the 
church,  and  were  repulsed  with  great  slaughter, 
and  Greene,  making  a  counter  charge,  entered  the 
woods  beyond  the  church.    Greene  held  this  posi- 
tion until  noon,  when  the  Confederates  attacked 
both  his  flanks  and  drove  him  from  the  church. 
Meantime   W.   F.   Smith   of   Franklin's  corps 
had  come  on  the  field.     Hancock   (then  one  of 
his  brigadiers)   obtained  a  regiment  from  Sum- 
ner,   took    position    opposite    the    woods,    drove 
away   the  approaching   Confederate   skirmishers, 
and   silenced   their  batteries.     A  second  brigade 
was  placed  on  his  left,  and  with  heavy  loss  ad- 
vanced to  near  the  church;  hut  on  sending  for 
his  reserve  brigade  to  support  it  he  found  it  had 
been  ordered  away  to  support  French.     The  lat- 
ter moving  to  the  left  south  of  the  east  woods, 
over  the   farm  lands,  drove  back   D.   H.   Hill's 
skirmishers    to    his    main    line    in    the    sunken 
road,  where  he  engaged  him  over  an  hour,  when 
he  was  joined  by  Richardson.     Here  a  long  and 
sanguinary    conflict    ensued :    the    Confederates 
turned  the  "Bloody  Lane"  into  a  rough  fortress 
with    fence    rails,    and    before    carrying    it    the 
Union   divisions  had  lost  near  a  third  of  their 
total,  one  regiment  losing  60  per  cent.    They  had 
won  the  position  by  perhaps  1  p.m.,  and  shortly 
afterward    French's    troops   were    relieved   by   a 
brigade  of  Smith's  division.     Richardson  with- 
drew his  men  to  the  ridge,  and  about  that  time 
was  mortally  wounded  and  succeeded  by  Han- 
cock.    This  practically  ended  the  operations  on 
the  Federal  right,  and  indeed  the  battle  of  An- 
tietam so  far  as  it  had  any  tendency  to  change 
the    status    quo.     When    Richardson's    line    had 
been  withdrawn,  there  was  a  vigorous  contest  of 
artillery.     Meagher's    brigade    took    the    centre, 
and    somewhat    less    than    two    regiments    came 
from  French  to  aid  Richardson's  division.     De- 
spite the  application  for  artillery  for  the  division, 
none    had    been    obtained.     The    length    of    the 
Union   line   made   it   impossible   that   more   than 
one  line  of  troops  be    formed ;   and   so   far  ad- 
vanced was  this  line  that  a  part  of  it  was  con- 
tinually  swept    by    the   fire   of   the   batteries   on 
the   Confederate  left,  these  batteries  being  pro- 
tected  by   the   west   woods.     An    attack   on    the 
Union   left   was   successfully   repulsed   by   Hex- 
amer's    battery    (obtained    from    Franklin)    and 
Battery  I,  First  artillery. 


ANTIFEBRIN  —  ANTI-FEDERALISTS 


4.  Between  4  and  5  p.m.  a  regiment  of  Frank- 
lin's corps  was  ordered  to  drive  away  some 
skirmishers  of  Hill's  division  south  of  the 
Bloody  Lane  and  succeeded  at  the  cost  of  half 
its  force. 

5.  The  battle  which  Franklin  was  not  al- 
lowed to  fight  must  be  mentioned.  It  has  been 
noted  that  Smith's  action  was  paralyzed  by  tak- 
ing away  a  third  of  his  force  for  service  else- 
where. About  noon  Slocum,  with  the  other  di- 
vision, reached  the  field,  and  two  brigades  were 
at  once  formed  in  line  to  carry  the  woods  around 
the  church ;  but  again  the  reserve  brigade  was 
ordered  off.  Franklin  urged  with  all  his 
strength  to  have  a  grand  assault  made  with  his 
whole  corps  on  Lee's  centre,  crippled  and  worn 
out  with  half  a  day's  fighting  and  slaughter. 
With  relatively  fresh  troops,  and  French  and 
Richardson  to  aid,  it  is  most  probable  that  few 
Confederates  would  have  crossed  into  Shep- 
herdstown.  But  Sumner  refused  to  permit  the 
movement ;  still,  Franklin  was  so  urgent  that 
he  referred  the  decision  to  McClellan,  but  with 
so  strong  a  veto  that  McClellan  deferred  to  him 
and  sanctioned  the  refusal.  Both  credited  Lee 
with  double  or  treble  his  actual  numbers,  and 
considered  the  terrible  resistance,  not  as  a  proof 
that  it  could  not  be  continued,  but  that  any 
force  which  assailed  him  went  to  destruction. 
This  refusal  forms  another  of  the  might-have- 
beens  of  the  battle,  with  some  peculiarly  poig- 
nant personal  tragedy  involved. 

6.  The  action  of  the  left  under  Burnside  is 
an  even  more  acute  personal  question.  His  pe- 
culiar position  has  already  been  noted.  About 
7  a.m.  he  received  an  order  to  hold  himself  in 
readiness  to  carry  by  assault  a  stone  ridge  across 
the  Antietam  about  a  mile  southeast  of  Sharps- 
burg.  About  10,  when  the  First  and  Twelfth 
Corps  and  Sedgwick's  division  were  out  of  the 
fight,  he  received  another  order  to  carry  the 
bridge  and  the  heights  beyond,  and  advance  on 
the  rear  of  Sharpsburg.  He  turned  it  over  to 
Cox,  who  ordered  a  brigade  to  storm  the  bridge, 
Rodman  to  cross  by  a  ford  one  third  of  a  mile 
below,  and  the  two  to  carry  the  heights  and 
unite  there.  At  best  this  could  not  be  done  in  a 
moment,  and  the  movement  seems  a  covering 
rather  than  an  aggressive  one.  But  Crook 
missed  the  bridge  and  could  not  get  back  to  it 
under  fire :  Rodman  missed  the  ford  and  was 
two  hours  or  so  crossing  under  fire ;  a  fresh 
storming  party  finally  carried  the  bridge,  Crook 
crossed  some  companies  above  and  others  at  the 
bridge,  and  Rodman  and  the  rest  united  about 
I  p.m.,  when  the  battle  on  the  right  was  virtu- 
ally over.  Meantime  Sturgis'  division  had  run 
out  of  ammunition  and  was  reported  unfit  for 
duty;  it  was  replaced  by  Willcox's  (Burnside 
assisted  in  this),  and  at  3  P.M.  the  corps  was 
again  ready  to  move,  though  much  damaged  by 
the  constant  Confederate  artillery  fire.  The 
Tight  wing  broke  Jones'  division  and  gained 
the   suburbs   of    Sharpsburg;   but  the   left   was 

"'';•  chcc!:cd,  and  the  two  win<*s  prew 
\v,.!cly  separated.  Meantime  A.  P.  Hill  came 
upon  the  field,  having  marched  \~  miles  in 
seven  hours.  He  took  Rodman's  division  in  its 
undefended  flank  (the  second  misadventure  of 
the  sort  that  day),  and  Rodman  was  killed, 
while  a  concentric  fire  mowed  down  his  men. 
The  losses  of  the  corps  were  2.349;  a  fearful 
total,  almost  exactly  those  of  Sedgwick's  divi- 
sion.    A  panic  was  averted  by  Scammon,  who 


changed  front  and  checked  Hill  for  a  little; 
Cox  called  up  Sturgis  and  made  head  for  a 
while :  but  at  length  the  corps  was  obliged  to 
withdraw  to  the  cover  of  the  hills  that  border 
the  Antietam. 

The  Union  losses  were  12.410:  2.108  killed. 
9,549  wounded,  and  753  missing.  More  men 
were  killed  on  this  one  day  than  on  any  other 
of  the  Civil  War.  The  Confederate  losses  were 
never  known  with  exactness ;  but  as  2.700  of 
their  dead  were  counted  and  buried  by  the 
Union  forces,  and  many  had  previously  been 
buried  by  their  comrades,  the  total  cannot  have 
been  less  than  the  Federal.  The  next  day  Lee 
retreated  across  the  Potomac  unopposed :  the 
failure  to  pursue  him  was  one  of  the  griev- 
ances against  McClellan  later,  but  most  of  his 
generals  concurred  with  him.  Although  Lee 
had  escaped  destruction,  he  had  none  the  less 
failed  in  his  campaign. 

(The  Count  of  Paris'  'History  of  the  Civil 
War,'  Vol.  II.,  1876,  is  from  the  standpoint  of  a 
strong  admirer  of  McClellan,  whose  staff  he 
was  on;  F.  W.  Palfrey's  'The  Antietam  and 
Fredericksburg,'  1882,  from  a  lieutenant-colonel 
of  Sedgwick's  division,  is  sharply  critical  of 
nearly  all  the  Union  generals ;  John  C.  Ropes' 
'Story  of  the  Civil  War,'  Vol.  I.,  1894,  is  from 
a  noted  military  critic;  Michie's  'General  Mc- 
Clellan,' 1901,  is  from  a  distinguished  engineer 
officer  and  professor  at  West  Point ;  the  account 
in  'Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War'  (X. 
Y.  1884-8),  is  by  Gen.  J.  D.  Cox.  Consult  also, 
'McClellan's  Own  Story'  (1866),  and  Lives  of 
Gen.  McClellan  and  the  general  officers.) 

Forrest  Morgan-, 
Connecticut  Historical  Society. 

An'tifeb'rin,  a  trade  name  for  the  sub- 
stance known  to  chemists  as  acetanilide  (q.v.). 

An'ti-Fed'eralists,  the  first  political  party 
in  the  United  States  after  the  separation  from 
Great  Britain.  The  loyalists  having  been  ex- 
pelled, there  was  no  issue  to  divide  upon  till 
the  question  of  replacing  the  loose  Confedera- 
tion with  a  stronger  bond  came  up.  The  repre- 
sentatives of  commerce  and  capital,  and  the 
mass  of  the  educated  classes,  favored  ratifying 
the  Constitution;  those  who  feared  that  a  stiong 
government  meant  a  disguised  new  kingship,  the 
local  leaders  who  wished  to  retain  pre-emi- 
nence, and  the  conservatives  who  thought  no 
evils  comparable  to  those  of  change,  opposed 
it.  The  names  were  in  direct  opposition  to  the 
facts,  the  Federalists  striving  to  turn  the  fed- 
eration into  a  unified  nation,  the  Anti-Federal- 
ists endeavoring  to  preserve  a  loose  disinte- 
grated federation.  The  victory  of  the  superior 
classes  was  overwhelming,  one  great  cause 
being  that  the  men  who  were  later  the  leaders 
of  the  Anti-Federal  opposition  were  Federal- 
ists (q.v.)  for  the  time  being,  as  they  felt  that 
the  existing  condition  of  affairs  was  intolerable. 
In  the  organization  of  the  first  Congress  and 
executive  under  the  Constitution,  the  Federal- 
ists  proper  held  cwry  post  but  three,  and 
those  were  not  technically  "ami"  till  later,  in 
this  Congress,  though  there  wns  much  individ- 
ual opposition  to  the  Federalist  measures,  it 
was  unorganized,  and  the  Anti-Federal  spirit 
could  hardly  be  said  to  animate  a  body.  Ham- 
ilton's scheme  for  clearing  up  the  public  d,-bt 
was  the  first  point  of  division.  The  payment  of 
foreign    debts    was    carried    unanimously;    that 


ANTIGO  — ANTILLES 


for  paying  the  Continental  debt  at  par  was  op- 
posed by  Madison  and  others  except  as  to  ori- 
ginal holders;  that  for  assuming  the  State  debts 
was  bitterly  fought  as  defaming  the  States' 
solvency  and  as  buying  the  support  of  capital 
for  the  Federal  government,  was  carried  by  only 
rive  votes,  recoi  nd  beaten  by  the  seven 

votes  of  the  new  North  Carolina  just  admitted, 
again  reconsidered  and  carried  by  Jefferson's 
log-roll  of  establishing  the  new  capital  on  the 
Potomac.  His  national-bank  scheme  (1791,  op- 
posed by  Madison  in  the  House  and  Jefferson 
and  Randolph  in  the  Cabinet)  and  his  tariff 
and  excise  schemes  also  excited  a  growing  hos- 
tility from  this  element,  which  by  the  time  of 
the  2d  Congress  (1  Oct.  1791 )  was  becoming  a 
new  strict-construction  party ;  no  longer  opposed 
to  the  Constitution  as  such,  but  opposed  to  ex- 
tending its  powers  beyond  the  most  literal  in- 
terpretation of  its  terms.  Jefferson,  Madiso», 
and  Randolph  were  now  the  chiefs  of  the  new 
party  in  public  office ;  but  Jefferson  disclaimed 
being  an  Anti-Federalist,  based  his  policy  on 
love  of  "republicanism,"  as  sympathizing  with 
the  French  revolution,  and  called  the  Hamil- 
tonians  "monarchists.5'  The  Republicans  and 
Anti-Federalists  comprised  the  same  elements, 
however,  and  were  based  on  the  same  natural 
division,  and  Washington's  proclamation  of  neu- 
trality in  the  Furopcan  conflict  in  1793  fused 
them  into  one  as  the  Republicans,  later  into  the 
Democratic-Republican   party. 

Antigo,  Wis.,  county-seat  of  Langlade 
County,  a  northern  county  of  the  State.  It  is 
situated  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  the 
county,  96  miles  north-northwest  of  Oshkosh 
and  207  miles  northwest  of  Milwaukee;  and  it  is 
on  the  Spring  Brook  River  and  the  Chicago 
and  Northwestern  railway.  It  is  the  commer- 
cial centre  of  an  agricultural  section  of  consid- 
erable importance,  and  of  a  timber  region  which 
has  contributed  largely  to  Wisconsin's  position 
in  marketed  forest  products.  There  are  located 
several  extensive  manufactures  of  various  sorts, 
including  chair,  hub,  broom-handle,  excelsior, 
veneer,  and  other  factories ;  also  foundries, 
breweries,  railway-shops,  and  flour,  planing,  and 
saw  mills.  Antigo  was  settled  about  1878,  and 
in  1884  was  incorporated.  Under  the  provisions 
of  a  general  law  of  Wisconsin,  its  government 
is  administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  for  a  two- 
years'  term,  and  a  municipal  council.  Pop. 
(1890)  4,424;   (1900)  5,145. 

Antigua,  ante'gwa,  one  of  the  British 
West  Indian  islands,  situated  lat.  17°  6'  N.  and 
Ion.  61°  45'  W.,  about  50  miles  east  of  Saint 
KNtts  and  the  same  distance  north  of  Guade- 
loupe ;  area  108  square  miles ;  dependencies 
Barbuda  and  Redonda,  which  have  an  area  of 
62  square  miles;  population  including  those  de- 
pendencies 34,971  (mainly  negroes)  in  1901,  as 
compared  with  36,819  in  1891  ;  the  principal 
island  of  the  Leeward  group ;  residence  of  gov- 
ernor and  his  staff;  port  and  chief  town,  Saint 
John ;  the  chief  products,  sugar  and  pineapples. 
See  Antilles  ;  West  Inbies. 

Antilles,  an-til'lez,  the  name  given  both  to 
the  group  of  large  islands  forming  the  northern 
limit  and  the  chain  of  small  islands  forming 
the  eastern  border  of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Prac- 
tically  all   of   the   West   Indian   Islands   except 


the  Bahamas  are  thus  included.  The  Greatcl 
Antilles  (Cuba,  Jamaica,  Haiti,  and  Porto  Rico) 
have  about  3,700,000  inhabitants,  or  nearly  three 
fourths  of  the  entire  population  of  the  West 
Indies.  The  Lesser  Antilles  extend  toward 
the  southeast  in  a  curved  line  from  Porto  Rico 
to  the  coast  of  Venezuela  and  follow  the  line  to 
that  coast  from  the  Orinoco  delta  westward 
to  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo.  Their  total  area  is 
5,557  square  miles,  and  their  population  is  ap- 
proximately   1  ..'30,000. 

The  following  classification  shows  the  nat- 
ural grouping  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  with  the 
area  (  in  square  miles)  and  the  population  of 
the  islands  in  each  of  the  groups: 

1.  Virgin  Islands. —  St.  Croix  (A.  74,  pop. 
18,430)  ;  St.  John  (A.  21,  pop.  950)  ;  St.  Thomas 
(A.  23,  pop.  32,786)  ;  Tortola  (A.  58,  pop. 
5,000);  Anegada  (A.  20);  Virgin  Gorda  (A. 
[76),  _'.  Outer  Chain  of  Caribbee  Islands. — 
Anguilla  (A.  35,  pop.  3,699);  St.  Martin  (A.  38, 
pop.  3,724)  ;  St.  Bartholomew  (A.  5,  pop.  2,650)  ; 
Barbuda  (A.  62,  pop.  639);  Antigua  (A.  108, 
pop.  34,971);  Desirade  (A.  10,  pop.  1,400); 
Maria  Calante  (A.  65,  pop.  13,850).  3.  Inner 
Chain  of  Caribbee  Islands. —  Santa  Cruz  (A.  74, 
pop.  18,430)  ;  Saba  (A.  5,  pop.  2,065)  ;  St.  T'.u- 
statius  (A.  8,  pop.  1,613);  St.  Christopher  (A. 
65,  pop.  30,867)  ;  Nevis  (A.  70,  pop.  13,087)  ; 
Montserrat  (A.  32,  pop.  11,762);  Guadeloupe 
and  dependencies  (A.  600,  pop.  167,000);  Do- 
minica (A.  290,  pop.  26,841  )  ;  Martinique  (A. 
400,  pop.  before  volcanic  eruption  of  1902,  about 
187.000)  ;  St.  Lucia  (A.  245,  pop.  46,671  )  ;  St  A  rin- 
cenl  (  A.  131,  pop.  41,054)  ;  Grenada  1  A.  133,  pop. 
54,000).  4.  Barbados. —  (A.  166,  pop.  189,000). 
5.  South  American  Islands. —  Tobago  (A.  114. 
pop.  20,463)  ;  Trinidad  (A.  1.754,  pop.  248,804)  ; 
Buen  Ayre  (A.  95,  pop.  4,399)  ;  Curacao  (A. 
210,  pop.  28,187)  ;  smaller  islands  (A.  470,  pop. 
40,000). 

English  geographers  call  the  northern  part 
of  the  chain  of  Lesser  Antilles  "The  Leeward 
Islands,"  the  capital  of  the  Leeward  govern- 
ment being  on  Antigua,  and  the  southern  half 
"The  Windward  Islands,"  Grenada  being 
headquarters  of  the  Windward  government. 
The  present  holdings  of  England,  France,  Den- 
mark, and  Holland  in  the  Lesser  Antilles  are  re- 
minders of  the  early  struggles  of  the  European 
nations  to  win  supremacy  in  the  New  World ; 
for  the  West  Indies  were  commonly  regarded 
up  to  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  as  the 
most  valuable  part  of  America,  and  these  is- 
lands were  the  chief  battle-ground  of  the  rival 
powers.  Admiral  Rodney's  victory  over  the 
French  admiral  De  Grasse,  12  April  1782,  gave 
England  her  commanding  position  in  this  re- 
gion. Her  possessions  constituting  several  dis- 
tinct colonial  governments,  include  the  Virgin 
group  (except  the  Danish  Islands,  St.  Thomas, 
St.  Croix,  and  St.  John)  ;  all  below  the  cen- 
tre of  the  chain,  namely,  St.  Lucia,  St.  Vincent, 
Barbados,  Grenada,  Tobago,  and  Trinidad;  the 
important  island  of  Dominica,  etc.  The  Vir- 
gin Islands  are  important  because  they  command 
the  deep-water  Anegada  passage  between  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Caribbean  Sea;  and 
the  only  deep  harbors  (except  St.  Thomas)  in 
the  Lesser  Antilles  are  in  Trinidad  and  St.  Lucia. 
The  French  retain  among  their  possessions  the 
somewhat  larger  islands  of  Guadeloupe  and 
Martinique  in  the  centre  of  the  chain.  The 
Dutch,  in  addition  to  Curasao  and  Buen  Ayre, 


ANTI-MASONRY 


have  a  few  small  islands  below  the  Anegada 
Passage,  the  whole  width  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
intervening.  The  economic  history  of  the  is- 
lands of  the  Lesser  Antilles  is  simple.  Nearly 
all  of  them  derived  their  wealth  in  the  past  from 
sugar  culture,  and  with  the  decline  in  the  price 
of  sugar  have  sunk  into  poverty.  Meanwhile, 
the  black  population  has  crowded  out  the  Cau- 
casians. _  Masrion  Wilcox, 
Authority  on  Latin-America. 

An'ti-ma'sonry,  in  United  States  history, 
(i)  the  widespread  hostility  to  the  Freemasons, 
as  an  order  whose  oaths  were  contrary  and 
superior  to  public  duty  and  private  morality, 
excited  by  the  fate  of  William  Morgan  (q.v.) 
in  1826.  He  was  a  broken  Virginian,  who  had 
settled  in  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  about  1824,  as  a  ma- 
son by  trade,  and  professing  to  be  a  Royal  Arch 
Mason;  and  in  the  summer  of  1826  was  re- 
ported to  be  writing  a  book  to  expose  the  secrets 
of  Freemasonry,  to  be  printed  at  a  local  news- 
paper office.  Though  the  Masons  were  natural- 
ly indignant  and  distressed,  the  other  citizens 
regarded  it  as  a  catchpenny  scheme,  and  had 
Morgan  remained  in  view  probably  Masonry 
would  have  suffered  little  damage, —  certainly 
none  if  the  Masons  had  merely  denied  his  state- 
ments, for  his  word  would  have  carried  no 
weight.  But,  unluckily,  just  at  this  time  suits 
against  him  for  debt  began  suddenly  to  multi- 
ply, and  bail  was  either  refused  or  disregarded. 
Finally  on  11  August  he  was  taken  to  Canan- 
daigua,  50  miles  away,  on  a  charge  of  theft;  was 
released,  but  at  once  rearrested  for  debt;  and 
on  the  next  night,  being  again  released,  he  was 
at  once  seized  and  never  reappeared.  The  pub- 
lic at  once  connected  this  with  the  Masonic  ex- 
posure and  threats,  and  vigilance  committees 
were  shortly  organized  which  traced  him  beyond 
question,  in  the  hands  of  abducting  parties,  to 
Fort  Niagara,  an  unoccupied  United  States  post 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Niagara  River ;  the  last  ever 
certainly  known  of  him.  though  other  statements 
made  it  seem  probable  that  he  had  been  mur- 
dered and  thrown  into  Lake  Ontario.  The  ex- 
citement, increased  by  the  belief  that  prominent 
Masons  obstructed  the  investigations,  was 
fanned  into  flame  by  the  appearance,  a  few- 
weeks  later,  of  the  first  part  of  Morgan's  book, 
the  other  parts  ultimately  being  published  also; 
entitled  'Illustrations  of  Freemasonry,  by  One 
of  the  Fraternity  Who  Has  Devoted  Thirty 
Years  to  the  Subject'  ;  reprinted  under  various 
titles,  as  "Light  on  Masonry,'  'Freemasonry 
Exposed  and  Explained,'  etc.  Along  with  a 
mass  of  dreary  "ritual"  for  "working  the  de- 
grees," of  no  moment  even  if  true,  and  its 
betrayal  a  scandalous  violation  of  good  faith,  it 
included  some  passages  which  if  true  would  have 
obligated  him  to  make  them  known  at  once 
on  joining:  such  as  an  oath  requiring  Masons 
to  place  their  duty  to  a  brother  Mason  before 
their  oaths  in  court ;  and  others  pronouncing 
dire  vengeance  (graduated  according  to  the 
degree  thus  betrayed")  on  Masons  who  should  re- 
veal the  secrets  of  the  order,  and  obligating  every 
"brother"  to  make  it  his  business  to  execute  the 
threat.  The  denials  of  the  Masons  were  not 
thought  categorical  enough.  The  alleged  agents 
in  the  abduction  were  put  on  trial  between 
January  1827  and  18.30.  and  several  were  con- 
victed and  sentenced,  some  pleading  guilty  to 
save  examination  as  to  conspiracy.     They  could 


not  be  held  for  murder,  but  popular  judgment 
charged   that   crime   to  the   fraternity   if  not   to 
the   individuals.     Very   soon   Anti-Masonry   had 
become   the  one  issue  of   the   day.     Candidates 
for  local  office  who  refused  to  withdraw  from  the 
order  were  heavily  "scratched"  at  elections,  and 
great  numbers  of   lodges  had  to  give   up  their 
charters  and  dissolve.    From  New  York  the  feel- 
ing spread  through  the  Union,  and  more  than 
3,000   lodges   surrendered   their   charters   before 
the  storm  blew  over.    The  governor  of  New  York 
and  a  large  number  of  the  leading  officials  and 
prominent   public   men   were    Masons,   as    now ; 
but  in   the  campaign  of  1828  the  National  Re- 
publicans dared  not  nominate  any  who  belonged 
to  the  order.     None  the  less    the  Anti-Masons 
formed  a  regular  party,  holding  a  convention  at 
Utica  and   nominating   Solomon   Southwick  for 
governor.     Wm.   H.    Seward,   Millard    Fillmore, 
and  Thurlow  Weed  first  came  forward  as  Anti- 
Masonic  candidates.     A  body   was  conveniently 
found  in  Niagara  River    and  said  to  be  Mor- 
gan's,   though    of    course    unrecognizable;    and 
Weed  is  credited  with  having  replied,  when  ques- 
tioned as  to  its  authenticity,  that  it  was  "a  good 
enough  Morgan  till  after  election."     The  ticket 
polled  33.345  votes  out  of  276,583 ;  but  it  polled 
some     70,000    in     1829     and     128.000     in     1830, 
gradually    absorbed     the     National     Republican 
party  in  the   State,  and  became  the  chief  anti- 
Democratic     organization.     This     is     the     most 
singular   feature   of   the    whole   movement;    for 
the   National   Republicans,   like  the   Whigs  and 
Republicans   later,   were  distinctly  the  party  of 
the     upper   business    and    professional    classes, 
which    were    the    very    ones    who    formed    the 
strength   of  the   Masons.     Yet   the   same   result 
obtained   everywhere:    doubtless   it   was   due   to 
the  accidental  fact  that  Jackson,  the  idol  of  the 
Democracy   and  then   President,   was  a   Mason. 
A  national  convention  was  held  in  1830  to  or- 
ganize a  national  party ;  and  in  September  1831, 
in  order  to  force  Clay,  who  was  a   Mason,  out 
of  the  field,  it  held  a  convention  (in  Baltimore) 
before  any  of  the  other  parties,  and  nominated 
William  Wirt  of  Maryland  and  Amos  Ellmaker 
of   Pennsylvania   for  the   Presidency.     The   Na- 
tional    Republicans,    however,    supported    Clay, 
and  in  the  election  of  1832  Wirt   received  only 
the  electoral  vote  of  Vermont.     The  party  took 
no   further   national   action,    and   with   the    Na- 
tional   Republicans    was    soon    absorbed    in   the 
new     Whig    party,     though     it     retained     force 
enough   to   compel   the   Whigs   to   discard    Clay 
for    Harrison    in    1833    and    1839.     In    Pennsyl- 
vania, however,  allied   with  the  Whigs,   it   sur- 
vived   till    about   1840  and   elected   a   governor, 
Joseph      Ritner.     (2)      Another      Anti-Masonic 
body  was  formed  in  1868  as  the  National  Chris- 
tian Association,  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  though  hos- 
tility to  Masonry  was  only  one  of  its  tenets;  it 
renamed  itself  in  1875  the  American  Partv  (q.v.. 
No.  2),  and  entered  politics.     It  opposed  Free- 
masonry as   "false   religion  and   false   politics." 
and  urged  the  prohibition  of  oath-bound  lodges 
as  acknowledging  another  government  than  that 
of  the  United  States. 

Bibliography.—  For  Morgan,  see  Morris. 
'  History  of  the  Morgan  Affair'  (1852)  ;  Greene. 
'The  Broken  Seal,  or  the  Morgan  Abduction 
and  Murder'  (1870).  For  political  results  see 
Hammond,  'Political  History  of  Xew  York'; 
Hopkins,  'Political  Parties'    (1900). 


ANTI-MISSION  BAPTISTS  —  ANTINOMIANISM 


Anti-Mission  Baptists  (their  own  title  is 
"Old  School  Baptists"),  an  American  sect 
founded  about  1835,  who  do  not  believe  in  Sun- 
day-schools or  theological  seminaries,  holding 
thai   salvation  d^es  n.>t   d'  1   human  in- 

strumentalities, but  upon  divine  grace  alone. 

Antimonan,  an'te-mo-nan',  a  seaport  town 
of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  province  of  Tay- 
abas,  It  is  situated  on  Lamon  Bay,  about  100 
miles  southeast  of  .Manila.    Pop.  about  11,000. 

An'ti-Monop'oly  Party,  an  American  polit- 
ical organization  which  in  1884  nominated  for 
the  Presidency  Benjamin  F.  Butler  (q.v.),  on 
a  platform  advocating  election  of  United  States 
senators  by  popular  vote,  an  income  tax,  the 
repeal  of  all  tariffs,  and  the  prohibition  of  land 
to  corporations.  It  united  with  the 
Greenback  Labor  party,  the  combined  vote 
rig  150,000  votes  in  the  November  election 
of  1884. 

An'timony,  the  name  of  one  of  the  metal- 
lic elements.  It  is  found  in  nature  in  the  metal- 
lic state,  but  its  chief  commercial  source  is  the 
mineral  stibuite,  which  is  a  sulphide  of  anti- 
mony (Sb^Sa).  Stibnite  was  known  in  very 
early  times.  It  has  been  used  by  the  women  of 
the  East  for  many  centuries  for  painting  the 
eyebrows  and  eyelashes  and  giving  lustre  to 
the  eyes.  Before  the  discovery  of  the  metal 
itself,  stibnite  was  called  "antimony,"  and  it  ap- 
pears that  the  paint  used  by  Jezebel  (2  Kings 
ix.  30)  was  finely  ground  stibnite.  The  Arabs 
called  this  face-paint  al-Koh'l  (compare  Alco- 
hol). The  origin  of  the  word  "antimony"  is 
not  known.  There  is  a  legend  that  certain 
monks  were  once  poisoned  by  it,  and  that  the 
name  is  derived  from  anti,  "against,"  and  moine, 
"a  monk";  so  that  antimoine,  or  antimony, 
would  mean  "monk's  bane,"  or  something  of 
that  sort.  This  derivation,  however,  is  entirely 
fanciful.  The  first  distinct  mention  of  the 
metal  itself  is  made  by  Basil  Valentine,  who 
gives  a  process  for  extracting  it  from  stibnite, 
though  he  does  not  claim  to  have  discovered  it. 
Several  methods  for  extracting  it  are  now  in 
inc.  chief  of  which  is  the  following:  Two  parts 
of  stibnite  are  melted  with  one  part  of  thin 
scrap  iron,  in  plumbago  crucibles.  Leaving  the 
antimony  the  sulphur  combines  with  the  iron, 
so  that  sulphide  of  iron  and  metallic  antimony 
result,  the  iron  sulphide  floating  as  a  slag.  The 
crude  antimony  so  obtained  is  next  melted  with 
a  small  amount  of  sulphate  of  soda  and  a  little 
of  the  slag  obtained  from  the  operation  next  to 
be  described.  By  this  means  the  metal  is  puri- 
fied somewhat.  It  is  then  cast  into  molds,  and 
when  cold  is  broken  up  into  small  pieces,  to  pre- 
pare it  for  the  third  operation,  which  is  called 
"melting  for  star  metal."  This  last-named  pro- 
ts  in  melting  60  parts  of  the  broken 
metal  with  two  parts  of  pearlash  and  five  parts 
of  slag  from  a  previous  operation  of  the  same 
kind.  The  resulting  metal  or  rcgulus  is  poured 
into  square  molds,  into  which  some  slag  has  first 
been  allowed  to  run.  and  is  cooled  slowly  while 
still  covered  with  slag.  If  the  metal  is  of  good 
quality,  the  resulting  blocks  will  have  a  stellated 
or  crystalline  _  surface.  The  total  consumption 
of  the  metal  is  probably  as  much  as  4,000  tons 
per  annum,  nearly  all  of  which  is  smelted  and 
refined  in  England.  Ores  of  antimony  occur  in 
Mexico,    California,    Nevada,    New    Brunswick, 


France,  Australia,  Japan,  China.  Italy,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Corsica,  and  many  other  parts  of  the 
world. 

Antimony  is  a  brilliant,  bluish-white,  brittle, 
crystalline  metal,  with  a  specific  gravity  vary- 
ing from  6.72  to  6.86.  It  melts  at  about  8oo°  R, 
and  if  protected  from  the  air  boils  at  a  white 
heat.  At  ordinary  temperatures  it  is  not  acted 
up  n  by  air  or  water,  but  it  oxidizes  quickly 
when  melted,  and  at  a  red  heat  bums  at  a  bril- 
liant white  flame,  and  can  decompose  water.  It 
expands  upon  solidifying,  and  imparts  this 
property  to  its  commoner  alloys.  Its  co-efficient 
of  expansion  is  about  .0000064  per  degree 
F.  The  tensile  strength  of  cast  antimony  is 
about  1,000  pounds  per  square  inch  of  sectional 
area.  It  is  a  comparatively  poor  conductor  of 
heat  and  electricity,  its  thermal  conductivity 
being  only  about  one  twenty-fifth  of  that  of 
silver ;  its  electrical  resistance  is  0.488  of  that 
of  mercury  at  32°  F.,  and  0.704  that  of 
mercury  at  2120  F.  Its  chemical  symbol  is 
Sb  (from  the  Latin  word  stibium),  and  its 
atomic  weight  is  sensibly  120.  It  is  diamag- 
nctic;  that  is,  a  sphere  made  from  it  is  repelled 
by  a  magnet,  though  the  repulsion  is  hardly 
comparable  in  magnitude  with  the  force  of  at- 
traction that  a  magnet  exerts  upon  iron.  It  also 
has  marked  thermo-electric  properties,  and  is 
used  in  the  laboratory  in  the  construction  of 
thermopiles.  Antimony  forms  valuable  alloys 
with  other  metals,  and  this  is  its  most  impor- 
tant use  in  the  arts.  Type  metal  is  an  alloy  of 
lead,  antimony,  and  tin,  with  sometimes  a  little 
copper.  The  tin  adds  toughness,  while  the  an- 
timony gives  hardness  and  causes  the  alloy  to 
expand  upon  solidifying,  giving  an  accurate 
cast  of  the  letter. 

An'timony-pois'oning,  a  variety  of  poison- 
ing formerly  more  common  than  at  present. 
The  mortality  is  about  40  per  cent.  The  symp- 
toms of  acute  poisoning  resemble  closely  those 
of  arsenic-poisoning.  There  is  sudden  acute 
gastric  pain,  with  nausea  and  vomiting,  pressure 
in  the  breast,  and  intense  sense  of  anxiety. 
This  is  followed  by  colicky  pains  and  diarrhrea. 
The  pulse  becomes  small  and  frequent,  later 
retarded:  the  respirations  diminish  in  number, 
the  skin  is  cyanotic,  the  temperature  sinks,  and 
coma  and  convulsions  lead  to  death.  If  vomit- 
ing develops  early,  before  time  has  elapsed  to 
permit  of  the  absorption  of  r.  large  amount  of  the 
antimony  salt,  death  is  less  likely  to  occur. 
The  treatment  should  include  washing  out  the 
stomach,  inducing  of  vomiting,  and  the  use  of 
tannic  acid  compounds. 

Anti-Nebraska  Party.  See  Kansas- 
Nebraska   Bill. 

An'tino'mianism,  the  name  applied  to  the 
doctrine  that  the  dispensation  of  grace  as  set 
forth  in  the  New  Testament  frees  the  Christian 
from  the  claims  and  obligations  of  the  moral 
law  as  presented  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  the 
early  Church  there  were  antinomian  tendencies 
due  to  an  over-emphasis  of  faith  in  opposition 
to  works.  This  is  especially  so  in  some  of  the 
Gnostic  systems,  where  faith  and  love  are  so 
emphasized  that  moral  matters  appear  indif- 
ferent, and  the  contradictions  between  the  law 
and  the  gospel  are  regarded  as  irreconcilable. 
Antinomianism  marked  many  of  the  mediaeval 
sects,  but  reached  its  fullest  development  in  the 


ANTIOCH  — ANTIPHONY 


Reformation  period.  In  Luther's  emphasis  on 
the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  he  had 
used  expressions  which  might  be  understood  to 
indicate  opposition  between  the  law  of  Moses 
and  the  gospel,  as  though  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  gospel  the  law  of  Moses  was  no 
longer  of  any  value.  But  when  Luther  careful- 
ly expressed  himself  on  this  point,  as  he  did 
in  his  instruction  to  the  Saxon  preachers  in 
1527,  he  gave  to  the  teachings  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment their  proper  place  in  the  Christian  life. 
This  was  disputed  by  Agricola,  and  a  contro- 
versy broke  out  between  him  and  Luther,  in 
which  he  treated  Luther's  most  extreme  state- 
ments in  regard  to  faith  as  though  they  were 
to  be  taken  literally.  His  follower  Amsdorf 
went  as  far  as  to  say  that  good  works  were  det- 
rimental to  salvation.  In  England  there  were 
Antinomians  in  the  various  sects  in  the  time  of 
Cromwell.  They  were  high  Calvinists  and 
claimed  that,  as  the  elect  cannot  fall  from  grace, 
any  act  performed  by  them,  however  sinful  it 
may  seem  to  men,  is  not  in  reality  sinful. 

An'tioch  (Latin,  Aniiochia),  the  ancient 
capital  of  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria;  on  the 
Orontes;  about  21  miles  from  the  sea.  It  was 
founded  by  Seleucus  Nic3tor  in  300  B.C.,  and 
named  after  his  father  Antiochus.  The  first  in- 
habitants were  brought  from  Antigonia,  found- 
ed by  Antigonus  in  307.  It  was  famed  for  the 
splendor  of  its  public  buildings,  the  Seleucid 
monarchs  having  vied  with  each  other  in  em- 
bellishing their  metropolis,  and  the  Roman  em- 
perors having  also  done  much  to  adorn  it.  It 
was  called  the  "Queen  of  the  East"  and  "The 
Beautiful,"  and  was  advantageously  situated  for 
trade,  being  easily  approached  by  the  caravans 
of  the  East,  and  through  its  port  Seleucia  hav- 
ing maritime  communication  with  the  West. 
The  city  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  it  was  here  that  the  disciples  of 
our  Saviour  were  first  called  Christians  (Acts 
xi.  26).  In  64  B.C.,  on  the  breaking  up  of 
the  kingdom  of  Syria,  it  was  captured  by  Pom- 
pey;  in  266  was  captured  by  the  Persians  un- 
der Sapor;  and  in  538  was  thrown  into  a  heap 
of  ruins  by  Persians  under  Chosroes.  It 
was  restored  by  the  emperor  Justinian,  but 
never  quite  recovered  from  this  last  blow.  In 
the  first  half  of  the  7th  century  it  was  taken 
by  the  Saracens  and  remained  in  their  posses- 
sion for  upward  of  300  years,  when  it  was  re- 
covered by  the  Greek  emperor  Nicephorus  Pho- 
cas.  In  1008  it  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders. 
They  established  the  principality  of  Antioch, 
which  lasted  till  1268,  when  it  was  taken  by  the 
Mameluke  sultan  of  Egypt.  In  1516  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Turks.  The  modern  An- 
tioch or  Antakieh  is  a  poor  place.  It  has  some 
manufactures  of  silk  stuffs,  leather,  and  car- 
pets, and  has  some  trade  in  these  articles  and 
in  goat's  wool,  beeswax,  etc.  The  population  is 
not  far  from  20,000. 

Antioch  College,  an  American  coeduca- 
tional institution  in  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio, 
founded  in  1852  with  Horace  Mann  as  its 
first  president.  It  has  an  endowment  of  over 
$100,000;  its  grounds  and  buildings  are  valued 
at  $250.000 ;  and  its  library  contains  7,000  vol- 
umes. In  1901  it  had  16  instructors  and  177  stu- 
dents,  its  graduates  numbering  2,260. 

Anti'ochus,  the  name  of  13  kings  of  Syria: 
I.    Antiochus   I.,   or   Antiochus   Soter,  son  of 


Seleucus :  b.  about  324  B.C. ;  d.  261  B.C.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  280  B.C.  and  disputed  Mace- 
donia with  Antigonus  Gonatas,  but  finally  re- 
linquished it  to  him.  During  the  greater  part 
of  his  reign  he  was  engaged  in  a  protracted 
struggle  with  the  Gauls,  by  whom  he  was  killed 
in  battle.  2.  Antiochus  II.,  or  Antiochus 
Theos,  who  succeeded  his  father  Antiochus  I. 
Weakened  by  war  with  Egypt,  he  lost  Parthia 
and  Bactria  by  revolt.  He  was  murdered  in 
246  B.C.  by  Laodice,  his  wife,  whom  he  had  put 
away  to  marry  Berenice,  daughter  of  Ptolemy. 
3.  Antiochus  III.,  The  Great,  grandson  of 
Antiochus  II.,  who  succeeded  his  father  Seleu- 
cus Callinicus  in  223  B.C.  at  the  age  of  15.  He 
made  war  on  Parthia  and  Bactria,  but  was  com- 
pelled, after  a  long  war,  to  recognize  the  inde- 
pendence of  these  kingdoms.  He  next  invaded 
India,  where  he  remained  for  seven  years  (212- 
205  B.C.).  Invading  Asia  Minor  and  crossing 
to  Europe  he  took  possession  of  the  Thracian 
Chersonese.  Antiochus  gained  an  important 
ally  in  Hannibal,  who  had  fled  for  refuge 
to  his  court ;  but  lost  the  opportunity  of 
an  invasion  of  Italy  while  the  Romans  were  en- 
gaged in  war  with  the  Gauls,  of  which  the 
Carthaginian  urged  him  to  avail  himself.  In 
192,  at  the  request  of  the  /Etolians,  he  crossed 
to  Greece,  but  was  defeated  by  the  consul  Acilius 
Glabrio  and  returned  to  Asia.  He  was  de- 
feated by  Scipio  near  Magnesia,  100  B.C.  Peace 
was  granted  him  in  1S8  B.C.  on  the  cession  of  all 
his  dominions  west  of  Mount  Taurus,  with  a 
heavy  indemnity.  He  also  engaged  to  surrender 
refugees  of  his  court,  but  he  allowed  Hannibal 
to  escape.  He  was  killed  while  plundering  a 
temple  in  Elymais.  4.  Antiochus  IV.,  Epi- 
phanes,  son  of  Antiochus  the  Great;  d.  164  B.C. 
He  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  his  attempt  to  ex- 
tirpate the  Jewish  religion.  5.  Antiochus  V., 
Eutator,  son  of  Antiochus  IV.,  who  reigned 
from  164  B.C.  to  162  b.c.  6.  Antiochus  VI., 
Theos,  ruled  for  three  years,  145-142  B.C.  7. 
Antiochus  VII.,  Sidetes,  the  son  of  Demetrius 
I. :  b.  about  164  b.c.  ;  d.  129  b.c.  He  defeated  the 
Parthians  in  several  battles.  8.  Antiochus 
VIII.,  Grypus,  son  of  Demetrius  II.  He  ruled 
125-113  B.C.  and  1 1 1-96  B.C.  and  was  slain  by 
Heracleon  in  the  last  named  year.  9.  Anti- 
ochus IX.,  Cyzicenus,  son  of  Antiochus  VII. 
Defeated  in  battle  against  Seleucus  V.,  he  com- 
mitted suicide  in  95  b.c.  10.  Antiochus  X., 
Eusebes,  son  of  Antiochus  IX.  He  reigned  but 
three  years  and  was  obliged  to  flee  to  Parthia  in 
92  b.c.  11.  Antiochus  XL,  Epithanes,  son  of 
Antiochus  Grypus.  He  reigned  95-93  B.C.  and 
was  drowned  in  the  Orontes.  12.  Antiochus 
XII.,  Dionysus,  85  B.C.  He  was  killed  in  battle 
with  the  Nabatoreans.  13.  Antiochus  XIII., 
Asiaticus,  the  son  of  Antiochus  X.,  and  the 
twentieth  of  the  Seleucidian  dynasty.  Beginning 
his  reign  in  69  B.C.  he  was  deposed  by  Pompey 
in  65  B.C. 

Antiphlogis'tic,  a  term  applied  to  medi- 
cines or  methods  of  treatment  that  are  intended 
to  counteract  inflammation,  such  as  bloodletting, 
purgatives,  diaphoretics,  etc. 

Antiph'ony  ("alternate  song"),  a  term  de- 
noting in  the  services  of  the  Christian  Church, 
a  psalm,  chant,  or  other  composition,  sung  by 


ANTIPODES  —  ANTIPYRETICS 


two  parties  in  alternation,  as  by  two  choirs  or 
[.arts  of  a  choir,  or  tirst  by  a  single  voice  and 
then  repeated  by  the  whole  choir.  The  Roman 
Church  applies  the  term  antiphony  in  a  restrict- 
ed sense  to  a  series  of  "words  or  verses  prefixed 

to  and    following  a   psalm  or   psalms,    to  express 

in  brief  the  mystery  which  the  Church  is  con- 
templating in  that  part  of  her  office.11  The  prac- 
tice of  alternate  singing  formed  a  part  of  the 
old  Jewish  worship.  It-  introduction  into  the 
Christian  Church  is  ascribed  to  Ignatius  in 
the  first  century  after  Christ.  The  Western 
Church  is  said  to  have  received  it  more  par- 
ticularly from  St.  Ambrose. 

Antipodes,  an-tlp'6-dez  (from  the  Greek 
anti,  against,  and  [>ous,  a  foot),  the  name  given 
Ui  inhabitants  of  the  earth  diametrically  oppo- 
site to  each  other,  and  of  course  literally  ap- 
plied to  those  who  turn  their  feet  toward  each 
other;  or  to  any  part  of  the  earth's  surface  sit- 
uated diametrically  opposite  any  given  part.  The 
antipodes  live  ill  similar  and,  except  at  the  equa- 
tor, opposite  latitudes,  and  their  longitudes  differ 
by  180°.  Hence  the  difference  in  their  time  is 
about  12  hours,  and  their  seasons  are  reversed. 
The  spherical  form  of  the  earth  naturally  leads 
us  to  the  idea  of  the  antipodes,  of  whose  exist- 
ence some  idea  was  entertained  even  before  the 
age  of  Cicero. 

Antipodes  Island,  an-tip'6-dez  is'land, 
a  small  uninhabited  island  in  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean,  about  460  miles  southeast-by-east  of 
New  Zealand ;  so  called  from  being  nearly  an- 
tipodal to  Greenwich.  England.  Its  area  is 
about  11   square  miles. 

An'tipope,  a  pontiff  elected  in  opposition 
to  one  canonically  chosen.  The  first  antipopes 
were:  Felix,  during  the  pontificate  of  Liberius 
(352-366)  and  recognized  during  the  absence 
of  Liberius ;  Ursinus,  against  Damasus  (366- 
384)  ;  Eulalius,  against  Boniface  I.  (418-422)  ; 
Laurentius,  against  Symmachus  (498-514)  ; 
Dioscurus,  against  Boniface  II.  (530-532)  ;  Vigi- 
lius,  against  Sylverius,  until  540,  then  canonical; 
Constantine,  against  Paul  (767)  ;  Anastasius, 
against  Benedict  III.  (855)  ;  John  XVI.,  Phi- 
logathus,  against  Gregory  V.  (996-999)  ;  Greg- 
ory, against  Benedict  VIII.  (1012-24).  During 
the  Middle  Ages  several  emperors  of  Germany 
set  up  Popes  against  those  whom  the  Romans 
had  elected  without  consulting  them.  Otho  the 
Great  displaced  successively  two  Bishops  of 
Rome;  and  when  the  rival  Pope,  Sylvester  III., 
had  expelled  the  simoniacal  and  profligate  Bene- 
dict IX.  (1033-45),  the  latter  was  brought  back 
by  the  German  king,  and  soon  afterward  relin- 
quished his  dignity  in  consideration  of  a  large 
tribute.  Gratianus,  who  had  persuaded  him  to 
yield,  was  now  named  Pope  by  the  Romans  as 
Gregory  VI.  There  were,  consequently,  three 
Popes,  but  their  claims  were  all  set  aside  at  a 
council  convened  at  Sutri  by  the  emperor, 
Henry  III.,  and  a  new  Pope  elected  as  Clement 
II.  in  1046.  Shortly  after,  Pope  Alexander  II. 
found  a  rival  in  Honorius  II.,  the  nominee  of 
the  emperor ;  but  his  claim  was  ratified  by  a 
council  convened  at  Mantua.  In  1080  the  same 
unseemly  spectacle  was  witnessed,  when  the  em- 
peror Henry  IV.  elevated  to  the  papal  chair 
Guibert  of  Ravenna,  under  the  title  of  Clement 
111.,  in  opposition  to  his  own  implacable  adver- 
sary, Gregory  VII.     After  the  death  of  Gregory 


(  1085),  Clement  was  antipopc  successively  to 
Victor  III.  (1087-88)  and  Urban  11.  (1088-09). 
Other  antipopes  at  this  period  were  Allien. 
Theodoric,  Maginulf,  all  in  one  year  (1 100-01)  ; 
Maurice  Burdin,  against  Gclasius  II.  (11 18-19) 
and  Calixlus  11.  (1124-30)  Innocent  II. 
(1130-43)  triumphed  over  the  antipope  Anacle- 
tus  II.  by  the  help  of  Si  Bernard;  and  Alexan- 
der III.,  during  his  pontificate  (1159-81),  bad  to 
contend  with  three  successive  antipopes.  the  elec- 
tion of  only  one  of  whom,  however,  Victor  IV., 
in  1159.  has  any  appearance  of  canonical  valid 
ity.  The  others  were  named  Pascal  III.  (  1 168) 
and  Calixtus  111.,  the  same  year.  After  a  long 
contest  Clement  Y.  was  elected  in  1305,  and 
four  years  later  transferred  his  seat  to  Avignon, 
where  his  successors  reigned  for  nearly  70 
years,  losing  the  while,  by  their  subjection  to 
French  influences,  the  sympathies  of  Germany 
and  England.  Nicholas  Y.  (  1328-30)  was  anti- 
pope  against  John  XXII.  The  election  of  Ur- 
ban VI.  in  1378  occasioned  "the  great  schism  of 
the  West,"  which  divided  the  Church  for  50 
years.  He  was  elected  by  the  Romans,  who 
demanded  an  Italian  Pope  after  the  death  of 
Gregory  XI.  The  French  cardinals,  then  a  ma- 
jority in  the  curia,  on  the  plea  that  they  had 
elected  the  Pope  only  under  intimidation,  with- 
drew to  Provence,  and  elected  an  antipopc  under 
the  name  of  Clement  VII.,  who  was  recognized 
by  France,  Spain,  Savoy,  and  Scotland ;  while 
Italy,  Germany.  England,  and  the  whole  North 
of  Europe  supported  Urban  VI.  For  38  years 
Christian  Europe  was  scandalized  by  the  spec- 
tacle of  two  Popes,  one  at  Geneva,  another  at 
Rome,  in  turn  hurling  the  most  awful  anathemas 
of  the  Church  at  each  other.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  15th  century  an  attempt  was  made  to 
prevail  on  both  the  rivals,  Gregory  XII.  at  Rome, 
and  Benedict  XIII.  at  Avignon,  to  renounce 
their  claims  with  a  view  to  promote  union,  hut 
both  evaded  this  as  long  as  possible.  At  length, 
however,  the  cardinals  attached  to  either  court 
agreed  to  summon  a  general  council,  which  met 
accordingly  at  Pisa  in  1409.  The  council  de- 
posed both  Popes  and  constituted  the  separate 
bodies  of  cardinals  into  one  conclave  which 
elected  Alexander  V.  to  the  papal  chair.  The 
schism  was  finally  healed  when  the  council  of 
Constance  deposed  John  XXIII.,  and  Gregory 
XII.  and  Benedict  XIII.  agreed  to  abdicate  and 
recognize  as  Pope  Martin  V.,  against  whom 
Peter  de  Luna  and  Munoz  of  Barcelona  were 
antipopes.  The  council  of  Base!  (1431-47),  in 
its  struggle  with  Pope  Eugenius  IV.  (1431-47) 
for  supremacy,  attempted  to  arrogate  to  itself 
the  papal  functions  and  proceeded  to  elect 
Amadeus  of  Savoy  Pope  as  Felix  V.  The 
attempt,  however,  failed ;  the  Popes  Eugenius 
IV.  and  Nicholas  V.  (1447-1455)  secured  their 
authority,  the  ambitious  council  finally  dissolved 
itself,  and  Feiix  Y.  resigned  his  empty  dignity, 
and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  cardinal  by  the 
magnanimous  Pope  himself.  This  was  the  last 
occasion  on  which  the  faithful  were  distracted 
by  the  sight  of  a  rival  pontiff  within  Christen- 
dom. 

An'tipyret'ics,  the  name  given  to  remedies 
employed  to  reduce  temperature  in  diseased  con- 
ditions. Direct  application  of  cold  in  the  form 
of  baths,  packs,  ice-cloths,  etc.,  are  the  most 
valuable  and  efficient  antipyretics.  In  some  def- 
inite affections,   notably  in  malaria,  quinine,  by 


ANTIPYRIN— ANTI-RENT  AGITATION 


destroying  the  parasite  that  causes  the  disease, 
reduces  the  temperature.  Of  late  years  a  large 
number  of  synthetic  drugs  have  been  introduced 
to  be  used  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  tempera- 
ture in  disease.  These  are  more  technically  the 
antipyretics.  The  field  of  their  usefulness  in 
this  particular  function,  however,  is  constantly 
narrowing,  since  it  is  being  recognized  that 
fever  is  only  a  symptom  and  often  not  a  dan- 
gerous one  at  that.  Rational  therapeutics  would 
first  eliminate  the  cause  of  fever,  and  drugs 
are  then  rarely  necessary'-  The  more  important 
drug  antipyretics  are  antipyrin,  opium,  quinine 
and  its  allies,  salicylic  acid  and  its  compounds, 
alcohol,  chloral,  squills,  phenacetin,  and  others 
of  the  modern  analgesics  (q.v.).  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  functions  of  most  of  these  drugs 
is  their  power  to  relieve  pain.  Their  antipy- 
retic action  is  often  extremely  complex  —  in 
general  they  diminish  oxidation,  increase  per- 
spiration, or  diminish  the  force  and  frequency  of 
the  heart-muscle  contractions.  See  Analgesics  ; 
Animal  Heat;  Fever. 

An'tipy'rin,  the  trade  name  of  an  artificial 
alkaloidal  substance  known  to  the  chemist  as 
oxydimethyl-quinizin,  or,  more  accurately,  as 
oxy-phenyl-di-methyl-pyrazole.  It  is  a  crystal- 
line substance  melting  at  2350  F.  and  soluble 
in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.  Antipyrin  is  a  de- 
rivative of  coal-tar,  an  organic  nitrogenous  ba- 
sic compound  (synthetic  alkaloid?)  with  the 
composition  CsHs(CH3)cC3HN;0.  It  forms  col- 
orless scaly  crystals  devoid  of  odor  and  with  a 
slightly  bitter  taste.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  al- 
cohol, and  chloroform.  It  is  one  of  the  first  of 
the  modern  army  of  synthetic  drugs,  and  is  still 
one  of  the  most  valuable,  though  not  so  exten- 
sively lauded  as  formerly,  the  patent  on  its  ex- 
clusive production  by  one  manufacturer  having 
expired  in  1899.  Its  action  locally  is  somewhat 
antiseptic,  and  solutions  applied  to  mucous  mem- 
branes render  them  slightly  anaesthetic  and  con- 
tract the  blood-vessels.  It  therefore  makes  a 
good  local  application  to  catarrhal  membranes. 
Taken  internally  it  is  readily  absorbed,  reduces 
the  force  and  frequency  of  the  heart  action, 
causes  a  dilatation  of  the  blood-vessels  of  the 
periphery  of  the  body,  thus  bringing  about 
sweating  and  increased  heat  elimination  (see 
Animal  Heat).  Its  chief  antipyretic  action  is 
due  to  the  co-ordinating  mechanism  which  low- 
ers the  heat  at  the  point  where  the  temperature 
is  maintained  and  accumulated  (the  skin)  ;  the 
dilatation  of  the  capillaries  brings  about  the 
dissipation  of  this  accumulation,  which  vascular 
dilatation  is  caused  by  the  action  of  the  heat- 
regulating  mechanism  possibly  situated  at  the 
base  of  the  cerebrum.  Antipyrin  is  also  an 
efficient  and  valuable  analgesic,  particularly  ser- 
viceable in  headache,  neuralgias,  in  dysmenor- 
rhea, in  rheumatism,  and  in  affections  of  the 
peripheral  nerves  and  joints  generally.  By  its 
pain-relieving  qualities  it  makes  a  valuable  ad- 
junct in  hypnotic  mixtures.  It  is  also  a  good 
antispasmodic    (q.v.). 

Antipyrin  is  mainly  eliminated  by  the  kid- 
neys. It  may  cause  symptoms  of  poisoning. 
These  are  collapse,  cold  extremities,  and  some 
degree  of  cyanosis  and  heart  weakness.  It  is 
not  one  of  the  anilin  (q.v.),  analgesic  antipyret- 
ics and  hence  has  not  the  characteristic  blood- 
poisoning  properties  of  the  anilins  (acetanilid. 
exalgen,  methacetin,  and  similar  bodies).    It  also 


produces  a  number  of  untoward  symptoms,  not- 
ably skin  eruptions,  cramps  of  the  intestine  and 
of  the  bladder.  It  also  may  cause  disturbances 
of  sensation  in  the  extremities.  Doses  of  from 
10  to  15  grains  have  caused  serious  symptoms  of 
poisoning,  particularly  in  children.  See  Anal- 
gesics ;  Antipyretics. 

An'tiquaries,  persons  devoted  to  the  study 
or  collection  of  antiquities.  In  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe  and  America  there  are  im- 
portant associations  of  antiquaries.  The  object 
of  these  societies  is  the  collection  and  preserva- 
tion of  ancient  manuscripts,  inscriptions,  coins, 
sculptures,  etc.;  the  examination  of  ancient  edi- 
fices and  other  remains ;  in  short,  the  investiga- 
tion of  everything  likely  to  throw  light  on  the 
manners,  customs,  and  history  of  the  past.  The 
chief  antiquarian  society  of  Great  Britain  is  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries  of  London,  founded  in 
1572,  revived  in  1707,  and  incorporated  in  1751. 
The  president  for  the  time  being  is  an  official 
trustee  of  the  British  Museum.  It  has  pub- 
lished 'Archaeologia'  (1770,  etc.),  'Vetusta 
Monumenta'  (1747),  and  'Proceedings'  from 
1849.  The  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland 
was  founded  in  1780  and  incorporated  in  1783. 
The  Archaeological  Institute  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  established  in  1843,  is  a  society  of 
similar  character.  The  American  Antiquarian 
Society  (q.v.)   was  organized  in  1812. 

An'tiquary,  The,  a  romance  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott  (1816).  It  is  weak  in  its  supernatural 
machinery,  but  strong  in  dialogue  and  humor. 
The  plot  centres  about  the  fortunes  and  mis- 
fortunes of  the  Wardour  and  Glenallan  families, 
and  the  chief  character  is  Mr.  Jonathan  Old- 
buck,  the  Antiquary,  whose  odd  sayings  and 
garrulous    knowledge    are    inimitably    reported. 

Antiques',  a  term  specifically  applied  to 
remains  of  ancient  art,  such  as  statues,  paint- 
ings, vases,  cameos,  and  the  like,  and  more 
especially  to  works  of  Grecian  and  Roman  an- 
tiquity. 

Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  The,  a  famous 
work  by  the  historian  Flavins  Josephus,  con- 
cluded in  the  13th  year  of  the  reign  of  Do- 
mijian.  It  was  addressed  especially  to  the 
Greeks  and  the  Gentiles. 

Antiq'uity,  a  term  generally  denoting  the 
time  prior  to  the  irruption  of  the  barbarians 
into  the  Roman  empire  in  the  middle  of  the  5th 
century,  or  previous  to  our  era.  In  a  narrower 
sense  it  is  applied  to  the  period  over  which  the 
ancient  history  of  the  two  principal  nations  of 
former  times,  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  extends. 
The  name  antiquities  is  commonly  given  to  the 
remains  of  ancient  art  and  industry,  such  as 
tools,  weapons,  sculptures,  inscriptions,  etc.  It 
is  also  used  in  a  wider  sense  to  signify  any- 
thing appertaining  to  a  knowledge  of  the  poli- 
tics, manners,  religion,  literature,  and  arts  of 
the  nations  of  antiquity,  or  of  the  modern  na- 
tions, until  the  existing  order  of  things  com- 
menced.    See  Arch.eology. 

Anti-Rent  Agitation,  in  New  York  State. 
Although  the  manorial  system  of  large  landed 
estates  with  leasehold  tenants  disappeared  early 
in  all  other  parts  of  the  northern  States  of  the 
Union,  it  flourished  vigorously  along  the  Hud- 
son and  Mohawk  until  well  into  the  nth  cen- 
tury.    This  was  due  probably  to  the  high  per- 


ANTI-RENT  AGITATION 


sonal  qualities  and  tenacious  landlordship  of  the 
Van  Rensselaer  (q.v.)  and  Livingston  (q.v.) 
families,  and  the  desire  they  inspired  in  others 
to  become  semi-feudal  country  gentlemen  of 
the  same  stamp.  The  greatest  of  these  holdings 
was  the  Van  Rensselaer  patroonship,  called 
Rensselaerswick,  derived  from  a  Dutch  grant 
confirmed  by  James  II. ;  originally  comprising 
the  entire  counties  of  Albany,  Rensselaer,  and 
Columbia, —  20  miles  on  each  side  of  the  Hud- 
son,—  and  to  the  last  retaining  many  hun- 
dreds  of  large  farms  in  them.  Almost  as  large 
was  the  "Livingston  Manor,"  at  one  time  holding 
162,000  acres  in  Dutchess  and  Columbia  coun- 
ties. Tin-  extensive  I  [ardenburgh  Patent,  dat- 
ing from  1749,  occupied  large  sections  in  Greene 
and  Delaware  counties;  and  there  were  many 
other  considerable  estates.  The  tendency  in  the 
vicinity  of  these  great  manors  was  not  to  sell 
farms,  but  lease  them  with  feudal  incidents,  in 
imitation  of  their  great  neighbors ;  so  that  in 
eight  or  ten  of  the  east-central  counties  a  large 
part  of  the  land  was  in  tenant  farms,  mingled 
with  and  surrounded  by  properties  in  fee.  There 
were  some  very  annoying  provisions  in  some 
leases ;  one  for  giving  the  landlord  a  quarter  of 
the  proceeds  of  the  sales  of  produce  in  case  of 
alienation  of  the  fee, making  the  landlord  a  part- 
ner with  a  one-fourth  interest.  In  practice  this 
provision  was  cither  not  enforced  or  was  com- 
muted for  a  fraction  of  the  value,  and  in  the 
Hardenburgh  Patent,  where  was  the  fiercest  re- 
sistance and  the  most  bloodshed,  there  was  no 
such  provision  at  all ;  but  it  served  as  a  common 
grievance  whether  present  or  absent.  Also 
rents  were  often  in  kind,  fixed  or  shares,  which  is 
always  fertile  in  heartburnings;  many,  however, 
had  been  commuted  to  money.  But  the  actual 
grievances  were  slight,  and  the  tenants  were 
probably  better  off  in  income  than  the  owners 
in  fee.  In  Rensselaerswick  the  first  seven 
years  of  a  lease  were  usually  rent-free;  on  the 
Hardenburgh  Patent  five  years,  with  the  next 
five  at  half  rent;  and  arrears  and  reservations 
were  very  laxly  enforced,  often  not  at  all  for 
years, —  which  was  injudicious  charity  and  pro- 
duced the  crisis,  as  enforcement  of  back  dues 
meant  being  sold  out  and  evicted,  and  agricul- 
ture is  the  one  employment  that  will  not  en- 
dure that  from  private  owners.  The  insecurity 
of  the  old  feudal  tenures  had  been  removed  by 
the  legislation  of  1779  and  1789,  which  abolished 
them ;  and  the  new  leases,  though  having  the 
same  rentals  and  services,  were  in  fee,  so  that 
raising  of  rent  and  confiscation  of  improvemnts 
were  impossible.  Further  legislative  regula- 
tion was  attempted  in  1812  to  settle  the 
respective  rights  of  patroons  and  tenants ;  but 
the  friction  continued,  and  naturally  involved 
all  other  land  dealings, —  contracts,  mortgages, 
etc.,  haying  as  ill  an  odor  as  leases.  In  1836 
a  mob  in  Chautauqua  County  destroyed  a  land 
office  with  its  records,  on  a  rumor  that  the 
mortgages  were  to  be  foreclosed ;  and  the  same 
thing  was  only  prevented  at  Batavia  by  an 
armed  gathering  of  the  townsmen.  The  mat- 
ter was  brought  to  a  head  by  the  death  of  Gen. 
Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  the  eighth  patroon  of 
Rensselaerswick.  This  fine  old  gentleman,  who 
commanded  at  Queenston  Heights  and  found- 
ed Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute  (q.v.),  died 
early  in  1839,  leaving  over  $200,000  of  uncol- 
lected   rents    and    any    number    of    unenforced 


quaitcr-salcs,  and  two  heirs  to  whom  he  left 
his  estates  on  the  respective  sides  of  the  Hud- 
son. These  heirs  undertook  to  collect  the  ar- 
rears and  enforce  the  rights  left  in  abeyance; 
and  the  tenants  formed  associations  to  resist. 
The  first  to  do  so  were  those  in  the  Helderbi  rg 
Mountains,  west  of  Albany  (whence  the  dis- 
turbance is  sometimes  called  the  Eielderberg 
war)  ;  but  those  cast  of  the  Hudson  in  Rensse- 
laer County  outdid  them  by  forming  a  mob  in 
disguise  and  murdering  a  man.  The  counties 
were  in  open  rebellion,  and  in  December  Gov. 
Win.  II.  Seward  issued  a  proclamation  against 
the  rioters.  The  .sheriff  of  Albany  County  with 
a  posse  several  hundred  strong  was  stopped  by 
1,500  armed  men;  a  company  of  militia  was 
called  out,  but  was  forced  back  by  a  gathering  of 
nearly  1,000,  and  at  last  a  body  of  about  1,000 
militia  had  to  be  sent  to  Albany.  The  execu- 
tions were  finally  levied,  and  on  the  12th  the 
soldiers  were  sent  home.  On  the  governor's 
recommendation  the  legislature  appointed  a 
commission  to  report  on  a  plan  of  adjustment; 
but  as  the  only  parties  who  wished  the  legal 
status  quo  changed  were  the  tenants,  the  land- 
lords considered  the  concessions  to  be  all  on 
their  side  and  refused  to  listen  to  its  recom- 
mendations. A  stubborn  resistance  practically 
nullified  the  collection  of  rents  year  after  year. 
At  length  in  1844  the  rebellion  broke  out  with 
tenfold  violence,  in  a  general  organization 
through  Rensselaer,  Schenectady,  Columbia,  Ot- 
sego, Delaware,  Ulster,  Greene,  Dutchess,  and 
other  counties,  against  the  payment  of  any  rent 
whatever,  and  to  compel  the  lords  of  the  manor 
to  sell  their  lands  to  the  persons  occupying  them 
as  tenants.  The  justifications  legal  and  equi- 
table may  be  surmised:  that  the  landlords  had 
no  title,  that  the  rent  had  been  waived,  that 
the  payment  of  rent  was  against  republican  in- 
situtions,  etc.  A  regular  agrarian  war  was  in- 
stituted: the  tenants,  plus  all  the  rabble  who 
liked  to  commit  outrage  on  any  side,  disguised 
themselves  as  Indians  in  defiance  of  laws  against 
it,  and  began  a  reign  of  terror,  flogging,  tar- 
ring and  feathering,  boycotting,  and  generally 
ill-using  all  who  took  leases,  dealt  with  land- 
lords, or  obstructed  obstruction  in  any  way. 
One  laborer  who  had  bought  lumber  from  a 
leased  farm  and  was  taking  it  to  market  was 
shot  dead  by  a  mob  in  a  struggle  to  take  it  from 
him.  At  length,  on  7  Aug.  1845,  a  deputy  sheriff 
of  Delaware  County  was  fatally  shot  by  such  a 
mob  while  serving  a  process;  the  extortion 
which  called  for  this  bloodshed  was  two  years' 
back  rent  at  $32  a  year.  These  performances 
went  on  for  months;  Gov.  Silas  Wright,  who  in 
his  message  of  1845  had  favored  commutation 
of  rents  and  ownership  in  fee  though  calling  for 
sharp  laws  to  punish  outrages,  now  summoned 
a  military  force  and  sternly  put  down  the  re- 
bellion. More  than  50  convictions  were  ob- 
tained, two  of  murder  with  sentence  of  death, 
which  the  governor  commuted  to  imprisonment 
for  life;  but  in  his  next  year's  message  (1846) 
he  recommended  the  abolition  of  distress  for 
rent  and  the  limitation  of  leases  to  five  or  ten 
years.  The  constitutional  convention  of  1846 
abolished  feudal  tenures  and  limited  leases  to 
twelve  years.  This  was  not  at  all  what  the 
Anti-Renters  wanted,  however,  but  abolition  of 
rent  altogether  and  proclamation  of  the  lease- 
holders as   owners.     Their   cause  had   been  an 


ANTIRRHINUM  —  ANTISEPTIC 


issue  in  State  politics  for  years,  fomented  by 
agitators  and  newspapers ;  and  the  Whigs,  see- 
ing that  they  controlled  the  legislative  delega- 
tions of  eleven  counties,  nominated  for  governor 
in  1846  their  chief  legislative  champion,  John 
Young,  against  Silas  Wright,  elected  him  by 
their  aid,  and  he  promptly  pardoned  all  those 
who  had  been  sentenced,  pronouncing  their  of- 
fenses "political."  He  also  recommended  State 
suits  against  landlords  to  try  titles.  The  Anti- 
Renters  had  "adopted"  a  part  of  the  State  ticket 
and  not  the  rest,  to  show  their  strength,  and 
polled  about  5,000  votes ;  the  next  election  (of 
1848)  they  did  the  same :  and  the  legislature, 
alive  to  the  value  of  this  body  of  votes,  directed 
the  attorney-general  to  bring  a  test  suit  against 
Harmon  Livingston.  The  decision  in  Novem- 
ber 1850  was  for  Livingston;  but  the  nearly 
twelve-years  struggle  and  ruin  of  property  val- 
ues had  wearied  the  landlords,  and  the  decent 
tenants  were  perhaps  ashamed  of  their  breach 
of  contract.  The  former  offered  to  sell  the 
farms,  and  the  latter  were  willing  to  buy ;  and 
the  great  patroonship  and  patents  were  rapidly 
broken  up.  Meantime  there  was  a  mass  of 
private  litigation,  and  several  cases  went  up  to 
the  Court  of  Appeals ;  which  in  October  1852 
declared  that  without  reference  to  the  Consti- 
tution of  1846,  agreements  in  restraint  of  alien- 
ation of  titles  in  fee,  and  therefore  reservations 
of  quarter-sales,  were  void.  As  this  left  the 
landlords  no  right  which  could  oppress  the  ten- 
ants, and  the  latter  nothing  to  oppose  except  a 
payment  of  honest  debts,  the  Anti-Rent  agita- 
tion passed  out  of  sight  as  a  dignified  political 
entity.  But  the  spirit  was  not  quite  dead.  As 
late  as  July  1866  an  anti-rent  riot  broke  out 
in  Knox,  Albany  County,  which  had  to  be  sup- 
pressed by  the  militia.  The  next  month  a  land- 
owner's agent  in  Berne  was  fired  at  and  his 
horses  were  shot.  These,  however,  were  be- 
lated estrays :  for  a  generation  land  contracts 
have  been  on  a  footing  with  all  others.  Con- 
sult Jay  Gould,  'History  of  Delaware  County1 
(1856);  Roberts,  'History  of  New  York5 
(1887);  Cheyney,  'Anti-Rent  Agitation' 
(1887). 

An'tirrhi'num,  the  designation  of  a  genus 
of  annual  or  perennial  plants  of  the  natural  or- 
der Scropliulanaccic,  commonly  known  as  snap- 
dragon, on  account  of  the  peculiarity  of  the 
blossoms,  which  resemble  a  face  or  a  mask. 
They  all  produce  showy  flowers  and  are  much 
cultivated  in  gardens.  Many  varieties  of  some 
of  them,  such  as  the  great  or  common  snap- 
dragon (A.  inajus),  have  been  produced  by 
gardeners.  The  plant  is  not  native  in  America, 
such  specimens  as  are  seen  growing  wild  having 
escaped  from  gardens. 

Antisana,  an'te-sa'na,  a  volcano  in  the 
Andes  of  Ecuador,  35  miles  southeast-by-east 
of  Quito.  Whymper,  who  ascended  it  in  i860, 
makes  its  height  19,260  feet. 

An'tisci'an  (Greek  anti,  over  against;  skia, 
a  shadow),  a  name  applied  to  those  who  live  un- 
der the  same  meridian,  at  the  same  distance 
north  and  south  of  the  equator,  and  whose 
shadows  at  noon  consequently  are  thrown  in 
contrary  directions. 

Antiscorbutics.      See  Scurvy. 


An'ti-Sem'itism,  a  name  applied  to  a 
movement  against  Jews  as  such,  the  modern 
opponents  of  the  Jews  in  Russia,  France,  and 
Germany.  It  is  founded  on  race  hatred  and 
arises  from  social,  economic,  and  political 
causes.  In  Berlin  an  Anti-Semitic  League  was 
formed  in  1879  to  restrict  the  liberty  of  Jews 
in  Germany.  Since  then  similar  organizations 
have  been  formed  in  Russia,  Austria,  Greece, 
and  Holland.  The  movement  in  Russia  as- 
sumed a  more  brutal  character  than  in  Ger- 
many, and  thousands  of  Jews  fled  to  the  Unit- 
ed States,  Spain,  and  elsewhere.  In  Hungary 
violent  anti-Jewish  riots  occurred  at  Pesth,  Zala, 
and  elsewhere,  which  were  not  brought  to  an 
end  until  martial  law  was  proclaimed.  The 
second  trial  of  CapL  Albert  Dreyfus,  in  1899, 
aroused  an  intense  anti-Semitic  feeling  in 
France.     See  Jews  and  Judaism. 

An'tisep'tic,  a  term  denoting  that  which 
arrests  decay.  The  development  of  the  know- 
ledge that  organic  bodies  are  broken  down  or 
decayed  by  minute  plants,  fungi,  bacteria,  etc., 
led  to  the  idea  of  preventing  the  action  of  these 
bodies  by  the  employment  of  some  appropriate 
substances.  In  medicine  it  had  been  found  that 
many  of  these  bacteria  produced  a  condition 
known  as  sepsis,  or  poisoning,  and  when  Lister 
first  used  the  carbolic  spray  to  prevent  the  de- 
velopment of  these  bacteria  the  word  antiseptic 
came  into  use.  Used  originally  to  apply  to  sep- 
tic organisms  it  has  come  to  be  applied  to  any 
substance  that  would  inhibit  the  growth  or  de- 
stroy these  agents  of  putrefaction  or  of  disease. 
A  germicide  is  any  agent  that  kills  these  low 
forms  of  plant  life ;  fungicides  are  used  on  the 
large  fungi ;  bactericides  on  the  bacteria.  The 
word  disinfectant  should  properly  apply  to  a 
substance  used  for  the  destruction  of  a  definite 
infecting  agent,  such  as  phthisical  sputum,  or 
typhoid  urine  or  stools,  but  it  too  often  is  em- 
ployed for  some  remedy  that  destroys  a  dis- 
agreeable odor —  a  deodorant.  Thus  most  so- 
called  disinfectants,  manufactured  to  place  in 
closets  or  urinals,  are  really  nothing  but  foul- 
smelling  deodorants.  As  disinfectants  they  are 
delusions  and  snares.  Germicides,  bactericides, 
antisepticides,  may  be  divided  into  two  groups, 
physical  and  chemical.  In  the  former  group  is 
heat,  the  most  important  of  all  germicides. 
Burning  is  the  best  means  for  the  disinfection 
of  the  non-valuable  surroundings  of  patients 
who  have  had  any  severe  contagious  disease 
such  as  diphtheria,  typhoid  fever,  plague,  scar- 
let fever,  etc.  It  is  the  best  agent  for  the  de- 
struction of  all  tuberculous  sputum.  Boiling 
is  another  efficient  means  of  disinfecting,  or 
sterilizing.  The  boiling  of  water  or  milk  sus- 
pected to  contain  the  bacteria  of  typhoid  or 
diphtheria  is  efficient.  Boiling  all  bed  linen  in 
contact    with    contagious    diseases    is    advisable. 

The  boiling  of  preserves  and  then  hermeti- 
cally sealing  the  cans  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  molds  is  practised  by  all  housewives.  When 
the  fruit  "ferments,"  it  has  either  not  been 
bciled  long  enough,  the  cans  were  not  thor- 
oughly cleansed  by  boiling  water,  the  rubbers 
and  tops  not  sterilized,  or  a  hole  has  been  left 
whereby  the  spores  of  molds  have  entered. 
Cold  is  a  preservative  only:  it  prevents  the 
multiplication  of  these  low  forms  of  plant  life, 
but  does  not  destroy  them. 


ANTI-SLAVERY    SOCIETY  —  ANTLERS 


Chemical  antiseptics  have  been  in  vogue  ever 

since  the  work  of  Tyndall,  Pasteur,  Koch,  and 

:  showed  the  role  of  lower  plant   forms  in 

the  causation  of  putrefaction  and  sepsis.  In  the 
HtS  many  antiseptics  are  used  to  preserve 
foods.  The  smoking  of  hams,  etc.,  is  the  old 
empirical  method,  antedating  modern  means 
probably  by  hundreds  of  years,  the  smoke  con- 
taining creosote  and  bodies  related  to  carbolic 
acid.  Boracic  acid,  alum,  salicylic  acid,  forma- 
lin, nitre,  common  salt,  sugar,  etc.,  are  all  ex- 
tensively used  as  food  preservatives.  Wood  is 
protected  from  rotting  by  the  injection  of  creo- 
sote, tar,  and  related  fungicides.  In  modern 
antiseptic  surgery  it  is  not  the  destruction  of 
bacteria,  but  rather  their  prevention,  that  is 
desired,  and  asepsis1  is  the  modern  method,  not 
antisepsis.  By  thorough  sterilization  of  every- 
thing that  comes  in  contact  with  a  patient's 
body  the  modern  surgeon  prevents  infection  by 
keeping  bacteria  out.  Should  the  nature  of  a 
wound  be  such  that  it  is  already  infected,  then 
antiseptics  are  of  service.  The  most  valuable 
surgical  antiseptics  are  the  phenols  and  their  de- 
rivatives (carbolic  acid,  salicylates,  etc.),  salts 
of  mercury,  silver,  lead,  aluminum,  copper,  and 
zinc,  preparations  of  chlorin,  iodin,  bromin, 
organic  aldehydes,  formaldehyde,  benzaldehyde, 
and  the  oxygen-producing  compounds,  hydrogen 
peroxide  and  other  peroxides.  For  the  com- 
parative strength  of  the  antiseptics  see  under 
their  respective  heads.  Also  Sternberg,  'Bac 
teriology'  ;  Flugge,  'Die  Mikroorganismen.'  See 
Bacteria;  Fungi;  Infection;  Koch;  Pasteur; 
Putrefaction  ;  Spontaneous  Generation. 

Anti-Slavery  Society,  the  American,  was 
organized  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  1833,  by  dele- 
gates from  similar  local  and  state  societies. 
The  first  of  these  societies  was  formed  in  Bos- 
ton in  Jan.  1832,  by  William  Lloyd  Garrison 
and  others.  The  American  society  took  a  rad- 
ical stand  for  the  abolition  of  slavery.  A  dif- 
ference of  opinion  among  the  members  caused 
a  split  in  the  society  in  1840,  and  eventually 
both  factions  joined  the  Liberty  Party  (q.v.). 
A  small  coterie  of  the  original  society  con- 
tinued to  exist  however  until  the  adoption  of 
the  15th  Amendment  in  1870.  See  Liberal 
Party  ;  Slavery. 

An'tispasmod'ic,  a  medicine  proper  for  the 
cure  of  spasms  and  convulsions.  Opium,  bal- 
sam of  Peru,  and  the  essential  oils  of  many 
vegetables  are  the  most  useful  of  this  class  of 
medicines. 

Antis'thenes  of  Athens,  a  Greek  philoso- 
pher who  founded  the  sect  of  Cynic  phi- 
losophers; b.  in  Athens  444  n.c.  He  was  a  dis- 
ciple of  Socrates,  and  is  said  to  have  aided  in 
bringing  some  of  his  persecutors  to  justice. 
He  taught  at  the  Cynosarges.  a  gymnasium  ap- 
propriated to  Athenians  who  had  foreign  moth- 
ers. His  philosophy  was  a  one-sided  develop- 
ment of  the  Socratic  method.  According  to  his 
teaching  virtue  should  render  man  independent 
of  the  ordinary  events  of  life.  He  himself  lived 
in  a   very  austere,   self-denying   fashion. 

Antis'trophe,  (Gr.  anti+strophe.  from 
strepho,  I  turn),  the  name  of  one  of  the  divi- 
sions of  a  Greek  choral  ode.  corresponding  to 
the  strophe  and  following  it.  The  singing  of 
the  strophes  on  the  stage  was  accompanied  with 
a  motion  or  turn  from  right  to  left. 


An'titox'ins,  the  name  given  to  peculiar 
bodies  developed  in  the  human  body  or  in  the 
body  of  an  animal,  supposed  to  be  antagonistic  to 
the  poisons,  or  toxins,  of  disease.  These  anti- 
toxins are  specific  for  definite  diseases  and 
stitute  one  of  the  protective  agents  in  the  body's 
battle  with  disease.  For  the  full  consul 
of  these  and  other  similar  bodies  see  Immunity. 

Anti-trade,  a  name  given  to  any  of  the 
upper  tropical  winds  which  move  northward  or 
southward  in  the  same  manner  as  the  trade- 
winds  which  blow  beneath  them  in  the  opposite 
direction.  These  great  aerial  currents,  descend- 
ing to  the  surface  after  having  passed  the  limits 
of  the  trade-winds,  form  the  southwest  or  west- 
southwest  winds  of  the  north  temperate,  and  the 
northwest  or  west-northwest  winds  of  the 
south  temperate  zones. 

An'titrin'ita'rian,  a  name  applied  to  one 
who  does  not  receive  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
Trinity  as  it  is  represented  by  the  Niccne  and 
Athanasian  creeds,  and  either  puts  the  Son 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Godhead  below  the 
Father,  or  considers  Christ  as  merely  a  man, 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  an  arbitrary  personification 
of  the  divine  mind.  Antitrinitarians  of  the  lat- 
ter class  are  Unitarians  (q.v.),  while  those  of 
the  former  class  are  relatively  Trinitarians. 

Anti-Trust  Laws,  in  the  United  States. 
(See  also  Trusts.)  The  first  of  these  on  the 
statute  books  was  an  ordinance  of  Alabama  in 
1883  against  the  pooling  of  freights  by  rail- 
roads. The  first  general  law  against  business 
combinations  was  enacted  by  Kansas  in  1889. 
But  the  general  movement  against  trusts  which 
took  shape  in  legislation  was  in  1889,  when 
five  States  and  Territories  passed  laws  to  render 
combinations  in  restraint  of  trade  illegal  and 
punishable,  and  two  more  (Washington  and 
North  Dakota)  incorporated  similar  provisions 
into  the  constitutions  with  which  they  were 
admitted  to  the  Union.  In  the  first  half  of  1890 
three  more  States  joined  the  movement  with 
legislation ;  and  on  2  July  the  Federal  Con- 
gress enacted  the  "Sherman  Law"  against  trusts. 
Since  then  over  as  many  more  States  and  Ter- 
ritories, toward  30  in  all,  have  placed  like 
statutes  on  their  books.  The  provisions  are 
substantially  alike  in  all,  making  the  persons 
engaged  in  such  combinations  liable  to  fine  and 
imprisonment,  and  the  corporations  or  firms 
punishable  by  loss  of  charter  or  of  right  to 
carry  on  business  within  the  State  where  the 
offense  is  committed.  The  decisions  of  the  cir- 
cuit courts  at  first  were  so  narrowed  as  prac- 
tically to  nullify  the  provisions  of  the  laws; 
it  being  held  that  the  combinations,  as  at  com- 
mon law,  must  be  proved  inequitable  and  in- 
jurious to  the  public,  and  calculated  not  merely 
to  abate  competition,  but  absolutely  to  monopo- 
lize the  business  for  the  purpose  of  extortion. 
But  these  decisions  were  reversed  by  the  United 
States  supreme  court,  which  held  that  the  laws 
made  no  distinction  between  partial  and  com- 
plete monopoly,  or  equitable  and  inequitable.  It 
had  been  claimed  also  that  the  laws  were  uncon- 
stitutional, as  violating  the  Fifth  and  Four- 
teenth Amendments,  that  no  person  shall  be  de- 
prived of  liberty  without  due  process  of  law, 
and  that  the  liberty  of  making  contracts  is  an 
essential  portion  of  this :  but  the  supreme  court 
interprets    them   to    mean    legal   contracts,    and 


ANTITYPE  —  ANTLERS 


that  under  its  power  to  regulate  commerce 
Congress  can  decide  what  contracts  are  legal ; 
while  the  State  courts  hold  that  such  regula- 
tion is  competent  to  the  States  under  their 
police  power. 

The  Sherman  Act  is  as  follows : 

i.  Every  contract,  combination  in  the  form 
of  trust  or  otherwise,  or  conspiracy,  in  restraint 
of  trade  or  commerce  among  the  several  States, 
or  with  foreign  nations  is  hereby  declared  to  be 
illegal.  Every  person  who  shall  make  any  such 
contract  or  engage  in  any  such  combination  or 
conspiracy  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of  a  mis- 
demeanor, and,  on  conviction  thereof,  shall  be 
punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $5,000,  or  by 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  one  year,  or  by  both 
said  punishments,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

2.  Every  person  who  shall  monopolize,  or 
attempt  to  monopolize,  or  combine  or  conspire 
with  any  other  person  or  persons  to  monopolize 
any  part  of  the  trade  or  commerce  among  the 
several  States,  or  with  foreign  nations,  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  on  convic- 
tion thereof  shall  be  punished  by  fine  not  ex- 
ceeding $5,000,  or  by  imprisonment  not  exceed- 
ing one  year,  or  by  both  said  punishments,  in 
the  discretion  of  the  court. 

3.  Every  contract,  combination  in  the  form 
of  trust  or  otherwise,  or  conspiracy  in  restraint 
of  trade  or  commerce  in  any  Territory  of  the 
United  States  or  of  the  District  of  Columbia,  or 
in  restraint  of  trade  or  commerce  between  any 
such  Territory  and  another,  or  between  any 
such  Territory  or  Territories  and  any  State  or 
States  or  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  with  for- 
eign nations,  or  between  the  District  of  Colum- 
bia and  any  State  or  States  or  foreign  nations, 
is  hereby  declared  illegal.  Every  person  who 
shall  make  any  such  contract  or  engage  in  any 
such  combination  or  conspiracy  shall  be 
deemed  guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and,  on  con- 
viction thereof,  shall  be  punished  by  fine  not 
exceeding  $5,000,  or  by  imprisonment  not  ex- 
ceeding one  year,  or  by  both  said  punishments, 
in  the  discretion  of  the  court. 

4.  The  several  circuit  courts  of  the  United 
States  are  hereby  invested  with  jurisdiction  to 
prevent  and  restrain  violations  of  this  act,  and  it 
shall  be  the  duty  of  the  several  district  attor- 
neys of  the  United  States  in  their  respective 
districts,  under  the  direction  of  the  attorney- 
general,  to  institute  proceedings  in  equity  to 
prevent  and  restrain  such  violations.  Such  pro- 
ceedings may  be  by  way  of  petition  setting  forth 
the  case  and  praying  that  such  violation  shall 
be  enjoined  or  otherwise  prohibited.  When 
the  parties  complained  of  shall  have  been  duly 
notified  of  such  petition  the  court  shall  pro- 
ceed, as  soon  as  may  be,  to  the  hearing  and  de- 
termination of  the  case ;  and  pending  such  peti- 
tion, and  before  final  decree,  the  court  may  at 
any  time  make  such  temporary  restraining  order 
or  prohibition  as  shall  be  deemed  just  in  the 
premises. 

5.  Whenever  it  shall  appear  to  the  court  be- 
fore which  any  proceedings  under  section  four 
of  this  act  may  be  pending,  that  the  ends  of 
justice  require  that  other  parties  should  be 
brought  before  the  court,  the  court  may  cause 
them  to  be  summoned,  whether  they  reside  in 
the  district  in  which  the  court  is  held  or  not ; 
and  subpcenas  to  that  end  may  be  served  in  any 
district  by  the  marshal  thereof. 


6.  Any  property  owned  under  any  contract 
or  by  any  combination,  or  purchased  to  any  con- 
spiracy (and  being  the  subject  thereof)  men- 
tioned in  section  one  of  this  act,  and  being  in 
the  course  of  transportation  from  one  State  to 
another,  or  to  a  foreign  country,  shall  be  for- 
feited to  the  United  States,  and  may  be  seized 
and  condemned  by  like  proceedings  as  those 
provided  by  law  for  the  forfeiture,  seizure,  and 
condemnation  of  property  imported  into  the 
United   States  contrary  to  law. 

7.  Any  person  who  shall  be  injured  in  his 
business  or  property  by  any  person  or  corpora- 
tion by  reason  of  anything  forbidden  or  declared 
to  be  unlawful  by  this  act,  may  sue  therefor  in 
any  circuit  court  of  the  United  States  in  the 
district  in  which  the  defendant  resides  or  is 
found,  without  respect  to  the  amount  in  con- 
spiracy, and  shall  recover  threefold  the  dam- 
ages by  him  sustained,  and  the  cost  of  suit,  in- 
cluding a  reasonable  attorney's  fee. 

8.  That  the  word  "person"  or  "persons,* 
wherever  used  in  this  act,  shall  be  deemed  to 
include  corporations  and  associations  existing 
under  or  authorized  by  the  laws  of  either  the 
United  States,  the  laws  of  any  of  the  Territories, 
the  laws  of  any  State,  or  the  laws  of  any  for- 
eign country- 

Antitype,  a  word  denoting  a  type  or  fig- 
ure corresponding  to  some  other  type.  It  is  in 
the  sense  of  copy  or  likeness  that  the  word 
occurs  in  the  New  Testament  (Heb.  ix.  24; 
i  Peter  iii.  21).  By  the  fathers  of  the  Greek 
Church  antitype  is  employed  as  a  designation  of 
the  bread  and  wine  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's   supper. 

Antium,  an'shi-um,  one  of  the  most  an- 
cient and  powerful  cities  of  Latium,  the  chief 
city  of  the  Volsci.  It  was  situated  on  a  promon- 
tory, and  was  a  flourishing  seaport.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Romans  in  468  B.C.,  but  soon  re- 
volted, and  maintained  its  independence  till 
finally  taken  by  Rome  in  338  B.C.,  and  after  this 
it  appears  as  one  of  the  maritime  colonies  of 
Rome.  Toward  the  close  of  the  republic  and 
during  the  empire  it  was  a  favorite  residence  of 
the  wealthy  Romans,  and  both  the  town  and  its 
neighborhood  were  adorned  with  temples  and 
splendid  villas.  Nero  and  Caligula  were  born 
at  Antium.  It  was  entirely  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens;  but  vestiges  of  it  still  remain  at 
Porto  d'Anzo,  its  modern  successor,  near  which 
many  works  of  art,  including  the  Apollo  Belvi- 
dere  and  the  Borghese  Gladiator,  have  been 
found. 

Ant'lers,  the  weapons  borne  upon  the  head 
of  a  male  deer  during  the  breeding  season.  They 
are  an  outgrowth  of  true  bone  supported  upon 
protuberances  from  the  crown  of  the  skull,  called 
pedicels.  As  the  spring  approaches,  the  hairy 
skin  with  which  these  are  covered  becomes 
highly  vascular  and  swollen  with  blood  and 
serum  carrying  lime  salts.  This  grows  outward 
and  gradually  assumes  the  form  of  the  antler, 
characteristic  of  the  species,  which  for  a  time 
is  in  a  soft  and  vascular  state,  and  covered  with 
what  hunters  call  "velvet."  There  is  continually 
deposited  within  this  growth  the  substance  of 
bone,  which  fills  and  solidifies  the  structure 
from  the  centre  outward,  until  in  the 
course  of  four  or  five  months  all  has  become 
solid,    the    outer    skin    shrinks    and    dries    and 


ANTLIA  —  ANTONELLI 


presently  falls  or  is  rubbed  off.  These  antlers 
remain  firm  upon  the  head  and  useful  as  wea- 
pons until  the  middle  of  the  following  winter, 
when  they  become  loosened  and  fall  off.  1  he 
process  is  repeated  the  following  spring,  and 
the  antlers  are  thus  lost  and  replaced  annually 
as  long  as  the  stag  lives.  In  the  deer,  with  the 
single  exception  of  the  reindeer,  antlers  are 
worn  only  by  the  males  and  are  a  secondary 
sexual  character.  That  they  are  associated  with 
the  reproductive  function,  says  Beddard,  is 
shown  by  their  being  shed  after  the  period  of 
rut;  and  also  by  the  stunting  effect  upon  the 
horns  which  any  injury  to  the  reproductive 
glands  produces.  Various  degrees  of  degenera- 
tion are  to  be  seen  in  the  antlers  of  captive  deer 
resulting  from  varying  degrees  and  periods  of 
gelding. 

The  sport  of  stag-hunting  has  preserved  a  set 
of  ancient  terms,  mostly  of  French  origin  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  designating  the  different  parts  of 
the  antler  and  the  successive  stages  of  growth, 
and  these  have  come  to  stand  for  a  deer  of  a 
certain  age  or  condition.  They  were  all  de- 
rived from  and  particularly  applicable  to  the 
European  red  deer  (Ccrvus  elephas),  which 
more  than  any  other  species  is  preserved  for 
hunting  in  Europe.  This  nomenclature  is  sum- 
marized as  follows  in  'Cassell's  Natural  His- 
tory,' Vol.  III. — "In  the  common  red  deer,  in  the 
spring  of  the  year  following  its  birth,  the  antlers 
are  nothing  more  than  straight,  conical,  and 
nnbranched  'beams,'  the  animal  being  then 
known  as  a  'brooket.'  In  the  following  spring 
the  antler  has,  besides  the  'beam,'  a  small 
branch  from  its  base,  directed  forward,  known 
as  the  'brow  antler'  ;  it  is  then  termed  'spayad.' 
In  the  third  year  an  extra  front  branch  is 
formed,  known  as  the  'tres,'  and  the  whole  ant- 
ler is  larger.  The  tres  is  sometimes  seen  in 
the  smaller  antler  of  the  spayad.  In  the  fourth 
year  the  brow  antler  is  doubled  to  form  the 
'brow'  and  the  'bez-tine,'  at  the  same  time 
that  the  top  of  the  main  beam  divides  into  the 
'sur-royals'  of  the  'staggard,'  or  four-year-old 
male.  In  the  fifth  year  the  sur-royals  become 
more  numerous,  the  whole  antler  of  the  'stag' 
being  heavier  than  previously,  only  to  be  ex- 
ceeded in  weight  by  those  of  the  fully  adult 
'great  hart'  with  ten  or  more  'points,'  each 
being  larger  and  longer  than  the  year  before.'* 
A  deer  of  12  points  is  known  in  Scotland  as  a 
"royal  stag,"  but  although  sometimes  antlers 
have  more  than  12  points,  no  recent  antlers 
quite  equal  those  which  have  been  preserved 
from  old  times  before  all  the  best  deer  were  so 
systematically  shot  each  year.  Where  the  num- 
ber of  points  is  exceedingly  large,  as  it  is  in 
some  curious  specimens  wheh  show  fifty  or  sev- 
enty-five, they  are  no  longer  a  record  of  the 
years  of  the  animal's  life,  but  of  injuries  to  the 
horns,  causing  unnatural  branchings.  The  horn 
of  antlers  is  oi  commercial  value,  being  much 
used  for  the  handles  of  knives  ar.d  similar 
articles. 

Ant'lia,  01  Antlia  Pneumatica,  the  name 
of  one  of  th-1  14  southern  constellations  placed 
in  the  heavens  by  Lacaille  in  connection  with 
J.:-  „-orl<  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1751-2. 
1  . .  .  between  Vela,  Pyxis,  Hydra,  and 

• 


Ant'-li'on,  a  term  applied  to  the  larva  of 
Myrmeleon,  a  neuropterous  insect  of  the  family 
Myrmeleonide.  It  is  a  singular-looking  crea- 
ture, the  body  somewhat  broad  and  Battened 
behind,  the  head  provided  with  enormous  jaws 
which  have  a  groove  beneath,  in  which  the  max- 
illa; slide  back  and  forth.  It  can  thus  pierce 
the  bodies  of  small  soft -bodied  insects,  flics,  etc., 
and  suck  their  blood  without  moving  the  jaw  i 
on  winch  the  victim,  is  impaled.  It  makes  a  pit 
in  fine  sand,  al  the  bottom  of  which  it  lies  with 
its  body  buried  and  its  jaws  wide  open,  ready 
to  seize  any  luckless  insect  which  may  fall  in. 
When  an  insect  comes  mar  the  edge  of  the  pit, 
the  ant-lion,  by  a  toss  of  its  head,  hurls  at  it  a 
shower  of  sand,  which  knocks  it  down,  so  that 
it  slides  into  the  pit  and  is  seized.  Ant-lions 
are  known  in  confinement  to  spend  the  winter 
in  the  larval  state  if  fed  with  Hies,  caterpillars, 
and  spiders.  In  the  spring  the  larva  spin 
rather  large,  round,  silken  cocoon  covered  with 
grains  of  sand,  within  which  it  changes  to  a 
pupa,  and  the  winged  insect  emerges  early  in 
June.  The  imago  has  long  gauzy  wings,  both 
pairs  alike,  and  is  rarely  seen  in  the  northern 
and  eastern  States.  The  conical,  crater-like  pits 
of  the  ant-lion  may  be  seen  in  sheltered  places 
in  loose  sand  to  the  number  of  from  50  to  75. 
It  occurs  from  Maine  to  Florida. 

Antofagasta,  an'to-fa-gas'ta,  a  province  in 
northern  Chile,  extending  the  whole  width  of 
the  country  and  covering  an  area  of  6o,g68 
square  miles.     It  was  ceded  by  Bolivia  to  Chile 

in  1884.  Much  of  its  territory  lies  in  the  rocky 
desert  of  Atasama.  a  feature  which  makes  it 
generally  unsuitable  for  agriculture.  It  is, 
however,  one  of  the  richest  sections  of  the 
world  in  the  ores  of  precious  metals.  Pop. 
50,000.  Antofagasta,  its  capital  and  principal 
seaport,  is  the  terminus  of  a  railroad  that  ex- 
tends to  the  rich  mining  sections  in  the  north- 
east. It  also  ships  much  ore,  nitrate  of  soda, 
and  bullion,  and  contains  silver-smelting  works. 
Pop.   (1901)    19,482. 

Antommarchi,  an'tom-mar'ke,  Carlo  Fran- 
cesco, an  Italian  physician:  b.  in  Corsica  in 
1780;  d.  in  St.  Antonio,  Cuba,  3  April  1S58.  He 
was  professor  of  anatomy  at  Florence  when  he 
offered  himself  as  physician  of  Napoleon  at  St. 
Helena.  Napoleon  at  first  received  him  with 
reserve,  but  soon  admitted  him  to  his  confidence, 
and  testified  his  satisfaction  with  him  by  leaving 
him  a  legacy  of  100.000  francs.  On  his  return 
to  Europe  he  published  the  'Derniers  Moments 
de  Napoleon'  (182.3).  He  also  wrote  the  text 
lor  a  folio  series  of  anatomical  plates  published 
in  1825-6,  and  in  1850  exhibited  what  he  asserted 
to  be  a  death  mask  of  Napoleon.  In  1856  he 
went  to  New  Orleans,  where  he  practised  ho- 
moeopathy. 

Antonelli,  a'to-nel'le,  Giacomo,  Cardinal, 
an  Italian  ecclesiastic :  b.  1806;  d.  1876.  He 
was  educated  at  the  I  of  K  me, 

where  he  attracted  the  atl  of  ]  Grej 

ory  XVI.,  who  appointed  him  to  everal  im- 
portant offices,  and  on  the  accession  of  Pius  IX., 
in  1846,  Antonelli  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
cardinal-deacon.  Two  years  later  he  became 
president  and  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
in  1850  was  appointed  secretary  of  state.  Dur- 
ing the  sitting  of  the  (Ecumenical  Council 
(1869-70)     he    was    a    prominent    champion    of 


ANTONINE  COLUMN  — ANTONY  AND  CLEOPATRA 


the  papal  interest.  He  strongly  opposed  the  as- 
sumption of  the  united  Italian  crown  by  Victor 
Emmanuel. 

An'tonine  Column,  the  name  given  to  the 
sculptured  pillar  erected  by  Marcus  Aurelius 
to  the  memory  of  his  father-in-law,  Antoninus 
Pius.  The  splendid  staircase,  with  190  steps 
hewn  in  the  19  blocks  of  marble  of  which  the 
column  is  composed  —  the  statue  of  St.  Paul 
crowning  its  top  —  and  the  bas-reliefs  around 
the  column  illustrating  the  victories  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  over  the  Marcomans,  present  an  ap- 
pearance of  singular  magnificence.  The  Doric 
and  Corinthian  styles  are  blended  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  column  in  a  remarkable  manner. 
The  pedestal  and  top  are  Doric,  while  the  pro- 
portions of  the  column  are  Corinthian.  The 
bas-reliefs,  in  imitation  of  those  of  the  column 
of  Trajan,  are  in  beauty  and  purity  of  execution 
rather  inferior  to  the  original.  The  column 
was  restored  to  its  present  condition  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century  by  Domenico 
Fontana,  the  architect  of  Sixtus  V.,  and  still 
stands  in  the  Piazza  Colonna  as  one  of  the  chief 
ornaments  of  Rome. 

Anto'nius  Gaius,  a  Roman  consul,  the 
colleague  of  Cicero,  who  defended  him  when 
accused  of  participation  in  the  Catiline  con- 
spiracy. He  was  the  son  of  Marcus  Antonius 
the  orator,  and  an  uncle  of  Mark  Antony. 

Antonius,  Marcus,  commonly  known  as 
Mark  Antony,  a  Roman  triumvir:  b.  86  B.C.; 
d.  30  B.C.  He  was  the  grandson  of  Marcus  An- 
tonius, the  greatest  orator  and  one  of  the  great- 
est men  of  his  day.  His  father,  also  Marcus 
Antonius,  was  surnamed  Creticus  in  derision, 
from  a  disgraceful  defeat  which  he  suffered 
in  an  unprovoked  invasion  of  the  isle  of  Crete. 
He  went  abroad  early,  served  with  Gabinius  in 
Syria,  and  distinguished  himself  greatly,  both 
there  and  in  Egypt,  where  he  already  gave  to- 
kens of  consummate  soldiership.  He  next 
joined  Caesar  in  Gaul,  where  he  passed  several 
campaigns  with  increasing  honor  as  one  of  his 
legates,  and  deserved  much  of  the  credit,  usual- 
ly given  to  his  leader,  for  the  total  defeat  of 
Vercingetorix  at  the  terrible  siege  of  Alesia. 
Being  elected  one  of  the  tribunes  of  the  people, 
when  the  senate  ordered  Caesar  to  disband  his 
forces,  he,  with  Quintus  Cassius,  vetoed  the  bill ; 
and,  on  the  senate  proceeding  to  arm  the  con- 
suls with  dictatorial  power  by  the  vote  ne  quid 
respublica  detriments  capiat,  they  fled  together, 
disguised  as  slaves,  to  Caesar's  camp,  feigning 
to  believe  that  their  lives  were  in  danger,  thus 
giving  that  ambitious  general  the  deserved  oc- 
casion for  crossing  the  Rubicon  and  marching 
upon  Rome.  In  reward  for  this  service,  when 
Caesar  went  to  follow  up  his  fortunes  by  crush- 
ing out  the  Pompeian  party  in  Spain,  he  left 
Antony  governor  of  Italy  and  lieutenant-general 
of  his  forces.  He  astounded  all  Italy  by  the 
ostentation  and  cynicism  of  his  vices,  but  when 
the  last  struggle  took  place  between  Pompey 
and  his  own  commander,  he  at  once  laid  aside 
the  debauchee  and  resumed  the  soldier.  His 
skill  preserved  the  fleet  and  intrenchments  at 
Dyrrachium ;  it  was  he  who  commanded  the 
victorious  left  wing  in  the  crowning  conflict 
at  Pharsalia,  and  turned  the  wavering  tide  of 
success  to  the  standards  of  Caesar.  When  the 
Ides  of  March  had  come,  and  great  Caesar  fell 
at  the  base  of  Pompey's  statue,  it  was  the  mascu- 


line and  sonorous  eloquence  of  Antony  —  for  he 
was  an  orator  second  to  Cicero  and  Caesar 
only  —  that  did  actually  raise  the  stones  of 
Rome  to  mutiny  and  forced  the  discomfited 
murderers  to  fly  from  their  half-finished  task. 
It  was  Antony's  soldiership  and  Antony's  sword 
that  defeated  Cassius  and  drove  Brutus  to  sui- 
cide, while  the  cold,  cowardly,  crafty  Octavius 
was  sleeping  in  his  secure  tent.  In  the  pro- 
scriptions which  followed  it  is  characteristic  of 
Antony  that  he  was  by  so  much  the  more 
insolent,  as  he  was  the  less  cruel,  of  the  trium- 
virs. But  the  third  triumvir,  the  imbecile 
Lepidus,  was  soon  disposed  of,  and  Octavius 
and  Antony  divided  the  Roman  world,  as  mas- 
ters. Antony  took  the  East ;  Octavius,  the  cold 
formalist,  betook  himself  to  the  West.  Thence- 
forth the  life  of  Antony  was  one  wild  dream. 
Once  he  broke  from  his  luxurious  lethargy,  in- 
vaded central  Armenia  and  penetrated  Parthia ; 
and  then,  forced  to  retreat  at  length  by  the 
circumstances  of  the  country,  the  climate,  the 
innumerable  hordes  of  Oriental  horse,  brought 
off  his  army  by  a  most  extraordinary  retreat. 
In  21  days  he  fought  18  pitched  battles,  marched 
300  miles,  through  one  continuous  skirmish, 
and  when  he  reached  the  boundary  stream  his 
Parthian  pursuers  unstrung  their  bows  and  bade 
him  go  his  way  unharmed.  He  returned  to  his 
life  of  luxury  and  to  Cleopatra,  but  his  career 
was  run.  Rome  took  arms  against  him;  his 
troops,  his  mistress,  his  fortune  deserted  him ; 
and  Actium  saw  him,  for  the  first  time,  with 
his  back  to  his  foes.  Deceived  to  the  last  by 
the  Egyptian  queen,  who  imposed  upon  him  by  a 
false  rumor  of  her  death,  he  died  by  his  own 
hand.  Most  like  he  was  to  Mirabeau  in  that  he 
was  everything  at  times,  and  everything  almost 
the  greatest,  but  nothing  long  —  orator,  soldier, 
statesman ;  trifler,  buffoon ;  tribune,  triumvir, 
conqueror;  faithful  lover,  false  husband,  fran- 
tic debauchee ;  and,  when  the  wine  of  life 
was  quaffed  to  the  lees,  a  fearless  suicide  at 
last. 

Antonius,  Marcus,  a  famous  Roman  law- 
yer surnamed  the  Orator :  b.  143  B.C. ;  d.  87  B.C. 
He  was  praetor  in  104,  when  he  fought  against 
the  pirates  in  Cilicia ;  consul  in  99,  when  he  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  resistance  to  the  party 
of  Saturninus;  and  censor  in  97.  He  was  famed 
for  his  eloquence  in  the  forum,  rendering,  ac- 
cording to  Cicero,  Italy  the  rival  of  Greece,  and 
for  his  integrity  in  public  life.  As  an  aristocrat 
he  adopted  the  party  of  Sylla,  and  was  put  to 
death  by  Marius  and  Cinna,  when  they  tri- 
umphed. He  is  one  of  the  interlocutors  in 
Cicero's  "De  Oratore.' 

Antony  and  Cle'opa'tra,  the  second  of 
Shakespeare's  Roman  plays.  In  Cleopatra  the 
gorgeous  Oriental  voluptuousness  is  embodied 
in  the  strong-thewed  Antony,  the  stern  soldier- 
power  of  Rome  weakened  by  indulgence  in  lust. 
The  poet  follows  Plutarch  in  his  narrative.  The 
rulers  of  the  Roman  world  are  Mark  Antony. 
Octavius  Caesar,  and  their  weak  tool,  Lepidus. 
While  Antony  is  idling  away  the  days  in  Alex- 
andria with  Cleopatra,  in  Italy  things  are  all 
going  wrong.  At  last  Antony  is  shamed  home 
to  Rome.  Lepidus  and  other  friends  patch  up 
a  truce  between  him  and  Caesar,  which  is  ce- 
mented by  the  marriage  of  Antony  to  Caesar's 
sister  Octavia.  After  the  great  defeat  at  Ac- 
tium,   Enobarbus   and   other    intimate    followers 


ANT  PLANTS  — ANTWERP 


deserted  the  waning  fortunes  of  Antony.  Being 
falsely  told  that  Cleopatra  is  dead,  Antony  falls 
on  his  sword. 

Ant  Plants.     See   MYRMECOPHILY. 

Antraigues,  an'trag,  Emanuel  Delaunay, 
Comte  d\  a  French  politician:  b.  at  Yille- 
neuve  de  Berg,  1755;  d.  -'2  July  1812.  His 
talents  first  appeared  in  his  '  Memoirs  sur  les 
Etats-generaux'  (1788),  full  of  daring  asser- 
tions of  liberty,  and  one  of  the  first  sparks  of 
the  fire  which  afterward  rose  to  such  height  in 
the  French  Revolution.  When  chosen,  in  1789, 
as  a  deputy,  he  defended  the  privileges  of  the 
hereditary  aristocracy,  ranked  himself  with 
those  who  opposed  the  union  of  the  three 
estates,  and  maintained  that  the  royal  veto  was 
an  indispensable  part  of  good  government.  Af- 
ter leaving  the  Assembly  in  1790,  he  was  em- 
ployed in  diplomacy  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
Vienna,  where  he  defended  the  cause  of  the 
Bourbons.  In  1803  he  was  employed  under 
Alexander  of  Russia  in  an  embassy  to  Dresden, 
where  he  wrote  against  Bonaparte  a  brochure 
entitled  'Fragment  du  XYIII.  Livre  de  Polybe, 
trouve  sur  lc  Mont  Athos.'  He  afterward  came 
to  England  and  acquired  great  influence  with 
Canning.  He  was  murdered,  with  bis  wife,  at 
his  residence  near  London,  by  an  Italian  ser- 
vant. 

An'trim,  a  county  in  northeastern  Ireland, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
east  by  the  North  Channel ;  south  by  the  river 
Lagau  and  Lough  Neaghand ;  west  by  the  river 
Bann.  It  has  an  area  of  about  1,237  square 
miles,  nearly  all  of  which  is  under  cultivation. 
There  are  rich  beds  of  iron  ore  at  Glenravel, 
and  extensive  mines  of  fine  salt  are  being 
worked  at  Dunerul  and  Carrickfergus.  The 
chief  occupations  of  the  people  are  the  raising 
of  flax,  fishing,  and  the  manufacture  of  linen, 
cotton,  and  heavy  woolen  goods.  The  capital 
is  Belfast,  and  other  places  of  note  are  Larne 
and  Carrickfergus.     Pop.   (1901)   461,250. 

The  town  of  Antrim,  situated  at  the  north 
end  of  Lough  Neagh,  on  the  Six-Mile  Water, 
is  not  a  place  of  much  consequence,  though 
bleaching  and  malting  and  the  linen  and  paper 
manufacture  are  carried  on  here.  There  is  a 
very  perfect  round  tower  near  it. 

Ant'werp  (Dutch,  Antwerpen;  French,  An- 
vcrs;  Spanish,  A  inheres;  Old  German,  Antorff ; 
from  "aent  werf,"  "on  the  wharf"),  a  province 
of  Belgium,  south  of  Holland,  consisting  for 
the  most  part  of  an  extensive  plain  of  1,096 
square  miles,  scarcely  diversified  by  a  single 
elevation.  It  is  sandy  but  fertile,  producing 
grain,  flax,  hemp,  fruit,  and  tobacco,  as  well 
as  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses;  on  the  north  and 
northeast,  however,  there  are  considerable  tracts 
of  morass  and  heath.  The  principal  rivers,  the 
Scheldt  and  its  tributaries,  the  Rupel,  Nethe, 
and  Dyle,  are  navigable;  while  railways  inter- 
sect the  country  in  various  directions,  and  there 
are  also  several  canals.  The  chief  towns  are 
Antwerp.  Mechlin  (  Malines)  Turnhout,  Lierre, 
and  Boom.     Pop.  (1901)  819,000. 

Ant'werp,  the  capital  of  the  Belgian  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  situated  about  50  miles 
from  the  open  sea,  and  25  miles  north  of  Brus- 
sels, in  a  level  tract  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Scheldt,  which  is  there  about  2,200  feet  broad 
and  has  a  depth  at  ebb-tide  of  from  .30  to  40 


feet,  with  a  rise  at  spring-tides  of  12  or  14 
Antwerp  was  probably  founded  some  time  be- 
fore the  8th  century,  when  tin1  Antwerpians  or 
Ganerbians,  as  they  began  to  be  called,  were 
converted  to  Christianity.  In  837  the  town  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Northmen,  who  kept 
possession  of  it  for  about  60  years.  It 
erected  into  a  marquisatc  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  by  Henry  II.  in  1008,  and  as  such  was 
bestowed  by  Henry  IV..  in  1076,  on  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon.  About  the  beginning  of  the  12th 
century  it  had  considerable  commercial  prosper- 
ity ;  and  in  the  13th  its  municipal  institutions 
took  definite  shape.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that 
the  law  of  1290  contained  provisions  identical 
with  those  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  in  Eng- 
land, maintaining  the  inviolability  of  the  citi- 
zen's dwelling,  and  acknowledging  the  right  of 
every  man  to  be  judged  by  his  peers  and  to 
have  a  voice  in  the  imposition  of  taxes.  As  the 
result  of  such  security  and  freedom  the  com- 
merce of  the  city  rapidly  increased.  English 
wools  for  the  great  manufactories  at  Louvain, 
Brussels,  Tirlemont,  Diest,  and  Lean,  were  im- 
ported through  Antwerp ;  and  English  mer- 
chants, who  formed  a  "factory"  there  in  1296, 
received  special  protection  by  charters  (1305, 
1341,  1346,  1349)  from  the  Dukes  of  Brabant. 
Between  1488  and  1570  was  the  time  of  the 
greatest  prosperity  which  Antwerp  was  destined 
to  attain  for  several  centuries.  The  discovery 
of  America  in  1492,  and  of  the  passage  to  India 
in  1497.  produced  a  great  change  in  all  European 
navigation,  permanently  altering  the  old  courses 
of  commerce.  While  in  consequence  of  this  the 
cities  of  the  Hanseatic  League  had  withered, 
and  Venice,  Nuremberg,  and  Bruges  were  sink- 
ing into  decay.  Antwerp  was  rapidly  growing 
wealthy,  but  in  1576  it  was  taken  by  the  Span- 
iards and  given  up  to  a  three-days  pillage.  It 
was  vainly  besieged  by  the  Duke  of  Alencon 
in  1583;  and  after  a  very  obstinate  defense  it 
fell  before  the  assaults  of  the  Duke  of  Parma, 
whose  triumphal  entry  took  place  17  Aug.  1585. 
Its  glory  departed;  its  commerce  was  ruined; 
its  inhabitants  were  scattered.  The  Dutch  in 
their  jealousy  endeavored  to  complete  its  ruin 
by  building  forts  on  the  river  to  intercept  the 
passage  of  ships ;  and  finally,  by  the  peace  of 
Westphalia  in  1648,  the  Scheldt  was  definitely 
closed.  In.  1794  the  city  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  French,  who  opened  the  river  and  made 
Antwerp  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Deux 
Nethes.  It  continued  in  French  possession  till 
1814.  Matters  of  dispute  between  Belgium  and 
Holland  being  settled  by  the  treaty  of  1839, 
Antwerp  has  continued  peacefully  to  advance  in 
prosperity  ever  since. 

Antwerp  is  the  birthplace  of  a  number  of 
distinguished  men  in  various  departments,  as  the 
painters  Vandyck  (b.  1599),  Teniers  the  elder 
(1582),  Teniers  the  younger  (1610),  Jordaens 
('594),  Frans  Floris  (1520),  Gonzales  Cocqucs 
(1618)  ;  the  philologist  Gruter  (1560),  the  ge- 
ographer Ortelius  (1527),  the  engraver  Ede- 
linck  (1649),  and,  among  more  modern  celeb- 
rities, Van  Meteren  the  historian,  Ogier  the 
dramatist,  and  Henri  Conscience  the  novelist. 
Reubens  was  born  at  Cologne,  but  his  family 
belonged  to  Antwerp,  and  he  was  educated, 
resided,  and  died  in  the  latter  city. 

The  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  is  its  most 
noteworthy  edifice,  the  largest  and  most  beauti- 


AONI  A  — APACHE 


ful  Gothic  structure  in  the  Low  Countries.  Its 
area  is  70,360  square  feet  and  it  contains  Ru- 
bens' paintings,  'The  Descent  from  the  Cross,' 
'Elevation  of  the  Cross,'  and  'The  Assump- 
tion.' Other  important  buildings  are  the  church 
of  St.  Jacques,  begun  in  1491,  the  Bourse,  and 
the  Museum.  Pop.,  exclusive  of  suburbs  (1891) 
285,600. 

A'orist  (Greek,  aoristos,  "indefinite"),  the 
name  given  to  one  of  the  tenses  of  the  Greek 
verb,  expressive  of  indefinite  past  time.  The 
Greek  verb  is  very  rich  in  past  tenses,  possess- 
ing besides  the  aorist  the  imperfect,  perfect,  and 
pluperfect.  While  these  express  repetition,  con- 
tinuance, or  the  relation  between  one  time  and 
another,  no  such  shade  of  meaning  attaches  to 
the  aorist.  The  difference  between  the  first  and 
the  second  aorist  is  in  form  only  and  not  in 
meaning. 

Aor'ta,  the  name  given  to  the  great 
arterial  trunk  of  the  body.  It  springs  from  the 
left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  arches  backward  to 
the  vertebral  column,  and,  descending  in  the 
back  portion  of  the  thorax,  passes  through  the 
diaphragm  into  the  posterior  part  of  the  abdo- 
men, at  the  lower  portion  of  which,  opposite 
the  fourth  lumbar  segment  of  the  spinal  col- 
umn, it  divides  into  the  two  common  iliac 
arteries.  Throughout  its  course  it  becomes 
smaller  and  smaller,  and  gives  off  a  large  num- 
ber of  branches,  that  send  blood  to  all  parts 
of  the  body.  It  is  not  divided  into  any  distinct 
divisions,  but  for  conventional  purposes  of  de- 
scription anatomists  describe  three  parts,  the 
arch,  the  thoracic  aorta,  and  the  abdominal 
aorta.  The  arch  reaches  to  the  lower  border 
of  the  fifth  thoracic  vertebra;  from  this  point  to 
the  opening  in  the  diaphragm  it  is  known  as  the 
thoracic  aorta;  from  the  diaphragm  to  its  bifur- 
cation into  the  iliacs,  the  abdominal  aorta. 
At  its  very  beginning  at  the  top  of  the  heart 
it  gives  off  the  coronary  arteries  that  supply 
the  walls  of  the  heart  with  blood.  The  arch 
is  then  conventionally  divided  into  three  parts, 
the  ascending,  transverse,  and  descending  por- 
tions. From  the  transverse  portion  of  the  arch 
the  great  vessels  of  the  neck,  head,  and  arms 
are  given  off, —  the  innominate  or  brachio- 
cephalic artery,  that  goes  to  the  head  and  upper 
extremity  of  the  right  side,  the  left  common 
carotid,  to  the  head  on  the  left  side,  and  the 
subclavian  that  supplies  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  left  side.  There  are  really  two  large 
arteries  supplying  each  side,  but  on  the  right 
they  arise  from  the  one  branch  from  the  aorta, 
while  on  the  left  side  the  arteries  going  to  the 
head  and  to  the  upper  extremities  are  separate. 
The  thoracic  aorta  lies  close  to  the  spinal 
column  in  the  chest.  It  supplies  arteries  ex- 
tending to  the  walls  of  the  chest  and  to  all  the 
viscera  in  the  thorax,  lungs,  etc.,  save  the  heart. 
The  abdominal  aorta  supplies  the  diaphragm, 
the  muscles  of  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  the 
liver,  kidneys,  spleen,  stomach,  pancreas,  su- 
prarenals,  the  small  and  large  intestines,  the 
spermatic  vesicles,  and  a  part  of  the  pelvis. 
The  two  great  branches  into  which  it  finally 
divides  supply  the  pelvic  walls,  the  organs  in 
the  pelvis,  the  external  genitals,  and  finally  the 
lower  limbs.  There  are  a  number  of  variations 
in  the  details  of  the  distribution  of  the  differ- 
ent large  vesseis  of  tne  aonu,  hut  these  concern 
tfie  anatomist.  The  walls  of  the  aorta  resemble 
Vol.  1_}7 


in  their  microscopical  structure  those  of  the 
arteries  of  the  body  save  in  possessing  more 
elastic  fibrous  tissues.  This  is  necessitated  be- 
cause of  the  greater  pressure  on  this  part  of 
the  circulatory  apparatus.  See  Artery;  Circu- 
lation ;  Heart. 

Aosta,  a-6s'ta,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  Pied- 
mont, 50  miles  northwest  of  Turin.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop,  and  possesses  a  collegiate  and 
three  parish  churches,  two  colleges,  and  two 
hospitals.  Among  its  antiquities  are  a  triumphal 
arch,  erected  to  the  memory  of  Augustus,  who 
rebuilt  the  town  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Au- 
gusta Pretoria ;  a  gate  with  three  arches,  and 
the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  the  old 
Roman  walls  which  still  surround  the  town. 
It  has  some  trade  in  wine,  cheese,  hemp,  and 
leather.     Pop.    (1901)    7,875. 

Aoudad,  a'oo-dad,  or  Ami,  a  somewhat 
goat-like  wild  sheep  (Ovis  tragelaphus),  in- 
habiting the  Atlas  Mountains  of  northern  Afri- 
ca. It  is  about  three  feet  in  height,  and  its 
horns,  which  resemble  those  of  the  bharal 
(q.v.),  are  about  two  feet  long.  It  is  especially 
characterized  by  the  long  whitish  hair  depend- 
ing from  the  throat,  chest,  and  forelegs,  but 
elsewhere  its  coat  is  short  and  light  brown, 
enabling  it  to  hide  easily  among  the  rocks  of 
its  mountain  home.  Many  other  names  are 
given  to  it,  as  "ruffed  moufflon,"  "bearded  ar- 
gali."  "kebsh"  (Egypt),  "tidal"  or  «teybal,»  and 
"beden"  (Nubia).  It  is  a  common  resident  in 
menageries,  where  it  breeds  readily. 

A'oul,  the  finest  of  the  Somaliland  gazelles 
(Gacella  scemmerringi) ,  with  massive  Iyrate 
horns.  Its  height  is  about  30  inches,  and  the 
borders  of  the  ears  and  face  are  strikingly 
marked  with  black. 

Apache,  a-pa'che  (Pima,  "enemy"),  the 
name  of  a  large  Indian  tribe  of  the  Athapascan 
stock,  kindred  to  the  Navajos,  and  originally 
occupying  the  region  from  central  Texas  to  the 
Colorado  River  in  Arizona.  The  Spaniards  ap- 
plied the  name,  borrowed  from  the  Pimas,  to 
all  the  races  just  north  of  Mexico,  whom  they 
classed  as  Apaches  de  Xila,  Apaches  de  Navajo, 
and  Apaches  Vaqueros.  the  first-named  being 
our  Apaches.  When  the  United  States  by  the 
Gadsden  Purchase  (q.v.)  first  came  in  contact 
with  them  they  numbered  about  10.000  and  had 
long  been  at  mortal  feud  with  the  Mexicans. 
For  a  few  years  they  gave  the  Americans  rela- 
tively little  trouble  of  an  acute  kind,  but  after 
a  serious  raid  in  1857  it  was  urged  by  those 
with  knowledge  that  they  should  be  settled 
north  of  the  Gila,  taught  industries,  and 
watched.  This  was  not  done,  however,  and  in 
i860  the  whole  tribe  went  on  the  warpath.  The 
next  year  the  Civil  War  caused  the  troops  to 
be  withdrawn,  and  in  a  short  time  the  Apaches 
had  murdered  or  driven  out  every  white  in- 
habitant of  the  Arizona  Territory  except  a  few 
hundred  who  took  refuge  in  Tucson.  For 
nearly  10  years  the  Territory  was  the  scene  of 
one  of  the  most  awful  Indian  wars  in  history. 
which  practically  stopped  all  progress  there. 
On  the  Indian  side  it  was  entirely  an  affair  of 
ambushes  or  of  sudden  raids  from  mountain 
strongholds,  with  burning  and  slaughtering, 
and  carrying  off  of  captives  to  be  mutilated  or 
outraged  and  then  tortured  to  death.  About 
a  thous?"d  wen,  women,  and  children  perished. 


APALACHEE  — APARTMENT  HOUSE 


Military  operations  were  repeatedly  stopped  for 
a  considerable  period  by  tin:  government  com- 
missioners, who  wished  to  institute  .1  policy  of 
kindness,  but  finally  Gen  George  H.  Crook  was 
allowed  to  proceed  without  interruption  in 
1872-4,  and  put  an  end  to  the  operations  of 
the  bands  as  a  whole  in  1874.  But  the  govern- 
ment policy  of  concentrating  them  all  on  one 
reservation  at  San  Carlos,  Arizona,  had  unfor- 
tunate results.  They  objected  to  live  with  other 
bands  with  whom  they  were  as  much  at  feud 
as  with  the  white.-,  and  also  to  leave  their 
chosen  districts  once  given  them  by  the  govern- 
ment ;  but  both  Gen.  Crook  and  his  successor, 
who  opposed  the  transfers,  were  removed  to 
other  departments.  Again  and  again  the  bands 
escaped  while  being  removed,  and  renewed  their 
emtrages;  and  for  six  years  more  there  was  a 
succession  of  bloody  raids  which  swelled  the 
total  of  horrors  in  the  unfortunate  Territory 
and  Xew  Mexico.  In  1882  Crook  was  restored, 
and  by  tact  and  their  confidence  in  him  in- 
duced about  1,500,  or  over  a  fourth  of  them, 
to  live  on  the  reservation  without  rati"iis. 
But  the  rest  liked  their  life  much  ton  well  to 
give  it  up  ;  repeatedly  they  surrendered  and  re- 
turned with  Crook  only  to  break  their  promise 
and  return  to  the  warpath.  The  last  time  was 
in  March  1886,  when  they  escaped  before  en- 
tering Arizona  and  continued  their  outrages 
along  the  border  for  five  months.  The  uproar 
against  Crook  for  being  duped  (he  had  upheld 
the  essential  justice  of  their  cause,  and  his  be- 
lief in  their  willingness  to  behave,  against  the 
people)  caused  his  replacement  by  Gen.  Nelson 
A.  Miles,  who  finally  cornered  the  band  and 
forced  it  to  surrender.  But  the  attempt  to  set- 
tle the  Chirichuas  and  Hot  Springs  bands  — 
the  fiercest  Indians  on  the  continent,  according 
to  Gen.  Crook  —  on  a  reservation  in  Arizona 
roused  such  a  storm  of  protest  from  Arizonians 
that  they  were  removed  to  Florida  instead,  then 
to  Alabama,  and  finally  to  Fort  Sill,  Oklahoma, 
where  they  still  remain,  to  the  number  of  some 
300.  In  all  there  are  now  about  5,200  Apaches. 
The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  Jicarillas, 
Mescaleros,  and  Lipans  by  reason  of  linguistic 
affinities ;  but  incorrectly.  See  Bancroft,  '  Na- 
tive Races  of  the  Pacific  States,*  Vol.  XVII., 
1880. 

Apalachee,  ap-a-la'che,  or  Apalachi,  a  tribe 
of  Indian-  of  the  Muskhogean  stock,  first  men- 
tioned in  1526  as  occupying  the  territory  about 
Apalachee  Hay  and  St.  Mark's  River  in  north- 
western Florida  and  northward  to  the  moun- 
tains to  which  they  have  given  their  name. 
Near  the  end  of  the  16th  century  Spanish  Fran- 
ciscan friars  founded  missions  among  them, 
till  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  a  century 
later,  when  the  Spanish  attempted  to  use  the 
Indians  as  allies  against  the  English  Carolinas. 
Twice  before  the  Spaniards  had  invaded  Caro- 
lina from  St.  Augustine;  and  now,  in  1702,  they 
headed  a  party  of  900  Apalachees  and  marched 
into  Georgia.  The  Creeks,  who  were  friendly 
to  the  English,  not  only  warned  them,  but  a 
party  of  500  ambushed  the  Apalachees  and 
routed  them  with  great  slaughter.  The  Caro- 
linians determined  to  take  the  offensive;  and 
after  a  fruitless  expedition  to  St.  Augustine  in 
December  1703  one  was  undertaken  into  the 
Apalachian  territory,  which  supplied  that  city 
with    provisions    and    contained    many    Spanish 


forts.  With  50  white  men  and  1,000  Creeks  its 
leader  stormed  one  fortified  town  and  won  a 
sharp  battle,  capturing  several  hundred  Indians 
with  women  and  children,  hue  other  towns 
surrendered  unconditionally,  while  a  powerful 
cacique  capitulated  for  his  own  safety.  The 
edition  returned  in  March  1704  with  100 
Indian  slaves  and  1,300  free  Indians,  who  were 
settled  among  the  Creeks.  Twice  more  within 
the  next  four  years  Carolina  invaded  this  ter- 
ritory with  such  results  that  in  1708  it  held  850 
Indian  slaves  in  addition  to  what  had  been  given 
to  the  Creeks.  The  Apalachees  were  thus  prac- 
tically obliterated ;  and  though  for  a  time  they 
maintained  their  individual  existence  they 
finally  became  merged  with  the  Creeks.  See 
McCrcady.  'Historj  of  South  Carolina  Under 
the  Proprietary  Government'    (1897). 

Apalachee  ( a'pa-la'che)  Bay,  a  large  arm 
on    the  south  coast    of    Florida,   in   the   Gulf  of 

ico,  having  a  breadth  of  about  go  miles 
and  an  extent  inland  of  50  miles.  At  the 
mouth  of  the  St.  Mark's  River,  which  flows  into 
the  bay,  is  the  town  of  St.  Mark's. 

Apalachicola,  a'pa-lich-t-ko-la,  Fla.,  city, 
port  of  entry  and  county-seat  of  Franklin  County, 
on  Saint  George  Sound,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Apalachicola  River;  85  miles  south- 
west of  Tallahassee;  on  the  Carrabelle,  Tallahas- 
see &  Georgia  Railroad,  and  the  following  lines 
of  steamships:  Plant;  People'-;  Merchants 
and  Planters':  Gulf  Navigation  Co.;  Cen- 
tral Gulf  Coast  Co.;  and  the  Apalachicola  and 
Chipola  River  line.  I  he  city  has  an  im- 
portant trade  in  timber  and  naval  stores. 
The  value  of  its  foreign  commerce  in 
1901  amounted  to  $370,000,  the  most  of  which 
was  in  export  trade.  The  city  has  one  national 
and  several  private  banks.  Pop.  (1890)  2,727; 
(1900)  3,077. 

Apalachicola,  a  river  flowing  from  south- 
eastern Georgia  across  Florida,  and  entering  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  through  Apalachicola  Bay.  It 
is  navigable  throughout  its  length  of  90  miles 
and  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Flint  and 
Chattahoochee  Rivers. 

Ap'anage,  or  Ap'panage,  an  allowance 
formerly  received  by  the  younger  princes  of  a 
reigning  house  in  which  the  right  of  primo- 
geniture prevailed,  from  the  revenues  of  the 
country.  It  consisted  mostly  in  money,  with 
the  use  of  a  residence  and  hunting  grounds,  at- 
tended frequently  with  the  right  of  jurisdiction 
over  these   domains. 

Apar,  a'par,  the  three-banded  armadillo 
(Tolypeutes  tricinctus) ,  which  has  three  mova- 
ble bands  and  is  one  of  the  small  species  able 
to  roll  itself  into  a  ball.     See  Armadillo. 

Aparri,  a-par're,  Philippines,  a  town  of 
the  Cagayan  province,  on  the  river  Cagayan, 
near  its  mouth.     Pop.  11,265. 

Apart'ment  House,  the  term  used  in  the 
United  States  to  designate  a  structure  intended 
to  accommodate  several  families,  each  in  its 
own  set  of  rooms,  which  form  a  separate  dwell- 
ing. Such  structures  are  of  comparatively  re- 
cent introduction,  but  houses  of  this  kind  have 
long  been  built  in  Europe.  In  New  York  and 
other  American  cities  there  are  now  great  blocks 
of  such  houses,  which  provide  excellent  and 
commodious  dwellings  at   a  lower   rent  than   if 


APATELITE  — APENNINES 


«ach  were  a  separate  building.     See  Architec- 
ture  (American). 

Apat  elite  ( from  the  Greek  apatelos,  "deceit- 
ful"), a  mineral  related  to  raimondite,  occur- 
ring in  small  yellow,  friable  nodules  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  Paris,  France.  It  has  the 
probable  composition  4Fe;Gv6S03.3H:0. 

Apatite  (from  the  Greek  word  apate, 
"deceit,"  in  allusion  to  the  fact  that  apatite  is 
often  confused  with  other  minerals),  a  native 
phosphate  of  calcium,  combined  with  fluorine 
or  chlorine,  and  crystallizing  in  the  hexagonal 
system,  though  also  occurring  massive.  The 
crystals  have  a  specific  gravity  of  about  3.2  and 
a  hardness  of  5.  Apatite  is  usually  green,  but  it 
may  occur  white,  or  strongly  red,  yellow, 
brown,  or  blue.  The  common  variety  has  the 
formula  (CaF)  Ca^PO^,  and  is  known  as 
"fiuor-apatite"  ;  but  the  fluorine  is  sometimes  re- 
placed to  a  considerable  extent,  or  even  wholly, 
by  chlorine.  In  such  cases  the  mineral  is  known 
as  "chlor-apatite.8  A  variety  called  "mangan- 
apatite"  is  also  known,  in  which  the  calcium  of 
the  typical  mineral  is  partially  replaced  by  man- 
ganese. Apatite  is  widely  distributed,  and  in 
many  places  occurs  in  vast  deposits  which  are 
worked  on  a  commercial  scale  on  account  of 
the  value  of  the  mineral  as  a  phosphatic  fertil- 
izer. The  Canadian  apatite  occurs  massive  or 
in  large  crystals.  It  was  formerly  extensively 
mined  as  a  fertilizer,  but  its  use  has  now  been 
almost  entirely  supplanted  by  the  "rock  phos- 
phate" of  Florida,  'South  Carolina,  and  Tennes- 
see.    See  Fertilizers. 

_  Apatite  Croup.- —  In  mineralogy,  a  group  of 
minerals  crystallizing  in  the  hexagonal  system, 
and  consisting  of  arsenates,  phosphates,  and 
vanadates  of  calcium  and  lead,  associated  with 
chlorine  or  fluorine.  It  contains  apatite,  pyro- 
morphite,  mimetite,  vanadinite,  hedyphane,  ple- 
onectite  and  svabite. 

Ape  (A.  S.  apa,  Ger.  Affe),  in  modern  us- 
age, a  term  describing  an  Old-World  tailless 
monkey,  such  as  the  gorilla,  orang-utan,  chim- 
panzee, or  gibbon,  but  originally  an  exact 
synonym  for  monkey  and  applied  to  any  quadru- 
manous  animal  except  the  lemurs.  For  exam- 
ples of  this  older  usage  see  Baboon;  Macaque; 
Monkey.  In  its  modern  sense  it  applies  partic- 
ularly to  the  family  Simiidat,  or  anthropoid 
apes,  found  in  the  forests  of  the  equatorial  re- 
gions of  the  Old  World  and  called  "anthropoid* 
on  account  of  their  great  resemblance  to  man. 
This  likeness  is  especially  marked  in  young  in- 
dividuals before  the  face  has  attained  its  full 
brutality  of  expression,  the  canine  teeth  their 
great  size,  and  the  skull  its  final  thickening 
and  growth  into  crests  and  ridges.  Except  for 
the  shape  of  the  jaw  (which,  instead  of  being 
curved,  comes  to  a  noticeable  angle  on  each  side 
with  a  canine  tooth  at  the  apex  of  each  angle), 
and  for  the  development  of  the  skull  already 
mentioned,  as  well  as  for  the  relative  length  of 
the  arms  and  shortness  of  the  legs,  and  the  fact 
that  the  great  toe  is  short  and  more  or  less  op- 
posable to  the  other  fingers,  an  ape*s  skeleton  is 
practically  the  same  as  man's,  though  larger  and 
heavier  in  proportion  to  the  body,  and  lacking 
certain  curvatures  of  the  spine  which  adapt  the 
human  frame  to  ease  in  an  erect  position.  The 
brain-case,  and  the  brain  itself  are  much  smaller 
than  in  man.  yet  similar  in  development,  and  the 
brain  is  much  convoluted.     The  teeth  are  of  the 


same  number  as  man's  and  of  like  character. 
In  certain  divergences  of  structure  exhibited 
between  the  inferior  families  of  monkeys  and 
man,  the  ape  resembles  man  and  differs  from  the 
monkeys. 

The  gibbons  (noticeable  for  standing  erect 
with  less  difficulty  than  any  other  apes),  the 
chimpanzee  (which  has  the  largest  brain),  the 
gorilla,  and  the  orang-utan,  together  with  sev- 
eral extinct  and  fossil  species,  make  up  the  an- 
thropoid apes.  All  are  clothed  with  hair  on  al! 
parts  of  the  bo  ly  except  the  face  and  palms; 
they  have  no  cheek-pouches,  no  tail,  and  either 
no  trace  or  but  very  slight  traces  of  the  naked 
spots  or  callosities  seen  upon  the  buttocks  of 
the  lower  apes.  All  are  as  large  or  larger  than 
man,  and  all  can  walk  upright,  though  they  are 
more  at  ease  in  climbing  than  in  walking.  When 
on  the  ground  they  make  their  way  slowly, 
sometimes  closing  the  hands  in  order  to  walk 
on  the  knuckles  instead  of  the  palm,  and  either 
similarly  closing  the  foot  or  walking  on  its  side. 
Their  food  is  mainly  vegetable,  yet  their  great 
strength,  their  intelligence,  and  their  savage  na- 
ture, place  them  among  the  most  dangerous  of 
wild  animals.  See  Chimpanzee;  Gibbon;  Go- 
rilla; Orang-Utan  ;  Pithecanthropus. 

Ape'ga,  the  wife  of  Nabis,  a  tyrant  of 
Sparta,  who  invented  an  infernal  machine  which 
he  called  after  his  wife,  "Apega."  It  was  a  box 
exactly  resembling  his  wife  in  her  royal  apparel, 
but  the  interior  was  full  of  spikes  which  wound- 
ed the  victim  enclosed  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  body.  The  "Iron  Virgin"  was  a  similar  in- 
strument employed  by  the  Inquisition.  It  rep- 
resented a  woman  of  Bavaria,  and  the  spikes 
were  so  arranged  as  to  pierce  the  least  vital  parts 
in  order  to  prolong  the  sufferings  of  the  victim 
enclosed. 

Apel,  a'pel,  Johann  August,  a  German 
author:  b.  in  Leipsic,  1771 ;  d.  1816.  His  (Ge- 
spensterbuch'  and  'Wunderbuch'  were  both  pop- 
ular, the  former  containing  the  bases  for  the 
text  of  Weber's  opera  of  <Der  Freischiitz.  His 
<Metrik,>  which  includes  a  survey  of  ancient 
prosody,  is  his  best-known  work. 

Apeldorn,  a'pel-dorn,  or  A'peldoorn,  a 
notably  attractive  town  of  Holland,  province  of 
Guelderland,  17  miles  north  of  Arnhem ;  with 
manufactures  of  paper,  morocco  leather,  and 
copper-plates.  The  Loo,  a  favorite  palace  of  the 
late  king  of  Holland,  is  at  Apeldorn.  Pop. 
(1900)  25,761. 

Apel'les,  the  most  famous  painter  of  an- 
cient Greece  and  of  antiquity :  b.  in  the  4th  cen- 
tury B.C.,  probably  at  Colophon.  Attracted  by 
the  renown  of  the  Sicyonian  school,  he  studied 
at  Sicyon.  In  the  time  of  Philip  he  went  to 
Macedonia,  and  there  a  close  friendship  between 
him  and  Alexander  the  Great  was  established. 
The  most  admired  of  his  pictures  was  that  of 
Venus  rising  from  the  sea  and  wringing  the 
water  from  her  dripping  locks.  His  portrait 
of  Alexander  with  a  thunderbolt  in  his  hand  was 
no  less  celebrated.  His  renown  was  at  its  height 
about  B.C.  330,  and  he  died  near  the  end  of  the 
century.  See  Houssaye,  'Histoire  d'Appelles' 
(  1867)  :  Wustman,  Apellcs'  Leben  und  Werke' 
(1870). 

Ap'ennines,  the  chief  mountain  range  ot 
Italy,  about  800  miles  long  and  25  to  85  miles 
wide,  extending  from  Savona  to  Reggio   in  the 


APENNINES 


form  of  a  bow.     Geologically  the  Apennines  re- 
semble   the    Alps,   and   connect    them    with   the 

north     Sicilian     and     north     African     mountain 
ranges.    Granite  and   crystalline   schisl    (gneiss 

and  mica-schist)  arc  found  in  the  Lignrian 
Apennines,  especially  in  Calabria,  south  of  the 
Gulf  of  Policastro.  In  the  Apennines  proper 
these  older  crystalline  formations  are  entirely 
lacking.  They  consist  principally  of  limestone, 
dolomite,  sandstone,  and  marl,  of  the  Chalk  and 
Tertiary  formations,  in  which  occur  strata  of  ser- 
pentine in  the  north,  and  sometimes  trachyte  and 
basalt,  especially  on  Mount  Vulture.  In  the 
northern  Apennines,  and  also  in  the  Tuscan 
highlands,  there  are  large  quantities  of  marl, 
shale,  and  blue-gray  sandstone,  which  belong  in 
part  to  the  Chalk  formation  and  in  part  to  the 
early  Tertiary.  Limestone  is  found  in  large  quan- 
tities in  the  composition  of  the  whole  mountain 
range.  Carboniferous,  Permian,  Triassic,  and 
Liassic  deposits  occur  in  the  Apuan  Alps,  the  fa- 
mous marble  of  Carrara  belonging  to  the  Lias- 
sic 01  I  1 1  i  ie  period.  The  Apennines  are  di- 
vided mi"  six  pans,  according  to  the  regions 
through  which  they  pass,  and  these  fall  into 
three  groups,  the  northern  Apennines  (includ- 
ing the  Lignrian  and  Etruscan)  ;  the  middle 
Apennines  (the  Roman  Apennines  and  the 
Abruzzi)  ;  the  southern  Apennines  (the  Nea- 
politan and  Calabrian).  The  Ligurian  Apen- 
nines reach  from  the  Col  de  Tenda,  the  geologi- 
cal boundary  of  the  Alps,  to  the  Pass  of  Cisa 
(about  "00  miles).  The  southern  slope  falls 
abruptly  to  the  sea,  the  northern  slope  gradually, 
with  many  valleys,  toward  the  river  Po.  Nu- 
merous passes  lead  from  the  coast  towns  over 
the  range,  among  them  the  Bochetta  Pass,  and 
tin  Giovi  Pass  from  Genoa;  and  the  Genoa-Ales- 
sandria Railroad  has  cut  a  tunnel  through  near 
the  last-named  pass.  From  there  to  the  east 
the  range  almost  doubles  its  width  and  in- 
creases in  height.  The  eastern  half,  consisting 
of  several  parallel  chains,  is  difficult  to  cross, 
and  a  serious  hindrance  to  transportation.  In 
this  portion  there  are  practically  no  thorough- 
tans  except  the  railroad  from  Parma  to  Spezia. 

The  Etruscan  Apennines,  extending  to  the 
valley  of  the  Metauro,  have  a  southeasterly  di- 
rection throughout  and  consist  of  several  ranges, 
one  in  front  of  the  other,  like  the  links  of  a 
chain.  The  most  noted  peaks  are  in  the  north- 
ern part,  the  Alpe  dc  Succiso  (about  6,6oo 
feet),    Mount    Cusna     (over    6,900    feet),    and 

int  Cimone  (7,103  feet),  the  latter  being 
the  highest  peak  in  the  northern  Apennines. 
The  northern  portion  includes  the  Apuan  Alps, 
bounded  by  the  valley  of  the  Serchio,  the  Magra 
and  the  Amelia,  which  reach  the  height  of  about 
6.400  feet  iii  Mount  Pisano  and  are  of  pure  mar- 
i  |i  1  Carrara)  on  the  slope  toward  the  sea.  The 
most  important  thoroughfare  of  the  Etruscan 
Alps  is  the  railroad  from  Bologna  to  Florence, 
which  passes  through  a  tunnel  near  Prachia ; 
the  La  1-  Int  a  Pass,  over  which  the  road  from 
Florence  to  Bologna  passes,  should  also  be  men- 
tioned. The  Roman  Apennines,  beginning  be- 
tween the  valleys  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Metauro, 
extend  to  the  valley  of  the  Tronto  and  Belino 
and  consist  of  numerous  parallel  chains.  In  the 
north  the  main  peak  is  Mount  Catria  (about 
5.420  feet)  ;  in  the  south,  the  chain  of  the  Sybil  - 
line  Mountains  rise  to  the  height  of  5.100  feet 
(Mount  Vittore).     The  formation  of  the  range 


here  renders  the  crossing  easy,  and  the  railroad 
from  Ancona  to  Florence  and  Rome  crosses 
here.  The  Abruzzi  extend  southward  from  the 
valley  of  the  Tronto,  and  in  their  eastern  chain 
in  Gran  Sasso'  d'ltalia  reach  the  greatest  height 
in  the  whole  Apennines  (Mount  Corno,  9,585 
feet).  The  western  chain,  which,  with  the  east- 
ern, encloses  the  Plain  of  Aquila,  has  a  height  of 
almost  8,150  feet  (Mount  Yclino),  and  south  of 
the  Pescara  tunnel  is  the  Majella  range  with  a 
height  of  9,200  feet.  The  Neapolitan  Apennines 
extend  from  the  valley  of  the  Sangro  and  Vol- 
turno  to  that  of  the  Crati,  but  their  altitude  is 
much  less  than  that  of  the  middle  Apennines,  the 
Matesian  .Mountains  reaching  the  height  of  over 
6.700  feet  in  Mount  Miletto.  Rounded,  wave-like 
shapes  prevail  in  this  range.  On  the  eastern 
range  is  the  extinct  volcano  of  Mount  Vulture. 
The  roads  and  railroads  from  the  west  to  the 
cast  coast  encounter  no  particular  difficulty  in 
crossing  this  range.  In  the  si. 11th  the  Apennines 
reach  again  a  noticeable  height  in  Mount  Pellino 
(  7.450  feel)  and  slope  abruptly  to  the  valley  of 
the  Crati.  The  Calabrian  Apennines  consist  of 
a  small  chain  sloping  abruptly  to  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea,  and  of  the  granite  plateau  of  the  Silagian 
Mountains  with  a  mean  height  of  3,000  feet. 
This  North  Calabrian  mountain  land  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  South  Calabrian  by  a  neck  of 
land  between  the  Gulf  of  Santa  Eusemia,  and 
the  Gulf  of  Squillace.  The  outer  northerly  and 
northeastern  slope  of  the  Apennines  is  gradual, 
the  eastern  slope  almost  everywhere  so  abrupt 
that  on  tlie  Adriatic  coast  there  is  only  room 
for  a  road.  Since  the  Apennines  on  the  west 
of  the  Gulf  of  Salerno  lie  near  the  coast,  but  in 
the  north  extend  farther  and  farther  away  from 
it,  there  exists  a  three-cornered  space  in  which 
lie  the  so-called  Lower  Apennines.  The  vol- 
canic formation  is  especially  characteristic  of 
these  mountains,  and  these  regions  are  the 
classic  ground  of  present  and  former  volcanic 
action.  Therefore  there  are  here  active  and  ex- 
tinct volcanoes  and  hot  springs,  among  them 
the  springs  of  Voltena.  The  Lower  Apenninc 
region  is  divided  into  several  parts  by  the  broad 
valleys  of  the  rivers  flowing  from  the  Apennines. 
Of  these  divisions  the  Tuscan  highland  is  the 
most  noted,  ending  on  the  south  at  the  lower 
Tiber.  In  the  interior  are  fertile  plains  slop- 
ing gently  toward  the  valley  of  the  Arno ;  in  the 
west  the  highlands  end  with  an  abrupt  slope, 
between  which  and  the  coast  lie  the  plains  of 
Maremma,  from  which  rise  a  few  single  peaks. 
The  part  of  the  Lower  Apennines  between  the 
valleys  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Garigliano  includes 
two  small  mountain-groups:  the  Alban  Moun- 
tains, famed  for  their  beautiful  scenery,  and  the 
Volskcr  Mountains  extending  as  far  as  the 
coast  near  Terracina.  West  of  these  Volscian 
Mountains  lies  a  plain  whose  northern  por- 
tion includes  the  Campagna  of  Rome,  while  the 
southern  part  contains  the  Pontine  marshes. 
The  southernmost  part  of  the  Lower  Apennines 
extends  from  the  Garigliano  to  the  mountain 
range  of  Castellamare,  north  of  Salerno,  and 
includes  the  plain  of  Campania,  noted  for  its 
fertility  as  well  as  its  beauty.  From  this  plain 
rise  several  single  volcanoes,  including  the  ex- 
tinct Mount  Delia  Croce  in  the  north  and  Vesu- 
vius (4.200  feet)  in  the  south.  The  climate  is 
on  the  whole  more  severe  than  would  be  ex- 
pected   from   the   latitude   and    the    position    of 


Vir?^ 


"Hi: 


APES  AND  MONKEYS, 


lelon  ol  young  Oral  g-outang     '■  <  hlmpaogee.       ■*  Skull  ol  young  Chimpa: 


Black  Bowl  r       '  '  "■'■'L'- 


: 


o  Ben.]  ol  Baboon. 


"i 


C 


HANDS   AND  FEET  OF  APES. 


m 


--.•*=»: 


1-2.  Gorilla. 
3-9.  Chimpanzee. 
to.  Orang- 1   1 

1  , 


t4   i~.   1  iiier 

:  i,   I  Jarl  ary  Ape. 

D    ar-fa  Baboon. 

X  i  gh     \ 


APENRADE  —  APHASIA 


Italy,  while  the  heat  in  summer  reaches  a  de- 
gree almost  unendurable  in  the  low  and  shel- 
tered valleys,  and  palms  and  other  tropical  vege- 
tation can  thrive  on  almost  all  the  west  coast; 
neither  fruit  nor  grain  grow  on  the  exposed, 
windy  heights,  with  their  elevation  of  over 
3,000  feet,  and  the  trees  are  few  and  stunted. 
The  region  of  vegetation  may  be  divided  into 
four  sections:  (i)  The  olive  region  to  the 
1,500-foot  elevation,  with  Mediterranean  flora, 
garden  plants,  and  winter  pasturage;  (2)  the  re- 
gion of  the  chestnut  and  oak,  to  the  elevation  of 
3,000  feet,  with  agricultural  products  and  chest- 
nut woods;  (3)  the  region  of  the  beech  and 
coniferous  trees  at  the  height  of  3,000  to  6,000 
feet;  (4)  the  region  of  the  shrubs  and  Alpine 
plants  with  summer  pasturage  extending  to  the 
highest  peaks.  In  climate,  therefore,  the  north- 
ern Apennines  form  a  line  of  separation  be- 
tween north  and  south ;  only  on  their  southern 
slopes  does  Italy  really  begin.  The  northern 
part  only  presents  great  difficulties  in  traveling. 
The  mountains  are  now  traversed  by  eight  rail- 
roads, mostly  by  means  of  tunnels. 

Apenrade,  a'pen-ra'de.  (Danish,  Aabenraa), 
a  seaport  of  Prussia,  in  the  district  of  Schles- 
wig-Holstein,  on  the  Little  Belt  and  in  the 
Bay  (fjord)  of  Apenrade.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  in  a  deep  valley  surrounded  by  woody 
heights  and  a  fertile  country.  Apenrade  has  a 
school  of  navigation  and  carries  on  a  consid- 
erable seafaring  trade.  It  is  a  popular  bathing 
resort  and  is  a  place  of  considerable  antiquity. 
Pop.    (1900)   6,616. 

Ap'erture,  in  anatomy,  zoology,  botany, 
etc. :  The  aperture  of  a  univalve  shell  is  the 
opening  or  mouth.  In  mollusks  which  feed  on 
vegetable  matter  it  is  entire ;  while  in  those 
which  are  animal  feeders  it  has  a  notch  or  canal. 
In  some  families  it  has  an  operculum  or  cover. 
The  margin  of  the  aperture  is  called  the  peri- 
stome. 

In  optics,  see  Microscope;  Telescope. 

Ape's  Hill  (Arabic,  Jebel  Zatut),  the  an- 
cient Abyla,  the  extremity  of  a  mountain  range 
in  northern  Morocco,  opposite  Gibraltar,  and 
one  of  the  "Pillars  of  Hercules.9 

A'pex,  in  mining,  the  highest  point  of 
outcrop  of  a  mineral  vein  or  lode.  This  is  the 
common  definition  of  the  term  as  used  by 
miners,  although  its  legal  significance  must 
be  interpreted  in  connection  with  the  local 
conditions  and  cannot  be  defined  in  general 
terms.  According  to  the  Revised  Statutes 
of  the  United  States  for  1872  the  owner  of  a 
mineral  claim  which  includes  the  apex  is  al- 
lowed to  follow  the  vein  along  the  dip  for  an 
indefinite  distance  without  regard  to  the  own- 
ership of  the  overlying  surface,  so  that  the 
proper  location  of  the  apex  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  in  establishing  the  lines  for  a 
claim.  It  has  been  decided  by  the  courts  that 
the  apex  need  not  appear  necessarily  at  the 
surface,  and  hence  the  term  does  not  exactly 
coincide  with  the  term  outcrop.  In  the 
case  of  an  inclined  vein  whose  apex  is  con- 
cealed, but  which  outcrops  at  some  point 
lower  down,  the  right  of  mining  is  conveyed 
to  the  owner  of  the  apex-claim  in  preference  to 
the  owner  of  the  outcrop-claim.  This  law 
has  been  the  cause  of  much  confusion  and  of 
axpensive  litigation  in  settling  the  ownership 


of  valuable  mining  properties  in  the  western 
States.  A  wiser  provision  is  that  obtaining 
in  most  European  countries,  which  grants  the 
owner  the  right  of  mining  only  within  the 
vertical  limits  of  his  claim. 

Apex  of  the  Sun's  Way,  a  term  signifying 
the  point  in  the  constellation  Hercules  to 
which  the  sun's  motion  in  space  is  directed. 
This  point  is  about  in  right  ascension  18  hours 
30  minutes,  and  declination  350  north.  The 
point  is  therefore  somewhat  south  of  the  zenith 
for  most  of  the  United  States  in  the  early  part 
of  the  evenings  of  August.  Of  course  this 
statement  is  meant  to  indicate  the  locality  only 
in  the  most  general  way.  That  the  solar  system 
is  moving  toward  this  part  of  the  heavens  is 
indicated  by  the  apparent  spreading  apart  of 
the  stars  in  this  region,  together  with  an  appar- 
ent crowding  together  of  the  stars  in  the  opposite 
direction,  as  the  trees  open  in  front  of  one 
walking  through  a  grove  and  shut  together 
behind  him.  The  velocity  of  this  motion  is 
shown  by  spectroscopic  observation  to  be  about 
11  miles  per  second.  The  movement,  so  far  as 
observed,  seems  to  be  in  a  straight  line, 
but  may  turn  out  to  be  in  a  vast  curved 
orbit. 

Aphan'esite,  a-fan'e-sit  (from  the  Greek 
aphanes,  "obscure,"  in  allusion  to  the  difficulty 
of  recognizing  it  by  its  crystals),  a  mineral 
now  better  known  as  Clinoclasite. 

Aphanip'tera,  an  order  of  wingless  insects 
having  a  sucker  of  three  pieces  and  a  true 
metamorphosis.  The  thorax  is  distinctly  sep- 
arate from  the  abdomen,  and  two  horny 
plates  mark  the  spots  where  wings  would  be 
in  the  higher  insects.  It  contains  the 
Pulicidcr,  or  fleas. 

Aph'anite,  af'a-nit  (derivation  same  as  for 
aphanesite),  a  variety  of  the  rock  known  as 
diorite,  in  which  the  constituent  minerals  oc- 
cur in  such  small  grains  that  the  aggregate 
rock  appears  almost  (or  quite)  homogeneous, 
except  when  examined  through  a  lens. 

Aphasia,  the  designation  of  a  disorder  of 
speech  due  to  disturbance  of  its  brain 
mechanism  independently  of  any  muscular 
defect.  This  mechanism  is  complex  and  is 
usually  divisible  into  two  parts,  the  recep- 
tive, or  sensory,  and  emissive,  or  motor. 
To  the  former  belong  those  parts  of  the 
brain  that  store  concepts  of  spoken  words 
or  written  words;  to  the  latter  those  parts 
concerned  in  co-ordinate  speech  or  in  writ- 
ing. Thus  aphasia  may  be  of  at  least  four 
different  and  independent  types.  Frequently 
it  is  a  combination  of  one  or  more  of  these. 
The  centre  in  the  brain  that  stores  intellec- 
tual auditory  impressions  is  located  in  the 
first  temporal  convolution.  Any  injury  to 
this  part  of  the  speech  mechanism  may  pro- 
duce auditory  aphasia,  or  word  deafness.  A 
patient  thus  affected  is  able  to  hear  words 
and  to  speak,  but  he  does  not  comprehend 
what  is  being  said  to  him.  He  has  lost  his 
hearing  word  memories,  and  his  own  lan- 
guage is  as  a  foreign  language  that  he  hears 
but  cannot  comprehend.  In  an  analogous 
manner,  if  there  is  disorder  of  the  occipital 
lobes,  about  the  calcarine  fissure,  or  of  its 
related  fibre  tracts,  a  patient  may  have  visual 
aphasia,  or  word  blindness.    His  own  written 


APHELION  — APHIS 


language  might  as  well  be  in  Arabic,  for  he 
has  lost  all  his  memory  of  written  words. 
These  types  of  aphasia  are  much  less  com- 
mon than  the  true  type  of  motor  aphasia,  or 
aphemia.  In  this  the  trouble  is  in  the  third 
left  frontal  convolution  in  the  brain,  lirocas 
convolution,  or  its  related  hbrc  tracts,  and 
a  patient  thus  affected  has  lost  the  power  to 
say  the  words  he  desires  to  say.  lie  is  per- 
fectly able  to  talk,  may  repeat  words,  but 
knowing  in  his  mind  precisely  what  he  wishes 
to  say  is  unable  to  express  it,  not  because  of 
any  failure  of  the  muscular  power  of  the 
tongue  to  articulate,  but  because  of  the  de- 
fect in  the  storage  centre  or  its  fibre  paths 
for  motor  speech.  A  fourth  type  is  agraphia, 
in  which  the  affected  patient  is  unable  to 
write  with  understanding  the  words  with 
which  he  is  familiar.  The  site  of  the  lesion 
here  is  undetermined.  It  usually  accompa- 
nies motor  aphasia.  There  are  also  forms 
of  combined  aphasia  in  which  the  fibre  tracts 
from  one  centre  to  another  are  cut  off. 
These  make  paraphasias,  and  their  symptoms 
are  extremely  complex.  Aphasia  in  its  various 
forms  may  differ  very  widely  in  its  extent. 
It  may  be  very  slight  or  very  profound.  It 
may  be  temporary  or  permanent,  depending 
on  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  brain  injury. 
Aphasia  is  most  frequently  a  symptom  of 
hemorrhage  from  some  artery  or  arteries  in 
the  brain;  it  may  be  caused  by  the  growth  of 
a  tumor  or  result  from  an  injury.  The 
treatment  is  that  of  the  causing  disease.  In 
the  sensory  aphasias  education  of  the  non- 
affected  areas  is  of  great  importance.  If 
there  is  word  blindness,  the  memory  for 
spoken  symbols  should  be  cultivated,  and  I'ice 
versa.    See  Speech,  Defects  of. 

Bibliography. —  Baldwin,  'Dictionary  of 
Philosophy  and  Psychology,'  article  entitled 
'Speech  and  its  Delicts '  (1903);  Collins, 
'The  Genesis  and  Dissolution  of  the  Faculty 
of  Speech'  (i8g8);  Bastian,  'Aphasia  and 
other  Speech  Defects'  (1898):  Elder,  'Apha- 
sia and  the  Cerebral  Speech  Mechanism' 
(1897)  (with  bibliography);  Kiissmaul,  article 
in  'Ziemssen's  Encyclopedia  of  Medicine,' 
Vol.  XII. 

Aphelion,  that  part  in  the  orbit  of  the 
earth  (or  any  other  planet)  which  is  farthest 
from  the  sun. 

Aphemia,  a  term  employed  to  designate  a 
motor   aphasia.     See  Aphasia. 

A'phis,  a  plant-louse  of  the  family  Aphid*- 
da,  order  Hemiptera.  Aphides  are  among  the 
most  abundant  of  insects  and  do  much  injury 
to  vegetation  by  their  habit  of  sucking  the  sap 
of  leaves  and  stems  of  plants.  They  are  usually 
very  small,  never  over  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
in  length.  Their  mouth-parts  form  a  slender 
beak  adapted  for  puncturing  leaves  and  sucking 
the  sap.  Their  antenna;  arc  from  five-  to  seven- 
jointed,  and  generally  longer  than  the  body. 
The  ocelli  arc  wanting,  and  the  beak  is  three- 
jointed  and  developed  in  both  sexes.  The  legs 
are  long  and  slender,  with  two-jointed  tarsi. 
The  males  and  females  are  winged,  and  also  the 
last  brood  of  asexual  individuals,  but  the  early 
summer  broods  arc  wingless.  Their  bodies  are 
flask-shaped,  being  cylindrical,  the  abdomen 
thick  and   rounded,    and   in    aphis   and   lachnus 


provided  with  two  tubes  on  the  sixth  segment 
for  the  passage  of  a  sweet  lluid  (.honey-dew) 
secreted  from  the  stomach,  which  attracts 
ciowds  of  ants.  (See  Ant.)  The  wings  are  not 
net-veined,  having  few  veins,  which  pass  out- 
ward from  the  COSta.  They  are  usually  green  in 
color,  with  a  soft  powdery  bloom  exuding  from 
their  bodies.  Bonnet  first  discovered  that  the 
summer  brood  of  wingless  individuals  were  born 
of  virgin  parents,  hatched  from  eggs  laid  in  the 
autumn,  and  that  the  true  winged  sexes  com- 
posed the  last  generation,  which  united  sexually, 
and  that  the  female  laid  eggs  in  the  autumn 
which  produced  the  spring  brood  of  asexual 
wingless  individuals. 

In  the  early  autumn  the  colonies  of  plant-lice 
are  composed  of  both  male  and  female  individ- 
uals. These  pair,  the  males  then  die,  and  the 
females  begin  to  deposit  their  eggs,  after  which 
they  die  also.  Early  in  the  spring,  as  soon  as 
the  sap  begins  to  flow,  these  eggs  are  hatched, 
and  the  young  lice  immediately  begin  to  pump 
up  sap  from  the  tender  haves  and  shoots,  in- 
crease rapidly  in  size,  and  in  a  short  time  come 
to  maturity.  In  this  state  it  is  found  that  the 
whole  brood,  without  a  single  exception,  con- 
sists solely  of  females,  or  rather,  and  more 
properly,  of  individuals  which  are  capable  of  re- 
producing their  kind.  This  reproduction  takes 
place  by  a  viviparous  generation,  there  being 
found  in  the  individuals  in  question  young  lice 
which,  when  capable  of  entering  upon  individual 
life,  escape  from  their  progenitors  and  form 
a  new  and  greatly  increased  colony.  This  sec- 
ond generation  pursues  the  same  course  as  the 
first,  the  individuals  of  which  it  is  composed 
being,  like  those  of  the  first,  sexless,  or  at  least 
without  any  trace  of  the  male  sex  throughout. 
These  same  conditions  are  then  repeated,  and  so 
on  almost  indefinitely,  experiments  having 
shown  that  the  power  of  reproduction  under 
such  circumstances  may  be  exercised,  according 
to  Bonnet,  at  least  through  nine  generations, 
while  Dural  thus  obtained  eleven  generations 
in  seven  months,  his  generations  being  cur- 
tailed at  this  stage  not  by  a  failure  of  the  re- 
productive power,  hut  by  the  approach  of 
winter,  which  killed  his  specimens.  Huber  ob- 
served that  a  colony  of  A.  dianthi.  which  had 
been  brought  into  a  constantly  heated  room 
continued  to  propagate  for  four  years  in  this 
manner  without  the  intervention  of  males,  and 
even  in  this  instance  it  remains  to  be  proved 
how  much  longer  these  phenomena  might  have 
been  continued. 

Certain  species  feed  on  the  roots  of  plants, 
as  asters,  lettuce,  grasses,  etc.,  and  these  also 
attract  numerous  ants.  The  cornplant-louse 
has  been  found  by  Forbes  to  hibernate  in  the 
wingless,  asexual  form  in  the  earth  of  previously 
infested  corn-fields.  In  the  spring  an  ant 
(Lasins  alienus),  which  runs  its  tunnels  along 
the  principal  roots  of  the  corn,  collects  the 
aphides  and  conveys  them  into  its  galleries, 
where  they  are  watched  and  protected.  The 
white-pine  aphis  (Lachnus  strobi)  is  destructive 
to  young  white-pine  trees.  Another  aphid  is  the 
grape  Phylloxera  (q.v.).  The  woolly  aphids 
(Schisoneurd  tessellata)  flock  on  the  stems  of 
the  alder,  their  bodies  concealed  by  a  flocculent 
mass  of  wax.  Another  destructive  species  is 
the  apple  woolly  louse  (S.  lanigera).  Aphides 
can  be  exterminated  by  frequent  spraying. 


APHIS  AND  ANT-LION. 


1-7.  Phylloxera  \  astatrix. 
1    ;,   Larva:,  Front  and  Hack  View. 
2,    \<hili  1  nsect, 

4.  Mouth  Parts. 

5.  Grape  Vine  Root  in  which  the  Insects  are  working. 


6.  1  ,ir\  .1,  Side  View. 

7.  old  Ko.n,  with  Colonies  of  Lice. 

S.  Ant-Lion     (Myrmeleon      formicarius).     Showing 
Pupa,  Larva  and    Vdult  Si 


APIOSOMA  — APOCALYPTIC  LITERATURE 


Bibliography. —  Works  on  injurious  insects 
and  economic  entomology,  especially,  for  the 
United  States,  Thomas,  'Eighth  Report  of  State 
Entomologist  of  Illinois'  (Springfield,  1879)  ; 
and  for  Europe,  Buckton,  'Monograph  of  Brit- 
ish Aphides'   (Ray  Society,  London,  1870-83). 

Apis  (Egyptian.  Hapi),  a- bull  at  Memphis 
to  which  divine  honors  were  paid  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  which  was  regarded  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  Osiris.  It  was  necessary  that  he 
should  be  black,  with  a  triangle  of  white  on 
the  forehead,  a  white  spot  in  the  form  of  a 
crescent  on  the  right  side,  and  a  sort  of  knot 
like  a  beetle  under  his  tongue.  Other  marks 
are  also  mentioned.  When  a  bull  of  this  de- 
scription was  found  he  was  fed  four  months  in 
a  building  facing  the  east.  At  the  new  moon 
he  was  led  to  a  splendid  ship  with  great  sol- 
emnity, and  conveyed  to  Heliopolis,  where  he 
was  fed  40  days  more  by  priests  and  women, 
who  performed  before  him  various  indecent 
ceremonies.  From  Heliopolis  the  prie_sts  car- 
ried him  to  Memphis,  where  he  had  a  temple, 
two  chambers  to  dwell  in,  and  a  large  court  for 
exercise.  His  actions  were  thought  to  have 
prophetic  significance,  and  he  was  believed  to 
impart  prophetic  power  to  the  children  about 
him.  His  birthday  was  celebrated  every  year, 
when  the  Nile  began  to  rise.  The  festival  con- 
tinued for  seven  days,  and  it  was  said  that  the 
crocodile  was  always  tame  as  long  as  the  feast 
continued.  Notwithstanding  all  this  veneration, 
the  bull  was  not  suffered  to  live  beyond  25  years, 
the  reason  of  which  is  probably  to  be  found 
in  the  astronomical  theology  of  the  Egyptians. 
The  death  of  Apis,  however,  excited  universal 
mourning,  which  continued  till  the  priests  had 
found  a  successor  to  him.  As  it  was  extremely 
difficult  to  find  one  with  all  the  above  distinc- 
tions, fraud  was  often  practised  by  the  priests. 

Ap'johnite,  a  native  manganese  alum,  or 
hydrated  sulphate  of  aluminum  and  manganese, 
found  in  fibrous  form  and  as  incrustations  at 
Lagoa  Bay,  South  Africa,  and  in  Sevier  County, 
Tennessee.  It  is  variable  in  composition,  but 
some  analyses  indicate  MnSOi.AUCSOOa  + 
24HjO.  It  is  usually  white  or  nearly  so,  and 
tastes  much  like  common  alum. 

Aplanatic  Lenses,  a  term  applied  to  lenses 
nearly  or  quite  free  from  spherical  aberration. 
If  the  curved  surfaces  of  a  single  convex  lens 
are  portions  of  spheres,  the  rays  of  light  from 
one  point  of  an  object  are  not  accurately  brought 
together  at  one  corresponding  point  of  the 
image,  the  rays  passing  through  the  outer  por- 
tions of  the  lens  being  too  much  refracted.  The 
result  is  a  distorted  image.  Theoretically  it  is 
easy  to  correct  this  error  by  substituting 
ellipsoidal  surfaces  for  the  spherical,  but  such 
surfaces  cannot  be  accurately  constructed. 
Spherical  aberration  is  corrected,  in  practice, 
by  combinations  of  two  or  more  lenses  in  one, 
the  surfaces  being  of  differing  curvatures.  The 
results  are  quite  satisfactory,  and  the  method  is 
applied  in  the  manufacture  of  objectives  and 
eye-pieces  for  telescopes  and  microscopes,  as  well 
as  in  the  making  of  lenses  to  be  used  in  photog- 
raphy. 

Apoc'alypse  (Greek,  apokalypsis,  from  apo- 
kalypto,  I  reveal),  the  name  frequently  given  to 
the  last  book  of  the  New  Testament.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  the  Apocalypse  was  writ- 


ten by  John  in  his  old  age,  at  the  end  of  the 
first  century  (95-97  a.d.),  in  the  Isle  of  Patmos, 
whither  he  had  been  banished  by  the  Roman 
emperor  Domitian.  Though  commonly  regarded 
as  genuine  in  the  first  centuries  of  Christianity, 
critics  have  not  been  wanting  who  have  doubted 
the  evidence  of  its  being  the  work  of  St.  John. 
Its  genuineness  was  maintained  by  Justin  Mar- 
tyr (c.  150),  Irenseus  (195),  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria (200),  Tertullian  (207),  and  many  oth- 
ers ;  and  doubted  by  Dionysius  of  Alexandria 
(240),  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Chrysostom,  and, 
nearer  our  own  times,  by  Luther  and  a  majority 
of  eminent  German  commentators.  In  recent 
times  a  composite  authorship  has  been  suggest- 
ed and  some  have  regarded  it  as  a  Jewish  work 
adapted  by  a  Christian  writer.  The  Apocalypse, 
on  account  of  its  metaphorical  language,  has 
been  explained  differently  by  almost  every  inter- 
preter, and  for  the  same  reason  it  has  furnished 
all  sorts  of  sects  and  fanatics  with  quotations  to 
support  their  creeds  or  pretensions.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  the  hopes  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians and  the  severe  persecution  they  endured  led 
them  to  regard  the  Roman  empire  as  the  object 
of  prophetic  denunciation,  and  the  coming  of 
Christ  and  the  millennium  as  near  at  hand. 
When,  under  Constantine,  however,  the  Chris- 
tians became  dominant  and  prosperous,  the  em- 
pire was  considered  as  the  scene  of  a  millennial 
development,  and  in  course  of  time  the  barbarous 
hordes  who  were  closing  round  Rome  were  re- 
garded as  fulfilling  the  woes  predicted  in  the 
Apocalypse  At  the  Reformation  the  Protes- 
tants identified  Babylon  with  papal  Rome,  and 
the  second  beast  of  Antichrist  with  a  universal 
pontiff.  The  modern  interpreters  may  be  divided 
into  three  schools :  namely,  the  historical  school, 
who  hold  that  the  prophecy  embraces  the  whole 
history  of  the  Church  and  its  foes  from  the  time 
of  its  writing  to  the  end  of  the  world;  the 
Praeterists,  who  hold  that  the  whole,  or  nearly 
the  whole,  of  the  prophecy  has  been  already  ful- 
filled, and  that  it  refers  chiefly  to  the  triumph 
of  Christianity  over  Paganism  and  Judaism; 
and  the  Futurists,  who  throw  the  whole  prophe- 
cy, except  the  first  three  chapters,  forward  upon 
a  time  not  yet  reached  by  the  Church  — a  period 
of  no  very  long  duration,  which  is  immediately 
to  precede  Christ's  second  coming.  The  Apoca- 
lypse contains  22  chapters,  which  may  be  divided 
into  two  principal  parts.  The  first  comprises 
"the  things  which  are" — that  is,  the  then  pres- 
ent state  of  the  Christian  Church,  including  the 
epistolary  instructions  and  admonitions  to  the 
angels  or  bishops  of  the  seven  churches  of 
Ephesus,  Smyrna.  Pergamos,  Thyatira,  Sardis, 
Philadelphia,  and  Laodicea,  situated  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  second  part  comprehends  a  predic- 
tion of  "the  things  which  shall  be  hereafter," 
referring  either  to  the  future  state  of  the  Church 
through  succeeding  ages,  from  the  time  of  the 
apostle  to  the  grand  consummation  of  all  things, 
or  to  the  state  of  the  souls  of  men  after  the 
general  resurrection. 

Apocalyptic  Literature,  the  designation  of 
a  large  body  of  literature  originating  in  Jewish 
and  continued  in  early  Jewish  Christian  circles. 
The  most  of  it  was  produced  between  200  B.c 
and  200  a.d.  In  a  broad  sense  it  had  for  its 
theme  the  future  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of 
God.  The  most  important  works  were  written 
in   times   of   great   stress,   when   persecution   or 


APOCALYPTIC  NUMBER  —  APOCYNACE.E 


oppression  weighed  heavily  on  the  Jews  (or 
Christians,  as  the  case  might  be).  At  such 
times  consolation  was  found  in  the  thought  that 
God  would  surely  cause  Ins  kingdom  to  triumph 
by  punishing  the  wicked  and  rewarding  his 
saints. 

The  beginnings  of  Apocalyptic  literature  are 
to  be  found  in  the  Old   Testament   writings  of 
the  Exile  period.     The  main  theme  of  the  pro- 
phetic lie  these  tunes  was,  of  course,  the 
solution  of  the  problems  directly  concerned  with 
tel  in  exile,  and  the  teaching  was  mainly  in 
the   nature   of    rebuke   for   sin,    instilling  loftier 
and    purer   conceptions   of   God   and   sustaining 
the  hope  of  a   resioration  to  the  old  land,  there 
to   enjoy  a   long  and  happy  existence.     But   at 
times  the  future  unveiled  by  prophecy  took  on  a 
peculiar  aspect, —  on  an   imaginary  arena,   in   an 
undated    distant    time,    the    great    forces   of    the 
win  Id  and  of  God  were  seen  to  be  in  conflict. 
At  first,  as  in  Ezckiel  xxxviii.  and  xxxix.,  the 
ne  of  the  struggle  is  this  earth,  and  the  doom 
of  the  (bleated  hosts  is  simply  their  destruction 
by    slaughter.      The   same   may   be   said   of   the 
apocalyptic    strains    in   Zech.    xiv.    and   Joel   iii. 
0-21.     It   is  this  unveiling  of  the   future,  not   as 
to  single  events  or  specific  historical  movements, 
but    as   to   its   processes   and   great    world-wide 
and  age-long  conflicts,  that  is  technically  termed 
apocalyptic   (from  the  Greek   &TroKa\ihrUii>  to   un- 
veil).    The  foundation  being  thus  laid  in  exilic 
and  early  post-exilic  days,  when  the  next  great 
is  came   in  the   deadly  struggle  with   Syria 
(168-142  n.c.)    it  was  but  natural   that  a  gifted 
spirit   should   again   make   use  of  this   form   of 
prophetic  instruction.     Hence  we  have  in  Daniel 
yii.-xii.  such  unveilings  of  the  course  of  history 
in  which  the  certain  triumph  of  Jehovah's  eter- 
nal kingdom  is  the  inspiring  motive.     But  now 
Apocalyptic  perception  has  opened  its  vision  not 
simply  on  the  earthly  phases  of  the  struggle,  but 
on  its  eternal  outcome  for  the  evil  and  the  good 
(cf.  Dan.  xii.).     Henceforth  these  phases  are  to 
receive  special  attention  from  Apocalyptic  writ- 
ers.   The  book  of  Daniel  gave  Judaism  a  power- 
ful  impetus   in   this   direction,   and    in   the   suc- 
ceeding  centuries   Apocalypses   were   put    forth 
which  made  bold  to  pretend  to  uncover  the  secret 
counsels  of  God's  purposes  and  the  mysteries  of 
heaven  and  hell.     The  most  refined  and  purified 
of  all  such  works  is  the  great  Christian  Apoca- 
lypse of  the  Apostle  John.     With  the  single  ex- 
ception  of  the   New   Testament  Apocalypse  all 
the   works   of  this   nature  are   pseudepigraphic. 
In   order  to  give  them  the  appearance  of  pre- 
dictions uttered  long  before  the  times  in  which 
they  were  actually  written  they  were  put  forth 
under    the    name   of   some    ancient    worthy,    as 
Enoch.  Abraham.  Moses,  etc.,  as  though  spoken 
or  written  by  him.     Between  20  and  30  Apoca- 
lyptic   works    are    known    to    have    been    once 
in  circulation.     Those  of  Jewish  origin,  among 
which    the    most   influential   and   comprehensive 
ware  the  Bonk  of  Enoch  and  2  Esdras  (the  lat- 
ter in  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha)  were  taken 
over  into  Christian  circles,  and  there  often  re- 
cast and  made  to  do  service  as  Christian  books. 
After  about  200  a.d.  Christian  scholars  strongly 
disapproved  of  the  use  of  the  various   Apoca- 
lypses,  except  those  in  the  Bible  and  2  Esdras, 
and  they  gradually  dropped  out  of  use.     Many 
are  now  known  only  by  name. 

Edward  E  Nourse. 


Apoc'alyptic  Number,  the  mystic  number 
666,  which,  according  to  some  authorities,  should 
be  616,  nil  in  loned  in  Revelation  .xiii.  18.  As 
early  as  the  second  century  ecclesiastical  writers 
found  that  the  name  Antichrist  was  indicated 
by  the  (ireek  characters  expressive  of  this  num- 
ber, numbers  being  expressed  in  Greek  by  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet.  By  Irenaeus  the  word 
Lateinos  was  found  in  the  letters  of  the  number, 
and  the  Roman  empire  was  therefore  considered 
to  be  Antichrist.  Another  solution  i^  Neron 
Kesar  (Hebrew  form  of  Nero  Gesar).  Omit- 
ting the  e's  and  the  a,  not  written  in  ancient 
Hebrew,  we  get  666  as  the  value  of  the  letters. 

Apochrom'atic   Lens.     See   Lens. 

Apocrypha  (Greek,  "things  concealed  or 
spurious"),  a  term  applied  in  the  earliest  chur- 
ches to  various  sacred  or  professedly  inspired 
wiitings,  sometimes  given  to  those  whose  au- 
thors were  unknown,  sometimes  to  those  with  a 
hidden  meaning,  and  sometimes  to  those  con- 
sidered objectionable.  It  is  specially  applied  to 
the  14  undermentioned  books  written  during  the 
two  centuries  preceding  the  birth  of  Christ. 
They  were  extant,  not  in  Hebrew,  but  in  Greek, 
and  were  accepted  by  Alexandrian,  though  not  by 
Palestinian  Jews.  They  were  incorporated  into 
the  Septuagint.and  thence  passed  to  the  Vulgate, 
but  the  Greek  Church  excluded  them  from  the 
canon  in  360  at  the  Council  of  Laodicea.  The 
Latin  Church  treated  them  with  more  favor, 
and  the  Council  of  Trent,  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, definitively  declared  the  acceptance  of  these 
books  as  part  of  the  canon  to  be  of  faith.  The 
Anglican  Church  says  they  may  be  read  for  ex- 
ample of  life  and  instruction  of  manners,  but 
that  the  Church  does  not  apply  them  to  establish 
any  doctrine.  All  other  Protestant  churches  in 
Great  Britain  and  America  ignore  them.  The 
following  14  books  form  the  Apocrypha  of  the 
English  Bible:  The  first  and  second  Books  of 
Esdras,  Tobit,  Judith,  the  rest  of  the  Book  of  Es- 
ther, the  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  the  Wisdom  of 
Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch 
the  Prophet,  the  Song  of  the  Three  Children,  Su- 
sanna and  the  Elders,  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  the 
Prayer  of  Manasses,  and  the  first  and  second 
Books  of  the  Maccabees.  Besides  the  Apocry- 
phal books  of  the  Old  Testament  there  are  many 
spurious  books  composed  in  the  earlier  ages  of 
Christianity,  and  published  under  the  names  of 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  or  of  such  immediate 
followers  as  from  their  character  or  means  of 
intimate  knowledge  might  give  an  apparent  plaus- 
ibility to  such  forgeries.  These  writings  com- 
prise: 1st,  the  Apocryphal  Gospels,  which  treat 
of  the  history  of  Joseph  and  the  Virgin  before 
the  birth  of  Christ,  of  the  infancy  of  Jesus, 
and  of  the  acts  of  Pilate ;  2d,  the  Apocryphal 
Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  and  3d,  the  Apocryphal 
Apocalypses,  none  of  which  have  obtained  can- 
onical recognition  by  any  of  the  Churches.  See 
Cowper,  "Apocryphal  Gospels,  Etc.' 

Ap'ocyna'ceae,  the  designation  of  an  exten- 
sive natural  order  of  monopetalous  exogenous 
plants,  characterized  by  perfectly  symmetrical 
flowers,  the  segments  of  the  corolla  all  twisted 
one  way  like  a  cathcrine-wbeel,  five  distinct 
stamens,  a  superior  ovarium,  which  when  ripen- 
ing opens  into  two  parts  that  diverge  from 
each  other  at  right  angles ;  fruit  follicular  or 
capsular,   or   drupaceous   or   baccate,    double  or 


APODICTIC  JUDGMENTS  — APOLLO 


single.  The  order  consists  of  trees  or  shrubs, 
many  of  whose  stems  yield,  when  wounded,  a 
copious  milk,  usually  poisonous.  Generally 
found  in  tropical  regions,  they  appear  to  be 
most  abundant  in  the  hot  parts  of  Asia,  are  less 
common  in  the  tropics  of  America,  and  still  more 
rare  in  Africa.  About  ioo  genera,  including  566 
species,  have  been  enumerated.  The  plants  of 
this  order  are  in  many  cases  poisonous,  and  very 
generally  to  be  suspected,  although  in  some  cases 
they  are  used  medicinally,  and  in  others  have 
an  edible  fruit.  One  of  the  most  deadly  plants 
of  the  order  is  the  Tanghina  venenata.  The 
kernel  of  the  fruit,  although  not  larger  than  an 
almond,  is  sufficient  to  kill  20  men ;  it  was  form- 
erly used  in  Madagascar  as  an  ordeal.  The  com- 
mon oleander  (Nerium  oleander)  is  a  formid- 
able poison  and  death  has  resulted  from  eating 
its  flowers. 

Apodictic  Judgments,  a  logical  term 
adopted  by  Kant  from  Aristotle  to  distinguish 
judgments  or  conclusions  which  are  beyond  con- 
tradiction from  those  which  are  merely  empir- 
ical; or  to  put  it  differently,  a  judgment  or  con- 
clusion which  is  founded  on  the  impossibility  of 
the  opposite,  not  upon  grounds  of  experience  is 
an  apodictic  judgment. 

Apollinarians,  a  sect  of  Christians  who 
maintained  the  doctrine  that  the  Logos  (the 
Word)  holds  in  Christ  the  place  of  the  rational 
soul,  and  consequently  that  God  was  united  in 
him  with  the  human  body  and  the  sensitive  soul. 
Apollinaris,  the  author  of  this  opinion,  was,  from 
362  a.d.  till  about  382  a.d.,  bishop  of  Laodicea, 
in  Syria,  and  a  zealous  opposer  of  the  Aryans. 
As  a  man  and  a  scholar  he  was  highly  esteemed, 
and  was  among  the  most  popular  authors  of  his 
time.  He  formed  a  congregation  of  his  adher- 
ents at  Antioch,  and  made  Vitalis  their  bishop. 
His  teaching  was  condemned  at  Alexandria  in 
362 ;  by  Pope  Damasus  in  375 ;  and  in  the  Coun- 
cil of  Constantinople  in  381.  The  Apollinarians, 
or  Vitalians,  as  their  followers  were  called,  soon 
spread  their  sentiments  in  Syria  and  the  neigh- 
boring countries,  established  several  societies, 
with  their  own  bishops,  and  one  even  in  Con- 
stantinople. The  sect  was  denounced  in  428  by 
imperial  edict,  and  its  members  gradually  re- 
turned to  the  Church  or  became  Monophysites 
(q.v.). 

Apollo,  son  of  Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Leto 
(Latona),  who  being  persecuted  by  the  jealousy 
of  Hera  (Juno),  after  tedious  wanderings  and 
nine  days'  labor,  was  delivered  of  him  and  his 
twin  sister,  Artemis  (Diana),  on  the  island  of 
Delos.  He  was  the  most  important  of  the 
Olympian  deities  after  Zeus  and  appears  in 
mythology  as  the  god  of  poetry,  music,  and 
prophecy,  the  patron  of  physicians  and  shep- 
herds, and  the  founder  of  cities.  He  aided  Zeus 
in  the  war  with  the  Titans  and  the  giants,  and 
destroyed  the  Cyclopes  because  they  forged  the 
thunder-bolts  with  which  Zeus  killed  his  son 
and  favorite  Asklepios  (.-Esculapius).  All  of 
the  male  sex  dying  suddenly  without  previous 
sickness  were  supposed  to  be  smitten  by  the 
arrows  of  Apollo.  In  the  oldest  poems  Apollo 
is  exhibited  as  the  god  of  song,  being  known  in 
this  function  as  Apollo  Citharcedus.  Two  stat- 
ues of  Apollo  Citharnedus  are  extant,  one  of 
them  at  the  Glyptothek  in  Munich,  the  other  at 
the  Vatican,  but  their  date  is  unknown.     In  the 


festivals  of  the  gods  and  those  of  men  in 
which  they  took  part  he  plays  and  sings  while 
the  Muses  dance  around  him.  According  to 
some  traditions  he  invented  the  lyre,  though 
this  is  generally  ascribed  to  Hermes  (Mercury;. 
Marsyas,  who  ventured  to  contend  with  him  on 
the  flute,  was  conquered  and  flayed  alive  by  the 
god.  Apollo  had  another  contest  with  Pan,  in 
which  the  former  played  on  the  lyre,  the  latter 
on  the  pipe.  Tmolus  had  already  decided  in  fa- 
vor of  Apollo,  when  Midas,  opposing  the  sen- 
tence, was  decorated  with  a  pair  of  ass's  ears  for 
his  stupidity.  That  Apollo  had  the  gift  of 
prophecy  appears  from  the  Iliad,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  bestowed  it  upon  Calchas  and  Cas- 
sandra ;  and  in  the  Odyssey  mention  is  made  of 
an  oracular  response  delivered  by  him  in  Del- 
phi. The  oracle  at  this  place  became  very  fa- 
mous. He  also  revealed  future  events  at  Abac 
in  Phocis,  Didyma  near  Miletus,  Claros  near 
Colophon  in  Ionia,  Tenedos  and  Patara  in 
Lycia.  Apollo,  in  later  times,  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  god  of  physic,  and  was  repre- 
sented to  be  the  father  of  Asklepios,  the  god  of 
healing.  He  is  reported  to  have  taken  charge  for 
a  long  time  of  the  herds  of  Admetus,  according 
to  some  authorities  voluntarily,  according  to 
others  compelled  by  Zeus,  on  account  of  the 
murder  of  the  Cyclopes,  or  the  serpent  Python. 
As  a  builder  of  cities,  the  founding  of  Cyzicum, 
Cyrene,  and  Naxos  in  Sicily  is  ascribed  to  him, 
while  Homer  relates  that  he  built  the  walls  of 
Troy  together  with  Poseidon  (Neptune),  and 
afflicted  the  city  afterward  with  a  pestilence, 
because  Laomedon  defrauded  him  of  his  pay. 
According  to  the  poets  and  sculptors,  Apollo, 
with  Ares  (Mars),  Hermes  (Mercury),  and 
Dionysos  (Bacchus),  belongs  to  the  beardless 
gods,  in  whom  the  dawnings  of  early  manhood 
appear.  He  is  figured  with  a  bow,  a  quiver  and 
plectrum,  a  serpent,  a  shepherd's  crook,  a  griffin 
and  a  swan,  a  tripod,  a  laurel,  an  olive-tree,  etc. 
He  was  originally  the  sun-god;  and  though  in 
Homer  he  appears  distinct  from  Helios  (the 
sun),  yet  his  real  nature  is  hinted  at  even  here 
by  the  epithet  Phoebus,  the  radiant  or  beaming. 
In  later  times  the  view  was  almost  universal 
that  Apollo  and  Helios  were  identical,  and  by 
this  theory  of  his  origin  we  can  easily  under- 
stand how  he  should  be  regarded  as  the  god  of 
pastures  (Nomios)  and  of  flocks  (Karneios), 
the  god  that  protects  and  causes  the  fruits  of 
the  field  to  grow,  the  god  that  gives  fair  winds 
to  mariners  (Embasios),  etc.  As  he  slew  the 
Python,  that  is,  the  hostile  powers  of  darkness, 
with  his  arrows  (the  sunbeams),  so  in  later 
times  he  was  looked  on  as  the  averter  of  evil, 
the  bringer  of  help,  and  the  punisher  of  over- 
weening pride  (as  in  the  story  of  Niobe).  From 
being  the  god  of  light  and  purity  in  a  physical 
sense  he  gradually,  as  he  became  endowed  more 
and  more  in  the  Greek  mind  with  an  ethical 
character,  became  the  god  of  moral  and  spiritual 
light  and  purity,  the  source  of  all  intellectual, 
social,  and  political  progress.  Thus  he  came  to 
be  considered  as  the  god  of  song  and  prophecy, 
the  god  that  purifies  after  the  commission  of 
crimes,  that  averts  and  heals  bodily  suffering 
and  disease,  the  institutor  and  guardian  of  civil 
and  political  order,  and  the  founder  of  cities. 
Though  not  one  of  the  original  gods  of  the 
Romans,  his  worship  was  introduced  at  Rome 
at  an  early  period,  probably  in  the  time  of  the 


APOLLO  BELVEDERE  — APOLOGETICS 


Tarquins.  Among  the  ancient  statues  of  Apollo 
that  are  extant  the  most  remarkable,  and  in  the 
judgment  of  the  learned  and  acute  Winckel- 
inann  the  best  and  most  perfect  that  art  has 
pn  duced,  is  the  one  called  the  Api  dere, 

re  Gallery  in  the  Vatican  at 
Rome;  also  called  the  Pythian  Apollo,  because 
it  is  supposed  that  the  artist  ha-  represented 
the  god  in  the  moment  of  his  victory  over  the 
serpent  Python.  This  statue  was  found  in  the 
ruins  of  Antium  in  1503.  It  is  conjectured  to 
be  a  careful  copy  of  a  Greek  original,  perhaps 
of  the  4th  century  B.C.,  or  possibly  a  century  or 
more  later. 

Apollo  Belvedere,  bel'va-da'ra.  See  Apollo. 

Apollonius,  Pergaeus,  from  Perga  in  Pam- 
phylia;  lived  about  250-200  1:1.  Mr  was  edu- 
cated in  Alexandria  under  the  successors  of 
Euclid,  and  became  one  of  the  greatest  mathe- 
maticians of  antiquity,  being  commonlj  called 
the  "Great  1  leometer."1  His  most  important  work 
was  a  treatise  on  conic  sections,  in  eight  vol- 
umes, of  which  the  first  four,  with  the  commen- 
tary of  Eutocius,  are  extant  in  Greek,  and  all 
but  the  eighth  volume  in  Arabic.  We  have 
tory  lemmata  to  all  the  eight  by 
Pappus,  edited  by  Halley,  'Appolonius  Perganis 
Conic,'     lib.    VIII.,    c,    Oxon.    1710.    fol 

Apollonius  of  Tyana,  a  Pythagorean 
phil'  b     at    Tyana,    in    Cappadocia.   about 

whom  many  wonderful  stories  are  told.  He  was 
born  in  tin-  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  early 
adopted  the  Pythagorean  doctrines,  abstaining 
from  animal  food  and  living  in  the  simplest  man 
ner,  and  according  to  the  Pythagorean  precept 
maintained  a  rigid  silence  for  five  years.  He 
traveled  in  Asia,  disseminating  his  doctrines  and 
doing  many  wonderful  things,  and  proceeding 
as  far  as  India,  where  he  became  initiated  int.' 
the  doctrines  of  the  Brahmans.  When  Domi- 
tian  ascended  the  throne  Apollonius  was  accused 
of  having  excited  an  insurrection  in  Egypt  in 
favor  of  Nerva,  but  readily  submitting  to  a  trial 
he  was  acquitted.  After  this  be  went  once  more 
to  Greece  and  passed  over  t..  Ephesus,  where  he 
opened  a  Pythagorean  school,  and  died  in  96,  or, 
according  to  others,  no  A.D. 

Apollyon,  a-pol'li'on,  or  a-pol'yun,  a  ren- 
dering of  the  Hebrew  \haddon,  meaning  de- 
struction. Apollyon  i-  personified  as  the  keeper 
of  the  bottomless  pit. 

Apolo'gia  pro  Vita  Su'a,  the  title  given 
by  Cardinal  Newman  to  the  account  of  his  re- 
ligious career,  published  in   1865.     It  was  called 

h  by  Charles  Kingsley's  accusation  that 
"Truth,  for  its  own  sake,  has  never  been  a  vir- 
tue with  the  Roman  clergy.  Father  Newman 
informs   us   that  it   need   not  and  on   the  whole 

-lit  not  to  be:  that  cunning  is  the  weapon 
which  heaven  has  given  to  the  saints  wherewith 
to  withstand  the  brute  male  force  of  the  wicked 
world,  which  marries  and  is  given  in  marriage. 
Whether  his  notion  be  doctrinally  correct  or 
ii"t.  it  is  at  least  historically  so."  Newman 
deeming  the  time  ripe  for  a  full  and  searching 
justification  of  his  position,  and  of  the  position 
of  his  brother  clergy,  published  the  'Apologia' 
the  next  year.  Its  supreme  value  is  its  intimate 
revelation  of  a  luminous  spirituality,  of  a  per- 
sonality of  lofty  refinement  and  beauty. 

Apologetics,  the  department  of  theological 
science    which    deals    with    the    defense    of   the 


Christian  faith.  It  differs  from  dogmatics 
which  strives  to  reduce  the  doctrines  of  religion 
to  a  systematic  form;  and  from  polemics,  wluc'.i 
is  the  science  of  controversy,  and  while  its  sub- 
ject matter  comprises  the  differences  found  in 
different  schools  of  believers,  apologetics  deals 
with  attacks  upon  the  faith  which  are  made 
by  unbelievers.  Apologetics  may  be  again  dis- 
tinguished from  apologies.  The  former  has  to 
do  with  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  re- 
ligion and  with  the  methods  of  defense  which 
apply  to  all  attacks,  but  an  apology  has  to  do 
with  some  special  form  of  unbelief.  The  former 
is  the  science  of  which  the  latter  is  an  applica- 
tion. Yet,  apologetics  as  a  science  may  be  best 
understood  through  its  historical  applications 
and  the  distinction  named  is  made  more  read- 
ily in  theory  than  exhibited  in  detail. 

Owing  to  the  nature  of  Christian  theology 
as  historically  formulated,  apologies  have  fallen 
under  two  main  divisions,  popularly  known  as 
natural  theology  and  the  evidences  of  Chris- 
tianity. The  former  is  usually  put  before  the 
latter.  It  discusses  the  nature  of  God  and  the 
proofs  of  His  existence  as  revealed  to  us  in 
nature.  It  may  also  investigate  the  nature  of 
man,  his  moral  sense,  the  freedom  of  his  will, 
and  his  capacity  for  knowing  God.  Its  chief 
reliance  has  been  upon  four  arguments:  the 
ontological,  which  starts  from  our  idea  of  a 
perfect  being  and  shows  that  it  implies  actual 
existence:  the  cosmological,  which  from  the 
long  line  of  causes  and  effects,  each  contingent, 
argues  backward  to  a  first  great  cause,  which 
is  itself  uncaused;  the  teleological,  which  shows 
the  marks  of  design  in  nature,  and  from  them 
argues  to  a  great  designer;  the  moral,  which 
starts  with  the  moral  sense  in  man  and  argues  to 
a  holy  and  righteous  maker.  Some  writers 
add  an  aesthetic  argument,  from  our  sense  of 
beauty  and  its  gratification  in  the  universe. 
Then  these  various  arguments  are  combined 
and  the  perfect  being  is  shown  to  be  the  first 
great  cause,  righteous,  wise,  and  a  person 
whom  therefore  we  call   God. 

The  evidences  of  Christianity  assume  the  ex- 
istence of  such  a  God,  and  from  this  basis 
prove  Christianity  to  be  His  peculiar  revela-. 
tion,  constituting  the  absolute  religion.  This 
proof  ordinarily  is  divided  into  two  great  di- 
visions, external  and  internal.  The  external 
proofs  are  miracles  and  completed  prophecy, 
which  evince  a  power  and  wisdom  which  are 
Divine  and  guarantee  the  Divine  authorship  of 
the  writings  which  they  authenticate.  The  ex- 
ternal proofs  include  also  the  historical  evi- 
dence to  the  genuineness  of  the  scripture  writ- 
ings. The  internal  evidences  show  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  contents  of  the  Bible  to  the  needs 
of  men,  their  agreement  with  the  highest  teach- 
ings of  reason,  and  their  elevating  and  purifying 
effect  upon  the  mind  and  life.  A  further  argu- 
ment is  based  upon  the  experience  of  the 
Christian  as  testifying  to  the  truth  of  the  doc- 
trines  involved. 

This  argument  in  both  divisions,  natural 
theology  and  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  oc- 
cupies the  chief  place  in  the  text-books,  but, 
evidently,  it  is  a  form  of  specific  apology,  and 
at  best  only  in  part  illustrates  essential  apolo- 
getics. This  appears  from  a  wider  survey  for 
the  argument  as  stated  above,  while  it  meets  a 
special  situation,  neither  represents  the  actual 
argumentation   in   the   first  ages  of  the   Church 


APOLOGETICS 


nor  in  our  own  day.  Even  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment some  of  the  writings  have  an  apologetic 
purpose.  Christianity  in  its  early  form  met  two 
opponents,  Judaism  and  heathenism.  To  the 
first,  the  apostolic  writers  attempted  to  prove 
its  truth  by  showing  it  as  foretold  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  as  completing  the  earlier  Scrip- 
tures. When  Christianity  encountered  Greek 
thought  the  situation  was  wholly  different,  and 
the  apologists  formulated  the  contents  of  the 
Gospel  in  a  manner  which  appealed  to  the  com- 
mon sense  of  all  the  serious  thinkers  and  intel- 
ligent men  of  the  age.  That  is,  Christianity 
was  presented  as  completing,  or  at  least  har- 
monizing with,  the  later  Greek  philosophy.  In 
this  it  succeeded  and  then  ensued  a  long  period 
when  apologetics  was  in  abeyance.  The  in- 
tellectual life  of  the  Church  was  engaged  in 
formulating  dogmas  and  in  conflicts  with  her- 
esy. Only  long  after  the  Reformation  was  the 
strife  renewed  with  men  who  seriously  denied 
the  truth  of  Christianity. 

In  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  18th  century,  the  minds  of  Eng- 
lish Churchmen  were  engaged  by  the  Deistic 
controversy.  This  had  to  do  with  the  evi- 
dences of  Christianity.  The  Copernican  as- 
tronomy, changing  men's  conceptions  of  the 
physical  universe,  the  discovery  of  China,  or 
better  its  rediscovery  and  its  effect  upon  the 
imagination  of  thoughtful  men,  and  the  at- 
tacks of  the  British  clergy  upon  the  miracles 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  brought  on  a 
crisis.  The  new  astronomy  suggested  the 
thought  that  the  God  of  so  great  a  universe 
could  not  be  identical  with  Jehovah,  the  God 
of  a  Semitic  people ;  nor  could  men  conceive 
of  the  earth,  no  longer  central  but  a  mere 
planet,  as  the  scene  of  the  drama  of  the  in- 
carnation and  the  redemption ;  the  considera- 
tion of  China  with  the  thought  of  its  relatively 
high  civilization  suggested  that  if  China  had 
got  on  so  well  without  the  special  teaching  of 
the  gospel  with  the  light  of  reason  only,  the 
special  revelation  must  also  be  valueless  to  Eng- 
lishmen ;  and  the  attacks  of  the  clergy  upon  the 
Roman  Catholic  miracles  as  the  frauds  of  priests 
led  to  the  position  that  all  miracles,  including 
those  of  the  Bible,  may  be  put  into  the  same 
category.  It  was  further  urged,  that  the  de- 
scription of  Jehovah  in  the  Bible  and  in  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church  does  not  accord  with 
the  righteousness  and  wisdom  and  power  of 
the  God  disclosed  by  nature.  The  conception 
of  nature  as  a  vast  machine  was  taking  posses- 
sion of  men's  minds,  and  God  was  thought  to 
be  the  maker  and  starter  of  the  machine,  and  as 
having  no  further  occasion  to  interfere  with 
its  running.  He  was  not  denied,  therefore,  but 
He  was  made  infinitely  remote,  and  there 
seemed  no  opportunity  for  miracle,  redemption 
or  prayer.  The  attack  called  forth  a  multitude 
of  replies,  the  'Analogy'  of  Bishop  Butler  being 
the  most  effective  and  distinguished.  He 
argued  that  revealed  and  natural  religion  are 
not  opposed,  but  that  the  second  supplements 
the  first,  and  that  its  peculiarities  are  what  we 
should  expect  from  a  study  of  nature  itself; 
and  that  further,  the  difficulties  urged  by  the 
Deists  against  the  God  of  the  Bible  lie  with 
equal  force  against  their  own  teaching  of  the 
God  of  nature.  It  was  further  argued,  in  par- 
ticular, that  the  account  of  the  gospel  miracles 
is  to  be  accepted,   because   the   witnesses   were 


competent,  and  moreover  had  everything  to 
lose  and  nothing  to  gain  by  their  invention, 
proving  their  sincerity  by  dying  as  martyrs. 
The  YVesleyan  revivals  were  perhaps  more  in- 
fluential than  the  arguments  of  the  apologists 
by  supplying  the  powerful  evidence  of  the  effec- 
tual working  of  Christianity  in  the  hearts  and 
lives  of  men.  From  England  the  controversy  was 
carried  to  France,  and  to  Germany,  with  phases 
too  varied  for  even  the  briefest  review  here. 

In  the  19th  century,  from  the  middle  dec- 
ades on,  the  apologetic  warfare  was  renewed, 
with  issues  far  more  fundamental.  Already 
Hume  had  stated  positions  which  threatened 
the  beliefs  of  Churchmen  and  of  Deists  alike, 
and  under  the  influence  of  an  extreme  empiri- 
cism, reinforced  by  influences  from  German 
philosophy,  men  denied  that  God  could  be  known 
at  alL  Hence  apologetics  again  busied  itself 
with  the  first  division  of  topics,  and  discussed 
man's  capacity  for  knowing  the  Infinite,  and  re- 
viewed all  the  evidences  for  God's  existence  in 
the  light  of  the  modern  science  of  knowledge. 
The  progressive  establishment  of  the  scientific 
conception  of  the  universe  also  revived  the  dis- 
cussion as  to  miracles  and  forced  a  renewed 
examination  of  the  whole  subject.  In  addition, 
the  historic  credibility  of  the  gospel  narrative 
and  the  authenticity  of  the  Biblical  writings 
have  been  re-examined  from  many  points  of 
view,  while  the  discovery  of  the  ancient  re- 
ligions of  the  past  and  of  the  living  religions 
of  Asia  have  caused  prolonged  debate  as  to  the 
uniqueness  and  the  absoluteness  of  the  Christian 
teachings.  Hence,  the  apologist  is  engaged  in 
a  discussion  which  involves  philosophy,  science, 
history,  comparative  theology,  and  criticism. 

In  general,  we  may  put  apologists  at  present 
into  three  classes ;  those  who  hold  substantially 
the  old  positions  and  seek  in  part  by  compro- 
mise and  in  part  by  adaptation  to  show  that 
their  essential  truth  may  be  maintained  not- 
withstanding the  progress  in  philosophy  and  sci- 
ence ;  those  who  abandon  the  old  arguments, 
and  overcome  the  conflict  between  science  and 
philosophy  on  the  one  hand  and  theology  on 
the  other,  by  adopting  wholly  the  modern  views 
and  reconstructing  theology  by  their  aid;  and 
those  who  attempt  to  discriminate  between  re- 
ligion and  science  and  philosophy,  and  by  pene- 
trating more  completely  into  its  essence  to  find 
an  independent  basis  for  the  religious  life  which 
shall  abide  however  men's  views  may  change  in 
these  other  departments.  Particular  arguments 
in  reply  to  special  attacks  are  of  less  moment 
than  a  discussion  of  the  meaning  and  essence 
of  Christianity  itself,  and  of  the  principles  which 
underlie  all  defenses  of  its  truth.  That  is,  this 
age  needs  not  so  much  an  apology  or  defense 
of  Christian  truths  as  a  thoroughgoing  study 
of  the  science  of  apologetics  itself. 

Bibliograpliy. —  Butler,  'Analogy  of  Re- 
ligion' ;  Paley,  'Evidences  of  Christianity' ; 
Stephens,  'History  of  English  Thought  in  the 
18th  Century'  ;  Ebrard,  'Christian  Apologetics'  ; 
Fisher,  'The  Grounds  of  Theistic  and  Chris- 
tian Belief  :  Hettinger,  'Apology  of  Christian- 
ity1; Smythe,  'Through  Science  to  Faith' 
(1902);  Kaftan.  'The  Truth  of  the  Christian 
Religion'  (1894);  Knox.  lThe  Direct  and  Fun- 
damental Proof  of  the  Christian  Religion' 
0903).  George  YVm.  Knox.  D.D.. 

Professor   of   Philosophy   and   History   of  Re- 
ligion, Union  Theological  Seminary. 


APOLOGUE  —  APOSTLE 


Ap'ologue,  a  story  or  relation  of  fictitious 
events  intended  to  convey  some  useful  truth. 
It  differs  from  a  parable  in  that  the  latter  is 

drawn  from  events  that  pass  among  mankind, 
whereas  the  apologue  may  be  founded  on  sup- 
posed actions  of  brutes  or  inanimate  things. 
.  i     <  >p's     lahles     furnish    excellent    examples    of 

api  il  gues. 

Apol'ogy,  a  term  at  one  time  applied  to  a 
defense  of  one  who  is  accused,  or  of  certain 
doctrines  called  in  question,  but  at  present  com- 
monly applied  to  an  acknowledgment  of  error. 
The  apologies  of  Socrates  attributed  to  Plato 
and  Xenophon  are  works  of  the  first-named 
character.  Later  rhetoricans  wrote  upon  the 
use  of  apologies  and  caused  them  to  be  com- 
posed by  their  scholars.  Of  this  sort  are  the 
Apologies  of  Libanius.  Thus  the  name  passed 
over  to  Christian  authors,  who  gave  the  name 
of  apologies  to  the  writings  which  were  designed 
to  defend  Christianity  against  the  attacks  and 
accusations  of  its  enemies,  particularly  the  pa- 
gan philosophers,  and  to  justify  its  professors 
before  the  emperors.  Of  this  sort  were  those 
by  Justin  Martyr,  Athenagoras,  Tcrtullian,  Ta- 
tian,  and  others.  There  are  also  apologies  for 
the  doctrines  of  particular  sects ;  for  example, 
Robert  Barclay's  'Apology  for  the  People  in 
Scorn  called   Quakers.' 

Apol'ogy  for  the  Life  of  Colley  Cibber, 
An,  an  autobiography  published  in  1740, 
when  the  author,  poet-laureate,  actor,  and  maii- 
about-town  was  in  bis  70th  year.  In  the  annals 
of  the  stage  this  curious  volume  holds  an  im- 
portant place  as  throwing  light  upon  dramatic 
conditions  in  London  after  the  Restoration, 
when  the  theatre  began  to  assume  its  modern  as- 
pect. 

Ap'omor'phine.     See  Morphine. 

Aponeurosis.     See  Tendon. 

Apoph'yllite,  a-pofi-Ht  (from  the  Greek 
words  apo,  "off,"  and  phyllon,  "leaf."  in  allusion 
to  the  tendency  of  the  mineral  to  separate  into 
thin  leaves  before  the  blowpipe),  a  native 
hydratcd  silicate  of  calcium  and  potassium, 
having  the  general  formula  K.O.8Ca0.l6Si0:. 
i6H:0,  but  with  some  portion  of  the  oxygen 
replaced  by  fluorine.  It  crystallizes  in  the 
tetragonal  system,  and  also  occurs  massive.  Its 
crystals  are  usually  white  or  gray,  with  a  pro- 
nounced pearly  lustre  on  the  basal  plane,  and 
a  vitreous  lustre  elsewhere.  Apophyllite  cleaves 
easily  into  thin  folia  parallel  to  the  basal  plane. 
Its  hardness  is  from  4.5  to  5,  and  its  specific 
gravity  about  2.3.  It  occurs  in  many  parts  of 
the  world.  Beautiful  crystals,  3  or  4  inches 
across,  are  found  in  India,  and  others  nearly  as 
large  have  been  found  at  Bergen  Hill  and  Pat- 
erson,  N.  J. 

Apoplexy.     See  Brain  Disease. 

Aposiopesis,  ap'o-si-6-pe'sTs,  a  rhetorical 
'  11  denoting  a  sudden  break  or  stop  in  speak- 
ing or  writing,  usually  for  mere  effect  or  a  pre- 
tence   of    unwillingness    to    say    anything   on    a 

subject:  as,  «his  character  is  such but  it  is 

better  I  should  not  speak  of  that." 

Apos'tasy  (.Greek,  apostasis,  a  standing  away 
from),  a  term  signifying  a  renunciation  of  opin- 
ions or  practices  and  the  adoption  of  contrary 
ones,  and  usually  applied  to  renunciation  of 
religious  opinions.     It   is   always  an   expression 


of  reproach.  What  one  party  calls  apostasy  is 
termed  by  the  other  conversion.  History  men- 
tions three  eminent  apostates  —  Julian  the  Apos- 
tate, who  had  never  been  a  Christian  except 
nominally  and  by  compulsion;  Henry  1\\,  king 
of  France,  who  thought  that  "Paris  vaut  bien 
tine  messe,"  and  that  of  course  all  France  was 
worth  the  whole  Catholic  faith:  and  William 
of  Nassau,  the  stadtholder,  who  separated  him- 
self from  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and  be- 
came a  Protestant.  The  statute  0  &  to  of  Wil- 
liam III.  cap.  xxxii.,  provides  that  if  any  person 
educated  in  or  having  made  profession  of  the 
Christian  religion  shall  deny  it  to  be  true,  he 
shall  be  rendered  incapable  of  holding  any  office 
for  the  first  offense,  and  for  the  second  shall 
be  made  incapable  of  bringing  any  action,  of 
being  guardian,  executor,  legatee,  or  purchaser 
of  land*,  and  shall  suffer  three  years'  imprison- 
ment without  bail.  This  act  is  commonly  called 
the  "blasphemy  act.8 

A  Posteriori.     See  A  Priori. 

Apos'tle  (literally  one  sent  out,  from  the 
Greek  apostellein,  to  send  out)  and  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church  the  title  given  to  the  12  men 
whom  Jesus  selected  to  attend  him  during  his 
ministry,  witness  his  miracles,  learn  his  doc- 
trines, and  thus  he  able  to  promulgate  bis  re- 
ligion. Their  names  were  Simon  Peter  and 
Andrew  his  brother;  James  the  greater,  and 
John  his  brother,  who  were  sons  of  /.ehedee; 
Philip  of  Bethsaida ;  Bartholomew;  Thomas; 
Matthew;  Janus,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  commonly 
called  James  the  less;  Lebbeus,  his  brother,  who 
was  surnamed  Thaddeus,  and  was  called  Judas 
or  Jude;  Simon  the  Canaanite;  and  Judas  Is- 
cariot.  Of  this  number  Simon  Peter,  John, 
James  the  greater,  and  Andrew  wen-  fishermen; 
and  Matthew  a  publican  or  tax-gatherer.  When 
the  apostles  were  reduced  to  n  by  the  suicide 
of  Judas,  who  had  betrayed  Christ,  Matthias 
was  chosen  by  lot  on  the  proposition  of  St. 
Peter.  Soon  after,  their  number  became  13  by 
the  miraculous  vocation  of  Saul,  who,  under  the 
name  of  Paul,  became  our  of  the  mosl  zealous 
propagators  of  the  Christian  faith.  The  llihle 
gives  the  name  of  apostle  to  Barnabas  also,  wdto 
accompanied  Paul  on  his  missions  (Acts  xiv. 
14),  and  Paul  seems  to  give  it  to  Andronicus 
and  Junia,  bis  relations  and  companions  in 
prison.  Generally,  however,  the  name  is  used 
in  the  narrower  sense  to  designate  those  whom 
Christ  selected  himself  while  on  earth,  and  Paul, 
whom  he  afterward  called.  In  a  wider  sense 
those  preachers  who  first  taught  Christianity  in 
heathen  countries  are  frequently  termed  apos- 
tles: for  example,  St.  Denis,  the  apostle  of  the 
Gauls;  St.  Boniface,  the  apostle  of  Germany; 
St.  Augustine,  the  apostle  of  England;  the 
Jesuit  Francis  Xavier,  the  apostle  of  the  Indies; 
Adalbert  of  Prague,  apostle  of  Prussia  Proper. 
Tradition  reports  that  several  of  the  early 
apostles  were  married.  The  wife  of  St.  Peter 
is  said  to  have  accompanied  him  on  his  jour- 
neys, and  died  a  martyr.  The  tradition  further 
states  that  St.  Peter  had  a  daughter  Petronilla, 
who  was  also  a  martyr;  this  at  least  say  St. 
Augustine,  St.  Epiphanius,  and  St.  Clement  of 
Alexandria.  St.  Philip  also  is  said  to  have 
been  married  and  to  have  had  several  daughters, 
among  whom  was  St.  Hermione.  Hegesippus 
speaks  of  two  martyrs,  grandsons  of  St.  Jude. 


APOSTLE  — APOSTOLIC  SUCCESSION 


Hrs  wife  was  called  Mary.  St.  Bartholomew  is 
also  said  to  have  been  married.  Their  history 
is  largely  a  matter  of  tradition,  save  as  it  is 
recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

Apostle  of  the  Ardennes.    See  Hubert,  St. 
Apostle  of  the  English.  See  Augustine,  St. 
Apostle  of  Free  Trade.     See  Cobden,  R. 
Apostle  of  Germany.      See  Boniface,  St. 
Apostle  of  Infidelity.     See  Voltaire. 
Apostle  of  Ireland.     See  Saint  Patrick. 
Apostle  of  Temperance.     See  Mathew,  T. 
Apostle   Spoons,   a   name    applied   to   sets 
of   spoons    with    handles    formed    of   images   of 
the  Twelve  Apostles  and  the  Virgin. 
Apostles'  Creed.      See  Creed. 
Apostles'  Islands,  or  The  Twelve  Apos- 
tles, the  name  given  to  a  group  of  27  islands 
in  Lake  Superior,  belonging  to  Wisconsin.     The 
principal  islands  of  the  group  are  He  au  Chene, 
Stockton,    Bear,    Madeline,    and    Outer.      They 
have  an  area  of  200  square  miles.     Brown  sand- 
stone is  exported,   and   the   islands  are  covered 
with  a  rich  growth  of  timber.     The  cliffs  have 
been   worn  into  strange  forms  by  the  action  of 
the    waves.      La    Pointe,    on    Madeline    Island, 
formerly    the    county-seat    of    Ashland    County, 
Wisconsin,  was  settled  by  the  French,  who  es- 
tablished Jesuit  missions  on  the  islands  as  early 
as  1680. 

Apostle  to  the  French.  See  Denis,  St. 
Apostle  to  the  Indians.  See  Eliot,  John. 
Apostolic  Brethren,  Apostolici,  or  Ap- 
ostolus, the  name  given  to  certain  sects  who 
professed  to  imitate  the  manners  and  practice 
of  the  apostles.  The  last  and  most  important  of 
these  was  founded  about  1260  by  Gerhard  Se- 
garelli  of  Parma.  They  went  barefooted,  clothed 
in  white,  with  long  beard,  disheveled  hair,  and 
bare  heads,  accompanied  by  women  called  spirit- 
ual sisters,  begging,  preaching,  and  singing, 
throughout  Italy,  Switzerland,  and  France ;  an- 
nounced the  coming  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven 
and  of  purer  times  :  denounced  the  papacy  and 
its  corrupt  and  worldly  Church  ;  and  inculcated 
the  complete  renunciation  of  all  worldly  ties,  of 
property,  settled  abode,  marriage,  etc.  This 
society  was  formally  abolished  (1286)  by  Hon- 
orius  IV.  Segarelli  was  burned  as  a  heretic  in 
1300.  Another  leader  now  appeared,  Dolcino,  a 
learned  man  of  Milan.  In  self-defense  they  sta- 
tioned themselves  in  fortified  places  whence  they 
might  resist  attacks.  After  having  devastated  a 
large  tract  of  country  belonging  to  Milan  they 
were  subdued  (1307)  by  the  troops  of  Bishop 
Raynerius  in  their  fortress  Zebello,  in  Vercelli. 
and  almost  all  destroyed.  Dolcino  was  burned 
at  Vercelli,  1  June  1307.  The  survivors  after- 
ward appeared  in  Lombardy  and  in  the  south  of 
France  as  late  as  1368. 

Apostolic  Church,  the  Church  in  the  time 
of  the  apostles,  constituted  according  to  their 
design.  The  name  is  also  given  to  the  four 
churches  of  Rome,  Alexandria.  Antioch.  and 
Jerusalem,  and  is  claimed  by  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic Church  and  occasionally  by  the  Episcopal- 
ians. 

Apostolic  Constitutions  and  Canons,  a 
collection  of  regulations  attributed  to  the  apos- 
tles, but  generally  supposed  to  be  spurious.  They 
appeared    in   the   4th   century,   are   divided   into 


eight  books,  and  consist  of  rules  and  precept' 
relating  to  the  duty  of  Christians,  and  particu- 
larly to  the  ceremonies  and  discipline  of  the 
Church. 

Apostolic  Delegate,  a  permanent  repre- 
sentative of  the  Pope  in  a  foreign  country.  The 
term  is  sometimes  confounded  with  the  word 
ablegate,  the  latter  meaning  a  temporary  repre- 
sentative of  the  Pope  for  some  special  function. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  the  Christian  writers 
who,  during  any  part  of  their  lives,  were  con- 
temporary with  the  apostles.  There  are  five : 
Clement,  Barnabas,  Hermas,  Ignatius,  Polycarp. 
Their  writings  are  available  in  a  recent  collec- 
tion made  with  great  care  by  the  able  Biblical 
scholar,   Bishop  Lightfoot. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  The:  Revised  Texts, 
with  English  Translations.  By  J.  B.  Lightfoot. 
A  collection  of  about  12  of  the  earliest  Christia-i 
writings,  directly  following  those  of  the  Apos- 
tles, made  with  great  care  and  learning  by  the 
ablest  of  recent  English  Biblical  scholars.  The 
writings  gathered  into  the  volume  represent 
those  teachers  of  Christian  doctrine  who  stand 
in  the  history  nearest  to  the  New  Testament 
writers,  and  the  account  of  them  given  by  Dr. 
Lightfoot  is  not  only  the  best  for  students,  but 
is  of  great  interest  to  the  general  reader. 

Apostolic  Majesty,  a  title  granted  by  the 
Pope  to  the  kings  of  Hungary,  first  conferred 
on  St.  Stephen,  the  founder  of  the  royal  line  of 
Hungary,  on  account  of  what  he  accomplished 
in  the  spread  of  Christianity. 

Apostolic  Party,  a  name  given  to  a  body 
of  Spanish  fanatics  who  early  in  the  19th  cen- 
tury clamored  for  the  restoration  of  the  Inqui- 
sition. About  1830  they  became  merged  in  the 
Carlist  party. 

Apostolic  See,  official  title  of  the  Pope, 
the  Bishop  of  Rome,  who,  according  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Catholic  Church,  is  the  successor  of 
Saint  Peter. 

Apostleship  of  Prayer,  a  pious  association 
founded  in  France  in  1844  by  Rev.  Francis 
Gautrelet  for  the  purpose  of  advancing  its  mem- 
bers in  the  spiritual  life  and  particularly-  of  hon- 
oring the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  There  are 
three  degrees  of  membership,  composed  of  those 
who  promise  to  make  the  morning  offering  of 
theirthoughts,  words,  actions,  and  sufferings  to 
God  in  union  with  the  intention  of  Christ :  those 
who  recite  once  each  day  the  Lord's  Prayer  and 
the  Hail  Mary  ten  times :  and  those  who  receive 
Holy  Communion  monthly  as  an  act  of  repara- 
tion to  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  The  mem- 
bership throughout  the  world  is  supposed  to  be 
about  30.000,000,  and  there  are  about  5,000.000 
in  the  United  States.  The  central  office  is  at 
Saint  Francis  Xavier  Church.  New  York. 

Apostolic  Succession.  The  doctrine  of  the 
direct  and  hierarchical  succession  from  Christ's 
apostles.  Its  defenders  maintain  that  the 
Christian  ministry'  is  a  succession,  that  valid 
ordination  is  transmitted  to  the  clergv  onlv  by 
accredited  bishops  who  have  received  the  power 
of  ordination  in  direct  line  of  succession  from 
the  apostles.  The  points  of  controversy  are:  (1) 
as  to  when  and  how  the  exclusive  aiithoritv  of 
ordination  was  given  by  Christ  and  the  apostles ; 
(2)  by  what  act,  if  any,  the  transmission  of  this 
authority  is  to  be  made  valid,   (3)   along  what 


APOSTROPHE  — APPALACHIAN   AMERICA 


lines  has  this  supernatural  commission  come, 
ami  (4)  whether  or  not  this  supernatural  grace 
and  spiritual  authority  arc  restricted  to  definite 
official    lines    of    ti  in.     In    later    years 

differences  have  arisen  among  the  Anglican 
scholars    regarding   these   various   points.     Inde- 

dents  and    D  in  England,  of  course, 

argue   in    favor   of   the  theory  that   the   Church 
a  body  may  constitute  a  legitimate  min- 
istry, with  full  powers  of  ordination,  etc.     This 
in  general  is  the  attitude  of  non-prelatical  bodies. 
In    defense    of    the    doctrine    see    Gore,    'The 
Church  and  the  Ministry'    (1892)  ;  in  opposition 
see  John  Brown,  'Apostolic  Succession'  (1898). 
\    Knox   Mitchell, 
Hartford    Theological   Seminary. 

Apos'trophe,  a  term  in  rhetoric  indicating 
a  figure  of  speech  by  which,  according  to  Quin- 
11h.n1,  .1  speaker  turns  from  the  rest  of  his 
audience  to  one  person,  and  addresses  him  sin- 
gly. Now,  however,  the  signification  is  wider, 
including  cases  in  which  an  impassioned  orator 
addresses  the  absent,  the  dead,  or  even  things 
inanimate. 

The  name  is  also  employed  in  grammar  to 
denote  the  substitution  of  a  mark  like  this  (') 
for  one  or  more  letters  omitted  from  a  word, 
as  tho'  for  though,  'twas  for  it  was,  king's  for 
kinges.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  mark  indicat- 
ing such  substitution,  especially  in  the  case  of 
the  possessive.  The  old  possessive  singular 
was  es,  and  the  apostrophe  stands  for  the 
omitted  e. 

Apotheosis,  a  Greek  term  indicating  the 
ceremony  by  which  a  man  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  the  gods.  The  custom  of  placing  mor- 
tals, who  had  rendered  their  countrymen  im- 
portant services,  among  the  gods  was  very 
ancient  among  the  Greeks,  who  generally  fol- 
lowed in  so  doing  the  advice  of  an  oracle.  On 
their  coins  most  of  the  founders  of  cities  and 
colonies  are  immortalized  as  gods:  and  in  sub- 
sequent times  living  princes  assumed  this  title. 
The  Romans  for  several  centuries  deified  none 
but  Romulus,  and  first  initiated  the  Greeks  in 
the  fashion  of  frequent  apotheosis  after  the 
time  of  Casar. 

Appalachian  America,  a  term  first  used 
by  the  present  writer  in  1803.  now  generally  ac- 
cepted to  designate  the  mountain  region  of  the 
southern  United  States.  This  territory  has  a 
certain  sociological  unity,  based  on  physical 
conditions,  which  was  long  obscured  by  the 
fact  that  it  was  parceled  out  among  several  dif- 
ferent  States. 

Physii •graphically  it  is  a  .mountainous  terri- 
torj  without  arms  of  the  sea,  inland  lakes  or 
other  natural  waterways.  And  furthermore  it 
is  a  territory  which  forbids  canals,  and  has  not 
yet  been  opened  up  by  railroads  or  even  turn- 
pikes. Its  universal  characteristics  are  difficulty 
of  communication,  isolation,  and  remoteness. 
These  condition-  were  less  severe,  and  were 
largely  overcome  by  greater  commercial  and  in- 
tellectual activity  in  the  portions  of  the  Appa- 
lachian system  which  lay  in  the  northern  free 
States.  Accordingly  as  a  sociological  grand 
division  Appalachian  America  begins  with  the 
southern  boundary  of  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Ohio  River,  and  embraces  the  mountainous  por- 
tions of  the  Virginias  and  Carolinas,  Kentucky 
and  Tennessee,  Georgia  and  Alabama.  In  this 
vast  area,  which   is   all   a   land  of  saddles  and 


bad  roads,  there  are,  of  course,  great  varieties 
of  elevation  and  climate,  from  the  'dissected 
plateaus"  of  Kentucky  to  "the  land  of  the  sky" 
in  North  Carolina.  Descriptions  of  the  geo- 
logical formations,  mineral,  forest,  and  other 
resources,  and  physiographic  conditions,  will  ap- 
pear under  the  several  States.  But  the  one 
great  fact  about  the  whole  territory  is  that  it 
condemns   its   inhabitants  to  the   ills  of  isolation. 

Historically.  Appalachian  America  received 
its  fir-t  sparse  settlements  about  the  time  of  the 
Revolutionary  War.  A  great  tide  of  migration 
passed  through  it  and  around  it  to  the  West, 
and  the  valley  land  was  occupied  by  hardy 
settlers.  It  was  these  who  fought  the  battle  of 
King's  .Mountain,  and  in  the  war  of  1812  rifle- 
men from  the  mountains  gave  material  assist- 
ance in  defeating  the  British  at  New  Orleans. 
When  the  slave  power  developed  in  the  South 
subsequent  to  the  Revolution,  Appalachian 
America,  retaining  its  revolutionary  spirit  of 
liberty,  came  to  be  looked  upon  with  hostility 
by  its  Southern  neighbors.  Slavery  was  never 
common  in  the  mountains,  and  the  scorn  of  the 
slaveholders  for  those  who  did  not  hold  slaves 
was  heartily  returned  by  the  mountaineers. 
Thus  social  barriers  were  added  to  the  barriers 
of  nature  and  the  mountain  people  still  further 
isolated  from  the  world.  In  the  Civil  War, 
however,  they  emerged  from  their  obscurity  and 
surprised  both  the  North  and  the  South  by  their 
vigorous  and  effective  stand  for  "union  and 
liberty."  They  held  Kentucky  in  the  union, 
made  West  Virginia  "secede  from  secession," 
well-nigh  divided  Tennessee,  and  furnished  re- 
cruits to  the  loyal  armies  even  from  Alabama 
and  South  Carolina.  Many  of  these  recruits 
were  not  enrolled  as  coming  from  these  States, 
but  the  regular  regiments  enlisted  from  slave 
States,  nearly  all  from  the  mountains,  aggre- 
gated about  200,000  men.  The  sufferings  of  the 
loyal  people  throughout  the  mountains,  and 
especially  in  East  Tennessee,  and  the  eloquence 
of  "Parson  Brownlow,"  for  the  time  fixed  the 
attention  of  the  nation.  Naturally  the  moun- 
taineers have  since  the  War  followed  the  for- 
tunes  of  the   Republican  party. 

Sociologically  Appalachian  America  reveals 
most  interesting  survivals  of  the  spirit,  arts  and 
conditions  of  colonial  times.  Within  its  area 
are  many  valleys  and  villages  which  differ  from 
other  parts  of  the  United  States  only  in  super- 
ficial matters  like  the  greater  number  of  saddle 
horses  and  the  more'  free  hospitality.  But  there 
is  an  immense  population  (commonly  estimated 
at  2,000,000)  which  has  been  little  affected  by 
modern  ideas.  The  stock  is  mainly  British, 
representing  rural  England  and  the  Scotch- 
Irish,  though  with  traces  of  the  Huguenot  and 
the  German.  A  large  number  of  Washington's 
soldiers  settled  in  the  valley  land  of  Appala- 
chian America,  and  there  is  no  evidence  that 
the  pioneers  of  the  mountain  region  were  in 
any  way  inferior  to  the  first  settlers  in  the  more 
favored  "blue  grass  sections."  The  early  set- 
tlers had  the  education  of  their  time,  which 
lessened  in  succeeding  generations.  The  con- 
ditions of  life  grew  harder  when  the  valley  land 
and  game  were  exhausted,  and  the  public  school 
did  not  come  in  until  the  "reconstruction  pe- 
riod." As  a  result,  a  great  part  of  all  the  native 
born  illiterates  in  the  United  States  —  many  of 
them  people  of  good  character  and  good  abili- 
ties—  are  in  this  region.     In  some  counties  the 


APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAIN  CLUB —  APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAINS 


illiterate  white  voters  exceed  a  third  of  the 
whole  number.  It  is  among  these  people  that 
we  find  a  survival  of  pioneer  conditions  —  the 
woodcraft,  the  log  cabin,  the  open  fireplace  — 
with  a  noble  stone  chimney  in  Kentucky,  de- 
generating into  a  stick  and  mud  chimney  farther 
south.  The  arts  of  spinning,  dyeing,  and  weav- 
ing are  still  found,  together  with  a  wealth  of 
Saxon  speech,  and  even  old  British  ballads  which 
have  come  down  by  oral  tradition.  Survivals  in 
language  consist  of  ancient  pronunciations  and 
constructions,  and  the  persistence  of  words  and 
meanings  elsewhere  obsolete ;  as  "pack"  for 
carry,  ttgorm"  meaning  to  muss,  etc.  A  kind  of 
minstrelsy  still  exists  among  the  ruder  classes,  so 
that  we  may  find  drinking  songs  and  folk-lore 
still  in  the  making.  Preachers  are  few  and 
poorly  paid,  and  religion  is  of  a  mediaeval  and 
fatalistic  type.  The  feuds  and  homicides  which 
attract  so  much  attention  belong  with  these  other 
survivals.  Weapons  are  carried  to  some  extent 
in  all  parts  of  the  South,  because  men  retain 
the  Elizabethan  idea  that  while  the  government 
protects  the  land  from  foreign  foes,  each  man 
is  to  protect  his  private  honor  and  interests 
with  his  own  right  arm.  In  the  mountains  this 
view  is  more  plausible  because  the  law  is  not 
always  carried  out  with  the  certainty  and  maj- 
esty which  could  inspire  either  confidence  or 
dread.  Considering  these  adverse  conditions 
of  life,  the  general  good  order  and  morality  of 
the  mountains  is  very  creditable.  A  woman  or 
a  stranger  who  behaves  properly  is  always  safe. 
The  chief  disorders  arise  from  corrupt  political 
leaders  and  the  whiskey  bottle,  and  the  moun- 
tain people  have  taken  the  first  great  step  of 
progress  in  very  generally  enacting  local  option 
laws  which  prohibit  the  sale  of  intoxicants. 
Yet  the  "moonshine  still" — the  secret  manu- 
facture of  spirits  on  which  no  tax  is  paid  — 
survives  in  many  places,  and  makes  Christmas 
or  election  time  a  terror  to  the  mothers  of 
mountain  boys. 

A  most  striking  characteristic  is  the  absence 
of  any  foreign  element  in  the  population.  The 
35  mountain  counties  of  Kentucky,  for  ex- 
ample, contain  478,205  people,  with  only  2,120 
who  are  of  foreign  birth,  and  these  massed  in 
a  few  counties  where  mines  or  lumber  interests 
have  been  recently  established.  There  are  15 
counties  each  containing  less  than  ten  persons 
of  foreign  birth.  The  massing  of  so  great  a 
population  of  purely  American  birth  and  breed- 
ing is  very  significant.  And  these  people  who 
owned  land  but  did  not  own  slaves  (never  to 
be  confused  with  the  "poor  whites")  constitute 
the  true  yeomanry  of  the  South,  its  best  nucleus 
for  a  true  middle  class.  Large  families  are  the 
rule,  and  the  standard  of  physical  development 
is  _  high.  _  With  this  large  birth-rate  the  moun- 
tain region  is  approaching  the  limit  of  popula- 
tion and  must  either  improve  the  means  of 
subsistence,  or  emigrate.  Both  movements  have 
begun.  In  time  the  mineral  wealth  will  bring 
railroads  to  some  extent,  and  if  proper  educa- 
tional guidance  is  furnished  Appalachian  Amer- 
ica will  become  what  Scotland  is  in  Great 
Britain,  a  storehouse  of  national  vigor  and  pa- 
triotism. 

Printed  information  regarding  Appalachian 
America  is  fragmentary  and  partial.  Chas. 
Dudley  Warner  reported  a  charming  tour  'On 
Horseback  Through  Virginia'  and  important 
notices  occur   in   Fisk's   'Old  Virginia  and  her 


Neighbors,1  Roosevelt's  'Winning  of  the  West,' 
and  Draper's  'King's  Mountain  and  its  Heroes.' 
The  spirit  of  war  times  is  reproduced  in  Bar- 
ton's 'Hero  in  Homespun, '  and  the  general 
characteristics  of  mountain  life  appear  in  the 
tales  of  John  Fox,  Jr.,  and  Miss  Murfree 
("Charles  Egbert  Craddock").  See  also  articles 
in  'New  England  Magazine'  (March  '97), 
'Atlantic  Monthly'  (March  '99),  'Review  of 
Reviews'  (March  1900),  and  files  of  the  'Berea 
Quarterly.' 

W.  G.  Frost, 
President  Berea  College. 

Appalachian  Mountain  Club,  the  name 
of  an  organization  interested  in  the  exploration 
and  study  of  the  mountain  ranges  of  eastern 
North  America,  and  the  preservation  of  their 
woodlands,  waters,  and  historic  sites  for  the 
use  of  the  public.  The  club  publishes  a  journal, 
called  'Appalachia,'  now  in  its  10th  volume 
(1903). 

Appalachian  Mountains,  the  great  moun- 
tain system  of  the  eastern  United  States  ex- 
tending from  southeastern  New  York  to  north- 
ern Alabama.  It  includes  a  number  of  ranges 
and  mountain  groups  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  Alleghanies,  the  Blue  Ridge, 
the  Cumberland  Mountains,  and  the  Black 
mountains.  The  Catskills  form  really  the 
northern  termination,  although  the  system  is 
commonly  extended  so  as  to  include  the  Green 
Mountains,  the  White  Mountains,  and  the  line 
of  elevations  extending  northward  of  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence.  The  extreme  length  of  the 
system  is  about  1,300  miles,  and  its  greatest 
width  over  100  miles.  The  most  remarkable 
feature  of  the  general  formation  of  the  Appala- 
chians is  the  regular  arrangement  of  its  ridges 
and  valleys,  these  being,  in  general,  parallel  to 
the  Atlantic  coast  line.  This  arrangement  is 
particularly  noticeable  in  the  central  part  of  the 
system,  through  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia.  In 
general  the  ridges  lie  along  two  parallel  lines 
from  50  to  100  miles  apart,  thus  enclosing  a  lon- 
gitudinal valley  whose  sides  rise  rather  abruptly 
over  culminating  points  of  the  mountains.  This 
great  central  valley  extends  from  New  York  to 
the  southern  end  of  the  system,  including  the 
Cumberland  valley  in  Pennsylvania  and  the 
great  valley  of  Virginia  and  of  Tennessee.  This 
region  is  very  fertile  throughout  its  whole 
length,  and  is  especially  w-ell  cultivated  in  Lan- 
caster, Berks,  and  Lehigh  counties,  Pennsyl- 
vania. The  Appalachians  show  no  remarkable 
elevations,  and  the  height  of  the  summits  ap- 
pears less  than  it  really  is,  because  the  moun- 
tains rise  from  a  plateau  varying  from  500  feet 
in  Pennsylvania  to  1,500  and  2.000  feet  in  Vir- 
ginia and  Tennessee.  The  lowest  peaks  are 
found  in  Pennsylvania,  none  rising  much  above 
2,000  feet.  The  culminating  point  of  the  whole 
system  is  Mount  Mitchell,  in  the  Black  Moun- 
tains (6,711  feet)  :  others  of  the  high  peaks  are 
also  found  in  the  Black  Mountain  range,  Balsam 
Cone  6,671  feet,  Black  Brother  6,619,  and  Mount 
Hallback;  the  Smoky  Mountains,  too,  include 
some  high  peaks,  Clingmann  Dome  6,619,  Guyot 
6,636,  Mount  Alexander  0.447,  Mount  Seconta 
6,612,  and  Mount  Curtis  6,568.  The  culminating 
point  of  the  northern  part  of  thesystemis  Mount 
Washington,  New  Hampshire  (6,233  feet).  The 
peaks  are  generally  of  rounded  outline  and  lack 
the  bold   picturesqueness   that  characterizes  the 


APPARENT;  APPARITION 


Rocky  Mountains  and  other  ranges  in  the  west- 
ern United  States.  Their  low  altitude  and 
smooth  contour  are  the  result  of  the  long- 
continued  erosion  which  has  removed  great 
thicknesses  of  strata  since  the  first  uplift. 

Geology. —  The  Appalachians  show  all  geo- 
logical formations  from  the  metamorphic  group 
to  the  so-called  coal-measures,  ihc  latter  in- 
cluding sandstones,  shales,  limestones,  and  coal. 
The  strata  of  the  western  slope  with  their  regu- 
lar horizontal  arrangement  show  a  great  con- 
trast to  the  disturbed  stratification^  of  the  east- 
ern slope.  There  the  rock  formations  are  con 
fused  and  pressed  into  folds  and  wrinkles  with 
an  inclination  generally  southeast.  The  strata 
of  the  system  are  all  of  marine  or  terrestrial  ori- 
gin, the  latest  being  those  of  the  coal  formation. 
After  the  formation  of  these  strata  the  moun- 
tains were  elevated  to  their  present  position  by 
a  force  that  proceeded  from  the  southeast,  work- 
ing probably  by  many  successive  impulses ;  and 
the  receding  waters  hollowed  the  gaps  through 
the  ridges  so  characteristic  of  the  Appalachian 
topography,  and  gave  the  mountains  their  pres- 
ent conformation.  The  chief  minerals  of  the 
Appalachians  are  iron  and  coal.  Iron  ores, 
magnetite,  hematite,  and  Iimonite,  arc  very 
abundant;  the  magnetic  iron  is  found  especially 
in  what  is  called  the  Champlain  Iron  District. 
The  hematite  and  Iimonite  ores  arc  found  all 
along  the  great  Appalachian  valley  and  are  of 
great  commercial  importance:  while  the  earthy 
carhonite  of  iron  found  in  many  parts  has  been 
largely  manufactured.  Coal  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  product;  the  coal  deposits  of  the  Ap- 
palachians include  the  whole  anthracite  field  of 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York  with  an  area  of 
400  to  500  square  miles,  and  the  bituminous 
fields  of  Pennsylvania  and  other  States,  with  an 
area  of  56,000  square  miles.  Gold,  silver,  cop- 
per, and  lead  are  found  in  comparatively  small 
quantities  and  are  of  little  importance  com- 
mercially, but  the  deposits  of  marble,  limestone, 
fire-clay,  gypsum,  and  salt  are  abundant  and 
valuable. 

Drainage. —  The  Appalachians  form  the 
watershed  between  the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the 
M  ississippi  River  systems;  this  does  not  lie 
in  one  continuous  line,  but  shifts  its  position 
from  one  line  of  ridges  to  another,  so  that  many 
of  the  rivers  cut  their  way  through  the  moun- 
tains from  west  to  east,  or  east  to  west  :  the 
Delaware  and  Susquehanna,  for  example,  with 
their  branches.  These  two  rivers,  with  the  Po- 
tomac and  James,  drain  the  most  of  the  eastern 
slope ;  the  Ohio,  with  its  tributaries,  is  the  chief 
means  of  drainage  on  the  western  slope. 

Flora  and  Fauna. —  The  mountain  slopes  are 
heavily  wooded  throughout  the  whole  system. 
The  white  pine  is  found  in  all  portions;  the 
sugar  maple,  the  white  birch,  ash,  and  beech 
grow  on  the  northern  mountains ;  the  oak, 
cherry,  white  poplar,  white  and  yellow  pine 
farther  south.  On  the  poorer  lands  the  ever- 
greens  flourish,  such  as  spruce,  hemlock, 
evergreen,  and  balsam-fir,  which,  on  account  of 
their  dark  foliage  covering  the  summits  of  the 
Black  Mountains,  have  given  this  range  its 
name.  There  are  large  quantities  of  flowering 
shrubs,  particularly  the  rhododendrons,  azaleas, 
and  laurel  often  growing  in  almost  impenetrable 
thickets,  and  many  varieties  of  smaller  plants 
and   flowers.     Panthers   and   wolves  have  prac- 


tically disappeared  from  the  mountains,  but 
bears,  deer,  and  wildcats  are  quite  common. 
Small    game    birds   are   plentiful,   and    wild    tui- 

keys  also  on  the  southern  ranges.  Rattlesnakes 
and  copperheads  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
Appalachians,  but  not  in  great  numbers. 

Bibliography. —  Guyot,  '  The  Appalachian 
Mountain  System'  ('American  Journal  of  Sci- 
ence,' 2d  Series,  Vol.  XXXI);  I  laves.' The  Me- 
chanics of  Appalachian  Mountain  Structure'; 
'Physiography  of  the  Chattanooga  District' 
(13th  and  loth  Annual  Report  of  the  United 
Stairs  Geological  Survey);  'The  Southern  Ap- 
palachians'; H.  D.  and  W.  B.  Rogers,  'Physical 
Structure  of  the  Appalachian  Chain1  ('Ameri- 
can Journal  of  Science,'  1st  Series,  Vol. 
XLIV)  ;  Willis,  'The  Northern  Appalachians'  ; 
'Paleozoic  Appalachian 

Apparent,  a  term  employed  by  mathema- 
ticians and  astronomers  to  denote  things  as 
they  appear  to  the  eye  in  distinction  from  what 
they    really    are.      Thus    they    Speak    of    apparent 

motion,   magnitude,   distance,   height,   time,   etc. 

So    important    is    this    difference    between    reality 

and  appearance,  particularly  in  regard  to  the 
heavenly  bodies,  that  we  find  all  early  astro- 
nomers, who  were  ignorant  of  this  fact,  running 
continually  into  error;  and  a  great  advancement 
in  science  was  required  before  mankind  was 
able  to  establish  systems  opposed  to  appear- 
ances. Every  one  knows  that  a  body  may  ap- 
pear to  move  while  it  is,  in  fact,  at  rest,  and 
the  motion  is  in  the  spectator,  or  the  place  on 
which  he  stands,  as  is  the  case  with  the  sun  in 
relation  to  tlu-  inhabitants  of  this  earth.  The 
apparent  altitude  of  a  heavenly  body  is  what 
appears  to  be  its  angle  of  elevation  above  a 
horizon  which  may  itself  be  apparent  —  that  is, 
the  seeming  junction  of  sea  and  sky;  or  "sensi- 
ble"—  that  is,  a  plane  passing  through  the  point 
of  observation  at  right  angles  to  the  plumb-line; 
or  true  —  that  is.  a  plane  parallel  to  the  "sensi- 
ble" horizon  and  passing  through  the  centre  of 
the  earth.  When  the  altitude  of  a  heavenly 
body  is  measured  corrections  are  made  for  re- 
fraction, parallax,  and,  if  the  measurement  is 
from  a  visible  sea  horizon,  for  the  height  of  the 
ob  erver  abi ive  1  In-  water. 

The  phrase  heir  apparent  signifies  one  whose 
right  of  inheritance  is  indefeasible  provided 
he  survive  his  ancestor;  as  the  eldest  son  or 
his  issue,  who  must,  by  the  course  of  the  com- 
mon law,  be  heirs  to  the  father.  Heirs  pre- 
sumptive are  those  who,  if  the  ancestor  should 
die  immediately,  would  in  the  existing  state  of 
things   lie  his   heirs. 

Ap'pari'tion,  the  name  given  to  an  illusion 
involuntarily  generated,  by  means  of  which 
forms  not  present  to  the  actual  sense  are  de- 
pictured with  intensity  sufficient  to  create  a 
temporary  belief  in  their  reality.  It  is  now 
generally  held  to  be  the  result  of  the  reaction 
of  an  excited  imagination,  renovating  past  feel- 
ing or  impn  ssions,  with  an  energy  proportioned 
to  the  degree  of  excitement.  But  although  the 
illusion  thus  generated  is  necessarily  co- 
existent with  the  state  of  excitement  in  which 
it  has  its  origin,  or,  in  other  words,  ceases  to 
be  active  when  the  phenomena  vanish,  it  does 
not  therefore  follow  that  the  mind,  when  it 
regains  its  ordinary  condition,  becomes  imme- 
diately sensible  of  the  hallucination  under  which 
it  has  for   a  time  becii  laboring,  or  capable  of 


APPEAL 


distinguishing  between  perceptions  of  sense  and 
phantasms  of  imagination.  On  the  contrary, 
observation  proves  what  theory  equally  sanc- 
tions, that  the  conviction  of  reality  generally 
outlasts  the  impressions  which  originally 
produced  it ;  and  that,  so  far  from  any  sus- 
picion of  illusion  being  entertained,  or  any 
power  of  discriminating  the  actual  from  the 
imaginary  being  evinced,  this  conviction  takes 
entire  possession  of  the  mind,  in  many  instances 
maintaining  its  hold  with  a  firmness  which  all 
the  force  of  argument  and  reason  is  insufficient 
to  overcome.  Hence  the  tenacity,  and,  we  may 
add,  the  universality  of  the  belief  in  appari- 
tions; and  hence  also  the  prodigious  diversity 
of  forms  under  which  these  spectral  illusions 
are  presented  in  the  popular  legends  and  super- 
stitions—  a  diversity,  in  fact,  which  seems  com- 
mensurate with  the  incredible  variety  of  in- 
fluences, whether  morbific  or  other,  by  which 
the  imagination  may  be  excited,  and  past  feel- 
ings or  impressions  vividly  renovated  in  con- 
sequence of  its  reaction  on  the  organs  of  sense. 
Sir  D.  Brewster  has  remarked  as  a  physical  fact 
that  "when  the  eye  is  not  exposed  to  the  im- 
pressions of  external  objects,  or  when  it  is 
insensible  to  these  objects,  in  consequence  of 
being  engrossed  with  its  own  operations,  any 
object  of  mental  contemplation,  which  has  either 
been  called  up  by  the  memory  or  created  by  the 
imagination,  will  be  seen  as  distinctly  as  if  it 
had  been  formed  from  the  vision  of  a  real  ob- 
ject. In  examining  these  mental  impressions," 
he  adds,  "I  have  found  that  they  follow  the 
motions  of  the  eyeball  exactly  like  the  spectral 
impressions  of  luminous  objects,  and  that  they 
resemble  them  also  in  their  apparent  immobility 
when  the  eyeball  is  displaced  by  an  external 
force.  If  this  result  shall  be  found  generally 
true  by  others  it  will  follow  that  the  objects 
of  mental  contemplation  may  be  seen  as  dis- 
tinctly as  external  objects,  and  will  occupy  the 
same  local  position  in  the  axis  of  vision  as  if 
they  had  been  formed  by  the  agency  of  light." 
This  goes  to  the  very  root  of  the  theory  of  ap- 
paritions, all  the  phenomena  of  which  seem  to 
depend  upon  the  relative  intensities  of  the  two 
classes  of  impressions,  and  upon  the  manner  of 
their  accidental  combination.  In  perfect  health 
the  mind  not  only  possesses  a  control  over  its 
powers,  but  the  impressions  of  external  objects 
alone  occupy  its  attention,  and  the  play  of 
imagination  is  consequently  checked,  except  in 
sleep,  when  its  operations  are  relatively  more 
feeble.  But  in  the  unhealthy  state  of  the  mind, 
when  its  attention  is  partly  withdrawn  from  the 
contemplation  of  external  objects,  the  impres- 
sions of  its  own  creation,  or  rather  reproduction, 
will  either  overpower  or  combine  themselves 
with  the  impressions  of  external  objects,  and 
thus  generate  illusions  which  in  the  one  case 
appear  alone,  while  in  the  other  they  are  seen 
projected  among  those  external  objects  to  which 
the  eyeball  is  directed,  in  the  manner  explained 
by  Sir  D.  Brewster.  It  may  be  added  that  the 
reasoning  applied  to  the  impressions  derived 
from  the  sense  of  sight  is  equally  applicable  to 
those  received  through  the  medium  of  any  other 
sense, —  as  the  ear,  for  instance,  an  organ  which 
ministers  abundantly  to  the  production  of  spec- 
tral illusions.  This  theory  explains  only  those 
apparitions  known  to  be  subjective  illusions, 
but  it  does  not  account  for  those  objective  appa- 
Vol.  I    —38 


ritions,  of  which  there  are  many  and  well  authen- 
ticated accounts.  Modern  science  has  explained 
some  of  the  objective  apparations. 

Appeal',  a  legal  term  signifying  the  re- 
moval of  a  cause  from  an  inferior  tribunal  to  a 
superior,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  revise, 
and,  if  needful,  reverse  or  amend,  the  decision 
of  the  former. 

In  the  United  States  the  distinction  be- 
tween an  appeal,  which  originated  in  the  civil 
law,  and  a  writ  of  error,  which  is  of  common 
law  origin,  is  that  the  former  carries  the  whole 
case  for  review  by  the  higher  court,  including 
both  the  facts  and  the  law;  while  the  latter 
removes  only  questions  of  law.  An  act  of  Con- 
gress of  1875  provides  that  the  judgments  and 
decrees  of  the  circuit  courts  of  the  United 
States  shall  not  be  re-examined  in  the  supreme 
court  unless  the  matter  in  dispute  shall  exceed 
the  sum  or  value  of  $5,000,  exclusive  of  costs. 
No  judgment,  decree,  or  order  of  a  circuit  or 
district  court,  in  any  civil  action  at  law  or  in 
equity,  shall  be  reviewed  in  the  supreme  court 
on  writ  of  error  or  appeal  unless  the  writ  of 
error  is  brought  or  the  appeal  is  taken  within 
two  years  after  the  entry  of  such  judgment, 
decree,  or  order ;  save  in  the  case  of  infants, 
insane  persons,  and  imprisoned  persons,  when 
the  period  is  two  years  exclusive  of  this  term 
of  disability.  An  appeal  from  a  district  court 
to  a  circuit  court  of  the  United  States  must 
be  taken  within  one  year.  An  appeal  from  the 
district  court  in  admiralty  to  the  circuit  court 
must  be  made  immediately  after  the  decree,  in 
open  court,  before  the  adjournment  sine  die; 
and  should  be  taken  to  the  next  succeeding 
circuit  court.  An  appeal  may  be  taken  from 
the  State  courts  to  the  supreme  court  of  the 
United  States,  in  cases  involving  the  validity 
of  a  treaty  or  statute  of,  or  authorized  under, 
the  United  States ;  on  the  ground  of  repugnance 
to  the  Constitution,  etc. 

The  effect  of  an  appeal  is  generally  to  annul 
the  judgment  of  the  lower  court  so  far  that 
no  action  can  be  taken  upon  it  until  after  the 
final  decision  of  the  cause.  In  many  States, 
before  the  judgment  of  an  inferior  court  will 
be  reversed  on  the  ground  of  error,  the  appel- 
lant, as  the  party  taking  the  appeal  is  called, 
must  show  to  the  court  that  substantial  injustice 
has  been  done  him.  In  other  States  courts  have 
held  that  when  an  error  is  shown  to  have  been 
committed  it  will  be  presumed  to  have  been 
prejudicial  to  the  complaining  party,  and  the 
judgment  will  be  reversed  unless  the  respondent 
shows  that  the  error  was  harmless.  Appellate 
courts,  however,  will  not  reverse  the  judgments 
of  trial  courts  for  technical  or  other  errors 
where  it  appears  from  the  record  itself  that  the 
errors  complained  of  were  not  prejudicial  to  the 
appellant. 

In  legislation  an  appeal  is  the  act  by  which 
a  member  of  a  legislative  body  who  questions 
the  correctness  of  a  decision  of  the  presiding 
officer,  or  "chair,"  procures  a  vote  of  the  body 
upon  the  decision.  In  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  the  United  States  the  question  on  an 
appeal  is  put  to  the  House  in  this  form :  "Shall 
the  decision  of  the  chair  stand  as  the  judgment 
of  the  whole  House?"  If  the  appeal  relate  to  an 
alleged  breach  of  decorum,  or  violation  of  the 
rules  of  order,  the  question  is  taken  without 
debate.     If    it    relate    to    the    admissibility    or 


APPEARANCE;  APPENDICITIS 


relevancy  of  a  proposition,  debate  is  permitted, 
except  when  a  motion  for  the  previous  question 
is  pending. 

Appear'ance,  a  legal  term  implying  the 
CI  ming   into  COUrl  as   a  party  to  a  sun  or  action, 

whether  as  plaintiff  or  defendant.  On  the  part 
of  the  plaintiff  no  formality  is  required.  The 
appearance  of  the  defendant  may  be  effected  by 
making  certain  formal  entries  in  the  proper 
office  of  the  court,  expressing  his  appearance, 
or  in  case  of  arrest  is  effected  by  giving  bail, 
or  by  putting  in  an  answer  or  a  demurrer. 

Appen'dici'tis,  the  name  applied  to  an  in- 
fectious disease  of  the  vermiform  appendix,  a 
small  organ  occupying  the  lower  right  side  of 
the  abdominal  cavity.  The  first  authentic  rec- 
ord of  the  distinct  localization  of  a  lesion  in  the 
appendix  was  by  Saracenus  in  a  Utter  dated  28 
Aug.  1 04 2.  A  number  of  observers  described 
the  disease  in  later  years,  but  it  is  to  the  honor 
and  credit  of  American  medicine  that  Reginald 
Fitz  of  Boston  wrote  h"is  epoch-making  memoir 
in  1886,  'On  Perforative  Inflammation  of  the 
Vermiform  Appendix.'  Two  years  later  Fit/, 
advanced  the  sound  theory  that  the  diseases 
variously  described  as  typhlitis,  peri-typhlitis, 
para-typhlitis,  appendicular  peritonitis,  and  pcri- 
typhlitic  abscess  were  all  varieties  of  one  and 
the  same  affection:  namely,  appendicitis.  Rapid 
strides  have  been  made  during  the  last  decade 
in  the  study  of  the  disease,  and  mainly  through 
the  exertions  of  American  surgeons  the  treat- 
ment of  appendicitis  has  been  placed  upon  a 
sound  and  rational  basis.  In  the  embryologic 
development  of  the  human  intestinal  tract  there 
is  at  first  a  straight  tube,  divided  into  the  fore- 
gut,  midgut,  and  hindgut,  each  of  which  gives 
rise  to  different  structures.  From  the  midgut 
a  diverticulum  or  pouch  appears  which  marks  the 
dividing  line  between  the  large  and  small  in- 
testine. This  pouch  becomes  larger  and  is 
called  the  cecum,  but  its  terminal  portion  does 
not  keep  pace  with  the  growth  of  the  base  and 
remains  as  a  small  projection  depending  from 
the  cecum.  This  is  the  appendix  vcrmiformis; 
it  has  no  function  and  merely  serves  as  a  con- 
stant source  of  menace  from  its  liability  to 
disease. 

During  early  intra-uterine  life  the  appendix 
lies  near  the  umbilicus  (navel),  but  about  the 
sixth  month  descends  into  the  right  iliac  fossa. 
If  two  lines  are  drawn  at  right  angles  to  each 
other,  intersecting  at  the  umbilicus,  the  abdomen 
will  be  divided  into  four  quadrants.  The  lower 
right  quadrant  will  include  the  right  iliac  fossa, 
and  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  appendix.  The 
base  of  this  organ  will  usually  be  found  at  a 
point  two  inches  from  the  umbilicus  on  a  line 
drawn  from  the  latter  to  the  anterior  superior 
spine  of  the  iliac  bone  and  known  as  McBur- 
ney's  point. 

The  appendix  is  held  in  place  by  a  fold  of 
peritoneum  called  the  meso-appendix,  through 
which  a  single  artery  runs  to  supply  the  needed 
nutrition.  The  meso-appendix  is  derived  from 
the  lower  layer  of  the  mesentery,  the  fold  of 
peritoneum  which  suspends  the  small  intestine. 
In  women  there  is  usually,  in  addition,  another 
blood-vessel  which  comes  up  to  the  appendix 
from  the  ovary.  The  end  of  the  appendix  is 
free  and  may  point  in  any  direction.  This  fact 
explains  the  great  diversity  of  the  symptoms 
often  noted  in  appendicitis. 


Bearing  in  mind,  then,  that  the  appendix  is 
without  a  function,  hangs  in  a  dependent  posi- 
tion from  a  portion  of  bowel  always  containing 
111  Haling  material,  and  has  a  very  poor  blood 
supply,  it  can  readily  be  understood  why  tins 
Organ  is  so  often  attacked  by  disease.  It  hangs 
in  a  cavity  lined  by  peritoneum,  a  delicate  mem- 
brane covering  the  inner  surface  of  the  abdomen 
and  the  exterior  of  the  intestines,  which  casih 
absorbs  poisons,  transmitting  them  to  the  whole 
body.  Inflammation  of  this  membrane  is  known 
as  peritonitis,  a  very  fatal  disease,  and  one  often 
caused  by  appendicitis.  .Many  deaths  supposed 
to  be  due  to  peritonitis  pure  and  simple  are 
really  caused  by  appendicitis.  The  intestines  al 
all  times  are  loaded  with  germs  which  under 
favorable  conditions  may  be  converted  into 
deadly  little  organisms.  These  microbes  at- 
tack the  inner  coat  of  the  appendix,  destroy  it 
with  the  formation  of  pus,  and  may  ulcerate 
through  all  the  walls  of  the  appendix  causing 
an  abscess  with  peritonitis.  But  for  such  a  se- 
quence of  events  to  occur  certain  other  factors 
are  necessary.  The  old  idea  that  foreign  bodies, 
such  as  grape-seeds,  are  the  cause  of  the  disease, 
is  now  known  not  to  be  true.  While  foreign 
bodies  are  frequently  found  in  the  appendix,  in 
rare  instances  only  they  are  seeds,  etc.,  but  arc 
almost  always  found  to  he  hard  masses  of  fecal 
material  which  has  entered  the  appendix  while 
soft,  become  dry  and  bard,  forming  a  fecal  con- 
cretion (fecal  calculus).  By  exerting  pressure 
on  the  wall  of  the  appendix  these  hard  bodies 
may  aid  in  the  production  of  the  disease.  In 
rare  instances  pins  have  found  their  way  into 
the  lumen  of  the  appendix  and  induced  ap- 
pendicitis. It  is  interesting  in  this  connection 
to  note  that  worms  arc  frequently  discovered  in 
the  appendix.  The  Oxyuris  vermicularis,  or 
seatworm,  has  been  found  in  large  numbers, 
completely  filling  the  appendix,  and  the  .Iscaris 
lumbricoides,  or  roundworm,  has  sometimes  oc- 
cupied this  organ.  In  studying  tin-  etiology  of 
appendicitis  we  find  the  young  are  more  fre- 
quently attacked  than  the  old,  tin  disea  e  occur- 
ring less  commonly  in  those  over  SO  years  of 
age.  It  is  fortunate  that  such  is  the  case,  he- 
cause  older  people  do  not  stand  operations  as 
well  as  those  in  early  adult  life.  Their  re- 
sistance to  shock  is  less,  and  the  liability  to 
kidney  breakdown  and  to  pneumonia  would  re- 
sult fatally  in  many  instances.  The  greater 
susceptibility  of  young  adults  to  appendicitis  is 
due  to  the  numerous  disturbances  of  tlmr 
gastro-intestinal  tracts  from  dietary  indiscre- 
tions, and,  secondly,  to  the  proneness  to  inflam- 
mation of  the  adenoid  (glandular)  tissues 
throughout  the  body  during  adolescence.  Anal- 
ogy is  found  in  the  predominance  of  lesions  of 
the  tonsils  and  of  the  glands  in  the  neck  and 
mesentery  during  the  period  of  development 
In  children  appendicitis  is  characterized  by  the 
intensity  of  the  lesion  and  by  the  remarkable 
recuperative  power  which  children  have.  About 
two  thirds  of  all  cases  of  appendicitis  occur  in 
males.  The  reason  for  such  a  disparity  is  to  be 
found  in  several  facts.  Females  are  less  ex- 
posed to  inclemencies  of  the  weather  and  other 
deleterious  influences,  they  undergo  less  mus- 
cular exertion,  and  their  appendixes  in  the  ma- 
jority of  instances  have  a  better  blood  supply. 
Of  diseases  that  predispose  to  appendicitis  may 
be      mentioned      constipation,      gastro-enteritis, 


APPENDICITIS 


dysentery,  typhoid  fever,  influenza,  etc.  Con- 
stipation exerts  an  influence  by  causing  slug- 
gishness of  the  bowels,  resulting  in  poor  drain- 
age of  the  appendix.  Noxious  materials  may 
be  retained  and  favor  an  increase  in  the  viru- 
lence of  bacteria,  especially  the  Bacillus  coli- 
communis.  Gastro-enteritis,  or  inflammation  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines,  is  a  very  important 
factor  in  appendicitis.  In  this  disease  the  cecum 
may  become  inflamed  and  by  extension  involve 
the  appendix.  In  many  instances  such  is  the 
mildness  of  the  alterations  in  the  walls  of  the 
appendix  that  they  do  not  engender  any  clinical 
manifestations.  At  times,  however,  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  appendix  is  directly  attacked, 
and  acute  appendicitis  may  supervene.  Under 
other  circumstances  catarrhal  changes  of  mild 
degree  persist  and  lead  to  chronic  appendicitis. 
Dysentery  and  typhoid  fever  are  more  remote 
causes  of  appendicitis.  They  cause  catarrhal 
alterations,  swelling,  congestion,  and  cedema  of 
the  adenoid  (glandular)  follicles  of  the  organ. 
Not  uncommonly  ulcerations  occur,  and  the  re- 
sulting scar  is  one  of  the  most  important  fac- 
tors in  the  subsequent  development  of  appen- 
dicitis by  causing  a  stricture  in  the  lumen  of  the 
appendix,  obstructing  the  drainage  of  the  organ, 
thereby  favoring  the  retention  of  irritating  ma- 
terial. Influenza  exerts  an  influence  from  the 
intestinal  lesions  to  which  it  gives  rise. 

The  most  important  predisposing  cause  of 
appendicitis  is  the  fact  that  the  appendix  has 
already  been  the  seat  of  one  or  more  attacks  of 
the  same  affection.  The  seemingly  greater  num- 
ber of  cases  of  appendicitis  observed  in  recent 
years  is  not  that  the  disease  has  been  on  the  in- 
crease, but  rather  that  a  greater  refinement  in 
diagnosis  has  rendered  physicians  more  skilful 
in  pronouncing  the  true  nature  of  the  malady, 
which  in  former  years  was  variously  styled  in- 
flammation of  the  bowels,  peritonitis,  gastritis, 
obstruction  of  the  bowels,  etc.  The  factors  that 
operate  to  render  the  appendix  less  resistant 
than  other  portions  of  the  intestinal  tract  to 
the  onslaught  of  bacteria  and  other  determining 
causes  are  several.  The  blood  supply  becomes 
defective  because  of  the  liability  to  partial  or 
complete  obstruction  of  the  blood  channels  as 
a  result  of  kinking,  twisting  (volvulus) ,  or  ex- 
ternal bands  of  adhesions,  etc.,  secondary  to 
primary  inflammation  of  the  appendix.  Dis- 
turbances of  circulation,  and  hence  of  nutrition, 
are  also  produced  by  active  and  sometimes  inef- 
fectual muscular  efforts  of  the  appendix  to  rid 
itself  of  fecal  concretions  or  even  inspissated 
fecal  matter.  Defective  drainage,  which  has 
been  referred  to,  is  of  great  importance  in  the 
pathogenesis  of  appendicitis  because  of  the 
anatomical  and  physiological  peculiarities  of 
this  organ.  The  average  length  of  the  appendix 
is  about  8  to  9  cm.  (3^  inches),  while  the 
diameter  is  only  3  mm.  to  5  mm.  {}/%  to  ]/i 
inch).  Therefore  in  such  a  long  narrow  tube 
free  drainage  is  not  favored.  The  peritoneal 
covering  forms  what  is  known  as  the  meso- 
appendix  in  such  a  manner  as  to  draw  the  ap- 
pendix into  a  curve  and  thus  aid  in  any  angula- 
tion resulting  from  disease.  As  additional  fac- 
tors of  importance  are  the  relatively  large  ex- 
tent of  mucous  membrane  presented  by  the 
appendix  and  the  large  amount  of  lymphoid 
(glandular)  tissue,  not  only  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  valve-like  opening  into  the  cecum, 


known  as  Gerlach's  valve,  but  also  scattered 
through  the  wall  of  the  appendix.  The  latter  is 
of  especial  significance  in  view  of  the  proneness 
of  adenoid  tissue  throughout  the  body  to  inflam- 
mation when  subject  to  even  slight  irritation 
by  bacteria  and  their  poisons.  An  analogous 
condition  may  be  observed  in  the  tonsil,  which 
is  so  frequently  invaded  by  bacteria  with  a  re- 
sulting tonsilitis  (quinsy).  Owing  to  this  simi- 
larity the  appendix  has  frequently  been  called 
the  "abdominal  tonsil.8  In  considering  the 
symptomatology  of  the  two  forms  of  appendici- 
tis—  the  acute  and  the  chronic  —  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
determine  the  extent  of  disease  which  has  ac- 
tually taken  place  in  the  appendix  from  the 
clinical  manifestations.  While  it  is  true  that,  in 
general,  the  clinical  symptoms  become  more 
marked  with  the  increase  in  the  severity  of  the 
appendicular  and  peritoneal  lesions, —  that  is, 
when  perforation,  abscess,  or  gangrene  super- 
vene,— ■  it  is  also  a  fact  that  remission  of  all 
symptoms  may  occur,  and  yet  the  disease  be 
progressing  to  a  fatal  termination.  It  is  like- 
wise a  fact  that  the  symptoms  suggestive  of 
perforation  of  the  appendix  with  abscess  forma- 
tion in  one  patient,  may  arise  in  another  patient 
in  consequence  of  the  development  of  an  abscess 
without  perforation  of  the  organ.  It  is  better 
therefore  to  consider  acute  appendicitis  as  a 
clinical  entity.  Similar  reasoning  obtains  with 
regard  to  chronic  appendicitis,  although  in  the 
latter  the  questions  requiring  solution  are  less 
complicated. 

Acute  Appendicitis. —  There  are  three  symp- 
toms of  acute  appendicitis  so  constant  and,  when 
associated,  so  characteristic  of  the  disease  that 
they  are  designated  the  "three  cardinal  symp- 
toms." These  are  pain,  tenderness,  and  rigidity 
of  the  right  lower  quadrant  of  the  abdominal 
wall.  Pain  is  the  initial  symptom  and  usually 
develops  suddenly  in  an  individual  previously 
well.  At  the  onset  of  the  affection  the  pain  is 
paroxysmal  or  colicky  in  character,  coming  in 
storms  with  intervals  of  rest,  in  which  respect 
it  simulates  an  attack  of  acute  indigestion. 
The  location  is  at  first  centered  about  the  um 
bilicus,  or  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  later  becomes 
diffused  all  over  the  abdomen,  and  finally  be- 
comes localized  to  the  right  iliac  fossa.  In 
recurring  cases  the  initial  pain  of  the  later  at- 
tacks is  often  referred  immediately  to  the  right 
iliac  fossa.  The  pain  of  appendicitis  may.  how- 
ever, be  referred  to  any  region  of  the  abdomen. 
It  is  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  this  fact  that  has 
lead  to  many  errors  of  diagnosis  in  acute  ab- 
dominal affections.  The  location  of  the  pain 
depends  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  position  and 
direction  of  the  appendix.  For  instance,  with 
an  appendix  lying  behind  the  cecum  and  point- 
ing upward  until  its  tip  nearly  reaches  the 
gall-bladder,  symptoms  are  produced  resembling 
very  closely  those  induced  by  affections  of  the 
latter  organ.  In  other  cases  pain  is  felt  upon 
the  left  side  of  the  abdomen  and  denotes  that 
the  appendix  occupies  a  left-sided  position  or 
that  it  hangs  into  the  pelvis.  These  examples 
will  draw  attention  to  the  statement  that  the 
pain  in  appendicitis  will  depend  upon  the  direc- 
tion and  position  of  the  appendix.  Tenderness 
upon  pressure  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  and 
constant  signs  of  appendicitis.  It  is  always 
present,  hut.  unlike  the  subjective  symptom,  pain, 


APPENDICITIS 


is  limited  first  to  the  site  and  position  of  the 
appendix.  To  elicit  this  symptom  the  pressure 
should  be  made  in  as  light  and  delicate  a  man- 
ner as  possible.  The  open  hand  should  be  laid 
over  the  tender  area  and  the  fingers  gently  de- 
pressed, ceasing  as  soon  as  the  patient  complains 
of  pain.  It  should  be  remembered  that  the  ao- 
pendix  may  be  distended  with  pus  and  on  the 
verge  of  rupture,  and  any  undue  roughness  in 
palpation  might  endanger  the  life  of  the  patient. 
A  celebrated  German  surgeon  has  truly  said 
that  "many  a  doctor  who  has  sufficient  practice 
and  experience  nevertheless  never  learns  to 
palpate,  since  lightness  of  hand  is  wanting  in 
him."  It  is  a  good  plan  to  begin  to  palpate  over 
on  the  left  side  away  from  the  seat  of  pain,  and 
gradually  approach  that  region.  As  complica- 
tions arise  the  point  of  tenderness  may  vary ; 
for  instance,  in  those  cases  previously  referred 
to  where  the  appendix  occupies  a  pelvic  posi- 
tion, the  point  of  greatest  tenderness  will  usu- 
ally be  found  to  the  left  of  the  median  line.  In 
such  a  location  of  the  appendix  where  the 
disease  has  advanced  to  a  stage  when  an  abscess 
has  formed  in  the  pelvis,  a  vaginal  or  rectal 
examination  detects  a  point  of  resistance  on  the 
right  side  with  more  or  less  marked  tenderness. 
The  third  cardinal  symptom  is  rigidity  of  the 
right  side  of  the  abdomen  and  particularly  of 
the  rectus  and  other  abdominal  muscles.  It  is 
the  most  constant  symptom  of  the  three  and  ap- 
pears shortly  after  the  onset  of  the  attack.  It 
varies  in  degree  in  different  cases,  but  is  gen- 
erally well  marked,  and  is  most  intense  over  the 
site  of  the  inflamed  appendix.  The  variation 
observed  ranges  from  rigidity  so  slight  as  to  be 
barely  appreciable  up  to  a  condition  absolutely 
precluding  any  palpation,  and  to  which  the  term 
"board-like"  rigidity  is  applied.  The  degree  of 
rigidity  is  usually  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
severity  of  the  lesion,  but  not  invariably  so. 
When  the  peritoneal  cavity  becomes  involved 
with  the  development  of  peritonitis  the  entire 
abdomen  becomes  rigid  and  board-like,  followed 
by  distension  or  tympany  from  paralysis  of  the 
intestines.  While  the  three  cardinal  symptoms 
are  the  most  important  indications  of  acute 
appendicitis  there  are  other  clinical  manifesta- 
tions that  are  more  or  less  constantly  present 
and  are  of  value  in  aiding  in  the  formation  of 
a  diagnosis.  Of  these  there  should  be  noted 
disturbances  of  the  gastro-intestinal  tract  (nau- 
sea and  vomiting,  etc.),  elevation  of  the  tem- 
perature, increased  pulse  and  respiration  rate, 
changes  in  the  urine,  etc.  Nausea  is  a  nearly 
constant  symptom  in  appendicitis  and  usually 
coincides  with  the  initial  pain  ;  it  may  be  fol- 
low ed  by  vomiting,  which  at  first  consists  of  the 
gastric  contents,  then  of  bile  or  bile-stained 
fluid,  and  finally,  if  septic  peritonitis  develops, 
of  the  contents  of  the  intestines.  Such  a  condi- 
tion, wdien  not  seen  early,  has  frequently  been 
mistaken  by  the  family  physician  for  intestinal 
obstruction. 

In  cases  of  appendicitis  which  progress 
rather  rapidly  to  peritonitis,  with  the  marked 
nausea  and  vomiting  characteristic  of  such  a 
condition,  the  pain  suffered  is  apt  to  be  severe. 
The  attending  physician,  often  following  the 
promptings  of  the  patient,  administers  the  too- 
convenient  hypodermic  of  morphine,  relieving 
the  patient,  but  at  the  same  time  masking  the 
symptoms   and   rendering  the   task   of  the   sur- 


geon called  in  for  consultation  an  exceedingly 

difficult  one.  The  giving  of  morphine  for  the 
relief  of  pain  in  appendicitis  is  a  pernicious 
habit.  Nausea  and  vomiting  rarely  pcr-ist  after 
the  pain  has  become  localized  to  the  right  iliac 
fossa,  though  in  some  unfavorable  cases  vomit 
ing  may  be  continuous  and  uncontrollable.  The 
condition  of  the  bowels  previous  to  the  attack 
of  appendicitis  is  very  variable.  In  the  ma- 
jority of  cases  constipation  is  observed,  and  such 
sluggishness  may  be  directly  traceable  as  an 
etiologic  factor  of  some  importance.  But  there 
are  many  cases  where  diarrhoea  ushers  in  the 
attack,  and  in  other  instances  it  may  alternate 
with  constipation.  Fever  must  not  be  relied 
upon  as  a  diagnostic  sign,  as  it  bears  no  direct 
relation  to  the  gravity  of  the  anatomical  lesions. 
While  upon  the  onset  of  the  disease  the  tem- 
perature usually  rises  to  101°  and  102°  F.,  it 
may  return  to  normal  again  despite  the  advance 
of  severe  complications  such  as  perforation  or 
gangrene  of  the  appendix.  Coincident  with  the 
development  of  an  abscess  around  the  appendix 
there  is  usually  a  rise  of  temperature,  but  again 
in  this  instance  such  a  rise  is  not  constant. 
There  are,  finally,  some  cases  in  which  the  tem- 
perature  continues  high  from  the  commencement 
to  the  termination  of  the  attack,  and  yet  the 
patient  makes  an  easy  recovery.  The  amount  of 
fever  should  therefore  be  considered  as  the  ex- 
pression of  the  reaction  and  resistance  of  the  in- 
dividual to  infection.  The  condition  of  the 
pulse  is  a  more  constant  aid  than  the  degree  of 
temperature,  and  in  this  instance  the  quality  is 
of  more  importance  than  the  rate  of  speed.  If 
the  pulse  is  strong,  of  good  volume,  regular, 
and  the  rate  proportionate  to  the  temperature, 
the  outlook  is  favorable,  and  vice  versa.  Va- 
riations in  the  respiration  are  not  of  much  im- 
portance. The  breathing  is  embarrassed  in  toxic 
states,  from  the  distension  of  peritonitis,  and 
sometimes  owing  to  the  pain  induced  the  pa- 
tient will  favor  the  use  of  the  chest  muscles 
entirely.  A  quite  characteristic  position  often 
assumed  by  the  patient  is  with  the  right  leg 
and  thigh  tlexed,  while  the  left  leg  remains 
prone  and  the  patient  demands  perfect  quiet 
In  addition  there  may  be  perspiration,  a  furred 
tongue,  and  a  slight  expression  of  anxiety 
appear  upon  the  features.  The  patient  will 
frequently  complain  of  rectal  and  vesical  ("blad- 
der) irritability  when  the  appendix  occupies  the 
pelvic  position.  An  increased  frequency  in 
urination  is  the  usual  symptom,  yet  there  may 
be  inability  to  void  the  urine.  The  symptoms 
which  have  been  described  are  typical  of  the 
usual  attack  of  acute  appendicitis,  though 
marked  variations  may  occur,  depending  upon 
the  position  of  the  appendix  or  the  presence  of 
adhesions  from  former  attacks.  With  the  his- 
tory of  previous  more  or  less  severe  attacks 
of  abdominal  colic  and  not  necessarily  referred 
to  the  appendix,  a  patient  previously  well  is 
suddenly  seized  with  severe  pain,  usually 
throughout  the  abdomen.  Nausea  follows  and 
sometimes  vomiting.  The  pain  soon  becomes 
more  intense  over  the  site  of  the  appendix,  and 
in  a  few  hours  this  locality  alone  is  involved. 
If  the  patient  should  he  so  fortunate  as  to  send 
for  his  physician  at  this  time,  namely,  within  24 
hours  of  the  attack,  and  if  operation  is  advised 
and  performed,  recovery  is  practically  assured. 
But  unfortunately  this  is  not  always  the  treat- 


APPENDICITIS 


merit  pursued.  The  disease  is  in  its  earliest 
stages,  with  the  inflammatory  lesion  confined  to 
the  appendix,  and  the  particular  sequence  of 
events  which  will  follow  in  any  individual  case 
cannot  be,  foretold.  In  some  cases  the  appen- 
dix under  the  influence  of  rest  is  able  to 
eliminate  the  noxious  materials  causing  the 
inflammatory  lesions,  recover  its  vitality,  and 
apparently  become  in  as  good  condition  as  be- 
fore the  attack:  but  lymphoid  (glandular)  tis- 
sue which  has  once  been  the  seat  of  infection 
is  exceedingly  prone  to  future  attacks.  In  still 
other  cases  the  disease  extends  through  the  wall 
of  the  appendix  and  induces  a  mild  peritonitis 
localized  to  the  coils  of  intestines  and  tissues 
immediately  contiguous  to  the  appendix.  With 
the  appearance  of  infecting  bacteria  or  of  their 
poisons  in  the  peritoneal  cavity,  this  membrane 
throws  out  a  thin  fluid  or  serum  and  an  exudate 
(lymph)  which  organizes  into  firm  tissue, 
known  as  adhesions.  These  adhesions  glue 
the  coils  of  intestine  surrounding  the  appendix 
together,  they  cause  adherence  of  such  intestines 
to  the  roof  of  the  cavity,  which  is  the  abdominal 
wall,  and  with  the  aid  of  the  omentum,  a 
fatty  apron-shaped  body  covering  the  intes- 
tines, a  firm  wall  is  formed  about  a  cavity 
containing  the  appendix,  preventing  the  escape 
of  toxic  materials  into  the  general  peritoneal 
cavity.  Should  the  disease,  under  medical 
treatment,  subside,  the  lymphatics  and  the  white 
blood  corpuscles  speedily  destroy  the  infectious 
material,  but  the  adhesions  too  often  re- 
main and  cause  constant  irritation.  In  time  a 
period  of  chronicity  is  reached  when  any  un- 
usual exertion  provokes  a  dull  ache  in  the  lower 
right  quadrant  of  the  abdomen.  The  digestion 
is  impaired,  and  the  bowels  become  sluggish  in 
their  movements  from  the  dragging  of  the  ad- 
hesions upon  the  valve  between  the  large  and 
small  intestines.  In  women,  the  subject  of  chron- 
ic appendicitis  with  involvement  of  the  ovary  and 
fallopian  tube  on  the  right  side,  slight  attacks  of 
appendiceal  colic  will  occur  during  each  men- 
strual period,  and  all  treatment  directed  against 
dysmenorrhea  will  prove  unavailing.  The 
appendix  in  such  cases  may  become  obliterated 
into  a  mere  fibrous  cord,  or,  as  more  commonly 
occurs,  occlusion  takes  place  at  the  opening 
into  the  cecum  or  at  the  site  of  a  stricture,  and 
the  appendix  becomes  distended  with  clear 
mucus.  While  operations  upon  chronic  forms 
of  appendicitis  in  the  presence  of  adhesions  are 
attended  with  but  little  risk,  yet  the  operation 
itself  is  more  tedious  and  the  incision  longer 
than  when  operation  is  performed  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease.  Having  dealt  with  the 
favorable  terminations  of  acute  appendicitis, 
there  remains  that  far  too  numerous  class  of 
cases  where  the  appendix  perforates,  with  ab- 
scess formation  and  sometimes  general  perj- 
tonitis.  If  the  infection  of  the  appendix  is 
severe  enough,  its  walls  may  become  gangrenous 
and  break  down  with  a  perforation  occurring 
into  the  peritoneal  cavity.  In  this  case  the 
peritoneum  usually  becomes  infected  in  ad- 
vance of  the  perforation  and  enough  time  is 
gained  for  the  formation  of  adhesions  such  as 
have  been  described.  In  what  is  known  as  ful- 
minating appendicitis  the  progress  of  the  disease 
is  so  rapid  that  no  adhesions  are  formed,  and  in 
24  hours  or  less  after  the  onset  of  the  initial 
symptoms  the  patient  may  be  suffering  from  a 


violent  general  peritonitis.  But,  as  a  rule,  the 
escape  of  purulent  material  through  a  perfora- 
tion in  the  appendix  occurs  into  a  preformed 
cavity,  the  walls  of  which  consist  of  the  ab- 
dominal wall,  the  iliac  fossa,  cecum  and  matted 
coils  of  small  bowel,  and  the  infiltrated  omen- 
tum. This  cavity  becomes  filled  with  pus  and  a 
true  appendiceal  or  peri-typhlitic  abscess  is 
formed.  The  amount  of  pus  varies  from  a  tea- 
spoonful  to  a  pint,  or  in  extreme  cases  even 
more.  With  the  formation  of  the  abscess  the 
symptoms  change  somewhat.  The  severe  pain 
of  the  early  inflammatory  stage  becomes  more 
dull  and  sometimes  is  referred  to  the  back  or 
left  side,  tenderness  is  increased,  while  the 
rigidity  is  more  marked.  The  tongue  becomes 
coated  and  the  breath  foul,  chills  are  rarely  ob- 
served even  in  the  presence  of  pus,  and  when 
present  —  especially  a  single,  severe  chill  usher- 
ing in  an  attack  —  usually  mean  a  gangrenous 
condition  of  the  appendix.  There  is  fever,  in- 
creased pulse-rate,  and  the  patient  shows  the 
effect  of  absorption  of  poisonous  products  into 
his  general  circulation.  An  examination  of  the 
blood  shows  an  increased  number  of  the  white 
blood  corpuscles  (leucocytosis).  Palpation  of 
the  abdomen  will  reveal  a  mass  in  the  right 
iliac  fossa,  rounded,  hard,  and  often  tender. 
The  patient  may  not  complain  of  any  pain 
beyond  the  dull  ache  referred  to,  though  the 
act  of  coughing  or  taking  a  deep  breath  usually 
results  in  an  exacerbation  of  pain.  In  some 
cases  with  an  appendix  deep  in  the  abdomen  and 
behind  the  cecum,  an  abscess  can  exist  which 
cannot  be  palpated.  When  such  a  condition  is 
suspected  it  is  not  safe  to  prod  the  abdomen 
too  hard  for  fear  of  rupturing  the  abscess. 
If  the  pus  extends  into  the  pelvis  there  are  the 
additional  symptoms  of  vesical  and  rectal  ir- 
ritability, and  a  vaginal  or  rectal  examination 
detects  a  bulging  area  extremely  tender  to  the 
examining  finger.  In  women  and  girls  the  ef- 
fect of  such  a  pelvic  abscess  is  frequently  dis- 
astrous. The  open  ends  of  the  fallopian  tubes 
become  bathed  with  the  pus,  and  either  a  sal- 
pingitis or  occlusion  of  the  tubes  takes  place. 
The  tubes  are  thereby  prevented  from  fulfill- 
ing their  function  of  transmitting  the  ova  to 
the  uterus,  and  sterility  may  result.  The  ex- 
tension of  the  pus  upward  toward  the  liver  will 
cause  symptoms  very  much  resembling  in- 
fectious gall-bladder  disease,  which  will  be  re- 
ferred to  under  differential  diagnosis.  The 
latter  direction  has  resulted,  in  neglected  cases, 
in  an  abscess  beneath  the  liver,  rupture  through 
or  behind  the  diaphragm,  and  entrance  of  the 
pus  into  the  lung  and  pleural  cavity  from  which 
it  has  been  actually  evacuated  by  coughing  and 
expectoration.  If  an  appendiced  abscess  is  small 
recovery  might  occur  without  operation,  though 
such  a  happy  result  is  doubtful.  The  disease 
is  progressive,  and  the  pus  tends  to  in- 
crease, and  if  not  evacuated  will  frequently 
rupture  the  walls  of  the  containing  cavity,  into 
the  cecum  occasionally,  but  more  often,  unfor- 
tunately, into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  with  a  re- 
sulting general  purulent  peritonitis  and  a  nearly 
inevitably  fatal  result.  In  such  a  case  the  pulse 
increases  in  frequency  and  becomes  full  and 
strong,  the  face  becomes  pinched  and  anxious, 
eyes  brighten,  the  mind  becomes  active,  though 
delirium  appears  later,  the  abdomen  slowly  dis- 


APPENDICITIS 


tends,  accompanied  by  marked  pain  and  rest- 
lessness of  the  patient.  These  three  path- 
ognomonic conditions,  a  bright  eye,  an  active 
mind,  and  a  swollen  belly,  indicate  approaching 
dissolution.  The  distension  is  due  to  a  paral- 
ysis of  the  bowels,  and  gas  and  feces  are  re- 
tained in  spite  of  all  treatment.  Nausea  and 
vomiting  soon  begin,  the  latter  at  first  green, 
but  later  black,  from  emptying  of  the  contents 
of  the  intestines  into  the  stomach.  Death  rapid- 
ly follows.  The  diagnosis  of  appendicitis  from 
other  lesions  of  the  abdominal  cavity,  if  seen  ear- 
ly, is  comparatively  easy  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases.  Particular  attention  must  be  paid  to  the 
history  of  the  patient,  and  especially  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  onset  of  the  illness  and  the  earlier 
symptoms.  While  inflammation  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines  (gastro-enteritis)  has  caused 
some  confusion  at  times,  yet  unfortunately  the 
mistake  is  made  more  often  in  the  wrong  direc- 
tion. That  is,  a  true  attack  of  appendicitis  is 
thought  to  be  gastro-enteritis  and  treated  ac- 
cordingly until  the  appearance  of  an  abscess 
with  its  unmistakable  symptoms  warns  the  at- 
tending physician  of  the  true  nature  of  the  malady 
with  which  he  is  dealing.  While  the  pain  in 
both  diseases  may  begin  over  the  stomach  (in 
the  epigastric  region)  and  continue  over  the 
whole  abdomen,  in  appendicitis  the  region  of  the 
appendix  will  be  tender  to  palpation  from  the 
onset,  and  this  tenderness  will  persist  and  even 
become  more  acute  after  the  general  abdominal 
pain  has  ceased.  Unilateral  rigidity  is  quite 
constant  in  the  beginning  of  the  appendiceal  at- 
tack, while  in  the  gastro-intestinal  disease  the 
entire  abdomen  may  be  rigid.  In  certain  cases 
of  gastric  ulcer,  with  perforation  and  escape  of 
stomach  contents  into  the  peritoneal  cavity,  the 
shock  is  more  marked  from  the  onset,  while  the 
beginning  and  the  more  severe  symptoms  will 
be  found  in  the  upper  abdomen.  Ulcer  of  the 
stomach  is  much  more  common  in  women  than 
men,  and  often  gives  symptoms  which  can  be 
recognized  long  before  the  ulcer  has  advanced 
to  the  stage  of  perforation.  In  enteritis,  or  in- 
flammation of  the  bowels,  and  particularly  when 
poisonous  food  products  have  been  eaten,  the 
symptoms  produce  early  and  often  marked 
shock.  In  the  summer  months  iced  drinks  are 
a  frequent  cause  of  this  complaint.  About  18 
hours  after  the  dietary  indiscretion  there  will 
be  marked  general  abdominal  pain,  diarrhoea, 
chilliness,  perspiration,  and  a  feeling  of  great 
weakness.  In  severe  cases  the  depression  may 
be  so  pronounced  as  to  cause  death  (acute 
ptomaine  poisoning).  The  greatest  area  of 
tenderness  will  be  found  about  the  centre  of  the 
abdomen,  and  careful  palpation  of  the  appendix 
region  may  find  this  organ  not  enlarged  or 
tender. 

Mention  was  made  earlier  in  this  article  of 
the  symptoms  produced  by  inflammation  of  an 
appendix  behind  the  cecum  and  pointing  up- 
ward toward  the  gall-bladder.  In  such  in- 
stances the  symptoms  produced  resemble  very 
closely  those  due  to  inflammation  of  the  gall- 
bladder and  sometimes  the  two  diseases  cannot 
be  differentiated  with  certainty.  But  as  both 
affections  require  surgical  intervention  to  effect 
a  permanent  cure,  and  as  the  incision  in  both 
instances  is  made  in  nearly  the  same  place,  the 
failure  to  make  a  correct  diagnosis  is  not  detri- 
mental  to  the   patient.     The   pain   in   the  gall- 


bladder affection,  if  referred,  will  cause  a  dull 
pain  in  the  region  of  the  liver  and  then  upward 
to  the  right  shoulder  blade.  Tenderness  is 
limited  to  the  gall-bladder  region  and  is  a  very 
important  symptom  if  the  rigidity  of  the  right 
rectus  muscle  does  nut  prevent  palpation.  The 
appearance  of  jaundice,  or  the  well-marked 
gallstone  colics,  would  decide  the  diagnosis. 
Later  in  the  progress  of  the  disease,  the  infec- 
tion of  the  gall-bladder  may  produce  pus,  or 
empyema,  as  it  is  called,  and  the  gall-bladder 
can  be  palpated  as  a  round,  tender,  ami  firm 
mass  beneath  the  edge  of  the  ribs  and  moving 
with  respiration.  An  appendiceal  abscess  would 
rarely  reach  as  high  as  the  costal  margin  with- 
out implication  of  the  right  iliac  fossa,  and  in  a 
high  position  might  be  mistaken  for  a  ruptured 
gall-bladder  following  empyema.  In  such  a 
case  the  diagnosis  would  be  nearly  impossible 
and  immaterial,  as  the  treatment  necessitates 
an  operation.  Neither  an  infected  gall-bladder 
nor  an  appendix  should  ever  be  allowed  to  ad- 
vance to  the  purulent  stage  without  an  operation 
being  advised.  Inflammation  of  the  fallopian 
tubes  has  been  mistaken  for  appendicitis  and 
vice  versa,  particularly  when  the  tube  leaking 
into  the  pelvic  peritoneum  causes  a  localized  in- 
flammation of  that  membrane.  With  the  know- 
ledge that  the  appendix  frequently  occupies  the 
pelvis  and  may  lie  adjacent  to  the  tube,  the  exact 
diagnosis  of  acute  appendicitis  from  acute 
salpingitis  may  be  difficult,  and  in  chronic  cases 
even  more  so.  From  the  close  proximity  to 
each  other  which  the  two  organs  may  hold,  the 
tube  may  be  infected  from  the  appendix  or  the 
latter  may  become  involved  secondarily  from 
a  pyosalpinx  (pus  in  the  tube).  This  compli- 
cates the  differential  diagnosis  still  further.  If 
a  history  of  specific  infection  can  be  obtained 
with  symptoms  indicating  the  commencement  of 
the  disease  in  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen. 
and  a  vaginal  examination  showing  induration 
of  the  vault  with  tenderness  to  pressure  on 
cither  side  of  the  uterus,  the  diagnosis  may 
reasonably  be  made  of  salpingitis.  A  number 
of  other  diseases  may  be  suspected  in  deciding 
upon  a  diagnosis.  Among  these  may  be  men- 
tioned extra-uterine  pregnancy,  some  kidney 
affections,  ovarian  cysts,  intestinal  obstruction, 
typhoid  fever,  pancreatitis,  etc.  The  nature  of 
this  article  does  not  warrant  the  full  discussion 
of  these  affections.  The  treatment  of  appendici- 
tis has  been  a  mooted  question  for  some  time, 
and  it  has  only  been  within  the  last  few  years 
that  the  medical  profession  has  accepted  the 
dictum  of  those  whose  experience  with  the 
disease  has  been  the  greatest,  that  appendicitis 
is  a  surgical  disease.  The  soundness  of  this 
teaching  rests  upon  the  fact  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  foretell  in  any  individual  case  what  the 
outcome  will  be,  and  what  case  will  terminate 
favorably,  or  which  will  progress  to  perforation 
or  gangrene,  and  the  attendant  peritoneal  and 
other  complications  and  sequelae.  It  is  essentia] 
that  physicians  appreciate  the  importance  of 
early  operation,  as  although  there  may  be  a 
few  patients  who  for  various  reasons  will  re- 
fuse operation,  the  majority  will  depend  upon 
the  attending  physician  for  advice  and  accept 
the  treatment  which  he  advocates. 

The  mortality  of  the  early  operation,  before 
the  peri-appendicular  structures  have  become  in- 
volved, is  nil,  barring  accidents,  and  the  incision 


APPENZELL 


in  the  rectus  muscle  can  be  so  closely  approxi- 
mated that  the  abdominal  wall  is  not  weakened 
in  the  slightest  by  the  operation.  The  peri- 
toneum, sheath  of  the  rectus  muscle  and  skin, 
are  usually  sewed  up  in  tier  suture, —  that  is,  in 
layers,— and  the  resulting  scar  about  two  inches 
long  can  barely  be  perceived  after  the  lapse  of 
several  years.  As  the  disease  progresses  the 
mortality  increases  in  direct  proportion  to  the 
extent  to  which  the  peri-appendicular  structures 
have  become  involved.  When  an  abscess  de- 
velops, the  search  for  the  diseased  appendix  is 
difficult  and  often  dangerous,  and  many  sur- 
geons simply  evacuate  the  pus  cavity  and  estab- 
lish drainage.  But  the  presence  of  a  necrotic 
appendix  is  a  constant  menace,  frequently  caus- 
ing secondary  pus  collections  which  may  result 
fatally  in  the  end.  In  all  cases  where  pus  is 
found  the  employment  of  drainage  is  necessi- 
tated. This  means  that  sterile  gauze  must  be  so 
disposed  that  the  purulent  material  is  caught 
up  and  carried  off  by  capillary  drainage  and  the 
abscess  cavity  forced  to  heal  from  the  bottom 
upward,  avoiding  "pocketing."  The  course  of 
these  cases  is  tedious  and  the  convalescence 
prolonged.  The  dangers  incident  to  acute  ap- 
pendicitis with  abscess  are  attendant  with  great 
risk  to  life.  The  most  dreaded  is  peritonitis 
with  invasion  of  the  entire  peritoneal  cavity  by 
the  purulent  and  infectious  products  due  to 
rupture  inwardly  of  the  abscess.  Nearly  every 
patient  developing  general  peritonitis  from  an 
appendiceal  abscess  will  die  in  spite  of  the  most 
careful  treatment  and  skilful  operation.  In  ad- 
vanced stages  of  the  disease,  when  the  appendix 
becomes  necrotic  and  gangrenous,  the  cecum 
will  frequently  be  implicated  and  be  so  diseased 
that  the  removal  of  the  appendix  cannot  be 
followed  by  closure  of  the  wound  in  the  cecum. 
In  cases  of  this  character  gauze  must  be  so 
placed  as  to  isolate  the  fistulous  opening  from 
the  general  peritoneal  cavity,  hoping  that,  by 
granulation,  spontaneous  healing  of  the  bowel 
opening  will  take  place ;  but  this  does  not  al- 
ways follow,  and  in  such  instances  the  hole  in 
the  cecum  becomes  a  fecal  fistula,  discharging 
the  contents  of  the  bowel  through  the  wound 
in  the  side.  Fistulae  require  very  frequent 
dressing,  heal  slowly,  and  are  extremely  annoy- 
ing and  disgusting  to  the  patient.  A  third  com- 
plication which  may  result  in  abscess  cases  is 
intestinal  obstruction.  Earlier  in  this  article 
the  way  in  which  adhesions  form  was  described. 
They  are  nature's  barriers  against  infection,  but 
sometimes  prove  a  veritable  boomerang.  The 
author  has  more  regard  for  the  results  of  the 
aseptic  scalpel  of  the  surgeon  administered 
at  the  opportune  season  than  he  has  for  na- 
ture's attempts  to  cure.  It  is  well  known 
that  after  burns  of  the  hands  the  resulting 
scar  tissue  will  cause  contraction  and  de- 
formity of  the  fingers.  The  adhesions  uniting 
the  coils  of  intestines  together  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  infection  may  encircle  the  bowel,  and, 
contracting,  occlude  its  lumen,  obstructing  the 
flow  of  bowel  contents  and  necessitating  a  sec- 
ond operation  the  mortality  of  which  is  quite 
high.  Finally,  if  convalescence  is  uninterrupt- 
ed, the  wound  slowly  healing  by  granulation, 
the  resulting  scar  is  quite  weak  and  nearly  al- 
ways results  in  a  hernia  (rupture). 

In  consideration  of  the  facts  that  the  course 
of  appendicitis  can  never  accurately  be  foretold, 


and  that  the  dangers  resulting  from  delay  in 
operation  are  many  and  severe,  the  following 
outline  of  treatment  is  justified  from  present 
knowledge  of  this  disease:  Upon  the  appear- 
ance of  severe  pain  in  the  abdomen,  with  the 
maximum  intensity  over  the  region  of  the  ap- 
pendix, nausea,  or  vomiting,  and  a  point  of 
tenderness  in  the  right  iliac  fossa,  the  patient 
should  be  placed  at  rest,  all  food  withheld,  and 
the  family  physician  sent  for.  When  the  at- 
tending physician  has  made  the  diagnosis  of 
appendicitis  there  is  no  treatment  to  be  dis- 
cussed save  operative  interference.  Whether 
the  operation  should  be  performed  immediately 
will  depend  upon  the  extent  of  peritoneal  in- 
volvement, but  this  question  should  be  decided 
by  the  surgeon  called  into  consultation  and  in 
whose  hands  the  management  of  the  case  be- 
longs. In  those  fatal  cases  which  have  been 
followed  by  a  reopening  of  the  wound  a  study 
of  the  ascertained  conditions  is  of  great  inter- 
est. When  death  has  taken  place  from  a  rapid 
septic  poisoning  or  toxemia  the  abdomen  may 
show  nothing  except  some  thin  cloudy  fluid  in 
the  pelvis  and  congestion  of  the  peritoneum 
covering  the  intestines,  giving  them  a  "scalded" 
appearance.  In  the  abscess  cases  the  right  iliac 
fossa  is  found  filled  with  a  green  purulent  ex- 
udate adhering  closely  to  the  groin  and  intes- 
tines. There  may  be  small  quantities  of  pus 
which  have  formed  since  the  operation.  If 
death  does  not  occur  for  several  days  after 
operation,  and  nature  fails  to  check  the  spread 
of  the  disease,  this  purulent  exudate  may  reach 
from  the  liver  to  the  pelvis  with  infection  of  the 
portal  vein,  liver,  and  of  the  lymphatics  behind 
the  peritoneum.  With  extensive  leakage  the 
entire  peritoneal  cavity  may  be  filled  with  a 
foul-smelling,  greenish-colored  pus,  with  gan- 
grene of  the  caecum. 

John  B.  Deaver,  M.D., 
Specialist,  Philadclpliia,  Pa. 
Appenzell,  a'pen-tsel,  a  canton  of  Switzer- 
land, wholly  enclosed  within  the  territory  of  the 
canton  of  St.  Gall,  and,  though  covering  an 
area  of  only  162  square  miles,  divided  into  two 
independent  portions,  Ausser-Rhoden,  or  Outer- 
Rhodes,  which  is  Protestant,  and  Inner-Rhoden, 
or  Inner-Rhodes,  which  is  Catholic.  It  is  an 
elevated  district,  traversed  by  branches  of  the 
Alps;  has  large  tracts  of  rich  pasture-land  and 
extensive  forests  of  pine,  and  is  watered  by 
the  Sitter  and  by  several  smaller  affluents  of 
the  Rhine.  The  climate  is  cold,  but  healthy. 
Glaciers  occupy  the  higher  valleys.  Flax,  hemp, 
grain,  fruit,  etc.,  are  produced,  but  the  wealth 
of  Inner-Rhodes,  the  more  elevated  division  of 
the  canton,  lies  in  its  numerous  herds  and 
flocks :  that  of  Outer-Rhodes  in  its  manufatures 
of  muslins,  gauzes,  cambrics,  and  other  cotton 
stuffs.  The  construction  of  railways  has  now 
made  the  canton  more  accessible,  and  great  num- 
bers of  strangers  flock  hither  annually  to  take 
advantage  of  the  whey-cure  establishments  of 
Gais,  Weissbad,  Gonten,  Heiden,  and  Heinrichs- 
bad.  The  inhabitants  speak  a  peculiar  dialect, 
which  even  those  who  are  well  acquainted  with 
Swiss-German  have  great  difficulty  in  under- 
standing. The  town  of  Appenzell  (German, 
Abtcnzclle,  abbot's  cell),  is  the  capital  of  Inner- 
Rhodes,  beautifully  situated  on  the  Sitter,  with 
4,369  inhabitants.  Trogen.  with  2.57S  inhab- 
itants, is  the  capital  of  Outer-Rhodes.     Schools 


APPERCEPTION 


arc  numerous,  and  education  widely  diffused. 
The  division  between  the  Protestant  and  Cath- 
olic portions  of  the  canton  has  <  lasted  since 
1597.  They  have  only  one  vole  between  them, 
and  send  deputies  to  the  federal  assembly  in 
turn.  Pop.  (1900),  Outer-Rhodes,  55,281; 
Itiner-Rhodes,  13,499.  The  former  is  one  of 
the  most  densely-peopled  parts  of  Europe,  its 
population  being  equal  to  more  than  500  per 
square  mile.     See  Richman,  'Appenzell'   (1895). 

Ap'percep'tion,  a  psychological  term  re- 
ferring to  higher  consciousness.  Until  recently 
there  has  been  considerable  confusion  among 
English  and  American  writers  on  psychology 
as  to  the  meaning  of  the  terms  perception  and 
apperception.  To  point  out  the  source  of  this 
confusion  requires  a  brief  history  of  the  term 
apperception.  The  word  was  first  used  by  Leib- 
nitz in  connection  with  his  philosophy  of  "win- 
dowless"  monads.  With  him  every  human  sou] 
is  a  monad  which  develops  by  an  inner  unfold- 
ing. When  this  development  reaches  the  point 
of  clear  self-conscious  being  it  attains  what  he 
calls  apperceptive  consciousness.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  development  is  only  partial,  if 
its  states  are  vague  and  only  partially  self-con- 
scious, the  monad  has  attained  the  level  of  per- 
ceptive consciousness.  Thus  for  Leibnitz  the 
terms  perception  and  apperception  designated 
simply  different  degrees  of  clearness  and  dis- 
tinctness of  consciousness,  with  no  reference 
whatever  to  the  apprehension  of  external  things. 
In  fact  the  theory  of  Leibnitz  rendered  any 
such  use  of  the  terms  impossible.  In  more 
recent  German  psychology  the  term  perception 
has  been  dropped  and  that  of  apperception  re- 
tained as  an  expression  of  all  the  higher  forms 
of  clear  consciousness.  There  is,  however,  one 
important  exception  to  this.  Wundt  has  re- 
tained both  terms  and  attempted  to  restore  to 
them  their  Leibnitzian  meaning  without,  of 
course,  committing  himself  to  Leibnitzian 
monadology.  Mental  processes  which  are  clear 
and  distinct  and  are  also  under  the  control  of 
volition  are  called  by  Wundt  processes  of  ap- 
perception. But  when  the  mental  act  is  merely 
association  in  character  and  not  directly  con- 
trolled by  volition,  or  when  it  is  obscure,  Wundt 
calls  it  an  act  of  perception. 

The  philosophy  of  Herbart  doubtless,  more 
than  that  of  any  other  German  writer,  has 
brought  the  term  apperception  into  prominence 
in  American  psychology.  If  we  consider  his 
system  we  shall  find  that  here  again  the  terms 
perception  and  apperception  mark  different  de- 
grees of  clearness  and  completeness  of  the 
forms  of  mental  activity.  With  Herbart  all 
mental  processes  are  but  the  interactions  of 
ideas.  When  a  new  idea  enters  the  mind  it 
causes  a  connection  among  the  ideas  already 
present.  It  disturbs  the  equilibrium.  It  is 
welcomed  by  the  ideas  akin  to  it,  and  opposed 
by  those  which  are  not.  When  it  finally  be- 
comes adjusted  and  settled  into  its  proper  posi- 
tion among  pre-existing  ideas  the  new  relation 
thus  brought  about  is  the  result  of  apperception. 
Coming  over  to  English  and  American  psychol- 
ogy we  meet  with  that  difficulty  and  confusion 
referred  to  above.  This  confusion  had  its 
origin  in  the  fact  that  in  translating  the  Leib- 
nitzian terms  perception  and  apperception  into 
English  these  same  identical  terms  were  used, 
regardless  of  the  fact  that  in  our  psychology  we 


had  already  a  term,  perception,  which  had  ac- 
quired a  fixed  and  definite  meaning.  The  Eng- 
lish word  already  in  use  stood  for  the  recogni- 
tion of  objects  through  the  senses,  and  this  is 
still  its  meaning.  Hence  it  stands  for  the  clear 
and  self-conscious  recognition  of  things  as  we'd 
as  the  vague  and  imperfect  apprehension  of 
them.  The  term  perception  brought  over  from 
German  psychology,  and  the  same  word  already 
in  use.  thus  stood  for  widely  different  mean- 
ings, and  hence  the  confusion.  The  Germans 
have  a  wholly  different  word  (wakrnehnung) 
for  what  we  mean  by  perception,  and  conse- 
quently they  cannot  understand  our  difficulty. 
The  result  is  that  we  have  all  along  used  the 
terms  perception  and  apperception  as  though 
they  distinguished  wdiolly  different  mental  ac- 
tivities instead  of  marking  only  different  de- 
grees of  the  same  processes,  as  they  actually 
do.  Apperception  is  only  clear  and  self-con- 
scious perception.  It  involves  in  a  highly 
complex  way  the  various  mental  processes  of 
memory,  imagination,  judging,  inferring,  etc., 
when  these  processes  are  clear  and  self-con- 
scious. A  full  treatment  of  apperception  there- 
fore requires  that  these  processes  be  taken  into 
account.  It  is  only  necessary  here  to  indicate 
briefly  something  of  the  pedagogical  bearing 
and  value  of  the  term.  Mainly  through  the  in- 
fluence of  the  so-called  Hcrbartian  movement  in 
America,  this  term  apperception  has  centered  at- 
tention upon,  and  emphasized  the  importance 
of,  the  processes  involved  and  the  conditions 
requisite  for  the  successful  acquisition  and  as- 
similation of  new  knowledge  with  that  which 
has  already  been  learned.  As  the  bodily  organ- 
ism separates  and  assimilates  only  such  ele- 
ments of  the  food  taken  into  it  as  are  needed 
for  its  growth  and  repair,  so  in  a  somewhat 
similar  manner  does  the  mind  select  and  ap- 
propriate only  such  of  its  presentations  as  mani- 
fest a  certain  kinship  to  what  is  already  con- 
sciously and  vitally  present,  and  rejects  the 
rest.  Elements  wholly  foreign  to  the  mind's 
present  stock  of  ideas  escape  it  altogether.  We 
must  therefore  learn  the  new  by  means  of  the 
old.  Hence  before  presenting  the  new  it  is 
necessary  to  call  up  and  make  alive,  by  arousing 
interest  and  curiosity,  those  ideas  and  materials 
of  knowdedge  that  by  similarity  or  other  bond 
of  relation  will  best  serve  for  the  ready  recep- 
tion and  complete  assimilation  of  the  truth  or 
fact  to  be  taught.  The  goal  of  intellectual  de- 
velopment is  mainly  the  acquisition  of  clear, 
distinct,  and  adequate  general  conceptions,  and 
the  ability  to  make  correct  application  of  these 
to  new:  particulars  as  they  arise,  or  to  see  in 
each  new  fact  the  old  in  disguise. 

In  the  development  of  such  general  concep- 
tions, two  stages  are  recognized  which  may  be 
appropriately  designated  by  the  terms  perception 
and  apperception  of  German  psychology,  if  these 
terms  be  employed  without  reference  to  whether 
the  mental  facts  considered  are  externally  or  in- 
ternally derived.  The  process  in  the  first 
stage  is  for  the  most  part  involuntarily  and 
unconsciously  directed,  in  the  second  it  is  volun- 
tary and  self-conscious.  The  process  is  not, 
however,  first,  sense  impression,  then  percept, 
concept,  judgment,  and  reasoning  in  turn,  each 
having  off  where  the  next  higher  begins.  It 
dates  its  origin  far  back  in  the  mental  history  of 
each  individual,  and  all  along  in  actual  experi- 


APPERT  — APPIUS  CLAUDIUS  CRASSUS 


ence,  sensing,  perceiving,  conceiving,  judging, 
etc.,  are  inextricably  joined  in  one  indivisible 
movement  of  tbought-development.  To  use 
James'  expressive  phrase,  the  infant's  conscious- 
ness is  a  "big,  blooming,  buzzing  confusion." 
This  is  the  child's  world.  It  is  not,  however, 
a  world  with  which  he  can  be  satisfied.  It  must 
be  broken  in  pieces  and  continually  made  over 
again.  Chaos  must  be  made  cosmos,  the  irra- 
tional must  become  progressively  rational.  In 
fact,  to  rationalize  the  "big  confusion"  becomes 
the  great  and  never-to-be-finished  work  of  edu- 
cation and  of  life.  Therefore  the  manner  of 
this  rationalization  is  of  especial  interest  to  the 
teacher.  The  "confusion"  is  not  monotonous. 
It  is  not  always  the  same.  There  is  change. 
Certain  elements  come  and  go  and  some  of  them 
return  again.  By  repeated  recurrence  these  ele- 
ments come  to  stand  out  in  the  foreground  of 
the  dark  "confusion."  Some  of  them  are  uni- 
formly repeated  together  simultaneously  or  in 
close  succession.  These  consequently  become 
associated  and  form  the  basis  of  perception. 
Perception  occurs  when  the  presentation  of  one 
element  immediately  calls  up  the  others  belong- 
ing with  it  in  the  unity  of  consciousness  which 
these  elements  represent.  The  presented  ele- 
ment or  sensation  becomes  the  sign  to  which 
the  mind  at  once  adds  the  proper  interpretation 
and  accompaniment.  The  richness  of  the  inter- 
pretation depends  upon  the  mind's  present  atti- 
tude and  condition,  and  its  past  experiences 
with  the  object  presented.  In  other  words,  in 
all  perception  there  is  more  or  less  of  apper- 
ception. 

Bibliography. —  Leibnitz,  'New  Essays1 
(1896);  Logek  (Stuttgart  1893);  Stout, 
'Analytical  Psychology'  (1896)  ;  McMurry, 
•General  Method'  (1891);  De  Genno,  'Essen- 
tials of  Method'  (1899);  Herbart,  'Text-Book 
in  Psychology'  (1891)  ;  Wundt,  Grundziige  der 
Physiologischen  Psychologie'  (1893)  :  Wundt, 
'Outlines  of  Pschology'  (1897)  :  Lange,  'Ap- 
perception :  A  Monograph  in  Psychology  and 
Pedagogy'    (1893). 

Cloyd  Macallister, 
Yale    University. 

Appert,  a'par,  Benjamin  Nicolas  Marie,  a 

French  philanthropist  prominent  in  educa- 
tional matters:  b.  in  Paris,  1797:  d.  1847. 
He  made  a  careful  study  of  prison  con- 
ditions, spending  much  time  in  this  pursuit,  his 
researches  being  published  in  his  'Journal  des 
Prisons'  (1825-30).  He  was  much  opposed  to 
solitary  confinement  and  is  said  to  have  taught 
100,000  soldiers  to  read  and  write.  Besides  the 
'Journal'  he  published  'Dix  Ans  a  la  Cour  du 
Roi  Louis  Philippe'  (1846),  and  'Conferences 
contre   le   Systeme   Cellulaire.' 

Appert,  a'par,  Nicholas.  a  French  scien- 
tist, brother  of  Benjamin  Appert  (q.v.)  :  b.  1750; 
d.  1841.  His  method  of  preserving  food 
without  chemicals  is  given  in  his  'Art  of  Pre- 
serving Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances' 
(1811).  It  is  the  familiar  method  of  placing  the 
article  to  be  preserved  in  a  can  after  heating, 
and  then  hermetically  sealing  it,  and  for  his 
invention  he  was  awarded  a  prize  of  12,000 
francs  from  the  French  government. 

Ap'petite,  a  term  in  its  widest  sense  de- 
noting the  natural  desire  for  gratification,  cither 
of  the  body  or  the  mind ;  but  generally  applied 


to  the  recurrent  and  intermittent  desire  for 
food.  A  healthy  appetite  is  favored  by  work, 
exercise,  plain  living,  and  cheerfulness ;  absence 
of  this  feeling,  or  defective  appetite  (anorexia), 
indicates  diseased  action  of  the  stomach,  or  of 
the  nervous  system  or  circulation,  or  it  may 
result  from  vicious  habits.  Depraved  appetite 
(pica),  or  a  desire  for  unnatural  food,  as  chalk, 
ashes,  dirt,  soap,  etc.,  depends  often  in  the  case 
of  children  on  vicious  tastes  or  habits;  in  grown- 
up persons  it  may  be  symptomatic  of  dyspep- 
sia, pregnancy,  or  chlorosis.  Insatiable  or  ca- 
nine appetite  or  voracity  (bulimia),  when  it 
occurs  in  childhood,  is  generally  symptomatic 
of  worms ;  in  adults  common  causes  are  preg- 
nancy, vicious  habits,  and  indigestion  caused  by 
stomach  complaints  or  gluttony,  when  the  gnaw- 
ing pains  of  disease  are  mistaken  for  hunger. 
See  Dietetics  ;  Dyspepsia. 

Appiani,  a'pe-a'ne,  Andrea,  an  Italian 
painter:  b.  in  Milan,  23  May  1754,  of  noble 
but  poor  family;  d.  in  1817.  He  visited  Rome 
three  times  in  order  to  penetrate  the  secret  of 
Raphael's  style  of  fresco-painting,  and  soon  ex- 
celled in  this  art  every  living  painter  in  Italy. 
He  displayed  his  skill  particularly  in  the  cupola 
of  Santa  Maria  di  S.  Celso  at  Milan,  and  in  the 
paintings  representing  the  legend  of  Cupid  and 
Psyche,  which  he  prepared  for  the  walls  and 
ceiling  of  the  villa  of  the  Archduke  Ferdinand 
at  Monza  (1795).  Napoleon  appointed  him 
royal  court-painter,  gave  him  the  order  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor  and  that  of  the  Iron  Crown, 
and  made  him  member  of  the  Italian  Institute  of 
Sciences  and  Arts.  Appiani  painted  afterward 
almost  the  whole  of  the  imperial  family.  His 
best  works  are  the  fresco-paintings  on  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  royal  palace  at  Milan,  allegories  re- 
lating to  Napoleon's  life,  and  his  'Apollo  with 
the  Muses,'  in  the  Villa  Bonaparte.  Almost 
all  the  palaces  of  Milan  have  fresco-paintings 
by  him. 

Ap'pian  of  Alexandria,  the  governor  and 
manager  of  the  imperial  revenues  under  Had- 
rian, Trajan,  and  Antoninus  Pius,  in  Rome.  He 
wrote  a  Roman  history,  from  the  earliest  times 
to  those  of  Augustus,  in  24  books,  of  which 
only  11  have  come  down  to  us.  It  is  written  in 
Greek,  in  clear  and  simple  style;  but  it  is  little 
else  than  a  compilation,  characterized  by  many 
inaccuracies  and  absurd  blunders.  The  best 
modern  edition  is  that  of  Schweighauser. 

Ap'pian  Way,  a  famous  Roman  highway 
leading  from  Rome  to  Capua  by  way  of  Bo- 
villa;,  Aricia,  Terracina,  Formis,  Minturnse, 
Sinuessa,  etc.;  called  by  Statius  Regina  Viarum, 
the  Queen  of  Roads.  It  was  made  by  Appius 
Claudius  Crassus  Caecus  when  he  was  censor, 
313  B.C.,  and  afterward  extended  to  Brundu- 
sium  by  way  of  Beneventum.  It  was  paved  with 
hexagonal  blocks  of  lava,  exactly  fitted  to  one 
another,  resting  on  an  admirable  substructure 
of  considerable  depth,  and  there  may  still  be 
seen,  particularly  at  Terracina,  important  re- 
mains which  prove  its  excellent  workmanship. 
See  Roads  and  Highways. 

Ap'pius  Clau'dius  Cras'sus,  a  Roman  pa- 
trician, of  the  family  of  the  Claudii.  In  451  B.C., 
when  the  decemvirs  were  appointed  to  compose 
a  complete  legal  code  for  Rome  (afterward 
known  as  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables),  and 
to   wield  the  supreme  power  in  the  state  for  a 


APPLE 


year,  Appius  Claudius  was  chosen  one  of  the 
ten,  and  when  the  office  was  continued  for  an- 
other year  he  was  re-elected.  As  he  and  some 
of  his  colleagues  had  ruled  in  a  very  tyrannical 
manner,  the  people  had  become  incensed  against 
them,  and  the  following  circumstances  led  to 
their  overthrow.  Appius  Claudius  had  con- 
ceived an  evil  passion  for  a  damsel  named  Vir- 
ginia, the  daughter  of  Lucius  Virginius,  a  re- 
spected plebeian,  and  at  his  instigation  Marcus 
Claudius,  one  of  his  clients,  claimed  Virginia 
as  the  daughter  of  one  of  his  own  female 
slaves  and  offered  to  prove  this  even  to  the 
satisfaction  of  her  reputed  father,  while  Appius 
Claudius  decided  that  in  the  meantime  she 
should  remain  in  the  custody  of  the  claimant. 
This  decision  being  directly  contrary  to  law, 
and  Icilius  and  her  uncle  Numitorius  having  ex- 
posed the  decemvir's  criminal  designs,  the  as- 
pect of  the  people  became  so  threatening  that 
he  was  forced  to  leave  the  maiden  in  the  hands 
of  her  family,  declaring,  however,  that  he 
would  finally  settle  the  case  next  day.  Virgin- 
ius, hastily  summoned  from  the  army,  appeared 
with  his  daughter  next  day  in  the  forum  in 
mourning  robes  and  appealed  to  the  people; 
but  Appius  Claudius,  attended  by  a  strong 
guard,  again  adjudged  her  to  M.  Claudius.  Un- 
able to  rescue  his  daughter,  the  unhappy  father 
snatched  a  knife  from  a  butcher's  stall  and 
plunged  it  into  her  bosom,  saying,  "There  is  no 
way  but  this  to  keep  thee  free."  Virginius  es- 
caped to  the  camp  and  with  the  army  returned 
to  Rome,  demanding  revenge.  The  decemvirs 
were  deposed  by  the  indignant  people,  and  the 
government  by  tribunes  and  consuls  restored 
448  B.C.  Appius  Claudius  died  in  prison  or  was 
strangled,  while  Marcus  Claudius  was  banished. 

Ap'ple,  the  name  given  to  a  low  round- 
headed  tree  (Pyrus  malus)  of  the  natural  or- 
der Rosacea,  with  compact  clusters  of  flowers 
which  appear  with  the  thick  woolly  short- 
stemmed  leaves  and  followed  by  fruits  botani- 
cally  known  as  pomes.  It  is  a  native  of  south- 
eastern Europe  and  contiguous  Asia,  whence  it 
has  been  spread  by  man  as  a  cultivated  plant  to 
all  temperate  climates  of  the  globe.  It  has  been 
more  or  less  hybridized  with  its  close  relative, 
P.  baccata,  the  well-known  Siberian  crab,  a 
smoother,  more  wiry  species  coming  from  a 
somewhat  more  northeastern  district.  This 
latter  species  has  thinner,  smoother,  longer- 
stemmed  leaves  and  fruit-stems  than  the  other; 
the  deciduous  calyx  of  its  smaller,  harder  fruits 
is  also  a  striking  difference,  the  calyx  of  the 
other  being  permanent.  Certain  hybrids  of 
these  two  species  are  known  as  P.  prunifolia. 
Besides  these  Old-World  species  and  their  pro- 
geny there  are  two  American  species,  P.  coron- 
aiia,  of  no  culinary  value,  but  of  use  as  an  orna- 
mental plant,  and  P.  ioensis,  a  promising  species 
which,  by  crossing  with  P.  malus,  has  given  rise 
to  the  hybrid  race,  P.  soulardi,  remarkable  for 
its  hardiness.  The  term  crab  is  loosely  applied 
to  small,  long-stemmed  apples  as  well  as  to  va- 
rieties of  the  two  leading  species  mentioned. 

Commercial  Importance. —  If  not  the  leading 
fruit  of  the  world,  a  status  few  will  question, 
the  apple  is  certainly  the  most  important  fruit 
of  the  temperate  zones,  a  rank  which  it  merits 
for  the  following  reasons :  When  the  market  is 
glutted  it  can  be  disposed  of  in  more  ways  than 
any   other   fruit    (see   By-Products,   below)  ;    a 


large  number  of  its  varieties   keep   well,  with- 
stand   shipment    to    and    sell     well    in    d 
markets;  the  tree  readily  adapts  itself  to  great 
extremes    of    climate,    soil,    and    other    condi- 
tions.    It   is,   in    fact,   the   only    fruit    that   has 

passed     the     bounds     of     luxury     and     b 

a  staple  article  of  food  except  in  the  trop- 
ics. Its  range  extends  in  the  northern  hem- 
isphere from  Scandinavia  to  the  mountain- 
ous parts  of  Spain,  from  New  Brunswick  to 
the  high  lands  of  Georgia,  and  from  British  Co- 
lumbia to  the  mountains  of  Mexico.  The  great 
apple-producing  countries  of  the  world  are  the 
United  States,  Canada,  Australia  and  adjacent 
islands,  Russia,  and  Germany.  In  America  the 
principal  apple  districts  are  Nova  Scotia,  New 
England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Ontario, 
Ohio,  Michigan,  Kentucky,  and  the  central 
western  States.  Other  less  extended  or  younger 
districts  are  the  Piedmont  sections  of  Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  etc., 
the  Pacific  Coast  States,  and  British  Columbia, 

From  the  eastern  regions  a  steady  export 
trade  has  been  growing,  mainly  with  British 
ports,  and  when  the  eastern  crop  is  short.  Pa- 
cific coast  apples  are  shipped  across  the  conti- 
nent in  large  quantities  to  eastern  markets.  Ac- 
cording to  Bailey  a  full  crop  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  "of  all  kinds  and  grades,  is 
probably  not  less  than  100,000,000  barrels." 
The  Twelfth  Census  Report  of  the  United 
States  gives  the  number  of  trees  standing  in 
1900  as  follows:  Missouri,  20,040,399;  Illinois, 
13,430,006;  Ohio,  12,952,625;  Kansas,  11,848,- 
070;  Pennsylvania,  11,774,211.  The  total  num- 
ber of  apple  trees  in  orchards  at  that  date  was 
201,794,764  as  compared  with  120,152.795  in 
1890.  When  compared  with  the  figures  of  the 
previous  census  the  extension  of  orchard-plant- 
ing seems  to  be  greatest  in  the  central  western 
States,  especially  in  Missouri.  The  crop  re- 
ported for  some  of  the  States  in  1899  (see 
Census  Report)  are  as  follows:  New  York,  24,- 
111,257;  Pennsylvania,  24,060,651;  Ohio,  20/117,- 
480;  Virginia.  9,835,982;  Illinois,  9,178,150. 
The  crop  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  was 
34.1  per  cent  of  the  total  crop  of  the  United 
States — 175,367,626  bushels  in  that  year.  In 
1S89  the  crop  was  143,105,689  bushels.  The  re- 
port further  states :  «The  apple  has  a  decided 
primacy  among  American  fruits.  Of  the  or- 
chard trees  reported  in  1900,  55  per  cent  were 
apples,  and  of  the  bushels  of  fruit  reported, 
82.8  per  cent  were  of  that  variety.  In  10  years 
the  number  of  apple  trees  increased  more  than 
80,000.000,  yet  the  number  of  other  fruit  trees 
increased  so  much  faster  that  the  apple  trees, 
which  constituted  62.I  per  cent  of  all  in  1890. 
were  only  55  per  cent  in  1900.  .  .  .  The 
apple  crop  of  1899,  taking  the  country  as  a 
whole,  was  more  nearly  a  normal  one  than  was 
that  of  any  other  orchard  fruit.  Further,  the 
average  production  of  apple  trees,  being  larger 
than  that  of  other  trees,  affects  the  total  in  such 
a  comparison  .  .  .  more  than  does  the  num- 
ber of  trees.  The  apple  increased  its  propor- 
tion of  the  total  production  of  orchard  fruits 
from  76.3  per  cent  in  1889  to  82.8  per  cent  in 
1899. 

Varieties. —  In  addition  to  productiveness,  an 
essential  to  the  value  of  any  food  plant,  the  12 
points  mentioned  and  explained  below  should  be 
looked  for  in  an  apple  variety.     Of  course  all  12 


APPLE. 


T.   An  apple  orchard  in  Delaware.  2.  A  Baldwin   apple  orchard  in  New  York. 


APPLE 


of  these  qualities  cannot  be  found  greatly  devel- 
oped in  a  single  variety  because  some  are  in  a 
measure  antagonistic,  but  by  keeping  these  points 
in  mind  the  prospective  orchardist  may  avoid 
planting  a  variety  that  would  not  meet  his  own 
expectations  or  the  market  demands,  (i) 
Richness,  dependent  upon  the  relative  propor- 
tion of  sugar  to  malic  acid.  When  these  are 
deficient  in  amount  the  fruit  is  insipid,  but  each 
may  be  present  in  large  amount  without  mak- 
ing the  fruit  pronouncedly  sweet  or  tart  to  the 
taste.  Many  tart  apples  contain  more  sugar 
than  some  of  the  so-called  sweet  apples.  In 
ripe  specimens  of  improved  varieties  the  range 
of  acid  is  from  0.19  to  1. 11  per  cent,  and  of 
sugar  from  10  per  cent  or  even  less  in  poor 
sorts  to  14  per  cent  or  somewhat  more,  the 
usual  range  being  from  II  to  13  per  cent.  (2) 
Flavor,  a  quality  distinct  from  the  taste  of  acid 
and  sugar,  and,  like  perfume,  dependent  upon 
minute  quantities  (seldom  more  than  0.5  per 
cent)  of  a  volatile  oil.  A  highly  perfumed 
apple  is,  however,  not  necessarily  highly  fla- 
vored. (3)  Firmness  not  sponginess,  crispness 
not  hardness,  tenderness  not  softness,  melting- 
ness  not  juiciness  are  dependent  upon  cell 
structure.  (4)  Color  is  often  of  more  impor- 
tance in  the  uneducated  market  than  form,  size, 
richness,  and  flavor  combined.  It  is  an  unsafe 
index  of  the  last  two  qualities,  except  that,  as 
a  rule,  well-colored  specimens  are  superior  to 
poorly  colored  ones  of  the  same  variety.  Color 
varies  in  all  varieties  with  season,  soil,  man- 
agement, etc.  The  favorite  color  in  the  general 
market  is  red.  (5)  Form:  a  nearly  globular 
shape  is  most  desirable  because  fruits  of  that 
form  pack  better  without  bruising  than  other 
forms.  (6)  Size  and  uniformity.  In  general, 
a  diameter  of  about  three  inches  and  a  weight 
of  six  or  eight  ounces  is  preferred,  and  a  va- 
riety producing  such  as  the  bulk  of  its  crop 
will  usually,  on  account  of  the  lessened  neces- 
sity for  grading,  be  more  valuable  than  another 
variety  of  equal  productiveness  but  with  widely 
varying  size  of  fruit.  (7)  Smooth,  tough,  but 
thin  skin  resists  insect  and  fungous  attacks,  in- 
juries in  handling  and  shipping,  and  are  more 
economical  with  respect  to  waste.  (8)  Small 
core  and  few  seeds,  save  waste.  (9)  Maturity: 
The  commercial  variety  should  be  ready  to  har- 
vest all  at  once.  (10)  Firm  adherence  to  the 
tree ;  self-evident.  Defectiveness  in  this  re- 
spect may  be  due  to  attacks  of  enemies.  (11) 
Culinary  qualities:  of  prime  importance  in  com- 
mercial varieties  because  such  are  used  mainly 
for  cooking.  Sweet  varieties  usually  make  in- 
sipid pies  but  good  baked  apples ;  tart  varieties 
make  best  pies  and  sauce.  (12)  Good-keeping 
is  not  dependent  solely  upon  firmness  but  is 
usually  associated  with  locality,  climate,  soil, 
etc.,  as  well  as  with  the  variety  and  the  stock 
upon  which  it  is  grown. 

Another  matter  of  importance  in  the  se- 
lection of  varieties  of  apples,  and  even  more 
markedly  of  pears,  is  the  determination  of  the 
fertility  of  the  blossoms.  Sterility,  indicated 
by  annua!  dropping  of  the  fruit,  may  result  from 
one  or  a  combination  of  the  following  causes. 
Impotence  of  the  pollen  or  the  pistils,  or  the 
premature  ripening  of  one  or  the  other;  in- 
juries to  the  blossoms  by  lungous  attacks,  rain, 
frost,  or  continued  cool  weather  or  other  cause 
more  or  iess  beyond  the  grower's  control.     On 


ihe  other  hand,  it  often  results  from  impotence 
of  the  pollen  to  fertilize  the  pistil  of  the  same 
variety  and  is  noticed  when  trees  stand  singly 
or  in  blocks  of  one  variety  remote  from  other 
varieties.  This  may  be  obviated  by  the  grower, 
who  should  plant  varieties  that  blossom  at  the 
same  time  in  proximity,  usually  in  alternate  rows 
through  the  orchard,  or  by  grafting  such  in  or- 
chards already  set.  A  practice  resulting  from 
this  and  the  varying  maturity  of  varieties  with 
respect  to  fruit-bearing  is  the  planting  of  «filler» 
trees  in  permanent  orchards.  The  fillers  are 
quick-maturing  varieties  of  usually  upright 
growth  and  small  size,  which  are  set  alternately 
with  the  slower-growing  more-spreading  per- 
manent trees,  and  cut  out  when  crowding  seems 
to  threaten.  For  such  practice  four  varieties 
are  usually  selected,  two  fillers  and  two  perma- 
nents,  each  pair  blossoming  at  the  same  time. 
Each  pair  is  placed  alternately  with  the  other 
and  each  member  of  the  pair  alternately  with 
its  partner.  Trees  in  such  orchards  are  often 
planted  28  feet  apart  on  the  diagonal,  so  that 
when  the  fillers  are  removed  the  permanents 
will  be  left  in  rectangles  of  about  40  feet,  the 
usual  distance  recommended  for  large-growing 
varieties.  Some  growers  plant  as  close  as  30 
feet,  but  this  is  too  close  except  for  trees  of 
small  growth.  No  other  tree  fruit  than  the 
apple  should  be  planted  in  an  apple  orchard, 
because  no  two  fruits  demand  the  same  treat- 
ment, and  where  two  are  planted,  one  or  the 
other,  perhaps  both,  must  suffer  more  or  less. 
See  Orchard. 

Propagation. —  New  varieties  of  apples  are 
propagated  from  seeds,  but  since  seeds  rarely 
improve  upon  the  parent,  seedlings  are  chiefly 
used  to  produce  stocks  for  grafting  or  budding. 
Standard  (that  is,  natural-sized)  trees  are  so 
propagated.  Dwarf  trees  result  from  grafting 
or  budding  the  same  varieties  upon  the  small- 
growing,  almost  bush-like  varieties,  paradise 
and  doucin,  the  stocks  of  which  are  produced 
by  mound  layering.  Voluminous  discussion  has 
arisen  concerning  the  relative  advantages  of 
grafting  over  budding,  and  also  concerning  cer- 
tain methods  of  grafting.  Opinions  in  the  first 
case  are  very  conflicting;  in  the  latter  they 
seem  to  favor  the  use  of  a  small  piece  of  apple- 
root  as  stock  and  a  rather  long  scion  to  be  set 
deeply  in  nursery  and  orchard  in  order  to  ensure 
the  rooting  of  the  scion  and  thus  obtain  a  tree 
drawing  its  nourishment  from  its  own  roots 
instead  of  from  the  nondescript  roots  of  the 
seedling  stock.  In  northern  rigorous  climates 
very  hardy  varieties  are  selected  upon  which 
to  top-work  less  robust  sorts,  thus  to  increase 
their  hardiness.  When  the  trees  are  set  the 
tops  must  be  cut  back  severely  to  balance  the 
loss  of  root  due  to  digging  from  the  nur- 
sery and  to  start  the  head  at  the  proper  height 
from  the  ground.  Formerly  six  feet  was  the 
usual  length  of  trunk  desired,  but  half  that 
length  is  now  preferred  and  in  the  central  West- 
ern States  even  less.  Trees  with  short  bodies 
and  low  heads  are  less  likely  to  be  injured  by 
wind  and  sun-scald  than  those  with  high  heads 
and  long  bodies.  Established  unprofitable  trees 
and  undesirable  varieties  are  often  top-worked 
to  valuable  ones ;  not  more  than  a  third  of 
such  trees  being  grafted  each  year  because  of 
the  danger  of  producing  water-sprouts.  See 
Graftage;  Pruning;  Transplanting. 


APPLE 


Soils,  Fertilisers,  etc. —  Apples  thrive  upon 
nearly  all  kinds  of  soils,  certain  varieties  being 
better  adapted  to  light  soils  and  others  to 
heavy  rather  than  the  reverse  in  each  case;  but 
the  great  majority  of  the  almost  innumerable  va- 
rieties succeed  best  upon  medium  to  clayey 
loams,  especially  if  they  are  somewhat  elevated, 
inclined,  or  rolling,  and  in  a  clear,  dry  climate. 
Since  air  and  water  drainage  are  usually  good 
in  such  places  the  fruit  produced  is  generally 
of  fine  color,  flavor,  and  size.  Upon  low  lands 
and  in  damp  climates  the  fruits  are  usually  of 
inferior  quality  and  the  trees  more  susceptible 
to  fungous  attacks.  (See  Orchard.)  The  fer- 
tilizers demanded  by  apples  are  mainly  potash 
and  phosphoric  acid.  (See  Manures.)  Some 
growers  use  a  mixture  of  loo  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash  to  200  pounds  of  16  per  cent  super- 
phosphate at  the  rate  of  100  pounds  an  acre 
while  the  trees  are  small,  increasing  to  500 
pounds  and  even  as  much  as  1,500  pounds  an 
acre  for  trees  in  full  bearing,  the  amount  de- 
pending upon  the  character  and  condition  of  the 
soil,  and  the  grower's  management.  If  cover 
crops  (see  Green  Manuring)  such  as  clover, 
vi  tubes,  or  cow-peas  are  grown,  they  will  supply 
all  the  nitrogen  needed;  indeed,  if  long  con- 
tinued or  if  several  very  heavy  crops  be  turned 
under,  too  much  nitrogen  may  accumulate,  and 
recourse  to  a  cereal  crop  be  necessary  to  re- 
move the  excess.  Too  much  nitrogen  induces 
a  sappy,  easily  winter-killed  growth,  generally 
at  the  expense  of  fruit-production.  Lack  of 
nitrogen  is  indicated  by  pale  green  or  yellowish 
foliage.  The  preparation  of  the  land  does  not 
differ  materially  from  that  for  other  crops  such 
as  corn  or  potatoes,  each  of  which  is  often 
grown  the  season  previous  to  planting  in  order 
to  fit  the  land  for  the  orchard.  The  trees  may 
be  set  in  spring  or  autumn  and  the  cost  of 
cultivation  may  be  met  by  cropping  the  land  for 
the  first  few  years  with  potatoes,  melons,  or  some 
other  low -growing,  inter-tilled  crop.  Annual 
cultivation  consists  in  an  early  spring  plowing 
followed  by  narrowings  at  intervals  of  two 
weeks  and  after  rains  that  form  a  crust  until 
mid-summer,  when  a  cover  crop  is  sown  to  be 
turned  under  in  the  following  spring.  Deep 
plowing  during  the  first  five  years  or  so  will 
induce  deep  rooting  wdiich  in  after  years  will 
assist  in  withstanding  drouth  and  obviate  the 
necessity  of  annual  deep  plowing.     See  Tillage. 

Growers  opinions  differ  as  to  the  length  of 
trunk  an  apple  tree  should  have,  and  also  as  to 
whether  there  should  be  a  main  trunk  above 
the  principal  lower  limbs,  but  all  agree  that  a  few 
(some  growers  say  five,  four,  or  even  three)  well- 
placed  main  limbs  are  better  than  a  larger  num- 
ber. These  mains  should  start  far  enough  from 
one  another  to  avoid  the  danger  of  splitting 
when  under  load  of  fruit,  and  should  be  made 
to  re-branch  near  the  main  trunk.  Some  of 
these  latter  branches  should  be  trained  upward, 
the  others  more  horizontally,  so  as  to  develop  a 
well-rounded,  symmetrical  top.  Four  or  five 
years'  careful  training  should  so  fix  the  char- 
acter of  the  tree  as  to  obviate  in  great  measure 
the  necessity  of  subsequent  pruning.  See 
Pruning. 

Insects. —  Several  hundred  insects  feed  upon 
the  apple,  but  the  most  of  them  are  so  well 
controlled  by  their  enemies  or  by  natural  checks 
that   their   injuries   are   seldom   noticed.     There 


are,  however,  many  that  arc  frequently  trouble- 
some, among  which  the  following  are  perhaps 
the  most  commonly  destructive.  In  connection 
with  the  specific  means  of  control  here  men- 
tioned, the  reader  should  refer  to  the  general 
article  Fungicide,  (i)  Codlin  moth  (Carpo- 
capsa  pomonella)  is  perhaps  the  best-known 
and  most  widely  distributed  apple  pest.  The 
eggs  are  laid  upon  the  fruit,  the  larva;  almost 
invariably  entering  the  calyx,  burrowing 
through  the  flesh  and  causing  premature  ripen- 
ing. Since  two  or  even  three  broods  are  pro- 
duced in  a  season,  the  destruction  of  the  first  by 
spraying  is  of  prime  importance.  This  spraying 
must  be  done  before  the  calyx  closes,  because 
the  caterpillar's  first  meal  must  be  poisoned,  to 
accomplish  wdiich  the  sepals  must  not  have 
closed.  The  destruction  of  culls,  cores,  and 
parings  and  the  use  of  moth-traps  in  the  win- 
dows of  storage-rooms  also  assist  in  controlling 
the  pest.  (2)  Apple  maggot  (Tripcta  pomonel- 
la), the  footless  grub  (one  fifth  inch  long) 
of  a  two-winged  fly,  tunnels  in  the  fruit  and  is 
especially  troublesome  in  New  York  and  New 
England,  attacking  thin-skinned  summer  and 
autumn  varieties.  Windfalls  may  be  eaten  by 
stock  running  in  the  orchard,  and  stored  apples 
may  be  fumigated  with  carbon  disulphid.  (3) 
San  Jose  scale  (Aspidiotus  perniciosus),  a 
minute  scale  insect  of  enormous  prolificacy 
found  upon  many  species  of  woody  plants 
which  in  a  few  years  die.  When  full  grown  it 
so  closely  resembles  some  of  its  relatives  that 
a  microscopic  examination  is  necessary  to  de- 
termine its  identity.  When  abundant,  infested 
twigs  have  a  somewhat  scurvy  appearance  re- 
sembling a  coating  of  ashes.  From  beneath  the 
female  scale  the  young  appear,  crawl  to  new 
feeding  ground,  fix  themselves,  and  reproduce 
with  great  rapidity.  It  has  been  estimated  from 
careful  records  of  close  observations  that  more 
than  three  billion  scales  may  be  produced  in 
a  single  season  from  one  female.  Spraying 
with  kerosene  emulsion,  lime,  sulphur,  and  salt 
solution,  or  fumigating  with  hydrocyanic  acid 
gas,  are  the  three  popular  ways  of  combatting 
this  pest.  (4)  Canker-worm,  the  larvae  of 
certain  moths  (species  of  Anisopteryx  and  Pa- 
leacrita),  most  common  in  the  northeastern 
United  States  and  adjoinine  Canada.  They  at- 
tack the  leaves  of  apple,  pear,  and  some  other 
trees,  entirely  defoliating  them  when  especially 
abundant.  The  wingless  females  crawd  up  the 
trunks  and  lay  their  eggs  upon  twigs  or  bark. 
The  larvae,  measuring-worms,  appear  shortly 
after  the  foliage  from  which,  when  disturbed, 
they  drop  at  the  ends  of  silk  threads.  If  they 
reach  the  ground  they  climb  the  trunk  to  re- 
sume feeding.  Pupation  occurs  in  the  ground. 
This  climbing  .habit  of  both  females  and  larvae, 
especially  of  the  former,  suggested  impassable 
bands  upon  the  trunk  as  a  means  of  control. 
To  be  most  effective  these  must  be  applied  just 
before  the  females  begin  to  climb,  and  since 
those  of  one  species  are  active  in  the  late  fall 
and  upon  warm  days  during  the  winter,  and 
those  of  the  other  in  the  spring,  the  bands  must 
be  kept  in  good  condition  during  most  of  the 
year.  (Consult:  New  Hampshire  Experiment 
Station  Bulletin,  No.  85,  1901.)  (5)  Tent  cat- 
erpillar, the  larvae  of  a  moth  (Clisiocampa 
americana).  attack  various  trees  in  a  large  part 
of   the   United    States    and   Canada.    The   eggs 


APPLE 


are  deposited  in  gluey-looking  masses  upon  the 
twigs  in  summer  and  hatch  in  very  early  spring. 
The  larvae  are  gregarious,  and  spin  a  protective 
web  from  which  they  emerge  to  feed.  When 
numerous  they  frequently  strip  large  limbs  or 
even  trees  of  foliage.  Gathering  the  eggs  dur- 
ing the  winter  and  cutting  off  the  nests  as  soon 
as  seen  are  the  two  most  effective  methods  of 
control.  Since  several  parasites  attack  the  eggs 
of  this  moth,  the  egg  masses  should  be  kept  out 
of  doors  in  a  place  from  which  the  parasites, 
but  not  the  newly  hatched  worms,  can  escape. 
(6)  Web  worm  (Hyphantria  cunca)  is  a  caterpil- 
lar similar  in  habits  to  the  preceding,  but  enclosing 
the  foliage  upon  which  it  feeds  inside  a  web  until 
nearly  full  grown,  when  like  the  former  species 
the  larva;  disperse.  The  eggs  are  laid  by  a 
moth  in  late  spring  upon  the  undersides  of 
leaves  near  the  tips  of  branches  of  many  trees, 
bushes,  and  even  clover.  Cutting  and  burning 
is  the  most  effective  remedy.  (7)  The  round- 
headed  and  the  flat-headed  borers  are  serious 
pests.  They  bore  in  the  young  wood,  the  latter 
mainly  near  the  ground  in  the  trunk,  the  former 
more  frequently  in  the  larger  limbs.  They  are 
the  larvae  of  two  beetles  (respectively,  Sapcrda 
Candida  and  Chrysobothris  femorata).  Their 
presence  is  indicated  by  the  presence  of  chip- 
like castings  at  the  mouths  of  their  burrows. 
The  only  effective  means  of  control  are  cutting 
out  the  larvae  or  prodding  them  to  death  in 
their  burrows  with  a  flexible  wire.  The  appli- 
cation of  repellants  to  prevent  the  laying  of  eggs 
upon  the  trunks  is  sometimes  recommended. 
(8)  Woolly  aphis  (Schisoneura  lanigera)  often 
called  American  blight  in  England  and  Aus- 
tralia, is  a  serious  pest,  especially  upon  young 
trees.  Two  forms  of  this  insect  appear ;  one 
above  ground,  the  other  upon  the  roots.  The 
former,  readily  recognized  by  its  woolly  appear- 
ance, is  easily  controlled  by  kerosene  emulsion ; 
the  latter  is  hard  to  fight  without  injuring  the 
trees.  Tobacco  dust  worked  into  the  ground 
seems  to  be  the  most  effective  and  least  harmful 
remedy.  Nursery  stock  should  always  be  care- 
fully examined  for  this  pest  and  treated,  if  ne- 
cessary, before  being  planted.  (9)  Bud  moth 
(Tmelocera  occllana),  a  tiny  insect,  the  larvae 
of  which  appear  in  midsummer,  pass  the  win- 
ter in  the  larval  state  and  attack  the  opening 
buds  and  young  leaves,  over  which  they  weave  a 
little  web  in  early  spring,  when  they  are  most 
destructive.     Paris  green  is  effective. 

Diseases. —  Apple  scab  ( Fusicladium  dendri- 
ticum)  is  probably  the  most  serious  apple  dis- 
ease, since  it  causes  the  loss  of  much  fruit  and 
injures  the  appearance  of  much  more.  It  ap- 
pears as  black  spots  with  grayish  borders  on 
apples  and  pears,  commonly  seen  on  greening, 
snow,  and  yellow  harvest  varieties  that  have  not 
been  sprayed.  Often  the  abundance  of  the  con- 
fluent spots  prevents  the  normal  development  of 
the  fruit,  which  becomes  lop-sided.  The  leaves 
are  also  attacked,  but  the  markings  are  not 
so  pronounced.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux  mix- 
ture is  very  effective.  Rust  (Rccstclia  pirata) 
appears  upon  the  foliage  in  early  summer  as 
orange  spots  more  or  less  confluent.  The  fruit 
is  also  destroyed.  The  spores  of  this  fungus 
will  not  germinate  upon  the  apple  but  find  a 
congenial  host  in  the  juniper  or  cedar,  upon 
which  they  are  called  cedar  apples  (botanically, 
Gymnosporangium     macropus}.      These,     when 


matured  in  the  following  spring,  look  something 
like  orange  yellow  sponge.  Their  spores  will 
not  germinate  upon  the  cedar,  but  will  upon 
the  apple.  Sometimes  the  fungus  perpetuates 
itself  by  its  mycelium,  which  may  live  from  year 
to  year  upon  the  young  twigs  and  buds  of  the 
apple.  Destruction  of  the  cedars  and  spraying 
are  effective.  Apple  canker  (Xectria  ditissi- 
ma)  destroys  the  bark  and  younger  wood,  and 
eventually  the  tree,  but  small  areas  may  be  cut 
out  and  the  wounds  painted  with  Bordeaux 
mixture.  In  fact,  since  this  disease  gains  en- 
trance through  wounds,  all  such  should  be 
similarly  treated.  Burning  badly  infested  trees 
is  the  only  means  of  checking  the  spread  of  this 
disease.  Powdery  mildew  {Podosphccra  oxy- 
cantha),  a  grayish  growth  upon  the  foliage,  is 
often  troublesome  in  the  South  upon  young 
trees  and  seedlings  in  the  nursery.  It  may  read- 
ily be  controlled  by  a  standard  fungicide.  Bit- 
ter rot  (Glceosporium  fructigenum)  appears 
upon  the  fruit  as  brown  spots,  extending  until 
they  often  involve  the  whole  apple.  It  may  at- 
tack at  any  time  and  is  especially  destructive  to 
the  early  varieties,  more  in  the  South  than  in 
the  North.  Black  rot  (Sphcrropsis  malorum  ) 
resembles  bitter  rot  and  is  similarly  controlled. 
See  Fungicide. 

Harvesting,  etc.—  As  the  fruit  ripens,  the 
starch  which  it  contains  becomes  changed  into 
sugar,  the  leaf  green  is  replaced  by  tints  char- 
acteristic of  the  variety,  the  flow  of  sap  into  the 
fruit  diminishes  until  the  apple  has  attained 
full  size  and  weight,  when  the  flow  practically 
ceases.  Since  the  changes  that  now  take  place 
are  mainly  chemical  and  continue  independent 
of  the  tree,  the  fruit  may  be  picked.  Fruit- 
growers agree  upon  this  time,  which  they  de- 
termine with  each  variety  from  experience.  The 
fruits  are  still  hard,  but  have  brown  seeds,  and, 
having  reached  the  development  mentioned, 
may  be  picked  by  slightly  twisting  the  stem 
without  danger  of  breaking  the  twig  upon 
which  it  is  borne,  thus  preventing  a  loss  of 
bearing-wood.  Fruits  gathered  at  this  time 
and  ripened  properly  are  superior  to  those  al- 
lowed to  hang  longer  upon  the  tree.  For  best 
results  in  keeping,  apples  should  be  stored  as 
soon  as  possible  after  picking;  the  temperature 
kept  uniform  and  near  33°  F.,  so  as  to  check  the 
ripening  process ;  draughts  avoided,  since  they 
hasten  decay  and  increase  shrivelling,  hence 
closed  packages  are  better  than  shelves;  odors 
should  be  excluded. 

Cost  of  Production,  Yield,  etc. —  From  vari- 
ous sources  the  following  annual  averages  of 
cost  of  growing  an  acre  of  apple  trees  to  fif- 
teen years  of  age  have  been  compiled,  the  or- 
chards in  each  case  being  managed  according 
to  approved  modern  methods.  Plowing  (once  I. 
$3.50;  harrowing  (seven  times).  $3.25;  spray- 
ing (Bordeaux  mixture  and  Paris  green,  four 
times)  $5.00:  fertilizers,  $11.50;  interest  (at 
six  per  cent  on  land  worth  $100  an  acre").  $6.00; 
total,  $34.55.  Commencing  at  the  age  of  from 
6  to  10  years,  according  to  variety,  there  should 
be  a  graduallv  increasing  crop.  At  fifteen  the 
orchard  should  be  in  nearly  full-bearing.  The 
cost  of  maintaining  a  New  England  orchard  in 
full  bearing  was.  per  acre,  as  follows:  Prun- 
incr.  $250:  plowing,  So.oo:  harrowing.  $1.80; 
picking  and  packing.  $12.50;  barrels  at  30  cents, 
$15.00;   fertilizers.  $250;   spraying,  $2.00;  inter- 


APPLE  BRANDY  —  APPLETON 


est  (six  per  cent  on  land  valued  at  $50  an 
acre),  $3.00;  total,  $40.20.  This  orchard  pro- 
duced 50  barrels  of  No.  1  apples,  which 
sold  for  $75.00.  The  plowing  was  probably 
done  with  a  gang-plow,  hence  its  low  cost.  In- 
dividual trees  properly  cared  for  often  produce 
more  than  10  barrels  of  fruit,  and  one  New 
England  orchard  of  young  Kameuse  apple  trees 
produced  in  1895  700  barrels  and  in  1896  1,000 
barrels,  which  netted  $1.90  and  $1.00  a  barrel, 
respectively.  Waugh,  who  quotes  these  New 
England  figures,  remarks:  "These  results  are 
extremes  ;  but  they  were  secured  by  men  who 
take  care  of  their  orchards.» 

By-Products. —  Apple  culls  may  be  used  in 
more  ways  than  the  culls  of  any  other  fruit 
crop,  and  each  product  finds  a  ready  market, 
mainly  at  home.  The  better  specimens  are  us- 
ually evaporated,  the  cores  and  peelings  of  such 
being  also  utilized  either  for  cider-making  or 
more  frequently  they  are  dried  and  shipped  to 
Europe  for  the  manufacture  of  certain  kinds  of 
champagne  and  other  wines.  The  others  are 
usually  made  into  cider,  which  in  turn  may  be 
rcmanufactured  into  jelly,  apple-jack,  (apple 
brandy,  a  distilled  liquor)  or  vinegar.  When 
cider  and  apples  are  mixed  and  boiled  with 
or  without  sugar  the  product  is  called  marma- 
lade, and,  if  spices  be  added,  apple  butter.  The 
pomace  (as  crushed  fruit  is  called,  especially 
after  the  expression  of  the  juice)  is  washed  to 
obtain  the  seeds,  which  are  dried  and  used  for 
planting. 

Bibliography. —  Warder,  'American  Pomol- 
ogy^ Part  I.,  Apples  (1867):  Todd,  'Apple 
Culturist'  (1871)  ;  Bailey.  'Field  Notes  on 
Apple  Culture*  (1886)  ;  Nebraska  State  Horti- 
cultural  Society,  Vol.  XXV.  'The  Apple,>  (Lin- 
coln, Neb.  1894)  ;  and  various  reports  of  horti- 
cultural societies,  especially  of  the  American 
Pomological,  Michigan  Pomological,  and  West 
crn  Xcw  York  Horticultural  societies;  also  va- 
works  on  fruit  culture.      M.  G,   Kains. 

Ap'ple  Bran'dy,  or  Apple  Jack,  a  liquor 
made  from  the  fermented  juice  of  apples  by 
the  ordinary  processes  of  distillation. 

Ap'ple  of  Discord,  according  to  Greek 
mythology,  the  golden  fruit  thrown  among  the 
Olympian  divinities  by  the  goddess  of  dis- 
cord (Eris),  bearing  the  inscription  "for  the 
fairest.'*  Aphrodite  (Venus),  Hera  (Juno), 
and  Pallas  (Minerva)  became  competitors  for 
it,  and  its  award  to  the  first  by  Paris  so  in- 
flamed the  jealousy  and  hatred  of  Hera  to  all 
of  the  Trojan  race  (to  which  Paris  belonged) 
that  she  did  not  cease  her  machinations  till  Troy 
was  destroyed.  This  story  is  introduced  in 
Tennyson's  'CEnone.' 

Ap'ple  of  Sodom,  the  title  of  a  fruit  de- 
scribed by  old  writers  as  externally  of  fair  ap- 
pearance, but  turning  to  ashes  when  plucked. 
It  is  probably  the  fruit  of  Solatium  sodomeum, 
a  nightshade  (q.v.)  of  northern  Africa,  which 
when  eaten  may  produce  delirium  and  even 
death.  An  American  nightshade  is  also  so  called. 

Ap'ple-shell,  the  designation  of  one  of 
the  large,  handsomely  ornamented,  globose,  bush- 
climbing  pond-snails  of  tropical  Africa  and 
America,  belonging  to  the  genus  Ampullaria. 
Some  species  are  to  be  found  along  the  south- 
ern border  of  the  United  States.  These  mol- 
lusks   are  truly  amphibious,   having  both  lungs 


and  gills,  and  are  thus  able  to  breathe  in  water 
or  in  air,  whenever  disposed  to  exchange  an 
aquatic  for  a  terrestrial  existence.  Consult 
Semper,  'Animal  Life'    (1881). 

Ap'pleton,  Charles  Edward  Cutts  Birch, 
an  Englishman  of  letters:  b.  in  Reading,  Eng- 
land, 16  March  1841  ;  d.  in  Luxor,  Egypt,  1  Feb. 
1879.  He  was  graduated  from  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  in  1863,  studied  for  two  years  in 
German  universities,  and  was  appointed  lecturer 
in  philosophy  at  St.  John's  College.  11  is  best 
service  to  literature  and  his  time  was  his  found- 
ing the  'Academy,  a  Monthly  Record  of  Litera- 
ture, Learning,  Science,  and  Art,*  whose  first 
number  appeared  9  Oct.  1869.  Its  characteris- 
tic feature  was  the  signing  of  all  the  critiques 
and  leading  articles  with  the  writers'  names  in 
full,  and  these  included  men  of  the  highest  emi- 
nence in  literature  and  science.  Appleton  re- 
mained editor  until  his  death.  To  a  volume  of 
essays  on  the  'Endowment  of  Research'  he 
contributed  two  articles:  'Economic  Character 
of  Subsidies  to  Education,'  and  'Endowment  of 
Research  as  a  Form  of  Productive  Expendi- 
ture* (1876).  See  J.  H.  Appleton  and  A.  H. 
Sayce,   'Life  and  Literary  Relics*    (1881). 

Ap'pleton,  Daniel,  an  American  publish- 
er: b.  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  10  Dec.  1785;  d.  in 
New  York  city,  27  March  1849.  After  engaging 
in  the  dry-goods  business  in  Haverhill.  Bos- 
ton, and  New  York,  he  began  importing  English 
books  with  his  merchandise.  He  presently  de- 
voted himself  exclusively  to  the  business  of 
printing  and  publishing,  and  between  1830  and 
1849,  in  conjunction  with  his  sons,  laid  the 
foundation  for  the  successful  career  of  the  firm 
still  known  as  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  Its  publica- 
tions extend  over  the  entire  field  of  literature, 
and  it  has  rendered  great  service  in  issuing  the 
works  of  modern  scientists  at  moderate  prices; 
for  example,  Herbert  Spencer,  Tyndall,  Hux- 
ley, Darwin,  etc.  Medical  books  form  a  special 
department,  and  Spanish  books  for  the  South 
American  market  a  specialty  which  the  firm 
has  made  its  own.  In  bcllc-lcttrcs  and  Ameri- 
can history  it  has  a  strong  list  of  names  among 
its  authors. 

Ap'pleton,  George  Swett,  an  American 
publisher,  son  of  Daniel  Appleton  (q.v.)  :  b.  in 
Andover,  Mass.  1821 ;  d.  in  1878.  After  follow- 
ing the  publishing  business  for  some  years  in 
Philadelphia  he  succeeded,  in  1849,  to  his  fa- 
ther's business  in  New  York,  with  his  three 
brothers. 

Appleton,  George  Webb,  an  American 
novelist  and  dramatist,  now  resident  in  London: 
b.  in  New  Jersey  in  1845.  He  is  author  of  the 
novels  'Frozen  Hearts*;  'Catching  a  Tartar'; 
'Jack  Allyn's  Friends*  ;  <A  Terrible  Legacy'  ; 
'The  Co-Respondent'  ;  'A  Philanthropist  at 
Large';  'The  Blue  Diamond  Mystery';  'Fran- 
cois the  Valet'  ;  'Rash  Conclusions'  ;  'The  Ro- 
mance of  a  Poor  Girl'  ;  'A  Forgotten  Past'  ; 
of  several  plays,  and  of  'A  Hundred  Years  of 
French  History,   1789-1889.' 

Ap'pleton,  James,  an  American  temper- 
ance reformer:  b.  in  Ipswich,  Mass.,  1786;  d. 
1862.  He  served  in  the  American  army  during 
the  second  war  with  England,  and,  removing  to 
Maine,  in  later  years  entered  the  Maine  legis- 
lature,  where   in    1837  he  introduced   a    report 


APPLETON  —  APPONYI 


which  became  the  basis  of  the  famous  Maine 
Liquor   Law. 

Ap'pleton,  Jesse,  an  American  theologian: 
b.  in  New  Ipswich,  N.  H.,  17  Nov.  1772;  d.  in 
Brunswick,  Me.,  12  Nov.  1819.  After  his  grad- 
uation from  Dartmouth  College  in  1792  he  was 
ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational  Church 
at  Hampton,  N.  H.,  in  1797.  He  was  president 
of  Bowdoin  College,  1807-19.  A  man  of  fine 
culture  and  attractive  personality,  he  was  con- 
stantly in  demand  as  a  preacher  on  important 
occasions.  His  daughter  married  President 
Franklin  Pierce.  His  lectures,  sermons,  and 
other  writings,  with  a  memoir,  were  published 
by  Prof.  A.  S.  Packard,  'The  Works  of  Jesse 
Appleton,  D.D.'   (1837). 

Ap'pleton,  John,  an  American  diplomatist: 
b.  in  Beverly,  Mass.,  1815;  d.  in  1864.  He  was 
secretary  of  the  American  legation  at  London, 
1855-6,  assistant  secretary  of  state  in  1857,  and 
minister  to  Russia,   1860-1. 

Ap'pleton,  John  Howard,  an  American 
scientist:  b.  in  Portland.  Me.,  3  Feb.  1844.  He 
was  graduated  from  Brown  University  in  1863 
and  was  instructor  in  chemistry  there  1863-89, 
and  professor  since  1868.  He  has  been  profes- 
sor of  chemistry  at  Brown.  He  was  a  membjr 
of  the  United  Slates  Mint  Commission  in  1891. 
His  chemical  text-books  have  been  widely  used, 
and    include     "Qualitative    Chemical     Analysis' 

(1878)  ;  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis'  (1881)  ; 
'Chemistry  of  the  Non-Metals'  (1884):  'Met- 
als of  the  Chemist'  (1891);  'The  Carbon  Com- 
pounds'   (1892). 

Ap'pleton,  Nathan,  an  American  mer- 
chant: b.  in  New  Ipswich,  N.  H.,  in  1779;  d.  in 
1861.  He  started  the  first  cotton  power-loom 
in  the  United  States  and  was  one  of  the  foun- 
ders of  the  city  of  Lowell.  He  sat  several 
times   in   the   Massachusetts   legislature,   and   in 

1830  and  again  in  1842  was  a  member  of  Con- 
gress. 

Ap'pleton,  Samuel,  an  American  mer- 
chant, well-known  as  a  philanthropist,  brother 
of  Nathan  Appleton  (q.v.)  :  b.  in  New  Ipswich, 
N.  H.,  in  1766;  d.  in  1853.  He  retired  from 
business  in  1823  and  at  his  death  bequeathed 
$200,000  for  benevolent  and  scientific  purposes. 

Ap'pleton,  Thomas  Gold,  an  American 
author  and  artist:  b.  in  Boston,  Mass.,  31  March 
1812;  d.  in  New  York  city,  17  April  1884.  He 
was    graduated    from    Harvard    University    in 

1831  and  spent  much  of  his  life  abroad.  A 
generous  patron  of  the  fine  arts,  he  was  himself 
an  amateur  painter  of  considerable  ability.  In 
society  he  was  a  well-known  figure,  being  a 
brilliant  talker  with  a  gift  of  epigram.  His 
witticism,  'Good  Americans,  When  They  Die, 
Go  to  Paris,'  has  been  erroneously  ascribed  to 
I '.  W.  Holmes  and  others.  His  books  are :  'A 
Sheaf  of  Papers'  (1874);  'Nile  Journal' 
(1876);    'Chequer    Work:    Tales    and    Essays' 

(1879)  ;  'Syrian  Sunshine'  (1877)  ;  'Windfalls5 
(1878).  His  poem  "Faded  Leaves."  was  once 
popular.  See  Susan  Hale,  'Life  and  Letters' 
(1885). 

Ap'pleton,  William  Henry,  an  American 
publisher,  the  eldest  son  of  Daniel  Appleton 
(q.v.):  b.  in  Haverhill,  Mass.,  27  Jan.  1814; 
d.  in  1884.  In  1835  he  was  sent  to  represent  his 
father's  firm  in  London,  and  in  1836  a  perma- 
nent    agency   was    established    there.     In     1838 


he  was  taken  into  partnership,  and  upon  the  re- 
tirement of  his  father  in  184S  ho  formed  a  co- 
partnership with  his  brothers  to  continue  the 
house  of  Daniel  Appleton  &  Co. 

Ap'pleton,  Wis.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Outagamie  County,  on  the  Fox  River  and  the 
Chicago  &  N.  W.  and  the  Chicago.  M.  &  St.  P. 
R.R.'s,  25  miles  southwest  of  Green  Bay.  It  is 
at  the  head  of  navigation  on  Lake  Winnebago 
and  on  the  Green  Bay  waterway,  on  a  plateau 
70  feet  above  the  river,  and  near  the  Grand 
Chute  rapids  whence  it  derives  excellent  power 
for  manufacturing.  The  principal  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  farm  implements,  furniture, 
paper,  flour,  pulp,  machinery,  and  woolen  and 
knit  goods.  It  is  the  seat  of  Appleton  Collegi- 
ate Institute  and  Lawrence  University  (Meth- 
odist Episcopal),  and  has  university  and  public 
school  libraries,  three  national  banks,  daily  and 
weekly  newspapers,  and  a  property  valuation  oi 
over  $3,500,000.     Pop.   (1900)   15.085. 

Appoggiatura,  a-pod'ja-too'ra,  a  musical 
term  applied  to  a  small  additional  note  of  em- 
bellishment preceding  the  note  to  which  it  is 
attached,  and  taking  away  from  the  principal 
note  a  portion  of  its  time.     It  is  expressed  thus: 


and   performed 


Long   ap- 


poggiatura invariably  occurs  on  the  beat,  and 
short  appoggiatura,  now  commonly  styled  a 
grace-note,  is  written  as  an  eighth  note  with  a 
stroke  through  the  stem. 

Appoint'ment,  the  designation  of  an  indi- 
vidual, by  the  person  or  persons  having  au- 
thority so  to  do,  to  perform  the  duties  of  some 
office  or  trust.  The  making  out  of  a  commis- 
sion is  conclusive  evidence  of  an  appointment 
to  an  office  for  holding  which  a  commission  is 
required.  I  Cranch,  U.  S.  137:  10  Pet.  U.  S.  343. 
An  appointment  is  usually  made  by  one  person 
or  a  limited  number  acting  with  special  au- 
thority, while  an  election  is  made  by  all  of  a 
class.  In  chancer}'  practice  an  appointment  is 
the  exercise  of  a  right  to  designate  the  per- 
son or  persons  who  are  to  take  the  use  of  real 
estate.     2   Washb.   R.    P.   302. 

Appold,  ap'uld,  John  George,  an  English 
mechanician  and  inventor  of  automatic  ma- 
chinery: b.  in  1800;  d  5  Aug.  1865.  He  invent- 
ed a  centrifugal  pump,  a  brake  which  was  used 
in  laying  the  Atlantic  cable,  and  a  process  for 
dressing  furs. 

Ap'pomat'tox  Court  House,  a  village  in 
Virginia.  20  miles  east  of  Lynchburg.  It  was 
the  scene.  9  April  1865,  of  Gen.  Lee's  surrender 
to  Gen.  Grant,  an  event  which  virtually  con- 
cluded the  American  Civil  War. 

Apponyi,  op'po-nyT,  Gyorgy  (George), 
Count,  a  Hungarian  statesman:  b.  [808;  d. 
1899.  He  was  Hungarian  court  chancellor  in 
1S47  and  after  some  years  of  retirement  entered 
the  Reichsrath  of  Vienna  in  1850  and  was  active 
in  furthering  schemes  for  the  welfare  of  Hun- 
gary, materially  assisting  in  bringing  about  the 
union  of  Austria-Hungary  on  the  present  basis. 
His  son  ALBERT  Apponyt,  a  leading  member  of 
the  Hungarian  diet,  is  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
orators  in  Hungary. 


APPORTIONMENT  —  APPRENTICESHIP 


Apportionment,  a  term  signifying  the 
division  or  distribution  of  a   subject-matter   in 

proportionate  parts.      In   relation  to  contracts  an 

apportionment  is  the  allow. hk-c,  in  case  of  the 
partial  performance  of  a  contract,  of  a  propor- 
tionate pari  of  what  the  party  would  have  re- 
ceived as  a  recompense  for  the  entire  perform- 
ance of  the  contract.  But  where  the  contract 
is  to  complete  a  thing  for  a  certain  sum  of 
money  or  other  consideration,  there  can  be 
no  apportionment. 

Apportionment  -  incumbrances. —  The  deter- 
mining of  the  amounts  which  each  of  several 
persons  interested  in  an  estate  shall  pay  toward 
the  removal  or  in  support  of  the  burden  of 
an    incumbrance. 

Apportionment-rent. — -A  term  denoting  the 
allotment  of  shares  in  a  rent  to  each  of  sev- 
eral persons  owning  it.  It  is  also  applied  to 
the  determination  of  the  amount  of  rent  to  be 
paid  when  the  tenancy  is  terminated  at  some  pe- 
riod other  than  one  of  the  regular  intervals  for 
the  payment  of  rent. 

Apportionment  Bill,  the  designation  of  a 
bill  adopted  by  the  United  States  Congress 
every  10  years,  and  directly  after  the  completion 
of  the  Federal  census,  determining  the  num- 
ber of  members  that  each  State  is  entitled  to 
send  to  the  National  House  of  Representatives, 
and  providing  for  the  necessary  reorganization 
of  the  Congressional  electoral  districts.  The 
number  of  representatives  has  risen  from  65 
in  1789  to  386  in  1900,  and  the  number  of  pop- 
ulation to  each  member  has  advanced  from 
30,000  to  193,175,  in  the  same  period. 

Ap'posi'tion,  a  grammatical  term  imply- 
ing the  relation  in  which  one  or  more  nouns 
or  substantive  phrases  or  clauses  stand  to  a 
noun  or  pronoun,  which  they  explain  without 
being  predicated  of  it,  and  with  which  they 
agree  in  case:  as  Cicero,  the  orator,  lived  in  the 
first  century  before  Christ ;  the  opinion  that  a 
severe  winter  is  generally  followed  by  a  good 
summer  is  a  vulgar  error. 

Ap'prehen'sion  (Latin  apprehensio,  from 
ad  +  prehendere,  to  seize),  a  term  employed  to 
denote  the  subjective  character  of  perception. 
In  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  the  act  of  attaining 
direct  acquaintance  with  any  truth  or  object  of 
knowledge  was  called  Beyuv,  which  figuratively 
means  a  touching  or  immediate  contact  with 
truth.  The  scholastics  translated  this  term 
by  the  word  apprehension,  which  has  descended 
with  modified  and  extended  meaning  to  modern 
philosophy.  This  word  has  accordingly  been 
employed  to  designate  the  act  or  faculty  (i) 
of  perceiving  anything  through  the  senses,  (2) 
of  forming  an  image  in  imagination,  (3)  of 
conceiving  without  judging,  the  so-called  sim- 
ple apprehension  of  nominalistic  logic;  or  (4) 
a  relatively  simple  and  immediate  act  of  intel- 
lection with  or  without  reference  to  an  external 
object.  In  this  use  of  the  word  it  distinguishes 
this  form  of  intellection  from  the  more  com- 
plex and  elaborated  forms  of  knowledge  de- 
noted  by  the  words  comprehension,  judgment, 
etc.  Thus,  for  example,  when  an  object  or 
event  is  viewed  apart  from  other  things  or 
events,  it  is  said  to  be  apprehended.  When 
brought  into  systematic  relations  with  kindred 
objects  of  knowledge  we  say  it  is  compre- 
hended.    Stone   makes  a   rather   important  dis- 


tinction between  implicit  and  explicit  apprehen- 
sion. Through  frequent  recognition  of  an  ob- 
jecl  of  knowledge  the  mind  acquires  the  ability 
to  distinguish  and  identify  it  as  a  whole  without 
apprehending  any  of  its  constituent  elements. 
The  act  which  thus  grasps  its  object  without 
conscious  combination  or  synthesis  of  parts  is  an 
implicit  apprehension.  If  attention  lingers  upon 
the  object,  a  tendency  toward  multiplicity  an 
the  component  parts  become  discernible,  and  im- 
plicit apprehension  becomes  explicit.  In  the  one 
there  is  a  distinctionless  unity;  in  the  other  a 
conscious  synthesis.  Implicit  apprehension  is  a 
form  of  what  Prof.  Ladd  calls  the  condensation 
of  a  series  and  is  an  important  aim  and  result  of 
correct  mental  training. 

Wundt  distinguishes  apprehension  from  ap- 
perception, or  what  we  should  call  clear  and 
self-conscious  perception,  in  a  very  suggestive 
though  highly  figurative  way.  He,  of  course, 
recognizes  that  in  a  series  of  temporally  succes- 
sive ideas  or  mental  states  the  one  immediately 
present  in  perception  has  the  most  favorable 
position  as  regards  clearness  and  distinctness. 
Likewise,  in  a  spatial  series,  or  in  a  complex 
of  simultaneously  interconnected  factors  pres- 
ent in  consciousness,  some  factors  are  more  fa- 
vorably located  than  others.  There  is,  accord- 
ingly, a  state  of  clearest  grasp  in  consciousness, 
which,  when  accompanied  by  a  special  feeling, 
is  called  attention.  This  state  of  clearest  grasp 
is  figuratively  styled  the  fixation  point  of  con- 
sciousness, or,  more  briefly,  the  inner  fixation 
point.  In  contrast  the  whole  complex  psychical 
content  is  called  the  field  of  consciousness.  A 
conscious  process  which  passes  into  an  uncon- 
scious state  is  said  to  pass  below  the  threshold 
of  consciousness.  A  psychical  compound  which 
enters  the  field  of  consciousness  passes  on  to 
the  inner  fixation  point,  then  out  again  into  the 
field,  and  finally  descends  below  the  threshold, 
is  an  apperceived  compound.  But  just  as  such 
compounds  may  enter  the  field  of  consciousness 
before  leaching  the  point  of  fixation,  so  may 
other  compounds  enter  the  field  and  pass  out 
again  without  entering  the  fixation  point  at  all. 
Such  compounds  are  only  apprehended.  Thus 
it  appears  that  Wundt's  distinction  between  ap- 
prehension and  apperception  is  simply  one  of 
relative  clearness  and  distinctness  of  percep- 
tion. Perceptions  that  are  vague  and  unclear 
are  called  apprehensions,  while  those  which  are 
clear,  self-conscious,  and  voluntary  are  apper- 
ceptions. Consult  Wundt.  'Outlines  of  Psychol- 
ogy' (1897);  Stout,  'Analytical  Psychology' 
(1806). 

In  law,  refers  to  the  capture  or  arrest  of 
a  person  on  a  charge  of  having  violated  the 
criminal  law.  Apprehension  is  the  term  usu- 
ally applied  to  criminal  cases,  as  one  having 
the  power,  by  virtue  of  his  office,  may  arrest 
on  civil  process  and  apprehend  on  a  civil  war- 
rant.     See  Arrest. 

Apprenticeship,  in  law,  a  contract  by 
which  a  person  called  a  master,  who  understands 
some  art,  trade,  or  business,  undertakes  to  teach 
the  same  to  another  person,  commonly  a  minor, 
and  called  the  apprentice,  who,  on  his  part,  is 
bound  to  serve  the  master,  during  a  definite 
period  of  time,  in  such  art,  trade,  or  business. 
At  common  law  an  infant  may  bind  himself 
apprentice  by  indenture,  because  it  is  for  his 
benefit.     But   this    contract,    on    account    of   its 


APPROPRIATION 


liability  to  abuse,  has  been  regulated  by  statute 
in  the  United  States,  and  is  not  binding  upon 
the  infant  unless  entered  into  by  him  with  the 
consent  of  the  parent  or  guardian,  or  by  the 
parent  or  guardian  for  him,  with  his  con- 
sent. The  contract  need  not  specify  the  par- 
ticular trade  to  be  taught,  but  is  sufficient  if 
it  be  a  contract  to  teach  such  manual  occupa- 
tion or  branch  of  business  as  shall  be  found 
best  suited  to  the  genius  or  capacity  of  the  ap- 
prentice. This  contract  must  generally  be  en- 
tered into  by  indenture  or  deed.  The  contract 
is  to  continue,  if  the  apprentice  be  a  male,  only 
during  minority,  and  if  a  female  only  until 
she  arrives  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  The  duties 
of  the  master  are  to  instruct  the  apprentice  by 
teaching  him  the  knowledge  of  the  art  which  he 
had  undertaken  to  teach  him,  though  he  will  be 
excused  for  not  making  a  good  workman  if 
the  apprentice  is  incapable  of  learning  the  trade, 
the  burden  of  proving  which  is  on  the  master. 
Ordinarily  the  indenture  should  contain,  among 
other  things,  a  stipulation  that  the  apprentice 
shall  be  taught  the  general  rules  of  arithmetic. 
The  master  must  not  abuse  his  authority,  either 
by  bad  treatment  or  by  subjecting  his  apprentice 
to  menial  employments  unconnected  with  the 
business  he  has  to  learn ;  but  he  may  correct 
him  with  moderation  for  negligence  and  misbe- 
havior. He  cannot  dismiss  his  apprentice  ex- 
cept by  consent  of  all  the  parties  to  the  inden- 
ture. He  cannot  remove  the  apprentice  out  of 
the  State  under  the  laws  of  which  he  was  ap- 
prenticed unless  such  removal  is  provided  for 
in  the  contract  or  may  be  implied  in  its  nature; 
and  if  he  do  so  remove  him  the  contract  ceases 
to  be  obligatory.  An  infant  apprentice  is  not 
capable  in  law  of  consenting  to  his  own  dis- 
charge. After  the  apprenticeship  is  at  an  end 
the  master  cannot  retain  the  apprentice  on  the 
ground  that  he  has  not  fulfilled  his  contract, 
unless  specially  authorized  by  statute.  An  ap- 
prentice is  bound  to  obey  his  master  in  all  his 
lawful  commands,  take  care  of  his  property, 
promote  his  interests,  endeavor  to  learn  his 
trade  or  business,  and  perform  all  the  covenants 
in  his  indenture  not  contrary  to  law.  He  must 
not  leave  his  master's  service  during  the  term 
of  the  apprenticeship.  If,  without  the  know- 
ledge or  consent  of  the  master,  an  apprentice  is 
employed  by  a  third  person,  the  master  is  en- 
titled to  all  his  earnings,  whether  the  person 
who  employed  him  did  or  did  not  know  that  he 
was  an  apprentice.  In  an  action  for  harboring 
or  enticing  away  an  apprentice  it  must  be  shown 
that  the  defendant  had  a  knowledge  of  the  ap- 
prenticeship. The  enlistment  of  an  apprentice 
in  the  military  service  dissolves  the  relation  of 
master  and  servant,  and  the  master  has  no  claim 
to  the  bounty  money  or  pay  of  the  apprentice  so 
enlisted.  A  master  cannot  delegate  to  another 
the  power  to  chastise  his  apprentice,  as  his  au- 
thority is  a  personal  one.  At  common  law  an 
apprenticeship  is  a  relation  which  cannot  be  as- 
signed, but  if  under  such  an  assignment  the 
apprentice  continue  with  his  new  master  with 
the  consent  of  all  the  parties  and  his  own,  it 
will  be  construed  as  a  continuation  of  the  old 
apprenticeship. 

Appro'pria'tion,  a  term  denoting  a  specific 
sum    set    apart    for    the    legislative    power    for 
a  designated  purpose.     In  the  United  States    no 
Vol.  i — 39 


money  can  be  drawn  from  the  Treasury  ex- 
cepting by  appropriations  made  by  law  (Con- 
stitution, art.  i).  Under  this  clause  it  is  ne- 
cessary for  Congress  to  appropriate  money  for 
the  support  of  the  Federal  government  and  in 
payment  of  claims  against  it.  All  bills  for 
appropriating  money  originate  in  the  House 
of  Representatives,  but  may  be  amended  in 
the  Senate.  The  same  procedure  is  observed  in 
the  several  States. 

Appropriation  of  payments  refers  to  the  ap- 
plication of  a  payment  made  to  a  creditor  by 
his  debtor,  to  one  or  more  of  several  debts. 
The  debtor  has  the  first  right  of  appropriation. 
No  precise  words  are  required  of  him,  his  in- 
tention when  made  known  being  sufficient,  but 
such  facts  must  be  proved  as  will  lead  a  jury  to 
infer  that  he  did  intend  to  make  the  specific 
appropriation  claimed.  An  entry  made  by  the 
debtor  in  his  own  book  at  the  time  of  pay- 
ment is  an  appropriation  if  made  known  to 
the  creditor,  but  otherwise  if  not  made  known 
to  him.  The  same  rule  applies  to  a  creditor's 
entry  communicated  to  his  debtor.  If  the  debt- 
or does  not  apply  the  payment,  the  creditor 
may  do  so.  There  are,  however,  some  restric- 
tions upon  this  right.  The  debtor  must  have 
known  and  waived  his  right  to  appropriate. 
Hence  an  agent  cannot  always  apply  his  prin- 
cipal's payment.  He  cannot,  upon  receipt  of 
money  due  his  principal,  apply  the  funds  to 
debts  due  himself  as  agent,  selecting  those 
barred  by  the  statute  of  limitations.  A  cred- 
itor having  several  demands  may  apply  the 
payments  to  a  debt  not  secured  by  sureties, 
where  other  rules  do  not  prohibit  it.  The 
court  will  direct  the  application  of  a  payment 
upon  the  failure  of  both  debtor  and  creditor  to 
do  so.  Payments  made  on  account  are  first  to 
be  applied  to  the  interest  due  thereon  at  the 
time  of  payment,  and  if  the  payment  exceed  the 
amount  of  interest,  the  balance  goes  to  extin- 
guish the  principal.  3  Sandf.  Ch.  N.  Y.  608; 
11  Paige  Ch.  N.  Y.  619.  Funds  must  be  ap- 
plied by  the  creditor  to  a  judgment  bearing  in- 
terest, in  preference  to  an  unliquidated  account. 
When  no  other  rules  of  appropriation  intervene, 
the  law  applies  part-payments  to  debts  in  the 
order  of  time,  discharging  the  oldest  first.  The 
general  rule  is  that  neither  debtor  nor  creditor 
can  so  apply  a  payment  as  to  affect  the  liability 
of  sureties  without  their  consent.  Where  a 
principal  makes  general  payments  the  law  pre- 
sumes them,  prima  facie,  to  be  made  upon  debts 
guaranteed  by  a  surety  rather  than  upon  others, 
although  circumstances  and  intent  will  control 
this  rule,  as  they  do  other  rules  of  appropriation. 
S  Leigh,  Va.  329.  Payments  upon  continuous  ac- 
counts are  applied  to  the  earliest  items  of  ac- 
count unless  a  different  intent  can  be  inferred. 
5  Mete.  Mass.  268;  23  Me.  24;  3  Sumn.  C.  C.  98. 
Where  a  creditor  of  an  old  firm  continues  his 
account  with  the  new  firm,  payments  by  the 
latter  will  be  applied  to  the  old  debt,  prima 
facie,  the  preceding  rule  of  continuous  accounts 
guiding  the  appropriations.  A  different  in- 
tent, however,  clearly  proved,  will  prevail.  The 
appropriation  cannot  be  changed,  when  once 
made,  but  by  common  consent,  and  rendering 
an  account  and  bringing  suit  declaring  in  a 
particular  way  is  evidence  of  an  appropriation. 
9   Paige,   Ch.   N.   Y.    165. 


APPROXIMATION  — A  PRIORI 


Approximation,  a  term  in  mathematics 
signifying  a  continual  approach  to  a  quantity 
required,  when  no  process  is  known  for  arriving 
at  it  exactly.  Although,  by  such  an  approxima- 
tion, the  exact  value  of  a  quantity  cannot  be 
discovered,  yet  in  practice  it  may  be  found 
sufficiently  correct;  thus  the  diagonal  of  a 
square  wl  s  are  represented  by  unity   is 

\  2,  the  exact  value  of  which  quantity  cannot 
be  obtained;  but  its  approximate  value  may  be 
substituted  in  the  nicest  calculations.  This 
process  is  the  basis  of  many  calculations  in 
pure  and  applied  mathematics,  and  is  of  fre- 
quent use  and  great  importance  in  all  practical 
ions. 

Appur'tenance,  in  legal  phraseology  any- 
thing belonging  to  another  thing  as  principal, 
and  which  passes  as  incident  to  the  principal 
thing.  10  Pet.  U.  S.  25;  I  Serg.  &  R.  Pa. 
169.  For  instance,  if  a  house  and  land  be 
conveyed,  everything  passes  which  is  necessary 
to  the  full  enjoyment  thereof  and  which  is  in 
use  as  incident  or  appurtenant  thereto.  If  a 
house  is  blown  down,  a  new  one  erected  there 
shall  have  the  old  appurtenances.  4  Coke  86. 
The  appurtenances  of  a  ship  include  whatever 
is  on  hoard  of  it  for  the  objects  of  the  voy- 
age and  adventure  in  which  she  is  engaged, 
and  which  belong  to  her  owner. 

Aprax'ia,  a  term  denoting  a  loss  of  power 
to  appreciate  the  use  and  nature  of  common 
objects.  Thus  a  patient  with  this  affection 
might  try  to  comb  his  hair  with  a  tooth-brush 
or  blacken  his  boots  with  a  dinner-plate.  It 
is  a  purely  psychical  disorder  and  frequently 
accompanies  aphasia. 

Apraxin,  a-praks'in,  Feodor  Matejevitch, 
a  Russian  admiral:  b.  in  1671  ;  d.  in  Moscow 
in  1724.  He  may  be  considered  as  the  creator 
of  the  Russian  navy  and  was  the  most  power- 
ful and  influential  person  at  the  court  of  Peter 
the  Great,  who  made  him  chief  admiral.  In 
1708  he  defeated  the  Swedish  general  Liibecker 
in  Ingermannland  and  saved  the  newly  built 
city  of  St.  Petersburg  from  destruction.  In 
1 713  he  took  Helsingfors  and  Borgo  and  de- 
feated the  Swedish  fleet.  He  was  twice  fined 
for  embezzlement,  but,  being  too  useful  to  be 
dispensed  with,  Peter,  in  both  instances,  neutral- 
ized the  effects  of  the  condemnation  by  confer- 
ring upon  him  additional  riches  and  dignities. 

Apraxin,  a-praksln.  Stepan  Fedorovitch, 
a  Russian  general,  grandson  of  F.  M.  Apraxin 
(q.v.)  :  b.  in  1702;  d.  in  1760.  He  defeated  the 
army  of  Frederick  the  Great  at  Gross-Jagern- 
dorf  in  1757.  but.  omitting  to  follow  up  his  vic- 
tory by  proceeding  to  Berlin,  was  tried  by 
court-martial,  but  died  before  sentence  was 
pronounced. 

Apricot,  a  small  tree  (Primus  artnenia- 
ca),  of  the  natural  order  Rosacea,  long  grown 
for  its  fruit  and  supposed  to  be  a  native  of 
China,  whence  it  reached  Europe  by  way  of 
western  Asia  in  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great.  The  fruit  resembles  the  peach  in  form, 
color,  and  its  downy  skin,  and  has  a  large, 
smooth,  or  slightly  furrowed  plum-like  pit.  It 
usually  ripens  earlier  than  either  the  peach 
or  the  plum.  The  choice  varieties,  of  which, 
considering  the  length  of  time  that  it  has  been 
in  cultivation,  there  are  comparatively  few,  are 
firmer,  less  juicy,  but   probably   higher  flavored 


than  the  peach.  The  tree  is  plum-like  in  leaf 
.mil  habit  and  peach-like  in  bark.  The  apricot 
demands  practically  the  same  general  manage- 
ment and  is  as  hardy  as  the  peach  and  succeeds 
in   similar  climates  and   situations. 

Eastern  Apricot  Growing. —  Though  grown 
to  some  extent  in  the  eastern  United  States,  the 
apricot  has  not  become  widely  popular  for 
four  principal  reasons:  it--  susceptibility  to  in- 
jury from  late  spring  frosts  which  destroy  the 
very  early  appearing  blossoms;  the  attacks  of  its 
special  enemy,  the  cttrculio  (see  Plum);  in- 
complete knowledge  of  suitable  stocks  upon 
which  to  work  it  so  as  to  ensure  its  most  per- 
fect growth  in  various  soils,  etc.;  and  ignorance 
of  us  dessert  qualities,  probably  owing  to  the 
lack  of  systematic  exploitation  by  nurserymen. 
Best  results  seem  to  be  obtained  upon  the  d 
dry,  gravelly  loams  suited  to  the  apple,  where 
such  lands  are  situated  on  the  leeward  side  of 
large  bodies  of  water  or  elevated  and  facing  the 
north.  The  trees  are  usually  set  20  feet  apart 
and  cultivated  like  the  peach,  but  since  the 
fruit-hearing  habit  is  similar  to  that  of  both 
the  plum  (on  spurs)  and  the  peach  (on  wood 
of  the  previous  season's  growth),  priming  ic- 
sembles  most  nearly  that  of  the  plum.  When 
properly  managed  and  grown  under  favorable 
conditions  the  apricot  probably  equals  the  peach 
in  productiveness,  but  like  other  tree  fruits  the 
fruit  must  be  systematically  thinned  to  obtain 
miens  of  good  size  and  to  prevent  bearing 
in  alternate  years.  Since  the  apricot  is  even 
more  a  dessert  fruit  than  the  peach  and  must  be 
carefully  grown,  picked,  packed,  and  marketed, 
only  the  most  careful  Eastern  fruit  growers 
attempt  its  extensive  cultivation.  The  chief 
disease,  leaf-spot,  is  treated  under  Peach. 

California  Apricot  Crowing.— Though  the 
apricot  has  been  known  in  California  for  more 
than  a  century  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Missions, 
where  it  was  grown  mainly  from  seeds,  it  has 
become  commercially  important  only  since 
American  occupancy,  in  the  early  years  of 
which  improved  varieties  were  introduced  from 
Europe.  In  the  Old  World  these  varieties  were 
trained  to  walls  and  otherwise  coddled ;  in 
California  they  require  no  such  treatment.  As 
a  consequence  the  apricot  has  become  a  leading 
fruit  of  the  State  where  in  1899  more  than 
40.000  acres  were  devoted  to  this  crop.  The 
world-wide  demand  for  the  fruit,  fresh,  dried, 
canned,  and  candied,  is  fostering  still  wider 
planting,  and  California,  already  the  greatest 
apricot-growing  region  of  the  world,  seems  des- 
tined to  be  still  greater.  The  tree  is  found  to 
succeed  well  on  the  higher  ground  of  interior 
valleys  upon  a  variety  of  soils,  but,  as  in  the 
East,  is  susceptible  in  the  low  ground  to  injury 
by  late  spring  frosts.  For  detailed  account  of 
California  apricot-growing,  consult  Bailey  'Cy- 
clopedia of  American  Horticulture,'  (igoo-2). 

A  Priori  ("from  what  goes  before""),  a 
phrase  applied  to  a  mode  of  reasoning  by  which 
we  proceed  from  general  principles  or  notions 
to  particular  cases,  as  opposed  to  a  posteriori 
("from  what  comes  after")  reasoning,  by  which 
we  proceed  from  knowledge  previously  acquired. 
Mathematical  proofs  are  of  the  a  priori  kind ; 
the  conclusions  of  experimental  science  are  a 
posteriori.  It  is  also  a  term  applied  to  know- 
ledge independent  of  all  experience. 


APSLEY  STRAIT  — APULEIUS 


Apsides,  ap'si-dez  (the  plural  of  Apse  or 
Apsis),  an  astronomical  term  designating  the 
two  points  in  the  elliptic  orbit  of  a  planet  where 
it  is  at  the  greatest  and  the  least  distance 
respectively  from  the  body  around  which  it 
revolves.  The  moon  moving  in  an  elliptic  orbit 
around  the  earth,  which  is  situated  in  one  of 
the  foci,  is  at  what  was  anciently  called  its 
higher  apse  when  in  apogee,  and  at  its  lower 
one  when  in  perigee.  Similarly,  the  primary 
planets,  including  the  earth  and  some  of  the 
comets,  moving  in  elliptic  orbits  around  the 
sun,  which  is  situated  in  one  of  the  foci,  pass 
through  their  higher  apse  when  in  aphelion, 
and  their  lower  one  when  in  perihelion.  It  is 
the  same  with  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  when  they 
are  farthest   from  Jupiter  and  nearest  to  it. 

The  line  of  the  apsides  is  the  line  connecting 
the  two  apsides  of  a  primary  or  secondary 
planet. 

The  progression  of  the  moon's  apsides  is  a 
slow  movement  in  the  position  of  the  apsides 
of  the  moon,  produced  by  the  perturbing  at- 
traction of  other  heavenly  bodies.  It  is  about 
three  degrees  of  angular  motion,  in  one  revo- 
lution of  the  moon,  and  in  the  same  direction 
as  her  progression  in  her  orbit.  The  apsides  of 
the  primary  planets  are  also  perturbed. 

Ap'sley  Strait,  a  narrow  channel  between 
Melville  and  Bathurst  Islands,  off  the  north 
coast  of  Australia.  It  is  about  40  miles  in 
length,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  2  to  5 
miles.  The  land  is  low  on  either  side,  and  the 
shores  bordered  by  a  broad  belt  of  impene- 
trable mangroves,  and  indented  by  numer- 
ous salt-water  creeks,  which  present  the  ap- 
pearance of  rivers.  Alligators  of  enormous  size 
abound  in  the  Straits,  many  of  them  measuring 
from  14  to  17  feet  in  length.  A  settlement 
was  formed  in  1824,  on  the  Melville  Island  side 
of  the  channel,  about  8  or  10  miles  from  its 
northern  entrance,  but  subsequently  abandoned. 

Ap'teryx,  a  strange  flightless  bird  of  New 
Zealand,  representing  the  Apteryges,  a  group 
of  ratite  birds  nearly  related  to  the  extinct 
dinornis.  Four  or  five  species  are  known  in  the 
various  islands  of  the  New  Zealand  group, 
besides  two  fossil  species.  These  curious  birds, 
called  "kiwis"  by  the  natives,  are  about  the  size 
of  domestic  fowl  and  have  very  stout  legs, 
wings  reduced  to  a  mere  useless  stump,  long 
snipe-like  beaks,  and  no  visible  tail.  The  plu- 
mage is  colored  in  streaked  browns  and  grays, 
and  the  feathers  are  incomplete,  the  disunited 
filaments  giving  them  the  appearance  and  feeling 
of  coarse  hairs.  Kiwis  inhabit  the  forested 
hills,  going  about  in  small  flocks  which  during 
the  day  hide  in  the  thickets  or  in  cavities  of  the 
ground  or  rocks.  They  sleep  during  the  bright 
part  of  the  day  rolled  up  into  a  ball,  but  some- 
times rest  for  a  long  period  in  a  standing  posi- 
tion, with  the  point  of  the  bill  touching  the 
ground,  as  though  they  were  leaning  upon  it. 
Their  feeding-time  is  in  the  dusk  of  early 
morning  and  at  evening,  and  their  diet  consists 
chiefly  of  worms,  which  they  search  for  appar- 
ently mainly  by  the  sense  of  smell,  and  obtain 
by  probing  the  ground  with  their  long  bills. 
The  nostrils  are  at  the  tip  of  the  beak,  which 
is  also  flexible  and  extremely  sensitive  to  the 
touch,   so   that  a  worm   may  be  detected   when 


it  is  touched,  although  the  bill  may  need  to  be 
thrust  its  whole  length  into  the  ground.  The 
nest  is  usually  at  the  end  of  a  round  tunnel  dug 
in  soft  earth  by  the  female,  and  consists  of  a 
little  dry  fern  or  a  few  leaves.  The  eggs,  gen- 
erally two  in  number  and  incubated  mainly 
by  the  male,  are  remarkable  for  their  size, 
since  they  are  equal  to  a  quarter  of  the  mother's 
weight.  They  are  greenish  white  in  color  with 
a  smooth  surface.  As  might  be  expected  from 
the  size  of  the  egg,  the  development  of  the 
young  reaches  a  high  degree  of  maturity  before 
hatching.  The  Maories  are  very  fond  of  the 
flesh  of  the  kiwi,  either  roasted  or  boiled,  and 
their  persistent  hunting  had  greatly  decreased 
the  number  of  the  birds  before  white  men 
reached  the  islands.  Since  that  time  dogs  and 
other  accompaniments  of  civilization  have  near- 
ly exterminated  these  birds,  which  are  the  sole 
survivors  of  the  moas.  The  most  complete 
description  of  their  habits  will  be  found  in 
Buller's  'Birds  of  New  Zealand'  (second  edi- 
tion, 1888 ).  For  anatomical  details  and  rela- 
tionships see  Parker's  memoirs  in  the  'Philo- 
sophical Transactions'  for  1891  and  1892.  A 
good  summary  of  this  information  will  be  found 
in  Newton's  'Dictionary  of  Birds'  (1896).  See 
Dixornis;  Moa. 

Ap'thorp,  William  Foster,  an  American 
dramatic  and  musical  critic :  b.  in  Boston,  Mass., 
24  Oct.  1848.  He  was  graduated  from  Har- 
vard University  in  1869  and  pursued  his  musi- 
cal studies  under  J.  K.  Paine  and  B.  J.  Lang. 
He  taught  in  the  New  England  Conservatory 
and  College  of  Music  to  1884,  was  musical 
critic  for  the  'Atlantic  Monthly'  1872-6;  the 
Boston  Sunday  Courier  1876-8;  and  the  Evening 
Traveler  1878-80.  He  has  been  musical  and  dra- 
matic critic  for  the  Boston  Evening  Transcript 
since  1881,  and  was  the  critical  editor  of  Scrib- 
ner's  'Cyclopaedia  of  Music  and  Musicians.' 
He  has  written  'Hector  Berlioz'  (1879)  :  (By 
the  Way'  ;  'Music  and  Music  Lovers';  'Opera, 
Past   and  Present.' 

Apule'ius,  or  Appuleius,  Lucius,  a  satirist 
and  philosopher  of  the  2d  century :  b.  at  Ma- 
daura,  in  Numidia ;  the  time  of  his  death  is 
unknown.  He  was  author  of  the  celebrated 
satirical  romance  called  the  'Golden  Ass.'  He 
first  studied  at  Carthage,  then  renowned  as  a 
school  of  literature,  and  afterward  went  to 
Athens,  where  he  became  an  ardent  follower  of 
the  Platonic  philosophy.  Falling  ill  while  on 
a  journey  he  was  hospitably  received  in  the 
house  of  Sicineus  Pontianus,  a  former  fellow- 
student,  whose  widowed  mother  Apuleius  mar- 
ried. Soon  after  Pontianus  died,  and  the  rela- 
tives of  the  rich  widow  publicly  accused 
Apuleius  of  having  used  magical  arts  to  gain  her 
love.  The  speech  by  which  he  successfully 
defended  himself,  'Apologia  sive  Oratio  de  Ma- 
gia,'  is  still  extant.  The  remainder  of  his  life, 
which  he  devoted  to  oratory  and  literature, 
seems  to  have  been  passed  at  Carthage,  where. 
as  in  some  other  cities,  a  statue  was  erected 
in  his  honor.  His  'Metamorphoses.'  'Golden 
Ass,'  a  romance  in  eleven  books,  contains  wit, 
humor,  powerful  satire,  and  much  poetical  mer- 
it. It  is  supposed  to  have  been  intended  as  a 
satire  on  the  hypocrisy  and  debaucherv  of  cer- 
tain orders  of  priests,  on  the  tricks  of  pretend- 
ers to  supernatural  powers,  and  on  the  prevalent 
vices   generally.    The   finest   part   of  this   work 


APULIA  —  AQUARIUM 


is  the  episode  of  Psyche,  called  by  Herder  the 
most  tender  and  many-sided  of  all  romances. 
It  is  sufficient  to  render  him  immortal,  even  if 
he  be,  as  some  have  supposed,  only  the  narrator, 
and  not  the  inventor  of  the  story.  Apuleius 
was  also  the  author  of  many  works  on  philoso- 
phy and  rhetoric,  some  of  which  are  slill  extant. 
Cervantes,  Le  Sage,  Boccaccio,  and  others  are 
indebted  to  Apuleius  for  various  episodes.  See 
edition  of  his  complete  works,  Hildebrand 
(184.');  Van  Vliel  n 897-1 900).  An  English 
translation  by  Head  was  published  in  Bohn's 
Classical  Library  in  1851. 

Apulia,  a  province  of  southern  Italy, 
composed  of  the  provinces  of  Foggia,  Bari,  and 
Lecce;  area.  8,539  square  miles;  pop.  (1901) 
1,949.425.  The  northern  part  forms  the  Apu- 
lian  Plain,  a  rather  barren  tract  on  the  whole, 
although  affording  extensive  sheep  pastures  and 
isolated  spots  capable  of  cultivation,  on  which 
wine,  olives,  southern  fruits,  and  maize  are 
grown.  The  surface  of  the  plain  is  not  quite 
level,  but  diversified  by  broad  undulations  cross- 
ing one  another  at  right  angles.  The  southern 
portion  is  traversed  from  west  to  east  by  low 
ranges  of  hills.  In  the  extreme  northeast  of 
this  part  of  the  province  rises  close  to  the  sea 
the  isolated  mountain  Gargano,  which  attains 
the  height  of  nearly  5,000  feet.  The  most  im- 
portant river  is  the  Ofanto  (Aufidus).  There 
are  four  coast-lakes  of  considerable  size.  Lake 
Salsi  dries  up  in  a  great  part  in  summer;  and 
on  its  banks  are  the  great  salt-boiling  works 
of  Barletta.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in 
grain,  oil,  salt,  southern  fruits,  cattle,  wool,  etc. 
Apulia  was  in  ancient  times  inhabited  by  sever- 
al peoples,  such  as  the  Apuli,  Messapii,  and 
Daunii.  It  was  subdued  by  the  Romans  in  317 
B.C. 

Apure,  a'poo-ra',  a  river  in  Venezuela, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  several  streams  is- 
suing from  the  Sierra  de  Merida.  After  an 
eastern  course  of  about  300  miles  it  falls  into 
the  Orinoco  at  Capuchino.  It  is  navigable 
throughout  almost  its   entire  course. 

Apurimac,  a-poo're-mak',  the  name  of  a 
department  of  Peru,  embracing  a  territory  of 
8,187  square  miles  and  lying  between  the  de- 
partments of  Cuzco  and  Ayacucho.  Its  capital 
is  Abancay.     Pop.  (estimated,  1902)   178,000. 

Apurimac,  a  Peruvian  river  in  South 
America,  the  outlet  of  a  lake  in  the  Andes  of 
Peru,  in  the  province  of  Arequipa,  not  far  from 
Caylloma.  It  is  probably  the  tributary  of  the 
Amazon  rising  nearest  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It 
Rows  through  a  mountainous  country  in  a 
herly  direction,  and,  joining  the  Yucay  or 
Vilcamayu  at  lat.  9°  15'  S. ;  Ion.  72°  30'  W., 
forms  the  Ucayale,  one  of  the  principal  trib- 
utaries of  the  Amazon.  Its  entire  extent  is 
between    500    and    600    miles. 

A'pus,  a  name  designating  a  fresh-water 
phyllopod  crustacean,  remarkable  for  having  47 
body-segments,  20  being  the  normal  number  in 
Crustacea.  It  also  has  60  pairs  of  limbs,  cer- 
tain segments  bearing  as  many  as  six  pairs  of 
legs,  the  normal  number  in  all  arthropods  being 
no  more  than  a  single  pair  to  a  segment.  The 
body  is  protected  by  a  large  carapace  resem- 
bling that  of  the  king-crab  (q.v.)  in  that  it  is 
adapted  for  burrowing  in  soft  mud  at  the  bot- 
tom of  lakes  or  pools.     Apus  is  locally  distrib- 


uted over  western  North  America,  Asia,  and 
Australia.     One     form     (Lepidurus     elai 

lives  in  pools  in  the  Arctic  regions.  It  under- 
goes a  complete  metamorphosis,  its  larva  being 
a  "Nauplius"  (q.v.).  The  family  (Apodidtc) 
appears  to  be  of  high  antiquity,  since  the  im- 
pression of  an  obscure  crustacean  (Protncaris), 
generally  referred  to  it,  has  been  detected  in  the 
lower  Cambrian  rocks  of  Vermont.  See  Pack- 
ard, 'Monograph  of  North  American  Phyllopod 
Crustacea'  (1883);  Bernard,  'The  Apodidie* 
(1892).    See  Phyllopoda. 

A'qua  (Latin,  water),  a  word  used  by  the 
alchemists  and  early  chemists  for  solutions  or 
other  fluid  preparations  in  which  the  men- 
struum is  water.  Aqua  ammonite  ('ammonia 
water")  is  an  aqueous  solution  of  ammonia  gas 
(NHj).  Aqua  forlis  ("strong  water")  is  ni- 
tric acid.  Aqua  rcgia  ("royal  water")  is  a  mix- 
ture of  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  the  name 
(bestowed  by  Basil  Valentine)  referring  to  its 
power  of  dissolving  gold  and  other  so-called 
noble  metals.  Aqua  vita  ("water  of  life"),  so- 
called  by  Avicenna,  is  common  grain  all 
The  word  "aqua"  is  still  in  general  use  in  phar- 
macy for  designating  aqueous  solutions  or  in- 
fusions. 

A'quae  So'lis,  the  ancient  Roman  name  of 
the  modern  English  city  of  Bath.  It  was  famed 
for  the  splendor  of  its  buildings  and  its  many 
springs,  and  the  remains  of  several  Roman  baths 
have  been  discovered  here. 

Aquamarine,  a-kwa-ma-ren'  (from  the 
Latin  aqua  marina,  "sea  water"),  a  bluish-green 
variety  of  beryl  (q.v.)  esteemed  as  a  gem. 
Siberia  and  Brazil  have  long  been  celebrated 
localities,  while  magnificent  gem  material  has 
lately  been  mined  in  North  Carolina. 

Aqua'rians,  a  name  applied  to  Christian 
ascetics  in  the  primitive  Church,  who  consecrat- 
ed water  instead  of  wine  for  the  celebration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper  —  either  for  the  sake  of  ab- 
stinence, or  because  they  thought  it  unlawful  to 
drink  wine. 

Aqua'rium  (Latin,  a  watering-place  for 
cattle,  from  aqua,  water),  a  term  applied  to  a 
tank  or  smaller  receptacle  filled  with  water 
and  stocked  with  aquatic  animals  and  plants 
for  study,  or,  in  the  smaller  examples,  for 
mere  beauty  and  interest.  To  maintain  nat- 
ural conditions,  both  plants  and  animals  must 
be  present  —  the  plants  to  give  off  oxygen  for 
the  animals,  as  well  as  to  furnish  food  for 
many  of  them,  and  the  animals  to  supply  car- 
bonic acid  to  the  plants.  Unless  there  is  some 
arrangement  for  constant  or  frequent  renewal 
of  the  water,  it  should  often  be  aerated.  Dip- 
ping it  up  and  pouring  it  in  again  from  a  height 
will  do  this,  if  there  is  no  less  primitive  way. 
The  aquarium  is  provided  with  sea  water  or 
fresh  water  according  as  marine  or  fresh-water 
life  is  to  be  kept ;  when  it  is  difficult  to  secure 
sea  water  for  a  marine  aquarium,  one  may  pre- 
pare a  substitute  by  dissolving  common  salt, 
epsom  salts,  and  certain  other  salts  in  the 
proper  proportions  in  fresh  water;  but,  when 
thus  artificially  prepared,  salt  water  is  not  fit 
for  the  reception  of  animals  until  certain  plants, 
particularly  species  of  Ulva,  a  genus  of  green 
algse,  have  lived  in  it.  With  aeration  and  the 
removal  of  any  dead  animal  or  rotting  plant, 
the  water  may  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  a 


AQUARIUM 


I  and  2.     BALANCED    A<  lUARIA 


3.     MAIN    HALL    OF    NEW    YORK    AQI  ARIUM 


AQUARIUS;  AQUATIC   ANIMALS 


long  time  if  supplied  with  a  number  of  mol- 
lusks  for  the  consumption  of  the  too  abundant 
growth  of  the  algae  and  of  their  spores,  which, 
otherwise,  soon  fill  and  discolor  the  water. 
When  aquaria  are  placed  in  insufficient  light, 
noxious  fungi  sometimes  develop  in  them,  doing 
injury  to  the  other  inmates.  Fresh-water 
fishes  in  particular  are  subject  to  fungous  para- 
sites which  attack  their  eyes,  gills,  or  any  chance 
wound.  They  may  frequently  be  cured  by  a 
bath  in  a  strong  solution  of  common  salt,  which 
affects  them  severely,  but  from  which  they  re- 
cover if  washed  in  an  abundant  stream  of  fresh 
water.  The  large  public  aquaria  which  exist 
in  many  cities  are  a  great  aid  to  students  and 
a  constant  source  of  entertainment  to  the  people. 
In  America  the  aquarium  of  the  United  States 
Fish  Commission  at  Washington  and  the  New 
York  city  Aquarium  are  most  important.  The 
latter  is  under  the  control  of  the  Department  of 
Parks  and  was  established  in  1897  in  old  Fort 
Clinton  (known  for  many  years  as  Castle  Gar- 
den) on  the  Battery.  It  is  entirely  free  and  has 
a  daily  average  of  4,000  visitors;  both  marine 
and  fresh-water  animals  are  exhibited.  In  the 
floor  are  seven  large  pools,  and  the  wall  tanks 
number  nearly  100.  All  the  arrangements  are 
the  best  which  experience  has  yet  suggested, 
and  opportunities  for  special  study  of  ichthyol- 
ogy and  the  natural  history  of  marine  animals 
are  afforded.  In  Europe  the  aquarium  at  Brigh- 
ton, England,  and  particularly  that  connected 
with  the  Marine  Laboratory  at  Naples,  are  of 
the  greatest  interest  and  importance.  The  most 
recent  American  work  on  the  construction  and 
management  of  an  aquarium  is  G.  E.  Smith's 
'The  Home  Aquarium.5  For  information  upon 
the  sea-animals  suitable  for  keeping  in  a  marine 
aquarium  consult  Verrill,  'Invertebrates  of 
Vineyard  Sound,'  in  the  annual  reports  of  the 
LTnited  States  Fish  Commission  for  1871-2. 
Ernest  Ingersoll, 
Editorial  Staff,  'Encyclopedia  Americana.'' 

Aqua'rius  (the  water-bearer),  in  astron- 
omy, (1)  the  nth  of  the  twelve  ancient  zodiacal 
constellations,  now  eenerally  called  signs  of 
the  Zodiac.  (2)  A  division  of  the  ecliptic  — 
that  between  3000  and  330°  of  longitude,  which, 
on  account  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes, 
has  gradually  advanced  from  the  constellation 
Aquarius,  once  within  those  limits.  The  sun 
enters  this  part  of  his  course  about  the  21st  of 
January,  at  which  time  there  are  generally 
copious  rains  in  Italy,  whence  the  name  Aqua- 
rius =  the  water-bearer  or  water-man.  (Her- 
schel's  'Astronomy,'  §§  380,  381.)  It  is 
marked  thus   XtRi . 

Aquat'ic  Animals,  a  term  denoting  animals 
living  constantly  in  water,  and  also  those  which 
swim  on  its  surface  or  plunge  beneath  it  for 
food.  While  the  great  majority  of  crustaceans 
are  aquatic,  a  few,  such  as  the  wood-louse  and 
the  land  crab,  are  modified  for  life  ashore. 
Among  mollusks  there  is  occurrence  of  both 
aquatic  and  terrestrial  habit,  while  numerous 
forms  illustrate  the  transition  from  the  former 
to  the  latter.  The  ascidians  are  exclusively 
marine.  Some  fishes  have  a  limited  power  of 
life  out  of  the  water,  the  double-breathing  Dip- 
noi being  in  this  connection  especially  instruc- 
tive. Among  many  amphibians  the  transition 
from  water  to  terra  tirma  is  seen  in  the  individ- 


ual life-history,  when  the  fish-like  gilled  tadpole 
becomes  the  lunged  gill-less  frog;  while  in  a 
few  exceptional  cases,  such  as  the  black  sala- 
mander of  the  Alps,  the  life  is  terrestrial  from 
first  to  last,  and  even  the  young  dispense  with 
their  preliminary  swim  as  tadpoles,  although  a 
brief  recapitulation  of  their  aquatic  life  is  still 
represented  by  a  gilled  stage  within  the  body  of 
the  parent.  The  instance  of  the  gilled  axolotl 
becoming,  in  the  absence  of  sufficient  water,  the 
gill-less  amblystoma,  forcibly  illustrates  the  im- 
portance of  the  medium  as  a  factor  in  evolution. 
Among  reptiles  there  are  numerous  aquatic 
forms, —  chelonians,  lizards,  snakes,  and  croco- 
diles,—  though  the  absence  of  any  gill  respiration 
marks  the  progressive  general  adaptation  to  ter- 
restrial life.  While  an  emphatically  terrestrial 
amphibian  like  the  tree-frog  seeks  a  watery 
hole  for  the  rearing  of  the  young  gill-breathing 
tadpoles,  the  habit  is  reversed  in  such  reptiles  as 
the  sea  turtle,  which,  having  returned  to  the  more 
primitive  aquatic  home,  yet  revisits  the  land 
for  egg-laying  purposes.  The  cradle  of  the 
young  in  both  cases  indicates  the  ancestral  habit 
of  the  parent.  Among  the  emphatically  aerial 
birds  there  are  cases,  like  that  of  the  penguin, 
where  the  structure  has  become  adapted  to  an 
almost  exclusively  aquatic  life.  Among  mam- 
mals, the  sea-cow,  the  seal,  and  the  whale  are 
familiar  illustrations  of  very  different  types 
which  have  returned  to  the  primeval  watery 
home  and  aquatic  habit,  with  consequent  change 
of  structure. 

It  is  important  to  note  the  general  fact  that, 
in  the  water,  animals  are  subjected  to  influences 
somewhat  different  in  detail  from  those  which 
mold  their  congeners  ashore.  Even  contact  with 
a  different  medium,  varying  in  composition,  in 
currents,  in  pressure,  in  contained  food  and 
oxygen,  and  the  like,  obviously  involves  a  great 
diversity  in  structure.  Modes  of  motion,  from 
the  swimming-bell  of  a  medusoid  contracting 
and  expanding  in  the  tide,  to  that  of  the  lowest 
vertebrates  as  illustrated  in  the  pelagic  tuni- 
cates,  or  from  the  paddling  of  worm  and  crus- 
tacean to  that  of  fish  and  frog,  duck  and  seal, 
are  at  once  familiar  adaptations  to,  and  neces- 
sary results  of  aquatic  life.  Similarly  the 
smooth  and  frequently  fish-like  form,  especially 
of  actively  locomotive  water-animals,  is  a  very 
noticeable  adaptive  result  of  the  conditions  of 
life.  In  the  more  thoroughly  aquatic  animals, 
which  have  remained  in  the  primitive  environ- 
ment, and  not  merely  returned  to  it,  the  blood 
is  usually  purified  by  being  spread  out  on 
feathery  gills  which  catch  the  oxygen  dissolved 
in  the  water ;  while  in  terrestrial  forms  which 
have  betaken  themselves  to  an  aquatic  life,  the 
ordinary  direct  "air-breathing" .  is  still  accom- 
plished at  the  surface  of  the  water,  or  in  some 
isolated  cases  of  insects  and  spiders,  by  means 
of  the  air  entangled  in  their  hairs,  or  even  con- 
veyed into  their  submerged  homes.  The  aquatic 
respiration  of  some  larval  insects,  the  power 
that  some  crustaceans  and  fishes  have  of  keep- 
ing up  a  respiration  on  land  with  a  minimum  of 
water  about  their  gills,  and.  above  all,  the  cases 
of  the  double-breathing  fishes  or  Dipnoi,  and  of 
amphibians  already  referred  to,  are  especially 
instructive  in  regard  to  the  problem  of  transi- 
tion from  one  medium  to  the  other.  The  gen- 
uinely aquatic  animals  are  known  to  have  a 
body   temperature   not    much   higher    than   that 


AQUATIC  PLANTS  — AQUEDUCT 


of  the  surrounding  medium,  and  often  survive- 
even  the  freezing  of  the  water;  while  in  the 
higher    warm-blooded    vi  which    have 

returned  to  an  aquatic  habit,  various  modifica- 
tions, such  as  thick  fur  and  plumage,  waterproof 
varnish,  formation  of  blubber,  serve  as  protec- 
tions against   the  o 

Aquat'ic  Plants,  a  term  applied  to  plants 
growing  in  or  belonging  to  water.  All  vegeta- 
tion was  probably  aquatic  at  first,  certain  plants 
ming  terrestrial  by  degrees.  Numerous 
plants  are.  moreover,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word  aquatic,  having  never  acquired  or  having 
lost  all  direct  connection  with  the  soil.  1  he 
algae  are  mainly  aquatic,  though  many  occur  in 
damp  situations  <>n  land,  or  on  other  organisms, 
while  Others  remain  for  long  periods  quiescent 
in  comparative  dryness.  Many  algae  are  abso- 
lutely  isolated  in  the  water,  while  others  are 
more  or  less  intimately  fixed  to  some  solid 
substratum.  Fungi  are  very  seldom  found  in 
water,  and  lichens  are  also  emphatically  terres- 
trial. Sonic  liverworts,  again,  occur  floating  in 
lakes,  but  the  majority  grow  in  very  damp 
places  and  mark  the  transition  to  the  generally 
terrestrial  life  of  mosses  and  ferns.  Some  rhiz- 
ocarps,  such  as  Salvinia,  are  aquatic,  with  leaves 
rising  to  the  surface,  while  others  are  land  or 
marsh  plants,  like  the  higher  horse-tails  and 
club-mosses. 

Among  the  flowering  plants,  or  phanero- 
gams, a  return  to  aquatic  life  is  exhibited  by 
numerous  though  exceptional  cases,  while 
a  very  large  number  grow  in  moist  situations 
and  have  a  semi-aquatic  habit.  The  simple 
monocotyledons,  known  as  Helobia,  or  marsh 
lilies,  are  more  or  less  strictly  water-plants. 
The  arrow-head  (Sagittaria),  and  other  Alisma- 
cca;  the  Butomis  of  the  marshes;  Hydrocharis, 
with  floating  kidney-shaped  leaves;  the  water- 
soldier  (Stratiotes),  with  narrow  submerged 
leaves;  and  the  Canadian  pond-weed  {Jiujcha- 
ris),  which,  though  entirely  flowerless  in  Eu- 
rope, threatens  to  choke  some  canals  and  lakes, 
arc  familiar  representatives.  The  little  duck- 
weed (Lcmna),  floating  on  the  surface  of  stag- 
nant   pools,    is   one   of   the   commonest   aquatic 

mon 11  ns;    and    the    pond-weeds    (Pota- 

jik'u)  found  in  both  fresh  and  salt  water:  the 
lattice-plant  (Ouvirandra),  with  its  skeleton 
leaves;  various  estuarine  and  fresh-water  naia- 
daceous  plants, —  for  example,  Zostcra  and  .Xaias, 
are  also  common  instances,  while  those  grow- 
ing in  marshy  ground  are  far  too  numerous  to 
mention.  Among  dicotyledons  the  white  water- 
buttercup  (Ranunculus  aquaiilis'),  with  its 
slightly  divided  floating  and  much  dissected 
submerged  leaves;  the  yellow  and  white  water- 
lilies  (Nymphaa)  ;  the  sacred  lotus  flower  of  the 
Ganges  and  Nile  (Nelumbium) ;  the  gigantic 
Victoria  rcgia  of  tropical  South  America;  and 
the  insectivorous  bladderwort  or  b'tricularia, 
are  among  the  more  familiar  aquatic  forms. 

A'quatin'ta,  the  name  given  to  a  method  of 
engraving  or  etching  upon  copper  or  steel,  in- 
d  bj  I  i  prince  in  1760.  The  outline  of  the 
subject  having  been  etched  and  bit,  the  plate 
thoroughly  cleansed,  and  a  thin  layer  of  etch- 
ing ground  is  again  spread  over  it.  When  dry, 
the  parts  of  the  subject  to  be  aquatintcd  are 
carefully  painted  over  with  a  mixture  of  olive 
oil,  turpentine,  and  lamp-black;  this  fluid,  laid 
on  with  a  hair  pencil,  quickly  dissolves  the  parts 


of  the  ground  it  covers,  which  are  then  wiped 
in  plate  is  next  dusted  all  over  with  a 
finely-powdered  white  resin  or  mastic,  and 
when  equally  distributed  the  superfluous  resin 
is  shaken  off,  and  the  plate  gently  heated  over 
a  charcoal  fire  till  the  resin  di  olves  and  ad- 
heres to  the  bare  metal.  In  dissolving,  the 
grains  of  the  resin  run  into  small  granule--, 
leaving  minute  and  peculiarly  shaped  portions 
of  the  metal  open  to  the  action  of  the  aquafor- 
tis, a  weak  solution  of  which  is  then  poured 
over  the  plate.  When  corroded  to  the  proper 
strength  the  subject  has  acquired  what  may  he 
termed  the  first  wash  of  color.  I  In-  plate  is 
then  cleaned,  re-covered  with  ground,  and  treat- 
ed as  before,  for  the  second  tint.  The  process  is 
repealed  until  all  the  deeper  tones  of  shading 
are  completed.  These  operations  arc  some- 
times reversed,  the  darkest  shades  being  first 
bit  in,  and  the  lighter  ones  added  by  degrees. 

Aq'ueduct,  a  term  denoting  an  artificial 
channel  or  conduit  for  the  conveyance  of  water 
from  one  place  to  another ;  more  particularly 
applied  to  great  architectural  structures  for 
conveying  water  from  distant  sources  for  the 
supply  of  large  cities,  until  the  recent  develop- 
ment of  water-ways  on  a  large  scale  for  irri- 
gation, mining,  and  power  has  brought  this 
term  into  more  general  use.  Works  for  supply- 
ing communities  with  water  must  have  been 
constructed  at  a  very  early  period.  In  China 
there  are  said  to  be  aqueducts  dating  back  to 
prehistoric  times.  In  Persia  and  Assyria  there 
arc  structures  whose  remains  indicate  that  they 
were  used  for  aqueducts,  hut  their  history  is 
not  clear.  Recent  excavations  at  Jerusalem 
have  laid  hare  wells  and  channels  cut  in  the 
solid  rock,  and  indicate  that  the  water  supply 
of  the  city  was  brought  from  the  neighborhood 
of  Bethlehem  and  Hebron.  These  channels 
seem  to  have  been  composed  of  earthen  pipes 
incased  in  stones  and  covered  with  rough  rocks 
cemented  together.  It  is  supposed  that  King 
Solomon  built  aqueducts;  others  are  ascribed 
to  Rameses  the  Great,  in  Egypt,  and  to  Semi- 
ramis  in  Assyria.  There  are  also  early  remains 
at  Palmyra  in  the  wilderness.  In  the  island 
of  Samos  have  recently  been  discovered  re- 
mains of  a  tunnel  nearly  a  mile  long  and  con- 
taining water-pipes  about  nine  inches  in  diame- 
ter. These  may  have  been  built  in  687  B.C.  by 
Eupalinos  of  Megara.  Water  was  brought  to 
Athens  from  Mount  Hymettos  and  Mount 
Pentelikon ;  Thebes,  Megara,  Pharsalos,  and 
other  places  also  had  aqueducts.  In  Patara,  a 
city  of  Lycia.  in  Asia  Minor,  there  is  a  very  an- 
cient aqueduct  consisting  of  an  embankment 
of  rough  stone  250  feet  high  and  200  feet  long, 
with  an  archway  at  the  centre  of  the  valley,  al- 
lowing the  stream  to  pass  through  it  under- 
neath. The  channels  for  the  water  consist  of 
cubical  stone  blocks  about  a  yard  in  dimension, 
with  a  hole  13  inches  in  diameter,  the  blocks 
being  closely  connected  and  cemented  together. 
Roman  Aqueducts. —  While  the  Greeks  devel- 
oped underground  water-ways  and  canals,  and 
followed  simple  methods,  the  Romans  under  their 
great  engineers  produced  massive  structures  for 
carrying  water  at  a  high  level  across  valleys 
and  plains.  At  first  Rome  was  satisfied  with 
water  from  the  Tiber,  from  wells,  and  the 
abundant  springs  which  gushed  forth  within 
its    precincts.        Four    hundred    and    forty-two 


AQUEDUCT 


years  preceded  the  first  aqueduct,  which  was 
the  joint  work  of  Appius  Claudius  Caecus  and 
Caius  Plautius  Venox,  censors  in  312  B.C.  Ap- 
pius Claudius  built  the  conduit,  Venox  discov- 
ered the  springs.  The  entire  length  of  the 
aqueduct  was  16,445  metres,  or  about  10  miles, 
and  it  furnished  115,303  cubic  metres  a  day. 
The  second  aqueduct  was  begun  in  272  B.C.  by 
Manius  Curius  Dentatus,  and  was  finished  three 
years  later.  Its  length  was  63,704  metres,  or 
about  45  miles,  and  it  furnished  277,866  cubic 
metres  a  day ;  it  was  not  used  for  drinking, 
but  for  irrigating  gardens  and  flushing  drains. 
In  144  B.C.  the  Senate  determined  to  repair  the 
two  old  aqueducts  and  build  a  new  one.  This 
work  was  begun  by  Quintus  Marcius  Rex.  The 
Marcian  aqueduct  brought  the  water  from  36 
miles  away  in  the  territory  of  Arsoli,  and  fed 
water  to  the  highest  platform  of  the  capitol.  It 
was  restored  in  33  B.C.,  and  Augustine  doubled 
the  supply  of  water  in  5  B.C.  In  79  a.d.  Titus 
repaired  it ;  in  196  Septimius  Severus  brought 
in  a  new  supply  for  his  baths;  in  212-3  Cara- 
calla  cleaned  out  the  springs,  added  a  new  one, 
and  restored  the  aqueduct,  building  a  branch 
four  miles  in  length  for  his  baths ;  in  305-6  Di- 
ocletian performed  the  same  service.  The  via- 
ducts and  bridges  by  which  it  crossed  the  high- 
lands are  magnificent.  There  are  seven  bridges, 
some  of  them  carrying  four  aqueducts.  The 
Marcian  reaches  Rome  at  the  Porta  Maggiore, 
where  no  less  than  10  water  supplies  met.  It 
was  restored  as  recently  as  1869  and  brings  a 
water  supply  from  the  Sabine  Mountains.  The 
noble  arches  which  stretch  across  the  Cam- 
pagna  for  some  six  miles  on  the  road  to  Fras- 
cati  are  a  portion  of  this  aqueduct.  The  Aqua 
Tepula  and  Aqua  Julia,  combined  by  Agrippa 
in  23  B.C.,  had  a  length,  the  one  of  17.745 
metres,  or  10  miles,  the  other  of  22.853  metres, 
or  about  12  miles,  and  a  combined  flow  of  104.- 
300  cubic  metres  a  day.  Of  the  nine  aqueducts 
which  brought  water  to  ancient  Rome,  three 
still  supply  the  modern  city,  namely,  the  Aqua 
Virgo,  now  Acqua  Vergine,  finished  by  Agrippa, 
27  B.c,  and  restored  by  Pope  Nicholas  V.  in 
1453;  the  Aqua  Trajana,  now  Acqua  Paolo; 
and  the  Aqua  Marcia. 

The  Romans  also  constructed  important 
aqueducts  for  the  cities  throughout  their  em- 
pire. In  120  a.d.  the  emperor  Hadrian  con- 
structed the  aqueduct  of  Saghuan,  which  sup- 
plied Carthage  with  water,  bringing  it  by 
arched  bridges  of  stone  or  concrete  about  60 
miles.  This  aqueduct  still  supplies  Tunis  with 
water.  Hannibal  is  said  to  have  erected  an 
aqueduct  at  Martorell,  in  Spain.  The  aqueduct 
of  Alcantara,  also  in  Spain,  stretches  over  the 
Tajo.  and  is  125  feet  high,  with  a  span  of  over 
100  feet.  There  are  other  Spanish  aqueducts 
at  Chelves,  at  Merida,  over  the  Albareges,  and 
at  Segovia.  That  at  Segovia  was  originally 
built  by  the  Romans,  has  in  some  parts  two 
tiers  of  arcades  100  feet  high,  is  2.921  feet  in 
length,  and  is  one  of  the  most  admired  works 
of  antiquity.  The  one  at  Evora,  in  Portugal, 
is  still  in  excellent  condition.  One  of  the  finest 
aqueducts  in  Europe  is  the  Pont  du  Gard,  built 
in  the  3d  or  4th  century,  or  possibly  by  Agrippa, 
19  B.c,  at  Nimes,  in  southern  France.  It  is 
still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  It  is 
higher  than  any  about  Rome  itself,  being  fully 
180  feet  in  height,  and  the  length  of  its  highest 


arcade  is  873  feet.  It  is  composed  of  three 
tins  of  arches,  each  less  wide  than  the  one 
below,  and  is  admirably  constructed  of  large 
stones,  with  no  cement  used  except  for  the 
canal  on  the  top.  There  is  an  aqueduct  at 
Paris,  built  by  Julian  in  360  a.  d.,  also  a  very 
important  aqueduct  at  Constantinople,  built  by 
Hadrian  and  restored  by  Theodosius.  Since 
1S85  the  water  has  been  furnished  the  city  by 
an  aqueduct  built  by  a  French  company,  taking 
the  supply  from  Lake  Derkos,  whence  the  water 
is  pumped  358  feet  into  a  reservoir.  The  ruins 
of  an  aqueduct  exist  at  Mayence,  and  those  of 
another  near  Metz,  Germany.  The  aqueduct  at 
Spoleto,  Italy,  is  attributed  by  some  to  the  East 
Gothic  king  Theodoric,  in  500  a.  a,  and  by  others 
to  Theodelapius,  the  third  Duke  of  Spoleto,  604 
a.d.  It  is  built  of  brick  and  rests  between  two 
steep  cliffs  on  10  arches,  and  is  290  feet  in 
height  and  231  yards  in  length.  The  ground 
plan  is  apparently  Roman,  while  the  pointed 
arches  indicate  a  restoration  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury. Many  important  aqueducts  are  found 
in  more  recent  times.  One  of  the  most  remark- 
able rs  that  constructed  by  Louis  XIV.,  in  1684, 
to  convey  the  waters  of  the  Eure  from  Point 
Gouin  to  Versailles.  Troops  to  the  number  of 
40,000  were  employed  in  this  great  undertaking. 
Thousands  of  these  men  died  during  the  pro- 
gress of  the  work,  which  was  interrupted  during 
the  war  of  1688  and  never  resumed.  The  bridge 
at  Maintenon,  forming  part  of  this  aqueduct, 
even  in  its  incomplete  state  is,  in  point  of  mag- 
nitude, the  grandest  structure  of  the  kind  in 
the  world.  The  remains  consist  of  47  arches, 
each  42  feet  wide  and  83  feet  high.  The  piers 
are  25  feet  6  inches  thick. 

The  first  important  aqueduct  in  England  was 
built  in  1613,  to  conduct  the  waters  of  the  New 
River  to  London,  over  a  distance  of  20  miles. 
Wooden  aqueducts  were  first  used,  but  were 
replaced  by  embankments.  Very  large  works 
were  constructed  during  several  years,  ending 
in  1877,  to  bring  water  from  Longdendale.  be- 
tween Sheffield  and  Manchester,  to  the  latter 
city.  In  this  instance  the  aqueducts  consist  for 
the  most  part  of  tunnel  and  covered  conduit, 
but  for  eight  miles  the  water  is  conveyed  in 
large  cast-iron  pipes  laid  along  or  under  the 
public  roads.  Before  the  Longdendale  works 
were  finished  the  question  of  a  greater  supply- 
had  to  be  considered.  This  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  scheme  for  bringing  water  from 
Lake  Thirlmere  in  Cumberland  to  Manchester. 
The  length  of  the  line  is  nearly  100  miles,  and 
the  works  were  carried  out  in  1885-94.  A  tun- 
nel, about  three  miles  in  length  and  270  feet 
below  the  surface,  forms  the  first  part  of  the 
aqueduct.  There  are  13%  miles  of  tunnels.  38 
miles  of  shallow  tunnels  cut  from  the  surface, 
and  44'<  miles  of  siphon  pipes  of  40  inches 
diameter.  The  aqueduct  passes  under  Dunmail 
Raise,  north  of  Grasmere,  Ambleside,  Winder- 
mere, and  Kendal,  to  the  east  of  Lancaster  and 
Preston,  across  the  Rivers  Lune  and  Ribble, 
past  Chorley,  and  west  of  Bolton.  The  ultimate 
supply  is  50,000.000  gallons  daily:  the  cost,  $21.- 
500,000.  In  Scotland,  the  Loch  Katrine  aque- 
duct supplies  Glasgow  with  water  coming  from 
a  distance  of  26  miles.  An  aqueduct  was  built 
in  1738,  conducting  water  for  a  distance  of  about 
nine  miles  into  the  city  of  Lisbon.  For  a  part 
of  the  way  it  is  underground,  but  near  the  city 


AQUEOUS  HUMOR;  AQUEOUS  ROCKS 


is  carried  over  a  deep  valley  for  a  distance  of 
2,400  feet,  on  several  arches,  the  largest  of 
which  has  a  span  of  115  feet,  and  is  250  feet 
high.  The  aqueduct  of  Caserta,  in  Italy,  was 
built  in  1573  by  Vanvitclli,  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  the  gardens  of  Caserta  with  water 
in. 111  Monte  Taburno,  a  distance  of  25  miles, 
h  now  conducts  the  water  to  Naples  and  crosses 
jo  valleys;  the  last  15  miles  the  water  is  carried 
in  iron  pipes.  The  Canal  dc  Marseilles,  in 
France,  is  57  miles  in  length.  It  conveys  water 
from  the  River  Burance  to  Marseilles,  and  is 
a  magnificent  specimen  of  engineering.  It  was 
finished  in  1847.  At  Roquefavour  it  crosses  a 
valley  on  a  bridge,  the  length  of  which  is  1.290 
feet.  The  Vienna  aqueduct,  nearly  60  miles 
long,  was  finished  in  1873.  At  several  places  in 
its  course  there  are  extensive  aqueduct  bridges, 
built  either  entirely  of  stone  or  of  stone  and 
brick.  This  aqueduct  supplies  20,000,000  gal- 
lons of  water  per  day.  In  America  are  a  num- 
ber of  important  aqueducts.  For  125  years  the 
city  of  Otumba,  in  Mexico,  received  its  supply 
of  water  through  the  aqueduct  of  Zempoala,  a 
canal  27  miles  long,  which,  though  said  to  be 
in  almost  perfect  condition,  has  not  been  used 
since  1700.  New  York  is  supplied  with  water 
from  the  Croton  River,  which  falls  into  the 
Hudson  above  Sing  Sing.  The  first  aqueduct, 
which  was  constructed  between  the  years  1837 
and  1842,  at  a  cost  of  $12,500,000,  is  38  miles 
long  with  a  general  declivity  of  13^4  inches  to 
the  mile,  and  is  eight  feet  five  inches  in  height, 
and  seven  feet  eight  inches  in  greatest  breadth. 
Stone,  brick,  and  cement  are  used  for  the  en- 
casing masonry.  The  conduit,  where  it  crosses 
the  Harlem  River,  was  carried  in  iron  pipes 
over  a  splendid  bridge  150  feet  above  the  river. 
Although  an  important  and  well-executed  work 
this  aqueduct  was  soon  found  to  be  inadequate 
for  the  greater  city,  and  a  new  and  larger  reser- 
voir and  aqueduct  were  put  into  service  in  1890. 
The  water-way  is  33  miles  long,  29  of  which 
lies  in  a  tunnel  through  rock,  where  a  horseshoe- 
shaped  brick,  or  stone  and  cement  conduit  13!^ 
feet  high  is  constructed.  At  the  Harlem  River 
this  water  is  carried  through  an  inverted  siphon 
300  feet  beneath  the  river.  The  siphon  has 
been  used  also  to  carry  water  under  the  Danube 
at  Nansdorf,  Germany.  It  replaces  the  old 
Roman  arched  water-way  and  is  possible  since 
the  system  of  building  ceiled  conduits  has  come 
into  general  use.  The  first  aqueduct  for  sup- 
plying Boston  with  water  was  built  in  1846-8, 
30  years  later  an  aqueduct  was  built  to  carry 
water  from  the  Sudbury  River  to  Boston.  This 
line  crosses  the  Charles  River  on  a  larje  stone 
arch  known  as  Echo  Bridge,  and  has  a  fine 
bridge  also  in  the  Waban  valley.  As  the  city 
demanded  a  still  greater  supply  an  immense 
reservoir  was  projected  to  retain  65.000.000,- 
000  gallons  of  water  in  the  Nashua  valley  near 
Clinton,  Mass.,  from  which  the  water  is  to  be 
conducted  to  the  Metropolitan  district  of  Bos- 
ton. With  this  it  is  said  the  city  will  have  a 
supply  of  400.000,000  gallons  of  water  daily. 
The  cities  on  the  Great  Lakes  require  a  peculiar 
system  for  supplying  water.  Tunnels  are  built 
out  under  the  lakes  (four  miles  at  Chicago)  to 
secure  unpolluted  water,  and  though  of  simple 
masonry,  are  difficult  to  construct.  The  great 
canals,  such  as  the  Suez,  the  projected  Panama 
Canal,  and  the  Chicago  Drainage  Canal  are  really 


aqueducts.  The  latter  was  completed  in  i8<)9 
at  a  cost  of  $33,000,000.  It  carries  300,000 
gallons  of  water  per  minute  from  the  Chicago 
River  and  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Illinois  River. 
A  unique  aqueduct  was  built  in  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
in  1845.  A  canal  was  suspended  from  two 
cables  across  seven  spans  of  160  feet  each.  The 
demands  of  irrigation  have  required  the  con- 
struction of  many  aqueducts.  In  the  western 
United  States  there  are  thousands  of  miles  of 
canals,  with  dams,  tunnels,  and  costly  bridges. 
In  British  India,  where  the  rainfall  is  uncertain, 
the  government  has  constructed  the  Ganges 
Canal,  which  takes  the  most  of  the  water  from 
that  river  and  distributes  it  over  a  vast  area. 
In  the  development  of  water-power  some  large 
aqueducts  have  been  constructed.  At  Niagara 
Falls  a  canal  leading  from  the  falls  ha>  been 
cut  in  solid  rock.  In  the  mining  regions, 
water-ways  and  flumes  arc  constructed  of  con- 
siderable proportion,  but  generally  of  a  very 
temporary  character  and  hardly  to  be  consid- 
ered as  aqueducts.  See  Canals;  Dams; 
Flumes;  Irrigation;  Water- Power;  Water- 
Works. 

A'queous  Hu'mor,  the  designation  of  the 
transparent  lymphatic  fluid  in  the  anterior 
chamber  of  the  eye,  or  that  portion  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  eye  in  front  of  the  crystalline  lens. 
In  its  chemical  composition  aqueous  humor 
closely  resembles  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid.  It  is 
a  clear  alkaline  liquid,  specific  gravity,  1003- 
1009,  and  contains  about  one  per  cent  of  solids, 
one  tenth  of  which  arc  proteids.  These  are 
fibrinogen,  scrum  albumin,  and  serum  globulin. 
Traces  of  urea  and  sarcolactic  acid  are  present. 
The  secretion  of  aqueous  humor  is  rapid.  It 
is  supposed  that  this  fluid  is  derived  from  the 
posterior  surface  of  the  iris  and  the  ciliary 
body.    See  Eye. 

A'queous  Rocks,  the  title  of  a  petrogra- 
phic  division  including  all  rocks  that  have  been 
deposited  under  water.  It  is  the  most  impor- 
tant class  of  the  sedimentary  series,  and  com- 
prises such  common  and  widely  distributed 
strata  as  sandstones,  conglomerates,  shales,  and 
limestones,  and  many  valuable  products,  as 
gypsum,  salt,  and  coal.  According  to  their  man- 
ner of  origin  the  aqueous  rocks  may  be  sub- 
divided into  (1)  mechanical  deposits,  (2) 
chemical  precipitates.  (3)  organic  accumula- 
tions. The  mechanical  deposits  have  been 
derived  from  the  disintegration  of  pre-existing 
strata  and  the  transportation  of  the  materials 
by  rivers,  tides,  and  currents.  They  are  being 
formed  at  the  present  time  beneath  the  ocean 
and  in  rivers  and  lakes.  Sandstone,  conglomer- 
ate, clay,  shale,  and  marl  are  the  most  important 
members  of  this  subdivision.  The  chemical 
precipitates  owe  their  origin  to  the  deposition 
of  materials  from  solution  either  as  a  re- 
sult of  evaporation  or  by  the  action  of  precipi- 
tating agencies.  Oolitic  limestone,  gypsum, 
rock  salt,  siliceous  sinter,  and  many  iron  ores 
are  included  in  this  subdivision.  The  organic 
accumulations  have  been  formed  from  ma- 
terials once  belonging  to  living  organisms. 
Limestones  and  chalk  represent  the  comminuted 
and  compacted  remains  of  shells,  corals,  cri- 
noids,  foraminifera,  etc.,  while  certain  organ- 
isms secrete  silica,  and  their  casts  have  accu- 
mulated in  the  form  of  infusorial  earth,  chert, 
and   fluid.     Peat  and  the  different  varieties  of 


AQUIFOLIACE.ffi  —  AQUINAS 


coal  are  deposits  of  vegetable  matter  which  has 
been  more  or  less  completely  transformed  into 
carbon  under  the  influence  of  pressure  and 
sometimes  also  of  heat. 

Aquifoliaceae,  a'qui-fo-li-a'ce-e,  the  desig- 
nation of  a  natural  order  of  plants,  composed 
of  shrubs  with  alternate  or  opposite  persistent 
leaves,  of  thick  texture  and  smooth  surface, 
with  a  toothed  margin,  the  teeth  being  some- 
times spinous.  The  flowers  are  solitary,  or 
variously  grouped  in  the  axillae  of  the  leaves. 
The  fruit  is  always  fleshy,  containing  from  two 
to  six  indehiscent  woody  or  fibrous  nucules  or 
minute  nuts  enclosing  single  seeds.  The  Amer- 
ican holly,  Ilex  opaca,  has  foliage  less  glossy, 
and  berries  less  red  than  its  European  relative, 
Ilex  aquifoliuin.  Both  are  important  commer- 
cially, being  mostly  used  for  decorative  pur- 
poses. The  genera  are  Ilex,  Cassine,  Myginda. 
The  leaves  of  a  species  of  Ilex  afford  the  famous 
Paraguay  tea.  But  one  member  of  this  order 
is  found  in  Europe,  the  common  holly  (/. 
aquifolium).  The  other  members  are  found 
sparingly  scattered  over  different  parts  of  the 
world,  especially  the  West  Indies,  South  Amer- 
ica, and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  Latin 
Ilex,  the  holm-oak  {Quercus  ilex),  belongs  to 
a  different  natural  order  from  the  holly,  and 
to  the  same  order  as  the  oak  (Corylacece). 

Aquila,  a'kwe-la,  one  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians associated  with  Saint  Paul,  was  of  Jewish 
origin  and  a  native  of  Pontus.  In  the  year 
52,  he  with  other  Jews,  was  expelled  from  Rome 
by  an  edict  of  Claudius.  He  and  his  wife  Pris- 
cilla  went  to  Corinth,  where  they  first  became 
acquainted  with  Saint  Paul.  The  apostle  shared 
their  lodgings,  at  the  same  time  assisting  them 
at  their  trade  of  weaving  tent  cloth.  He  was 
indebted  to  them  for  many  acts  of  kindness  and 
none  of  the  Christians  who  aided  him  ever  re- 
ceived such  warm  praise  from  his  pen.  See 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  xvi.  3.  There  are  many 
references  to  Aquila  in  the  New  Testament: 
Acts  xviii.  1-3,  and  26-28;  I  Corinthians  xvi.  19; 
2  Timothy  iv.  19.  Nothing  definite  is  known 
about  the  death  of  Aquila.  Though  he  led  a 
poverty-stricken  life  in  Corinth  and  Ephesus,  bet- 
ter days  came  to  him ;  for  in  the  year  58  we 
again  find  him  in  Rome,  where  he  and  Priscilla 
kept  a  house  on  the  Aventine,  large  enough  to 
be  used  as  a  sanctuary  by  the  Christians  of 
Rome,  to  whom  it  was  always  open.  Consult : 
Fouard's  'Saint  Paul  and  His  Missions'  (Chap. 
vii.)  and  'Saint  Peter  and  the  First  Years  of 
Christianity'    (Chap,  xviii). 

Rev.  James  Higgins,  D.D., 
Long   Island  City,  N.    Y. 

Aq'uila,  Johann  Kaspar,  a  celebrated  Ger- 
man Protestant  theologian :  b.  in  Augsburg  in 
1488:  d.  12  Nov.  1560.  After  studying  several 
years  in  Italy  he  was  appointed  pastor  of  Jenga, 
a  village  near  Augsburg.  Here  he  embraced 
the  doctrines  of  Luther ;  but  his  boldness  and 
zeal  in  the  cause  of  reformed  faith  led  the  bishop 
of  Augsburg  to  order  his  arrest.  Aquila  passed 
the  winter  of  1510-20  in  the  prison  of  Dillingen. 
and  from  Dillingen  he  went  to  Wittenberg, 
where  he  became  personally  acquainted  with 
Luther.  He  was  subsequently  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  at  Wittenberg,  where  he  ren- 
dered valuable  assistance  to  his  colleague  Luther 
in  his  translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  In 
1527  he  became  pastor,  and  the  following  year 
Protestant  bishop  at  Saalfeld ;  but  his  vehement 


opposition  to  the  Interim  of  Charles  V.  in  1548 
obliged  him  to  flee.  He  was  aopointed  to  the 
deanery  of  Schmalkalden  in  1550,  and  restored 
two  years  after  to  his  office  at  Saalfeld,  where, 
without  further  molestation,  he  continued  to 
discharge  his  duties   till  his  death. 

Aq'uila,  Ponticus,  a  native  of  Pontus.  who 
flourished  about  130  A.D.,  and  is  remembered 
for  his  exceedingly  c'ose  and  accurate  transla- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  into  Greek.  See 
Burkitt,  'Fragments  of  the  Book  of  Kings, 
According  to  the  Translation  of  Aquila*   (1897). 

Aquileja,  a'kwe-la'ja,  Aquileia,  or  Aglar, 
a  town  of  Austria,  22  miles  northwest  of  Trieste. 
Before  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  it  was 
the  great  emporium  of  trade  between  the  north 
and  south  of  Europe,  and  was  often  called  the 
"Second  Rome."  Caesar  Augustus  frequently  re- 
sided here,  and  several  councils  of  the  Church, 
the  first  in  381,  were  held  at  Aquileja.  In  the 
6th  century,  the  title  of  patriarch  was  taken  by 
the  bishops  of  Aquileja,  who  assumed  second 
rank  to  the  Pope.  The  town  was  destroyed  by 
Attila  in  452,  when  the  inhabitants  numbered 
100.000.  It  is  now  a  small  fishing  village  con- 
taining a  number  of  interesting  remains  of  its 
ancient  splendor,  and  often  rewarding  the  re- 
searchers of  the  antiquary  with  relics  of  value. 
Pop.  about  2,000. 

Aquinas,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  scholastic 
theologian,  related  by  birth  to  several  of  the 
royal  families  of  Europe :  b.  near  Aquino  in 
1227 ;  d.  at  Fossanora  7  March  1274.  He  stud- 
ied at  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Monte 
Casino  and  the  University  of  Naples.  About 
the  age  of  17  he  entered  a  convent  of  Domini- 
cans, much  against  the  wishes  of  his  family. 
Partly  to  evade  the  endeavors  of  his  family  to 
recover  him,  and  partly  on  account  of  the  ex- 
traordinary aptitude  he  displayed  for  theolog- 
ical studies,  his  superiors  sent  him  to  Cologne 
to  hear  the  lectures  of  the  famous  Albertus 
Magnus.  He  was  so  remarkable  for  taci- 
turnity, and  the  assiduity  and  apparent  stolid- 
ity with  which  he  pursued  his  studies,  that  he 
was  known  among  his  fellow-students  as  "the 
great  dumb  ox  of  Sicily."  His  teacher,  how- 
ever, discerned  his  abilities,  and  is  said  to  have 
foretold  that  "this  ox  would  one  day  fill  the 
world  with  his  bellowing*. "  In  1245  he  visited 
Paris  in  company  with  Albertus.  Becoming  in- 
volved in  the  dispute  between  the  University 
and  the  Begging  Friars  as  to  the  liberty  of 
teaching,  he  advocated  the  rights  claimed  by  the 
latter  with  great  energy,  and,  being  called  upon 
to  defend  his  side  in  this  controversy  before  the 
Pope,  did  so  with  complete  success.  In  1248 
he  returned  with  Albertus  to  Cologne,  but  re- 
visited Paris  in  1257,  when  he  received  the  de- 
gree of  doctor  from  the  Sorbonne  and  began  to 
lecture  on  theology,  rapidly  acquiring  the  high- 
est reputation.  The  remainder  of  the  life  of 
Aquinas  was  one  of  the  most  varied  activity. 
He  was  almost  constantly  engaged  in  lecturing 
and  preaching,  and  was  often  sent  on  distant 
journeys  in  the  service  of  his  order.  In  1263 
he  is  found  at  the  Chapter  of  the  Dominicans  in 
London.  In  1268  he  was  in  Italy,  lecturing  in 
Rome,  Bologna,  and  elsewhere.  In  1271  he  was 
again  in  Paris  iecturing  to  the  students:  in  1272 
professor  at  Naples.  In  1263  he  had  been  of- 
fered the  archbishopric  of  Naples  by  Clement 
IV.,  but  refused  the  offer.  A  general  council 
being  summoned  at  Lyons  in  1274  for  the  pur- 


AQUINAS 


pose  of  uniting  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 
Aquinas  was  called  thither  to  present  the  coun- 
cil with  a  bonk  which  he  had  written  on  the 
subject,  but  died  on  the  way.  The  honors  paid 
to  his  memory  were  prodigious:  besides  the  title 
of  Angelic  Doctor,  bestowed  on  him  after  the 
fashion  of  the  times,  he  was  called  the  Angel  of 
the  Schools,  the  Eagle  of  Divines,  and  the  Fifth 
Doctor  of  the  Church;  in  1286  he  was  made  by 
the  Dominicans  the  doctor  of  their  order 
(doctor  ordinis)  ;  at  the  request  of  the  Domini- 
cans he  was,  111  [323,  canonized  by  John  XXII., 
his  tomb  supplying  the  necessary  testimony  of 
miracles;  and  [567  was  declared  by  Pius  V.  the 
"Fifth  Doctor  of  the  Church."  The  numerous 
works  of  Vquinas  air  all  written  in  Latin.  The 
most  important  of  them  is  the  '  Summa  The- 
ologi.e,'  which,  although  only  professing  to 
treat  of  theology,  is  in  reality  designed  to  form 
a  complete  and  systematic  summary  of  the 
knowledge  of  the  time.  All  the  minor  works 
of  Aquinas  may  be  looked  upon  as  preparatory 
to  this  gnat  one.  These  are  'A  Commentary  on 
the  Four  Books  of  Sentences  of  Peter  Lom- 
1'  ;  'Quodlibeta  Disputata  et  Qu.-estiones 
Disputatx'  ;  the  'Catena  Aurea,'  or  Golden 
Chain,  in  form  of  a  commentary  on  the  four 
Gospels,  but  in  substance  an  exhaustive  expo- 
sition of  the  cardinal  doctrines  in  theology  of 
the  greatest  fathers  of  the  Church ;  and  com- 
mentaries upon  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  the  Epis- 
tles of  St.  John  the  Divine,  and  the  Psalms, 
as  well  as  upon'  Aristotle.  His  works  were 
published  in  Rome  in  1570-1  in  17  volumes, 
hut  his  'Summa  Theologiae'  has  passed  sepa- 
rately through  various  editions.  The  resem- 
blance in  thinking  and  writing  between  Augtis- 
tin  and  Aquinas  is  so  marked,  that  it  has  been 
fancifully  said  that  the  soul  of  the  one  had 
passed  into  the  body  of  the  other.  The  disci- 
ples of  Aquinas  are  called  after  him  Thomists. 
See  Werner.  <Der  Heilige  Thomas'  (1858); 
Gibelli.  'Vita  de  S.  Tomaso'  (1862);  Vaughan, 
'St.  Thomas  of  Aquino,  his  Life  and  Labours' 
(1872)  ;  Cavanagh   (1890). 

Aquinas,    Saint    Thomas,    Philosophy    of. 

The  philosophy  of  Saint  Thomas  Aquinas  is  the 
culmination  of  the  philosophic  efforts  of  the 
Christian  schools  of  the  Middle  Ages.  These 
schools,  dating  from  their  foundation  in  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne,  set  up  a  tradition  of 
Aristotelian  commentary  and  of  independent 
speculative  activity  which,  until  the  middle  of 
the  I2th  century,  were  almost  entirely  circum- 
scribed by  the  limits  of  dialectic,  or  logic.  After 
the  middle  of  the  12th  century  the  physical  and 
metaphysical  works  of  Aristotle  (q.v.)  became 
known  in  the  Christian  schools  of  Europe,  and 
with  them  were  introduced  Arabian  commen- 
taries which  interpreted  the  text  of  Aristotle 
in  a  sense  contrary  to  Christian  theism.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  13th  century  a  number  of 
Christian  teachers,  especially  Alexander  of 
Hales  and,  later,  Albert  the  Great,  undertook 
the  task  of  expounding  the  theistic  and  spirit- 
ualistic philosophy  of  the  Christian  schools  on 
the  basis  of  Aristotle's  physical  and  metaphysical 
doctrines,  rejecting  from  the  current  Aristo- 
telian teaching  whatever  they  considered  to  be 
due  to  the  influence  of  the  Arabian  commenta- 
tors. These  teachers  prepared  the  way  for 
Saint  Thomas  Aquinas  (1225-74),  whose  chief 
merit  is,  not  that  he  created  a  new  method  or 


contributed  a  new  system  of  thought,  but  that 
he  gave  to  the  work  of  his  predecessors  and 
contemporaries  a  more  compact  synthesis  and 
expounded  this  synthetic  system  with  a  sim- 
plicity and  lucidity  rarely  to  be  met  with  in 
systems  which  like  his  carry  complexity  to  a 
high  degree  of  organic  unity.  Saint  Thomas' 
most  important  works  are  the  'Summa  contra 
Gentiles'  and  the  'Summa  Theologica.'  The 
former,  begun  at  Paris  about  the  year  1257  and 
completed  some  time  between  the  years  1261 
and  1264,  was  undertaken  at  the  request  of 
Saint  Raymond  of  Pcnnafort  for  the  purpose  of 
defending  the  truths  of  Christianity  against  the 
Arabian  pantheists  and  their  followers.  It  is, 
therefore,  apologetic  rather  than  constructive 
in  method  and  contents.  The  'Summa  Theo- 
logica' was  commenced  at  Bologna  in  1271,  and 
was  never  completed.  Unlike  the  'Summa  con- 
tra Gentiles,'  it  is  constructive  in  aim  and 
method.  It  is  Saint  Thomas'  greatest  work,  his 
last  and  most  important  contribution  to  Chris- 
tian theology  and  philosophy ;  for,  although  the 
work  is  entitled  'Summa  Theologica'  and  is, 
in  fact,  a  compendious  treatise  on  all  the  ques- 
tions of  Catholic  theology,  it  is  also  a  summary 
of  philosophy.  It  begins  with  the  question  of 
the  existence  of  God,  treats  of  the  attributes 
of  God,  traces  the  origin  of  things  from  God 
and  the  return  of  man  to  God  through  Christ. 
It  deals,  therefore,  with  the  creation  and  gov- 
ernment of  the  universe,  with  the  origin  and 
nature  of  man,  with  human  destiny,  with  vir- 
tues, vices,  and  laws  —  with  all  the  great  prob- 
lems of  speculative  and  practical  philosophy. 
It  contains  the  maturer  views  of  its  author,  50 
that  whenever  discrepancies  occur  between  the 
doctrines  of  the  Summa  and  the  views  ex- 
pressed in  his  earlier  works,  the  Summa  is  to 
be  taken  as  the  key  to  the  mind  of  the  master. 

The  method  used  by  Saint  Thomas  in  all 
his  constructive  works  is  a  developed  and  per- 
fected form  of  the  dialectic  method  which 
we  find  anticipated  in  a  short  treatise  by  Gerbert 
(Pope  Sylvester  II.,  died  1003)  and  of  which 
the  first  definite  example  is  the  Sic  et  Non  of 
Abelard  (died  1142).  In  this  treatise  Abclard 
presents  in  contrast  the  affirmative  (Sic)  and 
the  negative  (Non)  opinions  of  patristic  writers 
in  reference  to  each  successive  problem  of 
Catholic  theology,  without,  however,  furnishing 
principles  by  which  the  discrepancies,  real  or 
apparent,  are  explained.  This  was,  as  far  as 
we  know,  first  done  by  Alexander  of  Hales 
(died  1245),  whose  method  was  to  set  forth 
the  arguments  against  his  thesis,  then  the  argu- 
ments for  the  thesis,  and  finally  to  answer  the 
objections.  Saint  Thomas  practically  adopted 
the  method  as  he  found  it  in  use  in  the  schools 
of  his  day,  giving  to  each  article  discussed  the 
recognized  tripartite  division  zidetur  quod  not! 
(introducing  objections),  scd  contra  (introduc- 
ing the  argument  for  his  thesis),  and  responde- 
tur  ad  primum,  etc.  (answers  to  objections). 
Underlying  this  somewhat  formal  method  was 
the  principle  which  the  schoolmen  derived 
from  Aristotle,  that  it  is  only  by  the  dialectic 
discussion  of  the  affirmative  and  negative  sides 
of  a  question  the  truth  is  to  be  discovered  and 
defined.  In  other  words,  the  faculty  of  the 
mind  on  which  philosophy  chiefly  relies  is  not 
intuition  but   ratiocination. 

In  describing  the  content  of  Saint  Thomas' 
philosophy  one  must  advert,  in  the  first  place, 


AQUINAS 


to  the  Aristotelian  mold  in  which  all  his  philo- 
sophical doctrines  are  cast.  For  him  Aristotle 
is  the  philosopher.  On  the  questions  of  method 
and  doctrine  which  divide  the  Platonists  from 
the  Aristotelians  Saint  Thomas  unhesitatingly 
and  invariably  takes  the  side  of  Aristotle.  In 
fact,  he  is  the  Christian  Aristotelian  in  the  sense 
in  which  Saint  Augustine  is  the  Christian  Pla- 
tonist.  It  would,  however,  be  fatal  to  a  proper 
estimation  of  his  philosophy  to  overlook  the 
elements  in  it  which  cannot  be  traced  to  Aris- 
totle. He  was  no  slavish  imitator ;  he  main- 
tained as  a  principle  of  method  that  the  argu- 
ment from  authority  is  (in  philosophy)  the 
weakest  of  all  arguments.  It  was  only  in  the 
age  of  decay  of  the  philosophy  of  the  schools, 
when  the  letter  rather  than  the  spirit  ruled  the 
tradition  of  Thomistic  teaching,  his  name  and 
the  name  of  Aristotle  were  invoked  as  authority 
to  put  an  end  to  all  discussion. 

To  say  that  Saint  Thomas  was  an  Aristo- 
telian means  little  when  we  remember  that  in 
his  day  there  were  mere  followers  of  Averroes, 
materialists  and  pantheists,  who  might  with 
equal  justice  claim  to  be  representatives  of  the 
Stagyrite.  Saint  Thomas  was  an  Aristotelian 
who  brought  to  the  elucidation  of  his  Master 
all  the  tradition  of  Christian  speculation  from 
Justin,  the  first  of  the  Apologists,  down  to  his 
own  immediate  predecessors  and  contempora- 
ries. The  thought  which  inspired  the  Chris- 
tian philosophers  was  that  above  the  order  of 
natural  truth,  that  is,  of  truth  which  can  be  at- 
tained and  comprehended  by  the  human  mind 
unaided,  there  is  another  order  of  truth,  the 
supernatural,  which  human  reason  cannot  of 
itself  attain,  but  which  is  known  to  us  on  the 
authority  of  divine  revelation.  Natural  truth 
belongs  to  reason,  and  supernatural  truth  to 
faith.  Christian  philosophy  from  the  beginning 
took  its  stand  on  the  principle  that  these  two 
orders  of  truth  must,  in  some  way,  be  capable 
of  harmonious  adjustment.  Rationalism  exag- 
gerated the  power  of  reason,  mysticism  tended 
to  slight  reason  and  to  emphasize  and  unduly 
extend  the  scope  of  faith.  Throughout  the  early 
Middle  Ages  these  two  tendencies  were  at  war 
with  each  other  in  the  Christian  schools.  It  is 
one  of  Saint  Thomas'  chief  titles  to  distinction 
that  he  united  in  his  system  what  is  true  in 
rationalism  with  what  is  true  in  mysticism. 
The  rationalism  of  Abelard  obliterated  all  dis- 
tinction between  supernatural  and  natural  truths, 
when  it  treated  mysteries  of  faith  as  if  they 
were  conclusions  of  theology  and  used  the 
Scriptures  as  if  they  were  sources  of  argument 
in  philosophy.  In  an  opposite  sense,  the  mys- 
ticism of  Erigena  removed  all  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  orders  of  truth,  when  it  main- 
tained that  even  truths  of  the  natural  order 
are  known  to  us  by  a  special  tlicophania.  or  di- 
vine manifestation.  Saint  Thomas  taught  that 
the  two  orders  of  truth  are  distinct :  that  our 
knowledge  of  supernatural  truth  rests  on  the 
authority  of  revelation,  while  our  knowledge 
of  natural  truth  rests  on  the  evidence  of  reason. 
He  maintained,  at  the  same  time,  that  they 
are  consonant  with  each  other,  that  since  God 
is  the  author  of  all  truth  there  can  be  no  con- 
tradiction between  what  revelation  proposes  for 
our  belief  and  what  reason  proclaims  to  be 
evident.  This  thought,  namely,  that  revelation 
is  reasonable  and  reason  divine,  crystallized  the 
fundamental  concepts  of  all  the  preceding  sys- 


tems of  Christian  speculation,  reconciled  mys- 
ticism with  rationalism  and  gave  permanent 
form  to  the  credo  ut  intelligam  and  the  intelligo 
:it  credam  of  scholasticism.  The  reconciliation 
of  reason  with  revelation  is  of  interest  not 
merely  to  the  Christian  Apologist  but  to  the 
philosopher  as  well.  For  it  is  inspired  by 
the  desire  to  establish  between  the  supernatural 
and  the  natural  that  relation  of  continuity  which 
Greek  philosophy  at  the  highest  point  of  its 
development  established  between  the  spiritual 
and  the  material. 

To  the  controversy  concerning  the  mode  or 
manner  of  the  existence  of  universals,  which, 
during  the  nth  and  12th  centuries,  had  been 
so  prominently  before  the  minds  of  philosophic 
thinkers,  Saint  Thomas  contributed  his  doctrine 
of  moderate  Realism.  The  Nominalists  con- 
tended that  universals  are  mere  names ;  the  ex- 
aggerated Realists,  influenced  for  the  most  part 
by  Plato,  maintained  that  universals  are  things 
really  existing  outside  the  mind  as  completely 
developed  universal  forms.  The  doctrine  of 
moderate  Realism  (q.v.)  is  that,  while  univer- 
sals are  not  mere  names  but  real  things,  they 
exist  outside  the  mind  not  as  full-blown  uni- 
versals but  only  as  potentially  universal  es- 
sences which  receive  their  formal  aspect  of 
universality  from  the  mind  in  the  act  by  which 
it  compares  and  discusses  individual  objects 
and  abstracts  therefrom  the  formally  universal 
concept.  Saint  Thomas  found  this  doctrine  es- 
tablished in  the  schools  of  his  time.  He  adopt- 
ed it  and  gave  to  it,  as  to  so  many  other  tenets 
of  the  schools,  its  final  and  most  clear-cut  form. 

One  of  Saint  Thomas'  most  noteworthy  con- 
tributions to  philosophy  w-as  his  elucidation  in 
the  Christian  and  theistic  sense  of  some  of 
the  more  obscure  points  of  Aristotelian  teach- 
ing. Having  before  him  a  translation  made  di- 
rectly from  the  Greek  text  —  a  translation  which 
is,  indeed,  far  from  correct,  yet  which  in  spite 
of  many  ludicrous  verbal  blunders  is  immea- 
surably superior  to  the  translations  made 
through  the  medium  of  Syriac  and  Arabic  —  he 
sought  to  free  from  the  accretion  of  Neo- 
Platonic  and  Arabian  commentary  the  original 
doctrine  of  Aristotle  on  the  question  of  the 
nature  of  the  Active  Intellect.  Rejecting  what 
may  be  called  the  transcendentalist  view,  which 
held  the  Active  Intellect  to  be  something  more 
than  human,  something  akin  to  God  and  in 
some  way  common  to  all  men,  he  defended  the 
anthropological  view,  which  held  that  the  Active 
Intellect  is  a  part  of  the  individual  soul,  and, 
therefore,  not  common  to  all,  but  proper  to 
each.  In  this  way,  he  strengthened  the  defense 
of  the  immortality  of  the  individual  soul. 

Saint  Thomas  founded  a  school  within  the 
schools.  To  the  Franciscan  teachers,  such  as 
Alexander  of  Hales,  Saint  Bonaventure,  and 
Roger  Bacon,  certain  doctrines  of  Saint  Au- 
gustine recommended  themselves,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  strict  Aristotelianism  which  they 
professed.  These  Franciscan  teachers  were  op- 
posed by  the  Dominicans,  who.  like  Albert  the 
Great  and  Saint  Thomas,  recognized  in  the 
Augustinian  doctrines  in  question  an  element 
of  Platonism  which  was  inconsistent  with  thor- 
ough Aristotelianism.  The  struggle  between 
Augustinianism  (q.v.)  and  Aristotelianism 
(q.v.1  was  waged  in  the  schools,  especially  at 
Paris,  during  the  first  decades  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury.   The    doctrines     under    discussion     were 


ARABESQUE  —  ARABIA 


mostly  psychological :  for  instance,  the  Aristo- 
telians maintained  that  there  is  but  one  sub- 
stantial form  in  man,  the  soul,  while  the  Au- 
gustinians  maintained  that  there  are  several 
substantial  forms ;  the  latter  contended  that 
there  is  no  real  distinction  between  the  soul 
and  its  faculties,  while  the  former  defended 
the  real  distinction ;  the  Aristotelians  main- 
tained that  there  arc  subsistent  forms,  that  is  to 
say,  purely  spiritual  created  substances,  without 
any  matter,  while  the  Aitgustinians  taught  that 
all  creatures,  even  the  angels,  are  composed  of 
matter  and  form.  On  all  these  questions  Saint 
Thomas  took  the  part  of  the  Aristotelians  and 
thus  became  the  leader  in  the  Dominican,  or,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called,  the  Thomistic  school  in 
the  stricter  sense  of  the  word. 

The  controversies  between  the  Dominican 
and  the  Franciscan  schools  brought  out  an  im- 
portant general  trait  of  Saint  Thomas'  philoso- 
phy. Duns  Scotus  (1274-1308),  the  ablest  of 
the  Franciscan  opponents  of  Saint  Thomas, 
adopting  the  principle  of  voluntarism,  brought 
to  the  surface  the  intellectualism  which  per- 
vades Saint  Thomas'  speculative  system.  Saint 
Thomas  pushed  to  its  utmost  consequences  the 
intelligo  ul  credam  of  the  earlier  scholastics:  he 
made  intellect  superior  to  will  and  sought  in 
every  thing  to  find  an  intellectual  basis  for  be- 
lief. Scotus  maintained  that  on  many  ques- 
tions of  the  highest  importance  reason  fails  to 
give  a  satisfactory  explanation  or  proof  and 
that  we  must  fall  back  on  will. 

To  say,  however,  that  Saint  Thomas  was  an 
Aristotelian  in  the  Christian,  as  opposed  to  the 
Averroistic,  sense;  that  he  gave  final  form  to 
the  idea  which  inspired  scholastic,  and  indeed 
all  Christian,  speculation  ;  that  he  was  a  mod- 
erate Realist ;  that  he  held  to  the  strict  sys- 
tematic Aristotelianism  and  excluded  certain 
Augustinian  and  Platonic  elements;  that  he  was 
an  intellectualist,  is  to  give  but  a  faint  idea  of 
his  claims  to  pre-eminence  as  a  representative 
of  scholastic  philosophy.  Of  him,  as  of  all  the 
great  speculative  thinkers,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  spirit  of  his  work  is  more  potent  than  the 
letter.  To  the  modern  mind,  especially,  he  ap- 
peals in  virtue  of  the  spirit  in  which  he  under- 
took the  work  of  adjusting  his  beliefs  as  a 
Christian  to  the  scientific  and  philosophic 
thought  of  his  age.  To  this  task  he  addressed 
himself  with  an  instinctive  sense  of  complete- 
ness which  impelled  him  to  leave  nothing  in- 
complete or  imperfect  except  so  far  as  every- 
thing human  is  incomplete  and  imperfect.  He 
brought  to  his  task  a  mind  appreciative  of  the 
value  of  truth  wheresoever  truth  is  found, 
whether  in  pagan,  Jew,  or  gentile,  and  a  belief 
—  stronger  in  him  than  in  any  other  Christian 
writer  since  Saint  Augustine  —  that  all  truths 
and  all  contributions  to  knowledge,  from  what- 
soever source  they  are  derived,  must  be  capable 
of  harmonious  adjustment. 

Bibliography. —  Vaughan,  'Life  and  Labors 
of  Saint  Thomas'  (London,  1871,  2  vols.)  ; 
Werner,  <Der  heil.  Thomas  von  Aquino'  (Re- 
gensburg,  1858,  3  vols.)  ;  Touron,  (Vie  de  S. 
Thomas  d'Aquin'  (Paris,  1773);  De  Wulf, 
<Histoire  de  la  phil.  medievale'  (Louvain, 
1900),  pp.  2S9ff;  Stockl,  (Gesch.  der  Phil,  des 
Mittelalters'  (Mainz,  1864ft),  II.,  421ft;  <Lehr- 
buch  der  Gesch.  der  Phil.'  (Mainz,  1888),  pp. 
431  ff;  Turner,  'History  of  Philosophy'  (Bos- 
ton,  1903).     For  complete  bibliography  consult 


Potthast,  'Wegweiser  durch  die  Geschichts- 
wcrke   des   Europ.   Mittelalters'    (Berlin,   1896), 

p-    1<y0U  William  TURNER,  S.T.D., 

Saint  Paul  Seminary,  Saint  Paul,  Minn. 

Arabesque,  ar'a-besk',  a  term  applied  to  a 
particular  species  of  decoration  employed  in 
Arabian  and  Moorish  architecture.  The  follow- 
ers of  Mohammed,  being  prohibited  by  the 
Koran  from  representing  the  figures  of  men  and 
beasts,  endeavored  to  evade  this  law  by  invent- 
ing a  series  of  monsters,  griffins,  dragons, 
strange  birds,  and  chimeras;  affixing  the  head, 
wings,  and  talons  of  birds  to  the  bodies  of  lions, 
horses,  and  other  quadrupeds ;  and  making  the 
upper  parts  of  children,  men,  and  beasts  spring 
from  among  clusters  of  foliage  and  the  like. 
In  the  Vatican  there  are  paintings,  executed  by 
Giovanni  da  Udine  from  the  drawings  of 
Raphael,  in  this  style,  which  are  deservedly 
much  admired. 

Arabgir,  a'rab-ger',  or  Arabkir,  a  town  in 
Asiatic  Turkey,  147  miles  southwest  of  Erze- 
room.     It  owes  its  enlargement  and  prosperity 

to  the  Armenians,  who  form  about  one  fourth 
of  the  population,  and  it  is  especially  noted  for 
its  manufacture  of  silk  and  cotton  goods.  Pop. 
about  28,000. 

Arabi,  a-rii'he,  Ahmed  El  (usually  known 
as  "Bey"  or  "Pasha"),  an  Egyptian  national 
leader:  b.  in  Lower  Egypt  about  1837.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  common  peasant,  and,  entering  the 
army,  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel  and  became 
the  head  of  a  party  desiring  to  restore  native 
control  of  Egypt.  Tewfik,  the  khedivc,  too 
sluggish  and  timid  to  join  the  party  openly, 
was  nevertheless  glad  to  see  the  movement 
prosper  under  the  leadership  of  one  with  more 
energy  than  himself.  The  ministry  of  the  ablest 
of  Egyptian  statesmen,  Nubar  Pasha,  was  pres- 
ently overthrown,  and  Arabi  made  minister  of 
war  in  the  new  cabinet.  Flushed  with  success, 
the  new  war  minister  acted  as  if  head  of  the 
state,  and  rashly  undertook  to  overthrow  the 
Anglo-French  control  of  the  finances.  The 
bombardment  of  Alexandria,  11-12  July  1882, 
by  order  of  the  Gladstone  ministry,  and 
the  rout  of  his  army  at  Tel-el-Kebir,  13  Sept. 
following,  ended  his  dream,  and  he  was  sent 
into  life  exile  in  Ceylon.  He  was  pardoned 
and   returned  to   Egypt   in    1901. 

Ara'bia,  the  peninsula  in  the  southwestern 
part  of  Asia,  called  by  the  natives  Jcziret  el 
Arab,  that  is.  the  Peninsula  of  the  Arabs ;  and 
by  the  Turks  and  Persians,  Arabistan.  It  is 
encompassed  on  three  sides  by  the  sea,  namely, 
on  the  northeast  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  on  the 
southeast  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the 
southwest  by  the  Red  Sea.  Its  extreme  south- 
ern point,  Ras-Arah  (the  Cape  St.  Anthony 
of  some  maps),  lies  in  lat.  120  35'  N. ;  Ion.  44° 
4'  E.  Thirty  miles  west  of  it  are  the  Straits  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb.  The  extreme  eastern  point  of 
Arabia,  Ras-el-Had,  stands  in  lat.  220  23'  N. ; 
Ion.  60°  5'  E.  A  line  drawn  from  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Suez  to  that  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  marking  the  limits  of  the  Arabian  peninsu- 
la on  the  north,  will  be  found  to  run  nearly  in 
the  30th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  but  a  portion 
of  what  is  considered  Arabia  extends  north 
of  this.     Arabia   includes  also  the  peninsula  of 


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ARABIA 


Sinai,  between  the  Gulf  of  Suez  and  that  of 
Akabah.  The  whole  area  of  the  vast  country 
thus  described  does  not  probably  fall  much 
short  of   1,000,000  square  miles. 

Divisions. —  According  to  Ptolemy,  ancient 
Arabia  consisted  of  Arabia  Petrsea,  Arabia  De- 
serta,  and  Arabia  Felix,  a  division  likewise 
followed  in  modern  times,  but  which  is  not  only 
founded  on  erroneous  principles,  but  unwar- 
ranted by  the  example  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country.  The  name  of  Arabia  Felix,  or  Arabia 
the  Happy,  is  derived  from  an  incorrect  transla- 
tion of  the  word  Yemen,  which  does  not  signify 
happy,  but  the  country  lying  to  the  right  of 
Mecca,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Arabic  term 
for  Syria,  Al-Sham,  denotes  the  country  lying 
to  the  left  of  that  city.  Arabia  Petraea  likewise 
has  been  erroneously  translated  Stony  Arabia, 
the  epithet  Petraea  having  been  bestowed  on  it 
by  Ptolemy,  from  the  once  flourishing  city  of 
Petra. 

The  first  of  the  divisions  met  with  in  pro- 
ceeding down  the  Red  Sea  is  Hejaz,  which,  as 
it  includes  the  sacred  cities  Mecca  and  Medina, 
is  always  set  forth  conspicuously  by  Arab  ge- 
ographers. It  extends  a  short  way  within  the 
mountain  barrier  and  terminates  in  the  south 
in  about  lat.  20°  N.  Next  comes  Yemen, 
which,  according  to  some  writers,  embraces 
the  whole  of  south  Arabia ;  but  the  name  is  now 
generally  used  in  a  confined  sense,  Yemen  proper 
occupying  the  southwest  part  of  the  peninsula, 
and  comprising  a  Tehama  or  maritime  lowland 
on  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea,  with  an  elevated 
inland  district  of  considerable  breadth.  It  con- 
tains the  towns  of  Sana  and  Mocha.  Apper- 
taining to  Yemen  is  Aden,  now  a  free  port  in 
the  hands  of  the  British.  Next  Yemen,  on  the 
east,  is  Hadramaut,  the  western  portion  of  which 
is  a  desert  five  days'  journey  in  length.  The 
limits  of  this  province  are,  however,  variously 
assigned  by  authors,  some  extending  the  name 
to  almost  the  whole  of  the  southeast  coast, 
while  others  confine  it  to  a  district  only  loo 
miles  in  length.  Beyond  Hadramaut,  in  the 
latter  narrower  sense,  lies  Mahrah,  beyond 
which  again  extends  the  principality  of  Shejer 
or  Shehr,  at  the  eastern  termination  of  which, 
near  the  coast,  is  the  populous  district  of  Dho- 
far,  which  has  occasionally  figured  as  an  inde- 
pendent State.  At  the  east  angle  of  the  penin- 
sula is  situated  Oman.  On  the  south  shores  of 
ihe  Persian  Gulf  is  Bahrein,  from  which, 
toward  the  head  of  the  Gulf,  extends  the  mari- 
time district  of  Hajar,  while  at  a  short  distance 
southwest  in  the  interior  lies  the  fertile  district 
of  El-Ahsa,  the  name  of  which  is  sometimes 
also  given  to  the  coast.  The  interior  of  Arabia 
from  Hejaz  and  Yemen  across  to  the  vicinity 
of  the  Persian  Gulf  is  comprised  by  Arab  ge- 
ographers under  the  single  name  of  Nejed. 
Toward  the  north  are  the  deserts  of  Sinai,  and 
those  of  Sham,  Jezireh,  and  Irak  (Syria, 
Mesopotamia,  and  Babylon).  The  two  most 
populous  districts  are  Yemen  and  Oman.  See 
Palgrave,  '  Central  and  Eastern  Arabia* 
(1862-3). 

The  climate  of  Arabia  resembles  that  of 
Africa.  The  mountains  obstruct  the  mitigating 
influence  of  the  sea  breeze:  scorching  aridity 
and  barrenness  characterize  both  high  and  low 
grounds,  and  the  date  palm  is  often  the  only 
representative    of    vegetable    existence.     There 


are  even  districts  which  in  the  course  of  the 
year  are  refreshed  by  only  one  shower  of  rain, 
while  a  sky  almost  perpetually  unclouded  over- 
spreads the  sterile  plains.  The  short  rainy 
season,  which,  in  consequence  of  the  shifting 
winds  prevailing  in  the  Red  Sea,  visits  the  west 
coasts  in  our  summer  months,  fills  with  water, 
but  only  periodically,  the  depressions  in  the  sur- 
face, or  wadis,  and  a  winter  marked  by  slight 
frosts  occurs  in  the  table-lands  of  the  interior 
and  northeast.  The  simoom  occasionally  blows 
during  the  hot  season,  though  only  in  the  north- 
ern districts. 

Productions. —  Arabia  is  destitute  of  large 
forests,  and  plains  of  green  turf  have  their  place 
supplied  by  steppe-like  tracts,  which,  however, 
covered  with  aromatic  herbs,  afford  excellent 
pasture  to  noble  breeds  of  horses.  The  terrace 
portions  of  the  country,  which  enjoy  a  more 
temperate  climate,  exhibit  a  greater  luxuriance 
of  vegetation.  Here  the  date  and  cocoanut 
palms  and  various  excellent  sorts  of  fruit 
flourish  along  with  durra  (a  species  of  millet 
which  is  here  generally  cultivated  instead  of 
European  corn),  the  finest  coffee  in  the  world 
(the  staple  commercial  product  of  the  coun- 
try), and  many  aromatic  plants  and  substances, 
such  as  gum-arabic,  benzoin,  mastic,  balsam, 
aloes,  myrrh,  frankincense,  etc.  There  are  also 
cultivated  in  different  parts  of  the  peninsula, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  climate, 
beans,  rice,  lentils,  tobacco,  melons,  saffron, 
colocynths,  poppies,  olives,  the  kath  bush 
(Catha  or  Cehstrus  cdulis),  the  leaves  of 
which  are  in  general  use,  like  those  of  the  coca 
in  Peru,  as  an  excitant,  sesame,  the  castor-oil 
plant,  etc.  In  its  fauna  also,  as  corresponding 
with  the  desert  nature  of  the  country,  Arabia 
presents  much  of  an  African  type.  Sheep, 
goats,  and  oxen  supply  man's  immediate  domes- 
tic and  personal  wants ;  the  horse  and  camel 
are  his  faithful  attendants  on  his  wide  pere- 
grinations; asses  and  mules,  of  a  stronger  make 
and  better  appearance  than  those  of  Europe, 
are  common  in  the  mountainous  districts ;  the 
desert  is  inhabited  by  gazelles  and  ostriches 
hurrying  rapidly  from  oasis  to  oasis;  and  the 
lion,  panther,  hyena,  and  jackal  crouch  in  am- 
bush for  the  passing  prey.  Monkeys,  pheas- 
ants, and  doves  are  the  peaceful  occupants  of 
the  fertile  districts,  in  which,  however,  locusts 
frequently  commit  tremendous  havoc.  There 
are  several  species  of  serpents  and  lizards,  and 
scorpions  and  poisonous  spiders  are  numerous. 
Fish  and  turtles  abound  on  the  coasts,  and  pearl 
oysters  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Among  mineral 
products  may  be  mentioned  saltpetre,  mineral 
pitch,  and  petroleum,  which  are  found  in  the 
interior  highlands,  salt,  sulphur  (in  Hadra- 
maut), and  several  precious  stones,  as  the  car- 
nelian,  agate,  and  onyx.  Iron,  copper,  and  lead 
are  far  from  abundant,  and  the  country  is  also 
poor  in  the  precious  metals. 

Population. —  The  population  of  Arabia  has 
been  estimated  by  some  authorities  at  12,000,- 
000,  by  others  at  no  more  than  4,000.000.  The 
former  number  is  certainly  too  high,  and  it 
is  believed  that  between  5,000.000  and  6,000.000 
is  nearer  the  truth.  The  Arabs  present,  as  a 
nation  and  as  individuals,  much  that  is  peculiar 
both  in  their  mental  and  physical  development. 
They  are  of  middle  stature,  of  a  powerful  make, 
and  have  skin  of  a  brownish  color.     Their  fea- 


ARABIA 


tures  express  dignity  and  pride;  they  are  nat- 
urally active,  intelligent,  and  courteous;  and 
their  character  is  marked  by  temperance, 
bravery  and  hospitality,  along  with  a  strong 
propensity  {or  poetry.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
are  revengeful  in  lluir  disposition  and  preda- 
tory in  their  habits,  ["he  women  have  the  en- 
tire education  of  the  children  in  their  early 
years.  The  most  fortunate  events  in  the  esti- 
mation of  an  Arab  are  the  birth  of  a  camel,  a 
m. in-  of  noble  breed  bringing  forth  a  foal,  or  a 
triumph  achieved  by  a  poet.  The  first  re- 
ligion of  llie  Arabs,  the  worship  of  the  stars, 
was  supplanted  by  the  doctrines  of  Mohamme- 
danism, which  succeeded  rapidly  in  establishing 
nsrlt  throughout  Arabia.  Besides  the  two 
principal  sects  of  Islam,  the  Sunnites  (the  most 
numerous)  and  the  Shiites  (on  the  east  coast), 
there  also  exists,  in  very  considerable  numbers, 
a  third  sect,  the  Wahabees,  which  arose  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  l8th  century,  and  to  which 
the  Bedouins  of  Nejed  belong.  There  are  also 
numerous  Jews,  who  dwell  among  the  Ara- 
bians   and  are  chiefly  employed  in  trade. 

The  whole  of  the  west  coast,  comprising  the 
districts  of  Hejaz  and  Yemen,  and  in  quite  re- 
cent times  nart  of  the  east  coast,  namely,  the 
republic  of  Koweit  at  the  head  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  the  district  of  El  Ahsa,  are  more  or 
less  under  the  suzerainty  of  the  Turks.  The 
area  of  the  western  strip  is  about  200,000  square 
miles  in  extent,  and  has  a  population  of  about 
1,130,000;  while  the  eastern  has  an  area  of 
about  31,000  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  nearly  200.000.  Even  in  these  districts,  how- 
ever, the  chief  offices  of  government  are  per- 
formed by  the  chieftains  of  the  small  territories 
into  which  the  districts  are  subdivided.  The 
most  extensive  districts  politically  united  in  the 
rest  of  Arabia  are  the  kingdoms  of  Oman  and 
Nejed,  the  former  with  an  area  of  81,000  square 
miles  and  a  population  of  1,508,000;  the  latter 
(the  kingdom  of  the  Wahabees)  with  an  area  of 
perhaps  200.000  square  miles  and  a  population 
of  about  i,2iq.ooo. 

The  mode  of  life  of  the  Arabs  is  either 
nomadic  or  settled,  or  in  other  words,  they 
either  live  in  tents  and  derive  their  subsistence 
from  the  rearing  of  cattle,  wherever  sufficient 
pasture  is  obtainable,  and  from  the  transport  of 
caravans  through  the  desert ;  or  from  the  pur- 
suits of  agriculture  and  commerce.  The  no- 
madic tribes  in  Arabia  are  termed  Bedouins, 
Beduins,  or  Bedawins ;  those  following  settled 
occupations,  Hadji  and  Fellahs.  A  considera- 
ble trade,  partly  overland,  partly  maritime,  is 
carried  on,  chiefly  in  coffee,  dates,  figs,  spices, 
and  aromatic  substances  of  various  kinds, 
though  its  present  amount  is  scarcely  a  shadow 
of  what  it  was  in  times  previous  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  passage  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  Commerce  is  partly  in  the  hands  of 
foreigners,  among  whom  the  Jews  and  Banians 
are  the  most  numerous.  The  latter  are  a  tribe 
of  Indian  merchants,  who,  however,  only  re- 
main long  enough  in  the  country  to  enable  them 
to  return  with  wealth  to  their  own  land.  At 
present  the  trade  of  Arabia  is  almost  exclu- 
sively confined  to  exports  of  raw  material  or 
imports  of  foreign  manufactures,  domestic  in- 
dustry being  scarcely  able  to  supply  the  most 
necessary  articles  of  consumption,  and  the  in- 
habitants are  thus  rendered  dependent   on  for^ 


eign  nations  for  the  greater  portion  of  their 
manufactured  commodities.  The  period  of  in- 
tellectual development  among  the  Arabs  is  now 
indeed  long  past  its  zenith,  but  it  does  not  ap- 
pear yet  to  have  sunk  so  low  as  is  often  as- 
sumed. Even  in  the  desert  children  are  taught 
to  read,  write,  and  cipher,  and  in  the  towns 
there  are  higher  schools  for  satisfying  the  taste 
for  scientific  pursuits.  The  political  constitu- 
tion of  the  Arabs  is  patriarchal,  and  based  on 
a  love  of  freedom.  The  titles  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  tribes  are  emir,  sheikh,  or  imam,  personages 
whose  functions  appear  in  general  to  be  limited 
to  the  command  of  the  army  in  war,  the  collec- 
tion of  tribute,  and  the  administration  of  law 
by  the  cadis  or  judges. 

History. —  The  history  of  the  Arabs  previous 
to  Mohammed  is  obscure,  and,  owing  to  their 
slight  connection  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  of 
little  interest.  The  evidence  of  language, 
tradition,  and  other  things,  establishes  the  fact 
that  Arabia  must  have  been  settled  at  a  very 
early  date  by  two  branches  of  one  race.  One 
of  these  branches  inhabits  the  south  and  east 
of  the  peninsula  (Yemen.  Hadramaut,  and 
Oman),  and  considers  itself  as  forming  the 
"pure"  Arabs,  while  to  the  other  branch  it  gives 
the  name  -of  Mostareb,  or  "Arabified."  The 
oldest  traditions  regarding  the  origin  of  the 
former  branch  point  to  an  immigration  from 
Africa  which  took  place  about  the  southwest 
corner  of  the  peninsula,  and  the  physical  ap- 
pearance and  structure  of  the  southern  Arabs, 
the  remnants  of  their  dialect  (which  is  now 
superseded  by  that  of  the  northern  branch), 
and  various  institutions  and  customs  prevailing 
in  the  parts  of  Arabia  inhabited  by  them,  all 
confirm  the  notion  that  they  were  originally 
identical  with  the  nearest  inhabitants  of  Africa. 
The  northern  branch,  on  the  other  hand,  though 
bearing  an  unmistakable  affinity  with  the  south- 
ern, shows  (in  its  language  and  other  respects) 
more  traces  of  Asiatic  than  African  influence. 
The  Arabs  of  the  southern  branch  were  the 
first  to  attain  any  considerable  political  power. 
A  kingdom  belonging  to  this  branch  is  said 
to  have  existed  in  the  south  for  upward  of 
2,000  years,  embracing,  when  in  a  flourishing 
condition,  the  whole  of  the  south  half  of  the 
peninsula,  and  sometimes  extending  its  bounda- 
ries by  conquest  very  much  farther.  There  is 
no  doubt  that  there  was  actually  such  a  king- 
dom, called  the  kingdom  of  Yemen,  and  having 
its  capital  first  at  Mareb  and  afterward  at 
Sana,  both  in  the  district  of  that  name:  but  how 
long  that  kingdom  subsisted  cannot  be  deter- 
mined. Its  kings  belonged  to  the  Himyarite 
dynasty,  but  this  designation  Himyarite  is  some- 
times applied  by  Arab  writers  to  the  ruling 
classes  of  the  southern  branch,  and  sometimes 
to  the  whole  branch.  The  Yemenite  kingdom 
was  rendered  subject  by  the  Abyssinians  for 
upward  of  70  years  in  the  6th  century  of  the 
Christian  era.  during  which  period  Christianity 
was  proclaimed  in  the  land.  Ultimately  the 
heir  to  the  throne  of  the  Himyarite  dynasty  was 
restored  through  the  assistance  of  Chosroes. 
king  of  Persia  (60s  a.d.),  but  about  30  years 
later  the  kingdom  was  finally  overthrown  by  the 
followers  of  Mohammed.  Another  Himyarite 
kingdom  was  that  of  Hira  on  the  west  shore  of 
the  lower  Euphrates.  It  seems  also  to  have 
extended   at   times   to   the   region   between   the 


ARABIA 


Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  so  as  to  give  the 
name  of  Irak  Arabi  to  that  district.  The  dates 
given  for  the  foundation  of  this  kingdom  are 
widely  different.  Its  overthrow  is  placed  in 
the  5th  century  of  our  era.  In  the  1st  century 
of  the  Christian  era  the  Himyarite  kingdom  of 
Ghassan  was  founded  in  lower  Syria  and 
Hejaz.  It  lasted  till  the  time  of  Mohammed. 
The  last  Himyarite  kingdom  that  need  be  men- 
tioned is  that  of  Kindeh,  which  detached  itself 
from  that  of  Hira  early  in  the  3d  century,  and 
lasted  about  160  years.  Its  sway  extended  over 
northern  Nejed.  The  divided  forces  of  the 
Arabs  could  not  always  successfully  resist  the 
Roman  arms,  and  though  their  country  was 
never  completely  reduced  to  the  condition  of  a 
province,  yet  the  princes  in  the  north  at  least 
lived  in  a  state  of  dependence  on  the  Roman 
emperors,  and  were  regarded  as  their  viceroys. 
In  the  south  the  Romans  had  no  influence.  An 
expedition  was  fitted  out  against  Yemen  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus  (24  B.C.),  but  it  completely 
miscarried.  With  the  decline  of  the  Roman 
empire  Arabia  made  vigorous  struggles  for  in- 
dependence, which  could  easily  have  been 
brought  about  by  a  union  of  the  various  tribes. 
But  the  Arabian  peoples  continued  dispersed 
and  broken,  and  passed  many  centuries  in  in- 
ternal conflicts,  during  which  the  central  high- 
lands (Nejed)  became  the  theatre  of  those 
chivalrous  contests  so  celebrated  by  the  native 
poets.  Christianity  early  gained  many  ad- 
herents in  Arabia,  though  it  did  not  succeed  in 
entirely  banishing  the  ancient  worship  of  the 
stars.  Several  Christian  bishoprics  were  estab- 
lished, subject  to  the  metropolitan  at  Bozra,  in 
Palestine.  The  town  of  Elhira,  near  the  Eu- 
phrates, contained  many  Arabian  Christians  and 
convents,  and  the  reigning  king,  Ennoman-ben- 
el-mondsir,  became  a  convert  to  Christianity 
not  long  before  the  time  of  Mohammed.  The 
conflict  of  the  Arabs  with  Roman  despotism 
was  more  especially  the  cause  of  attracting  to 
their  country  numbers  of  Christian  sects,  among 
others  the  Monophysites  and  Nestorians,  seek- 
ing a  refuge  from  the  persecutions  to  which 
they  were  subjected  by  the  maintainers  of 
orthodoxy  throughout  the  East.  Jews  also 
were  very  numerous  in  Arabia  after  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem,  and  even  made  some 
proselytes,  chiefly  in  Yemen.  The  wide  differ- 
ences between  the  various  sects  produced  in  the 
minds  of  many  an  indifference  to  all  the  exist- 
ing religions,  and  was  probably  one  of  the 
principal  causes  that  the  doctrines  of  Moham- 
med found  so  speedy  an  acceptance  in  Arabia. 
With  Mohammed  a  new  phase  commences  in 
the  history  of  the  Arabian  peoples,  who  are 
wont  to  designate  respectively  the  periods  be- 
fore and  after  the  appearance  of  the  Prophet  as 
those  of  ignorance  and  knowledge.  Moham- 
med belonged  to  the  Mostareb,  and  among  them 
to  the  tribe  of  Koreysh.  which  had  occupied  a 
position  of  great  influence  in  Arabia  since  the 
beginning  of  the  5th  century,  when  it  managed 
by  craft  to  obtain  possession  of  the  city  of 
Mecca,  which  was  not  only  a  city  of  great 
commercial  importance,  but  was  regarded  as 
sacred  by  the  Arabs  on  account  of  its  contain- 
ing the  Kaaba.  During  the  whole  of  the  6th 
century  the  Mostareb  generally  were  increas- 
ing in  power,  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  ~th, 
when  Mohammed  had  grown  to  manhood,  they 


had  absorbed  the  kingdom  of  Kindeh,  and  had 
extended  their  sway  at  the  expense  of  those  of 
Yemen.  Hira,  and  Ghassan.  By  the  time  of 
Mohammed's  death,  in  632.  his  religion  had  ac- 
quired a  firm  hold  in  Arabia,  and  after  that 
event  his  successors,  acting  on  the  commands 
of  the  Koran,  began  to  spread  it  by  force  of 
arms  beyond  the  bounds  of  the  peninsula.  The 
nation,  now  for  the  first  time  acting  as  a  body, 
played  for  several  centuries  an  important  part 
in  the  world's  history,  advancing  in  a  career 
of  victory  beyond  its  natural  frontiers,  to  found 
empires  in  three  quarters  of  the  globe.  The 
brilliant  period  of  Arabian  history,  indeed,  as 
regards  foreign  countries,  came  to  a  termina- 
tion in  Asia  in  1258,  on  the  fall  of  the  caliphate 
of  Bagdad,  as  also  about  the  same  time  in 
Africa  and  Europe,  in  the  latter  of  which  the 
Moorish  dominion  was  finally  overthrown  ( in 
the  kingdom  of  Granada  in  Spain)  in  the  last 
decade  of  the  15th  century;  yet  the  epoch  of 
the  Arab  sway  must  ever  occupy  a  distin- 
guished place  in  the  intellectual  history  of  man- 
kind. The  internal  history  of  the  country  dur- 
ing its  foreign  conflicts  presents  little  more  than 
unimportant  accounts  of  some  Bedouin  tribes, 
and  the  fortunes  of  the  caravans  which  made 
the  annual  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  In  1517  Tur- 
key subjected  Hejaz  and  Yemen,  and  received 
the  nominal  submission  of  the  tribes  inhabiting 
the  rest  of  Arabia.  The  subjection  of  Hejaz 
has  continued  down  to  the  present  day.  with 
a  brief  interval  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th 
century,  and  another  longer  interval  in  the  19th 
century,  when  the  pasha  of  Egypt  was  domi- 
nant in  Arabia ;  but  Yemen  achieved  its  inde- 
pendence in  1630  and  maintained  it  till  1871, 
when  the  territory  again  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks.  In  1839  Aden,  in  Yemen,  was  occu- 
pied by  the   British. 

In  the  east  Oman  became  virtually  inde- 
pendent of  the  caliphs  in  the  middle  of  the 
8th  century,  and  grew  into  a  well-organized 
kingdom.  In  1507,  however,  its  capital.  Maskat 
or  Muscat,  was  occupied  by  the  Portuguese, 
who  were  not  driven  out  till  1651.  Oman  was 
temporarily  subjugated  by  the  Persians  under 
Nadir  Shah  in  the  first  half  of  the  iSth  century. 
They  were  expelled  by  Saood,  who  was  made 
imam  of  Oman,  and  under  whom  it  extended 
its  sway  over  part  of  the  opposite  coast  of  Per- 
sia as  well  as  the  islands  lying  between  and 
over  the  coast  of  Zanzibar.  Since  1867  the 
kingdom  of  Oman  has  been  again  confined  to 
the  mainland  of  Arabia.  The  appearance  of  the 
Wahabees  about  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
is  the  first  event  since  the  time  of  Mohammed 
that  affected  Arabia  generally.  The  moral  ef- 
fects of  this  event  exercise  still  a  powerful 
influence  :  the  political  were  soon  effaced  by  the 
ruler  of  the  neighboring  country  of  Egypt. 
Mehemet  Ali,  pasha  of  Egypt,  subdued  "the 
coast  of  Hejaz,  as  also  several  places  on  that 
of  Yemen,  and  in  1818,  by  means  of  a  great 
victory  gained  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  and  the  de- 
struction of  their  capital  city  Derreyeh,  put  a 
stop  to  the  further  extension  of  the  Wahabite 
power.  He  also  expended  large  sums  in  the 
maintenance  of  his  sway  in  Arabia,  which  se- 
cured to  him  the  trade  of  the  Red  Sea.  The 
events  of  1840.  however,  in  Syria,  compelled 
him  to  concentrate  bis  forces,  and  he  soon 
found  himself  obliged,  as  thwarting  the  Euro- 


ARABIA 


pean  line  of  policy,  to  renounce  all  claims  to 
the  territories  lying  beyond  a  line  drawn  from 
the  Dead  Sea  to  the'  Gulf  of  Akabah.  The 
Hejaz  thus  again  became  immediately  subject 
to  Turkish  sway.  Turkey  has  since  extended 
its  rule  not  only  over  Yemen  as  already  men- 
tioned, but  also  over  tin  district  of  El  Ahsa  on 
the  Persian  Gulf:  but  the  extreme  weakness 
of  the  Turkish  empire  scarcely  warrants  the 
expectation  that  its  tenure  of  power  in  Arabia 
will  last  very  many  years  longer. 

Language. —  The  Arabic  language  belongs  to 
the  Semitic  dialects,  among  which  it  is  distin- 
guished for  its  richness,  softness,  and  high  de- 
gree of  development.  By  the  spread  of  Islam 
it  became  the  sole  written  language  and  the 
prevailing  speech  in  all  southwestern  Asia  and 
eastern  and  northern  Africa,  and  for  a  time  in 

them  Spain,  in  Malta,  and  in  Sicily;  and 
it  is  still  used  as  a  learned  and  sacred  language 
wherever  Islam  is  spread  among  people  who  in 
daily  life  speak  Indian,  Persian,  or  other  lan- 
guages. The  study  of  Arabic  is  important  not 
only  on  account  of  the  wide  area  over  which 
it  is  still  spoken  and  the  extensive  literature  it 
contains,  but  also  because  it  is  almost  an  indis- 
putable preliminary  to  the  study  of  some  of 
the  other  languages  of  the  East.  Almost  a 
third  part  of  the  Persian  vocabulary  consists 
of  Arabic  words,  and  there  is  the  same  propor- 
tion of  Arabic  in  Turkish.  A  scientific  treat- 
ment of  the  Hebrew  language  first  became  pos- 
sible through  comparing  it  with  the  Arabic. 
The  characters  originally  used  in  writing  the 
Arabic  language  were  borrowed  from  the  old 
Syrian  Estrangelo  alphabet,  which,  however, 
was  very  inadequate  for  the  purpose,  having 
only  16  signs  for  the  28  Arabic  consonants. 
This  alphabet  is  now  superseded  by  the  Neski. 
As  in  all  Semitic  languages  (except  the  Ethi- 
opic)  it  is  read  from  right  to  left.  There  are 
valuable  Arabic  grammars  by  Erpen  (1613), 
De  Sacy  (1831),  Ewald.  Caspar!,  Wolff  (2d 
ed.  1867)  ;  and  in  English  by  Wright  (based 
on  that  of  Caspari,  but  practically  a  new  work, 
1874-5),  and  Palmer  (1874).  The  great 
standard  Arabic-English  dictionary  is  that  of 
E.  W.  Lane  (continued  by  his  nephew.  Lane 
Poole,  a  most  extensive  work).  Other  valuable 
works  are  Richardson's  •  Persian-Arabic-Eng- 
lish Dictionary';  Newman's  'Dictionary  of 
Modern  Arabic'  (1871);  Badger's  'English- 
Arabic  Dictionary'  (1881);  and  Salmone's 
'Arabic-English    Dictionary'     (1890). 

literature. —  Of  the  first  cultivation  of  the 
literature  of  this  country  we  have  but  few  ac- 
counts. That  poetry  early  flourished  in  Arabia 
may  be  inferred  from  the  character  of  the  in- 
habitants, who  are  at  the  present  day  much 
given  to  poetry.  In  the  fairs  of  Mecca  and 
1  from  the  5th  century  after  Christ)  at  Okadh, 
poetical  contests  were  held,  and  the  poems  to 
which  the  prize  was  awarded  were  written  on 
byssus  in  letters  of  gold,  whence  they  were 
called  Modsahhabat  (gilt),  and  hung  up  on  the 
wall  of  the  sacred  temple  containing  the  kaaba 
at  Mecca,  on  which  account  they  also  got  the 
name  of  Moallakat  (hung  up).  The  collection 
of  the  Moallakat  contains  seven  poems  by  seven 
authors  —  Amr-ul-kais,  Tarafa,  Zohair,  Lebid, 
Antar,  Amr-ben-Kelthum,  and  Hareth.  They 
are  distinguished  by  deep  feeling,  lofty  imagina- 
tion,   richness    of   imagery    and    sentiment,    na- 


tional pride,  and  love  of  freedom.  Many  other 
poems  belonging  to  the  tiuu-  before  Mohammed, 
some  of  equal  age  with  those  of  the  Moallakat, 
are  also  preserved  in  collections.  The  in- 
fluence of  Mohammed  gave  a  new  direction  to 
Arab  poetry.  The  rules  of  faith  and  life  estab- 
lished by  him  wire  collected  by  Abubekr,  firsl 
caliph  after  his  death,  corrected  and  published 
by  Othman,  the  third  caliph,  and  constitute  the 
Koran.  The  warlike  times  of  Mohammed  and 
the  first  caliphs,  however,  were  not  favorable 
to  the  cultivation  of  literature.  The  progress  of 
the  Arabs  in  the  arts  and  sciences  may  be  said 
to  have  begun  with  the  government  of  the 
caliphs  of  the  family  of  the  Abassides,  ad.  750, 
at  Bagdad.  Here  Haroun  al  Rashid  (786-808) 
invited  learned  men  from  all  countries  and  paid 
them  princely  salaries.  He  caused  tin-  works 
of  the  most  famous  Greek  writers  to  be  trans- 
lated into  Arabic  and  spread  abroad  by  numer- 
ous copies.  Under  the  government  of  Al 
Mamum  (813-33)  excellent  schools  were  es- 
tablished at  Bagdad,  Bassora,  Bokhara,  Cufa, 
and  large  libraries  at  Alexandria,  Bagdad,  and 
Cairo.  The  caliph  Motassem,  who  died  a.d. 
842,  was  of  the  same  disposition,  and  while  lit- 
erature was  thus  favored  by  the  dynasty  of  the 
Abassides  in  Bagdad,  it  received  not  less  en- 
couragement from  that  of  the  Ommiades  in 
Spain.  What  Bagdad  was  for  Asia,  the  uni- 
versity at  Cordova  was  for  Europe,  where,  par- 
ticularly in  the  10th  century,  the  Arabians  were 
the  chief  pillars  of  literature.  At  a  time  when 
learning  found  scarcely  anywhere  else  a  place 
of  rest  and  encouragement,  the  Arabians  em- 
ployed themselves  in  collecting  and  diffusing  it 
in  the  three  great  divisions  of  the  world.  In 
Spain  were  established  numerous  academies  and 
schools,  which  were  visited  by  students  from 
other  European  countries;  public  libraries  were 
collected,  one  of  them  said  to  contain  600,000 
volumes;  and  important  works  were  written  on 
geography,  history,  philosophy,  medicine,  phys- 
ics, mathematics,  and  especially  on  arithmetic, 
geometry,  and  astronomy.  There  are  a  number 
of  terms  still  in  use,  such  as  almanac,  algebra, 
alcohol,  azimuth,  zenith,  nadir,  which  were  bor- 
rowed originally  from  the  Arabs.  The  most  of 
the  geography  in  the  Middle  Ages  is  the  work 
of  the  Arabians.  Among  their  chief  writers  on 
geographical  subjects  are  El-Istakhri,  'Liber 
Climatum',  edited  by  Moller  (1839)  ;  Abu- 
Ishak-al-Faresi,  Ibn-Haukal,  who  wrote  about 
815,  'El-Edrisi,'  1150  (French  translation  pub- 
lished by  Jaubert  1836)  ;  Yakut],  who  died  in 
1249,  and  Abulfeda;  and  much  that  the  most 
renowned  among  them,  Abulfeda  and  Edrisi, 
have  written,  is  still  useful  and  important  in 
regard  to  historical  geography.  Even  more  im- 
portant than  the  geographical  text-books  are 
the  descriptions  of  countries  which  were  writ- 
ten by  Arab  travelers ;  such  as  those  by  Ibn- 
Foslan,  who  traveled  in  Russia  in  the  9th 
century;  by  Mohammed  ibn-Batuta,  who  tra- 
veled in  Africa,  India,  China,  Russia,  etc.,  in 
the  13th  century ;  and  by  Leo  Africanus,  who 
traveled  in  Africa  and  Asia  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury. 

The  Arabian  historians  since  the  8th  cen- 
tury have  been  very  numerous,  though  not  yet 
long  enough  known  to  European  scholars  to 
enable  the  latter  to  derive  full  advantage  from 
them.     The  oldest   known  historian  is  Hesham 


ARABIA 


Ben-Mohammed  Al-Kelbi  (died  819).  Several 
other  historians  lived  in  the  same  century. 
Masudi,  the  Persians  Tabari  and  Hamsa  of 
Ispahan,  and  the  Christian  patriarch  Ibn  el 
Batrik  or  Eutychius  of  Alexandria,  were  the 
first  that  attempted  universal  histories.  These 
were  followed  by  Abulfaraj  and  George  Elma- 
kin,  both  Christians,  Abulfeda,  Nuvairi,  Al- 
fachri,  and  others.  Native  historians  wrote  on 
the  history  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain  and  in  Mau- 
retania ;  others,  such  as  Abdullatif  and  Makrisi, 
wrote  on  the  history  of  Egypt;  others  compiled 
biographical  dictionaries  or  wrote  lives  of  indi- 
viduals. The  style  of  most  of  the  historians  is 
simple  and  void  of  ornament.  Indeed  their 
histories  are  little  more  than  voluminous  chron- 
icles. The  philosophy  of  the  Arabians  was  of 
Greek  origin  and  derived  principally  from  that 
of  Aristotle,  who  through  them  became  known 
in  Spain  and  thence  in  all  the  west  of  Europe, 
having  been  translated  from  Arabic  into  Latin. 
Hence  the  origin  of  the  scholastic  philosophy 
may  be  traced  to  the  Arabians.  The  Arabians 
seem  to  have  become  acquainted  with  the  works 
of  the  Greek  philosophers  in  Bagdad,  where  a 
knowledge  of  them  was  disseminated  by  the 
Nestorian  Christians  who  had  been  expelled 
from  Syria  in  the  5th  century  and  found  refuge 
and  patronage  in  Persia.  During  the  8th  and 
9th  centuries  numerous  versions  of  the  princi- 
pal works  of  Aristotle  were  made  into  Syriac 
and  thence  into  Arabic ;  and  once  Aristotle  had 
been  introduced  to  their  knowledge  the  Arabian 
philosophers  both  in  the  east  and  the  west  did 
little  else  than  advance  nearer  and  nearer  to 
a  faithful  interpretation  of  that  master.  Of 
their  philosophical  authors  the  most  celebrated 
are  Alfarabi  (died  950),  who  wrote  on  the 
principles  of  nature;  Ibn  Sina,  or  Avicenna, 
who  was  born  about  980  and  died  a.d.  1037, 
and,  besides  other  philosophical  writings,  was 
the  author  of  a  treatise  on  logic,  physics,  and 
metaphysics,  and  of  a  commentary  on  the  works 
of  Aristotle;  Alghazzali  (1058-1111),  who 
wrote  a  work  attacking  all  heathen  philosophical 
systems;  and  in  Spain  Avicebron  (died  1070 1. 
a  Jew,  the  same  with  Solomon  ben  Gebirol ;  Ibn 
Badja,  known  to  Europeans  as  Avempace  (died 
1138)  ;  Ibn  Tofail  (died  1190)  ;  and  (one  of  the 
greatest  of  them  all)  Ibn  Roshd,  or  Averroes 
1  1126-98).  Of  these,  Avicenna  was  by  far  the 
most  important,  and  his  influence  on  Western 
thought   was  considerable. 

Nearly  all  the  Arabian  philosophers  were  at 
the  same  time  physicians ;  for  the  physical  sci- 
ences, including  medicine,  were  not  then  sepa- 
rated from  philosophy.  At  Jondisabur,  Bag- 
dad, Ispahan,  Firuzabad,  Bokhara,  Cufa, 
Bassora,  Alexandria,  and  Cordova,  from  the 
8th  to  the  nth  century  medical  schools  were 
instituted,  and  with  the  devoted  study  bestowed 
on  this  branch  of  science  the  nation  could  not 
fail  of  making  important  advances  in  it.  though 
in  reality  they  were  here  also  dependent  on  the 
Greeks.  Anatomy  made  no  progress  among 
them,  because  the  Koran  expressly  prohibited 
dissections.  To  their  famous  writers  on  medi- 
cine belong  Aharun  (who  first  described  the 
smallpox),  Jahiah  Ben  Serapion.  Jacob  Ben 
Ishak  Alkendi,  John  Mesve.  Rhazes,  Ali  Ben 
Abbas.  Avicenna  (who  published  the  'Canon 
of  Medicine,'  for  a  long  time  the  best  work  of 
the  kind),  Ishak  Ben  Soleiman,  Abulcasim,  Ibn 

Vol.  I — 40 


Zohar,  Averroes  (the  author  of  'A  Compen- 
dium of  Physic').  Mathematics  the  Arabians 
enriched,  simplified,  and  extended.  Moham- 
med Ben  Musa  and  Thabet  Ben  Korrah  par- 
ticularly distinguished  themselves  in  this  de- 
partment. Xassireddin  translated  the  '  Elements' 
of  Euclid.  Jeber  Ben  Afla  wrote  a  commentary 
on  the 'Trigonometry' of  Ptolemy.  Astronomy 
was  especially  cultivated,  there  being  famous 
schools  and  observatories  at  Bagdad  and  Cor- 
dova. As  early  as  a.d.  812  Alhazen  a-nd  Sergius 
had  translated  into  Arabic  the  'Almagest'  of 
Ptolemy,  the  first  regular  treatise  on  astronomy. 
Albatani.  in  the  10th  century,  noted  the  advance 
of  the  line  of  the  earth's  apsides  and  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic.  Alpetragius  wrote  a 
theory  of  the  planets.  Geography  was  treated 
scientifically,  in  connection  with  mathematics 
and  astronomy,  particularly  by  Abulfeda.  The 
Arabian  scholars  devoted  much  time  to  gram- 
mar and  rhetoric,  particular  attention  being  paid 
to  expounding  the  Koran  and  in  preparing 
works  dealing  with  it. 

Much  as  the  severer  sciences  were  cultivated 
the  genius  of  the  people  for  poetry  was  not 
fettered.  After  the  gth  century  the  Oriental 
peculiarities  of  Arabian  poetry  became  more 
and  more  strong;  the  tone  grew  mystical  and 
extravagant  and  the  language  lost  its  purity. 
Mdtenabbi  deserves  to  be  noticed  for  his  tender 
elegies  in  a  classic  style ;  Abu  Ismael  Tograi, 
vizier  of  Bagdad,  for  his  elegies  and  poems; 
Hariri  for  his  history  of  an  unscrupulous  but 
amusing  vagabond  in  his  work  entitled  'Me- 
kammat,'  admirably  translated  into  German  by 
Riickert,  into  English  by  Chapellon  and  Pres- 
ton;  Ibn-Arabshah  for  his  narrative  tales,  etc.; 
Asmai  for  his  great  heroic  romance,  'Life  of 
Antar.'  The  dramatic  excepted,  there  is  no 
sort  of  poetry  which  the  Arabians  have  left 
unattempted.  There  is  no  doubt  that  they  had 
by  this  means  a  powerful  effect  on  modern  Eu- 
ropean poetry,  for  no  small  share  of  the  roman- 
tic poetry  of  the  Middle  Ages  belonged  to  the 
Arabians.  The  tales  of  fairies,  genii,  en- 
chanters, and  sorcerers  in  particular  passed 
from  the  Arabians  to  the  Western  poetry. 
Some  of  the  books  most  widely  read  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  such  as  'The  Seven  Wise  Mas- 
ters' and  the  'Fables  of  Pilpay,'  found  their 
way  into  Europe  through  the  instrumentality  of 
the  Arabs.  To  this  rich  and  many-sided  intel- 
lectual life  among  the  Arabs  in  the  Middle  Ages 
the  intellectual  poverty  of  the  19th  and  past 
two  or  three  centuries  offers  a  striking  contrast. 
Arab  literature  now  scarcely  offers  anything 
worthy  of  notice.  Learning  is  chiefly  confined 
to  the  production  of  commentaries  and  scholia, 
discussions  on  points  of  dogma  and  jurispru- 
dence, and  grammatical  works  on  the  classical 
language.  Among  authors  who  have  written 
to  a  certain  extent  under  the  influence  of  Euro- 
pean culture  we  must  mention  Michael  Sab- 
bagh  of  Syria  ('The  Carrier  Pigeon.'  Arabic 
and  French,  Paris  1805)  :  Sheikh  Refaa  of 
Cairo  ('The  Broken  Lyre.'  Paris  1827;  'Man- 
ners and  Customs  of  the  Europeans,'  Cairo 
1S34I  ;  Nasif-Effendi  of  Beyrout,  and  Ahmed 
Faris  (died  1887"),  journalist  and  miscellane- 
ous writer.  Translations  of  modern  European 
works  (Jules  Verne's  and  others)  are  numer- 
ous. A  number  of  periodicals  are  published 
in  Arabic 


ARABIAN    NIGHTS  ENTERTAINMENT  —  ARACHNIDA 


Arabian  Nights  Entertainment,  The,  a 
brated  collection  of  Arabic  tales,  first  intro- 
duced into  Europe  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century  by  means  of  the  translation  of  Antoine 
Galland,  a  distinguished  French  Orientalist, 
which  was  hailed  with  universal  delight,  and 
one  of  the  most  popular  works  in 
Europe.  L"he  story  which  connects  the  talcs  of 
tlie  '  [Thousand  and  One  Nights'  is  as  follows: 
1  he  Sultan  Shahriyar,  exasperated  by  the  faith- 
lessness of  his  bride,  made  a  law  that  every  one 
of  Ins  future  wives  should  be  put  to  death  the 
morning  alter  marriage.  At  length  one  of 
them.  Shahrazad,  the  generous  daughter  of  the 
grand   vi  eeded  in  abolishing  the  cruel 

custom.  By  the  charm  of  her  stories  the  fair 
narrator  induced  the  Sultan  to  defer  her  execu- 
tion everj  day  till  the  dawn  of  another  by 
breaking  off  in  the  middle  of  an  interesting 
tale  which  she  had  begun  to  relate.  The  de- 
light felt  by  Shahriyar  has  been  felt  by  multi- 
tude since  his  time,  and  the  universal  popu- 
larity of  the  'Arabian  Nights'  is  unequivocally 
evinced  by  the  numerous  translations  in  differ- 
ent European  languages  which  have  appeared 
since  the  time  of  Galland.  Lane,  who  resided 
fi  ir  years  at  Cairo  and  published  an  excellent 
(abridged)  translation  of  these  tales,  with  nu- 
merous most  valuable  notes  (1839),  considered 
that  they  took  their  present  form  some  time  be- 
tween 1475  and  1525.  A  complete  (unexpur- 
gated)  translation  of  great  value  by  Sir  R.  F. 
Burton  has  been  published  (1885-6),  with  a 
somewhat  abridged  edition  by  Lady  Rurton 
(  [887-8).  There  is  also  a  modern  translation 
by  Mr.  Payne    (1882-4). 

Ara'ceae,  the  designation  of  an  order  of 
endogenous  plants  having  for  their  inflorescence 
a  spadix  placed  within  a  spathe.  They  have 
neither  calyx  nor  corolla.  The  leaves  are  fre- 
quently cordate;  the  fruit  succulent,  with  many 
'  1  ds.  They  are  acrid  in  character  and  often 
poisonous.  The  Caladiutn  sequinum,  or  dumb 
cane  of  the  West  Indies  and  South  America, 
when  chewed,  causes  the  tongue  to  swell  so  as  to 
cauM  temporary  dumbness.  A  common  English 
species  is  the  wake-robin.  The  nearest  relatives 
of  the  family  in  America  are  the  Indian  turnip, 
water-arum,   and  skunk's  cabbage. 

Arach'nida,  the  name  applied  to  the  class 
of  arthropods  represented  by  the  scorpion, 
spider,  and  mite.  The  body  is  divided  into 
two  regions,  the  cephalothorax  and  abdomen, 
the  head  having  been  in  embryonic  life  folded 
back  over  and  fused  with  the  thorax.  There 
are  no  antennae,  the  first  pair  of  appendages 
resembling  mandibles,  and  called  chelicerse ;  the 
second  pair  end  in  a  large  forceps,  or  chelx,  or 
in  a  palpus-shaped  appendage  called  "pedi- 
palpi."  The  head  appendages  are  not  differ- 
cntiated  into  antenna;,  mandibles,  maxillae,  and 
maxillipeds,  as  in  Crustacea.  There  are  four 
pairs  of  legs  ending  in  a  pair  of  minute  claws. 
On  the  abdomen  there  are  no  appendages.  The 
respiratory  organs  are  spiracles  opening  into 
tracheas  or  air-tubes,  or  pouches  containing  nu- 
merous leaves  or  their  sacs,  resembling  the 
leaves  of  a  book,  and  hence  called  "book- 
lungs."  The  eyes  are  simple,  never  compound, 
two  being  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  head, 
others  on  each  side  of  it.  There  may  be  as 
many   as    five   pairs   of   nephridia.     The   genital 


outlet    is    single    instead   of   being   double,    as    in 
Limulus.     They  have  a  pair  of  malpighian  tubes 
or    urinary    vessels,    but,    like    Limulus,    pos 
two  large  digestive  glands,  the  "livi 

The  young  are  hatched  in  the  form  of  the 
adult,  there  being  no  metamorphosis  except  a 
slight  one  in  the  mites.  Their  embryos  have, 
on  at  least  six  abdominal  segments,  rudiments 
of  limbs,  which  indicate  their  descent  from  ani- 
mals like  Limulus.  All  of  the  Arachnida  are 
terrestrial,  none  of  them  living  in  or  near  fresh- 
water, except  a  few  mites.  Their  embryoli 
is  like  that  of  Limulus.  which  suggests  that  the 
Arachnida  have  descended  from  the  Merostom- 
ala    (q.V.).      Whether    we    take    into   account    the 

mode    nf    development    or    the    very    primitive 

nature    of    the    appendages,    it    appears    that    the 

Arachnida  are  much  less  closely  allied  to  in- 
sects than  was  formerly  supposed.  I  hi  tin  other 
hand,  they  differ  from  the  merostomes,  and 
pecially  their  living  representative,  the  king 
crab  (q.V.),  in  having  no  gills.  Their  em- 
bryology and  morphology  tend  t.i  show  that  the 
class  has  probably  descended  from  limuloid  an- 
cestors, of  which  there  are  examples  in  the 
Silurian  rocks,  intermediate  between  limuloid 
(Xiphosura)  and  eurypteroid  (Eurypterida) 
forms.  The  characters  in  which  Arachnida  re- 
semble insects,  as  respiration  by  tracheae  and 
the  presence  of  urinary  tubes  (which  do  not 
occur  in  Crustacea  or  in  any  other  marine  1  ir 
branchiate  arthropods),  are  probably  adaptive 
and  were  acquired  during  a  change  fn  in  a  marine 
to  a  terrestrial  life,  and  not  primitive  heirlooms. 
Arachnida  also  show  their  later  origin  than 
merostomes  by  the  fact  that  their  sexual  ducts 
(oviduct,  etc.)  are  in  most  casrs  single,  unpaired, 
and  in  all  cases  open  externally  by  a  common 
single  genital  aperture  in  the  median  line  of  the 
body,  at  the  base  of  the  abdomen.  In  this  re- 
spect Limulus.  with  its  pair  of  genital  (male  and 
female)  openings,  situated  each  at  the  end  of  a 
papilla,  which  are  placed  widely  apart  at  the 
base  of  the  first  abdominal  legs,  is  decidedly 
more  archaic.  The  Arachnida  are  divided  into 
six  groups  or  orders:  (1)  Scorpionida  (scor- 
pions): (2)  Pscudoscorpi'ii ;:  or  book- 
scorpions)  ;  (3)  Pedipalpida  (Phrynus  or  scor- 
pion-spiders) ;  (4)  Solpugida  (galeodes)  ;  (5) 
Phalangida  (harvest  men);  (6)  Araneida  (spi- 
ders) 117)  Acarida  (mites  and  ticks),  the  latter 
comprising  the  aberrant  and  degenerate  forms, 
many  of  them  parasitic;  while  of  somewhat 
doubtful  relationship  to  the  A  carina  are  three 
aberrant  groups:  the  Linguatulida,  Pycno 
nida,  and  Tardigrada.  See  Mite;  Scorpion; 
Spiders. 

Several  of  the  Arachnida  are  of  interest  in 
medicine.  A  few  of  the  scorpions  are  poison- 
ous,  their  sting  even  causing  death,  although 
it  is  quite  certain  that  there  are  no  poisonous 
spiders  north  of  Mexico.  A  number  of  the 
mites  are  found  in  man.  One,  the  Demodex 
canis.  is  frequently  found  in  the  sebaceous  fol- 
licles of  the  skin,  notably  in  comedos,  or  black- 
heads. The  itch  mite  (Sarcop/cs  scabeii) 
bores  little  canals  under  the  skin,  in  which  it 
deposits  its  eggs.  The  itch  is  a  common  disease 
of  Europe,  and  is  becoming  more  frequent  in 
this  country.  Sulphur  ointment  is  one  of  the 
best  parasiticides  for  this  small  nuisance. 

In  the  warm  countries  ticks  (Ixodes)  are 
troublesome  pests.     See   Parasites. 


ARAGO  — ARARAT 


Arago,  a'ra-go,  Dominique  Frangois,  a 
celebrated  French  astronomer:  b.  in  Estagel, 
1786;  d.  in  Paris  2  Oct.  1853.  After  studying 
at  the  Polytechnic  School  at  Paris  he  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  of  the  Bureau  des  Longitudes, 
and  in  1806  was  associated  with  Biot  and  in 
completing  the  measurements  of  Delambre  and 
Mechain  to  obtain  an  arc  of  the  meridian  which 
was  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  a  new  metrical 
system.  In  1809  he  was  elected  to  fill  the  seat 
left  vacant  by  the  death  of  Lalande  in  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  at  the  same  time  he 
was  appointed  a  professor  of  the  Polytechnic 
School.  In  181 1  he  communicated  to  the  Insti- 
tute a  paper  on  a  particular  modification  which 
the  luminous  rays  experience  in  their  passage 
through  certain  transparent  bodies,  thus  paving 
the  way  for  some  of  the  most  brilliant  discov- 
eries made  in  optical  science  since  the  days  of 
Newton.  In  1812  he  began  a  series  of  lectures 
on  astronomy,  which  created  an  immense  sensa- 
tion. With  Gay-Lussac  he  established  in  1816 
the  'Annates  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique.'  His 
discovery  of  the  magnetic  properties  of  sub- 
stances devoid  of  iron  procured  him  the  Copley 
medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London  in  1825, 
and  a  further  consideration  of  the  same  subject 
led  to  the  equally  remarkable  discovery  of  the 
production  of  magnetism  by  electricity.  In 
1830,  on  the  death  of  Fourier,  Arago  succeeded 
him  as  perpetual  secretary"  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  becoming  in  the  same  year  director 
of  the  Observatory.  After  the  expulsion  of  the 
Bourbons  Arago  was  elected  to  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies  as  representative  of  the  Pyrenees- 
Orientales,  taking  his  place  on  the  extreme  left, 
and  proving  a  ready  and  effective  speaker.  The 
revolution  of  1848  brought  him  still  more 
prominently  upon  the  scene,  first  as  minister  of 
war  and  marine  in  the  provisional  government, 
and  then  as  a  member  of  the  Executive  Com- 
mittee of  the  National  Assembly.  His 
'Works,'  edited  by  Barral,  appeared  in  1854-62. 

A'ragonite,  a  mineral  having  the  formula 
CaC03,  and  therefore  identical  with  calcite  in 
composition.  It  is  classed  as  a  separate  species, 
however,  because  it  crystallizes  in  the  ortho- 
rhombic  system.  Its  specific  gravity  is  also 
somewhat  higher  than  that  of  calcite.  Occa- 
sionally it  contains  a  little  strontium,  lead,  or 
zinc,  and  it  often  occurs  in  connection  with 
pyrites,  galena,  or  malachite.  It  is  translucent 
and  usually  white  with  a  vitreous  lustre.  In 
hardness  it  varies  from  3.5  to  4,  and  it  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  about  2.94.  Aragonite  occurs 
in  fine  crystals  at  Aragon,  Spain  (whence  its 
name),  near  Bilin,  Bohemia,  in  Hungary,  and 
Sicily,  and  near  Frizington,  England.  There  are 
no  important  American  localities,  though  it  oc- 
curs on  stalactitic  calcite  in  caves  in  New  Mex- 
ico, Arizona,  and  elsewhere.  The  coralloidal 
form,  called  «flos-ferri,"  is  most  beautifully  de- 
veloped in  Styria.  It  is  said  to  be  forming  rap- 
idly at  the  present  time  in  the  Eureka  mine  in 
Nevada. 

The  minerals  aragonite,  bromlite,  witherite, 
strontianite,  and  cerussite,  all  of  which  are  car- 
bonates crystallizing  in  the  orthorhombic  sys- 
tem, are  classed  together  as  the  "aragonite 
group." 

Ara'lia,  the  designation  of  a  widely  dis- 
tributed genus  of  about  400  species  of  dicotyle- 
donous shrubs,  trees,  and  perennial   herbs  typi- 


cal of  the  natural  order  Araliacets.  The  species 
have  large  alternate  deciduous  leaves,  small  um- 
bels of  whitish  flowers  usually  arranged  in  pani- 
cles, and  2-  to  5-seeded/  variously  colored, 
globular,  berry-like  drupes.  All  parts  of  the 
plants  have  a  warm,  aromatic  taste.  A.  spinosa, 
devil's  walking-stick,  angelica  tree,  Hercules' 
club,  toothache  tree,  a  very  ornamental  shrub 
or  small  tree  about  12  feet  tall  (sometimes  40 
feet),  is  common  in  moist  woods  and  along  river 
banks  from  Pennsylvania  to  Indiana  and  south- 
ward to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  very  stout, 
prickly  stems,  large  pinnate  leaves,  and  clusters 
of  flowers  which  appear  in  midsummer,  give  a 
decided  sub-tropical  effect  upon  lawns  in  the 
South.  It  is  not  hardy  in  the  North.  A.  race- 
nwsa,  spikenard,  a  widely  branched  herbaceous 
species,  with  large,  spicy,  aromatic  roots  and 
greenish-white  flowers  which  appear  in  midsum- 
mer, is  common  in  rich  woods  from  New  Bruns- 
wick to  Minnesota  and  southward  to  the 
mountains  of  Georgia.  A.  nudicaulis,  wild  sar- 
saparilla,  small  spikenard,  a  nearly  stemless  her- 
baceous species  with  a  single  pinnate  leaf  a  foot 
high,  is  common  in  rocky  and  sandy  places  from 
Newfoundland  to  Dakota  and  southward  to  the 
mountains  of  North  Carolina.  It  bears  from 
two  to  seven  umbels  of  greenish  flowers  in  late 
spring.  The  long,  horizontal,  aromatic  roots 
are  believed  to  be  equal  to  those  of  sarsaparilla 
as  an  alterative  and  tonic.  A.  hispida,  wild  el- 
der, bristly  sarsaparilla,  a  bristly  stemmed  peren- 
nial found  in  the  same  localities  and  soils  as  the 
preceding.  It  bears  several  terminal  umbels  of 
white  flowers  in  early  summer.  Among  foreign 
aralias  the  Asiatic  species  are  perhaps  of  most 
importance.  Some,  notably  A.  edulis  (A.  cor- 
data  of  some  botanists),  are  of  value  as  human 
food ;  others  as  stock  food  when  grasses  are 
scarce.  The  pith  of  A.  papyri  f era  (referred  by 
some  botanists  to  Fatsia  papyrifera)  is  used  for 
the  manufacture  of  Chinese  rice  paper.  A.  chi- 
nensis,  Chinese  angelica  tree,  is  much  like  its 
American  relative,  A.  spin<  sa  (to  which  it  is  re- 
ferred by  some  botanists),  but  is  hardier  and 
blossoms  somewhat  later.  A.  polaris  (Stibo- 
carpa  polaris  of  some  authors),  a  New  Zealand 
herbaceous  perennial,  is  four  or  more  feet  tall 
and  has  attractive  foliage  and  handsome  waxy- 
flowers.  Many  other  species  are  cultivated 
either  out  of  doors  or  in  greenhouses  for  orna- 
mental purposes,  for  which  uses  their  symmetry' 
and  grace  specially  fit  them.  Among  "the  best 
known  of  these  are  A.  elegantissima,  a  native  of 
New  Hebrides,  and  A.  veitchii,  indigenous  to 
New  Caledonia.  The  stronger  growing  species 
are  propagated  by  cuttings  of  roots  or  stems : 
the  more  delicate  by  grafting  on  the  strong  spe- 
cies. For  A.  quinquefolia,  better  known  in 
America  as  Panax  quinquefolia,  see  Ginseng. 

Aransas  (a-ran'zas)  Bay,  an  inlet  on  the 
coast  of  Texas,  connected  with  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico by  a  channel  known  as  Aransas  Pass.  A  bar 
at  its  mouth  renders  its  harbor  of  very  little 
commercial  importance,  in  spite  of  the  money 
lavished  in  various  attempts  to  establish  there 
a  harbor  and  port  of  entry.  During  the  Civil 
War  it  was  the  scene  of  a  conflict  between  the 
Confederate  and   Federal  troops. 

Ar'arat,  or  Pilot  Mountain,  an  American 
mountain  about  3.000  feet  in  height,  in  Surrey 
County,  N.  C.  It  is  situated  between  the 
Ararat  and  Dan  rivers  and  is  visible  for  a  long 
distance. 


ARAS  —  ARAUC  ARIA 


Aras,  a-ras,  a  river  of  Armenia,  rising  in 
the  Turkish  pashalic  of  Erzerum.  After  Bowing 
for  some  miles  through  Turkish  territory  to  the 
new  Russian  frontier,  it  turns  eastward  to  the 
Ervian  plain  north  of  Arar.it,  whence  it  swi 
in  a  semicircle  mostly  between  the  Russian  an  J 
Persian  territories  to  its  confluence  with  the 
Kur,  (w  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Its  entire  course  is  about  500  miles.  Mod- 
ern research  has  discovered  that  it  originally 
flowed  directly  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  as  ancient 
writers  had  claimed.  It  is  identical  with  the 
ancient  AraxeS. 

Arauca'nians,  a'row-ka'ne-ans,  a  South 
American  native  race  in  the  southern  part  of 
Chile,  formerly  occupying  Chile,  Argentina, 
Chiloe,  and  the  Chonos  Archipelago,  etc.  When 
first  encountered  by  tin-  Spaniards  in  1535  they 
were  a  confederacy  of  the  loosest  kind,  with 
many  tribes  and  sub-tribes  in  entire  independ- 
ence, and  in  about  the  same  political  stage  as  the 
North  American  Indians:  electing  a  toqui  or 
war  chief  and  deposing  him  at  will,  with  no 
authoritative  head  in  peace,  practising  polygamy, 
and  for  worship  conciliating  an  evil  spirit, 
Quecubu, —  probably  the  same  as  the  Fuegian 
spirit  immortalized  by  Shakespeare  as  aSete- 
bo  ,"  the  shape  given  it  by  Magellan's  sailors. 
They  were  divided  into  Picun-che  or  North- 
men, living  north  of  the  river  Maule;  Pehuen- 
clie  or  Pine-men,  occupying  through  central 
Chile  and  the  pine  forests  on  the  western  slopes 
of  the  Andes  (the  chief  division  of  the  tribe,  and 
from  whom  most  of  the  modern  Araucanians 
are  descended)  ;  Huilli-che  or  South-men,  occu- 
pying the  rest  of  the  Chilean  mainland;  Puel- 
che  or  Mast-men;  South  men  or  Patagonians; 
Chono ;  Lubu-che  or  Water-men;  Cuncho; 
Payo,  etc.  But  their  instant  and  indomitable 
cohesion  in  face  of  the  Spanish  attack  shows 
that  they  were  of  much  higher  political  stamp 
than  the  North  Americans.  No  other  native 
race  in  the  western  hemisphere  retained  its  in- 
dependence anything  like  as  long.  For  over 
two  centuries  they  waged  warfare  with  the 
Spaniards,  broken  only  by  truces  sought  by  the 
latter,  though  their  numbers  were  small  com- 
pared with  the  Aztecs  or  Quichuas,  who  went 
down  at  a  blow.  Ercilla's  famous  epic  'Arau- 
cana'  commemorates  their  early  heroism  and 
that  of  their  powerful  chief.  Caupolican.  In 
1041  Spain  conceded  their  independence,  con- 
firming it  in  1(155.  imposing  only  the  condition 
thai  no  enemies  of  Spain  should  be  allowed  to 
enter  their  country;  an  easy  condition,  as  it 
amounted  only  to  keeping  out  all  foreigners, 
which  they  were  glad  to  do.  The  territory  left 
them  was  about  30,000  square  miles,  from  the 
Andes  to  the  sea.  and  from  Arauco  P>ay  to  the 
river  Calle-Calle.  The  war  was  renewed  never- 
theless, and  went  on  a  century  and  a  third 
longer;  till  in  1773  the  natives,  weakened  by  war 
and  social  practices,  were  compelled  to  submit. 
They  had  not  lost  the  memory  of  their  past. 
however,  and  in  1861  a  French  adventurer 
named  Antoine  Tomiens,  originally  a  provincial 
lawyer,  bad  himself  elected  king  of  Arattcania 
as  Orelie  Antoine  I.;  but  the  Chilean  govern- 
ment conquered  and  deposed  him  and  sent  him 
back  to  France.  In  1870  the  Araucanians  rec- 
ognized the  sovereignty  of  Chile.  Araucania 
occupies  a  great  part  of  the  province  of  Arauco 
in  south  Chile,  and  is  divided  into  four  parallel 


north-and-SOUth  districts,  each  formerly  gov- 
erned by  a  /.'(/ill  whose  rule  had  become  heredi- 
tary before  its  extinction.  '1  he  inhabitants  are 
now    a    mixed    race    with    much    Spanish    hi 1. 

I  'in  y    number    perhaps    about    50.000,    but   are 

said  to  be  decreasing,  owing  to  smallpox,  dys- 
entery, liquors,  and  polygamy.  They  are 
of  a  pale  yellow  color,  and  in  character 
and  life  resemble  the  higher  North  Ameri- 
can plains  Indians,  such  as  the  Navajos. 
They  arc  uncivilizable  and  unchristianized ; 
nomad    herdsmen    of    horses,    cattle,    and    sheep; 

despising  agriculture,  eating  little  but  meat, 
and  living  in  skin  tents;  but  skilful  wool- 
weavers,  skin-dressers,  and  weapon-makers. 
Their  language  is  so  harmonious  and  flexible 
that  an  enthusiastic  missionary  student  once  at- 
tempted to  introduce  it  into  Europe  to  super- 
sede Latin.  Their  stock  in  Chiloe  are  called 
Chilotcs. 

Ar'auca'ria,  the  name  of  a  genus  of  15 
species  of  lofty  evergreen  trees  of  the  order 
Conifcnc,  indigenous  to  Australia  and  South 
America.  In  general  habit  the  species  resemble 
the  pines,  but  have  broader  leaves.  In  warm 
but  not  excessively  dry  climates  they  arc  much 
planted  for  ornament,  but  in  cool  countries  are 
grown  in  greenhouses  on  account  of  their  ten- 
derness. They  are  propagated  by  seeds  and  cut- 
tings planted  in  good  soil  and  grown  in  a  cool 
greenhouse.  A.  excelso,  Norfolk  Island  pine 
and  its  varieties,  glauca  and  robusta  compacta, 
unquestionably  the  most  popular  species  grown 
in  the  United  States,  is  imported  to  the  extent 
of  probably  250,000  annually,  from  Belgium, 
where  it  is  grown  in  immense  quantities.  In 
Norfolk  Island,  its  home,  it  often  attains  a 
height  of  200  feet  (too  feet  to  the  first  branches) 
and  a  diameter  of  10  feet  near  the  base.  The 
white,  close-grained  tough  wood  is  so  heavy  that 
it  barely  floats  in  water.  . /.  cutminghamii, 
hoop  pine,  Morelou  Pay  pine,  colonial  pine,  coo- 
nam,  cumburtu,  coonong,  a  native  of  New  South 
Wales,  is  similar  to  the  preceding,  but  some- 
what smaller,  of  less  formal  and  symmetrical 
habit.  Its  lower  branches  are  horizontal,  its 
upper  ascending;  one  of  its  varieties,  however, 
is  weeping.  Its  yell. .wish  wood  is  highly  val- 
ued for  carpentry,  shipbuilding,  and  furniture- 
making.  It  also  furnishes  a  valuable  resin.  A. 
imbricata,  Chile  pine,  monkey  puzzle,  a  native 
of  the  western  slopes  of  the  Chilean  Andes,  at- 
tains a  height  of  150  feet,  and  is  limbless  ex- 
cept near  the  top.  It  furnishes  an  abundant 
supply  of  valuable  white  resin  which  smells  like- 
frankincense.  Its  timber,  which  is  used  for 
ships'  masts,  is  yellowish  white,  handsomely 
veined,  heavy,  and  hard.  Its  huge  cones,  often 
eight  inches  in  diameter,  frequently  contain  sev- 
eral hundred  seeds,  which  arc  largely  used  as 
food,  either  raw,  roasted,  or  boiled,  by  the  Chil- 
eans, who  also  distil  a  liquor  from  them.  A. 
braziliana,  Brazilian  pine,  a  native  of  southern 
Brazil,  is  a  more  spreading  species  than  the 
above,  which  seldom  greatly  exceeds  100  feet  in 
height.  Its  seeds  are  also  used  as  food;  its 
resin  for  mixing  with  wax  in  candle-making 
./.  Bidwellii,  bunga-bunga,  of  Australia,  at- 
tains a  height  of  150  feet  and  a  diameter  of  four 
feet.  It  furnishes  a  less  valuable  timber  than  A. 
cunninghamti,  an  important  resin,  and  every 
three  years  a  crop  of  large  seeds  used  by  the  na- 
tives as  food.     It  rivals  A.  excelsa  in  beauty  a? 


ARAUCO  —  ARAYAT 


3  pot  plant.  A.  cookii,  named  after  Capt.  Cook, 
the  explorer,  reaches  a  height  of  200  feet,  and 
A.  pulei,  both  natives  of  New  Caledonia,  are 
useful  for  ornamental  purposes  and  for  their 
products  of  timber,  resin,  etc.  In  California  and 
the  southern  States  these  trees  have  been  found 
to  succeed  well  as  out-door  specimens. 

For  cultivation  consult  Bailey,  'Cyclopaedia 
of  American  Horticulture'  ;  Nicholson,  'Dic- 
tionary of  Gardening'  ;  Von  Mueller,  'Select 
Extra-Tropical  Plants  Readily  Eligible  for  In- 
dustrial  Culture.' 

Arauco,  a-row'ko,  the  name  of  a  province 
of  Chile  with  an  area  of  4,248  square  miles.  It 
is  but  a  strip  of  coast  at  present,  but  was  for- 
merly much  more  extensive.  Capital,  Lebu. 
Pop.  (1901)  75,000. 

Araujo  de  Azevedo,  a-row'zho  da  a-za- 
va'do,  a  noted  Portuguese  statesman :  b.  in  Sa, 
1754;  d.  in  Rio  Janeiro,  1817.  He  became  minis- 
ter of  foreign  affairs  in  1803,  but  on  the  capture 
of  Lisbon  by  Napoleon  in  1807  accompanied  the 
king  to  Brazil.  At  Rio  Janeiro  he  founded 
schools  of  fine  arts  and  medicine,  introduced  the 
tea  culture  into  Brazil  and  was  an  active  pa- 
tron of  agriculture  and  other  industries.  In 
1815  he  was  created  Count  of  Barca.  His  liter- 
ary pretensions  were  not  inconsiderable. 

Araujo  Porto-Alegre,  a-row'zho  por'to- 
a-la'gra,  Manoel  de,  a  Brazilian  poet  and 
architect :  b.  Rio  Pardo,  1806 ;  d.  1879.  He  not 
only  designed  several  important  buildings  in 
Rio  Janeiro,  but  was  the  author  of  several  com- 
edies, of  'Colombo,'  an  epic,  and  'Brasilianas,' 
a  collection  of  poems   (1863). 

Arauna,  ii'ra-oo'na,  the  name  of  a  South 
American  tribe  whose  home  is  on  the  borders 
of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  regarding  whose  appear- 
ance and  customs  travelers  differ  widely.  Ac- 
cording to  some  accounts  they  are  naked  and 
ill-formed  cannibals,  while  according  to  others 
they  are  light-colored,  mild-mannered  agricul- 
turists. 

Araure,  a-row'ra,  a  town  in  Venezuela 
in  the  State  of  Lara,  the  centre  of  a  fertile 
region  producing  coffee,  cotton,  and  cattle.  The 
battle  of  Arame  took  place  near  here,  4  Dec. 
181 3.     Pop.  4,000. 

Aravulli,  ar'a-vul'le,  or  Aravalli,  a  moun- 
tain range  in  Hindustan  about  300  miles  in 
length.  Its  river  system  is  extensive,  but  the 
valleys  enclosed  within  the  range  are  mainly 
sterile. 

Arawakan  (a-ra-wa'kan)  Stock  (from  the 
Arawaks  below),  the  most  widely  diffused  lin- 
guistic stock  of  South  America,  and  originally 
forming  a  curious  and  significant  link  between 
the  South  and  North  American  regional  if  not 
philological  stocks.  Their  habitat  reached  from 
Bolivia  and  southern  Brazil  not  only  to  the 
northern  coast  of  Venezuela,  but  —  while  barred 
to  the  westward  by  the  Colombian  Chibchas  or 
Muyscas  of  the  Magdalena  basin  —  occupied  the 
entire  West  Indies  and  had  an  outlier  of  sev- 
eral villages  in  Florida.  Just  before  Columbus' 
discovery,  however,  they  had  been  expelled  from 
the  southern  Antilles  and  part  of  the  adjoining 
South  American  coast  by  the  fierce  Caribs  (q.v.) 
from  the  lower  Orinoco,  who  had  seized  their 
women  for  wives,  most  of  the  latter  still  speak- 
ing Arawal     when   the    Spaniards    found   them. 


The  larger  Antilles  were  still  Arawak,  and  the 
names  given  in  the  early  West  India  voyages 
are  intelligible  in  this  set  of  languages  yet.  The 
Arawakans  have  neither  the  energy  and  co- 
hesiveness  of  the  Araucans,  the  spUndid  phy- 
sique and  fiery  vigor  of  the  Caribs,  nor  the  polit- 
ical development  of  the  Quichuas  in  the  past; 
they  are  below  the  medium  stature,  and  of  no 
great  stamina.  Yet  they  had,  perhaps  owing 
to  this  very  lack  of  savage  vigor,  an  intellectual 
and  artistic  development  and  a  stage  of  culture 
above  the  surrounding  tribes :  they  made  fictile 
vases  decorated  with  grotesques  of  men  and 
animals,  were  skilful  artisans  in  stone,  gold, 
and  wood,  and  excellent  weavers;  and  the  island 
Arawakans  cultivated  not  only  corn  and  manioc 
for  food,  but  cotton  and  tobacco,  whose  use  the 
Europeans  took  from  them.  There  are  probably 
a  hundred  or  more  different  tribes  of  this  stock 
scattered  through  Brazil,  Bolivia,  the  Guianas, 
Venezuela,  and  Colombia.  Among  the  chief, 
besides  those  mentioned  below  under  Arawaks, 
are  the  Manaos  near  that  city,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Amazon  and  Negro ;  the  Waupes,  Maipures, 
and  Miranhas,  in  the  extreme  west  of  Brazil 
next  to  Colombia,  on  the  llanos  between  the 
Negro  and  Amazon;  the  Goajiros  on  that  penin- 
sula west  of  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela ;  the  Piaroas 
on  the  Orinoco  near  its  junction  with  the  Meta; 
the  Maneteneris  in  the  northwest  angle  of  Bo- 
livia; the  Baures  and  the  Moxos  or  Mojos  in 
northeast  Bolivia,  next  Matto  Grosso ;  and  the 
Antas  in  extreme  south  Brazil,  near  Uruguay. 

Arawaks,  a'ra-waks  (name  most  improba- 
bly defined  "meal-eaters" — that  is,  of  cassava 
bread  —  from  a  Tupi  word :  not  more  descrip- 
tive of  them  now  than  the  Tupis  or  any  other 
South  American  race  except  the  Araucanians, 
and  they  hunt  and  fish  as  well  as  raise  corn 
and  manioc.  Their  own  name  is  Lokono  or 
Lukkunnu,  "men":  cf.  Illinois,  Innuit,  Muysca, 
Alemanni,  etc.),  a  tribe  of  South  American 
Indians  living  on  the  coast  of  British  and  Dutch 
Guiana,  across  the  Corentyne  and  Berbice  riv- 
ers, and  taken  as  the  type  of  the  great  Arawakan 
stock  (above).  They  are  not  pure-blooded, 
however,  being  mixed  with  Caribs,  etc.,  in  a 
conglomerate  of  plantation  laborers.  The  term 
is  also  used  in  a  broader  sense  to  include  all 
the  tribes  of  this  stock  in  British  Guiana  and 
the  neighboring  corner  of  Brazil,  with  the  ex- 
tension noted  into  Dutch  Guiana :  Tarumas  and 
Atoradis  of  the  upper  Essequibo  basin,  Wapisian- 
as  of  the  upper  Rio  Branco  in  Brazil,  etc.,  as 
well  as  Arawaks  proper.  All  these  are  in  a  very 
primitive  stage  of  culture,  making  marriages 
by  abduction  after  orgies  on  corn  spirits,  count- 
ing descent  through  females,  having  the  clan 
system,  and  practising  the  couvade  (q.v.).  The 
Atoradis  are  almost  white,  or  not  duskier  than 
South  Europeans,  with  fine  figures,  especially 
the  women  having  much  beauty  and  dignity  of 
appearance.  The  Wapisianas  are  browner  and 
less  graceful,  but  their  language  is  so  soft, 
sonorous,  and  vocalic  that  it  is  the  general 
medium  of  communication  for  trade  and  other 
intercourse  among  all  the  tribes  in  this  region, 
even  the  Caribs ;  and  the  Atoradis  have  nearly 
abandoned  their  own  for  it. 
Arax'es.     See  Aras. 

Arayat,  a-ri'at,  a  Philippine  town  on  the 
island  of  Luzon,  occupied  by  the  American 
army  12  Oct.  1899.     Pop.  14,000. 


ARBACES  —  ARBITRATION 


Arba'ceo,  n  Median  general  under  Sardan- 
and   the   Founder  of  the   Median  empire 
in    876   B.C      The    dynasty    founded   by   Arbaces 
ted  till  its  overthrow  bj  Cyrus,  559  b.c. 

Ar  balest.      S      Cro      how. 

Arbe'la,  now  Arbeel,  a  small  town  in 
Asiatic  Turkej  which  gave  its  name  to  a  deci 
sive  battle  (ought  by  Alexander-  the  Great 
against  Darius  al  Gaugamela,  about  20  miles 
distant  from  it,  1  Oct.  33'  B.C.  There  are  sev- 
eral large  mosques  in  the  modern  town.  Pop. 
abi  iut  6,000. 

Ar'ber,  Edward,  an  English  scholar, 
emeritus  professor  of  English  literature  at 
Mason  College,  Birmingham.  He  is  best 
known  through  the  excellent  reprints  of  which 
editor.  These  include  'English  Reprints' 
1  [868  71);  'Tyndale's  New  Testament  of  1525' 
(  1S71  )  ;  'A  Transcript  of  the  Registers  of  the 
Company  of  the  Stationers  at  London'  (1875)  ; 
'An  English  Garner'  (1877-96);  'An  English 
Scholar's  Library'  (1878-84);  'The  First  'Jinn 
English  Books  on  America'  1  1S85)  ;  'The  Story 
of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  1606-23'  (1897);  'Brit- 
ish Anthologies'    (1899-1900). 

Arbitration,  a  term  applied  to  mi  adjudi- 
cation by  persons,  called  arbitrators,  appointed 
to  decide  a  matter  or  matters  in  controversy  by 
agreement  of  the  disputants.  Submissions  to 
arbitration,  however,  should  not  he  oral,  because 
open  to  disputes,  and  in  California  and  Louis- 
iana the  submission  must  be  in  writing.  2  Cal. 
92;  S  La.  133.  Also  in  New  York,  Code  Civ. 
Pro     2366.     A     sul  ion    to    arbitration    may 

be  made  at  any  time  of  causes  not  in  court,  and 
at  common  law,  where  a  cause  was  pending, 
Submission  might  be  made  l>y  rule  of  court  he- 
fore  the  trial,  or  by  order  after  it  had  com- 
menced, which  was  afterward  made  a  rule  of 
court.  It  differs  from  a  reference  made  by  the 
order  of  a  court  of  law.  The  proceeding  gen- 
erally is  called  a  submission  to  arbitration;  the 
parties  appointed  to  decide  are  termed  arbitra- 
tors, not  referees;  and  their  adjudication  is 
called  an  award.  This  mode  of  settling  dis- 
putes has  been  approved  by  legislatures  at  va- 
rious times,  and  there  are  statutes  in  a  number 
of   States    regulating  the  proceeding. 

Legal  Arbitration .  —  Infants  and  others  not 
entitled  to  sue  cannot  submit  controversies  to 
arbitration.  In  general,  where  the  owner  of  real 
estate  is  incapacitated  in  any  way.  and  also  in 
many  cases  of  agency,  the  person  having  the  legal 
control  of  the  property  may  submit  the  matter  ill 
dispute  to  arbitration.  Such,  for  example,  as  a 
husband  for  his  wife;  a  parent  or  guardian  for  an 
infant  (not,  however,  a  guardian  appointed  for 
some  other  special  purpose);  a  trustee  for  his 
beneficiary;  in  some  instances,  an  attorney  for 
his  client;  an  agent  duly  authorized  so  to  do  by 
his  principal;  an  executor  or  administrator  may 
submit  to  arbitration,  but  does  so  at  his  personal 
risk  should  his  estate  be  improperly  held  liable. 

Tin-  matters  that  may  be  submitted  to  an 
arbitrator  are  all  personal  disputes  and  differ- 
ences that  might  otherwise  he  made  the  subject 
of  controversy  in  the  courts  of  civil  jurisdiction. 
The  Xew  York  Code  of  Civil  Procedure.  §  2365, 
provides  that  a  submission  of  a  controversy  to 
arbitration  cannot  he  made  (1)  where  one  of 
the   parties    is    an    infant,   or   a   person    incom- 


petent  to  manage  his  affairs  by  reason  of  lunacy. 
idiocy,  or  habitual  drunkenness;  1  _' )  where  the 
controversy  arises  respecting  a  claim  to  an  1  tate 
in  real  property  in  fee  "i  for  life.  The  second 
subdivision  of  this  seel  ion  does  not  prevent  the 
submission  of  a  claim  to  an  estate  for  years,  or 
other   interest   for  a   term  of  years,  or  for  one 

year  or  less  111  real  property;  or  of  a  contro- 
versy respecting  the  partition  of  real  property 
between  joint  tcnanis  or  tenants  m  common;  or 
ol  1  controversy  respecting  the  boundaries  of 
lands  or  the  admeasurement  of  .lower.  Subject 
to  the  exceptions  in  this  section,  any  contro- 
versy existing  between  two  or  more  persons  at 
the  time  of  the  submission  may  he  submitted  to 
arbitration.  Thus  breaches  01  contract  gener- 
ally, breaches  of  promise  of  marriage,  trespass, 
assaults,  charges  of  slander,  differences  respect- 
ing  partnership  transactions,  or  the  purchase 
price  of  a  piece  of  personal  properly,  all  may  be 
referred  to  arbitration.  Differences  bet  wren 
landlord  and  tenant,  where  no  claim  of  title  is 
interposed,  and  pure  questions  of  law,  may  also 
be  referred  to  the  decision  of  an  arbitrator. 
Actions  at  law  and  suits  in  equity  may  be  set- 
tled by  arbitration;  and  this  kind  of  refen 
may  be  made  at  any  stage  of  the  proceedings, 
sometimes  even  afler  the  verdict,  and  probably, 
by  analog)',  after  decree  in  equity.  An  agree- 
ment to  refer  future  disputes  will  not  be  en 
forced  by  a  decree  of  specific  performance,  nor 
will  an  action  lie  for  refusing  to  appoint  an 
arbitrator  in  accordance  with  such  an  agree- 
ment. (2  Bos.  &  P.  235;  6  Yes.  Ch.  815  ;  15  Ga. 
473;  So  N.  Y.  250;  39  N.  Y.  377;  35  Barb.  N.  Y. 
(kij;  o  State  Rep.  <><>>>  It  is  well  settled  by 
authority  that  an  agreement  to  refer  all  matters 
of  difference  or  dispute  that  may  arise  to  arbi 
tration  will  not  deprive  a  court  of  law  or  equity 
of  jurisdiction.  The  Test  reason  for  the  rule  is 
an  aversion  of  the  courts,  from  reasons  of  pub- 
lic policy,  to  sanction  contracts  by  which  the 
protection  which  the  law  affords  individual  citi- 
zens is  renounced.  (50  X.  Y  250 :  39  X.  Y.  377.) 
A  matter  clearly  illegal  cannot  he  made  the 
subject  of  a  valid  submission.  Rut  where 
transactions   between   parties  have  been  brought 

to  a  close  by  general  award,  apparently  14 1.  the 

courts  have  refused  to  reopen  them  on  a  sug- 
gestion that  some  legal  item  had  been  admitted 
in  account.  It  is  not  the  policy  of  law  to  refer 
to  arbitration  felonies  and  other  criminal  of- 
fenses of  a  public  nature,  because  the  public 
safety  requires  them  to  he  punished,  and  for 
(his  purpose  they  can  he  properly  tried  only  in 
one  of  the  ordinary  courts  of  the  country. 
Partners  and  corporations  may  make  submission 
to  arbitration.  The  arbitrator  might  to  be  a 
person  who  stands  perfectly  indifferent  between 
the  disputants;  but  there  arc  no  other  particular 
qualifications  for  the  office,  and  the  choice  by 
parlies  of  the  person  who  they  agree  shall  de- 
cide between  them  is  perfectly  free,  unless  it 
is  stipulated  in  the  agreement  to  arbitrate  that 
an  arbitrator  need  not  he  sworn  at  common  law. 
In  various  States  of  the  Union,  however,  arbi- 
trators are  required  by  statute  to  take  an  oath  to 
hear  faithfully  and  fairly,  and  examine  the  mat- 
ters in  controversy,  and  to  make  a  just  award 
according  to  the  best  of  their  understanding, 
unless  the  oath  is  waived  by  the  written  con- 
sent of  the  parties  to  the  submission,  or  their 
attorneys.     (See  N.  Y.  Code  Civ.  Proc.  §  2369.) 


ARBITRATION;  ARBOGA 


In  matters  ot  complicated  accounts  mercan- 
tile men  are  greatly  preferred.  In  other  cases 
it  is  usual  to  appoint  lawyers,  who,  being  accus- 
tomed to  judicial  investigations,  are  able  to 
estimate  the  evidence  properly,  to  confine  the 
examination  strictly  to  the  points  in  question, 
and,  in  making  the  award,  to  avoid  those  in- 
formalities in  respect  to  which  it  might  after- 
ward be  set  aside.  Both  time  and  expense  are 
thus  saved  by  fixing  on  a  professional  arbi- 
trator. 

Mode  of  Procedure. — •  The  proceedings  be- 
fore an  arbitrator  are  regulated  generally  ac- 
cording to  the  forms  observed  in  courts  of  law. 
The  arbitrator  on  the  day  appointed  hears  the 
case  and  makes  his  award,  which  need  not  be 
in  writing  at  common  law,  for  a  verbal  award 
is  perfectly  valid;  but  in  practice  it  is  usual  for 
the  arbitrator  to  make  a  written  award.  While 
at  common  law  the  award  may  be  oral  or  in 
writing,  this  rule  has  been  changed  by  statute 
in  some  States,  and  an  award,  to  be  legal  in 
those  States,  must  be  in  writing.  It  is  provided 
by  the  New  York  Code  of  Civil  Procedure, 
§  2372,  that  an  award,  to  be  legal,  must  be  in 
writing.  (See  Award.)  This  award  in  its  ef- 
fect operates  as  a  final  and  conclusive  judgment 
respecting  all  the  matter  submitted,  and  binds 
the  rights  of  the  parties  for  all  time.  Arbitra- 
tors are  allowed  the  greatest  latitude  in  investi- 
gating matters  in  controversy.  They  are  judges 
of  both  law  and  fact  and  are  not  bound  by  the 
rules  of  practice  adopted  by  the  courts.  (2 
Johns.  Ch.  N.  Y.  276,  368:  3  Duer,  N.  Y.  69; 
I  E.  D.  Smith,  N.  Y.  85,  265.)  Arbitrators 
cannot  delegate  their  authority ;  it  is  a  personal 
trust.  (7  Serg.  &  R.  Pa.  228;  2  Atk.  Ch. 
401.)  An  award  may  be  set  aside  on  the 
ground  of  corruption  and  fraud  in  the  arbitra- 
tor, and  for  any  material  irregularity  or  ille- 
gality appearing  on  the  face  of  the  proceedings, 
such  as  is  beyond  or  not  covered  by  the  sub- 
mission. The  interest  of  the  arbitrator  in  the 
subject-matter  of  controversy,  his  relationship 
to  one  of  the  parties,  business  relations  between 
an  arbitrator  and  a  party,  or  the  expression  of 
an  opinion  upon  the  merits  of  the  controversy, 
if  unknown  to  the  party  injured,  will  warrant 
the  court  in  holding  an  arbitrator  incompetent 
to  make  an  award.  But  the  tendency  of  the 
courts  is  to  favor  arbitration  and  maintain 
awards  unless  such  serious  grounds  as  are 
above  referred  to  can  be  substantiated.  Where 
there  are  two  arbitrators  the  submission  often 
provides  that  in  the  case  of  their  differing  in 
opinion  the  matter  referred  shall  be  decided  by 
a  third  person,  called  an  umpire,  generally  ap- 
pointed under  a  power  to  that  effect  by  the 
arbitrators  themselves.  But  they  cannot  make 
such  appointment  unless  specially  authorized  so 
to  do  by  the  terms  of  the  submission.  This 
umpire  rehears  the  case,  and  for  this  purpose  is 
invested  with  the  same  powers  as  those  pos- 
sessed by  the  arbitrators,  and  is  bound  by  the 
same  rules.  It  remains  to  be  stated  in  general 
concerning  arbitration  that  from  the  nature  of 
the  case  there  can  be  no  appeal,  on  the  merits  of 
the  dispute  submitted,  to  any  public  tribunal 
whatever.  In  New  York  the  proceeding  to  va- 
cate an  award,  and  the  grounds  on  which  it  can 
be  made,  are  regulated  by  statute. 

Court  of  Arbitration. —  By  chapter  27S.  laws 
of  1874,  the  legislature  of  New  York  established 


the  "Court  of  Arbitration  of  the  Chamber  o? 
Commerce  of  the  State  of  New  York,"  defined 
its  jurisdiction,  and  regulated  its  proceedings. 
Gov.  Dix  nominated,  and  the  Senate  con- 
firmed, the  Hon.  Enoch  L.  Fancher  as  the  offi- 
cial arbitrator  or  judge  of  the  court.  Its  work 
was  chiefly  confined  to  commercial  matters  and 
disputes  of  shipping  merchants,  though  during 
its  existence  almost  all  subjects  of  controversy 
have  been  before  the  court  and  decided.  There 
is  no  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the  official 
arbitrator ;  though,  where  a  defeated  party  de- 
sires it,  a  rehearing  of  the  case  is  always 
granted.  No  costs  or  fees  to  attorneys  or  coun- 
sel can  be  recovered ;  each  party,  whether  de- 
feated or  not,  must  bear  his  own  costs  and 
expenses.  The  London  Corporation  and  the 
London  Chamber  of  Commerce  founded  jointly 
in  1892  a  chamber  of  arbitration,  or  tribunal 
of  commerce,  for  settling  trade  and  commer- 
cial difficulties ;  and  the  great  coal  dispute  and 
strike  of  1893  led  to  a  conference  which  secured 
a  peaceful  conclusion  for  the  time  and  the  foun- 
dation of  a  permanent  "Board  of  Reconcilia- 
tion," consisting  of  representatives  both  of 
owners  and  of  the  miners.  Diplomatic  confer- 
ences, which  often  obviate  war,  belong  to  a 
different  category.  The  Parliament  of  New 
South  Wales  has  passed  an  act  constituting  an 
arbitration  tribunal  for  the  purpose  of  settling 
industrial  disputes.  This  tribunal  consists  of 
a  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  a  representative- 
appointed  by  the  employers,  and  a  representa- 
tive nominated  by  the  employees.  The  court 
has  jurisdiction  in  the  case  of  industrial  dis- 
putes, and  a  lockout  or  a  strike  before  allowing 
time  for  reference  to  the  court  or  pending  the 
proceedings  of  the  court  is  illegal. 

International  arbitration  has  been  discussed 
frequently  and  at  length.  It  has  been  employed 
in  matters  of  debate  between  nations  more  than 
a  hundred  times.  As  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain,  the  San  Juan  boundary  ques- 
tion, the  Alabama  question,  and  the  Bering 
Sea  sealing  controversy  have  been  so  arranged. 
The  first  general  treaty  of  arbitration  ever 
drawn  between  nations  was  signed  11  Jan.  18'  17. 
in  Washington,  by  Richard  Olney.  secretary  of 
state  for  the  United  States,  and  Sir  Julian 
Pauncefote.  ambassador  of  Great  Britain  to  the 
United  States,  for  Great  Britain.  This  treaty 
was  placed  before  the  United  States  Senate.  1 1 
Jan.  1897,  accompanied  by  a  special  message 
from  President  Cleveland,  but  the  Senate  re- 
fused to  ratify  it.  Since  then  similar  treaties 
have  been  made  and  ratified  between  Italy  and 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  between  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  and  Uruguay.  The  International 
Peace  Convention  at  The  Hague,  in  1899.  estab 
lished  an  international  court  of  arbitration 
which  has  been  ratified  by  the  United  States 
and  other  signatory  powers.    See  Hague  Court. 

Arbitration,  International.  See  Arbitra- 
tion. 

Arbo'ga,  ar-bo'ga,  a  Swedish  city,  once 
important  commercially,  but  now  only  of  his- 
torical interest  from  having  been  at  one  time  a 
residence  of  the  royal  family  of  Vasa,  the  scene 
of  Church  assemblies  and  national  diets,  and 
for  the  antiquities  in  its  neighborhood.  Pop. 
(.1901)    5.250. 


ARBOLEDA  — ARC 


Arboleda,  ar'bo-la'fha,  Julio,  a  South 
American  poet  and  statesman:  I),  in  Barbacoas, 
Colombia,  g  June  1817;  <1.  1802.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Europe,  and  on  his  return  to  Columbia 
engaged  in  journalism.  In  the  various  Colom- 
bian revolutions  he  was  a  liberal  Conservative 
and  more  than  ono  d  the  vice-presidency 

of  the  republic.     Hi     poems  are  much  esteemed 
in   Spanish-American   literature. 

Arbor  Day,  an  annual  tree-planting  day 
appointed  by  nearly  every  State  and  Territory 
of  the  Union,  sometimes  as  a  legal  holiday  and 
sometimes  merely  advisory,  to  assist  in  forest- 
ing or  reforesting  scantily  wooded  tracts,  or 
shading   or   beautifying   towns,    it  is   generally 

in  special  connection  with  the  public  schools,  to 
impress  children  with  the  importance  of  forestry 
and  natural  beauty  in  our  civilization.  I  he 
date  depends  on  the  climate  of  different  sec- 
tions, and  is  absolutely  fixed  in  but  few;  most 
Northern  States  hold  it  in  April  or  early  in 
May:  Arizona,  Texas,  and  Alabama  in  Febru- 
ary, the  two  lator  on  Washington's  birthday; 
Florida  in  January,  Georgia  in  December,  and 
New  Mexico  in  March;  many  make  it  optional 
cither  with  the  State  or  with  localities,  ami 
West  Virginia  holds  it  twice  a  year,  in  spring 
and  fall.  It  arose  from  the  alarm  felt  by  the 
most  far-sighted  public  men  over  the  rapid  and 
reckless  deforestation  of  many  parts  of  the 
Union,  and  the  prospects  of  its  extending  to  all, 
the  proof  as  seen  abroad  of  what  that  deforesta- 
tion meant,  and  the  example  of  their  govern- 
ments in  reforesting  and  conserving.  (See 
Forestry.)  Most  civilized  governments  at  dif- 
ferent times  have  looked  after  their  forests  to 
assure  a  supply  of  timber  for  naval  construc- 
tion; New  Hampshire  and  New  York,  even  in 
the  colonial  period,  felt  it  needful  to  check  the 
inroads  on  them;  the  United  State-  government 
at  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  bought 
timber  lands,  anil  a  quarter  of  a  century  later 
authorized  tin  Pri  dent  to  take  measures  for 
their  preservation;  and  about  the  same  time  the 
Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Agricul- 
ture offered  prizes  for  forest  planting.  But 
the  first  widespread  realization  of  its  importance 
was  caused  in  [864  by  the  notable  book  of 
George  P.  Marsh  (q.v.)>  the  eminent  American 
scholar  and  diplomat,  entitled  'Man  and  Na- 
ture*; the  chaptei  o,,  'Tin  Woods"  aroused 
especial  attention,  rind  in  1865  Birdsey  G.  North- 
rop, then  secretary  of  the  Connecticut  Board  of 
Education,  suggested  that  Stales  might  profit- 
ably plant  tree>  everj  Mar  at  the  proper  time. 
or  supervise  their  planting.  The  subject  brought 
out  several  books  and  many  articles;  the  late 
Dr.  Franklin  li.  Hough,  the  first  forest  com- 
missioner, publishing  a  work  upon  it  as  early 
as  1873.  But  the  first  to  propose  a  regular 
Arbor  Day  for  the  purpose  was  J.  Sterling 
Morton,  late  commissioner  of  agriculture,  then 
of  Nebraska,  who  in  1872  succeeded  in  inducing 
bis  almost  treeless  State  to  set  apart  a  day  for 
the  purpose.  Great  enthusiasm  was  aroused, 
and  over  a  million  trees  were  planted  that  \ 
In  1885  it  was  made  a  legal  State  holiday  on  _>_• 
April,  Mr.  Morton's  birthday.  The  movement 
did  not  at  first  spread  very  rapidly,  though  some 
localities  took  ii  up;  the  first  States  to  copy  the 
legal  enactment  were  Kansas  and  Tennessee  in 
1S75.  and  the  next  year  Minnesota.  It  was  six 
years  before  another  joined,  Ohio  in   1882,  fol- 


low ed  by  West  Virginia  in  1883;  then  the  tide 
began  to  rush  in,  and  within  five  years  z6  more- 
States  and  Territories  had  adopted  the  ob 
Servance.  The  only  absentees  now  are  Dela- 
ware, Utah,  and  Indian  Territory,  and  even  there- 
it  is  observed  in  some  places.  ('Arbor  Day,' 
bulletin  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.) 

Ar'bore'tum  (Latin  arbor,  a  tree),  a  place 
set  apart  for  the  cultivation  of  different  trees 
and  shrubs  for  scientific  or  educational  pur- 
po  es.     See   Botanic  Gardens;    Forestry. 

Ar'boriculture.     See  Forestry. 

Arbor  Vi'tae  (Latin,  "tree  of  life"),  the 
designation  of  several  trees  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Conifers,  and  allied  to  the  cy- 
press. The  genus  consists  of  evergreen  trees 
and  shrubs,  with  flattened  branchlets,  and  small, 
imbricated    or    scale-like    leaves.     The    common 

arbor  vita-  (Thuja  occidentalism  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  and  reaches  a  height  of  50 
feet  in  favorable  locations.  The  cones  are 
small;  the  young  twigs  have  an  agreeable- 
balsamic  smell ;  the  wood  is  soft  and  light, 
but  tough  and  durable.  There  are  60  North 
American  species,  the  principal  one  after 
/'.  occidentals  being  T.  pliiatii.  found  on  the 
Pacific  coast  from  the  region  of  San  Francisco 
Bay  north  to  Alaska.  The  Chinese  arbor  vita; 
(T.  orientalis)  is  also  common  in  Great  Britain. 
Its  upright  branches  and  larger  cones  easily 
distinguish  it  from  the  former.  It  yields  a 
resin  which  was  formerly  thought  to  have  medi- 
cinal virtues,  like  the  wood  and  young  twigs  of 
the  T.  occidentals ;  hence  the  name  —  arbor 
vita-. 

Arbutus,  ar'bu-tus  or  ar-bu'tus,  the  desig- 
nation of  a  genus  of  about  20  species  of  shrubs, 
mostly  evergreen  and  small  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Ericacece,  natives  mainly  of  Furopc  and 
North  America.  The  species,  many  of  which 
have  smooth  red  branches,  are  often  used  for 
ornamental  purposes,  the  smaller  species  in 
greenhouses  as  well  as  in  the  parks  of  warm 
temperate  climates.  ./.  unedo,  the  strawberry 
tree,  a  species  from  southern  Europe,  is  often 
planted  in  California,  its  profusion  of  white  or 
rosy  flowers  and  strawberry  colored  fruits  which 
ripen  during  the  blossoming  period  of  the  fol- 
lowing year  being  greatly  admired.  In  Spain 
this  fruit  is  used  to  make  sugar  and  a  kind  of 
liquor.  A.  mensiesii,  the  madrofia,  a  native 
of  the  Pacific  Coast  States,  attains  a  height  of 
about  100  feet  and  is  the  hardiest  and  perhaps 
the  handsomest  species  of  the  genus.  .-/.  ari- 
sonicus,  another  American  species,  which  some- 
times reaches  a  height  of  50  feet,  has  white 
bark  on  the  trunk,  red  branches,  pale-green 
leaves,  loose  panicles  of  white  flowers,  and  dark 
orange-red  fruits. 

Arbutus,  Trailing,  an  evergreen  creeping 
plant  ( l:.f<iga-a  repens)  of  the  natural  order 
Ericacea,  growing  in  shaded  sandy  and  rocky 
soils,  especially  in  pine  woods,  from  Newfound- 
land to  Florida  and  westward  to  Minnesota.  It 
is  known  in  New  England  as  the  Mayflower  and 
in  the  southern  United  States  as  ground  laurel, 
and  is  everywhere  prized  for  its  fragrant  rose- 
colored  or  white  Rowers,  which  appear  in  early 
spring.  Experiments  in  its  cultivation  have 
generally  resulted  in  failure. 

Arc,  a  geometrical  term  denoting  a  portion 
of  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  often  cut  off  by 


ARC  — ARCH 


two  lines  which  intersect  it.  The  name  is  also 
applied  to  a  portion  of  any  other  curve.  The 
magnitude  of  an  arc  of  a  circle  is  stated  in  de- 
grees, minutes,  and  seconds,  which  are  equal 
to  those  of  the  angle  which  it  subtends 
at  the  centre.  Hence^  counted  by  degrees, 
minutes,  and  seconds,  the  arc  of  elevation  and 
the  angle  of  elevation  of  a  heavenly  body  are 
the  same,  and  the  two  terms  may  be  used  in 
most  cases  indifferently.  The  straight  line  unit- 
ing the  two  extremities  of  an  arc  is  called  its 
chord.  Equal  arcs  must  come  from  circles  of 
equal  magnitude,  and  each  must  contain  the 
same  number  of  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds 
as  the  others.  Similar  arcs  must  also  each  have 
the  same  number  of  degrees,  minutes,  and  sec- 
onds, but  they  belong  to  circles  of  unequal  mag- 
nitude. Concentric  arcs  are  arcs  having  the 
same  centre.  In  mathematical  geography,  an 
arc  of  the  earth's  meridian,  or  a  meridional  arc, 
is  an  arc  partly  measured  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  from  north  to  south,  partly  calculated  by 
trigonometry.  By  these  measurements  the  earth 
was  discovered  to  be  an  oblate  spheroid. 

Arc,  Electric.     See  Electric  Light. 

Arc,  Joan  of.    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

Ar'ca,  a  term  applied  to  a  genus  of  con- 
chiferous  mollusks.  the  typical  one  of  the  family 
Arcade.  The  shell  is  strongly  ribbed  or  can- 
cellated, hinge  straight,  with  very  numerous 
transverse  teeth.  They  are  universally  distrib- 
uted, but  are  commonest  in  warm  seas.  They 
inhabit  the  zone  from  low  water  to  230  fathoms. 
The  fossil  species  are  found  in  the  United 
States,  Europe,  and  southern  India. 

Arcadius,  the  first  emperor  of  the  East: 
b.  377:  d.  408.  He  was  son  of  the  Emperor 
Theodosius,  on  whose  death  in  395  the  empire 
was  divided,  he  obtaining  the  East,  and  his 
brother  Honorius  the  West.  He  proved  unable 
to  govern  for  himself,  and  was  a  mere  tool,  first 
in  the  hands  of  Rufinus,  then  of  the_  eunuch 
Eutropius,  and  then  of  his  queen  Eudoxia. 

Arc  de  Triomphe  du  Carrousel,  a-rk  de 
tre'onf  du  ka'roo'zel.  See  Arch,  Memorial 
and  Triumphal. 

Arc  de  Triomphe  de  l'Etoile,  ark  de  tre' 
ohf  du  la'twal.  See  Arch,  Memorial  and 
Triumphal. 

Arcesilaus,  a  Greek  philosopher:  b. 
316  B.C.;  d.  241  B.C.  He  studied  philosophy  at 
Athens  and  was  largely  influenced  by  Crates 
and  Crantor.  At  the  latter's  death  he  became 
the  head  of  the  Academic  School.  Arcesilaus 
denied  the  certainty  of  intellectual  and  sensuous 
knowledge  and  recommended  abstinence  from 
all  dogmatic  judgments. 

Arch,  an  architectural  term  denoting  a 
structural  form  made  up  of  a  series  of  wedge- 
shaped  stones,  or  bricks,  so  arranged  over  a 
door  or  window  in  an  edifice  for  habitation,  or 
between  the  piers  of  a  bridge,  as  to  support  each 
other,  and  to  carry  in  addition  the  weight 
of  the  superstructure.  These  stones  and  bricks, 
of  a  truncated  wedge  shape,  used  in  building 
arches,  are  called  voussoirs.  The  side  of  an 
arch  between  the  crown  and  the  springer,  or 
skewback,  is  called  its  haunch  or  flank,  and  by 
old  English  writers  of  the  16th  century,  its 
hanse.  The  highest  part  of  the  arch  is  called  its 
crown,  or  by  the  old  English  authors,  the  scheme 
:>r   skeen,    from    the    Italian    schicna,   the    back. 


The  lowest  voussoirs  of  an  arch  are  called 
springers,  or  skewbacks,  and  the  central  one,  the 
keystone.  The  under  or  concave  side  of  the 
voussoirs  is  called  the  intrados,  and  the  outer  01 
convex  one  the  extrados  of  the  arch.  A  chord 
of  the  arch  at  its  lower  part  is  called  its  span, 
and  a  line  drawn  at  right  angles  to  this  chord, 
and  extending  upward  to  the  under  side  of  the 
keystone,  is  called  its  rise.  The  impost  of  an 
arch  is  the  portion  of  the  pier  or  abutment 
whence  the  arch  springs ;  the  thrust  of  the  arch 
is  its  outward  pressure  against  the  abutments. 
The  voussoirs  are  also  called  ring-stones.  The 
spandrel  is  the  part  above  the  haunches,  or,  in 
a  bridge,  the  part  between  the  arch-ring  and  the 
roadway.  If  the  height  of  the  crown  of  an  arch 
above  the  level  of  its  impost  be  greater  than  half 
the  span  of  the  arch,  the  arch  is  said  to  be 
surmounted.  If,  on  the  contrary,  it  be  less,  the 
arch  is  said  to  be  surbased.  The  curved  arch 
was  known  to  the  Assyrians  and  the  old  Egyp- 
tians. Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson  considers  that  it 
existed  in  brick  in  the  reign  of  Amenoph  I., 
about  1540  B.C.,  and  in  stone  in  the  time  of 
Psammetichus  II.,  600  B.C.  The  evidence  is  de- 
rived from  the  ruins  of  actual  buildings,  but 
paintings  appear  to  carry  the  arch  back  to  about 
2020  B.c  There  is  no  mention  of  the  genuine 
arch  in  Scripture,  the  term  "arches,"  in  Ezek. 
xl.  16,  being  a  mistranslation.  The  round  arch 
was  brought  into  extensive  use  by  the  Romans, 
and  prevailed  everywhere  until  the  12th  century 
a.d.,  when  the  arch  pointed  at  the  apex,  and 
called  in  consequence  the  pointed  arch  —  the  one 
so  frequently  seen  in  Gothic  architecture  —  ap- 
peared in  Europe  as  its  rival.  The  forms  of 
both  curved  and  pointed  arches  may  be  varied 
indefinitely.  Of  the  former  may  be  mentioned 
the  horseshoe  arch,  a  name  which  explains  itself, 
and  the  foil  arch,  from  Latin  folium,  a  leaf, 
of  which  there  are  the  trefoil,  the  cinquefoil,  and 
the  multifoil  varieties,  so  named  from  the  plant- 
forms  after  which  they  are  modeled.  Other 
arches  are  the  equilateral,  in  which  the  centres 
of  the  circles  whose  intersection  constitutes  the 
pointed  arch  coincide  with  the  angular  points  at 
the  two  sides  of  the  base ;  the  lancet,  in  which 
the  centres  of  the  circles  fall  beyond  these 
points ;  the  drop  arch,  where  they  fall  within 
the  base ;  and  the  segmental  arch,  the  sides  of 
which  constitute  segments  of  circles  containing 
less  than  180  degrees.  Besides  these  there  are 
several  other  varieties  of  arch  distinguished  by 
their  respective  forms.  The  names  applied  to 
arches  may  be  divided  into  several  classes,  as 
referring  to  geometric  or  familiar  forms,  style 
or  position  in  the  building.  The  following  are 
different  geometrical  forms :  The  flat  arch,  with 
voussoirs  radiating  from  one  centre.  Arches 
with  one  centre  are :  semicircular,  segmental, 
horseshoe.  Arches  with  two  centres  are;  the 
equilateral  pointed  arch,  wdiere  the  centres  of  the 
circles  coincide  with  the  angular  points  at  the 
two  sides  of  the  base;  the  drop  arch,  where  they 
fall  within  the  base ;  the  lancet,  where  they  fall 
outside  of  it,  and  the  pointed  horseshoe.  The 
common  three-centred  arch  is  called  basket- 
handled  arch,  this  being  the  form  generally  used 
instead  of  an  ellipse.  Four-centred,  six-centred, 
and  other  similar  forms  are  occasionally  used. 
The  names  horseshoe,  lancet,  basket-handled, 
etc.,  are  given  because  of  their  resemblance  to 
familiar    forms.     Gothic,    Roman,    and    Moorish 


ARCH 


arches  are  names  given  because  these  forms 
wire  used  in  those  architectural  styles.  Certain 
nami  n  with  reference  to  the  position  of 

the  arch   in   the  building  discharging 

or    relieving    arch,    where    the    arch    is    pi; 
over  a  lintel  to  carry  pressure  to  the  sidi 

Dples   of  arches  are  the  Cloaca   Maxima, 

built  about  641  b.i  ..  with  tl  nl  1  ii  1  ings  of 

voussoirs,  inside  diameter,  14  feel  ;  the  Pont  dtt 
Gard,  built  by  Agrippa,  tg  B.C.,  which  has  semi 
circular  arches,  built  of  Pozzuolani  concrete  with 
stone   or    brick    facing.    The    longest    masonry 

1  in  Europe  is  the  railway  bridge  over  the 
Pruth,  Jaremcze,  Austria,  213  feet  wide  with  a 
rise  of  59  feet,  and  built  in  1892.  'Ibis  shows 
boll'  Is,  which  are  constructionally  and 

artistically  correct.  The  Cabin  John  Bridge, 
near  Washington,  D.  C.  which  carries  an  aque- 
duct and  highway,  220  feet,  the  largest  masonry 
span  in  the  world.  The  Wheeling,  \Y.  Va., 
Main  Street  Bridge,  built  in  1892,  159  feet  long, 
28  feet  1  eptive,  as  spandrels  are  hol- 

low, but  appear  to  be  olid.  The  great  arch  now 
built  for  the  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine, 
New  York,  is  of  masonry  resting  on  the  top  of 
piers  86  feet  high.  The  span  is  114  feet  from 
outside  to  outside  of  voussoirs.  In  1896  was 
built  the  first  large  concrete  arch  in  the  United 
States,  40  feet  span,  7  feet  rise,  all  of  concrete. 
This  was  for  a  highway  bridge.  There  is  also 
a  60-foot  arch  of  Si eel-concrete  in  Franklin 
Bridge,  Forest  Park,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  "Con- 
crete reinforced"  is  the  name  given  to  the  com- 
bination of  concrete  with  steel  or  iron  in  build- 
ing. Steel  concrete,  armored  concrete,  beton 
armi,  anient  arme,  are  various  terms  for  such 

truction,  now  coming  into  frequent  use. 

The  Melan  arch  system  was  developed  by 
Prof.  Joseph  Melan,  using  stiff  steel  ribs  or 
beams  embedded  in  concrete  to  form  the  arch 
ring,  following  Austrian  experiments.  Exam- 
ples 11  -1  I  in  arch  are  found  in  Eden  Park,  Cin- 
cinnati, O.,  70  feet  span;  railway  bridge  over 
Southern  Boulevard,  Detroit,  Mich. ;  road 
bridges  over  the  Passaic,  Paterson,  N.  J.:  Kan- 
sas Ave..  Topeka,  Kansas,  this  being  the  longest, 
having  five  arches,  one  of  12=;  feet,  two  of  no 
feet  each,  two  of  97  feet  each;  Hyde-Park-on- 
llndson,  for  F.  W.  Vanderbilt,  7?  feet  span;  a 
foot  bridge  in  park,  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  100 
feet  span,  rise  10  feet,  only  9  inches  thick  at 
enwn:  three-hinged  arch,  Steyr,  Hungary,  span 
137  feet,  rise  only  9  feet,  or  one  fifteenth  of  span, 

In  regard  to  the  cost  of  arches  compared 
with  steel  construction,  a  railway  steel  girder 
span  00  feet  in  length,  with  solid  floor,  costs  about 
$1,600.      The   cost   of  maintenance   and    renewals 

italized  amounts  to  about  $400,  giving  total 
cost  of  about  $2,000,  while  equivalent  masonry 
arch  would  cost  about  $1,800.  A  concrete 
arch  built  in  12  hours,  by  65  men,  39  feet  span, 
6V2  feet  rise,  Switzerland,  cost,  complete,  $600. 
The  Monier  method  is  concrete  with  wire  net- 
ting imbedded  near  the  soffit.  Arches  of  long 
span  and  slight  rise  in  building  construction  are 
being  made  with  the  Guastavino  system  of  co- 
hesive construction,  which  is  practically  a  re- 
vival of  ancient  and  mediaeval  building  meth- 
ods. See  also  Abutment;  Arch.  Memorial; 
Bridge;  Buttress;  Vault. 

Frank  D.   Bourne, 
Architect,  Boston,  .\fass. 


Arch,  Memorial  and  Triumphal,  a  monu- 
mental structure  erected  in  honoi  ol  omi  prom- 
inent person  or  memorable  event.  In  the  cus- 
tom "i  temporarily  decorating  th<  gates  of  cities 
with  garlands  and  trophies,  on  the  return  of  a 
victorious  general,  we  can  find  the  origin  of 
the  triumphal  arch.  These  are  similar  in  form 
whether  commemorating  a  peaceful  event  or  a 
military  triumph.  In  the  time  of  the  Roman 
republic,  temporary  arches  were  erected  in  hon- 
or of  triumphant  generals.  At  that  period,  also, 
memorial  arches  or  fornices,  were  erected  in 
memory  of  some  individual  or  to  ornament  a 
city,  but  it  was  not  until  the  time  of  the  Empire 
that  the  triumphal  arch,  the  arcus,  came  into  use, 
to  perpetuate  the  glory  of  a  person  who  had 
obtained  the  honors  of  a  triumph.  Arches  were 
often  placed  at  the  entrance  of  cities,  becoming 
in  such  a  position  merely  a  monumental  form 
of  city  gate.  The  usual  form  of  triumphal  or 
memorial  arch  employed  a  high  and  imposing 
semicircular  arch  as  its  central  motive,  resting 
on  heavy  piers,  which  were  decorated  generally 
with  Corinthian  columns  and  other  architectural 
details,  statuary,  and  bas-relief-.  Above  this  was 
a  heavy  mass  of  stone-work  or  attic,  on  which 
was  placed  a  suitable  inscription.  The  arch  of 
Titus,  at  Rome,  is  the  most  remarkable  for  its 
purity,  the  beauty  of  its  sculpture,  and  tin-  har- 
mony of  its  proportions.  It  was  probably  erect- 
ed by  Domitian  in  honor  of  Titus  to  recall  his 
conquest  of  Jerusalem.  In  panels  on  the  inner 
sides  of  the  piers  are  sculptured,  on  one  side 
the  triumphant  Titus  on  his  quadriga  surround- 
ed by  soldiers;  on  the  other  side  the  triumphal 
procession,  with  the  spoils  of  the  Temple,  the 
sacred  vessels  and  the  seven  branched  candb  ■ 
stick.  At  tin  fi.oi  of  the  Capitol,  at  the  sidl  of 
the  Forum,  is  the  arch  of  Septimius  Severus, 
erected  in  honor  of  this  emperor  and  his  two 
sons  to  commemorate  their  victories  over  the 
Parthians  and  the  Arabians.  It  has  small  side 
arches  reached  by  a  few  steps,  and  a  large  cen- 
tral arch.  The  most  important  arch  in  Rome  is 
that  to  Constantine,  which  is  similar  to  that  of 
Septimius  Severus.  It  was  erected  by  the  Sen- 
ate and  the  Roman  people  in  honor  of  Con- 
stantine. The  arch  of  Trajan  at  Ancona  was 
erected  on  a  pier  which  serves  as  a  base,  and 
was  a  memorial  of  the  completion  of  that  port. 
It  is  said  that  another  arch  of  Trajan  at  Bcnc- 
vento  was  erected  to  commemorate  an  extension 
of  the  Appian  Way.  In  modern  times  the  name 
triumphal  arch  is  given  to  a  structure  of  wood 
or  staff  decorated  with  flags,  banners,  ami  tloral 
designs,  as  a  part  of  some  public  celebration,  or 
in  honor  of  some  person  ;  for  example,  the  Dewey 
arch,  in  New  York.  This  is  an  outgrowth  of  the 
old  Roman  idea.  Modern  history  has  illustra- 
tions of  many  examples  of  this  form  of  arch. 
Albert  I  hirer  has  many  engravings  of  the  tri- 
umphal entry  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and  of 
the  arches  erected  in  his  honor.  There  are  also 
illustrations  of  arches  for  Charles  V.  at  Bou 
logne;  to  Henry  lib,  at  I.ido,  on  his  trip  to 
Venice.  Rubens  made  the  designs  for  the  tri- 
umphal arch  for  Ferdinand  of  Austria  at  Ant- 
werp, and  a  large  arch  was  erected  to  Louis 
XIV.  at  the  Barriere  du  Trone.  There  are  also 
triumphal  arches  in  Paris:  the  Arc  du  Carrousel 
near  the  Louvre,  built  by  Napoleon  I.,  now  de- 
stroyed; Porte  St.  Denis,  built  by  Louis  XIV; 
the   large   Arc   de   l'fitoile,   dedicated   by    Napo- 


ARCH^AN  —  ARCHAEOLOGY 


leon  to  his  soldiers  and  sailors;  and  Porte  St. 
Martin  t,i°74)  >  m  Berlin  the  Brandenburgerthor 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Thiergarten.  In  the 
United  States  there  are  arches  of  this  character 
in  Brooklyn  and  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  the 
Washington  arch,  in  New  York. 

Among  celebrated  arches  of  this  character, 
mediaeval  and  modern,  may  be  named  the  fol- 
lowing gateways :  At  Naples,  the  Arch  of  Al- 
fonso of  Aragon  (1470),  and  the  Porta  Capu- 
ana ;  at  Burgos,  the  Santa  Maria;  at  Montpcllicr, 
a  17th  century  memorial  of  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes;  at  Milan,  Delia  Pace;  at  Mu- 
nich, Sieges  Thor  (Victory  Gate)  (1850)  ;  and 
at  London,  the  Marble  Arch.  See  Arch  ;  Gate- 
way. 

Bibliography. —  Bartoli,  P.  S.  'Veteres  Arcvs 
Avgvstorvm  Trivmphis  Insignes  ex  Reliqviis 
qvae  Romas  adhvc  Svpersvnt.'  46  pis. 
(Roma?,  1824)  ;  Beauvais,  C.  T.  'Monumens 
des  Victoires  et  Conquetes  des  Francais.' 
(1822)  ;  Kinch,  'L'Arc  de  Triomphe  dc 
Salonique'  (1890);  Knight,  W.  'The  Arch  of 
Titus,  and  the  Spoils  of  the  Temple'  (1867); 
Normand,  L.  M.  'Arc  de  Triomphe  des  Tuileries 
firige  en  1806,  d'apres  les  Dessins  de  MM.  C. 
Percier  et  P.  F.  L.  Fontaine'  (1830)  ;  Piccioni, 
M.  'Sculpture  of  the  Arch  of  Constantine  and 
Trajan's  Column'  Roma,  n.  d. ;  Reina,  J.  'De- 
scription of  the  Arch  of  Peace  in  Milan  (Milan, 
1839);  Reinach,  S.  'L'Arc  de  Titus'  (1800); 
Reland,  'De  Spoliis  Temple  Hierosolymitani  in 
Arcu  Titans1  ;  Rossini,  L.  'Gli  Archi  Trionfali, 
Onorarii  e  Tunebri  degli  Antichi  Romani  Sparsi 
per  Tutta  Italia'    (1836). 

Archaean  far-ke'an)  Period,  a  term  applied 
to  the  most  ancient  division  of  the  geological 
time-scale.  The  rocks  referred  to  this  period 
underlie  the  oldest  sedimentary  and  fossiliferous 
strata  and  hence  are  often  called  the  fundamen- 
tal complex.  They  are  entirely  of  crystalline 
character,  consisting  of  granite  and  basic  erup- 
tivcs,  gneisses,  and  schists,  all  of  which  bear 
evidence  of  having  undergone  great  disturbance 
and  metamorphism,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
work  out  any  order  of  strategraphic  succession 
that  will  apply  to  different  regions.  Their  great 
uniformity  of  composition  over  wide  areas,  their 
marked  characteristics  which  differentiate  them 
from  all  other  groups  of  rocks,  and  their  basal 
position  in  the  geological  scale  have  led  many 
geologists  to  believe  that  the  Archaean  rocks 
represent  a  portion  of  the  original  crust  of  the 
earth  as  it  solidified  from  molten  magma. 
While  this  view  has  not  found  universal  ac- 
ceptance, it  is  quite  certain  that  if  the  first 
solidification  of  the  earth  is  still  preserved  any- 
where, it  is  present  in  this  formation.  The 
Archaean  rocks  are  known  to  occur  in  all  of  the 
continents,  although  in  some  regions  they  have 
been  brought  to  the  surface  only  after  long  pe- 
ril ids  of  erosion  during  which  immense  thick- 
nesses of  overlying  strata  were  removed.  In 
North  America  they  cover  much  of  the  region 
hit  ween  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Great  Lakes, 
and  are  also  found  in  the  Adirondacks,  along  the 
Appalachians,  and  in  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
They  occur  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  especially 
in  Scandinavia.  France,  Germany,  and  Austria. 
in  eastern  Asia,  and  in  central  Africa.  See 
Geology. 


Archaeological  (ar-ke-o-loj'i-kal)  Institute 
of  America,  a  society  formed  in  [879  for  the 
purpose  of  promoting  and  directing  archaeo- 
logical investigation  and  research.  Under  its 
direction  several  important  excavations  were 
conducted  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  - 
Assos.  It  publishes  a  bi-monthly  'Journal,' 
which  is  its  official  organ.  It  has  a  membership 
of  1,050.  President,  Prof.  John  Williams  White 
of  Harvard. 

Archaeology,  ar'kc-ol'o-ji  ("antiquity- 
study"),  the  history  of  antique  human  progress 
as  inferred  from  relics  of  man's  industry  or  pres- 
ence, apart  from  written  records.  It  is  thus 
identical  with  history  where  there  are  no  such 
records,  and  supplementary  material  for  it  when 
they  exist.  It  is  distinguished  from  anthropol- 
ogy as  concerned  chiefly  with  industrial  and 
artistic  rather  than  social  and  political  progress. 
But  its  limit  neither  of  date  nor  of  subject  can 
be  sharply  fixed.  The  antiquities  of  a  country 
are  relative  to  its  present  and  its  records ;  400 
years  in  Mexico  brings  us  to  pure  archaeology, 
2,000  in  Greece  and  Rome  is  almost  this  side  of 
it,  all  west-Asian  history  belongs  to  it.  Even 
written  records,  if  inscriptions  on  stone  or  brick. 
or  papyri,  are  archaeological  when  pertaining  to 
an  extinct  civilization  ;  if  classical,  they  are  his- 
tory, epigraphy,  or  palaeography.  Nor  can  we 
wholly  dissociate  the  biological  study  of  the 
bones  found  in  a  prehistoric  camp,  river  drift,  or 
cave  (palaeontology),  from  that  of  the  flints, 
worked  bones,  drawings,  etc.,  found  with  them, 
as  evidences  of  mechanical  and  intellectual 
progress  (archaeology),  and  the  social  organism 
implied  by  the  camps,  food,  ruddle,  etc.  (an- 
thropology). The  genesis  of  the  science  re- 
stricted the  name  at  first  to  remains  of  classical 
art  and  architecture,  still  often  regarded  as  its 
most  important  section,  through  its  illumination 
of  classic  literature:  but  general  archaeology 
does  not  merely  supplement  a  developed  history, 
it  reveals  the  very  existence  of  empires,  nations, 
races,  cultures,  stages  of  human  progress,  other- 
wise unsuspected,  and  carries  our  knowledge  far 
into  the  geological  past. 

The  classical  branch,  whose  material  was 
relatively  accessible  and  its  hearing  obvious, 
naturally  originated  first  in  the  18th  century; 
general  archaeology  is  the  creation  wholly  of  the 
19th  century  and  has  two  independent  origins. 
On  one  side  it  springs  from  the  decipherment 
of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphs,  unveiling  a  remote 
history  implying  a  still  more  remote  one,  and 
making  scholars  realize  for  the  first  time  how- 
futile  were  the  distorted  scraps  of  classical  tradi- 
tion. This  was  followed  by  excavations  in 
Mesopotamia  which  uncovered  the  remains  of 
the  Assyrian  culture,  and  by  the  decipherment 
of  the  cuneiform  characters.  Here  it  wa 
realized  that  archaeology  is  the  one  branch  of 
history  (for  numismatics  is  a  department  of 
archaeology)  that  absolutely  settles  his 
questions.  A  written  statement  may  be  a  false- 
hood or  mistake,  but  an  inscription  is  conclusive 
as  to  its  date  and  writer.  On  the  other  side. 
archaeology  springs  from  the  examination  of 
relics  of  antique  man  in  burial  mounds,  kitchen 
middens,  lake  dwellings,  caverns,  and  river 
drifts,  showing  his  co-existence  with  animals  long 
extinct  and  in  geologic  ages  long  gone  by. 
These  two  streams  have  graduallj  r<  suited  it! 
a  vast  storehouse  of  verified  knowledge,  not  onjj 


ARCHEOLOGY 


unsuspected,  but  revolutionary  of  truths  pre- 
viously supposed  axiomatic.  Briefly,  archaeology 
has    shown    that    civilization    is    not    a    sudden 

mushroom  growth  of  a  few  dozen  centuries, 
f r.  -iii   a   single   centre   and   a  highly   develi  ped 

ip,  but  a  gradual  evolution  through  enor- 
mous  ages,  in  all  pans  of  the  world,  from 
savagery.  In  place  of  the  convenient  division 
into  "civilized,  half-civilized,  and  barbarous." 
we  have  many  Mages  of  culture,  based  on  the 
knowledge  of  natural  forces,  the  utilizing  of 
natural  products  by  art.  and  the  co-ordination  of 
social  groups,  in  combination  almost  as  endless 
as  the  notes  of  an  organ,  the  same  tribe  being 
almost  civilized  on  one  side  and  wholly  savage 
on  another.  The  classification  of  these  grades 
t^  somewhat  different  in  archaeology  and  an- 
thropology. The  latter,  in  Lewis  II.  Morgan's 
system  (which  needs  much  qualification)  marks 
seven  M;iy<-:  tin  first  prior  to  the  use  of  fire; 
the  second  marked  by  the  discovery  of  fire  and 
of  catching  fish;  the  third  by  the  how  and  ar- 
row; the  fourth  by  pottery;  the  fifth  by  the 
domestication  of  animals,  or  the  use  of  irriga- 
tion, polished  stone  or  bronze  tools,  and  the 
occurrence  of  adobe  or  stone  architecture ;  the 
sixth  by  the  use  of  iron;  the  seventh,  or  true 
civilization,  by  phonetic  alphabets  and  written 
records.  Archaeology,  however,  finds  it  con- 
venient to  classify  man  wholly  according  to  the 
material  and  construction  of  his  implements, 
these  having  in  fact  accompanied  and  deter- 
mined with  great  accuracy  a  corresponding  set 
of  Changes  in  industrial  arts  and  even  social 
development  Accordingly  it  divides  human 
progress  into  the  Eolithic  ("Stone-Dawn1'  ),  the 
Palaeolithic  or  Old  Stone,  the  Neolithic  or  New 
Stone,  the  Bronze,  and  the  Iron  Ages;  a  portion 
of  tl  ■  till  further  subdivided. 

For  vast  epochs  after  the  appearance  of  man 
upon  the  earth,  no  record  of  his  presence  exists 
or  can  exist  except  a  palaeolontological  one  — 
his  bones.  He  doubtless  wrenched  off  tree- 
branches  and  threw  or  hammered  with  stones, 
like  the  higher  simians,  but  we  cannot  prove  a 
broken  branch  or  scratches  on  a  stone  to  be 
artificial,  or  due  to  man  rather  than  to  orang. 
When,  however,  a  stone  is  rubbed,  or  evidently 
bruised  from  repeated  use,  still  more  when  a 
number  of  these  are  found  near  together,  we 
know  that  something  more  than  casual  use  by  an 
animal  has  produced  the  result ;  but  it  may  mark 
only  the  utterly  unrisen  savage,  who  lives  on 
nuts  and  fruits  and  sleeps  under  any  casual  tree 
or  bank,  and  has  not  thought  of  improving  on 
nature.  The  first  identifiable  stage  of  real  cul- 
ture is : 

Tin-  Eolithic  Age. —  This  probably  began 
(probably  elsewhere  also)  in  Kent,  England, 
where  loose  flints  lay  about  or  might  be  easily 
dug  from  the  chalk.  These  were  very  roughly 
hammered  into  an  edge  that  would  bruise  off  a 
stick  or  into  a  grip  for  the  hand:  so  roughly, 
indeed,  that  their  having  received  deliberate  art 
at  all  was  long  bitterly  contested.  They  are 
found  in  river  deposits  on  the  top  of  hills  600 
feet  above  the  present  stream-beds,  which  must 
therefore  have  been  excavated  since.  Even  in 
this  remote  antiquity  man  was  no  new  organism 
on  the  earth,  and  this  stage  of  culture,  from  the 
excessive  slowness  of  progress  in  the  early 
stages,  must  have  lasted  for  a  long  period. 


The  Paleolithic  Age  succeeded ;  the  formt. 

till  recently  was  reckoned  a  part  of  n.  It  is  now 
further  divided  into  two  chief  periods,  from 
the  anthropological  dii  implied,  thi 

the  river  gravels  and  of  the  cave-dwellers;  and 
the  latter  again  into  three  others,  with  well- 
marked  stages  of  culture.     More  specifically: 

1.  River  gravels  up  to  200  feet  above  present 
beds  1  "Achulcen"  1.  The  remains  are  massive 
flints  scarcely  less  rude  than  the  former,  but 
unmistakably  worked.  They  still  antedate  any 
permanent  dwelling  or  shelter. 

2.  Cave-dwellers,  Man  has  now  a  perma- 
nent though  not  artificial  dwelling,  and  the  germ 
of  family  life  is  born.  (1)  *Mousterienn : 
Flint  flakes  split  off  (the  first  true  artificial 
tool),  and  massive  flints  hammered  into  definite 
shapes,  with  others  rude  like  the  former.  (  .' ) 
"Solutrien":  Flints  carefully  worked  and  finely 
shaped.  (,})  "Magdalenien" :  Well-shape, 1  flint 
tools,  plentiful  bone-working  with  them,  and 
drawings  on  implements  and  the  walls  of  eaves. 

All  these  remains  have  been  found  along  with 
fossils  of  the  mammoth,  cave  hear,  cave-lion, 
sabre-toothed  tiger,  and  other  extinct  forms,  in 
ancient  river  deposits,  deep  under  stalagmitic 
accumulations  in  caves,  beneath  American  lava- 
beds,  etc.  The  age  assigned  to  these  deposits 
by  geologists  is  from  100,000  to  300.000  years. 
Another  clue  of  the  same  significance  is  the  cir- 
cumstance that  in  Egypt  flints  are  found  to- 
gether, of  which  the  latest.  Neolithic,  were  dug 
and  worked  fully  7.000  years  ago,  and  are  tinged 
only  a  faint  brown,  while  others,  Palaeolithic, 
have  turned  nearly  black.  The  most  conserva- 
tive estimate  is  ioo.ooo  B.C.  for  the  beginning  of 
the  Eolithic  period;  the  Palaeolithic  has  not 
ended  yet.  but  in  the  advanced  regions  it  began 
to  be  displaced  by  the  Neolithic  perhaps  10.000 
B.C.  Roughly  speaking,  the  Old  Stone  periods 
cover  a  space  ten  times  as  long  as  all  those  since 
put  together,  the  latter  succeeding  each  other 
with  relative  swiftness,  as  progress  accelerates 
by  its  own  development.  In  some  respects  the 
19th  century  has  shown  more  advance  than  all 
the  previous  half-million  years  of  man's  exist- 
ence. The  rate  of  progress  has  depended  great- 
ly also  on  the  natural  advantages  offered:  the 
flint  mines  of  the  English  chalk  hills  with  the 
early  savage  perhaps  corresponded  to  the  coal- 
and  iron-mines  of  the  present,  producing  rapid 
advance  in  skill  and  also  competition  of  tribes, 
the  stronger  expelling  the  weaker  from  the 
coveted  clistricts.  On  the  other  hand,  the  lack  of 
domesticable  animals  in  America  had  much  to 
do  with  its  slight  progress  under  barbarism. 

The  Neolithic  Age  is  the  evident  beginning 
of  modern  life,  made  possible  by  improved  work- 
ing tools.  The  remains  of  this  period  are  not 
buried  under  geologic  deposits,  but  lie  on  or  near 
the  surface.  They  are  no  longer  merely  ham- 
mered or  chipped,  but  rubbed  or  ground  to 
shape,  giving  a  sharper  edge  and  a  smoother 
surface.  There  is  a  gradual  advance  in  the  best 
specimens  to  weapons  and  tools  almost  equal 
to  metal,  such  as  lance-heads,  arrow-heads, 
knives,  daggers,  awls,  chisels,  and  axes  of  razor- 
like sharpness,  and  needle  points,  serviceable  for 
and  accompanied  by  highly-developed  arts  and 
manufactures,  agriculture,  and  navigation,  of 
remarkable  magnitude  and  variety.  As  timber 
could  now  be  easily  cut,  men  built  large  wooden 
dwellings    and    rowing    galleys.     Early    in    the 


ARCHEOLOGY 


period  we  find  immense  earthworks  both  for 
defense  and  for  burial ;  later,  in  the  cities,  brick 
architecture  and  fine  engineering.  The  lake 
dwellings  of  central  Europe  and  England  belong 
to  this  period,  and,  being  built  on  piles  over  the 
water,  combined  security  against  wild  beast  and 
animals  with  easy  fishing,  a  fashion  that  spread 
widely  and  no  doubt  rapidly :  indeed,  some  of 
them  with  their  Neolithic  inhabitants  lasted  into 
historic  times.  From  these  discoveries  it  is 
evident  that  man  not  only  hunted  and  fished, 
but  raised  grain,  vines,  fruit,  and  flax,  breeding 
domestic  animals  to  draw  the  plow,  another  im- 
mense gain  to  agriculture ;  spun  and  wove  ;  made 
pottery;  and  not  only  ornamented  that  but  his 
tools  as  well,  shaping  them  for  beauty  as  well 
as  use,  thus  showing  development  of  aesthetic 
taste.  Still  more  important  was  the  social  de- 
velopment. The  large  camps  indicate  a  settled 
tribal  society,  the  careful  selection  of  material 
from  considerable  depths  indicates  combined 
labor  in  mining. 

Between  this  and  the  Bronze  Age  there  ex- 
isted in  some  countries  what  is  called  by  some 
archaeologists  a  Copper  Age.  where  native  cop- 
per was  hardened  with  oxid  or  arsenic;  but  as 
it  did  not  drive  out  flint  tools,  but  only  supple- 
mented them,  it  is  hardly  -entitled  to  be  called 
an  epoch,  and  is  not  accompanied  by  any  iden- 
tifiable advance  in  general  progress  consequent 
upon  it,  like  the  others. 

The  Bronze  Age,  however,  was  an  enormous 
step  forward.  It  was  earlier  in  Assyria  than 
Egypt,  probably  from  the  Armenian  copper :  the 
former  introduced  it  by  5000  B.C. ;  the  latter  not 
fully  till  about  3000,  and  did  not  use  it  freely 
till  1600,  only  500  years  or  so  before  iron  dis- 
placed it.  And  in  all  countries  stone  imple- 
ments were  still  used  in  sacrifices  to  the  gods, 
who  did  not  like  new  inventions.  The  hardness 
of  the  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  seems  to  have  been 
realized  before  its  toughness  and  the  many  ad- 
vantages given  by  ability  to  cast  it ;  hence  at 
first  the  stone  tools  and  implements  were  simply 
copied  in  massive  bronze,  and  were  needlessly 
heavy  and  limited  in  pattern.  But  as  its  prop- 
erties became  evident  the  tools  were  much  light- 
ened, and  made  thin  yet  stiff  with  embossed 
patterns,  and  various  kinds  invented  which  could 
not  have  been  made  in  stone,  as  the  sickle, 
gouge,  etc.  The  axe,  or  celt,  was  first  made  as 
a  plain  bronze  wedge  fastened  by  a  thong,  as 
with  stone ;  then  cast  with  a  socket  for  the  helve, 
an  extraordinary  gain  in  efficiency.  There  were 
light  cups  and  kettles,  knives  and  chisels,  spear- 
and  arrow-heads,  swords  and  daggers,  and 
bronze-bound  shields,  and  a  mass  of  personal 
fastenings  and  adornments.  Some  of  these  were 
impossible  in  stone,  as  buttons,  buckles,  and  pins, 
necklets,  bracelets,  rings,  and  earrings.  A  price- 
less collection  of  these  objects  was  found  at  Bo- 
logna, Italy,  in  the  shape  of  the  abandoned  stock 
of  an  ancient  bronze  founder.  The  industrial  ad- 
vantage of  this  newly  found  hardness,  tough- 
ness, and  variety  developed  industries  and  trade 
immensely:  it  also  made  possible  for  the  first 
time  true  stone  architecture,  and  engineering  of 
hewn  and  dressed  stone.  No  small  branch  of 
business  in  stoneless  Egypt  was  the  quarrying 
and  transportation  of  stone  for  the  public  works 
from  the  southern  rockier  regions. 

The  Iron  Age  is  the  present  (though  the  19th 
century  developed  what  is  really  a  distinct  era, 


the  Steel  Age,  making  possible  many  advances 
beyond  the  mere  iron),  and  the  most  of  its 
course  belongs  to  history.  It  originated  from 
about  1200  to  1000  B.C., —  that  strange  period,  in 
seeming  the  blackest  in  the  calendar  of  the 
ancient  world,  when  the  old  civilization  of  Meso- 
potamia had  collapsed  under  the  Semitic  in- 
vaders, Egypt  had  sunk  into  decay,  and  barba- 
rism seemed  to  have  reasserted  its  reign  over 
both  the  Eastern  and  Western  world:  yet  in 
which  lies  the  birth  of  perhaps  the  three  greatest 
factors  of  human  progress  in  historic  times, — 
the  use  of  iron,  the  alphabet,  and  the  Hebrew 
nation.  The  first  is  thought  to  have  sprung 
from  Armenia ;  regarding  the  second,  the  Phoe- 
nician origin  is  still  valid ;  the  third  is  a  myste- 
rious gift  of  Arabia. 

Babylonia  and  Assyria. —  The  civilization  of 
the  Mesopotamian  plain  is  not  only  the  oldest 
in  the  world  so  far  as  known,  but  the  first  (unless 
with  the  possible  exception  of  Egypt)  where 
men  settled  in  great  city  communities  under  an 
orderly  government  with  a  developed  religion, 
practising  agriculture  by  irrigation,  erecting 
adobe  buildings,  and  using  a  syllabified  writing. 
All  modern  Western  civilization  is  its  direct 
descendant  through  Greek  and  Roman  periods, 
so  that  in  studying  it  we  are  studying  our  own 
ultimate  intellectual  and  even  religious  pedigree. 
Its  astronomers  gave  us  the  division  of  the  year 
into  months,  weeks,  and  days,  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  the  constellations,  the  division  of  the  cir- 
cle into  degrees ;  its  art  was  the  foundation  on 
which  Greek  and  Etruscan  art  was  built ;  its 
religious  names,  forms,  and  traditions  are  a 
deep  element  in  the  Hebrew,  as  in  its  cos- 
mogony and  mythology  and  such  forms  as  the 
Psalms,  and  hence  enter  into  Christian  thought. 
Nor  are  we  the  only  beneficiaries.  For  some 
6.000  years  the  cuneiform  was  the  business  and 
literary  script  of  the  whole  civilized  world,  the 
one  method  of  writing  from  the  western  Medi- 
terranean to  India,  and  probably  the  origin  even 
of  the  Chinese,  as  Mesopotamian  civilization 
was  the  parent  of  Chinese  civilization. 

The  physical  difficulties  and  dangers  of  ex- 
ploration in  this  district  (once  a  garden  and 
turned  into  a  desert  by  Turkish  misgovernment, 
a  region  without  supplies  or  administrative  or- 
der, and  infested  by  hordes  of  dangerous 
Bedouin) ,  as  well  as  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
justice  or  possession  of  one's  goods  from  the 
Turkish  authorities  after  finding  them,  have 
kept  it  far  behind  that  of  Egypt  in  thorough- 
ness ;  but  the  results  have  been  not  less  splendid 
in  additions  to  our  knowledge  of  the  past.  The 
earliest  studies  —  those  of  J.  B.  Rich.  Indian 
consul-general  at  Bagdad,  in  1S1S-20.  who  col- 
lected sculptures  and  outlined  Assyrian  art :  the 
excavations  by  the  French  consul  Botta  at 
Khorsabad  in  1843.  of  Nimrud  and  Nineveh  by 
Layard  in  1845-51.  and  Hormuzd  Rassam  in 
[854 — were  of  relatively  modern  Assyrian  sites. 
The  first  entrance  on  the  ancient  Babylonian 
civilization    was   made  h    (1840-52)    by 

Loftus ;  a  further  one  by  Sarzac  in  the  impor- 
tant Tellr.  excavations  of  1876-81  ;  but  by  far 
the  most  important  was  by  the  Americans, 
and  Ilaynes.  with  Hilprccht.  at  Nippur 
from  1889  down.  This  was  probably  the  first 
city  foundation  in  the  world,  dating  from  about 
7000  B.C.,  then  a  seaport  and  now  120  miles  in- 
land ;  and  the  great   temple  library  has  poured 


ARCHEOLOGY 


floods  of  light  on  the  political  and  social  condi 
ii'in    oi    this    mother-land    of    modern    culture. 
Next  to  this,  our  greatest  source  of  information 
—  fi  ry    almost    the   whole  — 

has  been  the  library  of  Nabonidus,  the  last  king, 
at  Babylon.  The  whole  fabric  of  Assyrian 
chronology  rests  on  his  statement  that  Naram- 
Sin.  the  son  of  Sargon.  lived  .1.200  years  before 
his  time:  a  suspicious  number,  the  dubiousness 
of  which  leaves  half  that  chronology  a  thou- 
sand years  or  so  doubtful.  But  the  subject  was 
practically  sealed  till  the  decipherment  of  the 
inscriptions  gave  the  key;  and  this  was  im- 
mensely complicated  by  the  fact  that  the  cune- 
iform character,  like  the  modern  alphabet,  did 
not  imply  any  given  language,  but  was  used 
for  all  the  tongues  of  the  then  civilization.  I  he 
first  step  was  taken  in  1800  by  Grotefend,  who 
identified  Persian  names  and  then  applied  the 
characters  to  other  names,  till  he  made  out  sev- 
eral Persian  inscriptions,  and  Bournouf  (1836) 
and  Lassen  (1836-44)  worked  out  the  rest  of 
the  Persian  alphabet.  But  this  was  only  a 
small  part  of  the  enormous  Assyrian  syllabary 
O  signs.  The  task  was  finally  accomplished 
by  S:r  Henry  Rawlinson  by  means  of  the  great 
trilingual  Behistun  (q.v.)  inscription,  in  Assy- 
rian. Median  or  Yannic,  and  Persian:  his  know- 
old    Persian    gained    from    Zend    and 

ikrij    enabled    him    to    identify   the    Persian 
words    in    Assyrian   character,   and   thus,  res 
the  vast  Assyrian  syllabary.     This  has  given  the 
clue   in   turn   to   the    Other   languages    written   in 
the  cuneiform:  the  old  Sumerian,  Median,  etc. 

The    general    results    are    as    follows:     The 
earliest    inscriptions    show    us   a    mixed    people 

iking  two  languages:  one  certainly  Semitic, 
the  other  either  an  archaic  Semitic  or  Aryan 
(the  Ural  Altaic  affinity  is  now  discredited). 
The  non-Semitic  element,  known  as  Sumerian 
(."river-men" ?)  is  believed  to  be  Aryan,  related 
to  the  Caucasian  tribes,  and  to  be  the  original 
settlers  of  the  valley.  Into  this  valley  came, 
somewhere  between  10000  and  8000  b.c.  a  Semitic 
invasion  (Accadians,  =  "highlanders"  ?)  from 
the  upper  Euphrates-Tigris  valleys,  and  by  5000 
B.C.  had  developed,  through  the  mixture  of  two 
powerful  stocks,  the  wonderful  civilization  we 
know.  The  beginnings  were  in  the  Neolithic 
Age,  but  by  7000  B.C.  the  people  were  already 
organized  into  nations,  and  built  fortified  towns, 
the  centre  and  heart  of  each  being  the  temple  of 
the  local  god,  raised  on  immense  piles  of  brick- 
work. They  had  finely  colored  and  ornamented 
pottery,  made  with  the  potter's  wheel.  The 
principle  of  the  arch  was  known  as  early  as 
5C00  B.C.;  the  architecture  was  careful  and  re- 
lated to  the  nature  of  material;  drainage  sys- 
tems were  constructed  to  prevent  soaking  into 
the  adobe.  Several  important  centres  existed 
by  about  7000  B.C.,  including  Nippur,  Ur.  Eridu, 
and  probably  Erech.  When  we  first  find  in- 
scriptions, perhaps  about  4000  B.C..  there  had 
already  been  evolved  from  the  old  picture-writ- 
ing a  system  of  conventionalized  line-symbols, 
pure  pictographs,  some  ideographs,  some 
syllables;  and  while  at  first  the  writing  was 
entirely  votive  or  commemorative,  and  stone 
used  as  the  material  with  straight  lines,  it  was 
soon  applied  to  business  and  record,  the  ever- 
present  clay  utilized,  and  the  lines  assumed  the 
familiar  wedge  or  cuneiform   shape.     Sculpture 


and  the  engraving  of  gems  and  gold  were  al- 
ready at  a  high  level  shortly  after  4000. 

The  historj  will  be  found  under  Assyria  and 
Babylonia.  The  great  landmarks  are  the  n 
of  Sargon,  the  Charlemagne  of  the  ancient 
world,  who  founded  a  huge  west-Asiatic  "em- 
pire" from  north  Arabia  to  Armenia  and  west 
to  the  Mediterranean;  the  second  great  Semitic 
invasion  from  Arabia  about  2500  11. c.  overrun- 
ning south  Babylonia,  and  the  l-'.lamite  invasion 
from  the  Karun  valley  in  Persia  about  2,?oo  B.C., 
subjugating  the  remainder;  the  expulsion  of  the 
Elamites  about  2250  by  Hammurabi  ("Am- 
raphcl").  and  the  founding  of  Babylon,  which 
became  for  17  centuries  the  Rome  of  the  Asiatic 
world,  the  political  and  religious  centre  at  once; 
the  first  emergence  of  Assyria,  on  the  Accadian 

highlands,  about  1800;  the  Kassite  invasion  from 

the  Persian  highlands  17S2  B.C..  founding 
a  dynasty  which  ruled  Babylonia  till  1207;  their 
expulsion:  the  great  double  invasion  of  Semites 
from  the  south  and  Aryans  from  the  north, 
which  broke  up  the  Hittite  empire  and  0 
whelmed  Babylonia  and  Assyria  in  a  common 
wreck:  the  collapse  of  the  Old  World  civiliza- 
tion; the  re-emergence  of  Assyria  and  its 
domination  over  Babylonia,  from  about  goo;  its 
eclipse  by  the  growth  of  Armenia  in  the  8th 
century;  its  new  and  enormous  power  un< 
Tiglalh-Pileser  II.,  who  annexes  Babylonia;  the 
destruction  of  Babylon  by  Sennacherib,  (>8c)  B.C., 
and  its  rebuilding  by  his  si ,n  Esarhaddon;  the 
rebirth    of     Babylonia     under     N'ahi  the 

Chaldaean,  who  extinguished  Assyria,  010  or  609 
B.C.,  and,  after  a  short,  brilliant  career,  the  end 
of  the  Babylonian-Assyrian  power  forever 
through  its  conquest  by  Cyrus.  The  relation  of 
the  Assyrian  power  to  the  Babylonian  was  much 
like  that  of  Rome  to  Greece;  though  on  a  lower 
scale,  for  the  Assyrians,  though  great  war- 
riors, had  none  of  the  organizing  and  assimilat- 
ing power  of  Rome.  Assyria  copied  laboriously, 
and  on  the  whole  clumsily,  the  literature  and  art 
of  its  intellectual  masters,  and  produced  no  lit- 
erature proper  of  its  own.  But  its  libraries, 
copied  from  the  Babylonian  tablets  with  minute 
textual  and  critical  accuracy,  give  it  an  im- 
perishable claim  to  our  gratitude. 

Egypt. —  The  archxological  history  of  pre- 
historic civilizations  was  studied  in  Egypt  ear- 
lier, and  has  been  studied  there  more  fully,  than 
elsewhere,  from  the  accessibility  of  relics  and 
safety  of  work,  the  involution  of  Egyptian  poli- 
tics and  history  with  records  in  a  classic  lan- 
guage through  the  existence  of  an  Egyptian 
state  under  classic  rulers,  and  the  survival  of  a 
descendant  of  the  Egyptian  language  to  our 
own  day.  It  was  the  latter  which  furnished  the 
key  to  the  decipherment  of  the  hieroglyphic 
records.  The  Rosetta  Stone  (q.v.),  discovered 
by  the  French  in  1799,  bearing  a  proclamation 
in  hieroglyphic,  demotic,  and  Greek,  invited  a 
textual  comparison.  An  Englishman.  Young. 
devised  a  correct  principle,  but  had  neither 
knowledge  nor  interest  to  apply  it  in  full;  Sir 
William  Gcll  utilized  his  knowledge  of  Coptic, 
and  identified  three  fourths  of  the  signs;  Cham- 
pollion,  the  Frenchman,  was  a  thorough  Coptic 
student,  and  in  1821-32  worked  out  the  entire 
system  for  use.  This  first  made  it  possible  to 
rescue  Egyptian  history  in  preclassic  times  from 
the  fog  of  distorted  Greek  legends,  6craps  of 
priestly  record,  and  misapplied  Biblical  compari- 


ARCHEOLOGY 


sons,  while  the  excavations  at  Thebes  in  1820-30 
opened  up  the  Ramesside  and  neighboring  pe- 
riods 1500-1000  B.C.  Later,  Lepsius  and  Mari- 
ette  were  foremost  in  revealing  the  period  of 
the  Pyramid-Builders,  carrying  us  back  to  far 
past  3000.  B.C. ;  and  still  later  Dr.  Flinders  Petrie 
has  not  only  turned  the  First  Dynasty  and  oth- 
ers still  farther  back,  from  myth  into  solid 
history,  but  has  recreated  the  prehistoric  world 
prior  to  the  organization  of  the  monarchy,  about 
4800  B.C.,  with  a  surety  as  great  as  that  of  writ- 
ten record.  In  the  historic  periods,  the  total 
lack  of  any  chronological  sense  in  the  Egyptians, 
who  in  this  respect  were  very  different  from  the 
Assyrians,  and  the  catastrophe  of  the  Hyksos 
invasion,  make  its  history  in  large  portions  less 
clear  than  the  Babylonian ;  but  we  know  its  gen- 
eral outline  at  worst,  and  the  synchronism  and 
variations  of  arts  and  industries  often  supply  the 
lack  of  dated  chronology. 

The  oldest  inhabitants  of  upper  Egypt  known 
were  of  the  same  race  as  the  Algerian  Kabyles 
of  to-day, —  a  white-skinned,  blond,  blue-eyed, 
narrow-headed  race,  with  a  negro  strain,  allied 
to  the  south  European  races.  They  had  ac- 
quired by  5000  B.C.  the  highest  grade  of  Neolithic 
civilization  ever  reached  in  the  world,  so  far  as 
evidenced  by  tools  and  implements. —  the  finish 
of  the  flint-knives  and  lances  being  incompara- 
ble.—  and  were  using  copper  ones  also.  They 
built  brick  towns,  and  carried  on  an  active  Medi- 
terranean commerce  in  large  rowed  galleys ;  they 
made  leather  and  woven  linen  clothes,  beautiful 
and  varied  pottery  without  the  wheel,  perfect 
vases  of  the  hardest  stone  without  the  lathe, 
applied  colored  glazes  even  to  great  rock  carv- 
ings, manufactured  ornaments  of  precious 
stones,  metals,  and  ivory,  ivory  spoons  and 
combs,  games,  etc.  Their  art,  however,  was 
very  crude,  and  they  had  no  system  of  writing 
whatever,  though  using  marks.  About  5000  B.C. 
a  much  more  developed  race  invaded  Egypt, — 
probably  from  Arabia,  whence  the  Hyksos  and 
the  Hebrews  and  the  other  Semites  came :  a 
race  which  used  metals  more  freely,  had  a  sys- 
tem of  writing,  a  better  government  organiza- 
tion, and  higher  artistic  taste.  Here,  as  in  As- 
syria, the  blending  of  two  able  but  diverse 
strains  made  the  great  Egyptian  type  and  civil- 
ization of  the  Old  Kingdom,  which  we  know 
from  their  monuments  and  achievements.  They 
were  a  grand  people  in  every  way :  active  war- 
riors and  administrators,  firm  in  policy,  fine 
mechanicians,  adepts  in  organizing  combined 
labor ;  strong  artists,  with  lofty  conceptions ; 
withal  a  sensitive,  kindly,  sympathetic  folk, 
with  the  least  strain  of  ferocious  savagery  of 
any  great  people  in  history.  This  long  era  has 
left  us  the  Pyramids  and  magnificent  monumen- 
tal tombs,  masses  of  grand  and  accurate  archi- 
tecture, and  noble  sculpture.  This  great  age 
could  not  last  forever,  and  for  some  centuries 
after  about  2500  B.C.  it  was  in  decline,  to  revive 
only  less  brilliantly  in  the  Twelfth  Dynasty 
about  2000  B.C.,  considered  by  Egyptian  writers 
their  Golden  Age  of  art  and  literature.  The 
tremendous  catastrophe  of  the  Hyksos  invasion, 
already  mentioned,  took  place  probably  about 
1780  B.C.,  and  the  "Shepherd  Kings"  remained 
till  about  1600.  Their  final  expulsion  opened  a 
new  and  brilliant  era,  of  expansion  into  and 
domination  over  west  Asia,  of  the  closest  rela- 
tions   with   the    Mediterranean   countries,    of    a 


general  spread  of  luxury  through  the  people 
Egypt  for  the  first  time  threw  off  its  exclusion 
and  became  part  of  the  current  of  the  world's 
progress.  In  this  period  (about  1600-1200)  we 
find,  near  the  beginning,  the  great  Thothmes 
III.,  whose  exploits  were  exaggerated  into  the 
Sesostris  of  Greek  tradition ;  near  the  end  the 
rather  braggart  King  Rameses  II.,  commonly 
identified  with  Joseph's  Pharaoh,  and  his  son 
Merneptah,  often  accredited  as  the  Pharaoh  of 
the  Exodus.  But  the  empire  had  the  doom  of 
all  states  which  live  on  the  tribute  of  foreign 
districts :  the  outside  revenue  stopped,  the  habits 
of  luxury  remained,  and  the  nation  declined. 
In  the  thousand  years  to  follow  before  it  was 
absorbed  in  Rome,  it  had  much  prosperity  and 
some  periods  of  brief  glory,  but  the  vital  spirit 
had  gone. 

Syria. —  While  the  work  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Fund,  from  1866  onward,  has  thor- 
oughly mapped  out  the  surface  of  the  country, 
relatively  little  has  been  done  in  excavation  here 
or  in  Turkey;  for  political  reasons  (as  before 
noted)  mainly,  as  the  interest  in  Biblical  sites 
and  classical  remains  is  the  keenest  of  all.  The 
chief  part  thus  far  has  been  at  Jerusalem  and 
the  Philistine  cities,  and  in  the  north  at  Zin- 
jirli;  but  few  inscriptions  have  been  found  even 
where  the  excavation  has  been  done,  and  no 
very  ancient  ones.  The  most  important  his- 
torically is  that  of  Mesha,  king  of  Moab  (  ?  896 
EX.).  It  would  seem  that  by  the  time  the  Jew- 
ish nation  was  advanced  enough  to  make  in- 
scriptions, its  intellectual  activity  was  drawn  off 
in  other  directions,  and  the  hope  of  finding 
masses  of  archaeological  confirmation  of  or  sup- 
plement to  Biblical  records  has  been  disappoint- 
ed. The  chief  historical  result  of  Syrian  re- 
search has  been  to  restore  the  Hittite  empire 
(q.v. )  to  history:  formerly  regarded  as  a  Ca- 
naanitish  tribe,  it  is  now  known  to  have  been  a 
powerful  people  from  Cappadocia,  which  formed 
for  a  couple  of  centuries  a  strong  state  ruling 
north  Syria  and  much  of  Asia  Minor,  with  its 
centre  at  Carchemish.  till  broken  up  by  the  great 
southward  Aryan  movement  of  which  the  Do- 
rian invasion  was  a  part.  Its  writing  is  almost 
undeciphered.  Curiously  enough,  the  most  im- 
portant documents  for  ancient  Syrian  history 
have  been  found  not  in  Syria,  but  in  Egypt. — 
the  Tel-el-Amarna  tablets,  containing  a  15th  cen- 
tury correspondence  with  Egypt  in  cuneiform. 

Classical  Archeology. —  Till  the  very  recent 
excavations  at  Troy.  Mycenae,  etc.,  resulting 
from  enthusiasm  for  the  Homeric  poems,  archae- 
ological research  in  the  classic  lands  was  mostly 
confined  to  illustrating  historical  periods,  and 
to  a  study  of  Greek  and  Roman  art  and  archi- 
tecture:  even  now  the  light  on  prehistoric  times 
is  not  from  written  records  and  inscriptions  as 
in  the  East,  but  inferential  from  material  objects. 
It  has,  however,  in  confirmation  of  Egyptian 
and  other  records,  and  by  comparison  of  objects 
with  those  of  known  date  in  that  country  and 
Babylonia,  given  unmistakable  proof  of  a  hither- 
to unsuspected  stratum  of  old  Greek  history. 
From  foreign  pottery  found  in  Egypt.  5000-3000 
B.C.,  Greece  and  Italy  probably  had  a  Neolithic 
pottery-making  population  at  those  times.  But 
the  first  posi'  ning  of  civilized  settlement 

is  in  the  lowest  Tmy,  dating  certainly  before 
2000  B.C.,  and  perhaps  3000:  almost  no  metal  is 
found  there.     Still   before  2000  is  another  Troy, 


ARCHEOLOGY 


with  fine  vases  and  golden  ornaments.  This 
w.is  contemporary  with  the  supremacy  of  Crete, 
then  the  mistress  of  the  seas,  as  the  Etruscans 
and  Phoenicians  were  later;  and  there  was  a 
direct  connection  between  Crete  and  ["roy.  1  he 
legends    of    the   great    law-making   Cretan    kings 

and  their  suzerainty  over  Greece  and  exactions 
of  tribute  from  it  are  doubtless  based  on  fact; 
even    the    Labyrinth    lias    been    uncovered,   and 

a  nucleus  of  fact  in  much  of  the  old  Greek  lcg- 
endary  lore  made  probable.  Three  times  after 
this  was  Troy  abandoned  and  rebuilt  before  the 
contemporary  of  the  Mycenaean  kingdom  of 
about  1500  b.c.  is  reached.  At  this  time  the 
coasts  of  Greece  and  tile  /Egean  islands  were 
the  seat  of  a  high  culture  radiating  in  all  direc- 
tions, and  even  influencing  the  East,  so  that  this 
has  been  styled  the  ".Egean  Period"  of  civiliza- 
tion, ["here  was  a  powerful  and  wealthy  king- 
dom with  its  centre  at  Myceii.t,  where  we  find 
magnificent  domed  tombs,  fine  jewelry  and  metal 
work,  exquisite  pottery  and  ornaments,  etc.;  as 
also  at  other  great  towns  marked  by  lull  for- 
tresses, Athens.  Tiryns,  and  other  place-..  ["hi 
rich  and  prosperous  land  trailed  with  all  the 
Mediterranean  countries,  but  chiefly  with  Egypt, 
in  whose  ruins  are  found  hosts  of  Greek  objects 
of  this  period.  By  1 100  is.c.  this  civilization  had 
begun  to  droop,  and  about  1000  the  inva- 
sion of  the  barbarous  Dorians  from  the  north 
temporarily  overwhelmed  it  on  the  mainland. 
But  it  was  only  for  a  time:  even  where  the 
Dorians  had  conquered,  the  union  of  old  and 
new  flowered  into  richer  bloom,  and  Athens, 
the  chief  city  which  they  had  not  conquered, 
became  the  head  and  heart  of  a  far  more  splen- 
did revival  of  every  art  and  literature,  the  fore- 
most in  the  world  to  the  present  time.  By  the 
7th  century  the  immortals  had  begun  to  spring 
up:  Archilochus  and  Sappho  were  islanders,  and 
the  great  time  of  Alliens  bad  not  yet  Come,  but 
the  thronging  masters  show  that  society  had 
become  fairly   settled  once   mori 

The  development  of  civilization  v.  as  very 
much  later  in  Italy  than  in  Greece,  and  more 
slowly  affected  by  outside  civilizations  except 
on  the  southern  coast.  The  Neolithic  Age.  with 
black  pottery  and  lake  dwellings,  lasted  down  to 
nearly  or  quite  1000  B.C.,  the  full  development 
of  the  Bronze  Age  not  taking  place  till  about 
800.  The  Etruscan  invasion,  which  tradition 
brings  from  Asia  Minor,  cannot  be  dated,  but 
was  probably  later  than  1000  B.C.  The  art  and 
religion  of  the  Etruscans  were  entirely  foreign, 
indicating  rather  a  Northern  than  an  Eastern 
origin ;  but  they  were  not  an  original  people, 
and  borrowed  elements  of  civilization  and  art 
from  every  nation  they  came  in  contact  with. — 
Italians,  Greeks,  Egyptians,  and  Assyrians.  In 
this  assimilativeness  they  remind  one  of  the 
Northmen,  and  the  tradition  of  their  origin  may 
be  wholly  wrong.  The  one  great  specialty  of 
the  Etruscans  was  engineering.  Their  history 
and  affiliations  remain  a  mystery  chiefly  because 
their  language  is  such.  Known  since  historic 
times,  and  in  the  last  century  thousands  of  in- 
scriptions in  it  copied,  and  even  many  words 
translated  for  us.  the  language  remains  an  ab- 
solute secret  to  the  laborious  and  penetrating 
scholarship  directed  on  it. 

Archaeology,  American.  America's  place 
in  the  world's  history  has  been  an  abundant 
source     of    discussion     among     geologists     and 


archa;ologists,  and  there  exists  still  a  wide  range 
of  opinion,  particularly  concerning  the  antiquity 
of  man  on  this  continent.     There  is  uniformity 

ipinion  as  to  the  occurrence  in  definite  supei 
ficial  strata  of  trace-  of  man's  handiwork,  but 

the    geological    history    of    these    strata    has    been 
variously   Considered.      It    is    now    generally   eon 
eluded,  however,  that    they  are  a  product  of  tin- 
concluding  activities   of   die   Glacial    Epoch,  ma- 
terial laid  down  by  floods  caused  by  the  melting 

of  the  glaciers  that  tilled  tin-  valleys,  and  not 
improbably  accompanied  by  rainfall  far  111  ex- 
cess of  any  in  post-glacial  times. 

As  yet  the   evidences  of  man's  antiquity  may 

be  summed  up  in  the  discoveries  made  in  the 

valley    of    the    Delaware    River    (1872   1002)    on 

the  Atlantic  slope,  and  the  shell  heap  discov- 
eries (Dall)  on  the  Pacific  slope.  In  the  in- 
terior of  the  continent  there  have  been  many 
reported  discoveries  of  evidences  of  equal  an- 
tiquity, but  so  generally  were  they  open  to  possi- 
ble errors  of  observation,  due  to  lark  of.  skill 
required  in  such  investigations,  that  their  acccpt- 
has  not  been  general.  Tin-  i^  true  even  of 
the  much-discussed  Calaveras  skull  and  Xampa 
image.  This,  however,  i<  not  true  of  the  human 
cranium  known  as  the  "Lansing  skull,"  from 
Kansas,  and  the  age  of  the  deposit  in  which  it 
was  found  only  is  in  dispute.  .Much  more  satis- 
factory is  the  result  before  mentii  lined 
by  Dall  in  his  investigation  of  the  Pacific 
Coast  shell-heaps.  Here  we  have  evidence  of  a 
gradual  change  of  habit,  of  a  succession  of  oc- 
cupations of  the  region  that  enables  us  to  deal 
with  "time  relative"  if  not  "time  absolute,"  and 
to  feel  assured  that  man's  first  appearance  on 
the  western  coast  of  North  America  was  in  the 
extremely  long  distant  past  as  measured  by 
years.  As  shown  that  traces  of  man  c>ccur  in 
deposits  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  notably  in  the 
valley  of  the  Delaware  River,  the  dual  question 
arises  just  when  and  wli.net  came  man  to  the 
American  continent  ''  It  is  inherently  improba- 
ble that  he  did  so  while  glacial  conditions  ob- 
tained in  the  northern  half  of  the  country,  for 
m  that  case  he  would  have  confined  himself  to 
those  unglaciated  regions  in  the  south,  where 
the  struggle  for  existence  was  reduced  to  its 
minimum.  It  is  far  more  probable  that  his  ar- 
rival on  the  continent  was  pre  glacial  and  that 
when  driven  southward  by  the  steady  encroach- 
ment of  the  ice-sheet  he  lingered  at  its  south- 
ward limit  of  extension  and  lived  in  a  manner 
not   essentially  dissimilar   to  (hat    of  the  present 

eal  races,  but  more  favorable  in  that  the 
fauna  was  richer  than  that  of  the  circumpolar 
regions  of  to-day.  This  is  not  to  say  that  the 
glacial  man  of  the  Delaware  valley  and  the  I 
kimo  of  to-day  were  racially  the  same,  but 
merely  that  similar  physical  conditions  would 
produce  essentially  the  same  modes  of  living. 

It  can  scarcely  be  questioned  that  man  origi- 
nally was  a  tropical  animal,  and  the  existence  of 
boreal  races  indicates  that  primitive  man  was 
slowly  differentiated  and,  spreading  over  the 
earth,  so  far  changed  in  habit  as  the  environ- 
ment required.  Pre-glacial  man  —  at  least  in 
North  America  —  is  yet  to  be  demonstrated  by 
unquestionable  discoveries  of  his  remains,  but 
theoretically  nothing  can  be  more  reasonable 
than  the  claim  of  his  one-time  existence. 

From  what  other  continent  man  came  to 
America    is    still    an    unsettled    question.     The 


ARCHEOLOGY 


necessity  for  an  ultra-American  origin  is  in- 
sisted upon,  perhaps  illogically,  but,  accepting  the 
necessity,  a  migration  route  is  fancied  from  the 
direction  of  Japan  or  directly  across  Bering's 
Strait  from  Siberia,  and  that  North  America 
was  peopled  by  an  incursion  of  wandering  hu- 
manity into  the  northwest  portion  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  thence  followed  down  the  Pacific 
coast  and  finally  spread  eastwardly  until  the 
Atlantic  checked  the  movement.  That  the  Jap- 
anese archipelago  was  the  "home"  of  the  first 
American  is  possible,  so  far  as  our  present 
knowledge  warrants  our  forming  any  opinion 
on  this  point ;  but,  accepting  this  or  another 
Asiatic  origin  of  this  country's  "first"  people,  it 
is  clearly  evident,  from  the  traces  of  them  that 
have  been  recovered,  that  the  trans-Pacific  mi- 
gration occurred  in  what  we  know  as  pre- 
glacial  time,  and  so,  so  far  in  the  past  that  race- 
differentiation  had  not  progressed  to  an  extent 
at  all  comparable  to  what  has  since  occurred. 
The  pioneer  invaders  of  the  American  continent 
were  doubtless  much  the  same  as  folk  wherever 
found  at  that  time :  in  other  words,  still  very 
near  to  that  primitive  condition  in  which  man 
remained  so  long  after  losing  all  visible  traces 
of  its  pithecoid  ancestry.  If  such  was  his  con- 
dition, man  might  well  have  wandered  over  a 
wide  territory,  tracing  each  river's  valley,  up  or 
down,  as  the  case  might  be,  and,  depending  upon 
his  physical  strength  and  the  simplest  of  weap- 
ons, it  is  little  wonder  that  no  recognizable  traces 
of  him  should  be  found.  His  inventive  ingenuity 
was  subsequently  developed,  and  it  is  in  tracing 
this  from  its  humblest  manifestations  to  the  de- 
gree of  skill  in  tool-making  ultimately  acquired, 
that  the  archaeologist  is  able  to  demonstrate  that 
man  in  the  lowest  state  of  savagery  originally 
peopled  this  continent,  and  that  there  has  been 
here  a  growth  or  development  of  human  facul- 
ties which  may  be  considered  strictly  indigenous. 
This  advance  toward  what  we  call  "civilization* 
reached  its  highest  point  in  Mexico,  in  Central 
America,  and  in  Peru.  That  it  was  influenced 
in  Mexico  and  Central  America,  if  not  else- 
where, by  an  occasional  influx  of  Asiatic  people 
who  had  outreached  their  distant  cousins,  is  per- 
sistently claimed :  and  certainly,  if  at  a  far  more 
remote  period  an  Asiatic  savage  had  reached 
this  country,  it  is  not  improbable  that  such  an 
occurrence  should  happen  in  later  time,  when 
savagery  had  given  way  to  a  higher  cult  and 
travel  by  land  and  water  was  a  less  formidable 
undertaking.  Such  influence  may  have  been  im- 
pressed at  times  upon  the  growing  American 
civilization,  but  never  to  such  a  degree  as  radi- 
cally to  change  its  character.  The  American 
race  was  too  firmly  fixed  to  be  wholly  altered, 
and  whatsoever  reached  it  from  the  East  in  re- 
cent times  —  geologically  speaking  —  made  but 
an  inconsiderable  impression. 

Dating,  then,  the  appearance  of  man  on  this 
continent  at  the  close  of  the  Glacial  Epoch 
(q.v.).  and  inferring  only  that  his  career  really 
commenced  in  pre-glacial  time,  we  find  him  a 
rude  chipper  of  flint-like  stone,  fashioning  im- 
plements so  nearly  identical  with  the  palaeolithic 
forms  of  other  continents  that  it  is  logical  to 
assume  that  his  general  mode  of  living  and  men- 
tal attainments  were  the  same  as  those  of  the 
river-drift  man  of  Europe.  This,  when  the  ac- 
tivities of  glacial  conditions  were  at  their  height : 
but  as  these  waned,  slowly  a  change  took  place. 
Vol.    i— 41 


Faunal  changes  certainly  occurred,  and  these 
may  have  been  the  direct  cause  of  the  alterations 
in  implement  forms ;  for  it  is  at  this  time  that 
the  more  specialized  and  smaller  objects,  in- 
tended for  smaller  game,  appear ;  among  them 
the  arrow-head.  These  are  found  in  the  alter- 
nated layers  of  sand  and  clay  that  overlie  the 
coarse  gravels  due  to  the  torrential  floods  that 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  close  of  the  great 
Ice  Age.  These  stone  implements  are  almost 
wholly  made  of  argillite  —  laminated  slates  that 
have  been  fused  by  volcanic  heat  —  and  are  the 
traces  of  an  intermediate  period  between  palae- 
olithic man  proper  and  the  historic  Indian. 

This  intermediate  period  was  one  of  immensely 
long  duration ;  one  during  which  the  surface  was 
but  sparsely  clad  with  vegetation,  and  tree- 
growth  limited  to  coniferous  forests  that  had 
grown  for  ages  beyond  the  reach  of  the  en- 
croaching glaciers.  It  was  during  this  time  that 
the  bow  came  into  use,  and  there  was  a  faint 
foreshadowing  of  the  manifold  activities  of 
later  date,  but  as  yet  no  pottery.  It  was  now 
that  the  surface  soil  began  accumulating,  here 
and  there  in  favorable  spots,  and  finally  until 
the  old  half-barren  sands  were  covered.  With 
this  change  vegetation  increased  until  the  flora 
was  what  we  now  find  it.  Deciduous  trees  grew 
where  the  soil  was  moist,  and  at  last  the  country 
was  concealed  by  forests.  It  was  not  until  then 
that  the  Indian  occupation  of  the  country  really 
commenced.  As  we  know  him,  he  is  strictly  a 
creature  of  the  soil  and  not  related  to  any  of 
the  older,  underlying  sands.  He  is  a  man  of 
history,  and  of  that  misty  borderland  of  history 
and  geology  known  as  prehistoric  time.  That 
there  was  an  interim,  when  the  "argillite"  man 
was  absent  and  the  flint-chipping,  pottery-mak- 
ing Indian  finally  appeared,  has  not  been  dem- 
onstrated, but  is  probable.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested by  Hrdlicka  that  if  the  argillite  man 
was  in  possession  of  the  land  when  the  later 
Indian  arrived,  there  would  be  found  a  modi- 
fication in  skull  type  resulting  from  the  ab- 
sorption of  one  race  by  another.  As  yet  such 
crania  have  not  been  discovered.  This  is  nega- 
tive evidence,  and  it  is  offset  by  the  fact  that 
skulls  have  been  discovered  in  undisturbed  gla- 
cial strata  that  are  of  wholly  different  type  from 
that  of  the  Indian.  How  far  we  can  be  guided 
by  craniology  alone  has  yet  to  be  determined, 
but  taking  in  this  case  all  conditions  under 
consideration,  in  the  Delaware  valley,  where 
exhaustive  researches  have  been  made  (Yolk), 
there  is  evidence  that  can  scarcely  be  disputed 
that  man  was  here  to  witness  the  closing  acts 
of  the  ice-drama  —  if  not  its  entire  progress  — 
and  continued  to  live  in  this  river  valley  during 
the  subsequent  centuries  that  bring  us  to  the 
confines  of  historic  time.  What  relation  he  bore 
to  the  Indian  who  succeeded  him  has  yet  to  be 
determined.  The  appearances  to-day  of  the  soil 
and  underlying  sands,  each  with  its  imperish- 
able traces  of  man,  suggest  continuous  occupa- 
tion of  the  region,  but  do  not  prove  it.  How- 
ever this  may  be,  it  does  not  affect  the  sequence 
here  given  of  man's  career  on  the  Atlantic  slope 
of  North  America : 

A.     Paleolithic  Max. 

B.     Post-paleolithic   Man. 

C.     Historic   Indian. 

The  so-called  Indian  of  this  continent  has 
been  so  closely  studied,  and  his  handiwork. 
whether  of  stone,  bone,  metal,  or  clay,   scruti- 


ARCHEOLOGY 


nized  so  exhaustively  by  ethnologists  that  every- 
thing relating  to  him  is  familiar  to  all.  But 
our  knowledge  is  not  as  definite  and  free  from 
contradiction  as  might  be  wished.  Theories  be- 
yond count  have  been  elaborately  set  forth,  each 
claiming  to  fix  finally  the  career  of  these  people. 
The  literature  of  the  subject  is  enormous  and 
stands  quite  as  much  a  monument  to  our  ignor- 
ance as  to  our  erudition.  That  the  Indian  is  a 
descendant  of  the  man  who  reached  the  con- 
tinent in  pre-glacial  time  or  during  an  imme- 
diately succeeding  period  is  in  all  probability 
true.  That  the  variations  in  his  degree  of  cul- 
ture and  all  that  he  has  succeeded  in  accom- 
plishing is  due  to  his  environment  on  this  con- 
tinent ;  is  an  unfolding  of  his  faculties  unin- 
fluenced except  by  Nature, —  may  be  accepted 
as  in  all  probability  true  of  him;  even  such  ad- 
vanced outreaching  toward  our  own  concep- 
tion of  civilization  as  was  found  in  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  in  Peru  does  not  call  for 
the  incoming  of  a  superior  people.  The  Indian 
of  North  America,  in  possession  when  the  coun- 
try was  invaded  by  the  European,  has  been  de- 
nied any  significant  antiquity,  and  not  a  trace 
of  his  labors,  whether  earthwork,  shell-heap,  or 
deeply-buried  implement  has  been  admitted  to 
possess  an  age  at  all  suggestive.  All  the 
"mounds"  have  been  declared  to  be  of  Cherokee 
origin,  and  not  one  dating  so  far  back  that  the 
years  may  not  be  easily  counted.  Here  the  pen- 
dulum swung  too  far  toward  the  craze  for  mod- 
ernity. As  well  confuse  the  Aztec  and  the  Eski- 
mo. There  are  mounds  and  mounds. —  mounds 
proper,  the  history  of  which  had  faded  from  the 
traditions  of  the  Indians;  and  earthworks  that 
were  not  beyond  the  capabilities  of  the  various 
tribal  groups  or  tribes  known  to  the  Jesuit 
fathers  who  saw  the  people  to  such  excellent 
advantage. 

It  is  to  the  careful  examination  of  our  sea- 
coast  shell-heaps  that  we  must  look  for  those 
evidences  of  prolonged  occupation  of  the  coun- 
try which  admit  practically  of  no  dispute. 
These  accumulations  of  clam  and  oyster  shells 
in  many  localities  show  that  they  were  begun 
when  the  shore  level  was  not  what  it  now  is ; 
the  base  of  the  heaps  being  now  several  feet 
below  the  water's  surface  at  low  tide.  These 
shell-heaps  are  to  be  judged  by  the  traces  of 
handiwork  found  in  them  and  likewise  by  a 
careful  study  of  the  shells  themselves.  The  im- 
plements and  pottery  have  been  found  in  some 
instances  to  be  of  the  rudest  description,  while 
in  others  the  traces  are  of  workmanship  that 
was  reached  only  in  the  palmiest  days  of  Indian 
time.  This  might  prove  a  snare  to  the  archaeol- 
ogist if  all  considerations  were  not  kept  in  view, 
for  not  a  one-time  village  site  in  the  land  but 
shows  a  curious  commingling  of  crude  and  elab- 
orate implements,  weapons,  and  ornaments;  but 
it  has  been  found  —  on  the  North  Atlantic  coast, 
at  least  —  that  the  shell-heaps  that  are  appar- 
ently tin-  older  are  really  such  from  the  fact 
that  argillite  implements,  and  no  pottery,  are 
found  in  them.  This  significance  of  argillite 
unassociated  with  objects  of  other  material  has 
already  been  pointed  out.  But  more  full  of 
meaning  than  all  else  is  the  fact  that  the  same 
species  of  mollusk  has  gradually  undergone  a 
change  during  the  time  that  elapsed  between  the 
laying  down  of  the  base  of  the  shell-heap  and 
the    day    of    its    final    abandonment.     Evolution 


is  as  slow  as  it  is  sure,  and  the  change  mentioned 
is  alone  sufficient  to  indicate  beyond  cavil  the 
antiquity  of  the  sea-coast  dweller,  who  must 
be  considered  strictly  post-glacial,  but  impress- 
ively prehistoric.  An  overlooked  feature  of  the 
subject  is  that  of  the  marked  difference  in  the 
traces  of  man  found  in  different  village  sites 
scattered  over  a  limited  area,  as  of  10  or  20 
square  miles.  It  has  not  infrequently  happened 
that  traces  of  human  occupation  have  been 
brought  to  light  wherein  nothing  but  the  rudest 
forms  of  implements  and  coarsest  grade  of  pot- 
tery occur.  Such  have  been  found,  too,  remote 
from  present  watercourses,  deeply  buried,  and 
the  spot  still  retaining  evidences  of  bring  heav- 
ily forested  after  the  site  was  abandoned  by 
man.  No  one  can  unearth  such  evidences  of 
one-time  human  presence  without  being  im- 
pressed with  their  antiquity  as  counted  by  years; 
but  of  far  greater  significance  is  the  occurrence 
of  such  a  village  site  finally  abandoned,  over- 
grown, and  buried  by  drifting  sands,  and  then, 
when  not  a  vestige  of  it  remained  visible,  the 
spot  being  reoccupied  by  an  Indian  of  greater 
skill  in  handicraft.  Exposing  the  relics  of  the 
two  occupations  and  placing  them  side  by  side, 
the  difference  is  eloquent  of  the  lapse  of  time 
beyond  the  skill  of  pen  to  picture. 

That  a  family  likeness  should  be  traceable 
among  the  native  races  of  the  Americas  is  not 
remarkable  and  as  yet  there  has  been  no  suffi- 
ciency of  evidence  to  lead  us  to  the  conclusion 
that  the  so-called  "Indians"  are  referable  to 
diverse  origins.  The  cranial  differences  are  of 
degree  only,  and  when  a  number  of  skulls  are 
brought  together,  the  extremes  are  united  by  a 
series  of  gradations  that  stamp  them  all  as  one 
in  anatomical  essentials.  Yet,  viewing  the  vast 
territory  as  a  whole,  we  find  wide  differences 
among  these  people,  differences  which  may  In- 
explained,  however,  by  the  wholly  dissimilar 
environment ;  this  not  including  the  strictly 
boreal  people,  though  their  variations  from  the 
typical  Indian  are  not,  perhaps,  so  great  as  has 
been  asserted.  The  marked  feature  of  the  handi- 
work of  Arctic  man  is  skill  in  carving  ivory  and 
very  strikingly  etching  it  in  such  a  manner  that 
frequently  the  fauna  of  the  region  and  modi1  of 
life  of  the  inhabitants  are  most  cleverly  deputed. 
But  considering  that  bone  and  ivory  take  the 
place  of  stone  so  largely,  and  that  there  is  so 
much  enforced  idleness  during  the  long  Arctic 
winter,  this  artistic  taste  has  been  most  naturally 
developed.  There  must  of  necessity  be  some 
occupation,  and  the  artistic  instinct  is  common 
to  all  mankind.  Whether  or  not  it  flourishes  — 
is  a  vigorous  or  a  stunted  growth  —  is,  again, 
a  matter  of  environment  only.  The  compara- 
tively few  stone  implements  found  in  the  far 
North  are  not  noticeably  well-fashioned,  and 
the  majority  of  their  patterns  are  to  be  dupli- 
cated in  the  one-time  Indian  village  sites  of  the 
temperate  regions. 

The  purported  Indian  etchings  on  slate  are 
not  as  artistic  in  any  instance  as  those  on  ivory 
made  within  or  near  the  Arctic  circle,  and  it  is 
possible  that  all  or  nearly  all  of  them  should  be 
ruled  out  of  court.  They  usually  tell  too  much, 
when  they  pass  from  series  of  "tally  marks"  or 
merely  ornamental  zigzag  lines,  which  may  or 
may  not  have  had  a  significance  beyond  the  fab- 
ricator's idea  of  decoration.  The  tablets  from 
Iowan     mounds     and     the     remarkable    Lcnape 


ARCHEOLOGY 


stone  (q.v.)  from  eastern  Pennsylvania  stand 
out  so  prominently  among  the  Indian  relics  of 
their  respective  neighborhoods,  and  especially 
the  latter,  that  an  unqualified  acceptance  cannot 
be  accorded  them.  If  they  were  the  culmina- 
tion of  artistic  effort  on  the  part  of  the  Indians 
of  the  central  west  and  Atlantic  seaboard  respec- 
tively, the  question  arises  where  are  the  pictured 
tablets  of  lesser  degree  of  merit.  There  is  too 
great  a  difference  between  the  notches,  straight 
or  zigzag  lines  and  the  thrilling  scene  of  battling 
with  a  mastodon  that  finally  is  stricken  by 
lightning.  If  all  this  ever  occurred  we  have  not 
evidence  that  any  Indian  of  that  day  had  the 
skill  to  tell  the  story  in  this  manner.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  Iowan  tablets.  That  the  Indian 
had  not  knowledge  of  the  mastodon  we  do  not 
claim,  for  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
it  became  extinct  in  comparatively  recent  times; 
probably  not  more  than  25  centuries  ago.  The 
conditions  under  which  its  bones  have  been 
found  and  the  instances  of  association  of  human 
and  elephantine  bones  show  that  before  this 
country's  "autochthonic  hunter,  Behemoth  melt- 
ed away.* 

What  the  Indian  was  at  the  time  of  the  Co- 
lumbian discovery  has  a  distinct  bearing  on  the 
archaeology  of  the  country  he  occupied,  inas- 
much as  an  agriculturist  he  was  in  possession 
of  maize  and  grew  it  extensively.  This  plant 
had  become  during  that  time  a  product  of  arti- 
ficiality or  cultivated  growth,  so  modified  that 
but  for  man's  care  it  would  be  lost.  Whatever 
the  plant  from  which  it  originated  there  is  no 
resemblance  to  it  now.  To  effect  such  a  change 
calls  for  an  immense  lapse  of  time.  Other  prod- 
ucts of  agricultural  skill  were  as  carefully 
grown  and  the  impression  that  the  results  of  the 
chase  were  the  main  food  supply  is  not  a  correct 
one.  The  researches  of  Carr  on  this  subject 
show  how  methodical  these  people  were  as 
tillers  of  the  soil  and  that  great  suffering  fol- 
lowed when  their  crops  failed.  The  Indians  did 
not  come  to  America  as  agriculturists ;  of  that 
we  can  be  very  sure,  and  to  pass  from  the  hunter- 
stage  of  life  to  that  of  cultivator  of  the  ground 
is  not  conceivable  as  a  sudden  transition ;  but 
is  intelligible  as  a  slow  evolutionary  process. 
This  development,  in  no  mean  stage  as  finally 
reached,  shows  the  upward  tendency  of  the  In- 
dians in  given  areas  over  what  is  now  the  United 
States,  and  how  much  beyond  the  status  gained 
they  would  have  progressed  had  not  European 
invasion  checked  their  career  is  conjectural. 
Herbert  Spencer  believes  they  had  reached 
the  full  limit  of  their  capabilities,  but  among 
such  a  people  as  these  Indians  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury it  is  conceivable  that  superior  intellects 
might  appear  occasionally  and  such  men  would 
have  their  following.  If  such  men  are  philoso- 
phers and  not  fanatics,  a  distinct  gain  is  the  re- 
sult. When  it  is  considered  that  people  with 
merely  a  novel  view  and  usually  an  absurd  one 
become  prominent  for  a  day  and  have  a  host 
of  applauders,  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose 
that  among  the  Algonkins  or  Iroquois  there 
might  have  risen  those  who  saw  the  folly  of 
war  and  set  forth  convincingly  the  manifold 
blessings  of  peace;  who  realized  the  advantages 
of  agriculture  over  the  difficulties  attending 
hunting  and  so  brought  into  existence  a  train  of 
thought  that  would  influence  the  people  who 
gave   them    a    hearing.     Attracted    first    by    the 


novelty  of  the  suggestion,  they  would  later  see 
the  logic  of  the  argument,  if  such  existed,  and  a 
distinct  gain  be  made.  That  their  growth  toward 
our  civilization  would  ever  have  been  equal  to 
our  own  is  quite  improbable,  as  these  people 
have  been  as  long  upon  the  earth  as  any  other 
race  and  America  offers  opportunities  for  in- 
tellectual growth  equal  to  Asia  or  Europe. 
What  does  appear  is  that  the  upward  growth 
was  in  existence  when  the  blight  of  European 
contact  fell  upon  them.  Certainly  the  savage  of 
ten  thousand  years  ago  was  far  lower  in  skill, 
in  handicraft,  and  culture  generally  than  the 
men  who  witnessed  the  landing  of  the  Norse- 
men. Then,  or  about  that  time,  a  fatal  scourge 
seems  to  have  raged  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard 
and  the  natives  suffered  a  serious  check,  the  re- 
sult of  which  appears  to  have  lowered  their 
status,  as  smallpox  and  syphilis,  introduced  by 
Europeans  later,  largely  decimated  their  num- 
bers. The  Indians  for  a  time  were  driven  to 
the  dire  necessity  of  daily  struggle  for  bare  ex- 
istence, and  many  of  the  better  things  of  which 
they  were  capable  fell  into  disuse.  So,  at  least, 
it  seems  most  rational  to  explain  the  fact  that 
these  people,  when  European  contact  became 
permanent,  were  not  what  they  had  been.  They 
had  not  been  able  wholly  to  recover  from  one 
disaster  before  another  overtook  them ;  the  last, 
Spanish,  French,  and  English  invasion,  proving 
as  destructive  as  fire  upon  the  dry  prairie. 

The  accounts  of  what  the  Jesuit  fathers  saw 
and  the  records  of  Kalm,  Loskiel,  Hxckwclder, 
and  many  others,  make  no  mention  of  many 
forms  of  implements,  ceremonial  objects,  and 
talismans,  that  are  now  familiar  objects  in  all 
considerable  collections  of  Indian  antiquities; 
but  the  simpler  forms,  as  the  grooved  axe,  the 
polished  celt,  the  arrow-head,  flake-knife,  and 
pottery  are  not  only  referred  to  definitely,  but 
the  method  of  manufacture  given  in  considerable 
detail.  Their  hunting  and  agriculture  are  made 
plain,  and  we  know  with  what  tools  they  sought 
their  game  and  tilled  the  soil,  and  more  prom- 
inent than  all  else,  the  culture  of  tobacco,  and 
the  pipe  in  which  it  was  burned,  figure  in  the 
pages  of  the  early  travelers.  Not  less  con- 
spicuous as  objects  were  more  than  one  form  of 
wrought  stone  implements  to  which  no  refer- 
ence is  made.  It  is  inconceivable  that  they  wire 
successfully  hidden,  and  we  can  only  conclude 
that  they  had  passed  wholly  out  of  use.  As- 
suming that  all  the  products  of  the  Indian's  skill 
in  shaping  stone,  of  which  we  now  know  noth- 
ing, were  wholly  in  disuse  and  either  inten- 
tionally hidden  or  effectually  lost,  it  is  strange 
that  the  pioneer  explorers  should  have  had  so 
little  of  the  archaeological  instinct  as  not  to 
have  detected  traces  of  them.  Had  more  interest 
been  taken  in  the  Indian's  physical  welfare, 
which  was  important,  and  less  in  his  spiritual 
condition,  which  needed  no  repairs,  we  should 
not  now  be  groping  in  darkness  as  to  the  origin 
and  antiquity  of  the  original,  if  not  autochtho- 
nous   American. 

With  so  great  an  extent  of  country  and  such 
diverse  physical  and  climatic  conditions,  it  is 
obvious  that  what  were  originally  one  people, 
should  by  force  of  environment  become  widely 
differentiated  in  habits  of  life,  and  what  are 
now  the  almost  tropical  regions  of  Arizona, 
New  Mexico,  and  Southern  Colorado  have  been 
long    peopled    with    Indians    that    superficially 


ARCHEOLOGY 


differ  widely  from  those  of  the  more  northern 
>ns.  Their  cliff  dwellings,  rock  shelters,  and 
well-built  permanent  dwellings  oilier  than  tl 
on  the  fares  of  cliffs;  their  pottery,  winch  they 
had  learned  to  color:  their  weaving,  ba 
making,  and  skill  in  stone  chipping  and  polish- 
ing, all  point  to  a  distinct  advance  over  the 
more  northern  nomadic  tribes.  It  is  practically 
demonstrated,    in   the    judgment   of  those   who 

have  most  exhaustively  explored  this  south- 
western region  of  the  United  States,  that  when 
the  country  was  first  occupied  by  the  ancestors 
of  the  present  Pueblo  Indian,  the  physical  con- 
ditions  and  climate  were  more  favorable  for 
human  occupation  than  at  present;  a  fact  that 
has  its  significance,  for  the  antiquity  of  man 
in  America  is  one  that  has  been  long  disputed; 
at  least  an  antiquity  at  all  comparable  to 
that  of  man  in  Europe.  Wandering  along  our 
Atlantic  coast  and  laboriously  picking  from  the 

umulated  shells  that  have  almost  hardened 
into  rock,  trilling  potsherds  or  a  rude  arrow- 
point;  or  inland,  walking  over  a  newly-ploughed 
held,  we  gather  a  grooved  stone  axe.  a  celt, 
spear-head,  arrow-point,  skin-scraper  or  a  drill ; 
some  one  or  two  or  perhaps  all  of  these  in  the 
course  of  a  morning,  we  are  enabled  at  best  to 
picture  man  in  but  an  humble  way  and  think 
of  him  as  almost  one  with  the  wild  beasts  of  the 
forest  on  which  he  preyed  —  an  erroneous,  but 
common  impression- — then,  transplanted  quickly 
to  the  vast  southwest,  note  the  substantial  dwell- 
in:,'  and  skilful  products  in  many  lines,  it  is,  at 
first,  difficult  to  think  that  these  people  are 
hut  as  hranches  of  the  same  tree.  The  contrast 
is  impressive  ami  by  just  so  much  is  it  mis- 
leading. Step  by  step  the  gradations  may  be 
traced  and  when  familiar  with  the  handiwork 
of  early  man  everywhere  in  North  America,  the 
relationship  is  quite  apparent.  The  need  of 
foreign  influence  to  produce  the  differences,  im- 
pressed here  and  there  and  again  and  again, 
is   not   apparent. 

Mexico  and  Central  America  present  prob- 
lems that  are  not  yet  solved.  Here  we  are 
brought  face  to  face  with  what  may  be  dignified 
as  a  real  civilization,  and  so  far  as  its  genesis 
and  continuance  have  been  determined,  it  is 
essentially  a  thing  of  itself  and  points  to  no 
influences  other  than  those  that  the  country 
might  exert.  That  a  foreign  element  gained 
lodgment  here  and  through  intellectual  supe- 
riority gained  control  over  and  finally  absorbed 
a  pre-occupying  people  has  not  been  demonstrat- 
ed. So  far  as  we  now  know  of  it,  it  is  not  a 
civilization  beyond  the  reach  of  a  native  Amer- 
ican race.  All  that  is  in  it  that  resembles  the 
culture  in  other  continents  is  far  more  likely 
to  he  coincidence  than  a  transplantation.  That 
essentially  the  same  ideas  in  given  lines  may 
independently  arise  is  beyond  dispute.  So  much 
more  impressive  is  all  that  remains  of  ancient 
Mexican  centres  of  population  that  attention 
has  been  called  to  the  subject  for  more  than 
a  century  and  the  literature  of  the  subject  is 
enormous,  and  not  free  of  the  curse  of  undue 
hi  te  in  reaching  a  conclusion.  The  Aztec  has 
not  been  shown  to  be  other  than  an  American 
Indian,  but  one  advanced  beyond  the  "hunter 
stage"  and  so  with  a  fixed  habitation.  He 
dwelt  where  his  forefathers  had  lived  and  so 
a  more  rational,  that  is.  truthful  form  of  tra- 
dition was  preserved.    They  were  mechanics  and 


artists.      They    "made    useful     implements    and 

weapons  and  high-grade  ornaments  and  jewels 

i   seines,  obsidian,   and  metal    (copper,  tin, 

lead,   silver,  gold);   made   paper  and   dyi       md 

e    far   advanced    in    weaving,    embroidery   and 

feather-work."    (Hrdlicka.)      They    knew    well 

the  properties  of  clay  and    ramie  skill  was 

highly  developed.  With  these  accomplishments, 
it  is  not  to  lie  wondered  at,  that  they  were  also 
skilled  in  architecture  and  erected  not  dwellings 
merely,  but  temples  on  an  elaborate  scale  and 

carved  their  surfaces  in  most  intricate  manner. 
I  lie  advanced  artisan  is  always  an  aspirant  and 
not  satisfied,  as  he  might  will  he.  with  the  ac- 
quirements of  reasonable  creature  comfort;  in 
this  instance  of  the  Aztec,  be  devised  an  intri- 
cate form  of  government  and  formulated  a  re- 
ligion, polytheistic  and  including  "the  cull  of 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars;  hut  with  this  there- 
was  a  well-defined  belief  in  a  single  Supreme 
Deity."  (Hrdlicka.)  This  Aztecan  civilization 
was  not  alone  in  America.  The  Mayans  of  Yu- 
catan were  equally  advani  i  -1  a  architects,  as 
artisans,  and  with  society  established  on  an 
elaborate  and  intricate  hasis.  If  their  red 
have  been  read  aright,  they  reach  back  for 
some  seventy-five  or  more  centuries,  and  grant- 
ing this  as  approximating  the  truth,  and  claim- 
ing the  culture  existing  as  an  indigenous  growth. 
the  date  of  man's  appearance  on  the  continent  is 
carried  so  far  into  the  past  that  we  must  reckon 
by  centuries  and  not  by  years.  Pure-blooded 
Aztecs  still  survive,  but  the  glory  of  their 
culture  as  it  blossomed  in  pre-conquest  times, 
is  a  matter  of  history.  How  great,  how  far 
comparable  this  civilization  was  to  our  own  can 
be  judged  by  the  exhaustive  studies  of  Madam 
Zelia  Nuttall,  in  her  work.  'The  Fundamental 
Principles  of  Old  and  New  World  Civilizations' 
(Peabody  Museum  Memoirs  1901).  There  is 
nothing  suggestive  of  the  "Indian"  as  we  know 
him  in  all  these  pages.  .Astronomy,  mathemat 
ics,  and  abstruse  philosophical  disquisition  are 
dealt  with  and  we  find,  not  unnaturally,  that  in 
striving  to  compass  the  unknowable,  they  wen- 
led  to  the  most  extreme  cruelty  through  that 
anthropomorpnic  idea  of  Deity  which  universal- 
ly has  proved  a  curse  to  mankind.  The  conclu- 
sion reached  by  Mrs.  Nuttall  is  directly  the  op- 
posite of  what  has  been  held  in  this  article  as 
almost  if  not  quite  demonstrable;  the  home, 
origin,  and  growth  of  what  has  been  revealed 
by  archaeological  research.  She  writes:  "I  can 
but  think  that  the  material  I  have  collected  will 
also  lead  to  a  recognition  that  the  role  of  the 
I  uci-nicians.  as  interim  diarii  -  of  ancient  civiliza- 
tion, was  greater  than  has  been  supposed,  and 
that  it  is  imperative  that  future  research  be 
devoted  to  a  fresh  study  and  examination  of 
those  indications  which  appear  to  show  that 
America  must  have  been  intermittently  colo- 
nized by  the  intermediation  of  Mediterranean 
sea-farers." 

Southward,  when  the  adjoining  continent  is 
reached,  we  find  in  tin-  vast  plains,  forests,  and 
following  the  wonderful  rivers  of  that  region, 
savages  that  have  not  as  high  a  standing  as 
those  of  the  temperate  regions  of  North  Amer- 
ica. The  struggle  for  existence  has  been,  in 
the  tropics,  and  is,  too  keen  to  give  opportunity 
to  a  mental  growth  not  directly  concerned  with 
the  bodily  passions  and  demands.  Above  all 
else,  the  savage  must  eat,  and  if  the  food  supply 


ARCHEOLOGY 


is  to  be  had  without  effort,  the  result  is  bodily 
inactivity  and  mental  stultification.  If  the  food 
required  must  be  struggled  for,  then  the  body 
only  is  excited  to  vigor,  and  food  obtained,  the 
body  is  too  fatigued  to  follow  physical  exertion 
by  mental.  This  is  the  result  in  the  ex- 
tremes of  tropical  conditions  and  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  man  shows  to  more  advantage  as 
the  climate  becomes  more  temperate.  Mind  and 
body  seem  then  to  have  more  equal  chance  and 
the  same  unevenness  of  development  is  found 
among  South  American  Indians  that  originally 
obtained  in  North  America.  The  differences  are 
those  that  the  different  physical  features  of  the 
country  suggested.  As  Mexico  stands  to  the  coun- 
try north  of  it,  the  favored  spot  wherein  flowered 
and  fruited  the  native  civilization  of  that  conti- 
nent ;  so  in  Peru,  we  find  a  people  who  aban- 
doned the  more  primitive  features  of  a  nomadic 
life,  and  establishing  cities,  organized  govern- 
ment, society,  gave  such  attention  to  art,  agri- 
culture, and  skill  in  varied  handicraft,  that  they 
stood  apart,  finally,  from  the  other  peoples  of 
South  America.  Compared  with  the  advanced 
civilization  of  to-day  it  may  seem  crude  indeed, 
but  if  we  take  their  products  of  handicraft  sepa- 
rately into  consideration,  we  shall  find  that  they 
made  most  excellent  thread  and  dyed  it  so 
honestly,  that  to-day,  many  a  fabric  a  thousand 
or  more  years  old  has  not  lost  its  brilliancy  of 
color.  They  were  honest  workmen  as  well  as 
artists.  It  has  often  been  asked  would  this 
culture  in  the  interior  of  Peru  have  gone  on 
developing,  had  not  it  been  snuffed  out  by  a 
really  as  savage  but  more  powerful  a  people. 
It  cannot  be  determined,  but  as  civilization  is 
merely  evolution,  there  is  no  logical  reason  why 
the  potter  in  Peru  should  not  finally  have  vitri- 
fied and  glazed  his  wares,  and  the  metal  workers 
have  wrought  even  greater  wonders  with  the 
product  brought  to  them  by  miners  who  knew 
their  work.  Peruvian  products  in  pre-Colum- 
bian time,  never  found  a  foreign  market,  but  it 
is  rash  to  say  they  never  would  have  found  it, 
had  they  not  been  molested  and  their  career  de- 
stroyed for  all  time  by  the  infamous  invader. 

Whether  in  North,  Central,  or  South  Amer- 
ica, there  were  centres  where  things  higher  than 
mere  animal  wants  found  chance  to  flourish  and 
the  upward  growth  toward  rational  rather  than 
mere  physical  man  took  place,  and  all  about 
these  centres,  roamed  those  out-lying  people, 
who  were  not  degenerates,  but  the  as  yet  un- 
advanced  descendants  of  that  original  people  of 
the  early  stone  age  to  whom  it  fell  to  populate 
these  two  continents.  See  also  Mound  Build- 
ers. 

Bibliography. —  The  bibliography  of  Ameri- 
can archaeology  is  more  extensive  than  compre- 
hensive and  much  more  theoretical  than  prac- 
tical. The  'Smithsonian  Contributions  to 
Knowledge'  (Washington,  D.  C,  1847-1000) 
contain  many  important  monographs ;  also 
the  'Annual  Reports'  of  the  same  insti- 
tution. The  volumes  of  the  'Antiquarian 
Society  of  Worcester,'  Mass.,  of  the  now  non- 
existent American  Ethnological  Society,  also, 
are  valuable;  likewise  the  'Annual  Reports  of 
the  Regents  of  the  State  University,'  Albany, 
N.  Y.  The  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  Washington, 
D.  C,  has  issued  an  annual  volume  of  inesti- 
mable value  for  many  years  ;  and  the  publications 
of  the  Peabody  Museum  of  Archaeology,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  and  certain  of  the  bulletins  of  the 


American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New 
York,  are  authoritative  and  necessary  for  a  full 
understanding  of  the  subject.  The  separate 
works  that  have  been  published  are  of  less 
importance.  Those  prior  to  1850  are  purely  of 
a  speculative  character.  Of  later  date,  the 
works  of  Brinton  are  of  most  importance;  not- 
ably his  'American  Race'  ;  'Essays  of  an  Amer- 
icanist' ;  and  'Notes  on  the  Floridian  Peninsu- 
la.' Of  equal  importance  is  Bancroft's  'Native 
Races  of  the  Pacific  Coast.'  See  also,  Dellcn- 
baugh,  Moore,  Jones,  and  Mercer,  for  resume 
of  subject  covering  North  America,  Florida, 
the  Southern  States,  and  valley  of  the  Dela- 
ware River,  in  the  order  named. 

Mexico.—  Kingsborough  'Antiquities';  May- 
er 'Mexico  as  It  Was  and  Is'  ;  Humboldt  'Vues 
des  Cordilleres'  ;  and  the  publications  of  Zclia 
Nuttall  in  the  series  issued  by  Peabody  Museum, 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  notably  'The  Fundamental 
Principles  of  the  Old  and  New  World  Civiliza- 
tions.'    See  also  Stephens,  'Yucatan.' 

Peru. — Transactions  of  the  Ethnological  So- 
ciety of  London  ;  biennial  reports  of  Internation- 
al Congress  of  Americanistes ;  von  Tschudi 
'Peru.' 

Brazil. —  Bates  'Naturalist  on  River  Ama- 
zons' (1863)  ;  Agassiz  'Journey  in  Brazil' 
(1868);  Kidder  and  Fletcher  'Brazil  and  Bra- 
zilians'; R.  F.  Burton  'Explorations  in  High- 
lands of  Brazil    (1869). 

Patagonia. — Dobrizhoffer  'Abiponer'  (1822)  ; 
Muster's  'At  Home  With  the  Patagonians'  ; 
and  for  South  America  generally,  transactions 
of  learned  societies  in  Europe, —  German, 
French,  and   English. 

Charles  Conrad  Abbott,  M.D., 
Archaeologist. 

Archaeology,  Christian.  See  Christian  Ar- 
cheology. 

Archasopteryx,  ar'ke-op'te-riks,  an  extinct 
bird  exhibiting  many  reptilian  characters,  es- 
pecially in  having  jaws  provided  with  teeth  and 
a  long  tail  of  many  vertebne ;  and  it  constitutes 
a  link  between  birds  and  reptiles.  It  lived  dur- 
ing the  Jurassic  period,  and  is  by  far  the  most 
ancient  bird  known.  Its  distinctness  from  all 
other  birds  is  expressed  by  placing  it  by  itself 
in  a  separate  sub-class,  the  Archaeornithes  bird* 
are  the  rarest  of  fossils,  and  this  one  is  known 
only  from  two  skeletons  and  a  single  feather, 
all  preserved  in  the  lithographic  limestone  quar- 
ries of  Solenhofen,  Bavaria.  The  skeletons,  one 
in  the  British,  the  other  in  the  Berlin  Museum, 
are  wonderfully  well  preserved  in  the  fine 
smooth-grained  stone,  and  have  the  impressions 
of  the  feathers  in  their  natural  position.  They 
show  that  the  Archaeopteryx  had  short  wings 
with  primary  and  secondary  feathers  arranged 
much  as  in  modern  birds ;  but  the  bones  of  the 
wing  are  not  so  specialized  for  their  peculiar 
use  as  in  modern  birds;  the  metacarpal  bones 
are  separate,  and  the  digits  free  and  complete, 
each  with  a  claw  on  its  tip.  while  in  modern 
birds  the  first  and  third  digits  are  rudimentary 
and  the  metacarpals  fused  into  a  single  bone. 
The  long  tail  of  23  separate  vertebrae  has  the 
feathers  arranged  in  pairs  springing  from  the 
sides  of  each  vertebra  except  toward  the  tip ; 
in  modern  birds  the  tail-feathers  spring  from  a 
triangular  bony  plate  at  the  end  of  the   short 


ARCHANGEL  —  ARCHDALE 


rudimentary  tail.  (See  Birds.)  The  teeth  are 
like  those  of  many  lizards,  sharp,  conical,  each 
set  in  a  separate  socket,  and  there  is  no  horny 
bill  as  in  modern  birds. 

The  extinct  Dinosaurs  are  the  reptiles  which 
come  nearest  to  Archaeopteryx,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  they  are  descended  from  a  common 
stock,  the  ancestors  of  the  birds  becoming  arbo- 
real and  acquiring  rudimentary  wings  to  as-Nl 
them  in  leaping  from  tree  to  tree.  A  somewhat 
analogous  case  is  seen  in  the  fold  of  skin  and 
hair  which  the  modern  flying  squirrels  have 
developed  for  the  same  purpose;  if  further 
developed  and  specialized  this  would  enable 
them  to  accomplish  true  flight.  In  Archxop- 
teryx  the  wings  are  short  and  the  attachments 
for  the  breast  muscles  (those  chiefly  used  in 
flight)  are  small  in  comparison  with  those  of 
modern  birds,  so  that  the  creature  must  have 
had  very  limited  powers  in  this  direction. 

Archangel,  ark-an'jel,  a  seaport,  capital  of 
the  Russian  government  of  same  name,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  northern  Dwina,  about  20 
miles  above  its  mouth  in  the  White  Sea.  The 
port  is  closed  for  six  months  by  ice.  Arch- 
angel, founded  in  1584,  was  long  the  only  port 
which  Russia  possessed.  Pop.  21,930.  The 
province  contains  331,490  sq.  miles;  pop.  348,500. 

Arch'angel,  an  angel  of  superior  or  of  the 
highest  rank.  They  are  seven  in  number,  of 
which  Michael,  Gabriel,  and  Raphael  are  men- 
tioned in  Scripture. 

Archbald,  Pa.,  borough  in  Lackawanna 
County,  10  miles  northeast  of  Scranton,  on  the 
Delaware  &  Hudson  and  the  New  York,  On- 
tario &  Western  Railroads.  It  wa.,  first  settled 
by  Welsh  miners  in  1831  and  is  to-day  essen- 
tially a  mining  town.  It  has  5  churches,  6 
schools,  and  several  imposing  public  buildings. 
1  wo  silk  mills  give  employment  to  350  persons. 
Over  3,500  men  and  boys  are  employed  in  coal 
mining.     Population  (1890)  4,032;  (1900)  5,394. 

Archbishop,  arch'bish'up,  a  chief  bishop. 
The  attentive  reader  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, noting  that  nearly  the  whole  missionary 
energy  of  St.  Paul  was  expended  upon  the  cities 
and  chief  towns  rather  than  on  the  villages  and 
the  country  districts,  will  be  prepared  to  learn 
that  there  were  flourishing  churches  in  the  lead- 
ing centres  of  population,  while,  as  yet,  nearly 
all  other  parts  remained  pagan.  So  strong, 
however,  was  the  evangelistic  spirit  prevailing, 
that  a  number  of  younger  and  less  powerful 
congregations  were  called  into  being.  The 
pastors  of  these  new  churches  being  called 
bishops,  that  term  no  longer  appeared  a  dignified 
enough  appellation  for  the  spiritual  chief  of  the 
mother  church,  and,  about  a.d.  340,  the  Greek 
title  of  archicfiscopos  was  introduced 

An  archbishop  is  often  called  a  metropolitan. 
He  exercises  a  certain  supervision  over  the 
bishops  of  his  province,  who  are  called  his 
suffragans ;  convenes  and  presides  over  them  in 
provincial  councils,  receives  appeals  against 
their  decisions  in  matters  of  discipline,  and.  in 
the  event  of  the  death  of  one  of  them,  provides 
for  the  administration  of  the  dioceses.  In  the 
United  States,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  the 
only  one  which  has  dignitaries  of  this  rank,  and 
in  1900  the  entire  country  comprised  14  archdio- 


ceses, Baltimore,  as  the  first  established  see, 
having    the    dignity    of    prim 

In  England  the  early  British  churches  were, 

in  large  measure,  swept  away  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  invaders,  who  were  heathens,  and  the 
country  consequently  required  to  be  reconv.  rted. 
The  great  southern  centre  from  which  this  was 
done  was  Canterbury,  then  the  capital  of  Kent, 
where  King  Egbert  gave  Augustine,  the  chief 
mi  ionary,  a  settlement.  In  the  north,  York, 
the  chief  town  of  Northumbria,  where  King 
Edwin  built  a  shrine  for  Paulinus,  became  the 
great  focus  of  operation  for  that  part  of  Eng- 
land;  hence  the  two  archbishoprics  now  existing 
are  those  of  Canterbury  and  of  York.  Tin-  pre- 
late who  occupies  the  former  see  is  Primate  of 
all  England,  while  his  brother  of  York  is  only 
Primate  of  England,  the  superiority  of  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  long  contested  by  that  of  Y'ork.  hav- 
ing been  formally  settled  in  A.D.  1072.  The  for- 
mer is  the  first  in  dignity  after  the  princes  of  the 
blood  ;  the  latter  is  not  second,  but  third,  the  Lord 
Chancellor  taking  precedence  of  him  in  official 
rank.  In  Ireland  the  same  distinction  holds 
for  Armagh  and  Dublin,  When  the  Catholic 
hierarchy  was  established  in  England  in  1850 
Westminster  was  constituted  the  metropolitan 
see. 

Archdale,  arch-dal.  John,  American  colo 
nial  governor:  b.  Buckinghamshire,  England, 
probably  about  1635.  Ferdinando  Gorges,  the 
last  proprietor  of  Maine,  married  his  sister 
Mary  in  1660,  and  in  1664  sent  him  to  Maine-  to 
set  up  Gorges'  government  afresh  in  opposition 
to  Massachusetts,  under  whose  protection  the 
settlements  there  had  placed  themselves.  (See 
Gorces.  )  They  resisted  Archdale  so  fiercely 
that  the  next  year  he  sailed  for  home,  entirely 
baffled.  In  May  1681  he  acquired  a  dubious 
title  to  a  share  in  the  proprietorship  of  the 
Carohnas,  and  in  1682  the  proprietors  commis- 
sioned him  to  come  over  and  receive  their  rents 
from  "Albemarle"  (North  Carolina).  He  was 
there  by  1683,  with  the  intention  of  settling 
permanently  (as  his  daughter  did) — perhaps 
drawn  by  a  liking  for  the  Quakers  in  the  colony, 
he  having  been  converted  by  George  Fox.  A 
few  years  later,  however,  he  returned  to  Eng 
land,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  managers  of  the 
proprietary  affairs.  In  1688  he  appears  on  di 
positions  in  the  Gorges  matter,  private  claims 
being  still  unsettled;  but  there  is  no  evidence 
that  he  visited  Maine  again.  In  1694.  the  Caro- 
lina proprietors  needing  some  manager  on  the 
spot  he  was  induced  to  become  governor  of 
South  and  North  Carolina  by  the  title  of  "land- 
grave* and  the  attendant  barony  of  48,000 
acres;  but  it  was  not  till  17  Aug.  1605  that  iie 
assumed  the  government  at  Charleston,  and  he 
retained  it  but  a  year,  then  turning  it  over  to 
a  deputy  and  returning  to  England  again.  The 
complimentary  address  of  the  Assembly  on  his 
departure  has  been  taken  literally  as  a  proof  of 
influential  and  pregnant  statesmanship;  but  in 
fact  he  dissolved  his  first  Assembly  in  haste 
from  a  quarrel  over  abatement  of  quit-rents, 
compromised  with  the  second,  left  the  Hugue- 
nots unenfranchised  and  the  unsatisfactory  In- 
dian trade  as  it  was  and  made  no  strong  im- 
press. His  spirit  was  good,  however :  he  treated 
the  Indians  with  humanity  and  modified  some 
hard  restrictions  on  them,  drew  up  a  militia 
act    (into  which  the   Assembly  unanimously  re- 


ARCHDEACON  —  ARCHER 


fused  to  put  a  clause  exempting  the  Quakers), 
and  established  a  bureau  of  public  charities. 

He  is  also  credited  with  having  introduced 
rice  culture  into  the  Carolinas,  through  a  bag 
of  rice  which  a  merchant  vessel  brought  from 
Madagascar  and  he  distributed  among  his 
friends. 

In  1698,  elected  a  member  of  Parliament,  he 
refused  to  take  the  oath  but  only  to  affirm,  and 
was  not  permitted  to  take  his  seat.  In  1707 
appeared  (A  New  Description  of  that  Fertile 
and  Pleasant  Province  of  Carolina,'  by  him,  a 
vindication  of  his  administration,  of  little  value 
except    for    some   original    documents. 

Archdeacon,  rirch'de'kun,  an  ecclesiastical 
dignitary  next  in  rank  below  a  bishop,  who 
has  jurisdiction  either  over  a  part  of  or  over 
the  whole  diocese.  He  is  usually  appointed  by 
the  bishop,  under  whom  he  performs  various 
duties,  and  he  holds  a  court  which  decides 
cases  subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  bishop.  The 
dignity  is  still  maintained  in  the  Anglican,  but 
not  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  canons 
or  rural  deans  exercising  the  same  functions  as 
archdeacons. 

Archduke,  arch'duk',  a  duke  whose  author- 
ity and  power  is  superior  to  that  of  other 
dukes,  a  title  in  the  present  day  assumed 
only  by  the  princes  of  the  imperial  house  of 
Austria.  In  France,  in  the  reign  of  Dagobert, 
there  was  an  Archduke  of  Austrasia ;  and  at 
a  later  period,  the  provinces  of  Brabant  and 
Lorraine  were  termed  archduchies.  The  Dukes 
of  Austria  assumed  the  title  of  archduke  in 
1156;  but  the  dignity  was  not  confirmed  till 
1453- 

Archegosaurus,  ar'ke-go-so'riis,  a  fossil 
saurian  reptile,  found  in  1847,  in  large  concre- 
tionary modules  of  clay-ironstone,  from  the 
coal  field  of  Saarbriick.  Four  species  have  been 
described.  Prof.  Owen  makes  it  a  connecting 
link  between  the  reptile  and  the  fish,  and  on 
these  grounds:  it  is  related  to  the  salaman- 
droid-ganoid  fishes  by  the  conformity  of  pattern 
in  the  plates  of  the  external  cranial  skeleton, 
and  by  the  persistence  of  the  chorda  dorsalis, 
as  in  the  sturgeon,  while  it  is  allied  to  the 
reptiles  by  the  persistence  of  the  chorda  dorsalis, 
and  the  branchial  arches,  and  by  the  absence 
of  the  occipital  condyle  or  condyles,  as  in  Lepid- 
osiren,  and  by  the  presence  of  labyrinthic  teeth, 
as  in  Labyrinthodon,  which,  however,  also  ally 
it  to  the  ganoid  Lepidosteus.  See  Stegocelpha- 
lia. 

Archelaus,  ar'ke-la-us,  the  name  of  several 
personages  in  ancient  history,  of  whom  we  need 
mention  only  Archelaus  the  son  of  Herod  the 
Great.  This  prince  received  from  Augustus, 
with  the  title  of  Ethnarch,  the  sovereignty  of 
Judea,  Samaria,  and  Idumea.  His  reign  is  de- 
scribed as  most  tyrannical  and  bloody.  The 
people  at  length  accused  him  before  Augustus, 
who,  after  hearing  his  defense,  banished  him  in 
A.n.  10  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul,  where  he  died.  To 
avoid  the  fury  of  Archelaus.  Joseph  and  Mary, 
with  the  infant  Jesus,  retired  to  Nazareth. 

Archenholz,  lir'Hen-holts,  Johann  Wilhelm 
von,  a  German  historian:  b.  5  Sept.  1743;  d. 
28  Feb.  1812.  He  took  part  in  the  closing  cam- 
paigns of  the  Seven  Years'  war  and  retired  as 
captain.  1763:  traveled  extensively  in  Europe, 
lived   in   England   the   greater   part   of   1769-79, 


and  settled  in  Hamburg  in  1792.  His  book  on 
'England  and  Italy'  (1785),  extensively  trans- 
lated, obtained  a  phenomenal  success.  A  sequel 
to  it  was  'Annals  of  British  History'  (1789- 
98,  20  vols.).  His  'History  of  the  Seven  Years' 
War'  (1789;  augmented  1793,  13th  ed.  1892) 
is  still  the  most  popular  account  of  that  war. 

Arch'er,  Belle,  actress:  b.  Easton,  Pa., 
i860 ;  d.  1890.  Her  maiden  name  was  Arabella 
S.  Mingle;  married  Herbert  Archer,  1880,  and 
was  divorced  from  him,  1889.  She  made  her 
debut  in  Washington,  D.  C,  with  Win.  Florence 
in  'The  Mighty  Dollar,'  and  later  played  lead- 
ing parts  in  'Pinafore,'  'Hazel  Kirke,'  'Lord 
Chumley'  (1888),  and  Tennyson's  'Foresters.' 
For  a  time  she  was  leading  woman  with  Sol 
Smith  Russell. 

Arch'er,  Branch  T.,  Texan  revolutionist: 
b.  Virginia,  1790:  d.  Texas,  22  Sept.  1856.  He 
studied  medicine  in  Philadelphia,  practised  many 
years  in  Virginia,  and  was  repeatedly  a  member 
of  the  legislature.  In  1831  he  removed  to  Texas, 
and  was  one  of  the  leaders  in  preparing  for 
the  revolution  determined  upon  far  in  advance 
of  the  actual  crisis.  On  3  Nov.  1835  he  presided 
over  the  celebrated  ''consultation"  of  the  Amer- 
ican settlers  concerning  independence,  and  im- 
mediately after  was  one  of  three  commissioners 
—  the  others  being  Stephen  Austin  and  N.  H. 
Wharton  —  to  solicit  aid  from  the  United  States. 
Thje  next  year  he  became  speaker  of  the  House 
in  the  first  Texan  Congress ;  and  he  was  secre- 
tary of  war  for  Texas  1839-42,  when  bodily 
infirmity  compelled  him  to  retire  from  public 
life. 

Arch'er,  Frederic,  organist  and  musical 
director:  b.  Oxford,  England,  1838;  d.  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  1901.  Educated  at  Oxford,  London,  and 
Leipsic,  and  held  important  positions  as  organ- 
ist in  Oxford,  London  and  Glasgow,  1852-79. 
Organist  Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
1880-85;  conductor  Boston  Oratorio  Society, 
1887 ;  founded  Pittsburg  Symphony  Orchestra, 
1896 ;  organist  Church  of  the  Ascension,  Pitts- 
burg, 1899-1901.  He  gave  recitals  and  lectured 
on  musical  subjects  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Founded  and  edited  'The 
Keynote'    (1885). 

Arch'er,  John,  physician:  b.  Harford 
County,  Md.,  6  June  1741  ;  d.  there,  1810.  Grad- 
uated at  Princeton.  1760,  and  in  1768  received 
from  the  Philadelphia  Medical  College  the  first 
medical  diploma  issued  in  America.  He  raised 
and  commanded  a  military  company  during  the 
Revolution,  served  several  years  in  State  Legis- 
lature, was  a  presidential  elector  in  1801,  and 
member  of  Congress  1801-7.  He  made  several 
discoveries  in  medicine  which  have  been  adopt- 
ed by  the  profession. 

Arch'er,  Thomas,  an  English  novelist  and 
essayist.  His  works  deal  with  the  conditions  of 
the  working  classes  and  with  social  evils. 
Among  the  best  known  are:  'A  Fool's  Para- 
dise'    (1870);    'Profitable    Plants'     (1874). 

Arch'er,  William,  an  English  author  and 
critic:  b.  Perth,  Scotland,  23  Sept.  1856.  Edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  University :  became  barris- 
ter. Middle  Temple.  1883.  Went  to  London 
1S7X,  became  dramatic  critic  of  the  Figaro, 
1879-81,  and  London  World  since  1S84.  In 
1899  he  visited  the  United  States  to  study 
American  theatres.     He  has  edited  and  translat- 


ARCHER-FISH  —  ARCHIDAMUS 


ed  Ibsen's  'Prose  Dramas'  (5  vols.);  and  with 
his  brother  translated  Ibsen's  'Peer  Gynt.'  He 
has  written  'Life  of  Macready'  (1890);  'Eng- 
lish Dramatists  of  To-day'  (1882);  'The 
Theatrical  World'  (5  vols.  1893-97);  'Study 
and  Stage'  (1899);  '  America  To-day'  (1900); 
'Poets  of  the  Younger  Generation'  (1901)  ; 
•Masks  or  Faces:  a  Study  in  the  Psychology  of 
Acting.' 

Arch'er-fish,  a  fish  reputed  to  be  able  to 
shoot  drops  of  water  from  its  mouth  at  insects 
in  the  air  above,  thus  bringing  the  insects  down 
where  they  can  be  seized.  The  name  is  most 
frequently  applied  to  a  single  species,  Toxotcs 
jaculator,  a  fish  six  or  seven  inches  long,  a 
native  of  Java  and  the  neighboring  islands, 
which  represents  an  aberrant  group  of  chaeto- 
donts,  or  coral  fishes  (q.v.).  This,  however,  is 
an  error  of  identification,  the  true  fish  with  this 
habit  being  a  related  small  coral  fish   (  Chelmott 

tratus)  of  India.  This  genus  has  its  mouth 
nded  into  a  tube-like  snout,  forming  a  sort 
of  nozzle.  When  it  perceives  an  insect  perched 
on  a  plant  over  the  water,  it  swims  to  within 
a  distance  of  from  four  to  six  feet,  and  then 
with  surprising  dexterity  will  eject  a  single 
drop  of  water  with  so  true  an  aim  as  to  knock 
the  insect  into  the  water  where  it  is  instantly 
seized.  Captives  will  do  this  in  a  tank  or 
aquarium;  whereas  experiments  show  that  the 
Toxotes  never  does  such  a  thing  for  which  its 
mouth   is  entirely  unfitted. 

Arch'ery.  Ages  after  the  bow  and  arrow 
had  disappeared  in  general  use  from  Europe 
and  many  other  countries,  it  was  the  universal 
arm  both  for  war  and  sport  in  the  Americas, 
from  Patagonia  to  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  its  use 
lingered  on  the  borders  of  advancing  civilization 
till  within  the  memory  of  thousands  living.  It 
may  indeed  be  considered  the  most  characteris- 
tic American  weapon,  yet  the  practice  of  arch- 
cry  as  a  recreation  is  limited.  A  few  societies  of 
Toxopholites  exist  and  hold  monthly  meetings 
?nd  annual  contests.  The  principal  clubs  are 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Washington,  D.  C,  and 
of   Cincinnati. 

A  faithful  band,  too,  of  whom  the  late 
Maurice  Thompson,  the  author  of  'Alice  of  Old 
Vincennes,'  was  the  exponent,  have  continued 
into  this  _>oth  century  to  take  the  bow  and  arrow 
into  field  and  forest,  and  to  live  while  in  camp 
by  the  product  of  their  skill  in  its  use.  Several 
charming  pen  pictures  may  be  found  in  the 
pages  of  'Scribner's,'  'Harper's,'  'Outing,'  and 
the  'Badminton'  magazines,  relating  their  hunts 
after  turkeys,  herons,  wild  duck,  wood-duck, 
and  squirrels,  and  even  fish,  in  Florida,  Georgia, 
Illinois.  Indiana,  and  other  States.  For  practi- 
cal purposes,  however,  the  attention  may  be 
confined  to  archery  as  popularly  understood : 
that  is,  shooting  at  the  target  as  a  recreation 
and  to  acquire  skill.  This  form  of  its  use 
continued  long  after  gunpowder  had  become 
common  :  in  fact  the  first  book  of  instruction  in 
archery,  that  of  Roger  Ascham,  the  teacher 
of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  and  professor  of  Greek 
at  Cambridge,  'Toxophilius.  or  the  Schole  of 
Shooting,'  was  published  in  1571,  when  the  bow 
had  practically  become  obsolete  as  a  weapon  of 
offense.  The  bow  used  for  recreation  is  the 
long-bow  and  not  the  arbalest  or  cross-bow 
which  was  used  by  William  Tell.    That  style  of 


the    bow    was    never    popular    in    England.      As 

gunpowder  came  more  and   mon  in 

-port-.,  the  interest  in  the  bow  and  arrow  faded. 
About  the  year  1760  the  possibilities  of  archery 

as  a  builder  up  of  the  body  and  the  eyesight 
were  rediscovered,  and   from   thenceforward  it 

had  a  lusty  growth   and   lias  always   had   a  con- 

siderable  following  of  devotees  both  in  England 

and  America.  Bow-  .11  •■  made  either  of  0 
piece  of  wood,  or  two  or  more  strips  glued  to 
gether,  preferably  of  yew.  A  man's  how  is 
about  six  feet  in  length,  and  a  woman's  some 
half  a  foot  shorter.  A  man's  bow  requires  a  pull 
of  from  40  to  50  pounds,  a  woman's  about  half 
that  amount.  The  distance  shol  varies  with  the 
kind  of  contest:  a  Potomac  round  consists  of 
24  arrows  at  So  yards,  -'4  at  70  and  24  at  (o. 
A  double  Columbia  round  of  48  arrows  at  50 
yards,  and  48  at  40.  A  double  York  round  of 
144  arrows  at  100  yards,  96  at  80  and  48  at  60. 
A  double  National  round  of  06  arrows  at  60 
yards  and  48  at  50,  and  a  double  American 
round  of  60  arrows  at  60  yards,  60  at  50  and 
60  at  40.  The  arrow's  shape  and  feathering  is 
a  matter  of  personal  inclination.  The  target- 
are  four  feet  in  diameter,  made  of  banded  straw 
with  a  canvas  front  painted  in  five  concentric 
rings,  the  centre  gold,  then  red,  blue,  black  and 
white;  the  value  in  counting  shots  being,  re- 
spectively, 9,  7.  5.  3  and  I.  There  are  in  the 
National  meet  also  competitions  for  longest  flight 
and  annual  team  competitions  of  96  arrows  at 
60  yards  for  men  and  96  arrows  at  50  yards  for 
women. 

Arch'es  Court,  the  chief  and  most  ancient 
consistory  court,  belonging  to  the  Archbishop- 
ric of  Canterbury,  for  the  debating  of  spiritual 
causes.  It  i-.  named  from  the  church  in  Lon- 
don, St.  Mary  le  Bow.  or  Bow  Church  (so 
called  from  a  fine  arched  crypt),  where  it  was 
formerly  held. 

Archibald,  Sir  Adams  George,  Canadian 
statesman:  b.  Truro,  Nova  Scotia,  18  May  1814; 
d.  Halifax,  14  Dec.  1892.  He  was  secretary  of 
state  for  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  the  Northwest  Territories,  and 
.Manitoba,  later;  and  later  held  the  same  office 
in  Nova   Scotia.     He  was  knighted   in    1885. 

Archidamus,  ar'kl-da'mfis,  the  name  of 
several  kings  of  Sparta.  I.  The  son  of 
Anaxidamus,  who  lived  during  the  Tegeatan 
war.  which  broke  out  soon  after  the  termina- 
tion of  the  second  Messenian  war,  in  the  year 
668  B.C.  II.  The  son  of  Zeuxidamus,  and 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  the  year  469  B.C.  In 
the  fifth  year  of  his  reign  there  was  an  earth- 
quake in  Laconia  which  almost  destroyed 
Sparta.  In  that  trying  period  the  foresight  of 
Archidamus  probably  saved  the  surviving  citi- 
zens from  being  massacred  by  the  Helots.  In 
the  discussions  at  Sparta  and  Corinth,  which 
preceded  the  rupture  with  Athens,  he  acted  a 
prominent  part,  and  always  as  the  advocate  of 
peace  and  moderation.  He  survived  the  out- 
break of  the  Peloponnesian  war  about  five 
years,  during  which  time  he  had  the  conduct 
of  tliree  expeditions  against  Attica  and  one 
against  Platxa.  Archidamus  died  in  the  42d 
year  of  his  reign,  427  B.c.  III.  Son  of 
Agesilaus  II.  While  yet  a  boy  he  prevailed 
on  his  father  to  pardon  Sphodrias,  who  had 
dared    to   make   an    irruption    into    Attica   at   a 


ARCHIL  — ARCHIMEDES 


time  of  profound  peace.  In  371  B.C.  he  was  sent 
to  the  relief  of  his  countrymen  who  had  been 
vanquished  at  Leuctra.  In  367  B.C.  he  defeated 
the  Arcadians  and  Argives  in  what  the  Spar- 
tans termed  the  «scarless  battle,"  because  they 
had  won  it  without  the  loss  of  a  single  man. 
Archidamus  III.  appears  to  have  been  a  war- 
like prince,  but  he  was  neither  a  great  general 
nor  a  great  statesman,  and  makes  but  a  poor 
figure  in  either  capacity  after  such  kings  as  his 
father  and  grandfather.  IV.  Son  of  Euda- 
midas  I.  and  grandson  of  Archidamus  III.,  was 
king  of  Sparta  in  296  B.C.  V.  Son  of  Eudami- 
das  II.  Archidamus  V.  was  the  last  king  of  the 
Eurypontid  race  that  reigned  in  Sparta.  When 
he  was  killed  the  rights  of  his  children  were  dis- 
regarded and  his  crown  was  given  to  a  stranger. 

Archil,  ar'kil,  or  Orchil,  or'kil,  a  coloring 
matter  obtained  from  various  kinds  of  lichens, 
the  most  important  of  which  are  the  Roccella 
tmcturia  and  the  R.  fuciformis.  The  Lecanora 
tartarca,  or  cudbear,  is  another  of  the  same 
nature ;  orchella-weed  and  dyer's-moss  are 
common  names  for  them.  The  R.  tinctoria, 
or  archil  plant  proper,  is  abundant  in  the  Ca- 
naries and  Cape  Verde  Islands,  and  in  the 
Levant;  the  R.  fuciformis  also  grows  chiefly  in 
warm  climates,  as  the  coasts  of  Africa  (Angola) 
and  Madagascar.  The  lichens,  which  are  chief- 
ly collected  from  rocks  near  the  sea,  are  cleaned 
and  ground  into  a  pulp  with  water,  after  which 
some  ammoniacal  liquor  is  added,  when  the 
coloring  matter,  red,  violet,  or  purple,  is  evolved 
and  falls  to  the  bottom.  The  red  coloring  mat- 
ter of  Lecannra  tartarra  produces  litmus  when 
lime  or  an  alkali  is  added.  Archil  has  a  beauti- 
ful violet  color.  It  is  used  for  improving  the 
tints  of  other  dyes,  as  from  its  want  of  per- 
manence it  cannot  be  used  alone. 

Archilochus,  ar-kil'o-kus,  a  Greek  poet, 
classed  by  Cicero  with  Homer  and  Sophocles: 
b.  in  the  Island  of  Paros,  flourished  between  720 
and  660  B.C.  While  a  resident  of  Thasos,  he 
incurred  disgrace  by  throwing  away  his  shield 
in  a  battle.  He  was  the  inventor  of  iambics. 
His  terrible  invective  is  said  to  have  caused 
several  suicides.  A  hymn  to  Hercules  was  the 
most  esteemed  of  his  poems,  and  used  to  be 
sung  three  times  in  honor  of  the  victors  at  the 
games. 

Archimandrite,  ar'ki-man'drlt,  in  the 
Greek  Church,  an  abbot  or  abbot-general,  who 
has  the  superintendence  of  many  abbots  and 
convents. 

Archimedes,  ar'ki-me'dez,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  among  the  ancient  physicists  and  ge- 
ometricians ;  b.  at  Syracuse,  about  287  B.C. 
Though,  according  to  some  accounts,  a  relation 
and  certainly  a  friend  of  King  Hiero,  he  ap- 
pears to  have  borne  no  public  office,  but  to  have 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  science.  We  can- 
not fully  estimate  his  services  to  mathematics 
for  want  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  previous 
state  of  science;  still  we  know  that  he  enriched 
it  with  discoveries  of  the  highest  importance, 
upon  which  the  moderns  have  founded  their 
admeasurements  of  curvilinear  surfaces  and  sol- 
ids. Euclid,  in  his  Elements,  considers  only 
the  relation  of  some  of  these  magnitudes  to  each 
other,  but  does  not  compare  them  with  surfaces 
and  solids  bounded  by  straight  lines.  Archi- 
medes has  developed  the  propositions  necessary 


for  effecting  this  comparison  in  his  treatises 
on  the  sphere  and  cylinder,  the  spheroid  and 
conoid,  and  in  his  work  on  the  measure  of  the 
circle.  He  rose  to  still  more  abstruse  consid- 
erations in  his  treatise  on  the  spiral,  which,  how- 
ever, even  those  acquainted  with  the  subject  can 
with  difficulty  comprehend.  Archimedes  is  the 
only  one  among  the  ancients  who  has  left  us 
anything  satisfactory  on  the  theory  of  mechan- 
ics, and  on  hydrostatics.  He  first  taught  the 
principle  "that  a  body  immersed  in  a  fluid  loses 
as  much  in  weight  as  the  weight  of  an  equal 
volume  of  the  fluid,  and  determined,  by  means 
of  it,  that  an  artist  had  fraudulently  added  too 
much  alloy  to  a  crown  which  King  Hiero  had 
ordered  to  be  made  of  pure  gold.  He  discov- 
ered the  solution  of  this  problem  while  bathing ; 
and  it  is  said  to  have  caused  him  so  much  joy, 
that  he  hastened  home  from  the  bath  un- 
dressed, and  crying  out,  Eureka!  Eureka!  "I 
have  found  it ;  I  have  found  it !"  Practical  me- 
chanics, also,  received  a  great  deal  of  attention 
from  Archimedes.  He  is  the  inventor  of  the 
compound  pulley,  probably  of  the  endless  screw, 
etc.  During  the  siege  of  Syracuse  he  devoted 
all  his  talents  to  the  defense  of  his  native  coun- 
try. Polybius,  Livy,  and  Plutarch  speak  in  de- 
tail with  admiration,  and  probably  with  exag- 
geration, of  the  machines  with  which  he  repelled 
the  attacks  of  the  Romans.  They  make  no 
mention  of  his  having  set  on  fire  the  enemy's 
fleet  by  burning-glasses, —  a  thing  which  is  in 
itself  very  improbable,  and  related  only  in  the 
later  writings  of  Galen  and  Lucian.  At  the 
moment  when  the  Romans,  under  Marcellus, 
gained  possession  of  the  city  by  assault,  tra- 
dition relates  that  Archimedes  was  sitting  in  the 
market-place  absorbed  in  thought,  and  contem- 
plating some  figures  which  he  had  drawn  in 
the  sand.  To  a  Roman  soldier  who  addressed 
him,  he  is  related  to  have  cried  out,  «Disturb  not 
my  circle!"  but  the  rough  warrior  little  heeded 
his  request,  and  struck  him  down.  The  con- 
quest of  Syracuse  is  placed  in  the  year  212  B.C. 
On  his  tombstone  was  placed  a  cylinder,  with  a 
sphere  inscribed  in  it,  thereby  to  immortalize 
his  discovery  of  their  mutual  relation,  on  which 
he  set  particular  value  Cicero,  who  was  ap- 
pointed quaestor  over  Sicily,  found  this  monu- 
ment in  a  thicket  which  concealed  it.  Of  the 
works  of  Archimedes  there  are  extant  a  treatise 
on  'Equiponderants  and  Centres  of  Gravity.* 
in  which  the  theory  of  the  lever  and  other  me- 
chanical problems  are  treated;  on  the  'Quadra- 
ture of  the  Parabola'  ;  on  the  'Sphere  and 
Cylinder5  ;  on  the  'Dimensions  of  the  Circle'  : 
on  'Spirals'  ;  on  'Conoids  and  Spheroids'  ;  the 
'Arenarius,'  a  speculative  treatise  intended  to 
refute  the  popular  notion  that  the  number  of 
grains  of  sand  on  the  seashore  is  infinite  by 
showing  that  a  definite  number  might  be  as- 
signed to  a  quantity  of  grains  sufficient  to  fill 
the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars,  remarkable  as 
containing  an  anticipation  of  the  modern  dis- 
covery of  logarithms;  on  'Floating  Bodies':  a 
treatise  called  'Lemmata,'  of  doubtful  authen- 
ticity, on  plane  geometry.  A  very  complete  and 
splendid  edition  of  the  works  of  Archimedes 
issued  from  the  'Clarendon  Press,'  at  Oxford, 
in  1792.  Other  editions  appeared  in  1S81,  and 
1897. 

Archimedes,  Principle  of.     See  Archimedes. 


ARCHIMEDES'  SCREW—    ARCHITECTURE 


Ar'chime'des'  Screw,  a  machine  invented 
by  Vrchimedes  while  studying  in  Egypt.  Ob 
serving  the  difficulty  of  raising  water  from  the 
Nile  he  is  said  to  have  designed  this  screw  as 
a  means  of  overcoming  the  obstacle.  It  con 
sists  of  a  pipe  twisted  in  a  spiral  form  around 
a  cylinder,  which,  when  at  work,  is  supported 
in  an  inclined  position.  The  lower  end  of  the 
pipe  is  immersed  in  water,  and  when  the  cylin- 
der is  made  to  revolve  "ii  us  own  axis,  the 
water  is  raised  In  mi  Iiend  t<>  bend  in  the  .spiral 
pipe  until  it  Sows  out  at  the  top.  The  Achi- 
median  screw  is  still  used  in  Holland  for  rais- 
ing water,  and  draining  low  grounds.  The 
Dutch  water-screws  are  mostly  of  large  size, 
and  are  moved  by  the  wind,  one  windmill  fur- 
nishing sufficient  motive  power  to  keep  several 
screws  going  at  once. 

Archipelago,  ar'ki-pel'a-go,  a  term  origi- 
nally applied  to  the  .tga-an,  the  sea  lying  be- 
tween Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  then  to  the  nu- 
merous islands  situated  therein,  and  latterly  to 
any  cluster  of  islands.  In  the  Grecian  Archi- 
pelago the  islands  nearest  the  European  coast 
lie  together  almost  in  a  circle,  and  for  this  rea- 
son  are  called  the  Cyclades  ((jr.  kyklos,  a  cir- 
cle) ;  those  nearest  the  Asiatic,  being  farther 
from  one  another,  the  Sporades  ("scattered"). 
(See  these  articles,  and  Cyprus;  Negropont; 
Rhodes;  Samos;  SciO,  etc.)  The  Malay,  In- 
dian, or  Eastern  Archipelago,  on  the  east  of 
Asia,  includes  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  other 
large  islands.     See   Malay   ARCHIPELAGO. 

Architecture,  skilful,  or  at  least  careful, 
building;  and  it  is  in  this  sense  that  we  speak 
of  military  architecture,  naval  architecture 
(qq.V.),  and  the  like.  In  a  general  sense,  build- 
ing which  has  been  made  interesting  by  artistic 
consideration,  the  proportions  of  the  structure 
having  been  considered,  its  details  treated  in  a 
deliberate  way,  ornamentation  applied  whenever 
practicable,  and  the  whole  structure  imbued  with 
the  artistical  spirit.  Of  course  architecture  in 
this  sense  cannot  exist  without  civilization,  and 
the  beginnings  of  civilization  are  commonly 
marked  by  an  artistic  treatment  of  buildings, 
such  as  huts  for  residence  and  larger  cabins  for 
the  meeting  of  a  tribe  or  its  chief  men.  Build- 
ings dedicated  to  religious  purposes  always  ap- 
pear early  in  the  advance  toward  higher  civiliza- 
tion: and  it  is  mainly  in  temples  and  churches 
that  architectural  development  appears,  in  any 
age.  In  this  article  it  is  intended  to  describe  and 
analyze  the  architecture  which  has  given  rise  to 
European  styles,  and  those  European  styles 
themselves,  from  the  commencement  of  history 
until  the  close  of  the  19th  century.  For  the 
architecture  of  the  Far  East  such  as  India,  Far- 
ther India,  China,  and  Japan,  and  for  the  prim- 
itive architecture  of  America,  see  separate  head- 
ings. 

The  most  primitive  races  using  architecture 
of  wdiich  we  have  any  knowledge,  are  those 
of  the  Pacific  islands  in  our  own  time.  In  New 
Zealand  especially  the  large  huts  have  much 
decorative  woodwork  combined  in  an  intelligent 
way  to  produce  a  general  effect.  Again  in  the 
islands  of  Micronesia  the  larger  residences  and 
the  buildings  of  the  community  are  designed  ac- 
cording to  a  very  strict  and  semi-religious  tradi- 
tion. 

Mow  this  same  kind  of  tradition,  more  or 
less  closely  united  with  the  pious  beliefs  of  the 


people  and  with  the  teachings  of  their  priest- 
hood, is  found  to  have  existed  in  Egypt  at  a 
time    not    exactly    prehistoric,   because    \. 

gradually  approaching  to  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  dates,  but  of  an  epoch  not  as  yet  exactly 
fixed  —  an  epoch  at  least  5,000  years  n.C.  From 
that  time  on  for  many  centuries  the  plan  of  a 
palace,  or  of  a  temple,  or  of  one  of  those  great 
buildings  in  which  palace  and  temple  seem  to 
have  been  united,  was  a  thing  almost  absoluti  ly 
fixed  in  advance;  and  moreover  the  external 
ordonnance,  the  succession  of  pylons,  the  colon- 
naded porches,  would  be  unchanged  except  as 
to  minor  considerations.  One  temple  would 
have  colossal  statues  backed  up  by  the  piers  of 
the  facade;  another  would  have  a  row  of  col- 
umns with  enriched  capitals  and  sculptured 
drums:  all  these  changes  would  find  their  ex- 
planation in  the  changing  fashion  of  the  time; 
but  the  general  disposition  of  the  covered  build- 
ings alternating  with  open  courts  and  cul- 
minating in  a  shrine  accessible  only  to  the  few, 
would  be  unchanged.  The  origin  of  the  forms 
ol  i  gyptian  architecture  is  undoubtedly  to  be 
found  in  the  building  with  a  light  skeleton  of 
reeds  daubed  with  mud,  but  this  structure  left 
only  its  superficial  appearance  to  the  stone  tem- 
ples which  were  to  succeed  it.  In  actual  building 
no  race  was  ever  more  thoroughly  skilled  in 
quarrying,  cutting,  transporting,  and  combining 
blocks  of  limestone,  and  more  rarely  of  harder 
rocks.  These  materials  they  used  chiefly  to 
provide  themselves  with  broad  surfaces  —  some- 
times flat,  as  of  a  sloping  wall,  sometimes 
rounded,  in  an  approximately  cylindrical  way, 
as  in  a  huge  column  ;  and  these  surfaces  they 
enriched  by  sculpture  in  low  relief  and  especially 
in  that  coelanaglyphic  relief  in  which  the  back- 
ground is  not  cleared  away?;  and  these  reliefs 
they  painted  richly  in  brilliant  colors.  At  a 
later  time  and  especially  for  interiors  the  paint- 
ing was  done  upon  smooth  walls  and  ceilings, 
and  a  whole  school  of  flat  pattern  designing  was 
developed,  equal  in  effectiveness  to  any  deco- 
rative painting  of  more  recent  times. 

The  culmination  of  Egyptian  architectural 
art  is  to  be  found  at  a  very  early  date.  Many 
persons  will  think  that  it  never  again  attained 
the  dignified  splendor  of  that  which  dates  from 
the  25th  century  B.C.  One  thing  at  least,  is  cer- 
tain—  technical  perfection  has  never,  in  any 
land,  surpassed  that  with  which  huge  blocks  of 
granite,  squared  and  polished  and  inscribed 
with  complicated  patterns,  were  used  in  buildings 
of  that  time.  Still  the  17th  and  18th  dynasties, 
wdiich  are  now  dated  1610  to  1320  B.C.  (Flinders 
Pctrie),  will  seem  to  most  students  the  time  of 
the  greatest  Egyptian  architecture,  for  it  was 
then  that  the  great  buildings  at  ancient  Thebes 
were  built,  including  temples  and  palaces,  where 
now  stand  the  modern  villages  of  Karnak  and 
Luxor,  on  the  right  bank,  and,  on  the  left  bank, 
Dahr-el-Medinah  and  Medinet-Habu,  with  all 
the  remains  of  the  great  necropolis.  All  of  the 
buildings  here  named  or  included  by  implication 
were  really  for  residence  or  ceremonial,  except- 
ing the  tombs,  the  interiors  of  which  are  of 
surprising  beauty  of  decoration.  The  famous 
Pyramids,  whether  the  great  ones  of  Gizeh, 
which  are  the  oldest,  or  the  much  smaller  ones 
of  later  times,  are  not  architecture  in  the 
nesthetic  sense  except  as  they  are  carefully 
wrought,  the  slopes  of  their  sides  accurately  de- 


HATHORIC  COLUMN,  TEMPLE  OF  DINDERA 

( Restored! 


ARCHITECTURE 


termined,  their  placing  by  the  points  of  the  com- 
pass very  precise,  and  the  whole  structure  in- 
vested with  a  quasi-religious  character.  Artistic 
design  is  hardly  to  be  assigned  to  them ;  indeed 
the  great  pyramids  are  nothing  but  cairns,  that  is 
to  say,  heaps  of  stone  within  which  a  couple  of 
chambers  have  been  carefully  laid  out ;  technical 
excellence  is  never  at  fault,  and  some  astronom- 
ical knowledge  is  evident  in  the  placing  and 
shaping  of  the  structure,  but  this  does  not  con- 
stitute artistical   building. 

The  architecture  which  was  contemporary 
with  this  in  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  is  hardly 
known  to  us  as  yet ;  the  results  of  it  are  trace- 
able in  the  buildings  of  Nineveh,  dated  the  8th 
and  7th  centuries  B.C.,  but  even  this  has  per- 
ished so  generally  that  there  has  been  much 
dispute  as  to  the  manner  of  roofing  the  palace 
halls.  The  decision  of  recent  archaeologists 
is  that  these  halls,  long  and  narrow,  and  enclosed 
by  walls  of  unburned  bricks  but  of  enormous 
thickness,  were  roofed  with  wagon  vaults,  also 
of  unburned  brick,  curious  devices  being  em- 
ployed to  let  in  the  breeze  sweeping  over  the 
low,  flat  land  bordering  the  Tigris,  while  ex- 
cluding the  burning  sun.  The  decoration  of 
these  buildings  must  have  been  largely  by  means 
of  sculpture,  flat  slabs  of  alabaster  which 
lined  the  walls  being  exquisitely  carved  in  low 
relief  with  subjects  of  war  and  hunting,  or  of 
the  king  doing  worship  to  his  gods.  Much  more 
massive  sculptures  were  carved  in  great  blocks 
of  limestone  for  the  gate-posts,  such  as  the 
huge  winged  lions  and  winged  human-headed 
bulls  of  which  specimens  have  been  brought  to 
the  Louvre  and  to  the  British  Museum.  The 
characteristic  of  these  palaces  was  their  position 
upon  the  flat  tops  of  the  somewhat  broad  artifi- 
cial terraces  paved  at  a  height  of  25  or  30  feet 
above  the  country  around,  from  which  pavement 
arose  the  principal  rooms  of  the  residential  build- 
ings and  the  more  tapering  mass  of  the  great 
temple.  These  temples  were  apt  to  be  built  with 
steps,  but  were  otherwise  pyramidal  in  form. 
They  never  reached  a  height  approaching  that 
of  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  nor  were  they  of 
anything  like  the  same  solidity  of  structure,  be- 
ing generally  built  of  unbaked  clay  in  cast 
blocks,  such  as  we  call  crude  bricks,  and  faced 
with  burned  bricks.  Such  a  structure  crumbles 
into  mud  or  dust  when  neglected,  and  the  huge 
mounds  along  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris 
which  have  been  opened  and  within  which  the 
treasures  of  Babylon  and  Nineveh  have  been 
found,  are  made  up  of  this  debris. 

The  architecture  of  ancient  Persia  dates  from 
about  500  B.C.,  as  far  as  our  knowledge  goes. 
From  this  time  on  until  the  conquest  by  Alex- 
ander, 334  B.C.,  that  ancient  Persian  art  which 
we  call  Persepolitan  from  the  famous  ruins  at 
the  site  of  ancient  Persepolis  controlled  all  that 
inland  country  of  Asia  which  lies  immediately 
east  and  north  of  Mesopotamia.  It  was  an 
architecture  of  terraced  palaces  and  halls  of 
many  columns,  but  the  terraces  and  platforms 
rot  being  needed  in  a  hilly  country,  were  much 
lower,  evidently  serving  merely  for  splendor, 
as  the  European  palace  is  often  raised  upon  an 
architectural  basement.  The  chief  value  of  this 
art  to  European  students  is  in  the  beginning  of 
that  wonderful  system  of  decoration  by  means  of 
colored  patterns,  both  flat  and  in  slight  relief,  in 
which    for    two    thousand    years    the    Persians 


were  the  masters  of  the  world,  teaching  the 
races  of  Asia  as  well  as  of  Europe  what  pat- 
tern-making and  the  application  of  brilliant  col- 
ors to  a  fiat  surface  might  produce. 

Contemporary  with  the  latest  Assyrian  work 
were  the  beginnings  of  Grecian  architecture,  and 
contemporary  with  Persian  work  as  above  al- 
luded to,  came  the  culminating  period  of  Greece. 
There  had  been  at  a  previous  time  the  strange 
Mykensean  art  which  cannot  be  dated  with  any 
accuracy,  and  which  is  far  more  Asiatic  than 
Greek,  and  which  as  we  now  know,  was  more 
fully  developed  in  Crete  and  perhaps  in  Cyprus 
than  in  the  mainland  of  Greece.  Of  this  art  we 
have  little  in  the  way  of  permanent  buildings. 
But  with  the  year  600  B.C.  the  beginnings  of  the 
Doric  style  appear,  the  quarries  of  marble  and 
of  softer  stone  are  worked  in  an  intelligent 
way  and  the  round  column  with  the  square 
abacus  is  used  to  form  colonnades.  The  tem- 
ple of  those  early  days  was  that  which  it  con- 
tinued to  be  till  the  fall  of  all  Grecian  civilization 
came  at  the  close  of  the  classical  epoch.  It  was 
a  shut-up  room  without  windows,  divided,  when  . 
very  large,  with  columns  in  two  rows,  and  per- 
haps lighted  from  above  either  by  sky-lights  or 
by  some  system  resembling  that  of  the  mediaeval 
clearstory,  but  of  this  we  have  no  knowledge. 
The  great  eastern  and  western  doorways  were 
the  only  means  of  admitting  daylight  to  which 
we  can  certainly  point.  Only  a  few  temples  had 
a  colonnade  on  every  side  as  had  the  Parthenon, 
the  so-called  Temple  of  Theseus  at  Athens  and 
other  buildings  in  Greece  and  in  the  colonies. 
By  far  the  greater  number  had  a  portico  at  one 
end,  the  east,  or  one  at  each  end ;  the  wall  of  the 
enclosed  chamber  or  naos  (called  cella  by  the 
Romans)  showing  at  the  northern  and  southern 
sides  between  the  porticoes  at  the  ends.  Of 
other  buildings  than  temples  we  know-  only  porti- 
coes, roofed,  but  open  on  at  least  one  side. 
Otherwise  we  have  no  knowledge  of  Grecian 
buildings.  Gate- way  buildings  (propylaia)  were 
roofed  in  part  but  served  merely  as  passageways: 
when  enclosed  rooms  were  attached  to  them, 
these  are  ruined,  and  we  know  nothing  of  their 
ordonnance.  There  w-as  also  the  meeting  hall 
at  Eleusis  with  many  columns  supporting  the 
roof,  but  what  its  interior  disposition  was  we 
do  not  know  at  all.  So  with  dwellings,  some 
little  is  known  of  the  plan  of  a  Grecian  house, 
but  no  one  has  ever  a  reasonable  theory  as  to 
its  architectural  treatment. 

The  reason  why  Grecian  architecture  has 
obtained  such  a  prodigious  hold  upon  the  im- 
agination of  Europe  is  the  control  which  its 
beauty  and  refinement,  when  in  their  full  glory, 
exercised  over  the  intelligence  of  the  great  Ro- 
man Empire.  From  200  B.C.  at  least  until  350 
A.D.,  all  the  world  which  was  destined  to  become 
European  in  feeling  and  much  that  has  not  re- 
tained that  European  character,  was  largely  con- 
trolled by  the  great  influence  spreading  from 
the  city  on  the  Tiber ;  and  this  influence,  so  far 
as  it  was  artistical.  was  derived  in  its  turn  from 
the  cities  of  Greece.  It  was  the  mission  of  the 
Roman  Empire  to  spread  and  perpetuate  Hellen- 
ism, and  it  is  to  that  combination  of  influences 
that  the  tradition  and  the  learning  of  Europe 
are  what  they  are  in  contradistinction  to  that  of 
India,  China,  and  the  other  ancient  lands  of 
Asia.  The  peculiar  charm  of  Greek  art  was  in 
its   extreme   subtlety  of  proportion,   and   in  the 


ARCHITECTURE 


grace  and  refinement  of  its  details;  but  in  gain- 
ing these  advantages  it  lost  variety,  movement 
and  life,  and  deliberately  shut  itseli  off  from 
much  that  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  modern 
world.     Thus  no  man  can  build  a  w  in 

the  Greek  style  because  he  is  absolutely  ig- 
norant of  what  a  Greek  would  have  done  with  a 
large  hall,  or  with  a  group  of  five  or  a  dozen 
small  rooms  and  passages.  He  does  not  know 
how  a  Greek  would  have  made  a  window;  he 
has  no  knowledge  at  all  of  how  a  Greek  would 
have  put  one  story  upon  another;  in  other 
words,  Grecian  architecture  remains  for  us  as  an 
astonishing  piece  of  perfection  of  limited  range 
and  small  adaptability. 

The  artists  and  the  engineers  of  the  great 
Roman  Empire  inherited  the  Etruscan  notion 
of  building  with  the  round  arch  built  of  vous- 
soirs  or  wedge-shaped  slabs  —  a  thing  never 
used  by  the  Greeks  in  architecture.  The  Ro- 
man commonwealth  at  its  commencement  was  as 
much  Etruscan  as  Latin,  and  this  use  of  the 
t,  together  with  the  free  employment  of 
glazed  and  painted  earthenware  for  the  interiors 
of  buildings  was  perhaps  common  to  both  races, 
but  was  certainly  familiar  to  the  people  of 
Etruria.  Helbig  points  out  that  the  boast  of 
Augustus  of  "having  found  Rome  a  city  of  brick 
and  leaving  it  marble"  had  a  more  exact  signifi- 
cance than  appears  on  the  surface,  for  the  Rome 
of  the  days  of  Julius,  the  Rome  which  Oc- 
tavianus  must  have  seen  as  a  child,  was  really  a 
city  of  brick  houses  with  terra  cotta  ornaments. 
But  tin-  Greek  invasion  had  begun  earlier  than 
the  days  of  Julius,  and  be  himself  was  destined 
to  be  the  great  introducer  of  the  refined  columnar 
architecture  of  Greece  into  his  native  city.  Au- 
gustus and  the  following  emperors  and  their  ad- 
mirers and  followers  within  and  without  the 
Imperial  City  took  up  this  mode  of  building 
with  the  long  rows  of  marble  columns,  and 
from  London  and  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  east- 
ward to  the  sands  of  the  Arabian  Desert,  the 
common  style  of  beautifully  ordered  pillars  car- 
rying roofs  light  in  proportion  to  the  substruc- 
ture made  the  cities  splendid.  The  cities  of  the 
East  were  particularly  famous  for  their  colon- 
naded streets,  and  those  of  Palmyra,  Gerasa  and 
Antioch  were  unsurpassed  except  in  the  Im- 
perial City  itself. 

The  Romans  developed  also  a  totally  non- 
Greek  system  of  building  with  small  stones  laid 
in  quantities  of  rather  liquid  mortar,  making  of 
this  masonry  very  heavy  walls,  which  were 
faced  and  rendered  smooth  by  brickwork  of 
thin,  hard-baked  tiles,  laid  also  in  mortar. 
These  halls  and  passages  they  vaulted  in  the 
same  materials,  and  made  them  solid  and  im- 
movable. They  desired,  of  course,  to  combine 
their  great  porticoes  with  their  vaulted  interi- 
ors, and  great  ingenuity  is  shown  in  reaching 
an  approximate  success  in  this  matter.  See 
Roman*  Imperial  Architect  ire. 

These  two  traditions  struggled  together  in 
the  work  of  small  communities,  the  impoverished 
states  which  grew  up  over  the  ruins  of  the  Em- 
pire. Christian  churches  had  to  be  built  in  the 
East  as  in  the  West.  It  is  curious  to  note  that 
the  West  took  up  the  colonnaded  style  and  built 
what  we  call  basilica  churches,  that  is,  buildings 
whose  plan  is  a  long  parallelogram  divided  by 
rows  of  columns  lengthwise  through  it ;  while  in 
the  East  the  vault  generally  prevailed,  and  gave 


birth  to  what  we  call  Byzantine  architecture. 
The  fact  of  tins  Eastern  preference  for  the  vault- 
ed   system   point-,    to    what   has   been    thought    the 

probable  origin  of  tin    Roman  vaulting,  namely, 

in  Alexandria  and  other  cities  of  the  Macedo- 
nian Empire,  as  divided  into  the  kingdoms  oi  the 
Diadochi.  the  successors  of  Alexander  tin  I 
No  traces  of  it  have,  however,  been  identified. 
Round  and  polygonal  churches  were  not  un- 
known in  the  West.  Basilica  churches  also  ex- 
isted  in  the  East,  but  very  few,  and  of  very 
early  times,  the  5th  and  6th  centuries;  but  the 
Byzantine  style,  based  entirely  upon  vaulting  of 
great  boldness,  but  lighter  and  far  less  enduring 
in  appearance  than  the  Roman  work,  wa 
tincd  to  be,  from  that  time  on,  the  characti 
of  Christian  architecture  of  the  Levant  and  also 
to  be  the  inspiring  thought  at  the  bottom  of  the 
architecture  of  the  Mohammedan  conquerors, 
The  first  perfectly  realized  Byzantine  building  is 
also  the  greatest  —  the  Church  of  Saint  Sofia  in 
Constantinople  was  finished  between  5.SJ  and 537 
A.D.,  but  partly  rebuilt  in  563.  It  may  well  lie 
thought  the  most  beautiful  of  churches,  but  in 
saying  this  one  has  in  mind  the  interior  only. 
All  church  building,  even  the  latest  and  richest 
Gothic,  has  the  exterior  for  its  chief  splendor. 
It  is  only  true  that  the  exterior  is  more  entirely 
disregarded  by  the  Byzantines  and  apparently 
no  thought  whatever  given  to  the  effect  of 
the  external  shell.  The  style  invented  in  this 
way  at  a  single  effort  (a  result  not  known  to 
have  been  achieved  anywhere  else  in  the  his- 
tory of  art)  has  prevailed  ever  since  over  all  the 
lands  from  the  Red  Sea  northward  and  even  over 
all  the  plains  of  Russia,  if  we  are  considering 
church  architecture  alone.  The  more  recent 
buildings  of  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  The  Cau- 
casus, Moldavia.  Greece  and  Russia  to  the  Bal- 
tic, may  be  without  direct  reference  to  Byzantine 
systems  of  design  so  long  as  they  are  merely  low 
walled  residences,  or  if  larger  and  built  of  tim- 
ber; but  the  church  is  everywhere  Byzantine. 
The  boundary  between  this  and  the  Romanesque 
art  of  western  Europe  runs  along  the  eastern 
frontier  of  Dalmatia  and  then  eastward  some- 
where near  the  Danube;  for  Hungary  is  gen- 
erally western  in  its  church  architecture,  while 
the  Balkan  Peninsula  is  Byzantine. 

The  Romanesque  of  western  Europe  is  a 
style  almost  wdiolly  based  upon  church  building 
and  characterized  by  an  effort  to  be  as  Roman 
as  possible  under  changing  conditions.  From 
the  first  the  struggle  to  vault  every  nave  and 
aisle  and  sanctuary  in  the  classical  Roman  way 
is  obvious,  but  also  it  is  obvious  that  the  small 
means  and  the  poor  skill  of  the  people  held  them 
back  all  the  time.  Under  these  conditions  there 
grew  up  in  Italy  a  Latin  style,  partly  the  result 
of  copying  classical  basilicas  and  partly  of  copy- 
ing the  interiors  of  great  Roman  houses  which 
had  often  been  the  refuge  of  a  poor  and  timid 
congregation  of  Christians.  This  style  is  best 
known  also  from  the  churches  of  Ravenna  and 
the  oldest  churches  of  Rome.  There  was  also  a 
Lombard  style  in  the  north  of  Italy,  partly  the 
result  of  the  invasion  of  barbarians,  partly  of 
Byzantine  invasions  coming  from  the  East. 
Again  there  grew  up  slowly  the  beautiful  Pisan 
style  of  central  Italy :  and  all  these  styles  may 
he  included  in  the  general  term   Romanesque. 

In  the  north  of  Europe  nothing  earlier  than 
the  oth  century  is  accurately  known  to  us,  and 
even  of  that  epoch  the  buildings  which  we  know 


ARCHITECTURE— I. 


ffi= 

E 

&J 

ARCHITECTURE.-II. 


2=SSfc. 


-  ~^  ^%m$&&&^&&r 


t'RA,    E 


■■ 


THE     FART:: 


ARCHITECTURE 


are  few  in  number  and  often  greatly  rebuilt. 
Sucb  a  building  is  the  church  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  Rhenish  Prussia,  the  cathedral  built  by  Char- 
lemagne himself,  but  it  has  been  altered  out  of 
recognition.  There  is  a  conventual  church  at 
Hechingen,  near  Stuttgart,  and  at  Quedlinburg 
in  Prussian  Saxony,  and  these  churches  are 
marked  by  a  beautiful  system  of  quasi-classical 
sculpture  with  scroll-work  and  elaborate  mold- 
ings, and  by  a  system  of  vaulting  with  groined 
vaults  very  effective  but  not  allowing  of  very 
great  variety  of  structure.  The  vaults  are  low 
and  narrow,  and  even  under  these  conditions  the 
history  of  every  great  church  is  a  record  of 
constant  accidents  befalling  the  vault.  The 
noble  cathedral  of  Speyer,  the  capital  of  Rhenish 
Bavaria,  and  the  church  at  Gernrode  belong  to  a 
later  period,  namely,  the  12th  century,  and  of  the 
same  time  or  a  very  little  later  are  the  church 
of  St.  Godehard  and  the  church  of  St.  Mi- 
chael at  Hildesheim,  the  Cathedral  of  Mainz 
(Mayence),  of  Braunschweig  (Brunswick),  and 
the  Cathedral  at  Worms.  These  great  churches 
have  held  their  own,  unchanged  in  important 
details,  since  the  time  of  their  first  building,  and 
but  for  these  and  a  few  more  we  should  not 
know  how  interesting  and  on  the  whole  efficient 
a  style  the  northern  Romanesque  could  be.  On 
the  other  hand  the  churches  of  middle  France 
are  more  rich  in  sculpture.  Nothing  can  exceed 
the  splendor  and,  in  a  limited  sense,  the  beauty 
of  such  fronts  as  the  Cathedral  at  Angouleme, 
and  Notre  Dame  la  Grande  at  Poitiers.  The 
Cathedral  at  Le  Puy  has  also  much  beautiful 
sculpture,  but  is  especially  famous  for  its  sur- 
prisingly picturesque  situation  and  design,  and 
its  very  beautiful  polychromatic  exterior.  The 
Church  of  La  Madeleine  at  Vezelay,  and  that 
of  Notre  Dame  du  Port  at  Clermont,  are  great 
steps  in  the  development  of  the  Romanesque 
churches  leading  to  the  Gothic  style :  and  in  the 
far  south  the  churches  at  Aries,  Saint  Gilles,  and 
Saint  Saturnin  at  Toulouse,  are  examples  of  a 
rich  and  brilliant  Romanesque  quite  different 
in  character  from  anything  in  the  north  of 
France,  or  in  Germany.  France  has  also  a  great 
number  of  domed  churches  partaking  strongly  of 
the  Byzantine  character. 

There  is  beautiful  Romanesque  also  in  Eng- 
land, where  the  nave  of  Peterboro  and_  that  of 
Winchester  are  splendid  examples ;  and  in  Spain 
some  of  the  richest  churches  in  Europe  are  of 
this  style. 

The  far  North  —  Denmark  and  the  Scandi- 
navian Peninsula  —  have  also  beautiful  Ro- 
manesque, as  in  the  Cathedral  of  Lund  in 
Sweden ;  but  the  characteristic  architecture  of 
Norway  is  a  style  depending  upon  wood  for  its 
structure  and  upon  elaborate  carving  for  its  dec- 
oration. 

The  above  considerations  bring  us  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  12th  century  and  at  this  point  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  consider  the  works  of  the 
Mohammedan  nations,  who  were  following  in 
the  main  the  Byzantine  style.  Some  of  the 
earliest  of  these  Mohammedan  churches  have  a 
disputed  date;  thus  the  famous  Mosque  of  Omar 
in  Jerusalem  has  always  been  a  point  of  dispute, 
some  historians  putting  its  structure  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  8th  century.  It  is  known 
that  the  early  mosques  at  Cairo,  such  as  that 
of  Ibn  Tulun  were  built  in  the  9th  century. 
The  architecture  of  a  later  time  is  more  splendid 
if  less  massive  and  constructional.    The  Moslem 


architecture  spread  east  and  west  in  the  trail 
of  the  conquering  armies,  and  there  is  a  Moham- 
medan style  in  India  of  extraordinary  splendor, 
its  chief  epoch  being  between  1180  and  1600  a.d. 
(See  India,  Architecture  of.)  The  conquest 
of  northern  Africa  and  of  nearly  all  the  Spanish 
Peninsula  gave  rise  to  what  we  call  the  Moorish 
style,  never  equal  in  dignity  or  beauty  to  the 
architecture  of  Cairo  and  Damascus,  but  en- 
riched with  elaborate  but  fantastic  carving,  and 
also  plaster  work  modeled  and  stamped,  and  all 
richly  painted.  The  most  celebrated  buildings 
of  this  style  are  the  Mosque  of  Cordova  and  the 
Palace  of  the  Alhambra  on  the  hill  near  Grenada. 
The  tendency  of  the  Eastern  mind  is  seen  in  rich 
chromatic  decorations,  not  only  in  paintings  but 
also  in  rich  enameled  tiles  with  which  large  sur- 
faces of  wall  are  adorned,  and  also  at  least  in 
the  wealthier  cities,  with  exquisite  inlays  of  col- 
ored marble. 

In  the  middle  of  the  12th  century,  the  peo- 
ples of  what  we  now  call  France,  western  Ger- 
many, England,  and  Belgium  were  building  skil- 
fully and  intelligently  in  their  Romanesque  style, 
but  were  still  much  harassed  by  the  difficulty  of 
the  round  arched  vault.  This  difficulty  was  pe- 
culiarly great  when  it  became  necessary  to  carry 
a  deambulatory  like  an  aisle  around  a  semicir- 
cular apse.  All  the  ingenuity  of  the  builders 
was  put  into  this,  and  without  perfect  satisfac- 
tion to  them.  There  was  then  taken  up  a  device 
which  seems  simple  and  rather  obvious,  the  de- 
vice of  springing  a  narrow  arch  of  very  solid 
material  from  one  pier  or  column  or  corbel  to 
another,  and  building  as  many  such  arches  as 
the  space  to  be  filled  made  necessary  —  then  fill- 
ing up  the  resulting  spaces  with  light  vaulting 
which  rested  upon  these  cut-stone  arches.  To 
take  the  simplest  case,  if  a  parallelogram  of  000 
square  feet  were  to  be  filled,  it  would  take  a 
fairly  good  builder  to  make  a  groined  vault 
stand ;  but  any  beginner  could  build  four  nar- 
row arches  on  the  four  outlines  of  the  square 
and  two  other  arches  diagonally  dividing  it  into 
four  panels,  each  of  about  200  square  feet.  Any- 
body could  fill  one  of  these  with  a  thin  shell  of 
vaulting:  and  it  is  out  of  this  simple  device 
that  there  grew  the  great  Gothic  architecture. 
The  diagonal  arches  met  in  the  middle  at  a  kind 
of  boss.  We  may  then  consider  those  diagonals 
as  consisting  of  four  half  arches  meeting  in  the 
middle.  Looked  at  in  that  way,  irregular  spaces 
could  be  vaulted  without  trouble  and  the  plan 
of  the  church  might  be  as  elaborate  and  compli- 
cated as  bishop  or  master  builder  might  desire. 

Constructional  Gothic  architecture  is  merely 
Romanesque  with  this  rib-vaulting  and  the  re- 
sulting lightness  and  freedom  added ;  but  deco- 
ratively  there  came  into  it  a  great  enlargement 
and  enrichment  of  the  Romanesque  sculpture. 
The  carvers  grew  wonderfully  more  learned  in 
their  knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  of  the  human 
figure  in  movement  and  in  repose,  and  they 
learned  to  cast  drapery  in  the  most  effective 
way,  so  that  the  culminating  sculpture  of  the 
13th  century  may  rank  with  the  architectural 
sculpture  of  Greece  in  beauty.  Representing 
this  perfection  of  the  style  we  have  the  Cathe- 
drals of  Reims,  Bourges,  Amiens,  the  north  and 
south  flank  of  Chartres  (for  the  west  end  is 
partly  of  earlier,  partly  of  later  epochs)  and  a 
vast  number  of  smaller  churches  and  fragments 
of  churches;  thus  one  of  the  finest  apses  in  the 
world  is  that  of  Le  Mans.     The  Gothic  style  is 


ARCHITECTURE 


French  in  its  origin  and  development,  but  the 
ili  took  u  over  at  a  very  early  date  and 
built  the  lovely  cathedrals  of  Salisbury  and  Lin- 
coln and  the  still  earlier  east  end  of  Canterbury. 

In  fact,  English  Gothic  is  of  the  most  fascinating 
character,  though  without  the  vastness  and  dig- 
nity of  the  French  and  without  it?  logical  perfec- 
tion. There  is  splendid  Gothic  architecture  in 
Spain  very  closely  copied  from  the  French,  and 
in  Germany  the  succeeding  French  styles  are 
ontinually  reproduced  with  modifications  —  the 
Germans  very  properly  clinging  to  their  noble 
Romanesque  and  only  in  part  accepting  Gothic 
achievement. 

The  early  development  of  Gothic  architecture 
was  checked  by  the  civil  wars  in  what  is  now 
France  —  the  quarrels  between  great  nobles  and 
the  invasion  of  the  English  kings,  Edward  III. 
and  Henry  IV.  claiming  the  crown  of  France. 
In  this  way  the  century  from  1345  to  1453  was  a 
time  of  almost  continual  disorder,  and  but  little 
architectural  change  took  place  during  that  time. 
What  little  was  built  in  the  14th  century  is  of 
,  .iieme  interest,  such  as  the  Church  of  Saint 
Ouen  at  Rouen  in  Normandy,  marking  the  very 
culmination  of  formal  and  regulated  Gothic.  In 
England,  too,  the  Gothic  style  worked  out  its 
own  evolution  with  singular  results.  The  re- 
markable nave  of  Lincoln  Cathedral  and  that  of 
Litchfield  were  built  with  vaulting  a  little  artifi- 
cial in  that  many  more  ribs  were  put  in  than 
were  needed,  and  this  led  immediately  to  what 
we  know  as  fan  tracery,  which  marks  the  close 
of  the  14th  and  the  first  half  of  the  15th  cen- 
tury. The  most  splendid  specimens  of  this  are 
of  the  15th  century,  but  its  earlier  examples, 
such  as  the  cloisters  of  Gloucester  Cathedral, 
are  contemporary  with  the  English  perpendicular 
Gothic  and  belong  to  the  last  few  years  of  the 
14th  century.  Gothic  art  was  also  introduced 
into  Italy ;  but  it  had  no  complete  mastery  there. 
Its  nature  was  hardly  understood  by  the  Ital- 
ians, but  beautiful  and  highly  decorative 
churches  and  city  houses  resulted  from  their 
work  with  it. 

With  the  close  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War 
there  appeared  all  over  northern  Europe  the 
style  which  we  call  Florid  or  Flamboyant  archi- 
tecture,  but  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  glory  of 
this  style  is  almost  exactly  contemporary'  with 
the  rise  of  the  classical  Renaissance  in  Italy. 
From  1453  till  1525  the  Florid  Gothic  was  in  the 
main  undisturbed  in  France,  and  a  similar  style 
prevailed  almost  undisturbed  in  Germany,  Flan- 
ders, the  Low  Countries  and  England ;  but  all 
this  time  the  buildings  of  Italy  were  without  ex- 
ception built  in  what  was  intended  to  be  the 
classical  Roman  style  of  architecture.  This 
period,  which  should  be  called  by  the  Italian 
name,  the  Risorgimcnto,  is  therefore  to  be 
studied  by  itself  in  Italy,  and  the  style  of  the 
Risorgimcnto,  beautiful  in  itself  and  full  of  in- 
terest, has  this  further  hold  on  our  notice  that 
it  was  destined  to  prevail  over  all  local  styles 
and  to  turn  the  people  of  Europe  toward  the  imi- 
tation of  Greco-Roman  art.  The  classical  style 
of  Italy  has,  of  course,  the  fault  of  being  a 
deliberate  re-study  of  a  style  long  before  for- 
gotten and  abandoned  —  that  is  to  say,  it  did 
not  grow  naturally  from  the  study  by  each  mas- 
ter builder  of  the  buildings  of  his  predecessors 
and  contemporaries  —  it  was  studied  deliberately 
because  it  was  felt  that  the  remains  of  the  great 


civilized   empire   of    Rome   must   be   better   than 

iin    work  of  the  comparatively  disorganized  and 

cattered    peoples    of    mediaeval    Europe,     ["his 

fault   disappeared,   however,  after  the  first    few 
years  of  hard  and  persistent  work,  by  so _  many 
artists  all   working  together;  and  yet  it  is  ccr 
t:iin    that     ill    architecture    there    was    less    of    i 
success  achieved  than  in  other  forms  of  decora- 
tion,  ami    in    painting   and    sculpture   conducted 
with  the  purpose  of  recording  expression.     What 
we  call   the   Renaissance   architecture  of   Europe 
was  not  destined  to  develop  any  new     :■   tern  0.1 
building  nor  any  system  of  sculptured  or  paint)  1 
decoration  except  as   it  offered  room   for  1 
ful  separate  works  of  art  to  be  put  into  pi; 
its    walls    and    in    its    niches.     The    Italian    in- 
fluence reached  tile  North  early  in  the  Kith  cen- 
tury and  by  1525  it   wis  established  in  France. 

The  important  buildings  of  this  neo-classic 
style  were  in  Italy  very  largely  ecclesiastical. 
There  had  not  been  during  the  13th  century  such 

a  wonderful  building  of  churches  in  Italy  as  in 
the  North,  and  so  when  the  new  style  came  in 
there  was  room  for  more.  Of  the  early  date  are 
such  churches  as  Saint  Zaccaria  and  Saint  1'an- 
tino  in  Venice,  the  church  at  Montepulciano  and 
the  similar  one  at  Cortona  on  the  hillside,  and 
the  church  of  Saint  Andrea  at  Mantua.  There 
were  also  a  number  of  city  residences  of  the 
nobles,  buildings  which  we  call  palazzi,  and  ome 
of  these,  such  as  the  Palazzo  Rucellai,  the  Pa- 
lazzo Riccardi,  the  Palazzo  Strozzi,  and  the 
Palazzo  Pitti  in  Florence,  with  some  of  the  most 
exquisite  private  '  houses  in  the  world  on  the 
canals  of  Venice  vie  with  the  most  impor- 
tant churches  of  the  period.  Again  in  the  [6th 
century  the  architecture,  though  less  varied  and 
natural,  seeming  also  comparatively  cold  and 
bard,  as  if  the  delight  in  it  had  gone  out  of  its 
creators,  is  full  of  excellent  examples  for  all 
students.  In  the  North  great  country  mansions 
were  the  first  to  receive  and  show  the  Italian 
influence,  and  very  splendid  buildings  of  this 
sort  were  built  in  France  during  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.  and  Henry  II.;  while  in  England  dur- 
ing the  contemporaneous  reigns,  the  curious 
Tudor  and  the  still  more  interesting  Eliza- 
bethan style  were  not  showing  marked  Ital- 
ian influence  and  yet  were  evidently  not  sim- 
ply the  development  from  the  latest  English 
Gothic.  It  is  curious,  however,  that  the  use  of 
Gothic  details  and  even  of  Gothic  building  lasted 
in  England  far  into  the  17th  century,  though  it 
was  then  not  very  general. 

By  1650  all  marked  separation  of  style  be- 
tween the  countries  of  western  Europe  had  dis- 
appearcd.  All  the  peoples  were  building 
alike  in  the  modified  Roman  style,  with 
classical  columns  or  studies  made  from  them, 
and  with  complete  abandonment  of  all  medi- 
,-eval  forms.  The  great  influence  over  taste 
of  the  brilliant  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  the 
building  of  Marly  and  Versailles,  had  _  a 
-till  greater  influence  over  the  capital  cities 
and  royal  palaces  of  Europe,  for  every  sovereign 
prince  (and  there  were  hundreds  of  them  at  this 
period)  felt  himself  obliged  to  try  to  build  a 
little  Versailles  for  himself.  In  this  way  the 
universality  of  the  later  neo-classic  was  estab- 
lished; and  this  prevailed  continuously  down  to 
the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution.  It  is 
not  meant  that  there  were  no  changes  nor  that 
there  was  a  lack  of  intelligence  and  thought,  for 
there   were   architects   of  real   merit  and   there 


ARCHITECTURE— II!. 


I 


AF.CH  OF   TITUS,  ROMK. 


.  I  C  P.  AT  F  S 


R iMINi 


■ 


ARCHITECTURE 


were  modifications  of  style  so  decided  that  there 
is  no  difficulty  in  dating  a  good  piece  of  archi- 
tecture; but  the  curious  fact  that  this  univer- 
sally prevalent  architecture  observed  two  rules 
and  not  one,  gave  it  in  all  its  forms  a  marked 
characteristic.  In  every  other  strong  and 
prevailing  style  that  the  world  has  known, 
tradition  and  the  handing  on  of  rules  from 
master  to  pupil  was  the  one  cause  of  uniformity 
and  the  one  route  of  change ;  but  now  for  the 
first  time  there  was  a  body  of  ancient  learning 
and  often  of  misinformation  about  the  Greco- 
Roman  past  to  which  every  one  referred  as  to 
an  authority  greater  than  that  even  of  his  mas- 
ter and  of  his  contemporaries. 

Since  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  in 
1815  there  has  been  throughout  Europe  and  in 
the  lands  settled  by  Europeans  an  architectural 
situation  altogether  unique  in  history.  There 
has  been  no  universal  and  no  generally  preva- 
lent style  except  that  the  later  neo-classic  in  one 
form  or  another  has  been  continually  in  use. 
Every  other  imaginable  attempt  has  been  made ; 
and  there  have  been  earnest  and  resolute  studies 
in  Romanesque,  Gothic,  Mohammedan  and  even 
Byzantine  art,  and  experiments  have  been  made 
in  Egyptian,  Persian  and  other  far  removed 
styles.  The  early  Renaissance,  too,  both  that 
of  Italy  which  we  called  above  that  of  the 
Risorgimento,  and  the  Renaissance  proper  of 
France;  and  the  English  Elizabethan  and  Ja- 
cobean, and  the  spirited  and  picturesque  German 
Renaissance  of  the  16th  century,  all  have  been 
tried.  Modern  architects  have  not  merely 
sought  inspiration  in  the  buildings  and  in  draw- 
ings and  photographs  of  the  buildings,  but  they 
have  tried  to  copy  them  either  complete  or  in 
great  part,  large  details  and  small,  and  it  is 
largely  true  that  the  19th  century  was  so  poor  a 
time  for  decoration  because  all  the  designers  had 
their  portfolios  full  of  examples  of  old  work 
finer  than  anything  they  could  produce.  They 
were  trained  to  copy  and  adapt,  and  in  this  way 
prevented  from  trying  to  design  in  a  natural 
way.  In  Bavaria  the  traveled  and  studious 
prince  who  was  afterward  King  Ludwig  I.  (de- 
throned 1848)  built  a  whole  series  of  palaces 
and  official  buildings  in  the  capital  city,  Munich, 
and  in  its  neighborhood,  trying  in  turn  to  repro- 
duce Byzantine,  German  Gothic,  Florentine 
Renaissance,  Greco-Roman  and  Greek  as  nearly 
as  he  dared.  These  buildings  are  permanent 
and  solid  structures,  and  a  serious  attempt  was 
made  to  build  up  in  this  way  a  museum  of  archi- 
tectural art,  a  thing  absolutely  inconceivable  to 
a  sovereign  in  the  days  of  living  architecture. 
There  has  been  a  German  classical  school,  of 
which  the  chief  centre  was  Berlin,  and  there 
have  been  several  picturesque  or  semi-Gothic 
schools,  but  none  of  them  permanently  success- 
ful. During  the  last  20  years  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury two  influences  were  seen  side  by  side,  the 
one  a  determined  effort  to  revive  the  latest  neo- 
classic  —  the  Barock  of  the  German  iSth  cen- 
tury ;  and  the  other  a  very  realistic  study  of  the 
requirements  of  the  building  and  of  natural  form 
for  its  ornamentation.  In  this  last  mentioned 
style  very  beautiful  effects  have  been  produced 
by  means  of  stucco  relief  combined  with  the 
stuccoed  brick  front  of  the  large  city  houses 
and  public  buildings,  and  also  great  boldness  in 
the  way  of  wrought-iron  work  used  as  an  impor- 
tant part  of  the  facade.    In  Belgium,  especially 


in  Antwerp,  this  use  of  wrought  iron  is 
very  noticeable  and  effective.  In  England 
the  Gothic  revival  which  began  as  early 
as  1845  had  largely  a  religious  foundation, 
and  in  part  a  mistaken  national  feeling 
behind  it ;  but  in  the  main  it  was  a  protest 
against  what  was  thought  the  artificial  style  de- 
rived from  the  teachings  of  Palladio  and  his 
latest  imitator,  Sir  William  Chambers,  and  a  de- 
sire to  return  to  a  constructional  art.  It  failed 
of  success  because  at  no  time  did  it  command 
the  adhesion  of  more  than  a  certain  large  frac- 
tion of  the  whole  number  of  architects,  and 
also  because  its  advocates  themselves  did  not 
agree  as  to  the  style  which  they  were  to  de- 
velop. Great  freedom  was  shown  in  adapting 
motives  from  different  countries  and  different 
epochs.  Thus  the  Italian  Gothic,  with  a  free 
use  of  color  in  external  and  internal  design, 
was  followed  with  great  energy,  sometimes  in 
the  way  of  close  copying,  sometimes  in  the  way 
of  bold  adaptation.  This  resulted  in  admirable 
single  buildings,  but  it  added  to  the  confusion 
of  aim  and  purpose  and  prevented  the  building 
up  of  a  consistent  school  of  design. 

This  curious  architecture,  with  pointed 
arches,  colored  material  used  in  stripes  and  pat- 
terns, shafts  of  polished  marble  or  granite,  and 
architectural  sculpture  of  very  naturalistic  qual- 
ity, has  been  called  the  Victorian  style,  or 
Victorian  Gothic.  One  of  its  earliest  examples, 
was  the  London  church  in  Margaret  Street, 
Cavendish  Square.  But  the  masterpieces  of  the 
Gothic  revival  are  such  buildings  as  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Truro  in  Wales,  and  that  of  Adelaide 
in  South  Australia,  which  are  really  Gothic 
buildings  though  built  in  a  modern  way  to  meet 
modern  requirements.  In  France  the  tradition  of 
the  reigns  before  the  revolution  and  of  the  brief 
empire  of  Napoleon  were  so  strong  and  were 
represented  by  so  many  highly  trained  architects, 
sculptors,  decorative  painters,  wood-carvers,  and 
stone-cutters  that  no  serious  attempt  was  ever 
made  to  change  the  style  of  the  whole  country. 
Individual  architects  and  archaeologists  preached 
the  glory  of  the  French  mediaeval  tradition  and 
occasionally  a  great  convent  would  build  its 
church  in  a  really  vigorous  and  well-understood 
Gothic  manner,  but  in  general  the  style  of  the 
epoch  was  developed  according  to  the  teachings 
of  the  central  school  in  Paris,  so  that  while  the 
long  rows  of  handsome  dwelling  houses  and  the 
stately  Prefectures  and  Mairies  of  France  were 
built  in  what  might  be  called  an  orthodox 
French  neo-classic  style,  the  exceptional  build- 
ings are,  in  a  curious  way,  harmonious  with  the 
general  result.  Thus  the  famous  building  on 
the  Trocadero  Hill  has  largely  a  Byzantine 
character,  and  yet  does  not  strike  one  as  wholly 
out  of  keeping  with  the  neo-clnssic  house-fronts 
near.  The  great  Hotel  de  Ville  of  Paris,  built 
after  the  destruction  of  the  former  one  in 
1871,  is  of  French  Renaissance,  or  rather  of 
its  modifications  under  Henry  IV.,  hut  carried 
out  consistently;  and  yet  this  building  also 
harmonizes  well  with  what  is  near.  It  is  only 
now  and  then,  in  a  great  columned  building  like 
the  theatre  at  Bordeaux,  and  the  Bourse  (Stock 
Exchange)  in  Paris,  that  there  seems  to  be  a 
wholly  different  style  employed,  for  Gothic  build- 
ings are  so  very  unusual  in  the  cities  that  they  do 
not  count  at  all  upon  the  modern  aspect  of  the 
town.     Much  of  this  tendency  in  France  is  due 


ARCHITECTURE 


to  the  learned  character  of  the  criticism  there, 
much  less  sentimental,  much  l<  wayed  by 
general  theories  of  what  is  right  and  wrong, 
far  more  traditional  and  kept  in  place  by  the 
social  unity  which  marks  French  thought.  As 
regards  the  rest  of  Europe,  the  same  tenden- 
cies are  visible  which  n  more  plainly 
in  the  I'nitcd  State-;,  to  which  we  must  devote 
the   remainder   of   our   space. 

Russell  Sturgis,  F.A.I.A., 
Author  of  'Dictionary  of  Architecture.'' 

Architecture.  American. — The  establishment 
on  a  firm  basis  of  the  present  national  gov- 
ernment at  Washington  is  nearly  contempo- 
raneous with  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, and  before  many  years  had  elapsed 
the  Federal  buildings  in  Washington  attracted 
the  attention  of  historians.  Congress  met  in 
Washington  in  Nov.  1800.  as  if  with  ex- 
pressed determination  to  be  in  session  there 
when  the  new  century  should  begin.  At 
that  time,  though  the  capital  city  had  been 
for  10  years  decided  on  and  its  exact  loca- 
tion determined,  the  only  buildings  which  the 
Federal  government  found  ready  for  its  use 
were  a  part  of  one  wing  of  the  Capitol  and  as 
yet  incomplete  buildings  for  the  Treasury  De- 
partment and  War  Department.  The  White 
House  was  not  yet  ready  for  its  proposed  use 
as  a  residence.  Nor  did  these  buildings  make 
very  good  progress,  and  when  they  were  burned 
bv  the  British  army  in  1813  but  little  loss  was 
suffered. 

After  the  war  with  Great  Britain,  the  Capi- 
tol was  rebuilt  rapidly,  and  completed  in  its 
original  form,  as  many  men  now  living  remem- 
ber it,  with  a  low  central  dome  over  wdiat  were 
then  the  wings  occupied  by  the  Senate  and  the 
1  louse  of  Representatives.  The  White  House 
also  was  finished  in  its  present  form,  though  the 
completion  of  the  portico  lingered  for  a  time. 
The  "Octagon  House,"  now  occupied  by  the 
American  Institute  of  Architects,  is  reputed  to 
have  been  used  by  the  President  during  the 
building  of  the  White  House;  the  building  is 
not  octagonal,  however,  but  of  an  ingenious  and 
unusual  plan  well  calculated  to  provide  an 
agreeable  residence. 

Otherwise,  throughout  the  United  States 
there  was  but  little  change  or  development  in 
the  line  of  architectural  art.  The  Georgian 
epoch  of  design  had  passed,  except  in  the  con- 
struction of  dwelling  houses.  A  Greek  taste 
prevailed,  and  an  ambition  to  produce  Grecian 
architecture  was  uppermost  in  the  minds  of  all 
who  undertook  public  buildings.  The  lyceums 
or  town  halls  throughout  the  country,  the  city 
halls  and  court  houses,  and  State  houses  or 
capitols,  were  generally  designed  with  colon- 
nades. Of  this  nature  is  the  principal  build- 
ing of  the  college  designed  under  the  auspices 
of  Thomas  Jefferson,  if  not  by  that  statesman 
himself;  of  this  character  is  the  old  custom 
1  use  (now  the  Sub-Treasury)  in  New  York, 
which  is  a  very  faithful  copy  of  a  hexastyle 
Doric  temple ;  and  of  this  character  are  the 
Nashville  State  house,  the  capitol  at  Montgom- 
ery, and  a  great  number  of  buildings,  large  and 
small,  in  the  North  as  well  as  in  the  South, 
erected  at  all  periods  up  to  the  middle  of  the 
century,  /t  the  same  time,  however,  the  dwell- 
ings were  much  more  commonly  in  the  grave 
and  decent  style  whhh  wc  have  generally  called 


"Old  Colonial  architecture.8  In  this  respect 
New  York  city  was  peculiarly  fortunate.  Whole 
tpiarters  of  the  city  were  thickly  built  up  with 
houses  of  the  most  satisfactory  style  which  has 
vet  been  employed  iii  domestic  architecture  in 
the  United  States  —  or,  at  least,  which  has  re- 
ceived general  acceptance.  Many  single  blocks 
or  isolated  buildings  throughout  that  part  of 
the  city  which  lies  south  of  Bleecker  Street  still 
remain  in  their  original  condition,  and  in  these 
is  to  be  seen  the  original  American  domestic 
architecture  of  the  time  before  183;.  Of  the 
same  years  are  many  interesting  houses  in  the 
New    England    towns,    as    well    as    in     Maryland 

and  Virginia.  These  houses  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury are  often  confused  with  the  much  older 
houses  which  are  properly  "Colonial."  and.  in- 
deed, are  distinguishable  only  by  the  student 
wdio  will  observe  the  architectural  details  with 
some  care.  The  taste  for  Greek  architecture  is, 
it  is  true,  traceable  in  them  in  the  rather  fre- 
quent appearance  of  a  colonnade  of  four  or  six 
or,  as  in  one  well-known  case  in  Farmington, 
Conn.,  of  five  columns  —  a  nearly  unique  archi- 
tectural device.  At  any  time  between  1820  and 
1850,  if  a  wealthy  man  wished  to  build  himself 
a  house  of  unusual  stateliness,  he  would  turn 
the  simple  domestic  "piazza"  into  a  portico  of 
Grstco-Roman  dignity.  Thus  in  Charleston  the 
Ficken  mansion  has  a  hexastyle  portico  at  least 
as  dignified  and  nearly  as  large  as  that  of  the 
custom  house,  and  a  large  mansion  on  South 
Battery  has  a  Corinthian  portico  of  four  col- 
umns serving  as  its  entrance  porch.  With  the 
years  beginning  with  [835  the  houses  of  the  cit- 
ies became  more  often  large  than  handsome, 
with  costly  mahogany  doors,  large  rooms  di- 
vided by  colonnades  of  white-painted  wood,  and 
very  ample  and  easy  staircases  —  all  of  them 
features  known  to  the  country  mansions  but 
hardly  to  city  life  till  that  time.  Here  again 
New  York  city  is  the  most  important  centre  of 
interest,  for  the  houses  of  Washington  Square 
and  those  in  West  8th  Street  (Clinton 
Place).  Hast  oth  Street  (Brevoort  Place),  and 
East  8th  Street  (St.  Mark's  Place)  are  very  gen- 
erally of  this  type,  and  never  since  that  time  have 
rows  of  street  houses  been  so  well  handled  or 
their  interiors  so  well  understood.  The  houses 
of  Boston  at  this  time  were  as  good  internally, 
and  had  certain  peculiarities  of  plan  recommend- 
ing them  to  the  student,  such  as  the  use  of  the  al- 
ley passing  through  and  under  the  house  to  the 
back  yard,  of  the  utility  of  which  plan  much 
might  be  said;  but  their  exteriors  were'generally 
less  noticeable.  The  narrow  and  crooked  streets 
and  something  in  the  popular  taste  almost  for- 
bade external  display  or  even  elegance.  In  Phil- 
adelphia, on  the  either  hand,  severity  was  caused 
rather  by  the  strong  Quaker  influence  than  by 
anything  in  the  external  character  of  the  town, 
while  the  easy  access  to  white  marble  in  con- 
siderable quantities  made  this  a  favorite  mate- 
rial. I  knee  arose  the  well-known  type  of  the 
Philadelphia  house,  with  walls  of  red  brick, 
white  marble  lintels,  sills,  and  doorsteps,  and, 
as  the  houses  were  built  close  to  the  sidewalk, 
without  areas  and  with  the  entrance  nearly  on 
a  level  with  the  street,  a  display  of  solid  white- 
painted  wooden  shutters  which  carried  out  the 
chromic  effect  to  the  full. 

The  cities  of  the  South'  were  less  crowded, 
less  busy,  more  decidedly  marked  by  the  distinc- 


ARCHITECTURE 


tion  between  elegant  and  humble  dwellings. 
In  Mobile,  Charleston,  and  Savannah,  the  charac- 
teristic dwelling  was  rather  a  more  stately  man- 
sion standing  free  or  nearly  so,  and  having 
broad  verandas  or  "galleries"  which,  however, 
were  not  turned  toward  the  street,  but  sidewise 
upon  gardens.  Savannah,  however,  has  a  very 
unusual  plan:  a  succession  of  square,  open 
"places"  from  each  of  which  four  streets  lead 
in  four  directions,  giving  a  series  of  square 
corners  and  allowing  of  an  irregularity  of  shape 
in  the  house-lots  which  is  not  known  in  our 
other  cities.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret  that  this 
plan  is  not  preserved  in  the  newer  quarters. 
The  residences  in  Savannah  commonly  have 
windows  along  their  sides  opening  upon  a  gar- 
den, which,  if  small,  is  private,  made  so  by 
brick  walls  of  sufficient  height. 

The  Gothic  revival  made  itself  manifest  in 
the  United  States  at  an  early  date.  Few  care- 
fully designed  buildings  in  the  mediaeval  styles 
had  been  built  even  in  England,  when,  in  1839, 
Richard  Upjohn  took  charge  of  the  work  on 
Trinity  Church  in  Xew  York,  his  task  there 
passing  almost  immediately  into  the  designing 
of  a  wholly  new  structure,  which  was  finished  in 
1846.  At  about  the  same  time  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Trinity  in  Brooklyn,  which  still 
stands  unaltered,  was  built  by  Lefevre.  whose 
name  is  almost  forgotten  because  of  his  death 
soon  after  the  completion  of  this  one  important 
work.  These  buildings  were  carefully  studied 
from  the  English  Perpendicular  style;  and  as 
English  Gothic  hardly  included  vaulting  as  a 
necessary  feature,  this  was  wholly  omitted  in 
the  American  examples,  though  unfortunate 
afterthought  caused  some  poor  imitations  of 
vaulting  in  woodwork  and  plaster.  Apart  from 
this  the  churches  were  solidly  built  and  writh 
attention  to  the  archaeological  propriety  of  every 
part;  the  inevitable  slips  in  this  direction  be- 
ing caused  by  the  great  lack  of  recorded  and 
accessible  knowledge  in  those  pre-archaeological 
days. 

No  form  of  Pointed  style  was  in  common 
use  for  any  other  buildings  than  churches ;  the 
same  architects  who  did  their  best  to  build 
Gothic  churches  preferred  to  design  private 
and  business  dwellings  of  different  aspect, 
though  there  appeared  a  few  buildings  which, 
like  Harvard  College  Library  and  Yale  Col- 
lege Alumni  Hall,  were  reminders  of  English 
collegiate  Tudor  architecture.  Upjohn,  apart 
from  his  Gothic  proclivities,  was  rather  famous 
for  his  small  Italian  villas,  some  of  which  were 
of  singular  grace  of  design ;  and  A.  J.  Downing, 
the  landscape  gardener,  though  he  occasionally 
put  pointed  arches  and  a  steep  gable  roof  to  a 
cottage,  carried  his  Gothic  efforts  no  further 
than  this,  and  seems  to  have  preferred  Eliza- 
bethan or  some  other  semi-classic  style  for  the 
numerous  country  houses  which  he  designed. 
The  public  buildings  of  the  time  just  preceding 
the  middle  of  the  century  (nearly  always  of 
pseudo-Greek  style,  as  has  been  said  above) 
were  unimportant,  and  have  been,  in  the  main, 
replaced  by  more  impressive  structures.  The 
country  houses  were  also,  as  a  general  thing, 
without  marked  character,  and  the  rows  of 
street  fronts  in  New  York.  Philadelohia.  and 
Boston,  and  in  the  newer  and  rapidly  growing 
cities  of  the  West,  were  unmarked  by  architec- 
tural intelligence. 
Vol.    1 — 42 


In  a  very  few  cases  a  larger  house  was  de- 
signed with  some  faithfulness,  preserving  a 
little  of  the  simplicity  of  the  bygone  Georgian 
period,  or  carefully  studied  from  French  Pa- 
risian building,  or  the  more  tranquil  and  sim- 
ple city  fronts  of  Italy.  Still,  the  arrival  of  the 
year  1850  found  no  important  architectural 
movement  existing  in  the  country;  nor  was  this 
year  followed  by  any  very  marked  development. 
Two  or  three  years  later  J.  Wrey  Mould  came 
from  England  and  began  to  build  the  Unitarian 
church  in  New  York  at  the  corner  of  Fourth 
Avenue  and  Twentieth  Street.  His  design  in- 
cluded a  lofty  and  slender  campanile,  which 
has  never  been  built ;  and  the  church  was 
marked  by  a  character  of  architectural  and 
sculptured  detail  and  by  logical  solidity  of 
structure  that  are  even  now  not  very  familiar 
to  American  designers.  This,  however,  was 
Mould's  only  great  chance ;  his  other  buildings 
were  comparatively  unimportant,  and  his  work 
in  the  adornment  of  Central  Park  in  New  York 
is  (indistinguishable  from  that  of  other  arti-ts 
employed  upon  the  same  terraces  and  bridges. 
St.  George's  Church  in  New  York  was  com- 
pleted, except  for  the  spires,  in  1853.  under  the 
direction  of  Leopold  Eidlitz,  who  succeeded  to 
his  former  partner  and.  perhaps,  the  first  de- 
signer of  the  church.  This  church  has  since 
been  injured  by  fire,  and  altered;  but  the  origi- 
nal scheme,  with  an  undivided  and  unbroken 
interior,  and  a  roof  supported  by  carefully  de- 
signed timber  trusses  of  two  patterns,  alternat- 
ing one  with  another,  was  one  of  the  boldest  and 
most  satisfactory  buildings  in  the  United  States. 
The  spires  were  built  by  Mr.  Eidlitz  a  few  years 
later,  and  were  remarkable  as  the  only  pierced 
spires  of  Romanesque  design  known  to  students ; 
but,  unfortunately,  the  poor  quality  of  the  stone 
caused  their  removal.  The  above-mentioned 
buildings  had  architectural  character,  but  the 
greater  part  of  even  the  respectable  and  useful 
structures  of  the  time  were  comparatively  de- 
void of  it.  The  Boston  Athenaeum,  with  its 
good  plan  and  really  excellent  reading  room ; 
the  New  York  Astor  Library,  the  Boston  Pub- 
lic Library  on  Boylston  Street,  finished  about 
1858,  and  some  smaller  buildings  which  the 
Eastern  cities  managed  to  pay  for  during  the 
decade  from  1845  to  1855,  were  generally  as  de- 
void of  individuality  as  were  the  stone- faced 
hotels  and  State  houses  of  the  time.  During  the 
years  from  1845  to  i860  the  building  of  the 
Southern  cities  and  their  immediate  neighbor- 
hood was  carried  on  much  in  their  old  lines  — 
the  lines  of  the  Georgian  architecture.  What 
deviation  there  was  from  this  was  still  rather  in 
the  direction  of  the  supplying  of  obvious  needs. 
Thus,  the  houses  of  Beaufort  and  of  other 
seaside  summer  resorts  were  not  unlike  English 
Georgian  manor  ho-.i^es.  with  this  peculiarity, 
that  they  were  large  with  a  few  spacious,  open 
rooms  and  wide  halls,  giving  the  idea  of  small 
and  simple  English  manor  houses  increased  in 
scale  — a  scheme  very  appropriate  to  the  low 
latitude  and  the  steadily  warm  summer  weather 
New  Orleans,  most  conservative  of  American 
cities,  showed  no  change  in  its  outward  aspect 
The  Western  cities  had  received  the  inoculation 
of  the  very  evil  system  of  irrational  ornamenta- 
tion which  marked  also  the  buildings  of  the 
East,  as  will  be  stated  farther  on 


ARCHITECTURE 


About  1855,  Richard  Morris  Hunt,  having 
returned  from  Paris,  where  he  had  been  a 
student  and  also  assistant  to  a  prominent  Paris 
architect,  built  tin-  Studio  building  in  West  10th 
Street,  and  the  since-destroyed  private  house  on 
the  north  side  of  West  38th   Street,  putting  into 

these   something  of  that   French   completeness 

of  plan  and  of  exterior  disposition  of  parts 
which  the  country  had  hardly  known  before. 
Hunt    also  1  hed  an  atelier  on  the   Paris 

plan;  and  half  a  dozen  of  the  architects  most 
successful  and  most  reputed  between  1870  and 
the  dose  of  the  century  were  for  a  time  inmates 
of  that  studio.  Experiments  were  tried  in  those 
days  —  experiments  both  in  materia]  and  design 
—  which  it  is  -ad  to  see  were  wholly  abandoned 
during  the  years  which  followed.  Thus,  when 
Upjohn  built  Trinity  Building  in  New  York,  a 
business  building,  a  mere  investment  for  Trinity 
parish.  In-  used  terra-cotta  for  the  cornice,  and 
la  this  means  obtained  a  boldness  of  overhang 
which  he  would  hardly  have  dared  to  give  in 
stone.  Terra-cotta  had  to  be  imported  in  those 
days,  or,  if  not  imported,  then  made  by  means 
of  a  special  plant  and  fired  in  furnaces  erected 
for  the  occasion.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  the  ex- 
periment had  no  immediate  results.  So  in  de- 
sign the  churches  on  Fifth  Avenue  —  that  of  the 
Ascension,  at  the  corner  of  10th  Street,  and 
the  Presbyterian  church  300  feet  farther  north, 
together  with  the  church  at  University  Place  and 
10th  Street  —  were  all  of  about  this  period,  and 
in  them  was  more  intelligent  designing  than 
generally  in  the  civic  buildings  of  the  time; 
but  there  was  room  for  more  originality  in  the 
latter,  and  the  buildings  by  Hunt  above  named 
and  a  bank  in  Wall  Street  by  Detlef  Lienau  held 
out  more  promise.  Other  business  buildings  of 
great  importance  date  from  this  time ;  two  of 
them  were  built  by  Eidlitz  in  the  business  sec- 
tion of  New  York,  both  of  singular  solidity  and 
of  thoughtful  design,  which  cannot  now  be 
judged,  as  one  has  disappeared  and  the  other 
lias   been   altered   out  of  recognition. 

The  war  came,  and  while  some  important 
enterprises  took  form  during  those  lour  years 
of  excitement  and  rapid  thought,  but  little  of 
importance  was  brought  to  perfection.  The  con- 
ditions were  peculiar;  many  of  the  architects 
and  many  of  their  possible  employers  were  in 
tli.-  army  ;  but  those  who  were  at  home,  although 
often  for  a  short  visit  only,  were  full  of  ambi- 
tion. So  it  happened  that  both  industrially  and 
artistically  the  years  immediately  following  the 
war  were  very  active.  In  the  Eastern  cities,  the 
domain  of  business  began  to  encroach  rapidly 
upon  that  which  had  been  the  residence  portion, 
and  whole  streets  were  built  up  with  buildings 
of  somewhat  pretentious  character  as  to  their 
iles,  the  masons  and  stone-cutters  making 
fortunes  out  of  the  simpler  work  upon  so  many 
precisely  similar  fronts;  the  residence  streets 
were  lined  with  buildings  of  constantly  in- 
creasing cost,  and  also  the  construction  of  coun- 
try houses  became  an  important  employment 
for  the  builders  in  the  smaller  towns.  A  few 
years  were  still  to  elapse  before  the  more  im- 
portant public  and  private  buildings  took  shape; 
this  was  the  epoch  of  much  building  of  less 
pretension. 

The  result  of  the  mingling  of  styles  and  the 
clashing  of  different  tastes  and  fancies  was 
very  curious.     Philadelphia  buildings  kept  nearer 


to  their  old  type  of  red  brick  and  white  marble 
and  simple  design ;  Boston  buildings  were  far 
more  often  designed  by  architect-,  employed, 
each  one  for  a  separate  building  by  the  owner  of 
the  soil.  New  York,  following  its  unfortunately 
deeply-rooted  habit,  built  itself  up  in  long  rows 
of  stores  and  houses,  each  for  sale  to  any  pos- 
sible buyer,  and  therefore  of  necessity  deprived 
of  individual  character.  And  yet  the  difference 
in  architectural  merit  of  the  buildings  in  the 
three  cities  was  not  so  great  as  might  be  assum- 
ed. The  critical  students  of  1865  abhorred  the 
New  York  brownstone  front,  with  its  high  stoop 
and  its  exaggerated  affectation  of  Corinthian 
elegance,  and  they  envied  Boston  her  intelligent 
Harvard  graduates  who  owned  lots  and  would 
build  houses  for  themselves,  and  who  employed 
other  Harvard  graduate-  to  design  those  houses. 
But  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  slicking  to 
their  traditions,  produced  at  least  less  that  was 
monstrous  and  impossible  than  Boston.  There 
was  more  intelligence  in  the  Boston  buildings, 
but  there  was  also  more  whim.  The  dreadful 
heresy  of  eclecticism  got  hold  of  a  few  of  the 
Boston  men,  and  the  Gothic  buttress  topped  by 
an  Ionic  pilaster,  a  motive  which  passed  into 
a  proverb,  was  only  an  extreme  case  of  what 
was  a  serious  injury  to  architectural  growth. 
The  Gothic  revival  in  the  hands  of  Peter  B, 
Wright,  J.  Cleveland  Cady,  Calvert  Vaux,  Fred- 
erick Clarke  Withers,  and  John  Sturgis,  led  to 
the  erection  of  some  important  buildings;  the 
Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  fronting  on  Cop- 
ley Square,  being  the  most  florid  of  these,  and 
embodying  the  English  terra-cotta  building  of 
the  day.  The  Academy  of  Design  in  New  York 
was  the  only  building  ever  erected  in  America 
in  which  a  serious  effort  was  made  to  design 
an  abundant  sculpturesque  decoration  on  the 
principles  of  the  more  advanced  preachers  of  the 
gospel  of  medievalism.  The  labor  and  thought 
required  for  such  work  prevented  any  immedi- 
ate following  of  this  example,  and  it  soon  ap- 
peared that  the  taste  for  Gothic  buildings  was 
not  deeply  rooted  among  the  architectural  stu- 
dents of  the  time.  Good  buildings  were  de- 
signed by  the  men  who  have  been  named,  and 
Richard  Upjohn's  admirable  Trinity  Chapel 
should  be  added  to  the  list  of  Gothic  churches 
deserving  special  praise;  but  the  general  effect 
of  the  taste  for  pointed  windows  and  for  the 
ornamentation  supposed  to  belong  to  them  was 
very  unfortunate.  It  had  much  to  do  with  what 
was  certainly  the  most  unsatisfactory  epoch  in 
American  architectural  designing.  The  years 
from  1865  to  1875  saw  the  erection  by  the  hun- 
dred of  the  most  insufferable  country  houses  that 
could  be  imagined.  All  architectural  sense 
seemed  to  have  gone  out  of  the  designers.  The 
posts  of  the  verandas  were  cut  into  shapes  sug- 
gested by  nothing  in  the  world  except  children's 
toys ;  window-heads  of  hitherto  unknown  form 
were  put  into  woodwork,  into  cast-iron,  and 
even  into  stone ;  a  variety  of  roof  known 
throughout  the  country  as  the  French  roof,  and 
consisting  of  a  lower  slope  so  steep  as  to  be 
almost  a  vertical  wall,  and  an  upper  slope  so 
flat  as  to  be  a  mere  "deck,"  produced  the  ugliest 
skylines  conceivable.  The  country  was  full  of 
carpenters  and  masons  who  thought  themselves 
architects  because  they  had  purchased  and  stud- 
ied some  book  containing  plans  and  elevations 
of   famous   buildings.     These   men    were   trying 


ARCHITECTURE. 


"FLATIROV  BUILDING.  NEW  YORK,  IN  COURSE  OF  CONSTRUCTION. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


COPYRIGHT     1902,     BY     C     L.     RIT7MANN. 

"FLATIRON"  BUILDING.  NEW  YORK. 


ARCHITECTURE 


for  originality ;  but  this  search,  difficult  and 
dangerous  even  among  men  who  have  had  pre- 
vious training  in  artistic  designing,  becomes  ruin- 
ous when  followed  by  the  men  of  an  epoch  and 
a  country  as  devoid  of  artistic  sense  as  those 
which  we  are  now  considering.  Buildings  were 
planned  without  any  artistic  perception  of  the 
necessities  of  the  plan ;  a  room  was  thrust  out  to 
the  east  and  another  to  the  south  and  another 
to  the  west,  these  different  wings  having  no  re- 
lation to  one  another  or  to  the  central  mass, 
which,  indeed,  they  might  entirely  conceal  or 
even  destroy. 

The  same  incongruity  of  design  affected  even 
the  public  buildings  of  the  time.  These  were 
the  days  of  Harvard  Memorial  Hall,  of  the  first 
ind  accepted  design  for  the  capitol  at  Albany, 
of  the  United  States  government  buildings,  in- 
cluding the  post-office  and  court  rooms  in  the 
same  huge  mass,  which  were  erected  in  many 
of  the  cities  of  the  land,  and  of  very  numerous 
buildings  which  the  designers,  if  now  living, 
would  with  perfect  propriety  disclaim,  classing 
them  as  the  wrork  of  their  salad  days.  Men  who 
have  since  proved  themselves  capable  of  much 
better  thines  produced  the  most  unfortunate  de- 
signs during  those  hurried  years.  The  Tribune 
building  in  New  York,  the  Boston  city  hall  and 
court  house,  the  earlier  public  buildings  of  Chi- 
cago, the  Connecticut  State  house  or  capitol  at 
Hartford,  may  all  be  named  with  those  cited 
above  as  specimens  of  what  ought  not  to 
be  done  in  architecture,  and  yet  as  the  build- 
ings of  men  who  have  since  proved  themselves 
capable  and  dexterous.  It  is,  indeed,  true  that 
a  flood  of  bad  taste  covered  the  land,  and  that 
few  detached  monuments  of  some  little  archi- 
tectural merit  could  be  seen  above  it. 

A  more  promising  condition  of  things  was 
seen  to  exist  when  the  third  quarter  of  the  cen- 
tury was  completed.  In  1875  the  older  men  who 
were  still  busy  had  learned  a  great  deal  by  ex- 
perience and  by  their  own  blunders ;  the  younger 
men  began  to  come  in,  more  or  less  well  taught 
in  Paris  —  at  all  events  certain  of  the  fact  that 
there  was  such  a  thing  as  19th-century  archi- 
tecture and  that  as  yet  the  United  States  had 
hardly  achieved  it.  Henry  Richardson  was  busy 
as  early  as  1875,  and  a  very  few  years  later  he 
took  up  definitely  that  Romanesque  style  which 
he  had  studied  in  central  France  —  took  it  up, 
and  built  thereafter  according  to  its  doctrine, 
without  forsaking  it  for  a  moment.  Trinity 
Church  in  Boston,  partly  studied  from  Spanish 
models,  was  one  of  his  Romanesque  buildings 
—  perhaps  the  earliest  of  them.  Nearly  contem- 
poraneous with  this  were  three  important 
churches  in  Boston,  one  of  them  by  Richardson 
himself,  the  others  by  the  younger  Upjohn  and 
Cummings  and  Sears ;  and  several  large  churches 
of  considerable  merit  were  built  in  different 
mediaeval  styles  in  New  York.  The  older  Up- 
john, the  designer  of  Trinity  Church  35  years 
before,  made  of  St.  Thomas's  Church,  when  re- 
built on  Fifth  Avenue,  his  crowning  labor. 
The  present  writer  built  many  college  buildings 
between  1870  and  1880,  and,  in  connection 
with  George  Fletcher  Babb.  built  Battell  Chapel 
of  Yale  College  and  a  bank  building  in  Albany, 
each  of  these  in  a  modified  Gothic  style.  Other 
college  buildings,  by  George  B.  Post  for  Prince- 
ton College,  by  H.  H.  Richardson  for  Harvard 
University,  and  by  J.  Cleveland  Cady  in  several 


parts  of  the  country,  assisted  greatly  the  advance 
of  style ;  and  Trinity  College,  near  Hartford, 
was  begun  on  a  great  scale  and  in  a  consistent 
English  Gothic  style  from  the  designs  of  Wil- 
liam Burges  of  London.  The  admirable  build- 
ings of  Columbia  College  it  49th  Street,  New 
York,  were  built  by  C.  C.  Haight  at  a  later 
time,  and  the  same  architect  built  theological 
seminaries  and  hospitals  in  and  near  New  York, 
all  in  some  form  of  English  Collegiate  Gothic. 
Of  younger  men.  the  firm  of  McKim,  Mead  & 
White,  who  had  built  the  large  and  interesting 
buildings  known  as  the  Tiffany  house  and  the 
Villard-Reid  house  in  New  York,  designed 
also  the  Newport  Casino,  and  in  doing  this 
helped  much  toward  a  development  of  country 
house  architecture  which,  indeed,  has  constituted 
the  most  important  artistic  result  of  the  quarter 
century.  The  American  frame  house,  sheathed 
with  clapboards  or  shingles,  is.  in  the  hands  of 
architects  of  taste,  the  best  thing  we  have  yet 
to  show.  A  few  years  later  the  firm  of  Carrere 
&  Hastings  designed  the  spirited  Spanish-look- 
ing palaces  used  as  hotels  in  St.  Augustine.  All 
these  buildings  had  character ;  but  there  were 
still  traces  enough  of  the  old  unarchitectural 
designing,  and  this  especially  in  the  more  im- 
portant buildings,  as  is  natural.  The  original 
designs  for  the  Albany  capitol  and  for  the 
Philadelphia  public  buildings  were  nearly  as 
devoid  of  architectural  merit  as  if  they  had  been 
built  40  years  earlier. 

Since  1885  there  have  been  many  more  build- 
ings of  cost  and  of  great  pretension  —  many  more 
buildings  which  in  scale  reached  the  standard 
set  by  the  continental  nations  of  Europe  —  than 
at  any  previous  time.  Club  houses  of  great  im- 
portance, dwellings  of  such  cost  and  dignity  that 
they  are  really  and  in  every  sense  of  the  word 
palaces,  and  national  and  municipal  buildings, 
into  the  design  of  which  some  architectural  am- 
bition has  found  its  way,  are  now  so  common 
that  even  a  bare  list  of  them  would  fill  more 
space  than  can  here  be  given.  If  the  progress 
of  architecture  since  that  time  has  not  been  all 
that  could  be  hoped,  this  fact  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  the  rapid  increase  of  new  demands  upon  the 
architect's  attention.  New  problems  have  de- 
veloped themselves  much  more  rapidly  than  the 
comparatively  small  number  of  intelligent  archi- 
tects could  work  them  out.  The  common  use 
of  the  elevator  made  10-story  buildings  as  easy 
to  administer  as  the  four-story  buildings  of  old 
time,  and  the  hotels  and  business  buildings  were 
at  once  changed  in  this  radical  way  ;  whereupon 
it  was  found  that  the  design  which  had  served 
for  a  four-story  building  was  not  capable  of 
ready  adaptation  to  the  new  conditions. 

Hardly  had  this  been  realized  and  the  prob- 
lem fairly  got  in  hand  when  the  introduction 
of  the  steel-cage  form  of  construction  revolu- 
tionized anew  half  the  building  of  the  American 
world,  and  the  10-story  front  had  to  be  recon- 
sidered for  16,  18,  or  20  stories.  Moreover, 
while  the  10-story  building,  like  its  predecessors, 
had  been  a  structure  of  solid  walls,  carrying 
iron-framed  floors,  the  steel-cage  building  was 
felt  to  be  a  totally  different  construction.  Here 
was  a  skeleton  of  uprights  and  horizontals,  and 
no  thoughtful  architect  could  jacket  such  a  struc- 
ture with  a  thin  stone-faced  or  brick-and-stone- 
faced  wall  without  feeling  that  this  was  a  mere 
simulacrum  of  building  and  that  the  real  secret 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  TRANSITION 


of  the  new  design  had  not  yet  been  discovered. 
So,  too,  with  ihc  churches,  although  they  were 
not  required  to  be  of  unusual  height,  and  al- 
though the  steel-frame  structure  hardly  sug- 
gested itself  as  lit  for  them,  tluir  condition  was 
felt  to  be  changed  by  the  monstrous  height  of 
their  neighbors,  the  insurance  buildings,  the 
hotels,  the  apartment  houses.  A  church  with  a 
200-1  le   and   a   70-foot   high    roof-ridge 

made  but  a  poor  show  alongside  of  a  tower-like 
mass  as  large  horizontally  at  top  as  at  bottom, 
and  carrying  a  level  cornice  higher  than  the 
steeple-cross  of  the  church.  Moreover  the  archi- 
tects whose  work  was  of  such  quality  as  to 
please  greatly  the  more  instructed  part  of  the 
community  —  a  community  full  of  a  kind  of  lit- 
erary intelligence,  but  without  much  training  in 
the  arts  winch  address  themselves  to  the  eye  — 
those  architects  found  themselves  overwhelmed 
with  work.  It  is  not  in  human  nature  to  refuse 
a  $20,000  or  $40,000  commission ;  it  is  not  in 
human  nature  to  confess  the  impossibility  of 
doing  so  much  work  and  doing  it  well.  The  re- 
sult is  a  general  tendency  toward  a  method  of 
design  which,  in  the  best  instances,  is  markedly 
controlled  by  good  taste,  by  the  abstention  from 
incongruities  and  ill-considered  details,  but 
which  may  be  almost  devoid  of  the  evidences  of 
thought.  The  colonnade  taken  bodily  from  an 
ancient  building,  or  a  theoretical  plate  in  an  old 
book,  the  evenly  spaced  windows  capped  by  a 
little  delicate  sculpture,  the  roof  either  invisible 
or  of  low  pitch  and  masked  by  a  balustrade 
copied  from  an  Italian  palazzo —  these  and  other 
such  architectural  members  are  united  without 
shock  and  without  repulsive  incongruity  in 
buildings  which  do  their  appointed  work  quite 
well  —  which  accommodate  a  family  or  a  congre- 
gation, or  which  prove  to  be  paying  investments 
—  and  the  community  is  fairly  well  satisfied. 
The  extreme  rarity  of  anything  novel  in  design 
goes  with  this  abrupt  explanation  of  our  present 
state  as  an  architectural  community.  Louis  Sul- 
livan of  Chicago  is  left  alone  in  his  serious  and 
repeated  efforts  to  design  the  exteriors  of  lofty 
steel-framed  buildings  according  to  their  nature 
and  the  requirement  of  the  law  and  modern  cus- 
tom. A.  Page  Brown,  recently  dead,  was  alone 
in  having  a  separate  and  little-known  national 
Style  in  which  to  build  his  California  College 
buildings.  Heins  and  La  Fargc  are  almost  alone 
in  having  a  large  church  (the  Cathedral  of  St. 
John  the  Divine)  put  into  their  hands  to  be 
slowly  elaborated  and  perfected  in  design,  even 
as  the  preparatory  work  progresses.  Shepley, 
Rutan.  and  Coolidge  of  Boston  are  almost  alone 
in  having  a  chance  to  build  a  costly  and  massive 
structure  (the  west  portal  of  Trinity  Church), 
with  an  abundance  of  representative  and  ideal 
figure  sculpture  forming  an  essential  part  of  the 
architectural  design.  Wilson  Eyre  has  few  to 
help  him  in  his  gallant  effort  to  create  a  truly 
decorative  system  of  sculpture  for  buildings 
which  can  have  but  little  of  it.  Sculpture  is,  in- 
deed, added  to  a  few  of  our  buildings  of  neo- 
classic  design,  just  as  mural  painting  is  used 
within,  but  this  without  modifying  the  architec- 
tural character  of  the  structure. 

The  conclusion  seems  to  be  that  while  the 
artistic  mind  of  the  country  has  well  outgrown 
the  period  of  callow  haste  and  of  ill-bred  ugli- 
ness, it  has  hardly  as  yet  entered  upon  a  true 
architectural  progress.     The  possibilities  of  such 


progress  are  evident ;  moreover,  there  are  artists 
enough  who  feel  the  need  of  it ;  but  whether  the 
mind  of  the  community,  giving  its  best  energies 
to  money-making,  will  in  the  course  of  the  next 
century  apply  itself  with  serious  1'iirpose  to 
architectural  art  is,  perhaps,  as  uncertain  now  as 
it  was  in  1850.  -ELI,  Stlrgis,  I"  A. I. A., 

Author  of  ^Dictionary  of  Architecture} 
Architecture  of  Transition,  that  which 
shows  somewhat  rapid  change  from  oim  impor- 
tant style  to  another.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
architecture  of  all  periods  before  the  wars  of  the 
French  Revolution  was  continually  in  a  state  of 
transition,  though  since  that  time  it  has  been  in- 
fluenced rather  by  sudden  attempts  at  reviving 
styles  long  since  forgotten.  A  natural  transi- 
tion was  always  going  on;  but  there  were  epochs 
when  the  changes  in  progre-^  were  ol  a 
cially  radical  character.  Such  a  time  was  that 
when  the  more  stately  architecture  of  the  city 
of  Rome  and  those  towns  and  lands  which  de- 
pended upon  it,  was  undergoing  a  change  from 
the  columnar  character  given  u  bj  the  Greeks, 
to  the  vaulted  and  arcuated  character  resulting 
from  the  introduction  of  Eastern  methods  into 
Italy.  This  subject  is  treated  in  the  general 
article  Architecture,  and  under  Roman-  Em- 
pire, Art  of;  but  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the 
exact  time  of  the  transition  cannot  be  fixed. 
The  famous  Pantheon  in  Rome,  a  round  build- 
ing of  immense  solidity  roofed  by  a  cupola, 
hemispherical  as  seen  from  within,  but  low  as 
seen  from  without,  was  long  supposed  the  earli- 
est specimen  of  solid  masonry  building.  The 
walls  and  the  dome  alike  were  built  of  rubble- 
stone  laid  in  strong  cement  mortar,  but  without 
much  reference  to  the  curvature  of  the  vault 
or  the  preparation  for  the  different  openings  — 
doors,  windows,  archways.  These  were  built  up 
and  the  building  outlined  in  the  first  place,  by 
means  of  brickwork  of  very  bard  and  perfect 
material  and  workmanship;  then  the  great 
weight  of  the  wall  and  vault  was  added,  and  the 
resulting  building,  with  rough  surfaces  of  stone 
and  mortar  without  comely  or  orderly  arrange- 
ment, was  faced  up,  finally,  with  stucco  or 
with  slabs  of  marble  within  and  without,  and 
according  to  the  place  of  each  member  in  the 
completed  building.  The  Greek  columnar  sys- 
tem, and  especially  the  Corinthian  order,  was 
used  as  pure  ornament,  and  for  the  interior 
alone;  the  marble  columns  carried  no  weight 
except  that  of  the  slight  entablature  put 
in  place  merely  to  complete  the  order  and 
to  give  a  finished  architectural  look  to  the 
whole.  This  building  was  long  supposed  to  be 
the  historically  celebrated  Pantheon  of  Agrippa, 
and  to  have  been  built  during  the  princi- 
pality of  Augustus  about  25  B.C.  It  is  now 
known  that  only  the  portico  can  be  of  that  time 
and  that  the  round  building  dates  from  the 
reign  of  Hadrian  and  is  of  about  120  .vi>.  We 
have  no  knowledge  as  to  the  chronological  or- 
der of  other  early  buildings  of  the  same  charac- 
ter. The  thermx  at  Caracalla  were  built  about 
215  A.D.,  the  thcrtna?  of  Diocletian  about  290 
a.d.,  the  basilica  of  Maxentius  and  Constantine 
about  310-20  A.D. ;  and  all  these  buildings  have 
their  great  halls  vaulted  with  groined  vaulting 
as  massive  as  the  cupola  of  the  Pantheon  ana 
built  of  masonry  in  a  similar  fashion.  No  one 
can  fix  the  beginning  of  this  system,  nor  is  it 
poscihlc   to  say  what  buildings   in  the  Oriental 


ARCHITECTURE  OF  TRANSITION 


provinces  of  the  empire  gave  rise  to  the  new 
structure.  Etruscan  example  can  hardly  be 
thought  very  influential  in  this.  It  has  been 
suggested  that  the  lost  architecture,  at  Alexan- 
dria and  other  great  towns  of  the  East  of  the 
time  of  the  successors  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
would,  if  it  could  be  explored,  reveal  this  se- 
cret. All  that  we  can  say  is  that  the  chief  build- 
ings of  the  empire  from  about  loo  a.d.  until  the 
fall  of  the  western  empire  in  475  a.d.  were 
vaulted  structures  adorned  by  pseudo-Greek  col- 
umns and  pilasters,  grouped  in  screens  or  used 
in  couples  or  singly  as  apparent  support  for  the 
vaulted  structure,  and  the  surfaces  of  masonry 
adorned  with  marble  or  with  stucco  in  figured 
bas-relief,  and  with  painting  and  gilding. 

It  is  possible,  however,  to  mark  out  the 
close  of  this  period  of  transition.  The  palace 
of  Diocletian  at  Salona,  where  now  is  the  town 
of  Spalato,  was  built  after  305  a.d.,  and  that 
building  is  Romanesque  in  its  character.  This 
means  that  here  are  seen  arches  springing  from 
the  capitals  of  columns,  exactly  as  they  were  to 
be  built  during  the  next  1,200  years,  without  the 
necessary  interposition  of  the  classical  entabla- 
ture. It  means  also  that  the  classical  ordonnance 
and  proportions,  inherited  from  the  Greek  artists 
600  years  before,  had  finally  lost  their  hold. 
Buildings  of  the  same  epoch  and  others  a  little 
later  in  Syria,  are  of  even  less  classical  charac- 
ter, and  even  more  decidedly  Romanesque  (see 
Christian  Architecture).  The  recently  ex- 
plored ruins  in  North  Africa  are  frequently  of 
the  same  style  of  design,  with  completely  Ro- 
manesque treatment  of  arch  and  abutment.  This 
character  is  seen,  too,  in  buildings  as  early  as 
the  Arch  of  Hadrian  at  Athens,  and  the  arches 
at  the  two  ends  of  the  famous  bridge  at  Saint 
Chamas  in  southern  France.  In  each  of  these 
the  great  arch  springing  from  the  abutment  on 
either  side  is  not  in  any  way  subordinated 
to  a  pair  of  columns  or  a  pair  of  pilasters; 
columns  are  used,  indeed,  but  only  to  adorn 
the  outer  edge  of  the  piece  of  walling,  in  much 
the  same  way  as  the  angle  shaft  of  the  12th  and 
13th  centuries  was  to  be  used.  Now,  this 
early  Romanesque  of  the  4th  and  5th  centuries 
is  the  organized  style  to  which  the  great  thermae 
and  basilicas  named  above  are  the  transition. 
The  building  first  named  above,  the  Pantheon, 
may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  this  transitional  archi- 
tecture. 

An  interesting  art  of  transition  is  that  which 
marks  the  growth  of  the  Gothic  style  out  of  the 
Romanesque.  The  date  of  this  may  be  set  at 
1150-70  a.d.  and  the  place  as  northern  France  — 
the  country  around  Paris.  In  some  of  the 
provinces  buildings  even  later  than  1170  appear 
as  transitional,  for  it  took  a  quarter  of  a  century 
before  the  people  of  the  Rhine,  of  northern 
Spain,  or,  indeed,  of  the  far  south  of  France, 
had  fully  absorbed  the  new  ideas  of  building. 
The  famous  Church  of  S.  Remi  at  Reims  may  be 
looked  upon  as  a  type  of  this  transitional  archi- 
tecture, and  large  parts  of  the  still  better  known 
Church  of  S.  Denis  near  Paris  are  of  this  char- 
acter. These  are  the  buildings  in  which  the 
ribbed  vault  has  been  adopted  once  for  all,  and 
the  pointed  arch  with  it,  as  an  almost  necessary 
part  of  the  actual  structure,  but  where  the 
round  arch  is  still  used  for  many  of  the  open- 
ings in  the  walls  and  where  the  flying  buttress  is 
as  yet  far  from  oomolete. 


The  most  important  style  of  all  those  which 
may  be  called  Transitional  is  that  of  the  close 
of  the  Gothic  epoch.  The  Hundred  Years  War 
in  France  and  Flanders  came  to  an  end  about 
1435.  There  had  been  but  little  important  work 
done  on  the  continent  during  the  14th  century, 
but  in  England  the  very  curious  Perpendicular 
style  was  developed,  one  in  which  the  mullions 
of  the  windows  were  carried  through  until  they 
nearly  met  the  intrados  of  the  arch  above,  so 
that  the  windows  seemed  divided  up  into  series 
of  vertical  panels  almost  unbroken  from  top  to 
bottom.  The  churches  in  this  style  are  known 
by  their  very  low  roofs,  nearly  flat,  so  that  they 
do  not  show  above  whatever  little  parapets  may 
be  erected  upon  the  wall.  The  towers  are 
square  and  generally  flat-topped,  with  very  sel- 
dom any  spire  or  lantern  and  with  pinnacles  at 
the  four  corners.  This  style  was  continued  into 
the  period  of  which  we  now  have  to  treat; 
and  the  transitional  art  in  England,  reaching  even 
to  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  (1558),  is  Perpen- 
dicular in  its  general  character.  Very  differ- 
ent was  the  Florid  Gothic  of  northern  France. 
The  Church  of  Notre  Dame  de  l'£pine  near 
Chalons-sur-Marne,  and  that  'of  S.  Jacques  des 
Vignes  et  Soissons  (ruined)  are  of  this  style, 
but  are  not  its  best  specimens.  For  the  full 
beauty  of  the  style  which  we  call  Flamboyant, 
we  must  go  to  the  Cathedral  of  Evreux  and  that 
of  Narbonne.  The  beautiful  tower  of  Saint- Pol- 
de-Leon,  the  great  churches  of  S.  Wulfram  at 
Abbeville  and  S.  Maclou  at  Rouen,  the  still 
more  characteristic  church  at  Saint  Riquier,  the 
west  front  of  the  Cathedral  of  Tours  —  all  these 
are  the  faultless  buildings  of  the  Flamboyant 
style.  They  date  from  the  years  between  1450 
and  1500;  but  the  style  continues  into  the  16th 
century.  Parts  of  the  Church  of  S.  Maclou, 
named  above,  are  as  late  as  1535,  and  that  is 
about  the  date  of  the  Palais  de  Justice,  in  the 
same  town.  The  south  transept  of  Beauvais 
Cathedral  may  be  even  later  than  this,  and  the 
famous  Church  of  Brou  near  Macon  in  Bur- 
gundy of  the  years  1510-36.  The  reader  must 
constantly  recall  the  fact  that  during  these 
years  the  classical  revival  in  Italy  was  at  its 
very  height  (see  Architecture  and  Renais- 
sance). The  strange  thing  is  the  complete  re- 
jection or  ignoring  of  the  classical  feeling  by 
the  northerner,  the  complete  adoption  of  it 
south  of  the  Alps. 

The  Flamboyant  Gothic  is  not  as  strictly  log- 
ical as  the  true  Gothic  of  the  13th  century, 
though  the  interior  of  a  great  church  like  one 
of  those  named  above  is  apt  to  be  as  straight- 
forwardly built  and  as  sincerely  designed  as  at 
any  epoch.  The  change  is  most  marked  in  a  cer- 
tain fantastical  character  given  to  the  uncon- 
structional  part,  the  window  tracery,  the  para- 
pet, and  the  sculpture;  but  in  England  the 
extraordinary  fan-vaulting,  first  seen  in  the  clois- 
ters of  Gloucester  Cathedral,  but  carried  on  in 
the  Divinity  School  at  Oxford  (1450)  and  in 
the  Beauchamp  Chapel,  Warwick  (1460), 
reached  its  culmination  in  the  three  famous 
buildings  which  we  always  think  of  when  fan- 
vaulting  is  named.  These  are  the  Chapel  of  S. 
George  at  Windsor  Castle,  the  Chapel  of  Henry 
VII.  at  Westminster  Abbey,  and.  the  most  per- 
fect  of  all,  the  magnificent  Chapel  of  King's 
College  at  Cambridge,  finished  about  1510  and 
embodying   in   itself   nearly   all   that   the   Florid 


ARCHITECTURE,  EDUCATION  IN 


architecture  of  England  lins  to  show.  The  in- 
terior is  one  unbroken  hall  lighted  l>y  huge 
windows  on  both  sides,  and  by  still  larger  win- 
dows at  the  two  ends.  It  is  78  feet  high  inside, 
a  considerable  height  for  an  English  church; 
about  45  feet  wide  and  about  315  feet  in  length: 
so  that  it  has  the  characteristics  of  the  best 
English  interiors  —  great  length  as  compared 
witli  height  and  width.  The  proportions  are  of 
extraordinary  beauty,  and  there  is  in  no  place 
outside  of  France  a  more  splendid  ecclesiastical 
interior. 

This  fine  Late  Gothic  of  England  passed  into 
the  architecture  which  we  call  Tudor,  from  the 
Tudor  sovereigns,  Henry  VII.  and  his  succcs- 
sors.  <>f  this  the  most  interesting  development 
is  that  which  we  call  the  Elizabethan  style,  best 
known  in  the  splendid  country  houses  which 
were  built  during  Elizabeth's  reign  in  different 
parts  of  England.  The  architecture  of  some 
great  college  buildings  in  Oxford  and  in  Cam- 
bridge is  also  of  this  character, —  with  low  (four- 
centred),  pointed  arches,  and  generally  with 
low-pitched  roofs:  but  these  roofs  are  often 
splendidly  designed  within,  with  elaborate  tim- 
ber-work forming  a  design  even  more  varied  and 
rich  than  the  vaulting  of  the  continent.  Clas- 
sical details,  columned  porches,  and  the  like,  were 
introduced  from  Italy,  and  many  of  the  other- 
wise picturesque  and  semi-Gothic  houses  of  the 
period  have  these  curious  "Italianate"  features. 
This  architecture  continued  into  the  reign  of 
James  I.  and  disappeared  in  the  political  con- 
fusion of  the  time,  to  be  succeeded  by  a  classical 
Style  brought  fresh  from  Ttaly  when  the  condi- 
tions which  ensued  allowed  of  costly  building 
once  again. 

The  Florid  Gothic  of  France  and  the  neigh- 
boring countries  of  the  continent  is  accepted 
by  the  French  writers  as  a  part  of  the  northern 
Renaissance;  but  we  have  to  separate  it  very 
carefully  from  the  Risorgimcnto  or  classical 
revival  beginning  in  Italy  about  1420.  The 
reign  of  Louis  XII.  in  France  (1498-1515)  is 
the  time  when  we  see,  struggling  with  one  an- 
other in  the  North,  the  classical  influence  from 
Italy,  then  nearly  a  century  old  in  the  land  of 
its  origin,  and  the  Florid  Gothic  of  France. 
Thus,  at  the  famous  Chateau  of  Blois,  the  wing 
named  after  Louis  XII.  is  literally  half  way  be- 
tween Gothic  and  classical.  Arches  are  three- 
centred  and  therefore  without  points ;  pillars 
arc  either  round  or  square  in  section,  with  pan- 
eled sides,  or,  as  at  the  great  driveway  of 
entrance,  are  combinations  of  square  and  round 
forms;  and  all  these  pillars  have  fully  organ- 
ized capitals  of  semi-classical  character ;  but  the 
roof  is  steep  and  is  adorned  with  high  chimneys 
and  very  elaborate  dormer  windows,  and  the  de- 
sign is  picturesque  rather  than  symmetrical.  A 
square  tower  stands  at  either  end  of  this  build- 
ing, of  Louis  XII.,  and  each  of  these  towers 
remains  rather  Gothic  than  classical  to  the 
hasty  observer,  although  the  avoidance  of  the 
chief  forms  of  Gothic  art  is  very  marked.  Al- 
most adjoining  this  stretch  of  building  is  the 
front  named  after  Francis  I.  and  built  only  25 
years  later  than  the  building  described  above. 
This  is  not  Gothic  at  all.  The  windows  are  all 
square  and  the  walls  have  pilasters  in  regular 
ordonnance,  while  yet  the  lofty  roof,  the  pictur- 
esque dormers,  and  the  high  chimneys  remain  to 


express  the  transitional  character  of  the  whole. 
The  Church  of  Brou,  already  mentioned,  is  ex- 
ceptionally late  for  a  building  which  is  entirely 
Gothic  in  style,  without  classical  motives  of  any 
sort. 

Russell  Sturgis. 

Architecture,  Education  in.  Training. — 
The  ideal  architect  is  an  artist  who  employs 
structure  as  his  medium  of  expression, —  whose 
function   it  is  to  produce  beautiful  buildings. 

That  this  ideal  is  realized  by  relatively  few 
of  those  who  are  called  architects  in  our  day 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  its  embodiment  under 
modern  conditions  involves  the  correlation  of 
activities  of  very  diverse  nature;  and  few  there 
are  who  display  in  just  proportion  the  capaci- 
ties these  diverse  activities  involve.  These  may 
be  placed  in  three  great  groups,  and  the  archi- 
tect's training  may  be  correspondingly  consid- 
ered under  three  headings,  namely,  his  artistic 
education,  his  technical  education,  his  business 
education. 

The  student  who  hopes  to  be  an  artist-archi- 
tect must  train  himself  somewhat  as  do  all 
artists  in  all  other  fields.  Yet  he  cannot  with 
his  own  hands  bring  into  existence  the  building 
his  imagination  pictures;  he  is  compelled  as  no 
other  artist  is,  to  rely  upon  the  work  of  others 
in  the  realization  of  his  artistic  creations. 
Hence  it  becomes  very  important  for  him  to 
gain  a  very  special  technical  training  in  order 
( 1 )  that  he  may  learn  how  to  indicate  to  his 
artisan  helpers  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be 
done,  and  (2)  that  he  may  become  acquainted 
with  the  methods  proper  to  these  artisans  in  the 
accomplishment  of  their  several  tasks. 

But  beyond  this  the  architect  who  would 
reach  the  highest  goal  should  prepare  himself 
for  a  business  career.  For  unlike  other  artists 
he  is  usually  unable  to  express  himself  in  his 
chosen  medium  unless  others  entrust  to  him  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money.  And  if  he 
is  to  be  thus  trusted  he  must  exhibit  executive 
ability,  a  knowledge  of  men  and  capacity  to 
manage  them,  and  at  the  same  time  he  must 
possess  unquestioned  reliability  and  business  sa- 
gacity. 

In  this  connection  it  may  perhaps  be  well  to 
note  that  in  our  time  there  are  not  a  few  men 
who  are  counted  as  successful  architects  who 
are  really  merely  good  business  men  working 
in  a  special  field,  men  without  high  artistic 
ideals  or  susceptibilities,  and  who  gain  such 
success  as  they  attain  by  the  mere  direction  of 
hired  designers,  and  by  the  careful  management 
of  the  business  of  their  clients.  The  education 
of  such  men  involves  only  such  general  training 
as  is  required  by  other  business  men,  with  the 
addition  of  such  studies  as  will  give  them  a 
knowledge  of  the  architectural  forms  current 
in  our  time,  and  such  a  superficial  acquaintance 
with  the  principles  of  architectural  design  as 
will  enable  them  to  choose  as  employees  de- 
signers whose  work  will  satisfy  the  average 
taste  of  their  clients. 

We  need  not  concern  ourselves,  however, 
with  business  men  of  this  type,  for  they  will 
not  be  looked  upon  as  architects  by  those  to 
follow  us  unless  they  combine  with  their  busi- 
ness skill  the  other  qualities  demanded  of  the 
ideal  architect,  to  the  consideration  of  whose 
training  we  may  now  turn  our  attention. 


ARCHITECTURE,  EDUCATION  IN 


Apprentice  System. — As  is  indicated  by  the 
etymology  of  his  name,  the  architect  was  orig- 
inally a  master  workman;  one  who  had  arisen 
from  the  ranks  because  he  had  evinced  skill 
and  imagination  in  guiding  the  construction  of 
buildings  after  the  methods  current  in  his  time, 
and  who  through  the  exercise  of  this  skill  and 
imagination  had  produced  buildings  which  were 
looked  upon  as  beautiful  by  his  fellows. 

The  methods  employed  by  the  architects  of 
antiquity  are  little  known  to  us,  yet  as  the  work 
under  their  control  became  more  complicated 
they  must  have  found  it  necessary  to  employ 
assistants  who  at  first  were  without  doubt 
merely  trade  apprentices,  and  from  among  these 
the  architects  of  the  next  generation  would 
most  naturally  be  chosen. 

In  modern  times,  as  the  use  of  complicated 
drawings  has  become  more  and  more  impor- 
tant, the  architect  has  found  it  necessary  to 
use  his  assistants  on  special  work  which 
does  not  involve  the  skill  acquired  by  arti- 
sans in  construction;  and  thus  the  type  of 
man  serving  as  the  architect's  apprentice  has 
changed.  While  not  an  artisan  himself  he  has 
learned  his  master's  methods,  and  presently  we 
find  men  thus  trained  assuming  the  function  of 
the  architect  without  any  preliminary  practice 
as  constructors. 

The  apprentice  system  of  education  for  the 
architect  as  thus  developed  was  not  unlike 
that  adopted  in  the  earlier  days  in  the  training 
of  artists  in  other  fields,  and  with  such  modifi- 
cations as  are  natural  in  relation  to  the  com- 
plexity of  modern  life  it  has  persisted  even  to 
our  day  in  many  lands.  In  England  a  large 
proportion  of  the  eminent  architects  of  the  day 
have  been  educated  in  this  manner,  and  until 
within  a  generation  in  this  country  no  other 
system  of  training  for  the  architect  was  avail- 
able. 

A  similar  apprentice  system  obtained  in  the 
training  of  lawyers  and  doctors  until  a  late 
period  when  special  schools  of  law  and  medicine 
became  established.  The  success  of  these 
schools  called  attention  to  the  fact  that,  from 
a  certain  point  of  view,  the  architect  is  as 
clearly  a  professional  man  as  the  doctor  or  law- 
yer, and  that  the  weaknesses  in  the  training  of 
doctors  and  lawyers  under  the  apprentice  sys- 
tem, which  had  led  to  the  establishment  of  their 
special  schools,  existed  also  in  connection  with 
the   study   of  architecture. 

These  weaknesses  need  but  to  be  stated  to  be 
apparent  to  all.  Evidently  the  teaching  a  busy 
architect  can  give  to  his  pupil  must  vary  greatly 
in  quality  and  amount  as  the  demands  of  his 
practice  vary.  Evidently  his  teaching  is  likely 
to  be  unsystematic ;  and  it  is  certain  to  be  biased 
by  his  individual  taste,  a  matter  which  is  of 
importance  in  relation  to  certain  subjects,  to 
be  referred  to  below,  where  the  broadest  catho- 
licity is  of  importance. 

Thus  following  the  example  set  in  other 
professions,  there  have  been  established  schools 
of  architecture  in  which  an  effort  is  made  to 
give  the  student  a  systematic  training  which 
shall  not  vary  in  quality  and  amount  from  year 
to  year,  and  which  shall  avoid  the  unfortunate 
influences  which  are  liable  to  obtain  under  the 
apprentice  system.  It  will  be  generally  con- 
ceded that  the  schools  as  a  rule  have  been  rea- 
sonably successful   in  this  effort,   if  general  re- 


sults are  considered,  if  particular  instances  are 
not  over  emphasized. 

But  the  abandonment  of  the  apprentice  sys- 
tem of  training  in  the  law  and  medicine  car- 
ried with  it  a  loss  which  was  generally  over- 
looked. The  newer  method  tended  to  minimize 
if  not  to  eliminate  the  inspiration  which  comes 
to  the  student  as  the  result  of  contact  with  the 
living  master  in  the  active  practice  of  his  pro- 
fession. Nowadays  students  in  law  and  med- 
icine appreciate  this  loss  and  are  supplementing 
their  school  training  with  practice  under  the 
guidance  of  men  of  reputation  in  their  special 
fields. 

But  the  loss  to  the  student  of  architecture 
who  fails  to  come  under  the  influence  of  a  prac- 
tising master  can  scarcely  be  overstated.  For 
the  artist  such  an  influence  is  of  vital  im- 
portance ;  under  it  he  will  absorb,  as  it  were, 
stores  of  lore  peculiar  to  his  art  which  can 
never  be  expressed  in  the  alien  words  of  the  lec- 
turer, or  upon  the  pages  of  a  text-book.  Fortu- 
nately the  architects  themselves  are  beginning 
to  see  that  in  one  way  or  another  the  archi- 
tectural student  must  be  brought  to  feel  this 
influence.  What  was  valuable  in  the  apprentice 
method  of  education,  and  has  been  in  many 
cases  lost,  must  be  regained.  In  no  inconsider- 
able measure  it  has  been  regained  in  the  atelier 
system  as  developed  in  the  Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts  in  Paris,  and  fortunately  a  distinct  move- 
ment in  the  same  direction  is  noted  in  the  later 
developments  of  the  schools  existing  in  this 
country. 

Granting  then  that  there  is  a  vital  something 
of  supreme  importance  to  the  architectural 
student  which  the  school  training  cannot  give, 
let  us  ask  what  he  can  gain  in  the  schools,  with 
economy  of  his  time  and  labor,  in  connection 
with  the  training  which  we  have  seen  to  be 
desirable  in  the  three  directions  above  spoken 
of,  which  for  convenience  we  shall  treat  in  re- 
verse order. 

Business  Training.— -The  architect's  business 
training  cannot  be  materially  advanced  in  the 
architectural  school.  The  general  education, 
and  the  influences  which  produce  the  reliable, 
accurate,  and  farseeing  business  man,  can 
best  be  gained  quite  apart  from  the  school 
course,  in  the  practising  architect's  studio. 
In  this  connection  it  may  be  noted  that, 
while  the  artistic  side  of  the  architect's 
life  must  always  be  first  considered,  it  is 
easy  to  underestimate  the  importance  of  his 
business  career.  The  student  fresh  .from  the 
schools  too  often  thinks  that  he  may  at  once 
undertake  important  commissions  without  the 
business  experience  which  a  long  established 
practice  brings.  He  will  tell  you  that  this  can 
be  purchased  ready  made  by  the  employment  of 
others  to  attend  to  this  drudgery  so  repugnant 
to  a  man  of  artistic  temperament. 

But  in  this  view  there  lurks  a  hidden  danger 
to  the  art  of  architecture  itself.  As  has  been 
said  above,  the  confidence  of  the  client  must  be 
obtained  by  the  man  who  is  to  spend  the  cli- 
ent's money,  and  if  the  skilled  designer  is  not 
one  who  inspires  this  confidence  the  control  of 
great  constructions  will  surely  go  to  men  of  less 
artistic  ability,  and  the  skilled  designer  will 
find  himself  directed,  rather  than  the  director  of 
the  work  necessary  to  the  embodiment  in  - 
form  of  the  ideas  which  his  imagination  cre- 
ates.    Nothing  can  be   more  dangerous  to  pro- 


ARCHITECTURE,  EDUCATION  IN 


gress  in  architecture  as  an  art  than  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  belief  that  the  architect's  {unction 
ends  with  the  creation  of  designs  on  paper;  his 
art  product  is  in  the  constructed  building,  and 
if  effective  artistic  result  is  to  be  gained  he 
uld  actually  direct  the  construction  in  all 
particulars  and  to  the  very  end,  and  should 
train  himself  to  assume  all  the  labor  and  re- 
sponsibilities  mis   direction   involves. 

Technical  Training. — We  may  now  turn  to 
the  consideration  of  the  architect's  technical 
training,  which  in  the  first  place  must  result  in 
the  master-.'  of  methods  of  representing  his  con- 
cept' '  at  they  may  be   undersl 1   by   his 

clients,  and  comprehended  by  the  workmen  who 
are  t"  1"  d  to  embody  them  in  material 

form.  This  means  in  the  main  the  attainment 
of  skil',  in  technical  draughting:  and  this  can 
irery  i  learly  be  better  and  more  quickly  gained 
by  the  concentrated  effort  possible  in  a  school 
than  in  the  course  of  the  routine  work  in  an 
litect's  office.  The  student  should  be  warned, 
however,  that  a  danger  is  connected  with  the 
attainment  of  this  skill  if  he  comes  to  look 
upon  his  drawings,  which  are  no  more  than 
tools  of  his  trade,  as  works  of  art  in  them- 
selves ;  for  these  drawings  are  necessarily  on 
plane  surfaces,  and  if  he  gives  too  much 
thought  to  their  perfection  he  is  liable  to  over- 
look the  importance  for  him  as  an  architect  of 
thinking  in   solid   dimensions. 

The  general  principles  governing  the  repre- 
sentation of  details  of,  and  the  writing  of  specifi- 
cations descriptive  of.  the  work  to  be  done  can 
also  be  learned  in  the  schools,  but  little  more 
than  these  general  principles ;  the  student  must 
not  hope  to  gain  facility  in  these  important  mat- 
ters without  the  experience  of  actual  office 
practice. 

Artistic  Training. —  It  is  true  of  all  artists, 
as  it  is  of  poets  in  particular,  that  they  are 
born  and  not  made ;  and  surely  unless  ail  op- 
portunity is  lacking  the  born  architect  of  genius 
will  show  his  power  whatever  bis  training  may 
be.  Nevertheless  there  are  certain  matters 
which  even  the  genius  must  learn  by  his  own 
often  bitter  experience,  or  else  from  those  who 
have  practised  his  art  before  him;  and  these 
matters  may  in  some  particulars  be  learned 
most  quickly  and  surely  in  a  school.  It  will  be 
agreed  for  instance  that  each  artist  should  un- 
derhand well  the  nature  of  the  medium  in 
which  he  is  to  express  his  measure  of  genius. 
The  medium  of  the  artist-architect  is  construc- 
tion in  masonry,  in  iron,  and  in  wood ;  and  a 
thorough  knowdedge  of  the  principles  of  con- 
struction is  most  important  to  his  progress. 
This  knowdedge  is  the  ground  work  of  engineer- 
in  l;.  and  clearly  can  best  be  gained  in  a  school. 
In  relation  to  this  special  study  it  may  be  said, 
on  the  one  hand,  that  the  most  thorough  train- 
ing in  engineering  cannot  injure  an  architect 
provided  it  does  not  take  from  the  time  to  be 
given  to  other  equally  important  matters  to 
be  referred  to  below.  On  the  other  hand  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  architect's  func- 
tion is  not  merely  building  as  such,  but  build- 
ing in  a  manner  that  shall  stimulate  in  his  fel- 
lows the  sense  of  beauty.  This  molding  of 
constructional  forms  into  shapes  wdiich  are 
beautiful  is  a  matter  of  difficulty  which  has 
been  attained  by  architects  in  the  past  only 
through    numberless    trials,    with    their    failures 


and  successes;  through  the  elimination  of  the 
ugly,  and  the  repetition  with  ever  incrc.^ 
improvement  of  that  which  has  shown  itself  to 
be  pleasing.  The  architect  has  thus  always 
worked  with,  and  upon,  established  modes  of 
construction,  anil  he  always  will:  and  this  dis- 
tinguishes his  work  from  that  of  the  engineer, 
whose  function  it  is  to  devise  special  mode 
structure    to    mee)    special    structural    demands. 

It  is  apparent  then  that  the  training  of  the 
architect  in  relation  to  his  structural  medium 
differs  from  that  to  be  given  to  the  engineer, 
in  that  the  architect  does  not  need  to  gain  more 
than  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  princi- 
ples of  structure  which  he  is  to  use  in  his  work, 
and  this  does  not  necessarily  involve  so  pro- 
longed or  detailed  a  study  of  the  sciences  a-  is 
il   for  the  engineer. 

The  Architect  as  a  Designer.— We  may  now 
turn  to  the  consideration  of  what  is  of  the  high- 
est importance  to  the  architect,  namely,  his 
training  as  a  designer.  As  we  have  suggested 
above,  no  amount  of  training  can  give  to  a 
man  that  measure  of  genius  which  constitutes 
him  an  artist.  None  the  less  the  greatest  genius 
will  gain  much  if  he  learn  the  lessons  taught 
by  the  experience  of  the  masters  of  the  past,  and 
the  man  who  is  less  than  a  genius  were  stupid 
if  he  did  not  welcome  this  teaching.  The  mas- 
ters of  architecture  of  the  past  have  left  us  a 
record  of  the  forms  and  relations  of  parts  which 
after  long  scries  of  studies  and  experiments 
they  have  found  to  be  most  beautiful.  This  rec- 
ord is  not  found  in  written  word,  but  in  the 
great  monuments  wdiich  have  been  left  to  us ; 
and  the  study  of  these  monuments  after  a  cer- 
tain method  constitutes  the  history  of  architec- 
ture. The  student  should  gain  as  thorough  a 
knowledge  as  possible  of  tin  with  es- 

pecial reference  to  the  vital  development  of 
the    various    greater    and    lesser  iving 

particular  attention  to  those  forms  in  which  the 
highest  perfection  has  been  attained  in  the 
past,  and  making  a  special  study  of  those  forms 
which  appeal  to  him  as  most  likely  to  be  of 
service  to  him  under  the  conditions  which  sur- 
round him.  He  should  also  gain  a  considerable 
acquaintance  with  the  other  arts,  especially  with 
those  most  closely  related  with  architecture, 
namely,  sculpture  and  painting. 

Evidently  a  large  part  of  the  information 
just  referred  to  can  be  gained  through  text- 
books and  illustrated  lectures  given  in  the 
schools.  But  as  clearly  is  it  important  for  the 
architect  to  study  the  art  products  themsel' 
and  this  can  only  be  done  satisfactorily  by 
travel  in  the  Old  World,  where  the  great  archi- 
tectural monuments  of  the  past  exist.  Where 
such  travel  is  impossible,  he  may  gain  something 
approximating  to  it  by  studying  such  models  of 
masterpieces  of  the  past  as  are  available  in 
museums,  and  by  the  thoughtful  use  of  photo- 
graphs   of    existing    masterpieces. 

In  all  this,  however,  the  student  will  have 
been  merely  sharpening  his  tools  for  his  life 
work  :  all  this  is  but  preliminary  to  practice  in 
design.  Here  he  cannot  properly  content  him- 
self with  mere  study  of  the  works  of  other 
masters.  For  the  conditions  under  which  each 
generation  works  are  always  in  some  respects 
new,  and  architecture  as  exemplified  in  his 
work  can  only  be  a  living  art  if  the  architect, 
while   taking  advantage  of  the   artistic   expert- 


ARCHITRAVE  —  ARCHONS 


ence  of  those  who  have  preceded  him,  builds 
to  meet  the  new  conditions  in  which  he  finds 
himself   placed. 

In  these  studies  in  design  he  will  necessarily 
employ  drawings  very  largely,  but  he  should 
never  allow  himself  to  forget  that  these  draw- 
ings are  merely  symbols  of  the  art  product  he 
aims  to  produce ;  he  should  use  every  effort  to 
avoid  thinking  of  his  design  on  paper  as  the 
end  of  his  endeavor ;  he  should  strenuously 
train  himself  while  he  works  on  a  plane  sur- 
face to  translate  into  the  actual  material  sub- 
stance of  the  building  he  is  projecting;  that  is, 
to  design  and  think  in  the  solid.  To  this  end 
the  student  should  give  considerable  attention 
to  modeling  in  clay,  and  he  will  find  it  most 
valuable  to  cultivate  the  habit  of  rapid  and 
accurate  sketching  in  perspective,  and  to  acquire 
deftness  in  making  simple  small  scale  clay 
models  of  his  projets. 

It  is  in  connection  with  this  study  of  design 
that  the  architectural  student  will  find  it  to  his 
greatest  advantage  to  work  under  the  inspiring 
influence  of  a  practising  architect  whom  he  rec- 
ognizes as  a  master  of  his  art;  and  it  is  most 
encouraging  to  note,  as  has  been  remarked 
above,  that  those  who  guide  the  best  of  our 
modern  architectural  schools  are  recognizing 
this  fact,  and  are  aiming  in  one  way  or  another 
to  regain  the  benefit  to  the  student  in  this 
regard  which  was  connected  with  the  old  ap- 
prentice system  so  carelessly  laid  aside  in  most 
of  the   schools  as  first  established. 

It  must  be  apparent  to  the  reader  of  what 
has  preceded  this  that  no  student  should  under- 
take the  practice  of  architecture  without  facing 
the  fact  that  he  has  before  him  a  long  road,  and 
a  life  of  arduous  effort.  In  the  view  of  the 
writer  no  young  man  should  undertake  this 
work  unless  he  feels  within  him  a  very  power- 
ful inclination  to  it.  The  modern  world  is  all 
too  full  of  those  who  choose  the  architect's 
life  because  they  think  it  relatively  easy  and  es- 
pecially delightful.  The  latter  it  surely  is ;  but 
the  former  it  as  surely  never  is. 

Conclusions. —  The  conclusions  reached  may 
now  be  summarized  in  a  few  words.  Beyond 
such  general  culture  as  he  may  be  able  to  gain, 
the  most  desirable  special  training  for  an  archi- 
tectural student  will  be  given  by  certain  stud- 
ies which  can  best  be  taken  in  established  ar- 
chitectural schools,  supplemented  by  careful 
observations  of  monuments  of  architecture  in  the 
course  of  travel  in  Europe,  and  by  work  in  the 
studio  and  business  office  of  a  skilled  practi- 
tioner who  is  a  masterful  artist. 

It  were  well  if  life  were  so  ordered  that  the 
acquisition  of  technical  facility,  and  the  study 
of  design  under  a  master,  could  begin  in  early 
youth,  and  continuing  could  fill  the  leisure  hours 
of  the  student  while  gathering  the  store  of  gen- 
eral information  which  tends  to  broaden  his 
life;  but  under  existing  conditions  such  an  order 
of  work   is  difficult  to  arrange. 

If  choice  is  to  be  made  among  the  archi- 
tectural schools,  the  one  chosen  should  if  possi- 
ble be  one  situated  in  a  city  where  building 
operations  are  proceeding  on  a  large  scale,  and 
especially  one  in  which  design  is  taught  by  mas- 
ters of  architecture  who  are  in  active  practice. 

Finally  the  student  would  do  well  who  could 
manage  to  obtain  a  position  in  the  draughting 
room   and   business   office   of  some   architect    in 


active  practice  during  a  large  proportion  of  the 
long  school  vacations  so  generally  given  during 
the  summer  season.  See  Painting,  Education 
in;   Sculpture,   Education    in. 

Henry   Rutgers   Marshall. 

Architrave,  ar'ki-trav,  in  classical  archi- 
tecture and  imitations  of  it,  the  part  of  an  en- 
tablature which  rests  immediately  on  the  heads 
of  the  columns,  being  the  lowest  of  its  three 
principal  divisions ;  also  the  molded  enrichment 
on  the  faces  of  the  jambs  and  lintels  of  a  door- 
way or  window,  this  being  a  part  of  the  en- 
tablature carried  around  the  opening  and  mitred 
at  the  upper  corners. 

Archives,  ar'kivz  (Latin  archivuni),  a  room 
or  building  in  which  are  kept  the  records,  char- 
ters, and  other  papers  belonging  to  any  State, 
community,  or  family.  Very  frequently  the 
name  is  applied  to  the  documents  themselves. 
The  archives  of  the  United  States  are  now  su- 
perintended by  the  heads  of  departments. 

Archivolt,  ar'ki-volt,  in  architecture,  the 
ornamental  band,  often  of  moldings,  on  the  face 
of  an  arch  and  following  its  contour. 

Arch  of  Con'stantine.  See  Arch,  Memorial. 

Arch  of  Septi'mius  Seve'rus.  See  Arch, 
Memorial. 

Arch  of  Titus.     See  Arch,  Memorial. 

Arch  of  Trajan.     See  Arch,  Memorial. 

Archons,  ar'k5nz,  the  highest  magistrates 
in  Athens.  There  was  for  a  long  period  only 
one  archon,  who  possessed  for  life  all  the  power 
and  dignity  of  a  king,  and  was  chosen  from  the 
royal  race  of  Codrus.  In  752  B.C.  a  change  was 
introduced,  and  the  tenure  of  the  archonship  was 
restricted  to  10  years,  the  person  appointed  be- 
ing still  a  member  of  the  royal  race.  In  714 
the  latter  condition  was  abolished,  and  the  ar- 
chonship thrown  open  to  all  the  Eupatrids  or 
nobles;  and  in  683  a  still  greater  change  was 
introduced,  the  office  being  now  made  annual, 
and  its  functions  distributed  among  a  body  of 
nine.  The  reforms  of  Solon  threw  the  archon- 
ship open  to  all  who  possessed  a  certain  amount 
of  property,  whether  noble  by  birth  or  not ;  and 
in  477  Aristides  made  it  accessible  to  all 
Athenian  citizens,  without  distinction.  Until 
508  the  mode  of  election  was  by  suffrage  of  the 
nobles ;  election  by  lot  was  then  introduced,  and 
the  person  elected  had  to  undergo  a  scrutiny 
before  the  senate  and  before  the  Agora  in  order 
to  show  that  his  ancestors  had  been  citizens  for 
three  generations,  and  had  to  swear  to  obey  the 
laws.  The  first  of  the  nine  archons  was  called 
"the  archon,"  and  sometimes  the  Archon  Epo- 
nymus.  because  he  gave  his  name  to  the  year  in 
all  public  records.  He  had  the  care  of  minors 
and  orphans,  and  had  to  superintend  some  of 
the  festivals.  Tin-  second  archon  was  called  the 
King  Archon.  Upon  him  chiefly  devolved  the 
care  of  the  religious  concerns  of  the  people,  in 
connection  with  which  he  had  to  act  as  prosecu- 
tor of  murderers  and  offenders  against  religion. 
The  third  archon  had  the  name  of  Polemarch, 
and  was  originally  entrusted  with  the  super- 
intendence of  military  matters,  though  in  later 
times  his  duties  were  chiefly  confined  to  the 
protection   and   superintendence   of  the   resident 


ARCHYTAS  — ARCTIC  REGION 


aliens.  The  rest  of  the  archons  were  called 
Thesmothetse,  and  exercised  a  general  supervi- 
sion over  the  laws  of  the  state. 

Archytas,  ar-ki'tas,  an  ancient  Greek,  a 
native  of  Tarentum,  a  famous  Pythagorean  phi- 
losopher, renowned  also  as  a  truly  wise  man,  a 
great  mathematician,  statesman,  and  general. 
He  was  the  contemporary  of  Plato  and  flour- 
ished about  400-365  B.C.,  but  the  dates  of  his 
birth  and  death  are  unknown.  The  invention  of 
the  analytic  method  in  mathematics  is  ascrihed 
to  him.  as  will  as  the  solution  of  many  geometri- 
cal and  mechanical  problems.  He  constructed 
various  machines  and  automata,  among  the  most 
celebrated  of  which  was  his  living  pigeon.  Plato 
is  said  to  have  borrowed  some  of  his  opinions 
from  Archytas.  and  Aristotle  also  is  said  to  have 
hmi  indebted  to  him  for  the  idea  of  his  cate- 
gories and  some  of  his  ethical  opinions.  These 
opinions,  however,  appear  to  depend  on  spurious 
writings,  the  real  remains  of  Archytas  being  of 
inconsiderable  value.  Horace  mentions  him  in 
one  of  his  poems  (Carm.  i.  28)  as  having  been 
drowned  on  the  coast  of  Apulia. 

Arcif'era  (Latin,  arcus,  bow,  +  fcrre,  to 
hear,  carry),  a  division  of  Anura,  including  the 
toads. 

Arcis-Sur-Aube,  ar'se'su'rob',  France,  a 
town  of  the  department  of  Aube  on  the  river 
Auhc.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Danton,  to  whom 
a  monument  was  erected  here  in  1886.  In  1814 
a  battle  was  fought  here  between  Napoleon  and 
the  allies  in  which  the  latter,  with  a  much  su- 
perior force,  had  the  advantage  and  afterward 
marched  to  Paris.    Pop.  2,841. 

Ar'co,  Austria,  a  town  in  the  Tirol,  not 
far  from  the  Lake  of  Garda,  on  account  of  its 
situation  and  mild  climate  a  favorite  winter  re- 
sort of  invalids.     Pop.  3,782. 

Arcole,  ar'ko-la,  a  village  in  North  Italy, 
in  the  province  and  15  miles  southeast  of  the 
town  of  Verona,  on  the  left  hank  of  the  Alpone, 
celebrated  for  the  battles  of  15,  16,  and  17  Nov. 
1796,  fought  between  the  French  under  Bona- 
parte and  the  Austrians  in  which  the  latter  were 
1    i   ated  with  great  slaughter. 

Arson,  ar-sori,  Jean  Claude  Eleonore  d',  a 
French  military  engineer:  b.  Pontarlier,  1733; 
d.  1  July  1800.  He  was  received  into  the  mili- 
tary school  at  Me/ieres,  1754,  and  in  the  Seven 
Years'  war  he  highly  distinguished  himself, 
particularly  at  the  defense  of  Cassel  in  1761. 
In  1780  he  invented  the  floating  batteries  for  the 
attack  of  Gibraltar,  which,  however,  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  red-hot  shot  of  the  besieged.  At 
the  invasion  of  Holland  under  Dumouriez  (in 
171)3)  be  took  several  places,  including  Breda. 
He  then  went  into  retirement,  where  he  wrote 
his  important  'Considerations  Militaires  et  Poli- 
tiques  sur  les  Fortifications'   (1795). 

Arcona.      See  Arkona. 

Arcos  de  la  Frontera,  iir'kos  da  la  fron- 
ta'ra.  a  town  in  Spain  in  the  province  of  Cadiz, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Guadalete,  which  is 
here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge.  The  sandstone 
rock  on  which  the  town,  in  form  of  a  bow,  is 
placed,  rises  570  feet  above  the  level  of  the  river, 
which  surrounds  it  on  three  sides.  The  houses 
are  mean  looking;  the  streets  paved,  but  gener- 
ally steep  and  narrow  :  and  the  ancient  walls  and 
defenses  are  in  a  ruinous  state.     On  the  highest 


part  of  the  rock  stands  the  castle  of  the  dukes 
of  Arcos,  partly  in  ruins.     Pop.  (1900)  15,700. 

Ar'cot,  ar-kot',  the  name  of  two  districts 
and  a  town  of  India  within  the  presidency  of 
Madras.  North  Arcot  is  an  inland  district  with 
an  area  of  7,256  square  miles.  The  country  is 
partly  flat  and  partly  mountainous.  Pop.  1,817,- 
814.  South  Arcot  lies  on  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
and  has  two  seaports,  Cuddalor  and  Porto  Novo. 
Pop.  1,814,738.  The  town  of  Arcot  is  in  North 
Arcot,  on  the  Palar,  about  70  miles  wesl-by- 
south  of  Madras.  There  is  a  military  canton- 
ment 3  miles  distant.  The  town  contains  hand- 
some mosques,  a  Nawab's  palace  in  ruins,  and 
the  remains  of  an  extensive  fort.  Arcot  played 
an  important  part  in  the  wars  which  resulted 
in  the  ascendency  of  the  British  in  India.  It 
was  taken  by  Give,  31  Aug.  1751,  and  heroically 
defended  by  him  against  an  overwhelming  force 
under  Rajah  Sahib.    Pop.  11,000. 

Arctic,  a  term  applied  to  the  North  Pole,  or 
the  pole  raised  above  our  horizon,  from  tl>e 
proximity  of  the  constellation  of  the  Bear,  in 
Greek  called  arktos.  The  Arctic  circle  is  an 
imaginary  circle  on  the  globe,  parallel  to  the 
equator,  and  230  28'  distant  from  the  North  Pole, 
from  whence  its  name.  This  and  its  opposite, 
the  Antarctic,  are  called  the  polar  circles.  With- 
in these  circles  the  sun  does  not  set  during  a 
part  of  the  year,  and  during  a  corresponding  part 
does  not  rise. 

Arc 'tic  Charr.     See  Trout. 

Arctic  Re'gion,  the  name  given  to  the 
region  of  land  and  water  surrounding  the  North 
Pole,  reaching  on  all  sides  to  lat.  66°  32'  N. 
The  Arctic  or  North  Polar  circle  touches  the 
northern  headlands  of  Iceland;  cuts  off  the 
southern  and  narrowest  portion  of  Greenland; 
crosses  Fox  Strait  north  of  Hudson  Bay,  whence 
it  goes  over  the  American  continent  to  Bering 
Strait.  Thence  it  runs  to  Ohdorsk  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Obi ;  then,  crossing  northern  Russia,  the 
White  Sea.  and  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  re- 
turns to  Iceland. 

Climate. —  The  most  important  facts  now  as- 
certained respecting  the  climate  of  the  Arctic 
regions  are,  that  the  main  line  of  extreme  cold 
extends  across  the  Polar  Sea  from  the  meridian 
of  90°  W.  to  that  of  1300  E.,  reaching  much  far- 
ther on  the  Asiatic  than  on  the  American  side, 
so  that  the  winter  temperature  of  Yakutsk  (lat. 
620  2')  is  7°  F.  lower  than  that  of  Rensselaer 
harbor,  in  Smith  Sound  (lat.  780  37')-  But  the 
American  limit  of  cold  oscillates  much  less  than 
the  Asiatic,  the  summer  temperature  at  Rvnsse- 
laer  harbor  being  but  620,  while  at  Yakutsk  it  is 
95°  F.  above  that  of  winter.  This  difference  is 
due  to  the  absorption  of  summer  heat  by  the 
comparatively  dry  plains  of  Siberia,  while  on  the 
North  American  continent  the  numerous  lakes 
and  inlets  moderate  the  climate  throughout  the 
year.  To  this  it  may  perhaps  be  added  that 
Greenland,  owing  to  its  peculiar  constitution  and 
position,  is  to  North  America  a  source  of  re- 
frigeration which  has  no  counterpart  in  the  east- 
ern continent.  This  circumstance,  and  the  hu- 
mid atmosphere  maintained  by  the  numerous 
lakes,  somewhat  moderates  the  severity  of  the 
cold,  but  at  the  same  time  renders  it  somewhat 
more  constant. 

Arctic  Ocean. — In  its  widest  sense  that  por- 
tion of  the  ocean  which  extends  from  the  Arc- 


c 


ARCTIC  REGION 


tic  Circle  (lat.  66°  32'  N.)  to  the  North  Pole, 
or  more  restrictedly  from  about  lat.  70°  N.  As- 
suming the  former  limit,  the  Arctic  Ocean  is 
found  entering  deeply,  in  the  form  of  gulfs,  bays, 
etc.,  into  the  northern  parts  of  the  continents 
of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  The  principal 
of  these  indentations  are  the  White  Sea  in  Eu- 
rope; Kara  Sea,  Gulfs  of  Obi  and  Yenisei  in 
Siberia ;  and  Baffin  Bay  in  North  America.  It 
is  united  to  the  Pacific  by  Bering  Strait,  and  to 
the  Atlantic  by  a  wide  stretch  of  sea  extending 
from  Greenland  to  Norway.  Among  the  princi- 
pal islands  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  are  Greenland 
(at  last  proved  to  be  an  island)  and  east  of 
Greenland  the  extensive  group  known  under  the 
name  of  Spitzbergen,  the  small  island  of  Jan 
May  en,  and  Iceland.  West  of  Greenland  and 
divide  from  it  by  Davis  Strait  and  Baffin  Bay 
there  are  a  considerable  number  of  islands  of 
great  size  but  little  interest.  North  of  Europe 
are  the  islands  of  Nova  Zembla ;  and  north  from 
these  Franz  Josef  Land,  an  archipelago  as  yet 
imperfectly  known.  The  water  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  is  extremely  pure,  shells  being  distinctly 
visible  at  a  great  depth;  it  also  presents  rapid 
transitions  of  color,  chiefly  from  ultramarine  to 
olive-green,  the  latter  variations  of  color  being 
produced  by  myriads  of  minute  animals  belong- 
ing for  the  most  part  to  the  Ccelcnteraia  and 
Mollusca  classes.  Many  have  adopted  the  be- 
lief in  the  existence  of  an  open  polar  sea  about 
the  North  Pole.  But  this  belief  is  not  supported 
by  any  positive  evidence.  Ice  is  nearly  con- 
stant everywhere  between  Spitzbergen  and  the 
southern  point  of  Greenland.  This  is  called  the 
main  north  ice.  East  of  Spitzbergen  and  near 
Nova  Zembla  the  sea  is  always  beset,  if  not 
completely  barred,  by  ice.  In  Baffin  Bay  and 
thence  west  to  Bering  Strait  numerous  expe- 
ditions have  had  a  perpetual  struggle  with  ice. 
The  expedition  of  1875-6  under  Captain  Nares, 
members  of  which  reached  a  point  30  miles 
further  north  than  had  ever  previously  been 
attained,  proceeding  by  way  of  Baffin  Bay 
and  Smith  Sound,  found  no  indications  of  an 
open  polar  sea.  On  the  contrary  the  explorers 
found  north  of  820  27'  a  sea  consisting  of  one 
unbroken  sheet  of  old  ice  of  immense  thickness, 
which  effectually  barred  the  further  progress 
of  the  vessels,  while  the  ruggedness  of  the  ice 
rendered  it  impossible  to  reach  the  pole  by 
sledge.  Nansen  more  recently  found  abundance 
of  ice  in  the  tract  of  sea  crossed  by  him. 

Arctic  Current. —  It  seems  certain  that  a 
current  sets  into  the  polar  basin  along  the  coasts 
of  Norway  and  Lapland.  It  is  probably  the 
effect  of  prevalent  southwest  winds,  though  some 
call  it  a  branch  of  the  Gulf  Stream.  There  is 
also  a  strong  current  running  in  at  Bering 
Strait.  On  the  other  hand,  along  the  east  coast 
of  Greenland  and  in  Baffin's  Bay  the  movement 
is  generally  south.  In  the  numerous  channels 
between  Baffin  Bay  and  Bering  Strait  the  tides 
are  regular  but  feeble ;  indeed,  it  seems  possible 
to  trace  across  Barrow  Strait  the  line  of  neu- 
tralized or  no  tide,  and  this,  there  is  reason  to 
suspect,  is  also  the  line  of  comparatively  perma- 
nent ice. 

Minerals. —  Valuable  minerals,  fossils,  etc., 
have  been  discovered  within  these  Arctic  regions. 
In  the  archipelago  north  of  the  American  conti- 
nent excellent  coal  frequently  occurs.  The 
mineral  cryolite  is  mined  in  Greenland  and  car- 


ried to  the  United  States.  Among  other  fossils 
the  remains  of  large  saurians  are  found  in  the 
Lias,  which  extends  widely  over  the  northern 
archipelago,  and  ammonites  collected  in  abun- 
dance prove  that  in  lat.  730  north  there  was  once 
a  tropical  temperature.  The  group  of  islands 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Lena,  in  lat.  730,  are 
little  more  than  accumulations  of  fossil  remains 
carried  down  by  the  river,  and  are  annually 
visited  for  the  purpose  of  digging  fossil  ivory. 
Vegetation. —  The  plants  peculiar  to  the 
frigid  zone  are  stunted  more  by  the  dry  winter 
winds  than  by  short  growing  seasons  and  long 
winters.  The  reduction  is  confined  to  the  limbs, 
as  roots  are  as  long  and  penetrate  as  far  as  in 
more  temperate  climates.  The  vegetation  is 
widely  distributed,  the  species  found  in  North 
America  being  practically  the  same  as  those 
found  in  Europe  and  Asia,  and  since  trees  be- 
come more  and  more  scarce  as  the  Pole  is  ap- 
proached, the  prevalence  of  the  tundra  forma- 
tion is  characteristic  of  the  region.  In  respect 
to  distribution,  arctic  plants  differ  from  alpine 
plants  (q.v. )  which  though  otherwise  simi- 
lar, especially  in  the  census  of  cushion  and 
rosette  plants  and  plants  with  thick-skinned 
evergreen  leaves,  include  many  endemic  species. 
Arctic  perennials  are  noted  for  the  high  per- 
centage of  species  that  develop  wintering  flower- 
ing buds  which  burst  into  bloom  early  in  the 
spring.  In  the  Arctic  zone,  less  than  two 
thousand  species  have  been  described,  among 
them  very  few  trees.  These  are  mostly  stunted 
willows,  junipers,  and  birches,  and  beyond  their 
northern  limits  flowering  plants,  grasses,  mosses, 
and  lichens  extend  as  far  as  man  has  penetrated. 
Commonest  among  the  flowering  species  are 
crowfoots,  potentillas,  poppies,  saxifrages,  whit- 
low grass  (Draba)  and  scurvy  grass  (Cochlea- 
ria).  Thyme  and  angelica,  growing  in  shel- 
tered spots,  are  the  only  perfume-bearers. 

The  English  expedition  of  1875-76  found  20 
or  30  species  of  phanerogamous  plants  between 
lat.  820  and  830.  From  Churchill  River  on  the 
west  side  of  Hudson  Bay  (lat.  53°  ).  the  line  lim- 
iting the  forest  runs  constantly  to  the  north  of 
west  till  it  reaches  Norton  Sound,  a  little  south  of 
Bering  Strait,  larch  and  poplar  making  their  ap- 
pearance as  we  go  west.  In  Siberia,  where  the 
summer  heat  is  greater,  woods  flourish  to  a  much 
higher  latitude  within  the  Polar  Circle.  In  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula  the  red  pine  reaches 
lat.  69°,  the  Scotch  fir  70°,  the  birch  710.  Ani- 
mal life  is  by  no  means  deficient  within  the  Polar 
Circle.  Species  indeed  are  few.  but  the  individ- 
uals are  extremely  numerous.  The  proof  of  this 
is  to  be  found  in  the  immense  number  of  skins 
of  fur-bearing  animals,  eider  ducks,  seals,  wal- 
rus, etc.,  annually  supplied  to  commerce.  Recent 
expeditions  have  found  the  usual  arctic  quadru- 
peds and  birds  as  far  north  as  the  land  extended. 
How  far  north  the  cetaceans  reach  is  doubtful. 
See  Distribution  of  A  mm  vls. 

Notwithstanding  this  apparent  abundance,  the 
human  being  has  in  general  a  severe  struggle  for 
subsistence  beyond  640  N.  lat..  although 
traces  of  Eskimos  have  been  found  as 
far  north  as  8i°  52'.  The  Eskimos  who  inhabit 
Greenland  and  the  extreme  north  of  America 
have  a  hard  life  of  it.  often  pressed,  and  not 
seldom  cut  off.  by  famine.  Under  their  rigor- 
ous skies  the  resources  derivable  from  the  sur- 
rounding abundance  of  animal  hfe  can  support 


ARCTURUS—   ARECIBO 


only  a  handful  of  men.  Even  in  Siberia,  whi 
the  reindeer  trained  to  the  sledge,  and  the  great 
river-,  frozen  throughout  the  winter,  add  so 
greatly  to  the  facilities  of  intercourse  or  emi- 
tion,  whole  communities  are  frequently  cut 
off  by  famine  or  di  ea  i  Sfel  we  see  Euro- 
pi  i!  ettled  under  the  parallel  of  73"  at  Uper- 
navik  in  Greenland,  of  72  2'  at  Ostyarsk  in 
Sibei  40'  at  Hantmerfest  in  Nor- 

way,   and     Europeans    have    wintered    far    north 

of  tins  The  settlements  in  Greenland,  north- 
ern Siberia,  Kamchatka,  and  the  Hudson  Bay 
territories  are  all  more  or  less  connected  by- 
trade  with  southern  countries,  winner  they  de- 
rive their  power  of  endurance;  and  from  the 
constant  care  required  in  order  to  guard  against 
the  consequences  of  the  severe  climate  it  is 
evident  that  to  man  the  support  of  life  within 
the  Polar  Cirele  must  ever  he  difficult  and  pre- 
carious. Nevertheless,  owing  to  the  abundance 
of  lower  animal  life,  men  have  visited  these 
regions  for  centuries  to  gather  the  exceedingly 
rich  harvests  of  furs  and  oil. 

tic  Exploration. —  See  Polar  Research. 

I  he  following  are  tie  farthest  points  of  north 
latitude  reached  by  Arctic  explorers  up  to  the 
present  date:  1607,  Hudson,  80°  23';  1773, 
Phipps,  8o°  48';  1806,  Scoresby,  81°  12'  4-'"; 
1827,  Parry,  820  50' ;  1874,  Meyer  (on  land), 
820 ;  1875,  Markham  and  Parr  ( Nares'  expe- 
dition), 83°  20'  26";  1876,  Payer,  83°  07';  1884, 
Lockwood  (Greely's  party),  83°  24';  '896,  Nan- 
sen,  86°    14';    1000,   Aliru/zi,  8d"   3i'. 

Bibliography. —  Conway.  'The  First  Cross- 
ing of  Spitsbergen'  ;  Greely,  'Arctic  Service'; 
'Handbook  of  Arctic  Discovery';  and  'Report 
on  the  Proceedings  of  the  United  States  Ex- 
pedition to  Lady  Franklin  Bay';  Haves.  "Arctic 
Boat  Journey';  Jackson,  'A  Thousand  Days  in 
the  Arctic';  and  'The  Great  Frozen  Land'; 
Jones,  T,  'Natural  History,  Geology,  and  Phys- 
ics of  Greenland  and  Adjacent  Regions'  ;  Kane, 
'Arctic  Explorations,  the  Second  Expedition  in 
Search  of  Sir  John  Franklin';  Nansen,  'Far- 
thest North';  Peary,  'Northward  Over  the 
Great  Ice';  Ray,  'Report  of  the  Expedition  to 
Point  Harrow';  Wright.  'Greenland  lee  Fields 
and  Life  in  the  North   Atlantic.' 

Arctu'rus,  a  fixed  star  of  the  first  magni- 
tude in  the  constellation  of  Bootes,  and  thought 
by  some  to  he  one  of  the  largest  of  the  fixed 
stars.  It  has  a  large  proper  motion,  and  is  a 
noticeable  object  in  the  northern  heavens. 

Ar'cus  Seni'lis,  a  term  applied  to  a  white 
or  grayish  white  rim  on  the  outer  edge  of  the 
cornea,  due  to  the  infiltration  of  a  finely  granu- 
lar hyaline  substance,  heretofore  thought  to  be 
a  form  of  f  itty  degeneration.  This  is  probably 
not  the  case,  since  the  infiltration  material  has 
no  relation  to  the  corneal  cells.  It  is  more  prob- 
ably a  condition  due  to  changes  in  the  blood 
vessel-  of  the  cornea  and  is  frequently  a  re- 
sult of  old  age.  It  is  a  normal  phenomenon, 
however,  occurring  sometimes  in  perfectly 
healthy  people,  and  there  is  no  invariable  rela- 
tionship to  fatty  degeneration  of  the  blood  ves- 
sels, heart,  or  other  organ. 

Ardagh,  ar'da,  Sir  John  Charles,  an  Eng- 
lish  military  officer:  b.  1840.  lie  entered  the 
Royal  Engineer  Corps  in  1859;  and  became 
major-general   in   1898.      He  attended  the  Con- 


ference of  Constantinople,  Congress  of  Ber- 
lin, Bulgarian  Boundary  Commission,  and  the 
Peace  Conference  at  I  he  Hague,  in  [899,  and 
was  for  man;  years  director  of  military  intelli- 
gence in  the   British  war  office. 

Ardahan,   ar'da-han',   a    villi.  por- 

tion of  I  uiki-.li  Armenia  ceded  in  1X7X  to  Rus- 
sia, 35  miles  northwest  of  Kars,  It-  position 
gives  it  strategic  importance.  Its  fortress  was 
dismantled  by  the  Russians  in  the  war  of  1X54-6; 
in  187S  the  Berlin  Congress  sanctioned  the  ces- 
sion to  Russia  ,,f  Ardahan,  which  had  been  cap- 
tured early  in  the  war. 

Arditi,  ar-de'te,  Luigi,  an  Italian  musician 
and  composer:  b.  Piedmont,  [6  July  [822; 
d.  Hove.  Sussex,  I  May  1903.  Famous  first 
as  a  violinist,  then  as  a  conductor,  he  went  to 
London  in  i8s",  and  from  that  year  till  1878 
was  musical  director  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre. 
He  has  conducted  Italian  opera  and  concerts 
in  places  as  remote  from  one  another  as  New 
York  and  Constantinople;  has  published  the 
operas  '[  Briganti'  (1841);  and  'La  Spia' 
(1856)  ;  and  is  known  as  author  of  much 
popular  music--  songs,  violin  duets  and  wait 
such  as  '11  Bacio  '  lie  published  his  'Remin- 
iscences'  in  1896. 

Ard'more,  Indian  'Territory,  a  city  of  the 
Chickasavvs,  on  the  Gulf,  Colo.  &  Santa  Fe,  and 
Choctaw,  Okla.  &  Gulf  R.R.'s.  about  20  mile. 
north  of  the  Red  River.  It  is  the  seat  of  Har- 
grove College.  Its  commercial  interests  are  cot- 
ton, coal,  and  asphalt.     Pop.  (1900)  5,681. 

Are'ca,  the  designation  of  a  genus  of  palms, 
possessing  pinnate  leaves,  a  double  membranous 
sheath  containing  its  bunches  of  (lowers;  fruit 
a  one-seeded  berry  or  drupe,  with  a  fibrous 
rind.  'To  this  genus  belongs  the  betel-nut  ir 
pinang  palm  (A.  cathecu),  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  and  cultivated  there  in  many  va- 
rieties. It  is  a  very  beautiful  palm,  with  a  slen- 
der stem  often  40  or  50  feet  high.  Its  nuts, 
called  betel-nuts,  are  rolled  into  a  leaf  of  the 
betel-pepper  along  with  a  little  lime,  and  are 
then  chewed.  'The  nut  contains  at  least  four 
alkaloids,  Arecoline.  Areca'idinc,  Arecaine.  and 
Guvacine,  the  former  alone  having  known  active 
properties.  Arecoline  is  an  active  taeniacide 
and  is  widely  used  in  veterinary  practice  for 
the  treatment  of  tape  worms.  It  is  also  an 
active  cathartic  and  mydriatic.  In  the  latter 
a  e  it  is  extensively  used  as  a  stimulant.  An- 
other palm  of  this  genus  is  the  cabbage  palm 
{A.  oleracca),  one  of  the  most  beautiful  and 
stately  of  the  palm  tribe,  with  a  stem  ri 
often'to  the  height  of  200  feet,  terminated  by  a 
graceful  plume  of  waving  feathery  foliage.  It  1. 
a  native  of  Jamaica  and  other  West  India  1 
lands.  The  so-called  cabbage  is  the  terminal 
leaf-bud.  which  is  very  tender  and  delicious, 
either  raw  or  boiled.  Its  removal,  however, 
kills  the  tree. 

Arecibo,  a'ra-se'bo,  an  important  commer- 
cial town  of  Porto  Rico ;  on  the  northern  coast ; 
facing  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  50  miles  west  of  San 
Juan.  It  resembles  ordinary  Spanish  towns  in 
having  a  plaza,  surrounded  by  the  church  and 
other  public  buildings,  in  the  centre,  with  streets 
running  from  it  in  right  angles,  forming  regu- 
lar squares.  The  buildings  are  of  wood  and 
brick.  'The  harbor  is  poor,  being  exposed  to 
the  full  force  of  the  ocean,  and  having  no  nat- 


ARENACEOUS  ROCKS  — AREQUIPA 


ural  or  artificial  protection.  Imports  and  ex- 
ports can  be  handled  only  by  twice  lightering. 
Tributary  to  the  town  is  a  district  of  about 
30,000  inhabitants.     Pop.   (1903)  about  12,000. 

Ar'ena'ceous  Rocks,  the  name  applied  to 
a  petrographic  division  including  loose  sands  and 
gravels,  sandstone,  conglomerate,  quartzites  and 
such  rocks  as  are  mainly  composed  of  quartz 
particles.  They  are  of  mechanical  origin,  being 
derived  from  disintegration  of  pre-existing  strata 
and  removal  and  deposition  of  the  materials  by 
wind  or  water.  The  grains  are  generally  water- 
worn  and  rounded ;  in  some  cases,  however,  they 
are  more  or  less  angular,  or  rounded  and  angu- 
lar grains  occur  commingled.  In  older  deposits, 
the  grains  of  sand  are  bound  together  by  sili- 
cious,  calcareous,  argillaceous,  or  ferruginous  ce- 
ments. It  is  seldom  that  a  rock  is  composed  of 
quartzose  materials  alone;  grains  or  particles  of 
other  mineral  substances  are  frequently  mingled 
with  the  grains  of  quartz.  Silvery  flakes  of  mica 
are  seldom  absent;  often  occurring  in  layers  par- 
allel to  the  planes  of  stratification,  thus  causing 
the  rock  to  split  into  thin  slabs,  and  exposing  a 
glittering  surface.  These  are  called  micaceous 
sandstones.  When  grains  of  feldspar  occur,  the 
rock  is  a  feldspathic  sandstone.  Often  large 
quantities  of  calcareous  matter,  either  as  cement 
or  as  distinct  grains  occur;  and  these  are  called 
calcareous  sandstones.  In  like  manner  we  have 
silicious  and  ferruginous  sandstones,  when  sil- 
ica and  oxid  of  iron  are  conspicuously  present 
as  cementing  or  binding  materials.  Clay  and 
carbonaceous  matter,  when  plentifully  diffused 
through  the  rock,  give  rise  to  argillaceous,  car- 
bonaceous and  bituminous  sandstones.  Green- 
sand,  or  glauconitic  sandstone,  is  a  rock  contain- 
ing abundant  grains  of  the  dirty  greenish  min- 
eral called  glauconite.  Arkose  is  a  sandstone 
composed  of  disintegrated  granite ;  volcanic 
sandstone,  trappean  sandstone,  etc.,  being  com- 
posed of  disintegrated  igneous  rocks.  The 
presence  of  lime  can  always  be  detected  by  the 
effervescence  which  takes  place  on  the  applica- 
tion of  hydrochloric  or  other  acid.  A  sandstone 
of  homogeneous  composition,  which  may  be 
worked  freely  in  any  direction,  is  called  free- 
stone or  liver  rock.  Flagstone  is  a  sandstone 
capable  of  being  split  into  thin  beds  or  flags 
along  the  planes  of  deposition.  When  the  sand- 
stone is  coarse-grained,  it  is  usually  called  grit. 
If  it  contain,  more  or  less  abundantly,  grains 
large  enough  to  be  called  pebbles,  the  sandstone 
is  said  to  be  conglomeratic ;  and  if  the  pebbles  or 
stones  be  angular,  the  rock  is  described  as  a 
brecciiform  sandstone.  Coarse-grained  grits  and 
pebbly  or  conglomeratic  sandstones  pass  into 
conglomerate  or  puddingstone,  which  consists 
of  a  mass  of  various  sized  water-worn  stones. 
Brecciiform  sandstones  frequently  pass  into 
breccia,  an  aggregate  of  angular  and  sub-angular 
fragments.  Graywacke  is  an  argillaceous  sand- 
stone, more  or  less  altered  and  sometimes  semi- 
crystalline,  met  with  among  palaeozoic  forma- 
tions. 

Arenales,  a'ra-na'les,  Juan  Antonio  Alva- 
rez de,  a  Peruvian  patriot:  b.  1775;  d.  1825. 
When  the  Spanish  army  invaded  Peru,  Arenales 
led  a  body  of  troops  against  them  by  a  long  cir- 
cuitous route,  and  defeated  Marshal  O'Reilly, 
whom   he   made  prisoner,   6   Dec.    1820. 

Ar'ena'ria,  the  name  given  to  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  sandworts,  of  the  Caryophyllacaxa 


or  pink  family.  They  number  upward  of  200 
species,  and  are  usually  low-tufted  herbs  with 
white  flowers.  They  are  very  common  along  the 
American  sea-coast  and  in  sandy  places  through- 
out the  States  north  of  the  Ohio  River.  Several 
species  are  alpine  or  sub-alpine  in  habit  and  are 
found  on  the  summits  of  the  Eastern  Appala- 
chian. Of  these  the  mountain  sandwort  {A. 
Groenlandria)    is  best  known. 

Areng'  Palm,  the  name  of  a  palm,  for- 
merly called  Arcng  saccharifera,  but  now  more 
generally  denominated  Sagucnis  saccharifer.  It 
belongs  to  the  section  Cocoina,  grows  wild  in 
the  islands  of  southern  Asia,  and  is  cultivated  in 
India.  It  furnishes  sago  and  wine,  while  its 
fibres  are   manufactured  into  ropes. 

Ar'eop'agus,  the  designation  of  the  oldest 
Athenian  court  of  justice.  It  obtained  its  name 
from  its  place  of  meeting,  on  the  Hill  of  Ares 
(Mars),  near  the  citadel.  Its  establishment  is 
ascribed  by  some  to  Cecrops,  by  others  to  Solon ; 
from  the  latter,  however,  it  seems  to  have  only 
received  a  better  constitution  and  more  impor- 
tant privileges,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  existed 
from  very  remote  times.  Of  how  many  mem- 
bers it  consisted  is  not  now  known.  A  seat  in 
it  was  held  for  life.  The  members  were  men 
who  in  their  former  capacity  of  archons  had 
rendered  themselves  worthy  of  this  honor  by 
the  honest  and  diligent  execution  of  their  of- 
fice, and  whose  character  and  conduct  had  been 
subjected  to  a  particular  examination.  Aristides 
called  the  Areopagus  the  most  sacred  tribunal  of 
Greece,  and  Demosthenes  assures  us  that  they 
never  passed  a  sentence  in  which  both  parties  did 
not  concur.  Crimes  tried  before  this  tribunal 
were  wilful  murder,  poisoning,  robbery,  arson, 
dissoluteness  of  morals,  and  innovations  in  the 
state  and  in  religion ;  at  the  same  time  it  took 
care  of  helpless  orphans.  The  other  states  of 
Greece  sometimes  submitted  their  disputes  to  the 
judgment  of  the  Areopagus.  Its  meetings  were 
held  in  the  open  air  and  in  the  night  time.  After 
the  investigation  of  a  case  the  votes  were  col- 
lected. In  the  time  of  Pericles  its  political  in- 
fluence was  materially  lessened,  but  it  continued 
a  much  venerated  assemblage,  and  in  Roman 
times  its  decisions  still  commanded  respect.  The 
Apostle  Paul  is  sometimes  thought  to  have  been 
brought  before  this  ancient  court,  but  it  is  more 
likely  that  his  famous  address  on  Mars  Hill  was 
before  an  asemblage  of  philosophers  there. 
See  Botsford,  'The  Athenian  Constitution* 
(1893). 

Arequipa,  a'ra-ke'pa,  a  city  of  Peru,  the 
capital  of  a  department  of  the  same  name.  It  lies 
in  a  fertile  valley  200  miles  south  of  Cuzco, 
at  the  height  of  7,850  feet  above  the  sea.  Prior 
to  the  earthquake  of  13  Aug.  1868,  which  did 
not  leave  a  single  house  habitable,  it  was  one 
of  the  best-built  towns  of  South  America.  Be- 
hind it  rise  three  lofty  mountains,  one  of  which, 
called  the  volcano  of  Arequipa,  or  Peak  of  El 
Miste,  is  one  ot  the  must  elevated  summits  of 
the  Andes,  having  a  height  which  Pentland 
estimates  at  20,32s  feet.  It  contains  a  cathe- 
dral, a  college,  a  hospital,  nunneries,  convents, 
etc.  Near  at  hand  Harvard  University  has  an 
observatory,  at  an  altitude  of  over  8,000  feet. 
It  is  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes,  Inn  this 
evil  seems  to  be  overbalanced  by  the  mildness 
of  the  climate,  and  the   beauty  and   fertility  of 


ARGALL  —  ARGENTINA 


the  country  round  about.  Islav  was  formerly 
the  port  of  Arequipa,  but  it  lias  been  superseded 
by  the  neighboring  port  of  Mollcndo,  connected 

by  railway   with   Arequipa.     Top.    (1901)   3S.000- 

Argall,  Sik  Samuel,  seaman  and  American 
colonial  official :  b.  Wahhamstow,  Essex,  Eng- 
land; d.  24  Jan.  1626.  He  was  a  type  of  the 
founders  of  English  colonial  dominion- — ener- 
getic, resourceful  and  masterful ;  his  further  re- 
pute as  a  sort  of  unprincipled  buccaneer  and 
tyrant  is  due  to  sentiment  and  partisanship.  In 
May  1609,  he  was  sent  with  a  small  barque  to 
the  new  settlement  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  to  trade 
and  fish  on  behoof  of  the  owner.  He  seems  to 
have  found  a  shorter  route  than  usual,  and  soon 
established  a  reputation  for  unprecedentedly 
quick  passages.  The  next  year  he  took  out  Lord 
Delawarr  to  Jamestown,  arriving  just  in  time 
to  prevent  the  entire  colony,  with  the  governor, 
Sir  Thomas  Dale,  leaving  for  Newfoundland  to 
avoid  starvation.  He  was  sent  to  the  Bermudas 
for  swine  to  replace  those  the  colonists  had 
eaten  up,  but  was  driven  by  storms  to  Cape  Cod, 
where  he  found  good  fishing  and  returned  in  Au- 
gust;  established  a  corn  trade  with  the  Indians 
above  Jamestown,  and  early  in  161 1  returned  to 
England  with  Delawarr,  whose  health  was  bad. 
In  September  1621,  he  was  again  at  Jamestown 
after  the  then  swift  passage  of  51  days,  and  the 
rest  of  the  year  he  and  Dale  spent  in  corn- 
hunting  among  the  Indians.  Powhatan  had  a 
number  of  English  prisoners  in  his  hands,  and  a 
quantity  of  weapons  and  implements ;  and  Argall, 
hearing  that  the  chieftain's  daughter  Pocahontas 
was  with  her  uncle  "Powtownec"  (Potomac), 
had  the  happy  thought  of  securing  her  to  ex- 
change against  them,  a  feat  accomplished  by 
threats  and  the  offer  of  a  copper  kettle  to  her  un- 
cle. The  stock  denunciation  of  him  for  this  "ne- 
farious treachery"  is  best  answered  by  the  fact 
that  no  one  was  harmed,  all  parties  were  bene- 
fited, and  a  most  desirable  aim  was  achieved. 
Pocahontas  herself  considered  it  a  piece  of  rare 
good  fortune,  would  not  leave  the  whites,  and 
soon  after  married  one  of  them,  while  the  pris- 
oners were  released,  and  peace  restored  to  the 
colony.  Argall  handed  her  over  to  Sir  Thomas 
Gates  and  explored  the  east  shore  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  fishing  and  trading.  Later  in  the  year  he 
was  sent  with  a  vessel  of  14  guns  to  destroy  the 
French  settlements  on  the  north  coast,  regarded 
as  infringing  on  the  Virginia  patent.  He  cap- 
tured Mount  Desert.  St.  Croix,  and  Port  Royal 
(N.  S.),  carried  off  the  settlers  as  prisoners  to 
Jamestown,  and  on  the  way  forced  the  command- 
ant at  New  Amsterdam  to  recognize  English 
suzerainty  by  hauling  down  the  Dutch  flag  and 
running  up  the  English.  In  1614  he  sailed  for 
England,  and  was  put  on  his  defense  for  these 
high-handed  acts,  but  completely  justified  him- 
self. In  May  1  <>i 7.  he  was  made  deputy-gover- 
nor of  Virginia,  and  remained  two  years  in  a 
broil  with  part  of  the  citizens,  but  justified  by 
others.  He  was  accused  of  illegal  trade  with 
the  West  Indies,  and  repeatedly  ordered  to  re- 
turn to  England  for  trial,  a  command  which  he 
ignored  for  a  time,  possibly  in  reliance  on  the 
Earl  of  Warwick,  who  financed  and  shared  his 
ventures.  In  1620  he  served  against  the  Algerine 
pirates  with  a  24-gun  merchant  vessel,  under  Sir 
Robert  Mansell.  He  was  knighted  in  1622.  In 
1625  he  was  admiral  of  a  squadron  cruising  after 
a  hostile  Dunkirk  fleet,  and  took  some  prizes. 


On  3  October  of  that  year  he  embarked  with  the 
.Iron   in   the  expedition  against   Cadiz   under 

Lord  Wimbledon,  with  Lord  Essex  on  board  as 

vice-admiral  and  commander  of  land  forces; 
Argall's  flagship  was  the  Swiltsure.  He  report- 
ed the  fortress  too  strong  to  be  taken  without  a 
siege,  the  merchant  vessels  were  ill  supplied  and 
unpaid,  and  after  waiting  till  December  for  re- 
lief from  Charles  I.  they  went  home.  Argall 
died  the  next  month,  it  was  said  from  a  broken 
heart  because  the  captain  of  the  Swiftsure  was 
"very  backward  and  cross"  to  him.  (Argall's 
own  narrative  comes  down  to  12  May  1613.) 

Argenteuil,  ar-zhan-te-y,  a  town  in  France, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  seven  miles  below 
Paris.  It  supplies  much  wine,  fruit,  and  \' 
tables  for  the  Parisian  market.  The  famous 
Heloise  was  abbess  of  its  now  ruined  priory 
from   1 120.     Pop.   (1896)    15,126. 

Argentin-,  ar'jcn-te'na,  or  the  Argentine 
REPUBLIC,  the  second  in  size  of  the  South  Am- 
erican countries,  extends  from  Bolivia,  in  the 
torrid  zone,  to  Cape  Horn,  in  the  frigid  zone. 
A  just  idea  of  its  great  length  and  climatic  range 
may  be  given  by  comparison  with  the  United 
States.  The  distance  from  its  northern  boun- 
dary to  the  equator  is  much  less  than  from  the 
equator  to  Florida;  the  territory  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego  is  as  near  to  the  South  Pole  as  Prince  of 
Wales  Island,  Alaska,  is  to  the  North  Pole.  In 
its  tropical  north  are  valuable  mines  and  forests 
of  hardwoods;  in  the  extreme  south  the  col- 
lecting and  storing  of  natural  ice  is  a  profitable 
industry.  All  the  central  provinces  and  terri- 
tories have  the  climate  of  the  temperate  zone. 
and  lie  in  one  vast  plain  stretching  from  the 
Andes  to  the  Atlantic.  Above  Buenos  Ayres, 
however,  the  eastern  limit  of  Argentina  is  not 
the  ocean,  but  a  river  system  exceeding  in  vol- 
ume that  of  the  Mississippi, —  the  Parana  and 
Uruguay  rivers  furnishing  an  outlet  for  the 
products  of  the  region  bordering  on  Uruguay, 
Brazil,  and  Paraguay,  and  finally  uniting  in  the 
great  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

History. —  A  Spanish  captain  named  Juan  de 
Solis  discovered  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  several 
years  before  Magellan  saw  it  (1520),  and,  ac- 
cording to  the  account  of  Pigafetta,  one  of 
Magellan's  companions,  the  "gigantic  natives 
called  canibali  ate  De  Solis  and  60  men  who  had 
gone  to  discover  land,  and  trusted  too  much  to 
them.*  Again,  in  1535,  the  Indians  destroyed  a 
colony  that  Pedro  de  Mcndoza  attempted  to 
establish  on  the  site  of  the  modern  city  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  no  permanent  settlement  being 
made  at  that  place  before  1580.  In  1661  the 
king  of  Spain  created  a  high  court  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  appointed  a  governor  and  captain- 
general  for  the  provinces  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 
The  provinces  increased  in  importance  to  such 
an  extent .  during  the  century  which  followed 
that  in  1773  the  King's  representative  became  a 
viceroy.  British  forces,  sent  to  capture  Buenos 
Ayres  in  1806  and  1808,  were  defeated  by  the 
natives,  unaided  by  the  viceroy ;  the  resignation 
of  the  latter  was  demanded  on  25  May  1810, 
and  the  patriotic  movement  did  not  cease  until 
independence  was  achieved.  A  junta  composed 
of  nine  members,  assuming  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment, despatched  revolutionary  expeditions 
into  Paraguay,  the  northern  provinces  of  Ar- 
gentina and  Alto  Peru  (now  Bolivia)  ;  for  it 
was  evident  not  only  that  the  power  of  Spain 


c 


ARGENTINA 


could  not  be  broken  without  the  united  efforts 
of  the  patriots  who  were  scattered  throughout 
the  southern  portion  of  the  continent,  but  also 
that  Argentina  was  the  natural  leader  in  such 
enterprises. 

During    seven   years   the    issue   remained    in 
dcubt:    all    the    advantages    that   the    Argentine 
general,  Belgrano,  gained  at  first  seemed  to  be 
lost   when   he   suffered   defeat  at  the  hands   of 
Gen.    Peguela    in    Dec.    1813.     But    six    months 
afterward    the    nearest    and    most    threatening 
Spanish  stronghold,  the  fortress  of  Montevideo, 
was    captured.     Independence    was    declared,    9 
July   1816,   at   a   congress   representing  the   dif- 
ferent   provinces;    then    Gen.    San    Martin    led 
across  the  Andes  a  force  of  5,000  Argentina  sol- 
diers  recruited   largely   from   the   hardy  plains- 
men  and  cowboys    (gauclws).     His  little  army 
of    "rough    riders,"    by    defeating    the    Spanish 
troops   in  the  battle   of  Chacabuco,   gave   inde- 
pendence  to   the    Chilean    people.     San    Martin 
was    also    successful    against    the    Spaniards    in 
Peru,    entering    Lima    as    a    liberator    in    1821. 
Though  urged  to  accept  the  civil  government  of 
the  countries  he  had  freed,  this  soldier  of  splen- 
did ability  refused  the  rewards,  honors,  or  offices 
in   civil  life,   which  those  men  fulfilling  similar 
missions  in  other  lands  have  almost  without  ex- 
ception   consented    to    receive.     Moreover,    the 
attitude  of  the  Argentine  revolutionists  in  gen- 
eral   was    characterized   by    disinterestedness    in 
this     crisis ;     and     subsequently,     when     Brazil 
sought  to  annex  Uruguay,  Argentina  appeared 
as  the  champion  of  the  smaller  state.    A  war 
lasting   three   years    (1825-8)    was    required    to 
convince    Brazil    that    Uruguay's    independence 
must  be  guaranteed  by  both  her  great  neighbors. 
But   the   bright   prospects   of   Argentina   herself 
suffered  eclipse  from  1829  to  1852.    Juan  Man- 
uel de  Rosas  succeeded  in  establishing  a  virtual 
dictatorship,   maintaining  himself   in   power  de- 
spite  repeated  attempts  to  oust   him,   until   the 
year  last  mentioned,  when  he  was  defeated  by 
Gen.  Urquiza  in  the  battle  of  Caseros.     Taught 
by  experience,  the  people  now  resolved  to  safe- 
guard their  rights  and  privileges  for  the  future. 
A    constitution   closely   resembling   that    of   the 
United  States   (though  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent hold  office  for  six  years,  and  senators  for 
nine,    and    other    interesting    adaptations    were 
made)     was    promulgated     25     May     1853.     In 
1862-8  we  see  Argentina,  allied  with  Brazil  and 
Uruguay,  engaged  in  resisting  Paraguay's  claim 
to   ownership   of   the   territory   El   Chaco.     The 
allies  were  successful  in  the  field ;  nevertheless 
the  dispute  was  referred  to  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  Mr.  Hayes,  as  arbitrator.     Such 
respect   for  law,  as  superior  to   force  of  arms, 
was  shown  during  Gen.  Bartolome  Mitre's  term 
of  office.     Significant  administrations  were  those 
of  Seiior  Sarmiento,  who  succeeded  Gen.  Mitre, 
of   Seiior  Avellaneda,  and  of  Gen.   Roca.     The 
first    of    these    was    familiar    with    the    United 
States,    where    he    had    resided    as    Argentina's 
diplomatic    representative,    and    the    efforts    he 
made  to  bring  the  institutions  of  his  own  coun- 
try into  harmony  with  those  he  had  studied  at 
Washington  —  especially  in  the  matter  of  pop- 
ular  education  —  helped    progressive    Argentina 
to  earn  the  title  of  the  "Yankee-land  of  South 
America.®     General    Roca.    as   minister    of   war 
during    Avellaneda's    presidency,    extended    the 
routhern    frontier    so   that    it    included    a    large 


part  of  Patagonia ;  his  first  term  of  office  as 
President  is  memorable  on  account  of  the  ex- 
tension of  the  railway  system,  the  erection  of 
many  public  school  buildings,  the  formal  selec- 
tion of  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  as  the  capi- 
tal of  the  republic,  and  the  foundation  of  the 
city  of  La  Plata  (1882).  A  financial  crisis  that 
afflicted  the  country  caused  the  resignation  of 
President  Celman,  who  succeeded  Gen.  Roca  in 
1886.  The  people,  convinced  that  the  Presi- 
dent's policy  was  'responsible  for  the  "hard 
times,"  practically  forced  him  out  of  office  by 
the  pressure  of  public  opinion.  This  may  be 
regarded  as  a  striking  demonstration  of  the 
power  of  unfeigned  and  non-partisan  disap- 
proval, inasmuch  as  a  revolutionary  movement 
was  first  attempted  and  proved  a  failure.  Vice- 
President  Pelligrini  brought  so  much  skill  to 
the  tasks  thus  devolving  upon  him  as  Cel- 
man's  successor,  that  he  guided  the  country 
safely  out  of  its  troubles.  The  question  of  lim- 
its with  Bolivia,  Chile,  and  Brazil  continuing 
to  occupy  the  attention  of  the  Argentine  foreign 
office  during  the  presidency  of  Pena  (suc- 
ceeding Pelligrini,  12  Oct.  1892),  the  pref- 
erence for  deciding  boundary  disputes  by  arbi- 
tration without  a  preliminary  war,  was  strongly 
manifested,  as  was  but  natural  after  the  El 
Chaco  affair.  President  Roca  (re-elected)  was 
able  to  report  the  satisfactory  financial  condi- 
tions in  1902,  to  which  reference  will  presently 
be  made ;  also  the  decision  of  the  question  of 
the  boundary  between  the  Argentine  Republic 
and  Chile  by  the  award  of  the  arbitrator.  King 
Edward  VII.,  dated  at  the  court  of  St.  James, 
20  Nov.  1902. 

Immigration  and  Population. —  The  Consti- 
tution of  Argentina  provided  that  "The  federal 
government  shall  encourage  European  immigra- 
tion, and  shall  not  restrict  .  .  .  the  entry 
.  .  .  of  foreigners  who  come  for  the  purpose 
of  engaging  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,"  etc. 
The  greater  part  of  the  land  of  the  republic  be- 
ing devoted  to  grazing  and  the  production  of 
live  stock,  while  its  value  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses is  still  greater,  immigrants  have  been  at- 
tracted by  a  liberal  policy  which  both  the  federal 
and  provincial  governments  adopted :  the  for- 
mer, in  addition  to  free  grants  of  land,  has 
advanced  capital  (oxen,  tools,  etc.,  to  the  value 
of  $1,000  for  each  farmer)  to  be  paid  back  in  five 
years.  There  were  125.951  immigrants  in  1901, 
the  nationalities  represented  being  as  follows : 
Italians,  58,314;  French,  21.788;  Spaniards,  18,- 
066;  Austrians,  2,714;  Syrians,  2,159;  Russians 
(chiefly  Poles),  2,086.  The  area  of  lands  under 
cultivation  shows  such  an  increase  as  might 
be  expected  — 17,174,250  acres  in  1902,  as 
against  only  7,478.700  acres  in  1880.  The  total 
population    of    the    Republic    1    Jan.    1902,    was 

4,749.149- 

The  city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  with  821,291  in- 
habitants, ranks  as  the  eleventh  city  of  the 
world  in   respect  to  population. 

Education. —  For  both  boys  and  girls  between 
the  ages  of  6  and  14  years  education  is  com- 
pulsory and  gratuitous.  There  is  one  school  for 
each  1,000  inhabitants.  Cordoba  and  Buenos 
Ayres  have  universities.  Military  and  naval 
academies,  a  national  observatory,  trade  schools, 
and  an  academy  of  mining  engineers,  have  al- 
ready been  established,  and  it  is  the  govern- 
ment's    purpose     to     add     to     these     nractica.' 


ARGENTINA 


schools  for  the  instruction  of  laborers  in  rural 
industries  and  forestry  near  the  capital  or  prin- 
cipal city  of  each  province.  Primary  education 
is  under  tile  directum  of  a  national  board  of 
education,  which  has  practically  lull  control 
of  the  public  schools  and  enjoys  an  income  oi 
its    own.      I  he    matriculates    in    different   grades 

in  1901  numbered  (•<j.<j5o  in  the  city  .if  Buenos 
Ayres  alone.  There  are  more  than  200  pub- 
lic libraries  in  the  country,  the  government  add- 
ing an  equal  sum  to  any  endowment  by  private 
gift. 

Public  Spirit. —  Enthusiasm  for  the  public 
good  and  national  advancement  is  an  Argentine 
characteristic.  One  of  tin-  20  daily  news- 
papers published  in  Buenos  Ayres  devotes  a 
large  pan  of  us  costly  building  to  public  uses 
for  the  glory  of  the  city.  At  its  own  expense 
it  provides  a  free  consulting  room,  where  a  phy- 
sician and  five  assistants  minister  to  the  sick; 
a  law  office  where  indigent  persons  -ccure 
free  legal  advice ;  a  museum  of  the  products  and 
manufactures  of  the  republic;  a  library  open  to 
students  without  payment  ;  a  great  hall  for  pub- 
lic meetings;  a  charming  salon  <!<'s  fetes,  where 
literary,  charitable,  and  scientific  meetings  are 
held:  even  a  palatial  suite  of  apartments  for  the 
reception  of  distinguished  foreigners.  The  trait 
illustrated  by  this  liberal  undertaking  differenti- 
ates the  people  of  Argentina  somewhat  from 
other  nations  of  the  continent  ;  yet  they  have 
their  full  share  in  the  common  Latin-American 
love  of  amusements. 

Railways. —  The  enormous  extent  of  flat  coun- 
try (Argentina's  total  area  being  1,118.000  square 
miles  ).  favors  the  construction  of  railways.  More 
than  20  lines,  having  an  extension  of  about  9.000 
miles  in  the  aggregate,  are  in  actual  working 
order,  while  a  score  of  new  lines  are  being 
built.  The  capital  invested  amounts  to  about 
$55.1.000.000  gold.  Of  the  20  lines  com- 
pleted before  1900,  16  were  English  and 
I  belonged  to  the  Argentine  government. 
The  accommodations  for  passengers  are  ex- 
cellent. In  December  1901,  the  Argentine  Con- 
gress granted  a  concession  for  an  important 
railway  which  is  to  cross  the  Territory  of 
Misiones,  form  the  connecting  link  between  the 
Brazilian  and  Argentine  systems,  and  constitute 
a  section  of  the  grand  chain  of  railroads  which 
will  eventually  traverse  North  and  South 
America.  The  Buenos  Ayres  and  Valparaiso 
Transandine  Railway  is  the  end  of  a  long  series 
of  lines  destined  to  be  a  fraternal  as  well  as  a 
mercial  tie  between  the  Chilean  and  Argen- 
tine republics.  The  telegraph  lines  of  the  re- 
public have  a  length  of  15.074  kilometres  and 
sent  an  invested  capital  of  about  $5,000,000. 

Sanitation. —  The  \vater-works  and   sewerage 

terns  of  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  engaged 
the  best  engineering  skill  available.  The  cost 
of  the  latter  even  before  1890  was  $34,000,000  gold. 
The  city's  death  rate  is  17  for  every  1,000  in- 
habitants, as  against  18.4  for  the  city  of  New 
York.  Public  hygiene  is  the  object  of  govern- 
ment aid  in  the  Argentine  ports. 

Capital  City. —  Whereas  long  ago  the  mer- 
chants of  Seville  sent  every  commodity  to 
Buenos  Ayres,  the  Argentine  capital  now  takes 
little  or  nothing  from  Spain.  It  has  lost  it- 
Spanish  aspect,  a  preference  being  shown  for  the 
French  style  in  architecture  and  the  interior 
furnishings  of  the  houses.    The  bustling  activity 


m  its  business  streets,  the  vitality,  enterprise, 
and  ambition  of  its  inhabitants,  are  character- 
istically   American.     The     foreign     population 

numbers  over  200,000,  and  the  uillueiice  of  <„r 
man  and   English   customs   has  been   felt. 

In  line,  it  1-.  a  cosmopolitan  town;  it-  people 
•  ne  not  only  devoti  d  to  the  theatre  and  the  race 

track,  but  are  intelligent  and  much  u i 

the  education   of  their  children.      Modern   dock, 

extending    three     miles    along    the    city'- 

have   been   D  d   at   a   cost    of   :?  25,000.000. 

Among  the  noteworthy  bi e  the  hall  of 

justice,  artillery  arsenal,  mint,  Mock  exchange, 
Colon  theatre,  museum  of  natural  history,  and 
cathedral  (begun  in  15N0;  rebuilt  m  1752).  An 
English   syndicate  ha  d    the  com , 

of  an  underground  electric  road,  to  connect  Vic- 
toria Place,  at  the  centre  of  the  city,  with  the 
Western  Railroad  station  —  a  distance  of  about 
two  and  a  half  miles.  Palermo  Park,  always 
beautiful,  is  especially  so  at  night  when  illunii 
nated  by  its  arches  of  electric  lights.  The  city 
and  suburban  street  railway  system  has  about 
600  miles  of  track.  It  has  been  developed 
chiefly   by  English   capital. 

Provinces. —  La  Plata,  a  spacious,  handsome 
city  of  50,000  inhabitants,  is  the  capital  of  tin- 
province  of  Buenos  Ayres.  The  area  of  this 
province  is  greater  than  that  of  the  State  of 
New  York:  its  population  1  Jan.  1902  was 
1. 140.067;  its  soil  is  a  rich  alluvium  above  clay 
—  the  latter  being  used  largely  in  the  manufac 
ture  of  pottery.  Almost  the  entire  province  i- 
laid  out  in  cattle  farms,  and  immense  quantities 
of  salted  beef,  hides,  and  tallow  are  exp 
It  has  been  estimated  that  there  are  200 
20  cows,  and  (1  horses  to  every  inhabitant.  The 
province  of  Entre  Rios  (population,  343.1*11 
produces  the  best  wheat.  Cordoba  province 
(population.  4111,072)  produces  copper,  silver, 
gold,  marble,  lime,  etc..  as  well  as  cattle,  horses, 
and  sheep.  In  general  we  may  say  that  the 
chief  mining  region-  are  near  the  northern  and 
western  boundaries  of  the  republic.  Thus, 
Jujuy,  the  most  northwesterly  province,  has 
mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  mercury,  salt,  and 
asphalt.  Its  capital,  the  city  of  Jujuy,  though 
still  a  small  place,  has  a  complete  system  of 
educational  institutions  —  public  schools,  normal 
schools,  and  a  national  college.  It  is  connected 
with  Buenos  Ayres  by  railway.  Other  mining 
districts  are:  Province  of  Salta  (area,  45.000 
square  mile-:  pop.  131,938),  which  produces 
kaolin,  besides  the  minerals  found  in  Jujuy:  but 
hitherto  less  attention  has  been  given  to  mining 
than  to  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane,  tobacco, 
wdieat,  maize,  and  rice.  Similarly  the  provinces 
of  Catamarca,  Rioja,  and  San  Juan,  which  also 
border  on  Chile,  have  mountainous  characteris- 
tics and  abundant  mineral  products.  Mining  is 
the  principal  industry  of  San  Luis.  Especially 
interesting  are  the  province  and  city  of  Tucu- 
man —  the  former  called  "The  Garden  of  the 
Republic,"  on  account  of  the  beauty  of  its 
scenery  and  the  prosperity  of  its  inhabitants; 
the  latter,  "The  Cradle  of  the  Republic,"  for  the 
reason  that  the  Congress  which  issued  the  dec- 
1  1r.1t:  hi  of  independence  held  its  sessions  there. 
The  products  of  this  small  province  are  oranges, 
lemons,  timber,  cheese,  and  leather ;  pop.  249,- 
433.  Other  provinces  that  take  their  charac- 
teristics from  the  great  plains  (Pampas)  are: 
Santiago    del   Estro    (pop.    iSo,6i2),   which   has 


ARGENTINE 


but  one  hill  in  all  its  31,500  square  miles;  Santa 
Fe  (pop.  523,236,  one  third  foreign),  which  also 
controls  most  of  the  export  and  import  trade  of 
the  provinces  north  of  Buenos  Ayres.  Its  prin- 
cipal city  is  Rosario  on  the  Parana  River.  The 
province  of  Mendoza  (pop.  141,431),  is  moun- 
tainous in  its  western  part,  with  rich  plains  in 
the  centre  and  east.  Its  products  are  wines, 
olives,  grapes,  figs,  and  the  ordinary  cereal 
crops.  Oil  wells  have  recently  been  discov- 
ered. In  1861  its  capital  was  almost  completely 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  and  over  10,000 
persons  perished  in  the  ruins.  The  new  city  of 
Mendoza  has  a  national  college,  two  normal 
schools,  an  agricultural  school,  and  20  public 
schools. 

Rapid  Industrial  Development. —  Up  to  the 
year  1875  Argentina's  exports  were  limited  to 
products  of  the  pastoral  industry,  while  the 
country  was  dependent  upon  other  lands  for  all 
manufactured  articles.  But  nearly  all  the  im- 
portant branches  of  human  industry  are  rep- 
resented in  the  period  of  development  that  be- 
gan after  the  year  just  mentioned.  To  such  an 
extent  is  this  true  that  Argentina  not  only 
produces  for  home  consumption  a  great  variety 
of  articles  formerly  imported,  but  actually  ex- 
ports such  articles  in  large  quantities.  In 
Buenos  Ayres  alone  there  are  nearly  8,000  in- 
dustrial establishments,  including  those  for 
spinning,  for  preparing  hides,  for  working  tim- 
ber and  metals,  for  cereals,  for  the  manufacture 
of  articles  of  glass  and  wax,  chemical  products, 
grocery  products,"  liquors,  cigars,  etc.  Factories 
for  making  chocolate  have  been  started  in  va- 
rious parts  of  the  country,  the  product  being  so 
abundant  and  of  such  excellent  quality  that  the 
importation  of  chocolate  has  almost  ceased. 
Over  50,000  men  are  employed  in  the  wood- 
working industry;  25,000  persons  in  the  manu- 
facture of  boots  and  shoes;  there  are  17  hat  fac- 
tories, and  cloth  and  underwear  are  produced 
at  a  number  of  mills. 

Cattle  and  Sheep. —  The  greatest  indus- 
try, however,  is  still  the  raising  of  cattle 
and  sheep.  Argentina  has  more  sheep  than 
Australia,  and  exports  240,000  tons  of  wool 
annually.  In  1899  there  were  22,000,000  cattle, 
5.000,000  horses  and  mules,  and  85.000.000 
sheep  distributed  among  the  various  prov- 
inces. The  general  exportation  of  cattle 
products  in  that  year  was  valued  at  $115,547,000 
gold,  or  more  than  62  per  cent  of  the  total  ex- 
ports of  the  country.  Argentina's  chief  meat 
market  is  England.  The  total  value  of  all  kinds 
of  cattle  was  estimated  at  $1,136,780,411  in  1895, 
and  since  that  time  the  horned  cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep  have  increased  in  numbers  and  improved 
in  quality  through  the  importation  of  full- 
blooded  animals  from  the  first  breeders  of  Eu- 
rope and  the  United  States.  By  the  year  1902 
the  dairy  industry  had  become  important :  there 
were  523  dairies  with  four  or  five  thousand  cows 
in  the  largest  establishments,  and  1,300  tons  of 
butter  were  sent  abroad,  chiefly  to  England. 

Grain. —  Before  the  war  with  Paraguay,  the 
people  of  Argentina  imported  nearly  all  their 
flour  from  Chile,  but  during  that  war  farmers 
found  a  good  market  for  their  products,  and  the 
cultivation  of  grain  was  encouraged.  Wheat  is 
now  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  export  to  Eu- 
rope. Owing  to  exceptionally  advantageous 
conditions  Argentine  crops  of  wheat  and  In- 
Vol.  1—43 


dian  corn  represented  a  per  capita  production  of 
43.33  bushels,  against  42  in  the  United  States 
and  Denmark,  30  in  Canada,  23  in  Sweden,  20  in 
Russia,  19  in  France,  and  8  in  Great  Britain. 
The  value  in  gold  of  the  various  Argentine  har- 
vests in  1899  was :  wheat,  $95,000,000 ;  Indian 
corn,  $23,000,000;  lucern,  $90,000,000;  flax,  $27,- 
000,000;  vineyards,  $9,500,000;  sugar-cane,  $4,- 
750,000;  tobacco,  $3,900,000;  other  cultures, 
$21,560,000. 

Immense  forests,  producing  varieties  of  hard 
wood  which  are  useful  for  building  and  cabi- 
net-making, are  found  in  the  provinces  of  San- 
tiago del  Estero,  Salta,  Tucuman,  and  Corrien- 
tes,  as  well  as  on  the  national  lands  of  Chaco, 
Formosa,  and  Misiones.  During  the  years 
1895-99  about  8.000  tons  of  wood  were  exported, 
while  the  production  increased  greatly  during 
1900.  Exploitation  of  these  wooded  regions  is 
facilitated  by  a  system  of  rivers  which  all  flow 
into  Rio  Parana.  Each  season  witnesses,  not 
only  the  development  of  the  standard  industries 
which  have  been  mentioned,  but  the  establish- 
ment of  new  enterprises.  Among  the  latter  the 
silk-worm  culture  in  Santa  Fe  province  and  the 
evaporated  fruit-industry  in  Cordoba  province 
may  be  mentioned  as  recent  examples.  The 
largest  items  among  imports  from  the  United 
States  are  agricultural  implements  (amounting 
to  about  $2,000,000  in  1902)  and  mineral  oils, 
refined  or  manufactured.  During  the  years 
1896-1901,  inclusive,  the  total  values  of  exports 
to  and  from  the  United  States  were  as  follows: 

Imports  from  U.  S.                             Exports  to  U.  S. 
Year   1896,       Amt.  $8,361,195 Amt  $7,072,825 

1897,  5.942.91  J •<        14.759.730 

1898,  8,066,573 "    5,723,969 

1899,  "   12,378.866 "    6. 164. 961 

1900,  14,852,813 "    8.441,495 

"   1901,    "   13,174,140 "    9.950,862 

The  total  foreign  trade  of  Argentina  is  on 
a  vastly  greater  scale.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
century  its  exports  to  all  countries  (taking  the 
average  of  several  years)  amounted  to  about 
$175,000,000  annually;  its  imports  from  all  coun- 
tries being  about  $114,000,000  annually.  During 
the  first  six  months  of  1002,  Argentina's  total  ex- 
ports rose  to  $105,203,781,  and  the  total  value  of 
imports  was  less  than  half  that  amount.  These 
figures  show,  first,  the  relatively  small  inter- 
change of  products  between  the  United  States 
and  Argentina,  and.  second,  the  enormous  bal- 
ance of  trade  in  favor  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 

Financial  Situation. —  The  Bankers'  Clear- 
ing House  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  1900  showed 
transactions  aggregating  3,402,660,743.12  pesos 
(pesos  =  $0,965),  although  several  of  the  banks 
do  not  settle  their  operations  through  the  clear- 
ing house.  The  financial  situation  of  the  re- 
public in  1001  was  fairly  encouraging,  the  gov- 
ernment's receipts  being  $38,244,638  in  gold  and 
$62,341,306  in  paper  currency,  and  the  expendi- 
tures somewhat  less.  On  the  last  day  of  I00I, 
the  consolidated  interior  debt  amounted  to  $17,- 
863,000  in  gold  and  $83,610,983  in  paper  currency. 
The  foreign  debt  amounted  to  $386,451,295  in 
gold,  but  of  this  total  the  sum  of  $46,000,000 
was  owed  by  individual  provinces. 

Mabrion  Wilcox. 
Authority  on  Latin- America. 

Ar'gentine,  Kansas,  a  city  in  Wyandotte 
County,  about  three  miles  from  Kansas  City,  on 
the  Atchison,  T.  &  St.  Fe.  R.R.  It  has  extensive 


ARGENTINE  —  ARGON 


smelting   interests,  and   several   grain   elevators. 
Pop    I  igoo)  5,875. 

Argentine,  the  name  of  a  group  of  small 
smelt-like  fishes,  living  in  the  open  seas  of  the 
north  temperate  zone,  and  distinguished  by  the 
brilliant,     silvery    appearance    of     their     scales. 

Si  mi.     i I    rivers    to    di  po  il    their    spawn, 

wheri  -     '  LUght    in   large  quantities   and 

eaten  as  a  delicacy. 

Argentite  (from  the  Latin,  argentum,  "sil- 
ver"), a  11. in  1 '  .  of  silver,  belonging  in 
the  galena  group,  crystallizing  in  the  isometric 
system  and  having  the  formula  AgiS.  It  is 
opaque  and  has  a  metallic  lustre  and  a  dark, 
lead.  olor.  li>  hardness  is  from  2  to  2.5, 
and  its  specific  gravity  is  about  7..?.  Argentite 
occurs  in  many  countries  and  when  found  in 
quantit)  is  a  valuable  ore  of  silver.  It  occurs 
in  crystals   (often  distorted),  massive,  in  crusts, 

in  thread-like  aggregates.    Choice  specimens 
•ir     in     the     silver     mines     of    Joachimsthal, 

emia,    and    Freiberg,    Saxony;    in    Bolivia, 

Chili,  and   Peru,  and  notably  at   P.atopilas,   Mux- 

also    in    many    silver    mines    in    Colorado, 

Nevada,    and    elsewhere    in    the    United    States. 

.  ntite  is  often  called  "silver  glance"  by 
miners. 

Argentoratum,  an  Old  Celtic  word,  mean- 
ing "atones  "f  Argantos,"  the  Old  Roman 
name   fir   Strasburg. 

Argillaceous  Rocks,  a  petrographic  divi- 
sion including  tho  e  n.cks  that  are  largely  com- 
po  ed  of  clay.  They  owe  their  origin  to  the 
disintegration  and  decomposition  of  1  ither  rocks 
and  hence  are  always  of  secondary  nature. 
Among  the  common  varieties  belonging  to  this 
class  are  ordinary  brick-clay,  fire-clay,  potter's- 
clay,  kaolin,  mudstone,  shale,  and  marl  (qq.v.). 
Clay  rocks  are  easily  influenced  by  inctamorphic 
gencies,  yielding  shale,  mica-schist,  graywacke, 
and  other  "hard  rocks.     See  Sedimentary  Rocks. 

Arginusae,  ar'jI-mVse,  the  name  of  several 
small  islands  southeast  of  the  Island  of  Lesbos, 
a  province  of  Asia  Minor.  In  their  vicinity  the 
Athenians,  under  Conon,  406  B.C.,  defeated  the 
Spartans  under  Collicratidos,  in  a  hard-contested 
naval  battle. 

Ar'gives,  or  Argivi,  the  inhabitants  of 
Argos ;  a  term  used  by  Homer  and  other  ancient 
authors  as  a  generic  appellation  for  all  Greeks. 

Ar'go,  the  important  southern  constella- 
tion of  the  Ship,  which  is  nearly  75  degrees  in 
length,  and  contains  over  800  stars  visible  to  the 
naked  eye. 

Ar'go.     See  Argonauts. 

Argob,  the  name  of  a  district  in  Bashan, 
referred  to  in  Dent.  iii.  4,  as  the  kingdom  of 
Og,  and  containing  threescore  walled  cities. 
It-  precise  location  has  not  been  determined. 

Ar'gol  (origin  of  the  word  unknown),  a 
term  applied  to  the  crude  acid  tartrate  (or  bi- 
tartrate)  of  potassium,  as  deposited  on  the  side 
of  the  vats  in  which  wine  is  fermenting.  It 
exists  in  the  grapes  from  which  the  wine  is 
made,  but  is  precipitated  from  solution  in  the 
vats  by  the  alcohol  formed  during  the  fermen- 
tation. Like  many  other  precipitates,  argol 
brings  down  more  or  less  of  the  coloring  matter 


in  the  solution  from  which  it  is  deposited,  and  it 

is  white  01   red,  according  to  the  color  of  the 

wine  from  winch  it  1-  formed,  When  purified 
by  re-crystallization  from  its  solution  in  hot 
water,  argol  is  known  in  commerce  as  "cream 
of  tartar."  ["he  purified  salt  is  extensively  used 
in  baking  powders  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in 
medicine. 

Ar'golis,    a     peninsular     state    of    ancient 
Greece;  between  the  bays  of  Nauplia  and  .Kgina, 

now  forming  with  Corinth,  a  monarchy  or  de- 
partment. Argolis  was  the  eastern  region  of 
Peloponnesus,  and  its  inhabitant  wen  often 
called    Argives.     According    to    the    monuments 

of  Greek  mythology,  Argolis  was  peculiarly 
rich,  and  early  cultivated.  Here  reigned  I '.lops. 
an  emigrant  from  Asia  Minor,  from  whom  the 
peninsula  derives  its  name.  It  was  afterward 
the  seat  of  government  of  Atreus  and  Agamem- 
non, Adrastus,  Eurystheus,  and  Diomedes.  In 
the   earliest   times   it    was   divided    into   the    small 

kingdoms  of  Argos,  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  I  roezene, 
Hermione,  and  Epidaurus,  which  afterward 
formed  free  States.  The  chief  city,  Argos.  has 
retained  its  name  since  1800  B.C.  Its  inliali 
itants  were  renowned  for  their  love  of  the  fine 
arts,  particularly  of  music.  Some  vestiges  re- 
main of  its  ancient  splendor,  and  it  has  at 
present  about  q.000  inhabitants.  Near  il  is  the 
capital  of  Argolis,  Nauplia,  or  Napoli  di  Ro- 
mania, with  an  excellent  harbor,  and  the  most 
important  fortress  of  the  peninsula.  On  the 
site  of  the  present  village  qf  Castri,  on  the 
.l-'.gran  Sea,  formerly  lay  the  city  Hermione; 
opposite  is  the  island  of  Hydra.  Pop.  of  prov- 
ince of  Argolis  and  Corinth   (1896)   157,578. 

Ar'gon  (Greek,  "inactive,"  in  allusion  to 
its  entire  lack  of  chemical  affinity),  a  gaseous 
substance,  presumably  an  element,  discovered  in 
the  earth's  atmosphere  111  [894  by  Lord  Ray- 
leigb  anil  Prof.  William  Ramsay.  For  some 
years  previous  to  this  discovery,  Lord  Kay- 
leigh  had  been  engaged  in  a  careful  determina- 
tion of  the  densities  of  certain  gases,  and  con- 
sistent results  had  been  obtained  for  all  of 
them  save  nitrogen.  This  gas,  when  prepared 
from  air  by  the  abstraction  of  all  other  known 
components,  was  found  to  be  heavier  by  about 
one  part  in  200,  than  the  nitrogen  prepared 
from  ammonia.  There  could  be  no  doubt 
about  the  reality  of  the  difference,  because  the 
same  experimental  methods,  when  applied  to 
other  gases,  gave  results  that  were  consistent 
with  one  another  to  about  one  part  in  io.ooo. 
In  studying  the  cause  of  the  discrepancy,  Lord 
Ravleigii  prepared  nitrogen  from  ammonium 
nitrite,  from  urea,  and  from  nitric  and  nitrous 
oxides :  and  found  that  all  specimens  of  the 
gas  that  were  prepared  from  nitrogen  com- 
pounds agree  with  one  another  in  density,  but 
that  the  specimens  of  nitrogen  that  he  pre- 
pared from  air  were  uniformly  and  consistently 
heavier,  by  the  same  constant  amount  of  one 
part  in  200.  Provisionally,  therefore,  he  recog- 
nized two  kinds  of  nitrogen,  which  he  called 
"chemical  nitrogen"  and  "atmospheric  nitrogen," 
respectively,  to  indicate  the  sources  whence  they 
wire  obtained.  He  then  published  a  letter  in 
'Nature.'  narrating  these  facts,  and  calling  for 
suggestions  from  chemists  as  to  the  cause  of 
the  systematic  difference  in  density.  No  ideas 
of    value    were    elicited.     The    possibility    that 


ARGON 


"chemical"  nitrogen  might  be  contaminated  with 
hydrogen,    and    that    the    experimental    methods 
failed  to  eliminate   the   last   traces  of  this   very 
light   gas,    was   tested    by    adding    hydrogen    to 
"atmospheric"  nitrogen,  and  then  submitting  the 
mixture  to  the  same   process  employed   for  re- 
moving any  hydrogen  that  might  have  existed  in 
the  "chemical"  nitrogen.     If  the  hydrogen  theory 
of  the  discrepancy  had  been  true,  it  would  have 
been   found   that   "atmospheric"   nitrogen,   when 
treated   in  this  way,   would   ultimately  agree  in 
density   with   "chemical"   nitrogen;   but  the   test 
showed   that   "atmospheric"    nitrogen,   after   the 
addition   and   subsequent   removal   of   hydrogen, 
returned  to  its  original  state  of  higher  density, 
thus  proving  the  adequacy  of  the  experimental 
methods,  and  disproving  the  hypothesis  that  the 
difference  in  density  was  due  to  hydrogen.     The 
suggestion     was     also     made    that     the    "atmo- 
spheric" nitrogen  had  partly  polymerized  into  an 
allotropic  state  analogous  to  ozone,  or  that  the 
"chemical"    nitrogen    had    partially    dissociated 
into    monatomic    molecules.     These    possibilities 
were  tested  by  subjecting  both  kinds  of  nitrogen 
to   the   action    of    the    silent    electric    discharge, 
in  an  apparatus  designed  for  the  production  of 
ozone  from  oxygen.     It  would  certainly  be  ex- 
pected   that    the    difference    in    density    would 
partially   or   wholly   disappear   under  this  treat- 
ment if  there  were  any  basis  to  the  polymeriza- 
tion   or    dissociation    hypotheses;    but    it    was 
found    that    both    kinds    of    nitrogen    retained 
their  initial  densities,  so  that  the  original  differ- 
ence   persisted    undiminished    in    amount.     Fur- 
thermore, if  the  lightness  of  "chemical"  nitrogen 
were   due   to   a   partial    dissociation   induced   by 
the  method  of  preparation,  it  would  be  reason- 
able to  expect  that  the  molecules  would  re-com- 
bine   in    time    with    a    resulting    return    of    the 
density   to   that    observed   in   "atmospheric"    ni- 
trogen.    Specimens  of  "chemical"   nitrogen  that 
were  allowed  to   stand  for  eight  months,  how- 
ever,  were   found   to   retain  their   characteristic 
lightness.     At    this    stage    in    the    investigation, 
Prof.    Ramsay   asked    permission   to    co-operate 
in  the  investigation,  and  his  services  were  gladly 
accepted.     The  hypothesis  was  made  that  "chem- 
ical"  nitrogen  contains  an  unknown  gas,  lighter 
than  true  nitrogen  ;  or  that  "atmospheric"  nitro- 
gen  contains    some   similar  gas   that   is   heavier 
than  true  nitrogen.     In  spite  of  the  many  analy- 
ses that  had  been  made  of  the  air,  it  was  thought 
more  probable  that  the   unknown  gas  would  be 
found  in  "atmospheric"  than  in  "chemical"  nitro- 
gen;  and  hence  the  experimenters  turned  their 
attention    to    the    problem    of    removing    "true" 
nitrogen  from  the  "atmospheric"   nitrogen,  with 
the  idea  of  obtaining  a  possible  residuum,  which 
would    at    least    contain    the    unknown    gas    in 
concentrated    form.     For    this    purpose    it    was 
proposed  to  take  advantage  of  the   known   fact 
that  at  a  red  heat  nitrogen   will    combine   with 
metallic  magnesium,  with  the  formation  of  mag- 
nesium   nitride.     "Atmospheric"    nitrogen,    care- 
fully   freed    from    all    known     impurities,    was 
therefore   passed   through   a    long   tube  of   hard 
glass  filled  with  magnesium  shavings  and  heat- 
ed in  a  furnace.     The  first  experiment   of  this 
sort  was  made  in  May    1894,  and  gave  encour- 
aging results,  the  "atmospheric"  nitrogen  show 
ing  a  slight  but   unmistakable  increase   in   den- 
sity.    A  more  elaborate  experiment  of  the  same 
sort  followed,   in  which  "atmospheric"   nitrogen 


was  caused  to  pass  over  hot  magnesium  for 
more  than  two  weeks.  By  this  means  its  den- 
sity, originally  about  14  (that  of  hydrogen  being 
1),  was  increased  to  19.09,  and  the  bulk  of  the 
gas  under  examination  was  diminished  until  not 
much  mure  than  one  per  cent  of  it  remained. 
Plainly  a  great  concentration  of  the  unknown 
gas  has  been  effected.  To  remove  the  last  traces 
of  true  nitrogen,  pure  oxygen  was  next  added, 
and  the  mixture  exposed  to  a  rain  of  electric 
sparks  in  the  presence  of  caustic  soda.  When 
so  treated  the  experimental  gas  contracted,  in- 
dicating that  the  nitrogen  was  being  withdrawn 
in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  sodium.  When  con- 
traction was  no  longer  noted,  the  nitrate  of 
sodium  and  the  excess  of  oxygen  were  re- 
moved, and  it  was  found  that  the  remaining 
gas  had  a  density  about  20  times  as  great 
as  that  of  hydrogen.  When  subjected  to  the 
electric  spark  and  examined  by  the  spectro- 
scope, this  residual  gas  was  found  to  exhibit 
certain  characteristic  groups  of  red  and  green 
lines  that  did  not  correspond  to  any  element 
previously  known.  The  experimenters,  there- 
fore, felt  reasonably  sure  that  a  new  element 
had  been  discovered,  and  this  conclusion  has 
been  borne  out  by  all  subsequent  investigations. 
The  discovery  of  this  element  (to  which  the 
name  "argon"  and  the  chemical  symbol  "A" 
have  been  assigned),  was  formally  announced  to 
the  public  in  Aug.  1895,  and  for  it  Lord 
Rayleigh  and  Prof.  Ramsay  were  awarded  the 
Hodgkins  prize  and  also  the  grand  prize  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution.     See  Air. 

As  it  was  found  that  air  contains  0.937  of 
one  per  cent  (by  volume)  of  argon,  it  is  nat- 
ural to  ask  wdiy  the  new  element  had  escaped 
detection  in  the  vast  number  of  air-analyses  that 
have  been  made  in  the  past.  The  answer  is 
that  argon  shows  no  chemical  affinity  whatever, 
and  as  nitrogen  is  also  inert  in  comparison 
with  most  elements,  the  two  were  very  easily 
confused.  Chemists  have  almost  invariably  esti- 
mated the  nitrogen  of  the  air  "by  difference8; 
that  is,  by  removing  all  such  constituents  as  oxy- 
gen, carbon  dioxid,  and  ammonia,  and  taking  it 
for  granted  that  the  inert  remainder  is  nitrogen. 
It  might  be  thought  that  the  spectroscope  would 
betray  the  presence  of  argon,  when  the  spectra  of 
"atmospheric"  and  "chemical"  nitrogen  were 
compared  ;  but  the  curious  fact  has  been  estab- 
lished that  when  argon  ami  nitrogen  are  mixed, 
the  argon  does  not  reveal  itself  to  the  spec- 
troscope unless  the  mixture  contains  at  least 
37  per  cent  of  argon.  Upon  looking  over  the 
work  that  had  been  previously  done  upon  air, 
it  was  found  that  Cavendish  had  isolated  nearly 
pure  argon  as  long  ago  as  i;,X;,  but  without 
ni/ing  its  real  nature.  Thus,  knowing  that 
air  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  nitrogen, 
he  raised  the  question  whether  all  of  the  ap 
parently  nitrogenous  part  of  the  air  "could  be 
reduced  to  nitrous  acid,  or  whether  there  »;^ 
not  a  part  of  a  different  nature  from  tin  rest 
which  would  refuse  to  undergo  that  change.11 
To  decide  this  point  he  added  excess  of  oxygen 
to  air  and  passed  electric  sparks  through  the 
mixture  (precisely  as  Rayleigh  and  Ramsay  did) 
until  no  further  diminution  of  volume  occurred. 
He  then  removed  the  excess  of  oxygen,  together 
with  the  oxids  of  nitrogen  that  had  been  formed, 
and  found  that  only  a  small  bubble  remained 
unabsorbed,  which,  he  says,  was  not  more  than 


ARGONAUT 


one  one  hundred  and  twentieth  of  the  bulk  of 
the  original  nitrogen.  The  bubble  that  he  thus 
obtained  and  whose  nature  he  did  not  further 
question  must  have  been  nearly  pure  argon. 

Argon  having  been  discovered,  chemists  at 
once  undertook  to  ascertain  its  chemical  propcr- 
ties,  but  here  they  met  with  an  obstacle  that  has 
not  yet  been  overcome,  and  which  constitutes 
one  of  the  strangest  facts  known  to  chemistry. 
It  was  found,  namely,  that  argon  cannot  be 
made  to  enter  into  chemical  combination  with 
any  substance  whatsoever.  Thus  Rayleigh  and 
Ramsay  have  stated  that  "argon  does  not  com- 
bine with  oxygen  in  presence  of  alkali  under  the 
influence  of  the  electric  discharge,  nor  with 
hydrogen  in  presence  of  acid  or  alkali,  nor 
when  sparked,  nor  with  phosphorus  at  a  bright 
led  heat,  nor  with  sulphur.  Tellurium  may  be 
distilled  in  it  and  also  sodium  and  potassium. 
Red  hot  sodium  peroxid  has  no  effect.  Persul- 
phids  of  sodium  and  calcium  have  no  effect  at  a 
red  heat.  Platinum  sponge  docs  not  absorb  it. 
Aqua  regia,  bromine  water,  bromine  and  alkali, 
and  potassium  permanganate  are  all  without  in- 
fluence. Mixtures  of  metallic  sodium  and  silica, 
or  of  sodium  and  boric  acid,  are  likewise  with- 
out influence,  and  hence  also  nascent  silicon 
and  boron.1'  Moissan  further  found  that  fluorin 
does  not  act  upon  it  at  any  temperature.  In 
short,  it  may  be  said  that  every  reagent  that 
the  previous  experience  of  chemists  indicated  as 
likely  to  combine  with  argon  has  been  tried 
without  success,  and  hence  the  chemical  proper- 
ties of  the  clement  (if,  indeed,  it  has  any  such 
properties),  are  as  yet  quite  unknown.  Several 
announcements  of  the  existence  of  compounds 
of  argon  have  been  made,  hut  no  really  con- 
vincing evidence  of  such  combination  has  been 
given.  For  example,  Berthollet  --ubjected  a  mix- 
ture of  argon  and  benzene  to  the  action  of 
the  silent  electric  discharge  for  a  long  time, 
and  observed  a  diminution  in  the  volume  of  the 
argon,  which  he  attributed  to  its  combination 
with  the  benzene.  Benzene  when  treated  in 
this  way  forms  a  resinous  mass,  which  coats 
the  walls  of  the  tube,  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  the  small  quantity  of  argon  which  disap- 
pears is  held  mechanically  by  the  gummy  de- 
posit, either  in  solution  or  by  absorption.  At 
all  events  the  original  quantity  of  argon  is  re- 
stored, unchanged,  by  heating  the  resin.  It 
cannot  be  positively  affirmed  that  no  compound 
of  argon  exists,  but  there  is  no  previously 
known  element  (not  even  the  metals  of  the 
platinum  group)  that  could  withstand  the  ac- 
tion of  the  substances  whose  activity  has  been 
exerted  without  effect  upon  argon.  The  only 
promising  result  that  has  yet  been  reached  is 
that  announced  by  Villard,  who  states  that  at 
320  F.,  and  at  a  pressure  of  150  atmospheres,  ar- 
gon forms  a  crystalline  hydrate  with  water, 
which  dissociates  again  into  argon  and  water 
at  a  pressure  of  105  atmospheres.  Even  this 
result  requires  confirmation,  since  Villard  did 
not  really  prove  the  presence  of  argon  in  the 
crystals  that  he  obtained.  Until  some  compound 
can  be  formed  we  shall  therefore  have  to  infer 
the  atomic  weight  of  argon  from  determinations 
of  the  density  of  the  gas,  taken  in  connection 
with  Avogadro's  law.  The  best  determinations 
made  up  to  the  present  time  indicate  that  the 
density  of  argon  is  19.80  times  that  of  hydrogen. 
If   the   molecules   of  argon   are   diatomic,    then 


19.80  is  the  atomic  weight  of  the  element,  but 
if  they  are  monatomic,  we  must  double  this 
estimate  and  conclude  tlial  the  atomic  weight  is 
30.00.  (Sec  Atomic  Theory;  also  G\sfs, 
Kinetic  Theory  of.)  To  settle  this  doubtful 
point  experiments  were  made  to  find  tin-  ratio 
of  the  two  specific  heats  of  the  gas.  and  it 
was  found  that  the  specific  heat  of  argon  al 
constant  prcs-urc  is  about  1.(15  times  as  great 
as  the  specific  heat  at  constant  volume.  This 
indicates  that  the  molecule  of  the  gas  contains 
but  one  atom,  and  hence  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
clude that  the  atomic  weight  of  argon  is  39.60, 
the  atomic  weight  of  hydrogen  being  taken  as 
I.  Argon  has  been  liquefied  and  solidified.  Its 
critical  temperature  is  1790  F.  below  zero,  and 
its  critical  pressure  is  about  52.9  atmospheres. 
Liquid  argon  boils  (under  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure)  at  about  303°  F.  below  zero,  and  at 
about  3060  below  zero  it  freezes.  The  density 
of  liquid  argon  is  about  1.212  times  as  great  as 
that  of  water.  Four  other  elements,  associated 
with  argon  in  the  air  and  closely  resembling  it 
in  properties,  have  been  discovered  as  the  re- 
sult of  researches  suggested  by  the  discovery  of 
argon.  They  are  called,  respectively,  helium, 
neon,  krypton,  and  xenon  (qq.v.).  Hundreds 
of  papers  dealing  with  argon  and  the  other 
gases  just  mentioned  have  appeared  in  the  scien- 
tific periodicals,  so  that  no  bibliography  of  tin- 
subject  can  be  attempted   here.     Ram-ay's  1 k, 

'The  Gases  of  the  Atmosphere'  (1890)  gives  an 
excellent  account  of  the  chemistry  of  tin-  air, 
from  the  earliest  times  down  to  1896.  It  must 
be  remembered,  however,  that  our  knowledge  of 
argon  and  its  allies  is  growing  rapidly,  so  that 
some  of  the  statements  that  Ramsay  makes  can 
be  no  longer  admitted  to  he  true.  For  example, 
he  states  that  helium  (which  had  already  been 
discovered  when  his  book  was  written)  docs  not 
occur  in  the  air,  but  it  has  since  been  shown 
that  it  is  a  component  of  the  air,  forming  from 
one  to  two  one  millionths  of  its  bulk.  Travcrs' 
'The  Experimental  Study  of  Gases'  may  also  be 
consulted  with  advantage. 

Ar'gonaut,  the  appellation  of  an  eight- 
armed  oceanic  cephalopod,  closely  allied  to  the 
octopus,  and  having  the  same  power  of  swim- 
ming backward  by  forcing  water  through  its 
funnel.  Though  called  "paper  nautilus"  is  is  en- 
tirely different  from  the  true  nautilus  (q.v.), 
and  although,  since  the  earliest  days,  it  has  been 
said  to  sail  upon  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  in  its 
shell  as  a  boat,  with  two  web-like  arms 
for  sails,  this  belief  is  pure  fable.  Argonauts  re- 
main in  deep  water  except  in  spawning  season, 
and  then  come  to  the  surface  only  at  night.  The 
male  is  a  naked  octopod,  and  the  "boat/0  of  the 
female  has  no  organic  connection  with  her  body, 
but  is  a  mere  receptacle  for  holding  eggs,  re- 
tained in  place  by  the  two  dorsal  arms,  which 
are  membranous  and  secrete  it  from  their  inner 
surfaces.  It  is  not  chambered  like  that  of  the 
true  nautilus,  but  has  a  radially  fluted,  semi- 
transparent  spiral  shell,  enveloping  the  body 
as  far  as  the  base  of  the  tentacles,  increasing  in 
size  with  the  growth  of  the  animal,  and  attain- 
ing a  length  of  six  inches.  The  male  is  only 
about  an  inch  in  length  ;  one  of  its  very  short 
arms  is  specialized  into  an  organ  of  genera- 
tion, called  a  "hectocotyle,"  which  detaches  it- 
self from  the  male  body,  and,  having  independ- 
ent   locomotory   powers,    attaches    itself   to   the 


ARGONAUTS;     ARGONAUTS  OF  '49 


female,  and  in  some  manner  unknown  fertilizes 
the  eggs.  Only  a  single  species  is  known 
(A.  hians),  representing  the  family  Argonautidce. 
See  Nautilus. 

Argonauts,  the  name  given  in  Greek 
legends  to  the  sailors,  who,  in  a  ship  called  the 
Argo,  made  a  hazardous  voyage  to  Colchis  un- 
der the  leadership  of  Jason,  in  quest  of  the  gold- 
en fleece.  Jason's  uncle  Pelias  had  usurped 
the  kingdom  of  Iolcos  and  would  resign  it  only 
on  condition  that  Jason  should  first  bring  from 
Colchis  the  golden  fleece  suspended  in  a  conse- 
crated grove  at  Colchis.  Among  Jason's  com- 
panions were  Hercules,  Castor  and  Pollux, 
Peleus,  Admetus.  Meleager,  Orpheus,  Telamon, 
Theseus,  and  his  friend  Pirithous,  Hylas,  and 
Lynceus.  Having  sailed  from  the  promontory 
of  Magnesia,  in  Thessaly,  they  reached  the  har- 
bor of  Lemnos,  where  they  remained  two  years. 
The  women  of  Lemnos,  instigated  by  the  of- 
fended Aphrodite  (Venus),  had  slain  all  the 
males  among  them,  except  Thoas,  and  they 
detained  among  them  the  welcome  strangers. 
At  length  they  proceeded  to  the  Troad.  where 
Hylas  and  Hercules  were  left  behind.  After 
various  adventures  they  approached  the  dreaded 
Symplegades,  rocks  which  closed  together  and 
dashed  in  pieces  vessels  passing  through  them. 
According  to  instructions  previously  received, 
they  caused  a  dove  to  fly  through  before  them, 
and  followed,  rowing  with  all  their  strength, 
while  Orpheus  played  on  his  lyre.  The  rocks 
stood  firm,  and  the  danger  was  escaped.  The 
last  adventure  awaited  them  at  the  Island  of 
Aretias.  Here  they  found  the  Stymphalides, 
birds  which  shot  their  feathers  like  arrows,  and 
from  which  the  heroes  could  only  protect  them- 
selves by  a  violent  clashing  of  weapons.  On 
their  arrival  at  Colchis  King  ."Fetes  did  not  re- 
fuse absolutely  to  deliver  the  golden  fleece,  but 
charged  Jason  with  three  dangerous  labors,  thus 
hoping  to  destroy  him.  Jason  was  to  yoke 
the  two  fire-breathing  bulls  of  Hephaestus  to  a 
ploughshare  of  adamant,  and  to  plough  with 
them  four  acres  of  land  consecrated  to  Ares 
(Mars),  and  never  before  turned  up.  He  was 
then  to  sow  in  the  furrows  the  remaining  ser- 
pents' teeth  of  Cadmus,  in  the  possession  of 
/Eetes,  and  to  kill  the  armed  heroes  which  they 
produced :  at  last,  to  fight  with  and  slay  the 
dragon  that  guarded  the  golden  fleece.  All 
three  labors  he  was  to  accomplish  in  a  single 
day.  With  the  help  of  Medea,  the  daugh- 
ter of  yEetes,  these  tasks  were  accom- 
plished and  the  fleece  obtained.  Jason  then 
fled  with  Medea,  but  the  fugitives  were 
pursued  and  on  the  point  of  being  overtaken 
when  Medea  averted  the  danger  by  killing  her 
brother  Absyrtus,  and  strewing  on  the  road  his 
mangled  limbs.  The  unhappy  father  quitted  the 
pursuit  to  collect  the  bloody  limbs  of  his  son 
and  the  fugitives  escaped.  The  return  of  the 
Argonauts  is  variously  told,  but  after  many 
perils  they  reached  Iolcos  and  gave  the  fleece  to 
Pelias. 

Argonauts  of  '49,  a  literary  name  (the 
colloquial  one  being  "Forty-niners")  applied  to 
the  California  pioneers.  The  first  discovery  of 
gold  was  in  January  184S,  but  it  was  not  gen- 
erally realized  till  April ;  from  thence  till  the 
following  winter  California  itself  (recently  ob- 
tained by  the  United  States  from  Mexico)   was 


partially  depopulated  outside  the  mining  camps, 
even  soldiers  and  sailors  deserting  in  great  num- 
bers and  rushing  to  the  mines,  while  execu- 
tive authority  was  paralyzed.  These  local 
changes  of  place,  however,  did  not  constitute 
a  "voyage  for  the  Golden  Fleece"  from  far 
distant  regions,  which  is  what  the  term  im- 
plies. The  excitement,  spread  by  official  reports 
and  intensified  by  journalistic  inventions,  had 
fully  roused  the  East  by  winter ;  from  January 
onward  the  great  sea  routes  were  thronged. 
By  the  end  of  the  year  the  new  province  (it 
never  was  organized  as  a  Territory,  entering 
the  Union  as  a  State  from  a  condition  of  legal 
nullity  or  permitted  trespass)  contained 
toward  100.000  people.  The  imperfect  State 
census  of  1852  snowed  264,435,  nearly  all  Ar- 
gonauts proper. 

Much  the  greater  portion  came  by  sea ;  the 
favored  route  being  by  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
The  passengers  landed  at  Chagres,  took  boat  up 
that  river  to  Cruces,  then  crossed  over  by  horse 
or  mule  conveyance  to  Panama,  where  they  took 
such  coasting  steamers  or  sailing  craft  as  came 
along.  The  crowds  which  flocked  thither  by  all 
sorts  of  Atlantic  vessels  far  outran  the  Pacific 
fleet's  capacity,  and  large  numbers  had  to  wait 
many  weary  weeks  for  a  passage.  At  one  time 
3.000  were  collected  at  Panama,  so  wild  with 
impatience  that  several  small  companies  unsuc- 
cessfully attempted  to  make  the  voyage  to  San 
Francisco  in  the  natives'  log  canoes.  An  as- 
semblage of  several  hundred  to  a  thousand  was 
common ;  and  at  one  time  they  enlivened  the 
tedium  by  issuing  a  newspaper.  But  a  far  more 
terrible  foe  than  ennui  had  to  be  faced :  the 
cholera  and  Panama  fever,  which  carried  off 
great  numbers  of  the  emigrants  and  a  quarter 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Panama.  Before  the  ex- 
citement had  begun,  two  new  steamers,  the  Cali- 
fornia and  Oregon,  were  assigned  to  this  route 
to  run  monthly.  The  fare  was  $300,  and  the 
competition  for  space  was  so  great  that  double 
price  was  sometimes  paid.  The  California 
reached  San  Francisco  on  her  first  trip  28  Feb. 
1849.  When  she  came  up  the  west  coast  after 
rounding  the  Horn  to  reach  Panama,  the  gold 
fever  had  just  reached  Peru,  and  75  Peruvians 
took  passage.  This  preoccupation  of  space  so 
enraged  the  1.000  or  so  of  waiting  Americans 
that  they  induced  the  commandant  of  the  United 
States  forces  in  California,  who  was  waiting 
with  them,  to  issue  a  proclamation  ejecting  the 
Peruvians  as  intending  trespassers  on  United 
States  public  lands  not  yet  opened  for  settle- 
ment. As  they  refused  to  go,  however,  no  one 
dared  use  force.  In  one  case  some  300  intend- 
ing passengers  drew  lots  for  the  52  steamer 
tickets  on  sale.  Many  gold-seekers  crossed  at 
Nicaragua,  at  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  or  at 
central  Mexico.  Many  thousands,  however, 
chose  the  cheaper  and  unbroken  but  time-wast- 
ing sailing  voyage  of  several  months  around 
Cape  Horn.  The  vessels  on  this  route  were 
miscellaneous  and  often  unfit  and  ill  manned; 
the  food  was  poor  and  insufficient,  and  the  voy- 
age full  of  hardship.  There  was  also  a  large 
overland  emigration  across  the  plains,  through 
the  Great  Basin  and  its  alkali  deserts,  and  over 
the  Coast  Range.  This  journey,  too.  was  full 
of  suffering  from  lack  of  food,  lack  of  water, 
lost  trails,  and  exhaustion :  and  sometimes  after 
a   summer  of  endurance  to  the   last  gasp,   the 


ARGONNE— ARGUMENT 


pilgrims  saw  the  snows  close  up  the  mountain 
them,  and  either  wintered  or  died 
on  the  eastern  flank,  or  lost  themselves  trying 
to  penetrate  through  the  snow.  This  overland 
body  had  two  strongly  distinguishing  marks 
from  the  immigrants  by  sea.  First,  it  contained 
nearly  all  the  families  among  the  Argonauts,  as 
distinguished  from  the  solitary  masculine  ad- 
venturers; and  therefore  nearly  all  the  women. 
Second,  it  was  nearly  all  a  Northern  and  free- 
labor  element — an  important  point  in  the  strug- 
gle to  make  new  States  free  or  slave  then  going 
on  between  the  sections. 

I  he  characteristics  of  the  Argonauts  as  a 
body  were  these:  First,  they  were  mostly 
men,  with  a  few  low-caste  women,  and  their 
moral  sense  was  not  therefore  quickened  by  the 
nee  and  needs  of  family  life;  though  fami- 
lies and  reputable  women  were  by  no  means  so 
utterly  absent  as  the  exaggerated  myths  of  the 

old-timers  would  make  it  appear.  Second,  feu- 
intended  to  remain  lunger  than  was  needed  to 
acquire  a  fortune  and  return  East  This  did 
not  make  their  settlement  in  the  least  less  en- 
during or  desirable;  but  with  the  paucity  of 
family  life,  it  prevented  them  for  some  time 
from  feeling  a  proper  responsibility  for  public 
order  and  the  creation  of  solid  institutions,  and 
spasms  of  illegal  violence  were  expected  to  do 
the  work  of  steady  legality.  Third,  they  were 
from  all  sections  of  the  country,  at  a  time  when 
North  and  South  were  daily  Incoming  hostile 
races.  Though  the  free-State  people  were 
largely  in  the  ascendant,  the  Southerners  were 
the  political  leaders  and  the  Stale  was  steadily 
Democratic.  Yet  the  former  class  had  no  idea 
of  letting  sectional  politics  rule  their  general 
action:  home  issues  wire  too  pressing  and  na- 
tional ones  too  academic;  and  while  California 
as  a  free  State  sympathized  with  and  furnished 
splendid  help  to  tile  Union,  her  politics  have  never 
been  affected  by  the  issues  either  of  slavery  or 
of  reconstruction.  Fourth,  along  with  men  of 
character  and  ability,  since  prominent  as  busi- 
ness and  professional  men,  State  officials,  edi- 
tor-,, etc.,  there  were  of  course  great  numbers  of 
blacklegs,  desperadoes,  and  refugees  from  jus- 
tice. These  not  only  defied  all  law  in  their  re- 
lations with  each  other,  but  frequently  outraged, 
plundered,  and  murdered  the  native  Spanish  in- 
habitants, and  required  an  amount  of  time  and 
effort  to  keep  them  in  order,  which  the  decent 
element  —  who  were  in  a  great  majority  —  were 
unwilling  to  give.  Hence  society  again  and 
again  seemed  on  the  verge  of  being  dominated 
wholly  by  its  criminal  classes,  and  the  fear  of 
an  occasional  uprising  of  the  orderly  element 
did  not  countervail  its  being  only  occasional 
and  the  chance  of  escaping  it.  (See  Vigilance 
Committees.)     But   the  best   praise  which  can 

given  to  the  essential  soundness  of  the  Ar- 
gonauts is  that  in  a  remarkably  short  time  they 
rose  to  the  same  sense  of  their  responsibilities  as 
ol.hr  commonwealths,  and  the  California  of 
i860  was  not  inferior  to  any  of  its  companions. 
See  Royce,  History  of  California'  (1891);  H. 
H.    B  tory    of    California,'    4    vols. 

(1884-90);  Shinn.  'Mining  Camps'  (1885); 
Bayard  Taylor,  'Eldorado'  (1850);  Burnett, 
'Reminiscences  of  an  Old   Pioneer'    (1880). 

Argonne,  ar'giin',  a  district  of  France,  now 
contained  in  the  departments  of  Marne  and 
Ardennes.     The  wood  of  Argonne  is  celebrated 


for    the    campaign     of    Dumouriez    against     tho 
Prussians  m  1  792,  and  was  also  the  scene  0 
eral   events   in   tin     Franco-Prussian   war. 

Ar'gos,  an  important  city  of  ancient 
Greece.  The  conquest  of  Argos  by  the  Dorians 
forms  the  first  really  authenticated  event  in  its 
history.  ArgOS  was  now  a  Doric  city,  though  it 
retained  with  part  of  its  Achaean  population  some 
of  its  ancient  habits,  particularly  the  worship 
of  Hera  (Juno).  It  had  also  a  temple  of  pe- 
culiar sacredness  to  Apollo.  It  was  long  the 
first  Dorian  city  in  Greece,  Sparta  being  the 
second,  and  Messene  the  third.  From  the  time 
of  the  ascendency  of  Sparta,  Argos  wa    divided 

between  a  democratic  and  an  oligarchic  party, 
the  former  of  which  inclined  to  the  Athenian, 
the  latter  to  the  Spartan  alliance;  but  the  gen- 
eral piril  of  the  city  tended  toward  enmity  to 
Sparta.  In  362  Argos  fought  with  Thebes 
against  Sparta  and  Athens.  ["hi  Cel<  bratcd 
Pyrrhus  was  killed  in  an  invasion  of  Argos  in 
272.  In  -•_'')  Argos  joined  the  Achaian  League, 
to  which  ;i  continued  to  adhere  till  its  over- 
throw by  the  Romans.  The  town  of  Argos  is 
a  straggling  modern  place,  with  houses  mostly 
Surrounded  by  Hardens,  and  few  buildings  of 
importance.  The  chief  relic  of  the  ancient  city 
is  the  theatre.  There  is  an  acropolis,  1,000  feel 
high,  crowned  by  a  ruined  castle.     Pop.  10,000. 

Argostoli,  ar'gos-to'le,  an  important  city 
of  the  Ionian  Islands,  the  capital  of  Cephaloiiia. 
Its  harbor  is  considered  the  best  in  the  Ionian 
Islands,  and  there  are  excellent  quays.  The 
town  is  the  residence  of  a  Greek  bishop.  Pop. 
(1890)    9.241. 

Argot,  ar'go',  a  French  term  denoting  the 
jargon,  or  peculiar  phraseology  of  a  class  or 
profession.  It  originally  referred  to  the  con- 
ventional slang  of  thieves  and  vagabonds,  in- 
vented for  the  purpose  of  disguise  and  conceal- 
ment. 

Argout,  ar'^oo',  Antoine  Maurice  Apol- 
linaire,  Count  d',  a  French  statesman  and 
financier:  b.  in  Iserc  in  1782:  d.  in  1858.  He 
was  governor  of  the  Bank  of  France,  1834-48. 

Arguelles,  ar'ga'lyas,  Augustin,  a  Spanish 
statesman:  b.  m  Kivadisella  111  Asturias  in  1776; 
d.  in  Madrid.  23  March  1844.  On  the  outbreak 
of  tin1  war  of  independence  in  1808  he  attached 
himself  to  the  patriotic  party,  and,  as  representa- 
tive of  his  native  province  in  the  Cortes,  gained 
a  high  reputation  for  eloquence  (1812-14).  On 
the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  Arguelles 
was  arrested,  and  suffered  several  years'  im- 
prisonment in  the  galleys  till  the  revolution  of 
1820  restored  him  to  freedom.  On  the  fall  of 
the  Constitution  (1823)  he  lied  to  England, 
where  he  remained  till  the  amnesty  of  1832.  On 
his  return  to  Spain,  being  nominated  to  the 
Cortes,  he  was  repeatedly  made  president  and 
vice-president  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and 
always  showed  himself  a  moderate  but  unwaver- 
ing reformer. 

Ar'gument,  a  term  sometimes  employed 
as  synonymous  with  the  subject  of  a  discourse, 
but  more  frequently  appropriated  to  any  kind  of 
method  employed  for  the  purpose  of  confuting 
or  at  least  silencing  an  opponent.  Logicians 
have  reduced  arguments  to  several  distinct 
heads,  of  which  the  only  one  that  can  be  said 
to  have  truth  only  for  its  object  is  the  argumen- 


ARGUMENT  —  ARGYRODITE 


turn   ad   judicium,   founded   on   proof   and   ad- 
dressed to  the  judgment.     See  Logic. 

Ar'gument,  a  legal  term  applied  to  an  ad- 
dress by  counsel  to  the  court  or  jury  in  which 
the  merits  of  the  client's  case  are  set  forth  with 
reference  to  effect  upon  the  verdict  or  decision 
which  is  to  follow.     See  Trial. 

Argun,  ar-goon',  a  river  of  northern  Asia, 
an  affluent  of  the  Amur,  and  about  1,100  miles 
long. 

Ar'gus,  a  personage  represented  in  Greek 
mythology  as  having  ioo  eyes,  or  as  having  his 
whole  body  covered  with  eyes,  half  of  these  be- 
ing always  awake  while  the  rest  were  closed  in 
sleep.  The  jealous  Hera  made  him  keeper  of 
the  unhappy  Io ;  but  Hermes  lulled  him  to  sleep 
with  the  sound  of  his  flute,  and  cut  off  his  head. 
Hera  afterward  took  his  eyes  to  adorn  the  tail 
of  the  peacock.  Argus  was  once  considered  a 
desirable  name  for  a  watch-dog. 

Ar'gus  Pheasant.       See  Pheasant. 
Argyle,  ar-gil',  Campbells  of,  the  designa- 
tion of  a  distinguished  Scottish  family.     Among 
its    most    noted    representatives    are:     Archi- 
bald, the  second  Earl,  who  was  killed  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Flodden,  1513.     Archibald,  fifth  Earl,  at- 
tached himself  to  the  party  of  Mary  of  Guise, 
and  was  the  means   of  averting  a  collision  be- 
tween the  reformers  and  the  French  troops  in 
1559.     He    was   commissioner   of   regency   after 
Mary's    abdication,    but    afterward    commanded 
her  troops  at  the  battle  of   Langside,  and  died 
in   1575.     Archibald,  eighth   Earl  and  Marquis, 
b.  1598,  was  a  zealous  partisan  of  the  Covenan- 
ters, and  was  created  a  Marquis  by  Charles  I. 
It  was  by  his  persuasion  that  Charles  II.  visited 
Scotland,   and   was  crowned  at   Scone   in   165 1. 
At    the    restoration    he    was   committed    to    the 
tower,  and   afterward   sent  to   Scotland,   where 
he  was  tried  for  high  treason,  and  beheaded  in 
1661.     Archibald,  ninth   Earl,  son   of  the  pre- 
ceding,  served   the  king  with  great  bravery  at 
the  battle  of  Dunbar,  and  was  accordingly  ex- 
cluded  from   the   general   pardon   by    Cromwell 
in    1654.     On   the   passing   of   the   Test   Act    in 
1681  he  refused  to  take  the  required  oath  except 
with  a  reservation.     For  this  he  was  tried  and 
sentenced   to    death.    He,   however,   escaped   to 
Holland,  whence  he  returned  with  a  view  of  aid- 
ing the  Duke  of  Monmouth.     His  plan,  however, 
failed,  and  he  was  taken  and  conveyed  to  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  was  beheaded  in  1685.     Archi- 
bald, tenth  Earl  and  first  Duke,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding,   died   in    1703.     He  took   an   active   part 
in   the   revolution  of  1688-9,  which  placed  Wil- 
liam and  Mary  on  the  throne,  and  was  rewarded 
by  several  important  appointments  and  the  title 
of    Duke.     John,    second    Duke    and    Duke    of 
Greenwich,  son  of  the  above,  was  born  in   1678 
and   died   in   1743.     He   served   under   Marlbor- 
ough at  the  battles  of  Ramilies,  Oudenarde,  and 
Malplaquet.  and  assisted  at  the  sieges  of  Lisle 
and  Ghent.     He  incurred  considerable  odium  in 
Scotland  for  his  efforts  in  promoting  the  union. 
In   1715  he  fought  an  indecisive  battle  with  the 
Earl  of  Mar's  army  at   Sheriffmuir,  near  Dun- 
blane, and  forced  the  pretender  to  quil  the  king- 
dom.    He  was  long  a  supporter  of  Walpole,  but 
his  political  career  was  full  of  intrigue.     He  is 
the    Duke    of    Argyle    who    appeals     in     Scott's 
'Heart  of  Midlothian.'     George  John  DOUGLASS 
Campbell,  eighth   Duke,   Baron   Sundridge  and 


Hamilton,  was  born  in  1823  and  died  24  April 
1900.  He  early  took  a  part  in  politics,  especially 
in  discussions  regarding  the  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland.  In  1852  he  became  lord  privy  seal 
under  Lord  Aberdeen,  and  again  under  Lord 
Palmerston,  in  1859;  postmaster-general  in  i860; 
secretary  for  India  from  1868  to  1874  ;  again  Lord 
privy  seal  in  1880,  but  retired,  being  unable  to 
agree  with  his  colleagues  on  their  Irish  policy. 
He  was  the  author  of  'The  Reign  of  Law' 
(1866);  'Primeval  Man'  (1869);  'The  Bur- 
dens of  Belief  (1894);  'Organic  Evolution' 
(1878).  John  Douglas  Sutherland,  ninth  Duke, 
eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in  1845. 
He  married  Louise,  the  fourth  daughter  of 
Queen  Victoria,  in  1871,  and  as  Marquis  of  Lome 
was  governor-general  of  Canada  1878-83.  He 
succeeded  to  his  present  title  in  1900.  He  is  the 
author  of  'A  Trip  to  the  Tropics'  (1867); 
'Guido  and  Lita'  (1875)  ;  'The  Psalms  Literal- 
ly Rendered  in  Verse'  (1877);  'Canadian 
Pictures'   (1885);  'Imperial  Federation'   (1885). 

Argyllshire,  ar-gil'shir,  an  important 
county  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  consisting 
partly  of  mainland  and  partly  of  islands  belonging 
to  the  Hebrides  group.  The  area  is  3,213  square 
miles,  or  2.056.400  acres.  The  greatest  length  of 
mainland  is  about  115  miles.  From  the  windings 
of  the  numerous  bays  and  creeks  with  which  the 
land  is  everywhere  indented  it  is  supposed  to 
have  more  than  600  miles  of  sea-coast.  The 
chief  towns  are:  the  capital,  Inverary.  Campbel- 
town, Oban,  Dunoon,  Lochgilphead,  and  Tober- 
mory. For  a  long  time  this  county  scarcely 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom,  being  subject  to  the 
Macdonalds  of  the  isles,  who  assumed  regal 
and  independent  sway  over  it.  The  estates,  ti- 
tles, and  jurisdiction  of  the  latter,  however,  sub- 
sequently fell  to  the  Campbells,  whose  present 
representatives,  the  Duke  of  Argyle  and  the 
Earl  of  Breadalbane.  are  the  chief  landed  pro- 
prietors. 

The  chief  articles  of  export  are  sheep,  cattle, 
horses,  fish,  slate,  and  granite.  One  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  industry  is  the  fishing  of 
herring,  cod,  and  ling,  which  abound  on  the 
coast  and  around  the  islands.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  whisky  and  coarse  woolens. 
A  great  impulse  has  been  given  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  county  by  the  extension  of  steam  navi- 
gation. Among  the  antiquities  of  Argyllshire 
are  the  celebrated  monastery  of  Iona.  and  the 
remains  of  a  Cistercian  priory  in  Oronsay.  The 
most  noted  of  its  natural  curiosities  are  the 
basaltic  columns  and  cave  of  Staffa  (q.v.)  Pop. 
(1901)  73.665- 

Argy'ria,  or  Silver  Poisoning.  See  Toxi- 
cology. 

Argyro-Castro,  ar'ge-ro-kas'tro  (Turkish 
Ergree-Kastree),  a  town  of  Albania.  50  miles 
northwest  of  Janina.  It  is  picturesquely  situated 
on  an  elevated  rocky  site  intersected  by  deep 
ravines  and  overlooked  by  a  dilapidated  castle. 
Turkish   snuff   is  manufactured   here. 

Argyr'odite  (Greek,  "like  silver"),  a  min- 
eral first  observed  at  Freiberg,  Saxony,  and 
found  upon  analysis  to  contain  a  previously 
unknown  metallic  element,  to  which  the  name 
"germanium"  has  been  given.  Argyrodite  has 
the  formula  4AgiS.GeSs,  and  crystallizes  in  the 
isometric  system.  It  has  a  hardness  2.5  and  a 
specific  gravity  varying  from  6.08  to  6.26.     It  has 


ARI  THORGILSSON  — ARIEGE 


a  metallic  lustre,  and  fresh  fractures  show  a 
gray  color  tinged  with  red  or  violet.  Its  crystals 
are  usually  small  and  it  also  occurs  massive. 
Large  crystals  have  been  found  in  Bolivia. 

Ari      Thorgilsson,      a're-tor'gel-son,      the 

father  of  Icelandic  literature:  b.  in  1007;  d.  in 
114K.  lie  was  the  first  Icelander  to  use  his 
mother   tongue  as  a  literary   medium.     His   'Is- 

lendingabok,1  a  concise  history  of  Iceland  from 
its  settlement  (about  870)  until  1 120  is  preserved 
only  in  an  abstract.  Later  Icelandic  writers 
modeled   their  style   upon  his. 

Aria,  a're-a  or  a'ria,  a  term  in  music.  See 
Aik. 

Ariadne,  the  daughter  of  Minos,  king  of 
Crete,  who,  having  fallen  in  love  with  The 
when  engaged  in  his  attempt  to  destroy  the 
Minotaur,  gave  him  a  clue  of  thread,  which 
served  to  guide  him  out  of  the  labyrinth  after 
having  slain  the  monster.  Theseus,  on  leav- 
ing the  island,  took  with  him  Ariadne,  but  de- 
serted her  on  the  Isle  of  Naxos. 

A'rianism  is  the  name  given  to  the  doc- 
trine m|"  the  person  of  Christ  advocated  by  Arius 
and  his  followers.  It  contained  nothing  essen- 
tially new,  but  it  crystallized  certain  modes  and 
tendencies  of  thought  which  had  been  more 
or  less  prevalent  in  the  Church  for  three  or 
four  generations.  (See  Christology.)  The 
views  of  Alius  and  the  strict  Arian  party  may 
he  summarized  as  follows:  (1)  The  Son  was 
created  out  of  nothing,  and  is  therefore  different 
in  essence  from  the  Father.  He  is  Logos,  Wis- 
dom, Son  of  God.  but  so  only  by  the  grace  of 
God  and  not  in  and  of  himself.  (2)  There  was 
(before  lime  began)  when  he  was  not;  that  is, 
he  is  a  finite  being.  (3)  He  was  created  be- 
fore everything  else,  and  through  him  the  uni- 
verse was  created  and  is  administered.  (4) 
The  Logos  became  the  soul  of  the  historical 
Christ,  and  the  human  elements  in  the  character 
of  Jesus  belonged  t"  the  Logos.  (5)  Although 
the  incarnate  Logos  is  finite  and  hence  is  not 
God,  he  is  to  he  worshipped,  since  he  is  exalted 
far  above  all  other  creatures,  and  is  both  Ruler 
and  Redeemer. 

I  he  discussions  at  the  Nicenc  Council  re- 
vealed the  fact  that  there  were  three  parties  pres- 
ent :  the  strict  Arians,  the  semi-Arians,  and  the 
Alexander-Athanasian  party.  The  latter  party 
with  the  help  of  Constantine  and  the  western 
bishops,  secured  the  adoption  of  a  creed  I 
Creeds)  which  no  strict  Arian  could  subscribe 
to,  since  it  declared  that  the  Son  is  identical  in 
moousian)  with  the  Father.  The 
semi-Arians,  although  they  maintained  that  the 
Son  was  not  identical  in  essence,  hut  of  similar 
essence  (homoiousian)  with  the  Father, 
finally  constrained  to  sign  the  document.  Soon 
after  the  closing  of  the  council  the  semi-Arians 
began  to  assail  the  Nicenc  creed,  and  finally. 
through  the  influence  of  Eusebius  (q.v.),  they 
secured  the  recall  of  Alius  and  his  companions 
and  the  deposition  and  banishment  of  Athan- 
asius.  The  sons  of  Constantine  continued  to 
favor  the  semi-Arian  party,  which  included  a 
large  majority  of  the  eastern  bishops;  hut  the 
western  churches  generally  adhered  to  the  Ni- 
cen'e  creed.  But  the  death  of  Constantius  II. 
in  361,  and  the  accession  of  Julian  left  the  Arian 
party  without  imperial  support,  and  Athanasius 


and  his  followers  regained  considerable  influence 

111    the    east.       The    accession    of    Yalcns    in    363, 

however,  reversed  the  governmental  policy  and 
lrd  io  the  fanatical  persecution  of  the  Nicenes. 
Hut  the  distracted  condition  of  the  Orient,  due 
to  the  war  with  Persia,  and  the  demoral 
state  of  many  of  the  bishoprics  under  Arian 
leadership,  made  it  relatively  easy  for  Theodo- 
sius  the  Great  to  espouse  and  support  the  Xi 
cene  party.  A  second  oecumenical  council  held 
at  Constantinople  iii  381  reaffirmed  the  Nicene 
creed  with  slight  additions  and  curtailments, 
thus  completing  the  victory  of  Nicara  in  favor 
of  the  full  deity  of  the  Son.  Arianism  was  soon 
suppressed  within  the  empire,  but  it  continued 
for  a  long  time  to  prevail  among  the  barbarians. 
The  conversion  of  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks, 
to  the  orthodox  faith  in  496  was  followed  by  a 
rapid  decline  of  Arianism  among  the  Teutonic 
peoples.     See  Ann 

EnwtN  Knox  Mitchell, 
Hartford  Theological  Seminary. 

Ariano,  a're-a'no,  an  Italian  town  in  the 
province  of  Avellino,  44  miles  northeast  of  Na- 
ples, in  one  of  the  most  frequented  passes  of  the 
Apennines.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  con- 
tains a  handsome  cathedral.     Pop.  (1901)  17,650. 

Arias,  a'ri-as,  Montanus  Benedictus,  an 
Oriental  scholar:  b.  Ferexenal.  Spain,  in  1527; 
d.  there  in  1598.    He  accompanied  the  Bishop  of 

Segovia  to  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  on  his  re- 
turn secluded  himself  in  a  cloister  among  the 
mountains  of  Andalusia.  Philip  II.  drew  him 
forth  from  his  seclusion  to  prepare  a  new  edi- 
tion of  the  Polyglot  Bible,  printed  at  Antwerp 
by  the  celebrated  printers  Plantin.  Of  his  nu- 
merous writings  the  best  known  is  his  'Jewish 
Antiquities,'  attached  to  the  Polyglot,  and  also 
published    separately. 

Arica,  a-re'ka,  a  seaport  of  Chile,  30  miles 
south  of  the  town  of  Tacna,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  railway.  It  i^  -till  a  port  of  some 
consequence,  but  has  suffered  much  from  earth- 
quakes. During  the  war  between  Chile  and 
Peru  it  was  bombarded  by  the  Chilean  forces, 
and  it  passed  into  the  possession  of  Chile  in 
1883.  The  chief  exports  are  silver  and  silver 
ore,  copper,  bark,  chinchilla  skins,  and  alpaca 
wool.  From  this  port  the  silver  from  the  mines 
of  Potosi  used  to  be  shipped  for  Europe.  Pop. 
about  4,000. 

Arimathea,  a  town  in  Jttdea  and,  accord- 
ing to  Saint  Jerome,  not  far  from  Lydda.  It 
is  mentioned  in  the  Gospels  as  the  home  of 
Joseph,  a  member  of  the  Sanhedrin,  wdio  had  the 
honor  of  giving  the  burial  place  for  the  body  of 
the  crucified  Christ.  Joseph  of  Arimathea  is 
also  mentioned  in  the  Arthurian  legends  as  hav- 
ing brought  the  Holy  Grail  from  Jerusalem. 

Ar'icite,  a  mineral  more  correctly  known 
as  Gismondite  (q.v.). 

Arid  Lands.     Sec  Deserts. 

Ariege,  a're-azh',  a  French  department, 
separated  from  Spain  by  the  Pyrenees.  The 
arable  land  is  small  in  quantity,  but  a  consider- 
able number  of  sheep  and  cattle  are  reared. 
The  manufacturing  industry  is  considerable,  but 
lead,  copper,  etc.,  arc  abundant  The  chief  town 
is  Foix.  Area,  1890  square  miles;  pop.  O901) 
210,527. 


ARIOSTO  —  ARISTOPHANES 


Ariosto,  Ludovico,  an  Italian  poet:  b.  Reg- 
gio  8  Sept.  1474;  d.  Ferrara  6  June  1533.  His 
father,  who  was  commander  of  the  citadel  of 
Reggio,  proposed  that  he  should  study  law,  but, 
as  he  showed  no  indication  of  being  fitted  for 
this  profession,  he  was  finally  permitted  to  fol- 
low his  own  inclinations.  These  led  him  to  the 
study  of  literature,  especially  the  classics,  and 
he  soon  developed  so  much  ability  as  a  poet 
that,  as  early  as  1495,  he  wrote  several  comedies. 
Two  of  them  were  acted  about  15 12,  and  they 
attracted  the  attention  of  Cardinal  Ippolito 
d'  Este,  who  sent  him  as  an  ambassador  to  the 
court  of  Pope  Julius  II.  In  1517  he  offended 
the  cardinal  by  refusing  to  accompany  him  to 
Hungary,  but  he  immediately  entered  the  service 
of  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Ferrara,  by  whom  he  was 
appointed  governor  of  Garfagnana,  a  position 
which  he  filled  successfully  for  several  years. 
The  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  writing 
comedies  and  in  completing  his  principal  work, 
a  romantic  epic,  'Orlando  Furioso,'  which  has 
been  called  "the  greatest  poem  of  its  kind  in  any 
language."  His  'Satires'  in  the  Horatian  style 
were  not  published  until  after  his  death. 

Ar'isti'des  the  Just,  an  Athenian  states- 
man :  b.  near  the  middle  of  the  6th  century  B.C. ; 
d.  about  468  b.c.  He  was  one  of  the  ten  gen- 
erals of  the  Athenians  when  they  fought  against 
the  Persians  at  Marathon,  490  B.C.  According 
to  the  usual  arrangement  the  command  of  the 
army  was  held  by  each  of  the  generals  in  rota- 
tion for  one  day.  But  Aristides  prevailed  on 
his  colleagues  each  to  give  up  his  day  to  Mil- 
tiades ;  and  to  this,  in  a  great  measure,  must 
be  ascribed  the  victory  of  the  Greeks. 

Aristides,  Quintilianus,  a  famous  Greek 
grammarian  of  the  1st  century  whose  treatise  on 
music  is  esteemed  the  most  valuable  of  all 
ancient  writings  upon  that  theme. 

Aristip'pus,  a  disciple  of  Socrates,  and 
founder  of  a  philosophical  school  among  the 
Greeks,  which  was  called  the  Cyrenaic,  from  his 
native  city  Cyrene,  in  Africa ;  flourished  380  B.C. 
His  moral  philosophy  differed  widely  from  that 
of  Socrates,  and  was  a  science  of  refined  volup- 
tuousness. His  fundamental  principles  were  — 
that  all  human  sensations  may  be  reduced  to 
two,  pleasure  and  pain.  Pleasure  is  a  gentle, 
and  pain  a  violent  emotion.  All  living  beings 
seek  the  former  and  avoid  the  latter.  Happiness 
is  nothing  but  a  continued  pleasure,  composed 
of  separate  gratifications. 

Aristolochia,  a-rls'to-lo-ki'a,  a  term  denot- 
ing the  type  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Aristolocliiacccc.  The  order  includes 
nearly  200  species,  mainly  shrubs  (some  climb- 
ing), and  herbs,  natives  of  warm  countries  and 
especially  numerous  in  tropical  South  America. 
A.  Si[>ho  {macrophylla  of  some  botanists),  the 
Dutchman's  pipe  or  pipe  vine,  a  native  of  the 
southeastern  States,  is  perhaps  the  best  known 
species  grown  in  America.  It  is  hardy  as  far 
north  as  Detroit.  A.  californica,  a  silky-haired 
Californian  species  with  U-shaped  flowers,  and 
A.  tomentosa,  a  small  very  hairy  species  with 
yellow  flowers,  found  from  North  Carolina  to 
Missouri  and  southward,  are  also  grown  out  of 
doors  to  some  extent.  A.  clematitis,  the  com- 
mon birthwort,  a  perennial  herb,  is  a  European 
common  weed  as  far  north  as  latitude  500,  and, 


like  A.  rotunda  and  A.  longa,  two  other  herba- 
ceous species,  native  to  southern  Europe,  was 
formerly  believed  to  In-  of  service  in  childbirth, 
and  the  latter  are  still  believed  to  be  valuable 
as  emmenagogues. 

Ar'istoph'anes,  the  greatest  of  the  Greek 
comic  dramatists:  b.  in  Athens  probably  about 
the  year  448  B.C. ;  d.  about  385  B.C.  He  appeared 
as  a  poet  in  427  B.C.,  and  having  indulged  him- 
self in  some  sarcasms  on  the  powerful  dema- 
gogue Cleon  was  accused  by  the  latter  of  having 
unlawfully  assumed  the  title  of  an  Athenian 
citizen.  The  same  accusation  was  twice  re- 
newed against  him,  but  he  succeeded  in  repelling 
it  both  times.  In  424  he  again  attacked  Cleon  in 
his  comedy  of  'The  Knights,'  in  which  he  him- 
self acted  the  part  of  the  Athenian  demagogue, 
because  no  actor  had  the  courage  to  do  so.  The 
earliest  of  his  extant  plays  was  'The  Achar- 
nians,'  which  was  brought  out  in  425.  Aris- 
tophanes was  distinguished  among  the  an- 
cients by  the  appellation  of  "The  Comedian." 
as  Homer  was  by  that  of  "The  Poet."  Of  54 
comedies  by  him  only  II  remain;  but  in  order 
fully  to  enjoy  them,  and  not  to  be  offended  by 
the  extravagances  and  indecencies  with  which 
they  are  bound,  we  must  be  intimately  acquainted 
with  ancient  customs  and  opinions.  The  purity 
and  elegance  of  his  language,  which  is  regarded 
as  a  model  of  the  Attic  Greek  dialect,  the  skill 
and  care  displayed  in  the  plan  and  execution  of 
his  pieces,  the  wealth  of  lyric  power  displayed  in 
his  choral  odes  as  well  as  the  overflowing  rich- 
ness of  his  comic  genius,  and  the  various  other 
excellences  of  his  dramas,  have  gained  for  Aris- 
tophanes the  fame  of  a  master.  His  wit  and 
humor  are  as  inexhaustible  as  his  boldness  un- 
restrained. The  Greeks  were  enchanted  with 
the  grace  and  refinement  of  his  writings ;  and 
Plato,  the  comedian,  said  the  Graces  would  have 
chosen  his  soul  for  their  habitation.  On  both 
political  and  moral  grounds  he  was  a  strong 
advocate  for  ancient  discipline,  manners,  doc- 
trines, and  art;  hence  his  sallies  against  Soc- 
rates in  'The  Clouds,'  and  against  Euripides  in 
'The  Frogs'  and  other  comedies.  The  freedom 
of  ancient  comedy  allowed  an  unbounded  degree 
of  personal  satire,  and  nothing  which  offered  a 
weak  side  escaped  his  ridicule.  He  feared  the 
Athenian  populace  so  little  that  he  personated 
them  under  the  figure  of  a  wretched  old  man 
called  Demos.  He  incessantly  reproached  them 
for  their  fickleness,  their  levity,  their  love  of 
flattery,  their  foolish  credulity,  and  their  readi- 
ness to  entertain  extravagant  hopes.  Instead  of 
being  irritated,  the  Athenians  rewarded  him 
with  a  crown  from  the  sacred  olive-tree,  at  that 
time  considered  an  extraordinary  mark  of  dis- 
tinction. Aristophanes  produced,  under  the 
name  of  his  eldest  son,  the  'Cocalus.'  his  last 
play.  With  this  what  is  known  as  the  "middle1 
comedy  began,  to  be  followed  afterward  by  the 
"new."  The  names  of  his  extant  plays  are  'The 
Acharnians'  (425  B.C.)  :  'The  Knights'  (424)  ; 
'The  Clouds'  (42O  ;  'The  Wasps'  (422)  :  'The 
Peace'  (421);  'The  Birds'  (4141:  'Lysistrata' 
(411);  'Thesmophoria/us.T.'  'The  Fro--' 
(405);  (Ecclesiasuzse>  (393)  ;  fPlutus'  (388). 
Among  editions  of  his  comedies  may  be  men 
tioned  those  of  Rergk  (1867)  :  Blaydes  (1886)  : 
Holden  (1887).  English  translations  of  excel- 
lence are  those  by  Frere,  Mitchell,  Rogers,  and 
Kennedy. 


ARISTOPHANES  OF  BYZANTIUM    —  ARISTOTELIANISM 


Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  Greek  gram- 
marian: b.  about  262  b.c;  d.  about  185.  He  was 
educated  at  Alexandria,  and  became  the  chief 
librarian  of  the  great  Alexandrian  library. 
Ancient  critics  rank  him  among  the  most  cele- 
brated critics  and  grammarians,  lie  deserves 
great  credit  for  bis  services  to  the  Greek  lan- 
guage and  literature.  With  Aristarchus,  he  was 
the  principal  expert  in  determining  the  so-called 
Alexandrian  canon  of  the  classical  writers  of 
Greece.  He  invented  a  series  of  critical  signs, 
and  greatly  improved  the  notation  employed  in 
prosody,  including  accent,  quantity,  and  breath- 
ing. His  publications  include  important  critical 
editions  of  Greek  writers,  particularly  of  Homer 
—  the  first  of  its  kind  —  Hesiod,  and  the  lyri- 
cists A  Ictus  and  Pindar.  For  the  plays  of  the 
tragic  and  comic  poets  he  wrote  introductions. 
Little  of  what  he  wrote  is  extant,  save  frag- 
ments in  the  scholia  of  the  poets,  some  argtt 
menta  to  the  dramatic  writers,  and  a  part  of  the 
A^feis  ('Glossary').  Consult  Nauck,  '  Aristoph- 
anis    Byzantii  Fragmenta'    (1848). 

Aristophanes  (The  English),  a  name  fre- 
quently applied  to  Samuel  Foote  (q.v.),  also 
called  "The  .Modern  Aristophanes,"  because  of 
bis  abundant  good  spirits  and  skill  in  unsparing 
ridicule.  Garrick  was  a  common  object  of  his 
wit. 

Aristophanes  (The  French),  a  name 
sometimes  applied  to  the  French  dramatist, 
J.  B.   I'.  Moliere  (q.v.). 

Aristophanes'  Apology,  a  poem  by  Rob- 
ert Browning  (q.v.),  published  in  1875;  the  title 
being  in  full.  'Aristophanes'  Apology;  Including 
a  Transcript  from  Euripides:  Being  the  Last 
Adventure  of  Balaustion.'  It  is  a  sequel  to  the 
poem  '  lialaustion's  Adventure.'  A  long  work 
in  blank  verse,  it  commemorates  the  defence 
made  by  Aristophanes  of  his  comic  art,  on 
learning  through  Sophocles  of  the  death  of 
Euripides,  the  tragedian.  An  extensive  article 
on  it  may  be  found  in  Berdoe's  'Browning 
.edia'  (1892),  with  a  glossary  of  terms, 
etc. 

Aristotelianism.  Aristotle  is  the  first 
:  hilo  ophical  writer  to  make  a  strict  separation 
of  the  branches  of  philosophy.  His  writings,  in 
terms  of  their  subject  matter,  fall  into  tin  fol 
lowing  groups:  Logic,  Metaphysii  .  Phj  ii 
F.thics,  Politics,  and  the  philosophy  of  Art.  A 
classification  made  by  Aristotle,  but  not  ap- 
plied to  the  arrangement  of  his  writings,  is: 
(1)  theoretic  philosophy;  (2)  philosophy  of 
conduct;  (3)  philosophy  of  production,  that  is, 
of  art.  The  analysis  of  the  problems  and  subject 
matter  of  philosophy  and  science  begins  with 
him.  In  Plato's  writings  the  various  problems 
are  fused  together  and  treated  integrally  and 
synthetically  in  an  ethico-metaphysical  system. 

Logic. —  For  Aristotle  logic  is  a  methodology 
of  science,  a  propedeutic  to  the  other  disciplines. 
It  is  not  strictly  a  science,  because  science  has 
some  essence  or  aspect  of  reality  for  its  subject 
matter,  while  logic  is  concerned  with  the  forms 
of  knowing.  Formal  logic  was  founded  by  Ar- 
and  almost  completely  developed  by  him. 
Its  chief  feature  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Syllogism, 
the  process  nf  reaching  scientific  or  apodictic  con 
elusions.  The  syllogistic  process  is  a  deductive 
process,  that  is.  it  derives  particular  conclusions 
from  general  principles  or  accepted  premises. 
The  possibility  of  deriving  such  conclusions  rests 


upon  the  axiomatic  principles  of  contradiction 
and  the  excluded  middle,  that  is.  two  contradicto- 
ries cannot  at  the  same  tune  and  in  the  same  ref- 
erence be  true;  and  of  two  contradictory  proposi- 
tions, one  must  be  true  and  the  other  false,  and 
a  third  intermediate  proposition  is  excluded. 
The  logical  treatises  wi  re  grouped  togethei  by 
Aristotle's  successors  and  called  the  Organon  or 
instrument  of  science.  'I  be  several  treatises  con- 
sist of  the  Categories,  the  Hermcnctitics,  tin-  An- 
alytics, and  the  Topics.  The  Categories  discuss 
simple  term-  ;  the  I  Icrmaneutics  dlSCUSS  tin-  D  >m- 
bination  of  terms  with  a  predicate,  that  is,  the 
judgment  or  proposition;  and  the  Analytics  and 
Topic-  discuss  tin-  comb  mat  ion  of  propositions  in 
the  syllogism.  The  syllogistic  conclusion  is  the 
derivation  of  one  judgment  from  another  by 
means  of  a  middle  term.  The  notion,  judgment 
and  conclusion  are  the  three  elements  with  which 
formal  logic  Operates.  The  categories,  or  gen- 
eral notions  under  which  reality  is  viewed  are 
enumerated  by  Aristotle  as  substance,  quantity, 
quality,  relation,  place,  time,  position,  possession, 
action,  passion.  These  ten  categories  are  evi- 
dently not  derived  from  any  single  principle  and 
are  neither  exhaustive  nor  mutually  exclusive 
Aristotle's  main  interest  is  in  the  syllogism; 
simple  terms  or  notions  and  the  judgment  are 
scantily  treated.  His  treatment  of  the  syllogism 
is  practically  exhaustive.  Modern  logic  has  sup- 
plemented his  work  by  adding  to  his  theory  of 
the  categorical  conclusion,  which  was  his  chief 
interest,  the  theory  of  hypothetical  ami  disjunc- 
tive conclusions;  further,  by  adding  a  fourth 
figure  to  his  three,  and  lastly  by  developing  the 
theory  of  inductive  logic  and  the  method  of  the 
sciences.  Aristotle  regards  deductive  loijic  as 
the  only  method  thai  can  furnish  demonstration 
or  apodictic  conclusions.  Science,  howi 
would  not  he  possible  with  syllogistic  demonstra- 
tion alone,  for  if  all  our  premises  had  to  be 
proven  we  should  be  forced  into  an  endless  re- 
gress. Therefore,  science  must  accept  certain 
fundamental  principles  as  its  axiomatic  postu- 
lates. From  these  accepted  postulates  scientific 
proof  proceeds  by  deduction.  In  addition  to  tin- 
Aristotle  mentions  the  further  method  of  induc- 
tion without  elaborating  it,  saying,  however,  that 
universal  principles  are  secured  by  it  from  par 
licular  instances  and  that  it  has  the  advantage 
Over  deduction  by  being  nearer  to  our  sense  ex- 
perience and  therefore  more  generally  intelli- 
gible. On  the  other  hand,  he  insists  that  a  com- 
plete knowledge  of  particulars   is  necessary   to   a 

completely  certain  induction  and  this,  owing  to 
the  multiplicity  of  particulars,  being  rarely  pos- 
sible, induction  lacks  in  its  conclusions  the  co- 
gency of  the  deductive  syllogism. 

Metaphysics. —  First  Philosophy  (the  term 
Metaphysics  is  not  used  by  Aristotle,  but  is  a 
word  applied  to  the  First  Philosophy  on  account 
of  its  being  placed  after  the  treatises  on  Physics 
by  the  early  editor  of  the  works)  is  the  philoso- 
phy of  first  principles  as  such  ;  second  philosophy 
or  physics  is  the  philosophy  of  these  princi- 
ples applied  to  concrete  phenomena,  the  phe- 
nomena of  motion  and  matter.  Aristotle  is  a 
disciple  of  Plato  and.  like  his  master,  he  viewed 
the  world  from  the  standpoint  of  teleology.  The 
cosmic  proccsse  are  determined  by  final  causes. 
He  makes  more  of  facts  than  Plato  does,  has 
a  much  larger  mass  of  empirical  data  for  his 
constructions  and  is  more  catholic  in  his  scien- 
tific   interests.     His   metaphysics,   however,   like 


ARISTOTELIANISM 


Plato's,  is  based  on  high  speculative  ideas  and 
he  explains  the  world-order  by  means  of  these 
general  and  ultimate  principles,  so  that  he  is  not 
a  realist  in  the  sense  of  confining  reality  merely 
to  particular  facts.  Like  Plato,  he  sought  the  es- 
sence of  phenomena  in  the  concept  and  law,  but 
unlike  Plato  he  sought  it  in  a  concept  given  in 
the  phenomena  as  their  inner  principle  of  de- 
velopment and  not  in  a  transcendent  principle.  If 
there  is  no  concept  or  universal  there  can  be  no 
scientific  knowledge.  The  concept  is  not,  how- 
ever, an  idea  isolated  from  particular  things,  but 
as  the  universal  reality  it  is  immanent  in  par- 
ticulars (ituivcisalia  in  re  not  ante  rem),  the  in- 
dividual being  the  only  self-existent  real. 
Against  Plato's  doctrine  of  ideas  Aristotle  brings 
the  following  criticisms  :  (i)  The  Platonists  fur- 
nish no  adequate  proof  of  the  existence  of  ideas 
as  hypostasized  entities;  (2)  The  Platonic  ideas, 
because  transcendent,  cannot  explain  the  phe- 
nomenal world,  which  is  left  without  a  principle 
of  motion:  (3)  The  world  of  ideas  is  only  a 
reduplication  of  the  world  of  sense  in  its  generic 
aspect;  (4)  The  explanation  of  the  relation  of 
the  ideal  to  the  sensible  world  by  the  terms 
archetype,  pattern,  image,  etc.,  is  only  meta- 
phorical. The  universal  is  real  as  the  formative 
principle  in  things,  giving  to  them  their  generic 
character,  while  matter  is  the  principle  of  indi- 
viduality. Form  and  matter  are  explanatory  of 
genus  and  individual.  In  every  particular  thing, 
with  the  exception  of  God  or  the  Prime  Mover 
(who  is  pure  form),  the  two  principles  of  form 
and  matter  are  present ;  form  making  the  class- 
ification of  things  and  scientific  knowledge  pos- 
sible, and  matter  making  possible  the  concrete- 
ness  of  objects.  Form  and  matter  are  two  as- 
pects of  individual  things  and  are  not  really,  but 
only  notionally,  separable.  Everything  is  both 
form  and  substrate,  idea  and  matter,  significance 
and  Stuff,  soul  and  body,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  the  Supreme  Being.  Form  is  the  moving 
principle  of  development  and  matter  is  the  pas- 
sive potentiality.  Plastic  stuff  or  matter  is 
moulded  after  generic  patterns.  In  nature's 
processes  Aristotle  calls  them  energy  and  poten- 
tiality. The  real  is  an  explication  of  a  prior 
potential.  The  transition  of  a  thing  from  a  con- 
dition of  potentiality  to  a  condition  of  actuality 
is  accomplished  by  some  form  of  motion.  Mo- 
tion in  turn  (which  is  of  several  kinds:  spatial, 
that  is,  locomotion  ;  qualitative,  that  is,  transmu- 
tation of  substances;  quantitative,  that  is, 
growth)  implies  a  moving  cause,  and  any  given 
moving  cause  an  antecedent  cause  and  so  the 
caudal  regress  would  be  endless,  were  we  not  to 
posit  a  Prime  Mover  or  uncaused  First  Cause. 
Tin'  First  Cause  is  the  origin  and  source  of  all 
motion  and  life.  As  motion  is  eternal,  so 
the  Prime  Mover  is  eternal;  it  is  also 
immaterial,  passionless,  and  motionless,  for  the 
Prime  Mover  causes  motion  merely  as  an 
ideal  toward  which  matter  strives  in  the 
processes  of  nature,  analogously  to  the  power 
of  attraction  in  beauty.  The  activity  of 
God  is  pure  thought  or  thought  turned  up  >n 
itself,  which  theoretic  life  is  for  Aristotle  the 
perfect  type  of  life.  Between  God,  as  pure  form, 
and  matter,  as  formless  stuff, —  the  extreme  cos- 
mic principles.  —  Aristotle  places  the  world  of 
natural  phenomena,  which  are  all  composites  of 
the  two  principles.  His  doctrine  of  the  Prime 
Mover  is  a  direct  nroduct  of  his  philosophy  and 
is  the  first  attempt  to  found  a  theistic  theory  on 


a  philosophical  basis.  Aristotle  specifies  as  the 
four  causes  operative  in  nature  the  formal,  final, 
efficient,  and  material.  But  as  form  contains 
within  itself  the  principles  of  efficiency,  purpose, 
and  meaning,  these  four  causes  are  reducible  to 
his  dualism  of  form  and  matter.  As  an  exam- 
ple of  his  application  of  the  four  causes,  a  statue 
presupposes:  (1)  matter,  for  example,  clay,  wood 
or  marble;  (2)  a  form  or  idea  in  the  artist's 
mind;  (3)  an  efficient  cause,  such  as  the  energy 
applied  to  tools;   (4)  a  motive  or  purpose. 

Physics. —  While  the  metaphysics  treats  of 
being  as  such,  of  the  unconditioned,  of  the  ulti- 
mate principles  explanatory  of  reality,  Physics 
treats  of  the  contingent,  the  conditioned,  and  of 
the  quantitative  and  qualitative  relations  of 
things.  In  the  philosophy  of  nature's  phenom- 
ena, the  concept  of  motion  plays  the  chief  role, 
effecting  the  transition  of  potentiality  to  actual- 
ity and  having  its  ultimate  source  in  the  Prime 
Mover.  The  whole  of  growth  and  development 
proceeds  from  one  form  of  being  to  another  form 
of  being,  but  not  from  nothing  to  something,  or 
from  non-existence  to  existence.  For  Aristotle 
as  for  all  the  Greek  philosophers  the  maxim 
holds:  ex  nihilo  nihil  fit.  Inert  matter  is 
the  most  formless  element  in  nature  and  man  is 
the  stage  in  which  the  highest  form  manifests 
itself.  Between  these  nature  exhibits  a  graded 
scale  of  development,  that  is,  from  the  most  inor- 
ganic to  the  highest  organism.  This  scale  itself 
is  static  and  not  a  scale  of  evolution  in  the 
modern  sense.  The  scale  of  beings  is  a  fixed 
cosmic  hierarchy,  not  determined  by  protoplas- 
mic conditions  plus  environment.  The  Aristo- 
telian world  is  a  teleological  system,  the  eternal 
forms  working  themselves  out  in  plastic  and 
contingent  matter  with  reference  to  fixed  final 
goals,  the  whole  exhibiting  plan,  not  planless, 
as  Aristotle  says,  "  like  a  bad  tragedy."  As  the 
Prime  Mover  is  perfect  so  the  world  shows  that 
degree  of  perfection  which  is  possible  with  the 
contingency  and  imperfection  of  matter.  God  is 
both  in  the  world  and  outside  of  it  as  the  trans- 
cendent cause  of  its  order,  just  as  the  discipline 
of  an  army  is  in  the  army  and  outside  of  it  in  the 
person  of  the  general.  The  universe  is  con- 
ceived by  Aristotle  to  be  spherical  in  form,  not 
infinite.  Its  periphery  consists  of  the  region  of 
the  fixed  stars,  which  revolve  in  a  perfectly  cir- 
cular motion.  They  do  not  move  freely  in  space, 
but  are  attached  to  the  ethereal  body  of  the  outer 
heaven  and  move  as  a  rider  in  a  chariot.  Their 
motion  is  caused  immediately  by  the  Prime 
.Mover  and  being  nearest  to  him,  their  motion  is 
most  perfect.  The  earth  is  at  the  centre  of  the 
universe  and  is  fixed.  Between  the  centre  and 
the  circumference  are  the  seven  planets,  includ- 
ing the  sun  and  moon.  The  motion  of  these, 
although  concentric  with  the  circumference,  is 
less  perfect,  deviating  from  an  exact  circle.  The 
earth  is  the  region  of  rectilinear  motion.  The 
general  presuppositions  of  motion  are  space  and 
time.  Space  is,  in  Aristotle's  conception,  strictly 
speaking,  only  place,  that  is,  it  is  the  room  occu- 
pied by  body,  and  time  is  the  measure  of  motion 
with  reference  to  earlier  and  later.  Motion  being 
endless,  time  as  the  measure  of  its  discrete 
moments  is  infinite.  Space  is  finite,  for  there  is 
no  space  outside  the  corporeal  world.  The  ele- 
ments in  the  cosmos  are  fire,  earth,  air,  water, 
and  ether.  Of  these  the  first  four  are  sublunary. 
The  celestial  spheres  consist  of  pure  ether. 

Psychology, —  Aristotle    defines    soul    as    the 


ARISTOTELIANISM 


"complete  realization  of  a  body  endowed  with 
the  capacity  of  life."  Every  body,  therefore, 
that  has  life,  has  soul,  and  psychology  in  the 
narrow  sense  would  be  a  branch  of  biology.  The 
physical  world,  according  to  Aristotle,  is  di- 
vided into  two  realms,  the  inorganic  and  the  or- 
ganic. The  characteristic  mark  of  the  latter  is 
the  possession  of  life,  or  "  soul."  Soul  is  syn- 
onymous with  the  principle  of  life,  by  virtue  of 
which  a  thing  is  endowed  with  the  power 
of  self-movement.  Life  is  the  universal  form  of 
organic   activity,    feeling  and   reason  are  specific 

ms  of  the  same  power.  The  highest  manifes- 
tation of  psychical  activity  is  rational  thought. 
There  are  four  mam  forms  in  which  life  mani- 
fests itself:  (i)  Nutrition,  growth,  decay  and 
the  power  in  things  to  reproduce,  each  after  its 
kind,  whereby  the  continuity  of  life  is  main- 
tained: (j)  locomotion;  (3)  sensation;  (4)  rea- 
son. These  various  types  of  life  are  forms  of 
self-movement.  The  first  form  is  found  in  the 
plant  world  as  well  as  in  the  animal  world,  the 

i  three  only  in  the  animal  world.  Soul  as  life 
is  found  in  every  part  of  the  body,  to  which  it 
is  related  as  form  to  matter.  The  heart  as  the 
anatomical  and  physiological  centre  is  also 
the  life-centre.  The  heart,  therefore,  and  not  the 
brain,   is   the  organ   of  consciousness,   for   con- 

msness  is  one  of  the  forms  of  life.  The  pro- 
cesses of  knowing  or  conscious  lifeare  developed 
in  these  stages:  (1)  sensation;  (2)  imagination, 
the  power  of  using  images  of  absent  objects, 
combined  with  memory;  (3)  rational  thought. 
Reason,  according  to  Aristotle,  is  twofold,  crea- 
tive and  passive.  All  knowledge,  in  the  last 
analysis,  is  derived  from  sense-perception.  The 
mass  of  sense-perceptions  which  are  held  to- 
gether by  memory  and  stored  in  the  central  sense 
(sensorium)  are  the  passive  reason,  that  is,  they 
constitute  the  matter  which  the  creative  reason 
transforms  into  conceptual  knowledge.  The 
two  stand  related  to  each  other,  therefore,  as 
form  to  matter,  actuality  to  potentiality. 

Ethics. —  The  ethics  of  Aristotle  consists 
mainly  in  a  theory  of  the  final  end  of  conduct  or 
the  summum  bonum  and  an  account  of  the  indi- 
vidual virtues.  The  chief  good  is  happiness 
(well-being),  which  is  defined  as  "activity  of 
the  reason  in  accordance  with  virtue  in  a  com- 
plete life."  This  conception  of  happiness  as 
consisting  in  theoretic  activity  is  based  on  the  pe- 
culiar function  of  man.  Reason  being  the  differ- 
ential mark  of  man.  his  peculiar  good  should  be 
discoverable  in  the  activity  of  reason.  Further, 
the  good  consists  in  the  realization  of  the  ra- 
tional self  in  an  ethical  life  that  is  complete  and 
not  of  fragmentary  duration,  for  "one  swallow 
does  not  make  spring.8  The  virtues  of  an  indi- 
vidual are  divided  into  ethical  and  dianoetic. 
The  ethical  virtues  are  liberality,  temperance, 
justice,  courage,  friendship,  high-mindedness, 
gentleness,  veracity.  The  dianoetic  virtues  are 
wisdom,  art,  insight,  cleverness,  and  such  excel- 
lencies as  attach  to  the  theoretic  activity,  while 
the  moral  virtues  are  reasonableness  expressed 
in  action.  Virtue  is  the  power  or  persistent 
quality  in  an  individual  which  enables  him  to 
perform  his  function  well.  Aristotle  otherwise 
defines  it  as  a  "moral  habit  based  on  a  life  of 
deliberation,  and  expressed  in  the  observance  of 
a  rational  mean."  The  connecting  link  between 
ethics  and  politics  is  found  in  the  social  virtue 
of  friendship. 

Politics. —  Aristotle  gave  to  politics  the  posi- 


tion of  an  independent  science,  which  he  based 
011  the  study  of  over  150  actual  Constitutions. 
Tolitics,  as  the  architectonic  science,  considers 
the  complete  good  of  man,  for  it  is  only  in  the 
State  that  man's  full  realization  is  attained,  and 
man  is  by  nature  a  "political  animal."  Ethics  is, 
therefore,  a  branch  of  politics.  Although  the  state 
is  notionally  prior  to  the  household  and  village, 
it  is  preceded  by  them  in  the  order  of  develop- 
ment. The  state  is  such  an  aggregation  of  house- 
holds and  villages  as  to  he  self-sufficing.  While 
it  comes  into  being  primarily  for  the  sake  of  life. 
its  growth  is  determined  by  the  interests  of  a 
good  and  complete  life.  The  individual  is  not 
self-sufficient.  The  end  of  the  state  is  not 
power,  nor  the  protection  of  life,  property  or 
industry,  but  the  promotion  of  noble  life  in  its 
citizens  and  of  the  happiness  that  springs  from 
such  life.  The  function  of  the  state  is  educa- 
tional and  moral.  One  has  to  keep  in  mind  that 
the  Aristotelian  state  is  a  city-state  and  not  an 
empire.  The  various  forms  of  good  constitu- 
tions are:  royalty  (rule  of  one),  aristocracy 
(rule  of  few),  polity  (rule  of  the  entire  people). 
The  corresponding  corrupt  forms  are  tyranny, 
oligarchy  and  democracy.  The  best  constitution 
under  most  actual  conditions  is  the  polity,  a  con- 
stitutional democracy,  which  more  than  any  form 
of  government  embodies  the  principle  of  the 
mean  and  on  the  average  best  meets  the  demands 
of  the  greatest  number.  Under  completely  ideal 
conditions  monarchy  is  the  best  form  of  govern- 
ment. 

Art. — Art  has  for  its  function  partly  the  sup- 
plementing of  nature  and  partly  the  imitation  of 
nature.  Nature  has  left  man  naked  and  defense- 
less, but  provided  him  with  the  "tool  of  tools,11 
a  hand.  The  useful  arts  serve  the  interests  of 
life,  imitative  and  decorative  arts  serve  the  ends 
of  noble  pleasure  and  relaxation.  The  Aris- 
totelian exposition  of  the  philosophy  of  art  is 
confined  almost  entirely  to  the  extant  fragment 
of  the  Poetics,  in  which  scarcely  more  than  the 
theory  of  tragedy  has  survived.  The  function 
of  tragedy  is  described  as  catharsis.  The  conclu- 
sion of  a  tragic  representation  that  is  true  to  the 
principles  of  art  has  the  cathartic  effect  on  the 
spectator  of  purifying  his  emotions  by  the  instru- 
ments of  pity  and  fear. 

History  of  Aristotelianism. —  Aristotelianism 
was  continued  in  the  peripatetic  school  (the 
name  peripatetic  came  from  Aristotle's  method 
of  giving  instruction  while  walking,  or  from  the 
walks —  lrcptTraToi  —  in  the  Lyceum's  grounds) 
down  to  529  a.d.,  when  the  Emperor  Justinian 
closed  all  the  Athenian  schools.  During  the 
early  Middle  Ages  it  was  kept  alive  by  the 
works  of  Boethius  and  the  Isagoge  of  Porphyry. 
Later  by  its  fusion  with  the  theology  of  Thomas 
Aquinas  it  became  practically  the  offical  philoso- 
phy of  Roman  Catholicism,  which  it  still  con- 
tinues to  be.  The  Arabs  in  Spain  were  the 
hearers  of  Aristotelianism  to  mediaeval  Europe, 
and  by  1220  almost  all  of  Aristotle's  works  had 
been  translated  from  the  Arabic  into  Latin.  A 
little  later,  by  the  efforts  of  Thomas  Aquinas, 
they  were  translated  from  Greek  originals,  and 
Aristotle's  authority  in  science  became  well-nigh 
absolute.  With  the  rise  of  Humanism  Aristo- 
telianism began  to  wane,  and  with  the  develop- 
ment of  modern  science  and  the  Cartesian  phi- 
losophy his  influence  outside  the  Catholic  Church 
was    to    a    large    extent    nullified.    Within    the 


ARISTOTLE 


Church,  however,  during  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  through  the  efforts  of  Leo  XIII.,  the 
influence  of  Thomism  and  Aristotelianism  has 
increased. 

Bibliography. — Stahr,  'Aristotelia'  (2  vols., 
18^0-2);  Grote,  'Aristotle'  (2  vols.,  2d  ed., 
1880)  ;  Grant,  'Aristotle'  (1874)  ;  Lewes,  'Aris- 
totle, a  chapter  from  the  History  of  Science' 
(1864):  Siebeck,  'Aristoteles'  (1899);  Prantl, 
'Geschichte  der  Logik  im  Abendlande'  (4  vols., 
1855-70)  ;  Zeller,  'Aristotle  and  the  earlier  Peri- 
patetics'   (2  vols.,  1897). 

William   A.   Hammond, 
Professor  of  .-Indent  and  Mediaeval  Philosophy, 
Cornell  University. 

Aristotle,  Greek  philosopher,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  thinkers  and  scientific  investigators 
and  organizers  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

Life. —  Aristotle  was  born  in  384  and  died 
322  B.C.  His  birthplace  was  Stagira  (hence  he 
is  often  called  "the  Stagirite"),  a  city  on  the 
Thracian  peninsula  known  as  Chalcidice,  which 
was  at  that  time  a  thoroughly  Hellenic  coun- 
try, enjoying  all  the  advantages  of  Greek  cul- 
ture. His  father,  Nicomachus,  was  the  court 
physician  and  friend  of  the  Macedonian  king 
Amyntas.  The  medical  profession  is  said  to 
have  been  hereditary  in  his  family,  and  the  sci- 
entific and  medical  atmosphere  in  which  he  grew 
up  probably  helped  to  form  his  mind  in  those 
habits  of  accuracy  and  exactness  for  which  he 
is  famous.  Both  parents  having  died,  his  edu- 
cation was  directed  by  Proxenus  of  Atarneus. 
In  367  B.C.,  when  in  his  18th  year,  Aristotle 
came  to  Athens,  and  became  a  member  of  the 
Academy,  the  school  of  Plato  (q.v.).  Here  he 
remained  until  the  death  of  Plato,  20  years 
later.  Before  this  time,  he  had  become  re- 
nowned for  his  scholarship  and  brilliant  writ- 
ings, as  well  as  through  his  public  lectures  on 
rhetoric.  Doubtless  he  had  also  already  devel- 
oped to  some  extent  his  own  philosophical 
views.  There  seems  to  be  no  truth  in  the 
charges  that  were  brought  against  Aristotle  by 
later  writers,  that  he  was  guilty  of  ingratitude 
and  active  hostility  toward  his  teacher,  Plato. 
As  we  have  seen,  he  remained  a  member  of  the 
Academy  until  Plato's  death,  and  in  his  later 
writings,  although  criticising  with  keen  insight 
certain  Platonic  doctrines,  he  speaks  of  his 
master  with  the  greatest  reverence  and  affec- 
tion (cf.  Zeller,  'Aristotle  and  the  Earlier  Peri- 
patetics,' Vol.  I.,  Chap.  I.). 

After  Plato's  death,  Aristotle  resided  for 
three  years  at  the  court  of  Hermias,  ruler  of 
Atarneus,  who  had  been  at  one  time  a  member 
of  the  Academy,  marrying  there  Pythias,  the 
niece,  or,  as  some  say,  the  daughter  of  the 
prince.  Hermias,  however,  was  treacherously 
put  to  death  by  the  Persians,  and  Aristotle 
withdrew  to  Mitylene.  Soon  after  (343)  Aris- 
totle was  called  by  Philip  of  Macedon  to  under- 
take the  education  of  his  son  Alexander,  the 
future  conqueror  of  the  world,  then  a  boy  of  13 
years.  Nothing  is  known  regarding  the  nature 
of  the  education  which  Aristotle  gave  to  his 
distinguished  pupil.  The  regular  instruction  of 
the  prince  must  have  ceased  three  years  later 
when  he  was  made  regent  by  his  father  and 
entrusted  with  military  duties.  Aristotle  re- 
mained in  the  north  engaged  in  scientific  work, 
though    probably    still    retaining    some    connec- 


tion with  the  prince  and  the  Macedonian  court. 
When  Alexander  set  out  upon  his  campaign  in 
Asia,  Aristotle  went  to  Athens  and  founded 
there  his  school.  Its  place  of  meeting  was  the 
Lyceum,  a  gymnasium  attached  to  the  temple 
of  the  Lyceian  Apollo.  He  was  accustomed  to 
talk  to  his  pupils  as  he  walked  to  and  fro  in 
the  gardens  of  the  Lyceum,  and  from  this  cus- 
tom the  school  became  known  as  the  "Peripa- 
tetic"   (Trepnrareip,  to  walk  up  and  down). 

Here  Aristotle  taught  and  directed  the  vari- 
ous scientific  activities  of  the  school  for  twelve 
years  (335-323).  This  school  was  not  merely 
an  institution  for  imparting  instruction.  It 
was  also  an  intimate  association  of  scientific 
workers,  many  of  them,  like  Theophrastus  (who 
succeeded  Aristotle  in  the  leadership),  mature 
men  and  ripe  scholars.  The  organization  and 
direction  of  the  investigations  as  well  as  the 
fruitful  utilization  of  materials  and  synthesis  of 
results  were,  however,  the  work  of  the  master. 
During  these  years,  Aristotle  systematized  the 
knowledge  of  the  past,  and  thus  defined  the 
limits  and  laid  the  foundations  of  the  sciences 
of  the  western  nations.  But  he  did  more.  He 
carried  on  investigations  and  extended  the 
boundaries  of  knowledge  in  almost  every  field. 
In  logic,  metaphysics,  ethics,  and  politics,  he 
reached  conclusions  that  are  of  great  and  per- 
manent significance  for  all  time.  Moreover,  in 
psychology,  zoology,  physics,  astronomy,  aes- 
thetics, and  also  in  his  historical  investigations, 
his  work  is  of  the  greatest  value  and  impor- 
tance for  all  the  subsequent  developments  of 
these  sciences.     See  Aristotelianism. 

After  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  the 
Greek  states,  with  Athens  at  their  head,  at- 
tempted to  free  themselves  from  the  Macedo- 
nian power.  Aristotle's  former  relation  to  Alex- 
ander, and  his  friendship  for  Antipater,  the 
Macedonian  governor,  made  him  at  once  an 
object  of  attack.  The  charge  of  Atheism  was 
brought  against  him,  as  it  had  formerly  been 
brought  against  Anaxagoras  and  Socrates,  and 
he  retired  to  Chalcis  in  Eubcea,  where,  in  the 
following  year    (322),   he   died. 

Writings. —  The  writings  that  have  come 
down  to  us  under  the  name  of  Aristotle  do  not 
by  any  means  represent  his  complete  literary 
activity.  It  is  nevertheless  known  that  the 
writings  of  Aristotle  which  were  lost  included: 
(t)  Certain  popular  works  published  by  Aris- 
totle probably  during  the  time  of  his  connec- 
tion with  the  Academy.  He  himself  refers  to 
these  as  the  "exoteric,"  or  popular  writings. 
They  were  written  generally  in  dialogue  form. 
and  modeled,  both  in  subject  matter  and  st 
after  the  works  of  Plato.  (2)  Compilations  of 
scientific,  historical,  and  political  materials. 
which  were  used  by  Aristotle  as  data  in  the 
preparation  of  his  theoretical  works.  To  this 
class  belongs  the  'Constitution  of  Athens.'  for- 
tunately discovered  in  nearly  complete  form  a 
few  years  ago  and  published  in  1S91  (English 
translations,  by  F.  G.  Kenyon  and  E.  Poste. 
both   London.    1891). 

The  works  which  have  survived  are  those 
which  set  forth  Aristotle's  system  in  more  com- 
plete and  systematic  form,  and  which  were  used 
within  the  school.  The  writings  which  have 
been  known  to  tradition  as  those  of  Aristotle, 
appear  to  have  come  essentially  from  the  edi- 
tion of  Aristotle's  works  prepared  and  arranged 


ARISTOTLE'S  LANTERN  —  ARISUGAW A 


bj  Andronicus  of  Rhodes  about  the  middle  of 
the  ist  century  B.C.  Of  present-day  editions  of 
Aristotle's  works  that  of  the  Berlin  Academy 
(1S31-70)  may  be  mentioned.  These  writings 
may  be  classified  in  the  following  way: 

(n)  Treatises  on  Logic— These  wire  later 
collected  under  the  title  of  the  <Organc.ii.>  This 
included  the  'Categoric-.'  (De  [nterpreta- 
tione'  (on  the  parts  and  kinds  of  propositions)  ; 
the  'Analytics,'  prior  and  posterior  (consisting 
of  two  books  each,  and  developing  the  doctrine 
of  the  syllogism  and  dealing  with  scientific 
methods  in  general)  :  the  'Topics'  (dealing  with 
probable  conclusions);  and  on  'Sophistical 
Elenchi'  (which  discusses  certain  fallacies  and 
the  ways  of  refuting  them).  The  Bohn  Library 
gives  an  English  translation  of  these  works  in 
two  volumes  by  O.  F.  Owen. 

(!<)  The  '■Rhetoric''  and  the  < Poetics.'— The 
former  consists  of  three  books,  of  which  only 
the  first  two  are  regarded  as  genuine.  (English 
translation  by  T.  Buckley  in  Bohn  Library.) 
The  'Poetics'  has  been  preserved  only  in  a  very 
incomplete  and  fragmentary  condition.  An  Eng- 
lish traii-latiou  is  given  in  S.  H.  Butcher's 
"Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  the  Fine 
Art-'    (3d  ed.,  1002). 

(c)  The  Work  'On  the  First  Philosophy* 
—  our  'Metaphysics' — which  Zeller  describes 
as  a  torso  arbitrarily  bound  up  with  a  number 
of  other  fragments,  some  genuine,  some  spuri- 
ous. (  English  translation  in  Bohn  Library,  by 
I.  11.  McMahon,  1889.) 

(rf)  The  Works  on  Natural  Science. —  To 
this  class  belong  (1)  the  'Physics,'  with  the 
connected  works,  'On  the  Heavens,'  'On 
Growth  and  Decay,'  and  the  'Meteorology'; 
and  (2)  the  zoological  treatises,  'The  History 
of  Animals,'  'On  the  Parts  of  Animals.'  'On 
the  Movement  of  Animals,'  and  'On  the  Gener- 
ation of  Animals'  ;  (3)  the  psychological  writ- 
ings, including  the  <De  Anima,'  and  the  smaller 
treatises  known  as  the  'Parva  Naturalia.'  Of 
these  works  'The  History  of  Animals'  is  trans- 
lated by  W.  Cresswell  in  the  Bohn  Library; 
'On  the  Parts  of  Animals'  bv  J.  Ogle  (1882); 
the  'De  Anima'  by  E.  Wallace  (1SS2),  and 
W.  A.  Hammond  (1902).  The  latter  writer 
under  the  title  'Aristotle's  Psychology'  has 
given  also  a  translation  of  the  'Parva  Nat- 
uralia.' 

(e)  The  Ethics  and  Politics.—  Aristotle  s 
treatise  on  ethics  is  known  as  the  'Nicomachean 
Ethics.'  Tt  has  ten  books,  of  which  books  V. 
to  VII.  are  largely  made  up  of  additions  from 
the  'Eudemian  Ethics.'  This  latter  work  is  a 
revision  of  the  Aristotelian  ethics  by  Eudemus, 
of  which  only  a  part  has  been  preserved.  The 
'Nicomachean  Ethics'  has  often  been  trans- 
lated into  English.  Two  of  the  most  recent  and 
best  translations  are  those  of  F.  H.  Peters  f4th 
ed.  ifjpi),  and  J.  E.  C.  Welldon  (1892).  The 
'Politics,'  in  eight  books,  was  left  in  an  incom- 
plete and  fragmentary  condition.  (English 
translations  by  B.  Jowett  and  J.  E.  C.  Well- 
don.) J.  E.  Creighton, 
Professor  of  Philosophy,  Cornell  University 

Aristotle's  Lantern,  the  complex  dentary 
apparatus  or  oral  skeleton  and  associate  soft 
parts  of  a  sea-urchin  (q.v.).  The  oral  skeleton 
■attains  its  highest  development  in  the  Echinidea 
in  the  Aristotle's  lantern  of  the  sea-urchins. 
The  lantern  is  composed  of  20  principal  pieces 


—  five  teeth,  five  alveoli,  five  rotul.e,  and  five 
ladii  —  of  which  the  alveoli  are  again  divided 
into    four    pieces    each,    and    the    radii    into    two, 

thus  making  a  total  of  40  pieces.  This  complex 
apparatus  has.  beside  the  inter-alvcolar  muscles, 
protractor,  oblique,  transverse,  and  retractor 
muscles.  A  somewhat  similar  but  less  compli- 
cated oral  skeleton  is  found  in  the  Clypeastroido. 

Aristoxenus  (Greek,  'ApiffTiJewK ,  Aristox- 
cnos),  a  Greek  musician  and  philosopher  of 
Tarentum,    flourished    about    350-324    B.c    He 

was  one  of  the  oldest  writers,  and  probably  was 
the  greatest  of  Greek  students  of  the  science  of 
music  and  all  its  branches.  He  was  a  son  of 
Spintharus,  who  taught  him  music,  having  him- 
self studied  under  Socrates  and  being  possessed 
of  a  great  knowledge  of  musical  matters.  After 
having  received  his  elementary  education  he 
went  to  study  music  under  Lamprus  of 
Erythne,  and  later  became  a  student  of  philos- 
ophy under  the  Pythagorean  Xenophilus  of 
Chalcidice.  He  afterward  went  to  Athens  to 
study  philosophy  under  Aristotle,  and  made  such 
rapid  strides  that,  upon  the  death  of  Aristotle, 
he  aspired  to  be  bis  successor  and  head  of  the 
philosophical  school;  Thcophrastns  was,  how- 
ever, appointed  in  his  stead.  He  founded  a 
school  of  musicians,  who  were  called,  after  him, 
Aristoxeneans.  The  main  difference  between  the 
systems  of  the  Pythagoreans  and  the  Aristox- 
eneans lay  in  the  fact  that  the  latter  judged  of 
the  notes  in  the  diatonic  scale  exclusively  by  the 
ear.  while  the  former  determined  these  mathe- 
matically. The  only  one  of  his  works  of  any 
value  now  extant  is  a  treatise  on  music,  'The 
Elements  of  Harmony.'  It  was  published  in 
three  volumes  by  Meursius  in  1616. 

Arisugawa,  ri're-soo-ga'wa,  the  title  of  a 
noble  Japanese  family  founded  in  the  17th  cen- 
tury and  prominent  in  civil  and  military  affairs. 
This  ancient  family  was  founded  by  the  seventh 
son  of  the  Mikado  Go-Yozei,  during  his  reign 
from  15S7  to  161 1.  The  members  of  the  family 
did  not,  however,  attain  much  prominence  until 
January  1868,  when  Arisugawa  Taruhito  (b. 
Kioto  1835;  d.  1886),  wdio  was  the  uncle  of  the 
mikado,    was    appointed    supreme    administrator 

and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  the  duarchy  of  Mikado  and 
Shogun  was  abolished  and  the  present  form  of 
government  established,  with  the  Emperor  Mut- 
suhito  as  dictator  with  undivided  power.  Upon 
taking  office  he  at  once  reorganized  the  army  to 
put  down  the  rebellion  in  the  north,  led  the 
imperial  troops  against  the  rebels,  completely 
routing  them  ami  saving  Ycddn  from  destruc- 
tion. After  this  he  began  military  operations 
in  the  north,  and  by  his  skilful  maneuvers  soon 
brought  the  rebels  to  terms  and  the  war  to  a 
quick  conclusion.  The  next  year,  in  i860,,  he 
returned  the  sword  of  justice  and  the  brocade 
banner,  which  he  had  received  at  the  beginning 
of  his  campaign  against  the  rebels,  to  the  em- 
peror, thus  signifying  that  he  had  brought  the 
empire  to  a  state  of  complete  subjugation.  In 
187S  he  became  president  of  the  senate,  and 
again  in  1877  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
forces  sent  to  suppress  the  Satsuma  rebellion, 
under  the  leadership  of  Saigo  Takamori.  This 
was  a  long  and  severe  test  of  his  military  ability, 
and  his  success,  though  only  won  after  seven 
months  of  hard  fighting  and  the  sacrifice  of 
20,000  soldiers  and  $50,000,000,   showed   him  to 


ARITA  —  ARITHMETIC 


be  a  leader  horn  of  the  highest  order  of  militarv 
genius.  For  this  great  service  the  emperor  dec- 
orated Arisugawa  with  the  Order  of  the  Chrys- 
anthemum and  appointed  him  field-marshal  and 
junior  prime  minister.  His  brother,  Arisugawa 
Takehito  ( b.  1862;  d.  1895)  traveled  in  Europe, 
studying  the  various  military  systems,  for  a 
time  serving  as  midshipman  on  H.  B.  M.  ship 
1 1 1  mi  Duke.  Upon  his  return  to  Japan  he  was 
adopted  by  the  emperor,  as  he  was  without  heir, 
and  immediately  entered  the  navy  as  captain, 
serving  throughout  the  war  with  China  in 
1S94-5,  ar>d  dying  in  the  service.  His  portrait 
appeared  on  the  first  memorial  postage  stamps 
ever  issued  in  Japan. 

Arita,  a-re'ta,  a  Japanese  town  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  Kyushu,  famous  for  its  pottery 
works,  dating  from  the  end  of  the  16th  century. 
The  Arita  porcelain  is  highly  esteemed. 

Arithmetic.  This  word  has  been  and  still 
is  used  in  two  quite  distinct  senses.  It  for- 
merly signified  merely  the  science  of  numbers 
(see  Arithmetic,  History  of),  and  treated  such 
numeral  properties  as  seemed  mysterious  or 
peculiar.  With  the  invention  of  algebra  it  was 
often  taken  to  include  such  portions  of  that 
science  as  referred  to  the  operations  and  to  the 
number  theory.  In  this  sense  it  is  still  used 
in  Germany  and  France  to-day,  the  art  of  com- 
pulation being  indicated  by  the  names  Redl- 
ining and  Calcul.  In  English,  however,  the 
term  early  came  to  be  applied  to  both  the  sci- 
ence of  numbers  and  the  art  of  computation. 
As  the  former  branch  developed  the  advanced 
portion  was  given  the  distinctive  name  of  The- 
ory of  Numbers  (q.v.),  leaving  the  name  Arith- 
metic to  apply  to  calculation  and  its  application 
to  business  problems.  With  the  recent  relega- 
tion of  the  progressions  and  the  roots  to  algebra, 
this  is  the  sense  in  which  the  word  is  used  in 
the  United  States  to-day.  With  this  under- 
standing of  the  term,  the  leading  topics  relating 
to  the  subject  will  be  considered. 

/.  Notation  and  X itineration. — The  former, 
referring  to  the  number  symbols,  is  from  the 
mediaeval  Latin  notce,  meaning  the  numeral 
characters  (see  Numerals),  and  the  latter,  re- 
ferring to  number  names,  is  from  Humerus, 
number.  The  distinction  between  the  terms  is 
coming,  however,  to  be  less  marked  than  for- 
merly, the  word  numeration  being  used  for 
both.  The  writing  and  reading  cf  numbers  gen- 
erally refers  to  positive  integers,  common  frac- 
tions (or  vulgar  fractions,  so  called  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  fractiones  physica  or 
astronomies,  the  old  sexagesimal  fractions  still 
met  in  angle  measure),  decimal  fractions,  com- 
pound numbers,  and  surd  numbers.  Of  these 
the  positive  integers  are  known  as  natural  num- 
bers, the  others  as  artificial  numbers.  Negative 
numbers,  also  belonging  to  the  artificial  group, 
have  until  recently  been  excluded  from  arith- 
metic. They  have,  however,  so  many  practical 
applications  that  they  are  beginning  to  find  a 
place,  and  in  time  they  will  probably  be  treated 
in  arithmetic  so  far  as  necessary  for  cases  in- 
volving numbers  of  opposite  nature,  like  debt 
and  credit,  opposed  forces,  and  contrary  direc- 
tions. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  our  present  nu- 
meral system  (see  Numerals)  is  its  place  value. 
The  characters  for  5  and  1,  written  in  juxtapo- 


sition, indicate  addition  in  the  Roman  system 
(VI.);  but  in  the  Arab-Hindu  notation  (51) 
they  indicate  5  tens  and  I  unit,  the  5  having  a 
place  value  showing  that  it  represents  tens. 
Thus  by  means  of  only  10  characters  we  are 
able  to  write  numbers  of  any  desired  magnitude, 
and  by  means  of  the  simple  device  of  decimal 
fractions  we  are  also  able  to  represent  any 
numbers,  however  small. 

//.  Scales. — Because  man  has  a  natural 
counting  apparatus  in  his  10  fingers  (see  Finger 
Notation)  the  world  has  come  to  write  num- 
bers on  a  scale  of  io,  and  to  give  them  names 
based  upon  a  decimal  system.  We  might  use 
other  scales,  and  the  duodecimal  (scale  of  12) 
would  be  better  on  several  accounts,  although 
a  change  is  not  practicable.  There  has  always 
been  sojne  tendency  to  use  the  scale  of  12,  as  is 
seen  in  such  tables  as  12  in.  =  1  ft.,  12  oz.  =  1  lb. 
troy.  The  superiority  of  the  duodecimal  over  the 
decimal  scale  lies  in  the  fact  that  12  has  more 
exact  divisors  than  10  has.  Therefore  the  frac- 
tions most  commonly  employed  could  better  be 
represented  on  the  scale  of  12,  as  is  here  shown: 

Scale  of  10     Scale  of  13 
V2    0.5  0.6 

'A    0.333...  0.4 

Yi  0.666...  0.8 

'A     0.25  0.3 

Y\   0.75  0.9 

V*   0.125  0.16 

V11    0.08333...  0.1 

In  the  tables  of  denominate  numbers  the 
tendency  formerly  was  to  adopt  a  varying  scale, 
but  at  present  it  is  entirely  toward  a  uniform 
scale,  as  in  the  metric  system   (q.v.)  : 

Uniform  scale  Varying  scale 

10  mills=i   cent  2  pints=l   quart 

10  cents=i   dime  8  quarts=i    peck 

io  dinies=i  dollar  4  pecks=i   bushel 

///.  The  Fundamental  Operations. — These 
are  now  commonly  considered  as  four  in  num- 
ber, although  formerly  as  many  as  nine  species, 
atti,  or  passioni,  as  they  were  called,  were  given. 
They  sometimes  included  doubling  (duplatio), 
because  a  common  method  of  multiplication  was 
by  successive  duplations.  They  also  included 
halving  (mediatio),  this  operation  being  often 
used  in  effecting  a  division.  The  Rule  of 
Three,  Evolution,  and  Progressions  were  also 
commonly  included.  The  fundamental  opera- 
tions may  more  scientifically  be  classified  as 
follows,  each  direct  process  having  two  in- 
verses : 

Direct  Inverse 

Addition:     2+3=5.  Subtraction:     5 — 2=3, 

„  5—3=2. 

Multiplication:     2X$3=$6.  Division:        $6-=- 2=53. 

Involution:     23^=8.  Evolution:  [  '. 

Logarithms:   3=log2  8. 

Of  these  the  primitive  one  is  addition,  mul- 
tiplication by  a  positive  integer  arising  when 
the  addends  are  equal,  and  involution  to  a 
positive  integral  power  arising  from  multiplica- 
tion when  the  factors  are  equal.  Arbitrarily, 
elementary  arithmetic  has  usually  excluded  evo- 
lution beyond  the  cube  root,  and  logarithms. 
It  is  now  tending  to  relegate  cube  root  to 
algebra  on  account  of  its  difficulty  and  lack  of 
applications.  The  exclusion  of  logarithms 
(q.v  )  is  due  to  their  relatively  late  invention, 
since,  if  the  theory  of  their  computation  is  ex- 


ARITHMETIC 


eluded,  the  Sub  tuple  of  presentation  and 

valuable  in  application. 

From  the  primary  operations  with  natural 
numbers  have  been  derived  operations,  desig- 
nated by  the  same  names  and  subject  to  the 
same  laws,  involving  the  artificial  numbers. 
For  example,  2X^  =  $6  means  that  $3  is  taken 
2  times  as  an  addend,  thus  :  $3  +  $3-  But  }  X  ? 
cannot  mean  that  '■  is  taken  as  an  addend  $  of 
a  time.  It  menus  that  $  of  *  is  taken,  or  that 
i  of  tj  is  taken  2  times.  It  is,  however,  con- 
venient to  broaden  the  definitions  so  as  to  use 
the  same  phraseology  and  symbols  as  in  the 
case  of  positive  integers.  Similar  considerations 
fix  a  meaning  for  —  2  X  —  3  =  +  6,  V2  X  V3  = 
y/t,  and  j/-2  X  i/-3  =  — V&-  In  certain  cases 
an  operation  is  so  difficult  that  it  is  more  con- 
venient to  substitute  for  it  another  which  gives 
the  same  result.  This  is  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  division  of  fractions,  where  to  divide  J 
by  \  it  is  easier  to  multiply  \  by  \  than  to 
reduce  to  a  common  denominator  as  was  for- 
merly  done,  and  then  divide,  thus:    5  -+■    \     = 

»-*-¥=-  .  ,,..      . 

Of  tlie  four  common  operations,  addition  is 
the  simplest  of  comprehension,  although  not  in 
actual  work.  In  fractions  it  is  usually  easier 
to  multiply  than  to  add,  as  in  the  case  of 
\  X  1 '  compared  with  i  +  >.i.  With  inte- 
gers, "both  addition  and  multiplication  require 
the    learning    of   45    combinations    of    numbers 

(1+2,   1+3 1X2,  1X3  ....),  and  the 

mere  memorizing  of  these  facts  is  as  easy  in  one 
operation  as  the  other.  Subtraction  does  not 
require  memorizing  a  table,  since  it  is  merely 
the  inverse  of  addition,  and  if  taught  by  the 
"making  change"  method  it  uses  the  addition 
table,  as  division  uses  that  of  multiplication. 

IV.  Checks. — An  important  consideration  in 
all  computations  is  the  checking  of  the  work,  to 
be  reasonably  sure  that  no  error  enters.  Checks 
should  be  applied  at  every  opportunity  so  that 
an  error  may  be  discovered  as  soon  as  it  is 
made,  and  not  vitiate  the  further  work.  The 
most  important  check  in  addition  is  the  repeat- 
ing of  the  work  in  the  opposite  direction,  adding 
lownwards  if  the  first  addition  was  upwards. 
The  psychological  reason  for  this  is  that  like 
stimuli  tend  to  produce  like  reactions,  and  if  an 
error  has  been  made  it  is  liable  to  be  made 
again  if  the  numbers  are  soon  met  in  the  same 
order.  Hence  the  order  is  reversed  to  counter- 
act this  tendency.  In  subtraction  the  best 
check  is  that  of  adding  the  subtrahend  and 
remainder.  If  the  remainder  was  obtained  by 
•lie  "Austrian"  or  "making  change"  method,  this 
addition  should  be  performed  in  the  opposite 
direction  as  in  the  check  for  addition.  The  best 
check  for  multiplication  and  division  is  that  of 
"casting  out  nines."  This  ancient  Oriental 
method  was  of  especial  value  when  the  sand- 
board  form  of  the  abacus  (q.v.)  was  used,  since 
the  numbers  were  so  frequently  erased  as  to 
render  a  general  review  of  the  work  impossible. 
This  check  has  gone  out  of  use  in  American 
schools,  but  it  is  so  simple  and  valuable  that  it 
will  probably  be  revived.  The  check  depends 
upon  two  propositions:  (1)  The  excess  of  9's 
in  a  number  (that  is.  the  remainder  arising  from 
dividing  a  number  by  9)  is  the  same  as  the 
excess  in  the  sum  of  the  digits.  In  the  case 
of  1247  the  sum  of  the  digits  is  14.  and  this 
divided    by   9    gives    a    remainder    of    5.     It    is 


customary  to  cast  out  the  9's  as  the  digits  are 
added,  thus:  7  +  4=11;  cast  out  9  and  2  is 
left;    2  +  2+1=5,    the    excess.        ,,47 

I  he  excess  of  9's  in  the  prod         21 

net  equals  the  excess  in  the  prod-  1247   \/  5 

tict  of  the  excesses  of  the  factors.  _24''4_  3/6\ 
In  the  case  here  given,  the  ex-  2*187 
cesses  in  the  factors  are  5  and  3,  indicated  in 
the  right  and  left  angles  of  the  cross.  The 
excess  in  their  product  (15)  is  6,  indicated  in 
the  upper  angle.  The  excess  in  the  product, 
26187  is  6,  indicated  in  the  lower  angle.  The 
upper  and  lower  numbers  in  the  cross  are  the 
same,  showing  that  the  result  is  probably  correct. 
In  division,  the  excess  of  9's  in  the  dividend 
equals  the  excess  in  the  product  of  the  excesses 
of  the  divisor  and  the  quotient,  plus  that  in  the 
remainder.  Of  course,  the  check  of  9's  fails  to 
detect  an  error  involving  a  multiple  of  9.  There 
is  a  somewhat  similar  check  by  casting  out  us, 
requiring  slightly  longer  time,  but  in  some  re- 
spects more  liable  to  detect  errors. 

/ '.  Short  Processes. — There  are  numerous 
short  processes  of  performing  operations,  or 
rather  of  securing  results  by  substituting  simpler 
operations  than  those  to  be  performed.  Thus 
to  multiply  by  12'..  it  is  often  easier  to  annex 
two  zeros  (or  move  the  decimal  point  two  places 
to  the  right)  and  divide  by  8.  In  the  same  way 
it  is  easier  to  multiply  by  100  and  divide  by  4 
than  to  multiply  by  25.  Such  processes  depend 
upon   simple  number  relations  of  the  following 

kind:  i2i  =  ".'\ 2?=";",  ^' -'■:-,  i2^'-r\ r^° 

—  \,  125%  =  lj,  66;;%  =  3.  '1  he  publication  of 
extensive  tables  and  the  perfecting  of  calcu- 
lating machines  (q.v.)  have  rendered  obsolete 
most  of  the  short  processes  involving  other 
kinds  of  multipliers  and  divisors. 

VI.  Compound  Numbers. — The  four  funda- 
mental processes  with  compound  numbers  were 
formerly  considered  of  much  importance,  since 
before  the  introduction  of  decimal  fractions  most 
tables  of  denominate  numbers  were  on  a  vary- 
ing scale.  Within  a  century,  however,  the 
metric  system  (q.v.)  and  various  monetary  ta- 
bles have  so  decimalized  denominate  numbers  as 
to  take  from  compound  numbers  most  of  their 
former  importance.  The  only  case  in  which 
several  denominations  are  commonly  used  in 
writing  a  number  to-day  is  that  of  English  money. 
In  most  countries  the  whole  subject  is  obsolete. 
The  United  States  still  uses  the  British  system 
except  in  the  monetary  table,  but  it  has  greatly 
simplified  it,  rarely  using  more  than  two  denom- 
inations in  the  same  number.  Indeed,  within  a 
single  generation  the  metric  system  has  come 
to  be  used  exclusively  in  this  country  in  scien- 
tific laboratories,  and  the  efforts  now  being 
made  to  secure  a  large  foreign  trade  will  make 
the  system  more  and  more  known  in  commercial 
and  industrial  affairs. 

VII.  Methods  of  Snking  Problems. —  There 
are  five  general  methods  of  attacking  an  ap- 
plied problem,  as   follows : 

(1)  We  may  study  typical  problems  and 
thus  acquire  the  habit  of  solving  others  of  the 
same  nature.  This  is  the  oldest  method,  and 
was  practically  the  only  one  in  use  before  the 
17th  century.  At  present  it  is  coming  into 
renewed  prominence  in  American  schools,  the 
type  problem  being  attended  (as  was  not  former- 
ly the  case)  by  a  large  number  of  exercises. 

(2)  We  may  commit   to  memory  rules  for 


ARITHMETIC 


all  general  classes  of  problems  liable  to  be  met. 
Historically,  this  is  the  second  method  of  attack, 
and  it  characterizes  the  American  text-books 
until  nearly  the  close  of  the  19th  century.  The 
rules  were  usually  inductively  inferred  from 
type  problems,  and  pupils  committed  them  to 
memory.  Since  in  practical  life  we  never  de- 
pend upon  a  verbatim  rule,  this  method  is 
rapidly  becoming  obsolete.  In  mediaeval  times 
there  was  much  effort  expended  in  searching  for 
a  general  rule  that  would  solve  all  arithmetical 
problems.  Hence  arose  the  Rule  of  Three  (see 
Arithmetic,  History  of),  the  Rule  of  False 
Position,  and  other  rules  of  less  importance,  all 
of  which  lost  their  chief  value  when  algebraic 
symbolism  was  invented.  Of  these  general  rules 
only  the  Rule  of  Three  has  survived,  being  now 
recognized  in  the  form  of  Proportion. 

(3)  We  may  learn  formulas  instead  of 
rules.  This  method  was  received  with  some 
favor  for  a  time,  but  it  has  been  discarded  as  a 
general  plan.  It  has  all  of  the  defects  of  the 
method  of  rules,  with  the  added  difficulty  of  an 
unnecessarily   confusing   algebraic   symbolism. 

(4)  We  may  analyze  each  problem  as  it 
arises,  simply  applying  common  sense  to  the 
solution.  When  problems  are,  as  they  always 
should  be,  properly  graded  to  the  understand- 
ing of  the  pupils,  this  plan  is  better  than  any 
of  the  preceding  ones.  It  establishes  a  habit 
of  independence  and  of  confidence  that  is  wholly 
wanting  in  the  older  methods. 

(5)  We  may  bring  u)  the  aid  of  analysis 
the  representation  of  the  unknown  quantity  by 
the  familiar  algebraic  symbol  x.  This  material- 
ly simplifies  the  analysis,  and  most  writers  on 
arithmetic  at  the  present  time  advocate  the 
plan.  The  concept  of  the  linear  equation  with 
one  unknown  is  a  very  simple  one,  and  it  greatly 
clarifies  the  analysis  in  many  cases. 

VIII.  Xature  of  the  Problems  in  Arithmetic. 
— The  interests  of  the  ancient  and  mediaeval 
philosophers  were  not  at  all  commercial.  These 
men  were  attracted  rather  by  considerations  of 
the  properties  of  numbers  and  by  puzzles  which 
were  imagined  to  sharpen  the  wit.  The  ri-e 
of  commerce  in  the  later  Middle  Ages  and  at 
the  time  of  the  Renaissance,  brought  into  the 
science  a  large  number  of  applied  problems 
representing  actual  business  conditions.  Princi- 
ples of  conservatism  have  tended  to  keep  these 
ancient  problems  from  generation  to  generation, 
strengthened  by  the  feeling  that  mental  dis- 
cipline was  as  well  secured  from  an  obsolete 
as  from  a  modern  problem.  It  is  therefore  only 
recently  that  the  question  has  arisen.  What 
should  be  the  nature  of  the  problems  set  for 
children  studying  arithmetic?  In  answer  to  this 
question  teachers  seem  to  be  tending  to  observe 
the  following  principles: 

(1)  A  problem  that  pretends  to  set  forth 
a  business  custom  should  state  the  real  business 
conditions  of  the  present.  This  excludes  obso- 
lete business  problems,  it  being  the  opinion  that 
better  mental  discipline  can  be  secured  from  a 
question  relating  to  genuine  commercial  matters 
of  the  present,  than  from  one  relating  solely 
to  forgotten  customs. 

(2)  Problems  should  appeal  to  the  interests 
and  understanding  of  the  children  in  their  re- 
spective school  years.  Arithmetic  was  formerly 
taught  only  to  boys  who  could  read  and  write 
and   who    were    preparing    for   business.     When 

Vol.  1 — 44 


the  subject  found  its  way  into  the  earlier  school 
years  it  carried  many  difficult  problems  of  busi- 
ness down  to  immature  minds.  The  modern 
tendency  is  to  replace  such  problems  by  others 
that  relate  to  children's  interests.  Thus  in  the 
primary  grades  there  should  be  the  study  of 
home  purchases,  of  the  application  of  number  to 
the  large  interests  of  the  country,  especially  such 
as  appeal  to  a  child's  love  of  nature  and  of  the 
heroic,  and  such  as  relate  to  the  sources  of  food 
and  clothing.  Later,  the  problems  should  refer 
to  the  more  detailed  features  of  the  national 
and  world  life,  to  the  great  industries,  trades, 
and  transportation  facilities.  Finally  they 
should  relate  to  the  details  of  the  industrial  and 
commercial  life,  thus  preparing  both  the  boy 
and  the  girl  for  earning  a  livelihood.  In  all  this 
there  should  be  an  effort  to  make  arithmetic 
interesting,  since  when  the  interest  of  the  pupil 
is  secured  the  work  is  prosecuted  with  mi  re 
zeal  and  is  attended  with  better  and  more  per- 
manent  results. 

(3)  In  the  effort  to  modernize  the  problems 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  the  extreme  of 
withdrawing  from  arithmetic  all  topics  involving 
effort,  thus  making  the  subject  insipid  from 
its   very  lack  of  fibre. 

IX.  Sequence  of  Topics. — Formerly  arith- 
metic was  taught  from  a  single  book,  each  im- 
portant topic  being  met  but  once.  Then  came 
the  two-book  series,  the  second  book  covering 
the  ground  of  the  first,  but  with  more  difficult 
examples,  thus  forming  a  spiral  of  two  revolu- 
tions. In  this  way  there  arose  the  so-called 
Spiral  Method  of  treatment,  which  certain  dev- 
otees have  carried  to  the  extreme  of  return- 
ing to  each  topic  every  few  days.  Between  the 
older  topical  method  and  the  radical  spiral  meth- 
od there  has  been  considerable  strife.  The  lat- 
ter asserted  that  the  former  encouraged  fi  r- 
getfulness  because  of  a  lack  of  review,  while 
the  former  asserted  that  the  latter  gave  the 
pupil  no  feeling  of  mastery  of  any  subject.  The 
result  has  been  a  compromise,  as  is  seen  in  all 
modern  American  courses.  Such  important  top- 
ics as  percentage  are  treated  several  times,  with 
progressive  difficulty,  applications  like  simple 
interest  offering  new  features  on  each  succeeding 
occasion.  On  the  other  hand,  such  relatively 
unimportant  chapters  as  that  on  longitude  and 
time  (semigeographical)  are  met  but  once.  In 
the  same  spirit,  the  fundamental  operations  with 
integers,  decimal  fractions,  and  those  common 
fractions  often  met  in  business,  are  frequently 
reviewed,  while  compound  numbers  and  frac- 
tions involving  unusual  numerators  and  de- 
nominators are  less  emphasized.  The  techni- 
calities of  business,  including  the  study  of 
investments,  insurance,  banking,  and  exchange. 
are  reserved  until  the  last  years  of  the  grammar 
school,  when  a  child  beginning  to  look  forward 
to  being  self-supporting  is  prepared  to  under- 
stand them. 

X.  Methods. — Various  methods  have  been 
suggested  for  presenting  arithmetic  to  children, 
especially  in  the  primary  grades.  The  serious 
consideration  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  be_ 
towards  the  close  of  the  18th  century,  particular- 
ly in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  With  it  are 
connected  such  names  as  Trapo.  von  Bus-r 
Kranckes,  Pestalozzi,  Tillich.  Grube,  Tanck, 
Knilling,  and  Kaselitz.  Each  of  these  writers 
stood   for   some    principle   which    he   carried   to 


ARITHMETIC,  HISTORY  OF 


such  an  extreme  as  to  render  the  method  gen- 
erally  unusable.  Pestalozzi,  for  example,  did 
great    good    in    his   judicious    use   of   objective 

illustration,  hut  he  went  to  an  unwarranted  ex- 
treme  in  his  emphasis  of  the  unit  and  in  his 
devotion  to  abstract  work.  Tillich  suggested 
a  valuable  sel  of  number  blocks,  hut  his  follow- 
ers went  to  the  extreme  of  eliminating  all  other 
material.  Grube  wrote  a  condensed  manual  for 
teachei  .  and  systematically  treated  numbers 
in  concentric  circles  of  progressive  difficulty,  hut 
he  went  to  several  extremes  that  made  the  Sys- 
tem so  absurd  that  it  is  now  nearly  forgotten. 
On  the  other  hand,  every  prominent  writer  of 
this  class  has  usually  suggested  some  slight  im- 
provement which  has  gradually  worked  its  way 
into  the  schools.  It  has  been  the  universal  ex- 
perience that  no  advocate  of  a  single  method 
lias  been  able  to  impress  this  method  on  any 
considerable  number  of  followers.  The  1"  t 
teacher  has  been  the  one  who,  being  interested 
in  the  subject,  has  imparted  that  interest  to  the 
pupils,  who  has  not  been  limited  to  any  one  set 
of  objects  or  to  any  peculiar  device,  who  has 
made  arithmetic  modern  in  its  applications,  and 
who  has  followed  the  besi  curricula  of  the   day. 

A7.  Time  Required  for  the  Subject  in  the 
Schools. — There  has  been  a  gradual  diminution 
in  the  time  allowed  to  arithmetic  in  American 
schools  for  a  number  of  years  past,  on  account 
of  the  demands  of  more  modern  studies  for  a 
place  in  the  curriculum.  As  a  result  there  has 
been  decreased  attention  to  the  subject,  there  is 
hxs  ability  on  the  part  of  pupils  to  grapple  with 
problems,  and  the  question  has  arisen  as  to  the 
amount  of  time  necessary  to  secure  a  reasonable 
facility  in  the  arithmetical  processes.  Although 
the  textbooks  and  the  teaching  have  both  im- 
proved, the  curtailment  of  time  and  the  scatter- 
ing of  the  pupils'  attention  over  more  subjects 
have  left  the  results  far  from  satisfactory.  It 
has  even  been  urged  that  arithmetic  be  not 
taught  before  the  third  nor  after  the  seventh 
school  year,  thus  allowing  five  instead  of  eight 
years  to  the  subject.  But  although  it  is  true 
that  the  necessary  parts  of  arithmetic  can  be 
covered  in  five  school  years,  it  is  equally  true 
that  the  child  has  as  much  delight  in  his  work 
with  numbers  in  his  first  school  year  as  he  has 
in  the  other  subjects  studied,  and  quite  as  much 
need  for  this  work.  It  is  also  true  that  the 
number  facts  are  more  easily  impressed  on  the 
memory  if  the  work  is  begun,  as  Pestalozzi  ad- 
vised, when  a  child  first  enters  school.  It  is 
therefore  better  to  allow  arithmetic  to  extend 
throughout  the  elementary  grades,  combining 
with  it.  if  the  class  is  well  advanced,  some  con- 
structive geometry  and  the  first  steps  in  algebra 
in  the  eighth  school  year. 

Bibliography. — Smith,  'The  Teaching  of  El- 
ementary Mathematics*  (New  York  1900); 
'The  Outlook  for  Arithmetic  in  America'  (Bos- 
ton 1004);  Brooks,  'The  Philosophy  of  Arith- 
metic' (Philadelphia.  2d  ed.,  iooi )  ;  Unger,  <Die 
Methodik  der  praktischen  Arithmetik'  (Lcipsic 
'888).  „ 

David  Eugene  Smith. 

Professor    of    Mathematics,    Teachers    College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York. 

Arithmetic,  History  of.  Among  the  an- 
cients there  were  two  distinct  sciences  now 
called  by  the  name  arithmetic.  One  had  to  do 
with  the  science  of  numbers  and  the  other  with 


the  art  of  computation.  The  former  was  called, 
by  the  (irecks,  arithmetic  I  dpifyitTtKij  ) ,  am|  the 
latter  logistic  I  XoyurriK^  ).  Logistic  was  taught 
to  boys  going  into  trade,  and  among  the  most 
ancient  peoples  it  probably  involved  the  use  of 
the  abacus  (q.v.)  and  commercial  rules  relating 
to  rents,  loans,  exchange,  and  the  settlement  of 
accounts.  The  nature  of  the  problems  being 
simple,  ami  abacus  computation  depending 
largely  upon  manual  training,  the  instruction  in 
this  art  seems  to  have  been  entirely  oral.  On 
this  account  no  ancient  work  upon  the  subject 
is  extant,  and  our  knowledge  concerning  it  is 
derived  from  such  sources  as  the  Babylonian 
cylinders,  early  Cretan  remains,  certain  frag- 
ments of  Egyptian  papyri,  and  the  occasional 
references  of  literary  writers.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  instruction  offered  by  the  Church 
schools  was  so  meagre  from  the  commercial 
standpoint  that  arithmetic  schools  (Kcchcn- 
schulen)  were  established,  and  in  these  logistic 
(Rechnung)  was  taught.  A  number  of  manu- 
scripts of  the  53th,  14th,  and  15th  centuries 
are  extant  showing  the  nature  of  the  problems 
then  considered  necessary,  but  extant  treatises 
on  counter  reckoning  (see  Abacus)  are  mostly 
confined  to  the  first  century  of  printing.  Not  a 
few  of  the  problems  of  importance  at  that  time 
still  survive  in  the  arithmetics  of  to-day,  al- 
though substantially  obsolete  from  the  commer- 
cial standpoint. 

1  lie  Creek  arithmetic,  or  theory  of  numbers, 
begins  with  Pythagoras  (q.v.),  about  530  B.C., 
who  taught  their  mystic  properties,  and  to 
whose  school  is  probably  due  most  of  their 
ancient  classification.  The  fundamental  divi- 
sion of  numbers  seems  to  have  been  into  odd 
(Uprioi)  and  even  (  irepiTrol  ),  the  former  be- 
ing masculine,  divine,  lucky,  and  the  latter  fem- 
inine, earthly,  unlucky.  The  expression  "There 
is  luck  in  odd  numbers,"  appears  in  Vergil  as 
"Xumcro  Deus  impare  gaudet,"  and  probably 
goes  back  to  the  Pythagoreans.  The  odd  num- 
bers were,  on  account  of  their  geometric  rep- 
resentations, also  called  gnomons  (  yviifiovct  ), 
and  it  was  well  known  that  the  sum  of  the  first 
n  of  these  gnomons,  including  1  (which  was 
not  generally  considered  a  number  until  the 
17th  century),  was  a  square  (  rerpdyuvot ) .  The 
side  (  ir\evp&  )  of  the  square  was  called  by  the 
later  writers  radix  (root,  whence  radical).  It 
is  therefore  evident  that  the  Greeks  looked 
upon  arithmetic  from  the  standpoint  of  ge- 
ometry. Following  out  this  plan,  they  stud- 
ied triangular  numbers,  formed  by  arranging 
dots  in  the  form  of  a  triangle,  as  in  the 
case  of  3  (.■.),  6,  10,  etc.,  and  also  pentagonal 
and  other  figurate  numbers,  solid  as  well  as 
plane.  Many  other  classifications  were  sug- 
gested by  the  Greeks,  some  of  which  have  re- 
mained in  our  school  books  until  quite  recently. 
Such,  for  example,  included  perfect  numbers 
(tA«<k).  which  are  equal  to  the  sum  of 
all  possible  factors,  including  1  (for  example, 
28=1  +  2  +  4  +  7+14).  and  amicable  num- 
bers (  <pt\ioi  ),  each  of  which  equals  the  sum  of 
the  possible  factors  of  the  other,  including  1 
(for  example,  220  and  284).  Euclid  (q.v.) 
(c.  300  b.c.)  emphasized  the  ancient  arithmetic 
in  his  books  II.,  V.,  VII.,  VIII.  IX.  and  X., 
although  II.,  V.,  and  X.  are  nominally  geo- 
metric. Soon  after,  Eratosthenes  (q.v.)  (c.  225 
B.C.)    made    a    particular   study   of    primes,   and 


ARITHMETIC,  HISTORY  OF 


invented  a  "sieve"  (  Kbanivov  )  which  bears  his 
name,  for  the  purpose  of  sifting  out  the  com- 
posite numbers.  In  the  next  century  Hypsicles 
(c.  180  B.C.)  made  a  more  extensive  study  of 
progressions  than  had  before  been  attempted. 
It  is,  however,  to  Nicomachus  (q.v.)  (c.  ioo 
A.D.)  that  we  owe  the  first  great  treatise  on 
arithmetic  {Mvaywyn  &pi0nr)Tiici?i ) ,  a  work  which 
sought  to  do  for  that  subject  what  Euclid  had 
done  for  geometry,  and  which  actually  succeeded 
in  turning  the  attention  of  the  later  Greeks 
from  the  science  of  form  to  the  science  of  num- 
ber. The  next  great  arithmetician  was  Dio- 
phantus  (q.v.),  who  wrote  probably  in  the  4th 
century.  His  arithmetic  ('Api$ixrrnK&)  professes 
to  be  in  13  books,  but  only  six  (seven  in  one 
Vatican  MS.)  are  extant.  In  the  main,  how- 
ever, this  treatise  relates  rather  to  algebra. 

The  greatest  difficulty  of  the  ancient  arith- 
meticians and  calculators  lay  in  the  treatment 
of  fractions.  This  is  seen  in  the  oldest  mathe- 
matical treatise  of  any  note  as  yet  deciphered, 
a  papyrus  copied  by  one  Ahmes,  an  Egyptian 
scribe  of  c.  1700  B.C.,  from  an  earlier  MS.,  prob- 
ably dating  from  c.  2300  B.C.  Here  all  of  the 
fractions,  save  f,  have  I  as  a  numerator.  For 
example,  tV  was  written,  in  hieratic  characters, 
as  tV  5*r  lj'  this  meaning  that  the  sum  of  these 
unit  fractions  equals  tV  The  Akhmim  papyrus, 
written  more  than  3,000  years  after  the  original 
of  the  Ahmes  work,  gives  the  same  treatment  of 
fractions,  thus  testifying  to  the  difficulty  of  the 
subject.  While  the  Greeks  and  Romans  simpli- 
fied the  subject  and  improved  the  symbolism, 
it  is  to  the  Hindus  and  Arabs  that  we  are  in- 
debted for  our  present  convenient  forms. 

The  Romans  contributed  but  little  to  the 
theory  of  numbers,  although  their  mercantile 
spirit  doubtless  led  them  to  improve  the  abacus. 
Their  only  writer  of  prominence  was  Boethius 
(q.v.),  who,  early  in  the  6th  century,  did  much 
to  make  the  ideas  of  Nicomachus  known  in 
western  Europe,  and  whose  treatise  was  the 
standard  in  the  Church  schools  for  many  cen- 
turies. 

Of  the  early  Hindu  arithmeticians  but  little 
is  known.  There  are,  however,  several  works 
extant  that  set  forth  the  theory  and  practice 
of  numbers  in  the  period  following  the  intro- 
duction of  the  zero  and  the  consequent  per- 
fecting of  the  system  of  place  value.  (See 
Numerals.)  It  is  in  this  period  that  the  foun- 
dations for  our  common  arithmetical  operations 
were  laid.  From  the  Hindus  the  Arabs  of  the 
Bagdad  school  (c.  800  a.d.)  drew  their  inspira- 
tion. The  earliest  Arab  writer  to  make  exten- 
sive use  of  the  Hindu  numerals,  in  a  text-book 
on  arithmetic,  was  Al  Khowarazmi  (q.v).  So 
prominent  was  his  treatise  that  his  name  became 
a  synonym  for  the  Hindu  arithmetic,  even 
as  Euclid  became  synonymous  with  geometry. 
The  early  Latin  translations,  one  of  which  was 
made  by  Adelard  of  Bath  (q.v.)  (c.  1120  A.D.), 
went  by  such  names  as  'Liber  Algoritmi' 
('The  Book  of  Al  Khowarazmi'),  whence 
comes  our  word  algorism  {algorithm,  in  Chau- 
cer augrim),  a  name  for  a  long  time  used  to 
mean  the  arithmetic  of  the  Hindu  numerals. 

The  Arab  arithmetic  became  known  in  Chris- 
tian Europe  chiefly  through  the  'Liber  abaci* 
of  Leonardo  Fibonacci  of  Pisa  (q.v.),  in  1202. 
In  the  13th  century  the  great  revival  of  trade 
brought  into  prominence  the  commercial  aspect 


of  the  subject,  and  from  this  time  on  the  theo- 
retical  treatment  as  exemplified  in  the  works 
of  Nicomachus  and  Boethius  gradually  lost 
ground. 

The  first  printed  arithmetic  appeared  anony- 
mously at  Treviso,  in  Italy,  in  14/8.  In  Ger- 
many the  first  one  to  appear  from  the  press 
was  published  at  Bamberg  in  14S2.  The  com- 
mercial supremacy  of  Italy  and  Germany  was 
such  that  their  works  for  the  next  century  were 
largely  mercantile,  the  arithmetics  of  the  Boe- 
thian  type  being  published  more  often  in  Paris 
than  elsewhere.  It  was  quite  late  in  the  16th 
century  before  France  produced  many  commer- 
cial arithmetics,  and  when  these  did  appear  the 
tendency  to  unite  some  of  the  features  of  the 
Boethian  arithmetic  gave  their  books  considerable 
influence.  The  first  arithmetic  to  be  printed  in 
England  was  the  prolix  theoretical  work  of 
Bishop  Tonstall  (1522),  and  it  was  not  until 
about  the  middle  of  the  century  that  Recorde 
(q.v.)  began  to  publish  his  popular  commercial 
text-book.  Owing  to  the  great  mercantile  activ- 
ity of  Holland  between  1575  and  1650,  a  large 
number  of  arithmetics  appeared  in  that  country 
early  in  the  17th  century,  and  materially  influ- 
enced the  text-books  of  England.  To  this  cre- 
ative period  of  arithmetic  is  due  a  large  amount 
of  matter  once  of  importance  but  now  quite 
obsolete.  An  extended  treatment  of  compound 
numbers  and  of  certain  forms  of  exchange  was 
more  necessary  then  than  now;  barter  was  of 
great  importance ;  partnership  accounts  were 
settled  by  a  process  quite  different  from  that  of 
to-day;  alligation  was  of  real  use  in  the  numer- 
ous mints  then  existing;  proportion  (usually  in 
the  form  of  the  Rule  of  Three,  Regula  de  tre, 
Regeldetri)  was  much  more  often  used  in  prac- 
tice than  at  present.  The  first  arithmetic  to  be 
printed  in  America  was  Hodder's  popular  Eng- 
lish work,  which  was  republished  in  Boston  in 

The  symbolism  of  arithmetic  amounted  to 
very  little  before  the  19th  century,  when  the 
symbols  invented  for  algebra  (q.v.)  between 
1550  and  1650  were  rather  injudiciously  adopted 
in  elementary  arithmetic.  The  greatest  advance 
since  1600  has  been  the  invention  of  decimal 
fractions,  a  feature  wdiich  revolutionized  busi- 
ness arithmetic,  making  percentage  simple  and 
common,  and  rendering  tables  practicable. 

The  operations  of  arithmetic  were  formerly 
performed  on  some  kind  of  abacus  (q.v.V  At 
the  time  of  the  invention  of  printing  our  present 
forms  of  addition  and  subtraction  were  quite 
common.  There  were,  however,  several  meth- 
ods of  multiplication,  although  our  present  form 
was  already  in  favor.  The  present  method  of 
division  did  not  come  into  general  use  until  the 
17th  century,  although  it  appears  in  rare  ease.; 
in  the  15th. 

Bibliography. — LTnger,  'Pie  Methodik  der 
praktischen  Arithmetik'  (Leipsic  1888)  :  Can- 
tor, 'Vorlesungen  iiber  Geschichte  der  Mathe- 
matik'  (Leipsic  1880-iqoo.  3  vols.,  various 
editions')  ;  Sterner,  'Geschichte  der  Rechen- 
kunst'  (Munich  1891)  :  Fink.  'History  of  Math- 
ematics* (trans,  by  Beman  and  Smith;  Chicago 
iqoo)  ;  Peacock,  article  on  "Arithmetic"  in  the 
'  Encyclopaedia  Mctropolitana.' 

I )  win  Eugene  Smith. 
Professor    of    Mathematics,    Teachers    College, 
Columbia  University,  New   York. 


ARIZONA 


Arizona     (from  the  former  Papago  locality 
of  Arisonac,   or   Arisonaca,   prob  ining 

"place  of  small  springs,1  a  few  miles  from  the 
in  Nogales,  where  some  celebrated  nuggets 
of  silver  were  discovered  in  [736  41.  It  has  no 
connection  with  "arid  zone,"  etc  1.  A  Terri- 
tory of  the  United  State-,  1  Western  or  Pacific 
group  I,  bounded  by  Utah  ami  Nevada  on  the 
north.  New  Mexico  on  the  east,  Mexico  on  the 
south,  Nevada,  California,  and  Lower  Cali- 
fornia on  the  west.  It  extends  from  lit  310 
20'  to  370  X.  and  from  long.  1090  2'  to  1140 
35'  W.  Area.  [13,020  sq.  mi.  ( 72.332,800  acres), 
thus  ranking  sixth  in  size  among  the  States  and 
Territories.     (See  Territories.) 

\phy  and  Geology. —  Topographically 
the  Territory  presents  two  gri  il  divisions:  a 
plateau  region  in  the  north,  made  up  of  approxi- 
mately horizontal  strata,  and  the  mountainous 
region  in  the  south,  consisting  of  uplifted  strata 
plicated  and  folded  with  minerals  rocks  and  in- 
trusive veins.  These  mountain  ranges  are  nu- 
merous and  have  a  general  northwest  and 
southeast  trend,  with  intermediate  broad  valleys 
often  20  to  30  miles  wide.  The  chief  mountain 
masses  are  the  Castle  Dome,  Rig  Morn,  Eagle- 
tail,  Chocolate,  Dome  Rock,  Palomas,  Harqua- 
hala  and  Ilarcuvar  in  the  southwest;  the 
Aquarius  and  Colorado  in  the  west ;  the  great 
plateaus  rising  in  what  are  sometimes  called  the 
Northside  mountains  in  the  northwest ;  the  San 
Francisco  and  Black  in  the  north  central;  the 
Carrizo,  Lukachukai,  and  Tunicha  in  the  north- 
east ;  the  Ztini,  White,  Mogollon,  and  Apache  in 
the  cast;  the  Gila,  Peloncillo,  Pinalerio,  Dra- 
goon, Galiuro,  Santa  Catalina,  Huachuca,  and 
Baboquivari  in  the  southeast  and  south.  The 
isolated  volcanic  San  Francisco  mountain, 
above  Flagstaff,  is  the  highest  of  all.  rising  in 
its  greatest  height  to  12,794  Ieet.  all(l  in  Hum- 
phrey peak  to  12,562  feet.  The  other  important 
peaks  in  the  Territory  are  Thomas,  11,496  feet; 
Escudillo,  [0,691;  Graham,  10,516;  Ord,  10,266; 
and  Greens.  10,115,  while  many  others  exceed 
5,000  feet.  To  the  south  the  surface  falls 
sharply  to  low  ridges,  mostly  volcanic;  thence 
by  terraced  mesas  to  a  great  desert  plain  little 
above  sea-level,  cut  by  gullied  stream-beds 
drawing  the  occasional  rainfall  to  the  broad  and 
shallow  Gila.  The  great  northern  plateau,  or 
series  of  plateaus,  range  in  altitude  from  5,000  to 
7,500  feet ;  rising  from  them  are  numerous  moun- 
tain spurs,  buttes,  and  the  cones  of  extinct  vol- 
canoes, while  the  Colorado  river  has  cut 
through  6.000  feet  of  strata,  exposing  for- 
mations down  to  Carboniferous  and  Ter- 
tiary marine  strata,  underlying  Tertiary  lake 
sediments  and  later  alluvium;  indeed  it  has 
been  said  that  every  period  of  the  world's 
history  since  the  dawn  of  life  is  repre- 
sented in  the  geology  of  Arizona.  The  surface 
of  the  land  as  it  lies  was  formed  by  a  huge 
Eocene  uplift,  the  water  action  afterward  cut- 
ting the  gorges  and  shaping  the  mesas  and 
buttes;  another  took  place  in  the  Miocene,  with 
eruptive  volcanoes.  Near  Holbrook,  Navajo 
County,  is  a  wonderful  chalcedony  forest  (see 
Forest,  Petrified),  with  trunks  four  feet  thick 
cracked  into  exquisitely  colored  blocks.  Every- 
where a  feature  of  the  landscape  in  the  northern 
section  are  the  great  isolated  mesas  of  sand- 
stone with   scarped   and   pinnacled   sides,   often 


1  ban  a  thousand  feet  in  sheer  height. 
Most  of  the  stream  courses  are  dry  s:1\,.  j„  the 
rainy  season,  and  even  then  their  Bow  is  some- 
times swallowed  by  the  sands.  The  one  con- 
siderable river  is  the  Colorado  (q.v.)  which  flows 
generally  southwest  from  Utah  for  400  miles 
through  the  famous  Grand  Canon  of  Arizona 
"I  <  '■  one  of  lh('  wonders  of  the  world,  then 
turning  south,  forming  the  we  tern  boundary  of 
tin-  !  erritory  until  shortly  before  it  reaches  the 
Gulf  of  California.  Its  chief  affluent  in  the  I 
ritory  is  the  Gila,  which  flows  entirely  across 
its  southern  portion;  other  tributaries  are  the 
Virgin,  which  crosses  the  extreme  northwest 
corner;  the  Colorado  Chiquito  or  Little  Colo- 
rado in  the  north,  and  Bill  Williams  fork  in 
the  west.  Important  tributaries  of  the  Gila  are 
the  Salado,  or  Salt,  and  the  Verde  from  the 
north,  and  the  San  Pedro  from  the  south. 

Climate. — Arizona  is  entirely  within  the  arid 
region,  but  owing  to  the  difference  in  altitude  of 
the  northern  and  southern  portions  there  is  a 
wide  range  in  temperature,  as  likewise  in  pre- 
cipation  between  the  two  sections.  The  aver- 
age annual  precipitation  at  Flagstaff  from  [859 
to  1902  was  24.65  inches,  that  of  Yuma  2.84 
inches;  while  the  mean  temperature  is  45°  in 
the  north  and  69°  in  the  south.  The  sandy 
plains  of  the  southwestern  part  are  the  hottest 
region  north  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  1200 
in  the  shade  being  frequent  in  summer ;  but 
even  in  this  lower  area,  owing  to  the  dry- 
ness of  the  atmosphere,  the  heat  is  not  very 
oppressive  in  summer,  while  the  winter  climate 
is  usually  delightful.  Heavy  snows  occur  in  the 
mountainous  country  of  the  north,  and  sharp 
frosts  are  frequent  even  in  the  Salado  and  Gila 
valleys;  but  nowhere  are  the  mountains  per- 
petually snow-capped.  In  recent  years  Arizona 
has  become  a  popular  resort  for  those  suffer- 
ing from  pulmonary  tuberculosis  and  catarrhal 
ailments. 

Minerals  and  Mines. —  Arizona  is  rich  in 
minerals  and  its  mining  industry  is  of  prime 
importance.  'In  1901  it  was  third  among  the 
States  and  Territories  in  copper  production, 
I30778,6n  lbs.  having  been  mined;  it  was  also 
fifth  in  silver  (2,812,400  fine  ozs..  commercial 
value  $1,687,440),  and  sixth  in  gold  (107.515 
fine  ozs.,  commercial  value  $4,083,000).  Of 
lead  4,045  short  tons  were  mined,  and  the  in- 
dustry is  steadily  increasing.  The  value  of 
clay  products  was  $92,986.  There  are  also  de- 
posits of  coal  (as  yet  but  little  worked),  fluor- 
spar, mica,  molybdenum,  nickel  ores,  limestone, 
marble,  granite,  sandstone  in  limitless  quantities, 
chalcedony,  tungsten,  turquoise,  vanadium,  gar- 
net (pyrope),  and  other  minerals,  and  there  are 
numerous  hot  and  mineral  springs. 

Soil.  Agriculture,  Forestry. — Of  the  72.332.800 
acres  in  the  Territory,  only  5.200.OCO  acres  are 
privately  owned  ("the  remainder  being  either 
public  or  reservation  lands),  and  of  this  area 
only  254.521  acres  are  actually  cultivated.  The 
valley  lands,  however,  are  marvelously  fertile, 
experiment  demonstrating  that  in  the  southern 
part,  under  favorable  conditions,  the  yield  per 
acre  is  2,150  lbs.  for  wheat,  4.000  to  5.000  lbs. 
for  potatoes.  12.300  lbs.  for  tomatoes,  5.000  lbs. 
for  strawberries.  27,000  lbs.  for  melons,  and 
1 ,735  lbs.  for  corn.  Lack  of  water  has  been 
more  or  less  a  hindrance  to  the  development  of 


^\ 


r 


ARIZONA. 


I.    The  San   Francisco   Mountains. 


2.   The   Needles. 


ARIZONA 


t'.ie  agricultural  sections,  but  with  the  construc- 
tion of  storage  reservoirs,  recently  undertaken 
by  the  Government,  it  is  estimated  that  a  total 
of  10,000,000  acres,  or  40  times  the  present  area 
under  cultivation,  will  be  reclaimed.  The  staple 
crops  are  alfalfa,  barley,  wheat,  sorghum,  kaffir 
corn,  root  crops,  sugar  beets,  green  vegetables 
and  small  fruits  of  every  variety,  apricots, 
grapes,  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  almonds,  olives, 
etc.  Experiments  in  the  cultivation  of  Egyptian 
cotton  are  also  being  made,  and  it  is  expected 
that  vast  tracts  of  alkali  lands  in  the  south, 
hitherto  believed  to  be  waste,  can  be  utilized 
for  date-culture.  In  1899  honey  and  wax  valued 
at  $67,489  were  produced. 

The  mountains  and  mesas  of  the  northern 
part  are  generally  covered  with  nutritious 
grasses,  forming  excellent  pasturage  for  cattle 
and  sheep,  while  irrigated  pastures  in  the  south 
afford  means  of  fattening  for  market.  In  1900 
there  were  742,635  neat  cattle,  924,761  sheep,  and 
125,063  horses.  In  1903  there  were  slaughtered, 
for  home  consumption,  41,803  cattle,  while 
78.846  were  exported.  In  the  same  year  250.000 
-  leep  (valued  at  $2.50  each)  were  sold.  The 
wool  clip  aggregated  3,500.000  lbs.,  valued  at 
13c.  Ostrich  farming  has  become  a  profitable 
industry;  there  are  about  1.000  birds,  some  of 
which  yield  a  pound  of  feathers  every  eight 
mi  nuhs,  the  maximum  market  value  being 
$125  per  pound. 

The  southern  plains  and  parts  of  the  north 
have  a  dress  of  sagebrush,  greasewood,  yucca, 
cactus,  and  other  desert  growths.  Cottonwoods 
line  almost  every  stream.  Mesquite,  the  giant 
cactus  or  saguaro,  paloverde,  ironwood,  Jerusa- 
lem thorn,  and  other  trees  are  indigenous  to 
the  southern  plains,  and  vast  mountain  areas 
throughout  the  Territory  are  covered  with  pine, 
cedar,  juniper,  and  other  valuable  timber.  An 
important  lumbering  industry  has  been  devel- 
oped in  the  vicinity  of  the  San  Francisco  moun- 
tains, but  vast  tracts  of  timber  in  this  and  other 
sections  have  been  set  aside  by  the  Government 
at  the  San  Francisco,  Black  Mesa,  Prescott, 
Santa  Rita,  Santa  Catalina,  Mount  Graham, 
Chiricahua,  and  Grand  Canon  forest  reserves. 

Manufactures  and  Commerce. — These  are  both 
in  their  infancy,  the  chief  manufactures  consist- 
ing of  smelting  and  mining  ($17,286,517  in  1899), 
lumber,  etc.,  and  carshop  work.  The  value  of 
imports  (port  of  Nogalesl  in  1903  was  $8,469,899; 
of  exports,  $4,534,388,  a  large  part  being  free  of 
duty.  Duty  collected,  $123,805.  Internal  revenue 
collected,  $45,052. 

Railroads,  Post-Offices,  Periodicals. —  In  1903 
there  were  1,766  miles  of  steam  road,  against 
1.094  in  1890  and  349  in  1880.  The  principal 
lines  are  the  Santa  Fe  Pacific  (393  mi.)  across 
the  northern  and  the  Southern  Pacific  (383  mi.) 
across  the  southern  portion.  At  the  close  of 
1903  there  were  248  post-offices  and  53  periodi- 
cals  (16  daily,  35  weekly,  and  2  monthly). 

finances. — Assessed  valuation  in  1903,  $43,- 
088.004  (distributed  by  counties  as  below);  in 
1897,  $30,613,703.  Public  debt,  net,  $1,064,593. 
Average  tax.  $1.05  per  $100.  In  the  same  year 
there  were  11  national  banks  (capital.  $602,500; 
surplus,  $257,631;  outstanding  circulation,  $292, 
600;  deposits.  $3,730,784),  and  22  Territorial 
banks    (capital,  $773,310;   surplus,  $301,195;  de- 


posits,  $4,750,569).    There  are  six  building  asso- 
ciations   with   loans  of  $731,817   on   real   estate. 

Education. —  The  Territory  has  a  good  pub- 
lic school  system  and  is  energetic  in  extend- 
ing its  facilities  to  its  children  despite  the 
scattered  population.  Education  is  comp 
The  school  population  in  1903  (6-21  years)  was 
2S^95T  ;  enrollment,  20.008;  daily  attendance. 
47  per  cent.  School  libraries  contain  15.366 
volumes ;  value  of  buildings  and  furniture.  S727.- 
182:  teachers  employed,  115  men  (average  sal- 
try,  $80.33),  359  women  (average  salary,  $67.53*. 
In  teachers'  salaries  Arizona  is  exceeded  only  by 
California  and  Nevada.  Cost  of  maintenance, 
1885,  $138,164;  in  1903,  $415,243.  There  is  a 
Territorial  university  at  Tucson,  normal  schools 
at  Tempe  and  Flagstaff,  and  high  schools  at 
Phoenix,  Prescott,  and  Mesa.  There  are  also 
numerous  private  schools  and  22  sectarian 
schools  (see  below).  The  Government  main- 
tains boarding  and  day  schools  for  Indians 
among  the  various  tribes,  as  well  as  at  Phoenix, 
Tucson,  and  Rice  Station.  These  had  a  total 
enrollment  of  3,195.  with  488  teachers  and  other 
employes,  the  cost  exceeding  $286,000  in  1901. 

Religions. —  Owing  to  the  large  number  of 
persons  of  Spanish  descent  and  to  the  activity 
of  the  early  Jesuit  and  Franciscan  missionaries, 
the  population  is  largely  Roman  Catholic.  Fol- 
lowing are  the  statistics: 


J2 

*o 

0 

O 

M. 

O 

Denomination 

n 
u 

V 

■ft 

O 
u 

Property 

u 

ts 

_a 

rt 

u 

B 

■a 

c 

J= 

J2 
O 

s 

£ 

3 

z 

31* 

34 

=3 
140+ 

27,000 
6,264 

26 

44 

15 

4 

>-.  M<   ■ 

111,724 

21 

21 

1,170 

27 

128,000 

*3t 

20 

2,11  j 

25 

3 

126,000 

Episcopalian 

list 

S 

10 

1,680 

9 

(Southern  ). . 

11 

10 

757 

«3 

42,200 

Lutheran** 

2 

58 

3 

Disciples  of 

Christ 

5 

2 

300 

4 

8,000 

13 

18 

567 

14 

IS.550 

*  Including  cathedral  at  Tucson.     There  is  also  an  acad- 
emy, hospital,  and  sanitarium  at  Tucson. 

t  Returns  incomplete. 

*  Also  five  missions. 

**  Among  Apache  Indians  only. 


Cliaritable.  Penal. —  The  Territory  maintains 
an  asylum  for  the  insane  near  Phoenix,  a  peni- 
tentiary at  Yuma,  and  an  industrial  school  for 
juvenile  offenders  at  Benson. 

Population  and  Divisions. — The  first  separate 
census  was  taken  in  1S70.  giving,  exclusive  of 
1  ns,  9,658;  in  1SS0,  40.440;  in  1800. 
(excluding  tribal  Indians  but  including  1.326 
others)  ;  in  1900,  total,  122.931  (71,795  males. 
51,136  females.  98.69S  native  born.  24,233  foreign 
born,  26,480  Indians,  1.84S  negroes,  1.419  Chinese. 
281  Jap:  The  principal  Indian  tribes  are: 

Navaho,  about  16.000;  Papago.  3.900;  Pima. 
4,400;  San  Carlos  Apache.  ^.^\2;  White  Moun- 
tain Apache,  1.952:  other  Apache.  600;  Mohave. 
2,635;  Hopi,  1,841;  W'alapai.  573;  Maricopa,  350; 
Chemehucvi,   250;    Havasupai,   243.      There   are 


ARIZONA,  UNIVERSITY   OF  — ARK 


13  counties   in   the    Territory,  as   follows,    with 
their  county  seats,  population,  etc.: 


1 

Area 

c 

5|. 

Assessed 

vulii.it  i. .n 

3  2 

a. 
0 
a. 

1903 

Apache. . . . 

>o.736 

8,*)7 

' 

Cuchisc  ... 

9.=5« 

Coconino... 

5.514 

4.973 

Graham  . .. 

0,500 

Maricopa... 

8,3 1 6 

20.457 

10.315,111 

Mohave 

i3.4-'i 

3.420 

■    . 

9.S26 

8.820 

1,387,960 

14,689 

3.898.347 

7.779 

1,653,971 

Santa  Cruz. 

■i.545 

1,560,307 

\  avapai  . . . 

7.363 

»3.799 

5,801,017 

9.787 

4. '45 

■.-77.57' 

■ 

Indian 

3.065 

c 

0 

County  scat 

H 

a. 

0 

- 

:  it.  Johns. . 

1  imbstone 

646 

1        staff.. 

M     

1 .  -•  7 1 

".495 

vitle 

629 

Phoenix . .. 

5.544 

Kingman . . 

Ho]or«".t,   . 

I  ncson. .. . 

7.53' 

Florence  . . 

N  Dgales  . . . 

1,761 

Prcscott... 

3,559 

l,5'9 

0 

•  Area    included   in    that  Gila,  Graham,  and   Navajo 

counties. 

In  addition  to  the  towns  above  named.  Je- 
rome, in  Yavapai  county,  is  a  flourishing  mining 
settlement   of  2,86l   inhabitants. 

History. —  The  first  white  men  to  enter  Ari- 
zona were  probably  Juan  de  la  Asuncion  and 
Pedro  Nadal,  two  friars  of  whom  little  is 
known,  who  penetrated  the  region  in  1538.  Fray 
Marcos  of  Xiza  and  his  negro  companion  Este- 
vanico,  in  1539,  journeyed  from  Mexico  to  the 
sources  of  the  Rio  San  Pedro,  thence  across  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  present  Territory  to  the 
Province  of  Cibola.  (Sec  New  Mexico.)  In 
the  following  year  Niza  served  as  guide  to  Fran- 
cisco Vasquez  Coronado,  who,  with  a  considera- 
ble force,  visited  Cibola  and  sent  two  small  ex- 
peditions which  discovered  the  Ilopi  villages 
(called  Tusayan)  and  the  Grand  Canon  of  the 
Colorado.  Meanwhile  other  parties  went  from 
the  settlement  which  Coronado  e  tablished  on 
the  Rio  Sonora,  northwestern  Mexico,  explored 
the  region,  later  known  as  the  Papagueria  (from 
the  Papago  Indians),  to  the  mouth  of  the  Colo- 
rado, where  letters  had  been  buried  by  Hernando 
de  Alarcon  who  commanded  a  joint  expedition 
by  sea  and  went  up  the  Colorado  for  8$  leagues. 
Antonio  ile  Espejo  visited  the  Hopi  villages  in  the 
northeastern  part  in  1583.  as  did  Juan  de  Oriate, 
the  first  governor  and  colonizer  of  New  Mexico, 
in  1508.  the  latter  also  passing  entirely  across  the 
Territory  to  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  and 
back  in  1604-5.  The  first  missions  were  estab- 
lished among  the  Hopis  by  Franciscans  in  the 
summer  of  1629,  which,  barring  the  killing  of 
e  of  the  missionaries  by  the  Indians,  were 
successfully  continued  until  Aug.  1680,  when,  in 
a  general  uprising  of  the  Pueblos,  the  mission- 
aries were  murdered  and  little  effort  made 
thenceforth  to  introduce  Christianity.  From 
1687  the  Jesuits,  particularly  Padre  Eusebio 
Kino,  made  various  journeys  into  southern  Ari- 
zona, establishing  the  missions  of  San  Xavier  del 
r  1700,  and  that  of  Guevavi  in  1732. 
I  he  present  church  of  San  Xavier  was  begun 
about  1783  and  finished  in  179;.  In  1752  a  pre- 
sidio was  established  at  Tubac.  but  in  1776  it 
was  removed  to  a  ranchena  of  about  So  families 
of  Pima.  Papago,  and  Sobaipuri  Indians,  known 
as  San  AgUStin  de  Tucson  (the  present  Tucson} 
a   few  miles  northward,  at  which  a   few   Span- 


iards may  also  have  settled  after  1763.  The  mis- 
sions and  their  zisilas  lead  a  precarious  exist- 
ence after  1750-3,  during  which  years  the  Pimas 
were  at  war  against  the  Spaniards,  killing 
cral  priests  and  plundering  the  missions,  in- 
cluding that  of  San  Xavier.  The  Jesuits  were 
expelled  in  17(17  and  were  followed  by  Francis- 
cans, who  rehabilitated  the  mission  settlements 
and  conducted  explorations  in  unknown  or  for- 
gotten regions.  For  many  years  before  and 
after,  the  Apache  tribes  were  at  almost  constant 
war  with  the  more  sedentary  Indians  of  southern 
Arizona,  raiding  their  settlements,  killing  the 
men  and  carrying  off  the  women ;  nor  did  the 
white  settlements  fare  much  better,  notwith- 
standing the  presence  of  the  presidios.  At  the 
time  of  the  conquest  of  New  Mexico  in  184(1  by 
Gen.  S.  \Y.  Kearny.  Arizona  formed  a  part  of 
that  territory.  Ry  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hi- 
dalgo in  1848  the  section  north  of  the  Gila  was 
ceded  by  Mexico  to  the  United  States,  while 
that  south  of  the  river  was  obtained  through  the 
Gadsden  Purchase  (q.v.),  approved  in  1854. 
Raids  continued,  various  military  expeditions 
were  conducted  and  outposts  established,  and 
rich  mineral  deposits  were  discovered  during  the 
next   few  years.      By   act   of   1  approved 

Feb.  24,  1803,  Arizona  was  erected  into  a  sep- 
arate Territory,  and  on  Dec.  29  it  was  formally 
organized  at  Xavaho  Springs.  The  withdrawal 
of  troops  from  the  frontier  at  the  beginning  of 
the  Civil  War  left  the  country  practically  at  the 
mercy  of  Apaches,  who  continued  their  depreda- 
tions;  mines  were  abandoned  and  settlements 
deserted,  but  with  the  re-establishment  of  the 
military  posts  the  development  of  the  Territory 
was  renewed  and  has  since  continued.  Strenu- 
ous efforts  have  been  made  for  several  years 
toward  the  admission  of  Arizona  as  a  state,  but 
thus  far  without  success. 

Throughout  Arizona  are  the  remains  of  pueb- 
los and  cliflf  and  cave  dwellings  which  were 
occupied  in  prehistoric  times  by  the  ancestors 
of  the  present  Pueblo  Indians  or  allied  tribes. 
Noteworthy  among  the  pueblo  ruins  is  the 
famous  Casa  Grande  in  the  Gila  Valley, 
near  Florence,  which  was  in  much  its  present 
condition  when  Father  Kino  said  mass  within 
its  walls  in  1694.  In  the  northeast,  especially  in 
the  Canon  de  Chclly,  are  numerous  cliff  dwell- 
ings, remarkably  well  preserved. 

F.  \V.  Hodge. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Ar'izo'na,  University  of,  a  co-educational 
institution  in  Tucson,  established  by  act  of  legis- 
lature in  1885,  but  not  opened  till  1891.  In  1901 
its  grounds  and  buildings  were  valued  at  $160,- 
000:  its  library  contained  6,000  volumes  and  its 
income  from  the  United  States  government  and 
the  Territorial  government   was  $55,000. 

Ark,  (1)  the  vessel  in  which  Noah  and  his 
family  were  preserved  during  the  deluge;  (2)  a 
term  applied  to  a  chest  for  the  safe  keeping  of 
valuables. 

The  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  in  the  Jewish 
synagogue,  was  the  chest  or  vessel  in  which  the 
tables  of  the  law  were  preserved.  This  was 
3  feet  9  inches  in  length,  2  feet  3  inches  in 
breadth,  and  the  same  in  height.  It  was  made 
of  shiuim  wood,  overlaid  within  and  without 
with  gold. 


ARKANSAS 


Arkansas,  ar'kan-sa,  "The  Bear  State."  a 
south-central  State  of  the  United  States  (No. 
12  in  order  of  admission)  ;  bounded  north  by 
Missouri,  south  by  Louisiana,  east  by  Missis- 
sippi River,  west  by  Indian  Territory,  south- 
west by  Texas ;  a  block  30  30'  north  to  south, 
about  250  miles  land  measure,  breadth  175  to 
275  miles;  area  53,850  miles  (.No.  23  in  United 
States),  805  water;  pop.  1,311,564  (No.  18  in 
United  States),  or  24.7  to  square  mile  (No.  29 
in  density).     White,  944,580;  colored,  366,984. 

Topograpliy. —  The  eastern  side  is  the  Mis- 
sissippi alluvium,  swamps,  "lakes,"  and  bayous, 
overflowed  by  the  rises  of  the  great  river  despite 
a  vast  system  of  levees  or  dikes ;  in  the  centre 
it  slopes  west  and  south  to  the  rolling  uplands 
and  the  many  east-and-west  divisions  of  the 
Ozark  Mountains  (q.v.)  —  a  broken  range  of 
low  hills  with  some  peaks  as  high  as  3,200  feet, 
as,  for  instance,  Magazine  Mountain,  in  Logan 
County.  This  and  other  mountains,  including 
the  Ouachita  Hills,  are  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  State.  The  most  extensive  range  is  that 
known  as  the  Boston  Mountains,  in  the  north- 
western part  of  the  State.  The  upper  mountain- 
ous, forest,  and  mineral  lands  may  be  separated 
from  the  northeast  corner  of  the  State  to  Little 
Rock,  thence  south  100  miles,  thence  to  the 
southwest  corner  of  the  State.  East  of  this  line 
the  country  is  hilly,  thickly  covered  with  pines, 
oaks,  and  other  trees  until  the  alluvial  soil  is 
reached,  extending  from  the  Mississippi  west- 
ward from  40  to  50  miles  in  width. 

River  Systems. —  The  State  is  evenly  divided 
by  its  great  name-river  (q.v.).  Just  above  its 
mouth  and  connected  with  it  by  a  bayou  through 
the  bottoms,  the  White  River,  800  miles  long, ' 
also  enters  the  Mississippi;  rising  in  northwest 
Arkansas,  it  flows  through  southern  Missouri 
and  returns  to  its  own  State,  receiving  at.  Jack- 
sonport  the  Black  of  400  miles,  and  near  Claren- 
don the  Cache.  Farther  north  the  St.  Francis 
of  450  miles  comes  from  Missouri,  winds  through 
the  delta  plains  for  a  long  distance  nearly  paral- 
lel to  the  Mississippi,  and  enters  it  just  above 
Helena ;  the  space  between  them  is  a  mass  of 
cypress  swamps  and  bayous.  The  southern  half 
is  drained  by  the  Ouachita  of  500  miles,  feeding 
the  Red  in  Louisiana,  and  in  the  extreme  south- 
west by  a  bend  of  the  Red. 

Climate  and  Sanitary  Conditions. —  The  east- 
ern river  bottoms  are  hot  and  malarious ;  but 
the  rest  of  the  State  is  unsurpassed  for  health- 
fulness,  and  the  Ozarks  are  a  noted  sanatorium 
for  lung  diseases.  Mean  winter  temperature 
about  38.5 ;  summer,  80.  Mean  rainfall,  in  the 
centre,  50  to  60  inches ;  in  the  extreme  west, 
46.5  inches.  The  drouths  of  the  farther  West 
and  the  severe  northers  of  Texas  are  alike  un- 
known. 

Geology,  Minerals,  and  Mining. —  The  Ozarks 
are  the  western  extension  of  the  Appalachian 
system,  formed  at  the  same  time  by  the  same 
forces :  their  basis  is  Palaeozoic. —  Lower  Silu- 
rian in  the  north,  Sub-Carboniferous  on  the 
south, —  with  a  patch  of  Cretaceous  in  south- 
west. The  southern  portion  of  the  State,  a  part 
of  the  great  Atlantic  belt  of  coastal  plain,  lies 
upon  a  foundation  of  Tertiary,  overlaid  with 
Quaternary  sands  and  clays.  The  former  make 
the  State  one  of  remarkable  richness  in  mineral 
wealth.  The  Ouachitas  furnish  the  silicious 
novaculite,    whence   are   made  the   famous  "Ar- 


kansas" or  "Ouachita"  oilstones,  the  finest  for 
sharpening  tools  in  the  world;  quarried  in  Hot 
Springs,  Garland,  and  adjoining  counties  since 
1840;  the  coarser  grades  of  which  and  quartz- 
itcs  supply  common  whetstones,  grindstones, 
burr  millstones,  etc.  They  also  contain  bauxite, 
a  granular  clay-ore  now  the  principal  source  of 
aluminum,  used  also  for  alum  and  crucibles; 
building,  porcelain,  and  fireclays.  In  the  north- 
west are  quarried  limestone  for  lime,  quartz 
sand  for  glass,  building  sandstone,  granite,  and 
slate;  and  a  valuable  pink  marble  called  'St. 
Clair  limestone."  In  the  north  centre  around 
Batesville,  manganese  ore  is  mined  for  eastern 
steel  works.  There  is  a  rapidly  increasing  pro- 
duction of  semi-anthracite  coal,  which,  almost 
neglected  prior  to  1885,  had  risen  to  $1,687,000 
in  1900 ;  lignite  has  been  found,  and  petroleum, 
and  natural  gas.  Phosphates,  mineral  ochres, 
and  salt  are  found.  There  are  large  deposits  of 
marble  of  many  colors  in  the  north  part  of  the 
State.  A  railway  will  soon  make  these,  as  well 
as  zinc  extracted  from  valuable  and  numerous 
mines  in  the  same  section,  extensive  articles  of 
commerce.  There  are  also  in  the  southern  por- 
tion of  the  State  large  deposits  of  asphalt,  graph- 
ite, and  inexhaustible  deposits  of  that  species  of 
chalk  from  which  Portland  cement  is  made, 
which  is  now  manufactured  on  an  extensive 
scale.  Zinc  ore  is  an  article  of  some  export, 
and  galena,  gold,  copper,  and  nickel  exist  in  some 
quantity,  as  well  as  limonite  iron  ore  and  salt. 
More  valuable  at  present  are  the  mineral  springs, 
of  which  those  at  Hot  Springs  have  developed 
a  celebrated  sanatorium  and  town. 

Soils,  Agriculture,  and  Forests. —  Agricul- 
turally the  most  valuable  soil  is  found  in  the 
river  bottom-lands,  and  as  the  surface  rises  from 
these  the  soil  becomes  less  productive.  There 
are  large  submerged  tracts  that  only  require 
proper  drainage  to  make  them  valuable  to  the 
farmer. 

The  extreme  fertility  of  the  soil  in  most 
parts  renders  agriculture  highly  profitable.  A 
raw,  sparsely  settled  State  at  the  time  of  the 
war,  with  less  than  a  third  its  present  popula- 
tion, and  that  mainly  along  the  great  navigable 
streams,  most  of  it  had  no  old  industrial  system 
to  be  wrecked  and  remade,  but  was  virgin  soil; 
hence  it  recovered  much  faster  than  other  south- 
ern States,  and  when  railroads  opened  it  up.  the 
new  free-labor  system  developed  it  with  few  ob- 
stacles, and  the  improved  farm  land  has  in- 
creased from  about  one  twentieth  to  about  one 
fifth  of  the  entire  area,  or  from  some  1,700,000 
to  close  on  7,000,000  acres,  one  eighth  of  it  in  the 
last  decade ;  two  fifths  of  the  State  is  in  farms 
and  half  of  their  acreage  improved.  It  has  been 
a  growth  almost  wholly  in  small  farms ;  from  an 
average  in  i860  of  nearly  250  acres,  it  has  sunk 
in  1900  to  93.  A  part  of  this  is  no  doubt  due 
to  the  small  patches  rented  by  the  negroes. 
whose  farms  average  only  half  the  size  of  the 
whites,  and  who  comprise  one  fourth  of  the 
farmers. 

The  northwestern  Ozark  region  has  a  thin, 
sandy  soil,  poor  relatively  to  the  rest,  which 
range  through  the  clays  and  loams  of  the  lime- 
stone uplands,  the  sandy  loam  of  the  western 
Arkansas  valley,  and  the  clay  and  sand  of  the 
eastern  valley,  to  the  deep  black  soil  of  the  bot- 
toms, the  famous  buckshot  soil  (the  incredibly 
fertile  cotton  land),  and  the  sticky  red  "gumbo* 


ARKANSAS 


clay  of  the  Red  River  valley.  Yet  the  first- 
named  section  is  a  superb  fruit  district,  two 
northwestern  counties  raising  in  1890  [,173,642 
of  the  total  2,811,182  bushels  of  apples  (an  al- 
most fourfold  increase  in  the  decade),  and  3.500,- 
000  of  the  44,000.000  bushels  of  corn,  and  two 
others  (one  the  same)  more  than  half  the  12,667,- 
74'  quarts  of  strawberries.  Of  the  other  fruit 
crops  for  which  the  State  is  becoming  famous, 
the  peach  crop  of  333,642  bushels  was  raised  in 
the  southwest,  over  one  sixth  in  one  county 
just  below  the  Ouachitas;  the  same  counties 
chiefly  grew  the  plums,  prunes,  and  grapes,  the 
latter  3.621,000  pounds.  Dried  and  canned  fruits 
amounted  to  2,045.910  pounds.  Potatoes  and 
sweet  potatoes  are  grown  all  over  the  State,  but 
about  one  fourth  came  from  three  counties  in 
the  western  Arkansas  valley.  But  of  course  the 
chief  crop  is  cotton,  grown  mainly  in  the  south, 
and  of  which  the  crop  was  705.928  bales  in  1899, 
and  819,000  in  1900,  making  the  State  No.  5  in 
the  United  States.  Hay  and  forage  play  a  con- 
siderable part ;  these  imply  animals,  and  nat- 
urally horses,  asses,  and  mules,  for  farm  work, 
have  multiplied  rapidly  with  the  farms:  swine 
also  have  increased,  but  neat  cattle,  milch  cows, 
and  sheep  have  fallen  off.  Sorghum,  though 
still  a  considerable  crop,  has  diminished  two 
fifths  in  the  decade.  An  important  industry  is 
rose-culture  for  perfume,  and  flowers  for  seed. 

The  forested  area  of  the  State  is  three 
fourths  its  entire  surface  —  more  than  40.000  of 
its  53,850  square  miles,  and  of  a  vast  variety  of 
hard  and  soft  woods:  dense  tracts  of  pine,  white 
and  other  oaks,  hickory,  black  walnut,  horn- 
beam, locust,  pecan,  ash,  elm,  willow,  papaw, 
etc.  The  St.  Francis  valley,  once  a  continu- 
ous swamp,  has  been  reclaimed  and  is 
covered  with  a  heavy  growth  of  cypress, 
gum,  oak.  hickory,  and  sycamore.  In  the  Ar- 
kansas valley  are  red  cedar.  Cottonwood,  maple, 
and  various  oaks.  In  all  forest  products  the 
State  has  a  great  industrial  future:  the  value  of 
raw  and  manufactured  forest  products  in  1900 
was  about  $28,700,000. 

Manufactures. —  Though  this  branch  of  in- 
dustry is  relatively  small  in  Arkansas  as  yet,  its 
rapid  increase, —  more  than  doubling  in  the  dec- 
ade, from  $17,275,192  in  1890  to  $37,006,409  in 
1900, —  and  the  great  forest  and  mineral  basis 
for  it,  foreshow  a  great  future.  Naturally,  over 
two  thirds  of  it  was  of  wood  products;  $23,959,- 
983  in  lumber  and  timber,  $2,266,522  in  planing- 
mill  stuff,  sash-and-blind  work,  wheel  parts, 
staves,  shingles,  cedar  posts,  etc.  These  were 
but  $8,943,052  and  $1,761,932  in  1890.  Next  to 
this  is  the  group  of  cotton  industries, —  ginning, 
and  making  cottonseed  oil  and  cake;  the  latter 
produced  a  value  of  $2,874,864,  against  $1,881,- 
668  in  1890,  the  former  of  $1,261,097.  though  in 
1890  only  $153,226.  Flouring  and  grist-mill 
products  were  $3,708,709,  against  $2,498,168  in 
1890;  steam-car  construction  and  repair-shop 
work,  $2,095,447,  against  $1,299,558.  Brick  and 
tile  formed  another  important  item.  There  were 
altogether  4,794  establishments,  employing  28,- 
150  persons,  paying  $9,937,387  in  wages,  and 
having  an  output  of  $45,197,731.  The  internal 
revenue  collections  on  taxable  manufactures  now 
amount  to  about  $300,000  per  annum. 

Commerce  and  Navigation. —  The  immense 
extent  of  its  internal  waterways,  in  which  it 
exceeds  every  other  State,  compensates  Arkan- 


sas for  lack  of  a  seaboard.  The  Mississippi  is 
equal  to  one,  however,  giving  it  deep-water  com- 
munication with  the  ocean  and  with  the  other 
States  of  the  valley.  ["he  Arkansas  is  navigable 
its  entire  course  in  the  State,  some  400  miles ; 
the  White  for  250  miles  or  so  to  Jacksonport; 
the  Ouachita  and  the  Red  rivers  also  afford 
navigation.  The  real  port  of  Arkansas  is  New 
Orleans,  and  its  exports  are  lumber  and  cotton, 

Railroads  and  Street  Railways. —  The  slen- 
der population  of  Arkansas  and  its  concentra- 
tion along  the  rivers  made  railways  long  un- 
necessary and  undesired,  ami  the  first  one  was 
under  construction  when  the  Civil  War  broke 
out,  with  only  38  miles  built ;  in  1870  there  were 
but  256,  in  1880  859.  The  next  decade  was  its 
real  creation  as  a  serious  system,  and  in  1890  it 
had  risen  to  2,203.44;  slackening  for  a  few 
years, —  2,439.20  in  1895, —  it  was  3,082.27  in 
1899,  and  in  the  nexl  two  years  158  more  were 
built,  making  3,240.33  in  1901.  There  are  39 
lines  in  the  State,  or  one  to  every  16  square 
miles  and  310  people.  The  rates  are  controlled 
by  a  State  railroad  commission. 

There  are  five  lines  of  street  railway  oper- 
ating 200  miles  of  track. 

Banks. —  In  1902  there  were  seven  national 
banks  in  Arkansas,  with  $1,070,000  capital,  $336,- 
000  outstanding  circulation,  $3,108,000  deposits; 
$1,003,000  reserve;  39  State  banks  with  $1,243,000 
capital.  $0,004,000  assets,  and  $4,464,000  deposits. 
There  is  one  clearing-house  in  the  State  at  Lit- 
tle Rock;  exchanges  in  1901,  $34,808,284. 

Finances. —  The  assessed  valuation  in  1901 
was  $127,062,903;  in  1897,  $117,873,253.  Annual 
tax  rate.  1.19  mills.  Recognized  public  debt, 
$1,271,000  at  3  per  cent,  of  which  $1,113,000  is 
permanent  school  fund,  not  properly  an  indebt- 
edness as  it  can  never  be  paid  ;  unrecognized,  $8,- 
706,773.  In  1900  a  twenty  years'  dispute  with 
the  United  States  over  its  holding  of  Arkansas 
bonds,  to  which  the  State  claimed  an  offset  of 
damages  by  failure  of  the  United  States  to  patent 
273,000  acres  of  swamp  land  to  it.  was  settled 
by  paying  to  the  United  States  $160,000  and 
guaranteeing  titles  to  settlers. 

Education. —  The  interest  on  the  permanent 
school  fund  (see  preceding  paragraph),  a  2-mill 
State  school  tax,  and  other  revenues,  amounted 
in  1900  to  about  $500,000,  the  district  taxes  to 
$805,000,  and  the  poll  tax  to  $163,000;  total,  to- 
ward $1,500,000,  of  which  only  $1,369,000  was  ex- 
pended. There  are  upwards  of  5,000  schools, 
with  over  7,000  teachers,  three  fifths  males,  the 
largest  percentage  in  the  United  States.  But  the 
support  is  inadequate,  the  terms  average  only 
70  days  yearly. —  among  the  lowest  in  the  coun- 
try.—and  there  is  no  general  school  superin- 
tendence, each  locality  managing  its  own  and 
the  quality  fluctuating,  with  its  wealth  and  pub- 
lic spirit.  The  almost  wholly  rural  character  of 
the  population,  here  as  everywhere,  makes  the 
school  problem  difficult  from  the  dispersion  of 
the  pupils.  From  all  these  causes,  in  1900,  of 
319.742  white  children  from  5  to  17,  only  185,- 
490  attended  school  even  for  the  short  terms ; 
and  of  123.242  colored  children,  only  50,386. 
Yet  Arkansas  has  10  other  States  below  it  in 
illiteracy.  There  are  48  public  high  schools 
and  24  private  secondary  schools,  besides  7  pri- 
vate normal  schools  (there  are  no  State  ones), 
and  9  universities  and  colleges,  some  co-educa- 
tional,  as   follows :     Arkansas  College,   Presby- 


c 


ARKANSAS 


terian  (1872)  ;  Arkansas  Industrial  University, 
n.-s.  (1872;  ;  Philander  Smith  College,  Metho- 
dist (1877)  ;  Hendrix  College,  Southern  Meth- 
odist (1884)  ;  Ouachita  College,  Baptist  (1886)  ; 
Arkadelphia  College,  Methodist  (1890),  Arkan- 
sas Cumberland  College,  Presbyterian  (1891)  ; 
Mountain  Home  College,  Baptist  (1893)  ; 
and  Central  Baptist  College  for  Women,  at 
Conway. 

Churches. —  The  Methodist,  Roman  Catholic, 
Episcopalian,  Presbyterian,  and  Baptist  are  the 
leading  church  bodies  in  Arkansas,  as  in  most 
other  southern  States. 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions. —  The  only 
ones  of  the  first  class  are  a  lunatic  asylum  and  a 
deaf-mute  school ;  of  the  latter,  a  penitentiary  in 
Pulaski  County.  There  is  no  reform  school  for 
juvenile  offenders,  who  are  confined  with  the 
older  criminals. 

Post-offices  and  Periodicals. —  There  were 
1,859  post-offices  of  all  grades  in  1900,  and  259 
periodicals,  21  daily,  212  weekly. 

State  Government. —  The  Constitution  is  of 
1874,  amended  1893.  Suffrage  requires  a  year 
in  the  State  and  payment  of  poll  tax.  Office- 
holding  and  being  witness  in  court  require  belief 
in  God.  The  governor,  State  officers,  and  State 
representatives  hold  for  two  years.  The  gov- 
ernor has  $3,500  salary ;  his  veto  is  overruled 
by  a  majority  in  each  House ;  if  he  dies  within 
a  year  from  election  a  fresh  one  is  held,  if  later 
the  president  of  the  Senate  fills  out  his  term. 
The  legislature  meets  biennially,  session  limited 
to  60  days, —  but  a  two  thirds  vote  of  each  House 
may  extend  it,  and  the  governor  may  call  a  spe- 
cial session ;  the  representatives  must  be  at  least 
one  from  each  county,  and  not  exceed  100;  the 
Senate  has  30  to  35  members  (at  present  32), 
four-year  terms ;  both  receive  $6  a  day  and  mile- 
age. The  Supreme  Court  has  five  members 
elected  for  eight  years ;  there  are  circuit  courts 
with  judges  elected  for  four  years:  and  the  usual 
county  and  probate  courts.  The  legislature  has 
power  to  establish  new  ones  or  extend  the 
jurisdiction  of  old. 

State  Militia. — -There  are  1,900,  1,600  being 
infantry.  No  county  may  have  over  four  com- 
panies. 

Representatives  in  Congress. —  There  are  sev- 
en, under  the  apportionment  of  the  census  of 
1900,  previously  six. 

Politics. —  The  State  is  overwhelmingly  Dem- 
ocratic. 

Population  and  Divisions. —  At  the  first  cen- 
sus, of  1820,  Arkansas  had  14,273  people ;  1830, 
30,388;  1840,  97,574;  1850,  209,897;  i860,  435,- 
450;  1870,  484,471;  1880,  802,525;  1890,  1,128,- 
179;  1900,  1,311,564.  The  colored  population  of 
366,984  has  increased  75  per  cent  since  1880, 
against  about  60  per  cent  for  the  white.  The 
foreign  population  is  inconsiderable.  Only  6.9 
per  cent  of  the  people  live  in  towns  of  4,000  and 
over,  and  only  9  per  cent  in  those  of  2,000  and 
over. 

There  are  75  counties  in  Arkansas,  as  fol- 
lows, with  their  county  seats  : 


Mississippi,   Osceola. 
Monroe,    Clarendon. 
Montgomery,   Mi.    Ida. 
Nevada,    I'rescott. 
Newton,   Jasper. 
Ouachita,    Camden. 
Perry,    Perryville. 
Phillips,    Helena. 
Pike,    Murfreesboro. 
Poinsett,    Ilarrisburg. 
Polk,   Mena. 
Pcpe,    Russellvillc. 
Prairie.    1  U  sarc. 
Pulaski,  Little  Rock. 
Randolph,    Pocahontas. 
St.    Francis,    Forrest   City. 
Saline,    Benton. 
Scott,   VValdron. 
Searcy,  Marshall. 
Sebastian,  Greenwood. 
Sevier,    Locksburg. 
Sharp,  Evening  Shade. 
Stone,     Mountainview. 
Union,    Eldorado 
Van   Buren,  Clinton. 
Washington,    Fayetteville. 
White,    Searcy. 
Woodruff,    Augusta. 
Yell,  Danville. 


Arkansas,    Dewitt. 
Ashley,    Hamburg. 
Baxter,    Mountainhome. 
Benton,    Bentonville. 
Boone,     Harrison. 
Bradley,    Warren. 
Calhoun,     Hampton. 
Carroll,    Berryville. 


Chicot,    Lake   Village. 
Clark,   Arkadelphia. 
Clay,    Corning. 
Clebourne,    Hebcr. 
Cleveland,    Rison. 
Columbia,    Magnolia. 
Conway,    Morrillton. 
Craighead,    Jonesboro. 


Crawford,    Vanburen. 
Crittenden,     Marion. 
Cross,    Yanndale. 
Dallas,    Princeton. 
Desha,    Arkansas   City. 
Drew,    Monticello. 
Faulkner,    Conway. 
Franklin,  Ozark. 
Fulton,   Salem. 
Garland,    Hot   Springs. 
Grant,    Sheridan. 
Greene,    Paragould. 
Hempstead,   Washington. 
Hot    Springs,    Malvern. 
Howard.     Centerpoint. 
Independence,     Batesville. 
Izard,    Melbourne. 
Jackson,    Newport. 
Jefferson,     Pine     Bluff. 
Johnson.  Clarksville. 
Lafayette,   New  Lewisville. 
Lawrence,    Powhatan. 
Lee,   Marianna. 
Lincoln,    Star   City. 
Little    River,   Richmond. 
Logan,    Paris. 
Lonoke,  Lonoke. 
Madison,   Huntsville. 
Marion,    Yellville. 
Miller,   Texarkana. 

Chief  Cities. —  There  are  only  eight  places 
of  4,000  and  over,  the  three  largest  being  on  the 
Arkansas.  The  one  considerable  city  is  the 
capital,  Little  Rock.  38.307 ;  a  manufacturing 
and  railroad  centre,  on  the  first  high  ground 
above  the  Arkansas  bottom  lands.  The  chief  of 
the  remainder  are  Fort  Smith,  11,587,  where  the 
river  emerges  from  Indian  Territory;  Pine 
Bluff,  11,496,  half  way  from  Little  Rock  to  the 
mouth  of  the  river ;  Hot  Springs,  0.973,  a  noted 
sanatorium,  in  the  western  centre  just  north  of 
the  Ouachita;  Helena,  5,556,  on  the  Missis- 
sippi below  Memphis;  and  Texarkana,  4,914,  in 
the  southwest  on  the  border  of  Texas. 

History. —  It  has  almost  none  till  the  19th 
century.  De  Soto's  expedition  furnished  the  first 
white  men  to  set  foot  on  it,  and  De  Soto  himself 
was  not  improbably  buried  in  Arkansas  River. 
The  first  French  explorers  found  here  an  In- 
dian tribe  called  the  Arkansaw,  which  they 
spelled  in  French  fashion.  Arkansas.  In  1685 
Bienville's  Frenchmen  camped  for  a  while  at 
Arkansas  Post,  in  the  Arkansas  River  bottoms 
near  the  White  and  the  Mississippi.  In  1720, 
as  part  of  John  Law's  famous  "Mississippi 
scheme,"  he  was  granted  by  the  Regency  12 
square  miles  on  the  Arkansas  River,  on  condi- 
tion of  settling  1,500  Germans  there  and  pro- 
tecting them  against  the  Indians  ;  but  the  scheme 
ended  with  Law's  failure,  and  the  few  who  did 
come  settled  elsewhere.  The  district  when 
finally  dotted  with  a  few  settlements  was  in 
French  hands  till  the  Louisiana  Purchase  in 
1803,  of  which  it  formed  part;  in  1812  it  was 
made  part  of  Missouri  Territory,  ami  in  i8ig 
organized  as  Arkansas  Territory,  which  includ- 
ed Indian  Territory.  At  this  time  the  entire 
population,  including  Indians,  was  not  al 
10.000;  yet  in  November  1S19  the  Arkansas  Ga- 
zette was  founded  at  Little  Rock ;  and  settlers 
began  at  once  to  flow  in.  On  15  June  1836  it 
was  admitted  to  the  LTnion  as  a  slave  State, 
paired  witli  Michigan  as  a  free  State,  though  the 
biter's  formal  admission  was  a  few  months  later. 
Though  slave  and  of  southern  settlement,  the 
hill-cmuitry  farming  divided  it  in  sentiment  in 
[860,  and  there  was  a  violent  struggle  between 
the  Lmion  and  secession  element;  but  in  Janu- 
ary 1861  the  latter  succeeded  in  calling  a  se- 
cession   convention,    by    27,412    to    15.826.     The 


ARKANSAS   CITY  —  ARKWRIGHT 


State  officers  anticipated  them  by  securing  Fort 
Smith,  and  the  Federal  arsenals  at  Napoleon  and 
Little  Ruck;  but  un  Lincoln's  call  for  troops, 
ihc  convention  met  and  on  6  May  passed  a  se- 
cession  ordinance.  In  iSiij  the  Confedei  ite 
were  defeated  al  Pea  Ridge,  6-7  March, 
and  Prairie  Grove  7  Dec;  Helena  and  Arkansas 
Posl  fell  into  Union  hands,  and  4  Sept.  1863, 
Little  Rock  was  captured  and  the  Stale  reclaimed 
for  the  Union.  The  loyalists  tlicn  held  a  con- 
vention in  January  1S04,  framed  a  constitution, 
adopted  it  by  a  purely  loyalist  vote,  elected  con- 
gressmen and  Slate  officers,  and  organized  a  reg- 
ular gov. 111:11.  nl  ;  but  Congress  refused  to  accept 
it  or  admit  the  State  again.  Under  the  Recon- 
struction Act  of  1867,  a  constitution  was  adopt- 
ed in  .March  1868,  and  the  Slate  readmitted  22 
June.  Several  counties  were  again  put  under 
military  rule  in  1808.  The  anarchy  under  the 
carpet-bag  regime  culminated  in  a  civil  war  in 
April  1874,  in  which  the  United  States  was  in- 
voked. A  new  constitution  was  adopted  in  1874, 
under  which  the  State  now  works. 

U.  M.  Rose, 
Ex-Presideni  American  Bar  Association. 

Arkansas  City,  Kan.,  a  city  of  Cowdey 
County,  near  the  southern  border  of  the  State, 
on  Arkansas  River,  near  the  Walnut  River,  and 
furnished  with  water  power  by  a  canal  uniting 
them.  It  was  settled  1870,  and  incorporated 
1872.  It  manufactures  agricultural  implement?, 
windmills,  wire  mattresses.  Sour  and  lumber; 
and  has  a  large  trade  with  Indian  posts  and 
agencies  in  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory. 
It  contains  a  United  States  Indian  School. 
Pop.   (1900)   6,140. 

Arkansas  Post,  Ark.,  a  village  in  Ar- 
kansas County;  on  the  Arkansas  River;  117 
miles  .southeast  of  Little  Rock.  It  is  on  a  high 
bluff  and  was  the  site  of  the  first  settlement  made 
within  the  present  limits  of  Arkansas  by  French 
missionaries  in  1685.  Its  elevated  location  gave 
it  considerable  military  importance  during  the 
Civil  War.  The  Confederates  established  strong 
works  here,  which  were  reduced  by  a  combined 
assault  of  a  portion  of  the  Federal  army,  un- 
der (ion.  MeClernand,  and  a  naval  command 
under  Admiral  Porter,  on  11  Jan.  1863. 

Ar'kansas  River,  the  largest  affluent  of  the 
Mississippi  save  the  .Missouri;  length,  nearly 
2,000  miles:  area  of  basin,  189,000  square  miles; 
mean  discharge,  63,000  cubic  feet.  It  rises  in  the 
central  Colorado;  flows  east  with  a  rapid  cur- 
rent through  deep,  narrow  canons,  and  over  a 
rocky  bed  till  it  emerges  on  the  naked,  arid  plains 
of  eastern  Colorado  and  western  Kansas;  runs 
east  several  hundred  miles  in  Kansas,  and  turn- 
ing southeast  leaves  it  near  Arkansas  City.  It 
then  cuts  a  cantle  off  Oklahoma  and  Indian  Ter- 
ritory,—  where  it  receives  the  Cimarron  and  the 
broad  shallow  Canadian  from  the  west,  with  the 
Verdigris  and  Neosho  from  the  north, —  and  be- 
comes navigable  650  miles  to  its  mouth  in  Ar- 
kansas  (which  it  bisects). 

Ar'kansas  Stone,  a  name  given  to  the 
oilstones  made  from  two  grades  of  novaculite 
quarried  in  Hot  Springs,  Garland  County,  and 
also  in  adjoining  counties  in  Arkansas.  The 
rocks  cover  a  large  area  and  yield  the  finest 
whetstones.  From  them  the  highest  grades  of 
both  whetstones  and  razor  hones  are  made. 


Ar'kansas,  University  of,  a  State  institu- 
tion organized  in  [872,  with  academic  and  tech 
nical  departments  in  Fayetteville ;  law  and  medi- 
cal departments  in  Little  Rock,  and  a  normal 
ol  for  colored  students  in  Pine  Bluff,  At 
the  close  of  1901  it  had  ^y  prof.-  ors  and  in- 
structors, 1.150  students  and  68]  graduates.  It 
has  a  library  of  10,000  volumes,  and  an  inc., me 
of  $70,000,   while   its  grounds  and   buildings  are 

valued  at  $300,000. 

Ark'low,  Ireland,  a  town  in  the  county 
of  Wicklow,  14  nuKs  south-southwesl  of  the 
town  of  that  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Avoca,  winch  falls  into  the  sea  about  500  yards 

below  the  town,  and  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridgi 

of    to.    arches.    It    is    inhabited    principally    by 

fishermen.  There  are  remains  of  an  old  monas- 
tery, and  of  the  castle  of  the  Ormonds,  the  lat- 
ter destroyed  by  Cromwell  in  1040.  llrrc  in 
1798  the  United  Irishmen  suffered  a  defeat. 
Pop.  (1901)  4,172. 

Arko'na,  the  northeast  promontory  .if  the 
German  island  of  Rugen,  in  the  Baltic.  Its 
chalk  cliffs  rise  to  a  height  of  177  feet,  topped 
with  a  lighthouse,  built  in  1827,  from  which 
the  Danish  island  of  Moen,  33  miles  north- 
west, can  be  seen.  Here  stood  the  famous  for- 
tification (Slavonic,  Urkan)  so  long  impregnable, 
and  the  temple  of  the  Wend  deity  Swantewit, 
the  most  sacred  sanctuary  of  the  Slavs  of  north- 
ern Germany. 

Arkose.     Sec  Sandstone. 

Ark'wright,  Sir  Richard,  a  famous  Eng- 
lish inventor:  b.  in  Preston,  Lancashire,  23  Dec. 
17.?- ;  d.  3  Aug.  1702.  Ik-  was  the  youngest  of 
13  children,  and  was  bred  to  the  trade  of  a  bar- 
ber. His  residence  in  a  cotton-spinning  district 
(Bolton),  drew  his  attention  to  the  operations 
of  that  manufacture;  but  he  was  35  before  he  de- 
voted himself  to  consideration  of  the  subject. 
I  he  spinning-jenny,  invented  in  1707  by  Har- 
greaves,  gave  the  means  of  .spinning  20  or  30 
threads  at  once  with  no  more  labor  than  had 
previously  been  required  to  spin  a  simile  thread  ; 
but  the  thread  spun  by  the  jenny  could  not,  how- 
ever, be  used  as  warp,  being  destitute  of  the  firm- 
ness required.  Arkwright  supplied  this  defi- 
ciency by  the  invention  of  the  spinning-frame, 
which  spins  a  vast  number  of  threads  of  any  de- 
gree  of  fineness  and  hardness,  leaving  the  oper- 
ator merely  to  feed  the  machine  with  cotton, 
and  to  join  the  threads  when  they  happen  to 
break.  His  invention  introduced  the  system  of 
spinning  by  rollers,  the  carding,  or  roving  as  it 
is  technically  termed  (that  is,  the  soft  loose  strip 
of  cotton),  passing  through  one  pair  of  rollers, 
and  being  received  by  a  second  pair,  which  are 
made  to  revolve  with  three,  four  or  five  times 
the  velocity  of  the  first  pair.  By  this  contriv- 
ance the  roving  is  drawn  out  into  a  thread  of  the 
desired  degree  of  tenuity,  a  twist  being  given  to 
it  by  the  adaptation  of  the  spindle  and  fly  of  the 
old  flaxwheel  to  the  machinery.  The  precise- 
date  of  his  invention  is  not  known;  but  it  is 
most  probable  that  the  idea  of  spinning  by  roll- 
ers had  occurred  to  his  mind  as  early  as  the  pe- 
riod when  Hargreaves  was  engaged  in  the  inven- 
tion of  the  jenny.  He  removed  to  Nottingham 
in  1768,  in  order  to  avoid  the  attacks  of  the  law- 
less rabhle  wdio  thought  his  machines  would 
deprive  many  workmen  of  a  livelihood.  Ark- 
wright erected  his  first  mill,  which  was  driven 


SIR    RICHARD   ARKWRIGHT. 

FAMOUS    FOR    INVENTIONS    IN    COTTON    SPINNING. 


ARLBERG  — ARM 


by  horses,  at  Nottingham,  and  took  out  a  pat- 
ent for  spinning  by  rollers,  in  1769.  He  built 
a  second  factory  on  a  much  larger  scale  at 
Cromford,  in  Derbyshire,  in  1771,  the  machin- 
ery being  turned  by  a  waterwheel,  and  having 
made  several  additional  discoveries  and  im- 
provements, took  out  a  fresh  patent  for  the 
whole  in  1775,  thus  completing  a  series  of  in- 
genious and  complicated  machinery.  When  the 
importance  of  his  inventions  became  known  ef- 
forts were  made  to  have  the  patent  set  aside, 
and  in  1781  Arkwright  commenced  actions 
against  a  number  of  persons  for  invading  his 
patent.  Only  one  cause  was  tried,  that  against 
Col.  Mordaunt  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  in 
July  1781  ;  and  in  that  the  verdict  went  against 
Arkwright  on  the  ground  of  defective  specifica- 
tion. In  February  1785,  a  second  action  was 
tried  in  the  court  of  common  pleas,  in  which 
Arkwright  brought  a  number  of  persons  to 
prove  that  they  could  make  machines  from  his 
specifications,  in  consequence  of  which  he  ob- 
tained a  verdict  in  his  favor.  This  producing 
great  alarm  among  many  who  had  erected  ma- 
chines for  cotton  spinning,  and  from  whom  a 
royalty  was  demanded,  in  order  to  settle  the  dis- 
pute a  suit  was  brought  against  Arkwright  in 
the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  in  which  the  whole 
question  was  argued,  not  only  as  to  the  intelligi- 
bility of  his  specification,  but  on  the  less  techni- 
cal and  more  important  ground  of  his  not  being 
himself  the  inventor  of  the  machines  for  which 
he  had  obtained  a  patent.  After  a  long  and 
ably-conducted  trial  a  verdict  was  given  against 
Arkwright,  and  in  November  1785  the  patent 
was  cancelled.  None  of  Arkwright's  most  in- 
timate friends,  or  those  best  acquainted  with  his 
character,  ever  had  the  slightest  doubt  with  re- 
spect to  the  originality  of  his  invention.  In 
1786  Arkwright  received  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood from  George  III.,  and  unlike  many  invent- 
ors, he  amassed  a  large  fortune  by  his  inven- 
tions. 

Arlberg,  a  mountain  pass  between  the 
Rhaetian  and  the  Lech  Alps,  in  the  west  of  Ty- 
rol ;  between  it  and  Vorarlberg,  pierced  by  the 
third  longest  railway  tunnel  in  the  world.  It  is 
six  and  one  half  miles  long,  was  finished  in  No- 
vember 1883,  and  connects  the  valley  of  the  Inn 
with  that  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  Austrian  Railway 
system  with  the  Swiss  railways. 

Aries  (ancient,  Arclatc),  a  town  in  France 
on  the  Rhone,  about  25  miles  from  its  mouth. 
It  stands  on  a  rocky  limestone  eminence,  slop- 
ing to  the  river,  and  has  irregular  streets, 
presenting  many  interesting  features.  In  a 
large  square  is  an  ancient  granite  monolith,  and 
among  other  remarkable  objects  are  the  Ro- 
manesque Cathedral  of  Saint  Trophimus,  with 
a  fine  portal  and  some  good  paintings  and 
sculptures ;  and  especially  numerous  ancient  re- 
mains, of  which  the  most  conspicuous  arc  those 
of  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  which  accommodated 
24,000  spectators,  and  those  of  a  Roman  the- 
atre. It  has  railway  workshops,  but  its  manu- 
factures are  unimportant,  though  its  trade  is 
important.  Aries  was  founded  several  centuries 
before  the  Christian  era  and  was  the  chief  col- 
ony of  Massilia  (Marseilles).  In  the  41I1 
and  5th  centuries  several  church  councils  met 
here.  From  807  to  1150  it  was  the  capital  of  a 
kingdom  bearing  its  name.     Pop.   (1901)   15,506. 


Arlincourt,  ar'lah-koor',  Charles  Victor 
Prevot,  Vicomte  d\  a  French  poet  and  novel- 
ist: b.  in  1789;  d.  in  1856.  His  chief  poetical 
work  is  'Charlemange,  or  the  Carolcid'  (1S18), 
an  epic;  and  of  his  novels  the  most  successful 
was  (Le  Solitaire'  (1821),  which  was  trans- 
late! into  all  European  languages.  Among  sev- 
eral pamphlets,  written  in  support  of  the  Legi- 
timist cause  in  1848,  one  entitled  'God  Wills 
It'    went   through  64  editions. 

Arlington,  Henry  Bennet,  Earl  of,  an 
English  politician:  b.  in  1618;  d.  in  1685.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  "Cabal"  ministry  and  as 
Secretary  of  State  was  of  much  influence  in 
public  affairs. 

Arlington,  Mass.,  a  town  in  Middlesex 
County,  about  seven  miles  northwest  of  Boston. 
It  contains  several  fine  buildings,  among  which 
is  a  library  given  to  the  town  by  Mrs.  Eli  Rob- 
bins  at  a  cost  of  $200,000.  The  town  has  elec- 
tric lights  and  car  service  to  Boston.  It  was 
settled  about  1650  and  received  its  present  name 
in  1867.     Pop.  (1900)  8,603. 

Arlington  Heights,  a  range  of  hills  in 
Fairfax  County,  Va.,  on  the  Potomac,  opposite 
Washington.  They  were  strongly  fortified  dur- 
ing the  Civil  War.  Gen.  Robert  E.  Lee's  es- 
tate here  is  now  the  site  of  a  national  soldiers' 
cemetery. 

Arlon,  ar'lori,  a  town  in  Belgium,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Luxembourg,  in  the 
midst  of  the  woods  and  mountain  ridges  of  the 
Ardennes.  It  is  a  thriving  place,  with  manu- 
factures of  ironware,  leather,  tobacco,  earthen- 
ware, and  clay  pipes.  It  appears  in  the  Antonine 
Itinerary,  and  from  the  coins,  inscriptions,  and 
other  antiquities  found,  must  have  possessed 
some  importance  even  in  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans. It  is  mentioned  under  its  present  name 
in  870,  in  connection  with  the  partition  of  Lor- 
raine.    Pop.   (1899)  7,997. 

Arm,  a  term  technically  applied  to  that 
portion  of  the  upper  extremity  of  the  body  ex- 
tending from  the  shoulder  joint  to  the  elbow, 
but  popularly  used  to  denote  both  arm  and  fore- 
arm. The  arm  proper  has  one  large  and  strong 
bone,  the  humerus,  covered  by  strong  muscles, 
which  protect  the  blood  vessels  and  nerves.  The 
upper  end  of  the  humerus  fits  into  the  head  of 
the  scapula  and  with  the  clavicle  forms  the 
shoulder  joint.  The  head  of  the  humerus  is  held 
in  the  joint  partly  by  ligaments,  but  mainly  by 
the  muscles  attached  to  it.  The  motions  of 
the  arm  are  many.  Those  muscles  that  move  the 
aim  inward  toward  the  chest  are  known  as  the 
adductors.  These  are  the  pectoralis  major,  cora- 
co  brachialis,  which  also  flex  the  arm.  and  the 
latissimus  dorsi  and  teres  major,  which  also  ex- 
tend the  arm.  The  arm  is  moved  away  from 
the  body  by  the  deltoid,  a  large  muscle  on  the 
outer  side,  and  the  supraspinatus,  a  smaller  mus- 
cle going  from  the  scapula.  The  arm  is  ro- 
tated outward  by  the  infraspinatus  and  the  teres 
minor,  and  rotated  inward  by  the  subscapularis. 
All  of  these  muscles  are  fastened  about  the 
upper  part  of  tlie  humerus.  The  greater  mass 
of  the  muscles  of  the  arm  are  those  that  go 
to  the  forearm  and  that  move  that  member. 
Those  that  flex  the  forearm,  or  bend  the  el- 
bow, are  the  biceps,  the  brachiates  and  the 
brachio-radialis.  the  former  being  the  most  im- 
portant.    It   also   aids    in    turning   the    forearm, 


ARMADA  — ARMADILLO 


palm  downward.     The  muscles   that   extend  or 

tch  the  forearm  are  the  triceps  and  the  an- 
us. There  are  other  movements  of  the  fore- 
arm. The  arm  having  two  bones,  the  radius 
and  ulna,  one  turns  on  the  other  and  the  move- 
ments of  pronation  and  supination  are  produced. 
Pronation  is  accomplished  by  two  muscles,  the 
pronator  teres  and  the  pronator  quadratus; 
the  supinator  makes  the  movement  outward. 
The  movements  of  flexion  and  extension  take 
place  in  the  elbow  joint,  which  is  hinged  like 
those  of  pronation  and  supination,  just  below 
the  elbow  joint,  the  radius  moving  on  the  ulna. 
[he  union  of  the  radius  and  ulna  with  the  bones, 
of  the  wrist  make  a  hinge-like  joint,  the  wrist 
joint  Movements  at  the  wrist  are  in  four  direc- 
tions, flexion  and  extension,  abduction  and  ad- 
ducti"!).  These  movements,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  fingers,  are  made  by  a  large  group_  of  mus- 
cles some  20  in  number.  There  are  in  all  48 
muscles  concerned  in  the  movements  of  the 
arm,  forearm,  and  hand.  The  blood  supply  of 
the  arm  is  derived  from  the  brachiocephalic  of 
the  right  side  and  from  the  arch  of  the  aorta  on 
the  left  (see  Aorta)  in  a  single  main  trunk  that 
divides  at  the  bend  of  the  elbow.     The  first  por- 

1  is  called  the  subclavian  and  is  not  in  the 
arm  proper,  the  axillary,  or  second  portion,  be- 
gins at  the  outer  border  of  the  first  rib  and  be- 
comes  the  brachial  just  about  the  armpit,  where 
it  may  be  felt  and  compressed.  The  brachial 
artery  is  the  great  trunk  of  the  arm.  It  may  be 
felt  just  inside  of  the  inner  edge  of  the  biceps 
muscle  about  the  middle  and  there  may  be  read- 
ily compressed  in  case  of  hemorrhage.  At  the 
bend  of  the  elbow  the  brachial  artery  divides 
into  the  radial  and  ulnar,  which  supply  the  outer 
and  inner  sides  of  the  forearm  respectively. 
The  radial  artery  is  the  one  most  frequently 
felt  in  determining  the  pulse;  the  ulnar  may  be 
used  but  as  it  lies  deeper  it  is  felt  less  easily. 
In  the  hand  these  arterial  branches  anastomose 
to  form  a  superficial  and  a  deep  palmar  arch 
from  which  branches  go  to  supply  the  fingers. 
Hemorrhages  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  can  be 
controlled  therefore  only  by  controlling  both 
radial  and  ulnar  arteries,  or  better,  by  con- 
trolling the  brachial  just  above  the  bifurcation  in 
the  elbow.  This  may  be  done  by  strongly  flex- 
ing the  forearm  or  something  held  against  the 
artery.  The  principal  veins  of  the  forearm  are 
the  ulnar,  the  median,  and  the  radial ;  of  the 
arm  the  cephalic  and  the  basilic.  These  empty 
into  the  axillary  vein,  and  this  into  the  sub- 
clavian. The  nerve  supply  of  the  arm  is  de- 
rived from  the  spinal  cord  from  the  fifth,  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  cervical,  and  the  first,  second, 
and  third  thoracic  nerves.  These  form  a  com- 
plex plexus,  the  brachial  plexus.  The  main 
branches  going  to  the  different  muscles  and 
supplying  the  skin  areas  are  the  median,  ulnar, 
musculo  spiral,  musculo  cutaneous,  and  circum- 
flex.   Their  distribution   is  extremely   complex. 

Armada,  ar-ma'da  or  ar-ma'da,  the  Span- 
ish name  for  any  armed  force,  especially  a  naval 
force.  The  term  Spanish  Armada  is  applied  to 
that  great  naval  armament  which  Philip  II..  in 
1588,  fitted  out  under  the  command  of  the  Duke 
of  Medina-Sidonia  and  Martinez  de  Recaldo, 
against  Queen  Elizabeth,  with  the  view  of  con- 
quering England,  which  Pope  Sixtus  V.  had 
bestowed  upon  Spain.  The  fleet  consisted  of  131 
great  and  many  smaller  ships  of  war,  and  car- 


ried 19,000  marines  and  8,000  sailors.  The 
ships  had  scarcely  quitted  Lisbon  on  29  May 
1588  when  they  were  scattered  by  a  storm  and 
had  to  be  refitted  in  Corunna.  Advancing  in  the 
form  of  a  half-moon  of  seven  miles  in  extent, 
it  came  in  sight,  off  Plymouth,  of  the  English 
fleet,  scarcely  numbering  80  sail,  and  com- 
manded by  Lord  Howard,  who,  endeavored  by 
dexterous  seamanship,  and  the  discharge  of  well- 
directed  volleys  of  shot  at  alternately  long  and 
short  distances,  to  damage  the  vessels  of  the 
en.  my.  Some  of  these,  including  the  galleon 
laden  with  treasure,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English  or  were  destroyed.  Arrived  at  length 
off  Dunkirk,  on  the  7  August  the  armada 
was  becalmed  and  thrown  into  such  confusion 
by  the  arrival  in  the  fleet  of  eight  fire-ships  sent 
by  the  English  admiral,  that  on  the  morning 
of  the  8th  Lord  Howard  was  enabled  to  at- 
tack it  on  several  sides.  Notwithstanding  a 
brave  resistance,  many  of  the  Spanish  vessels 
were  destroyed  or  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
English  and  Dutch,  and  in  consequence  the 
Duke  of  Medina-Sidonia  resolved  to  abandon 
the  enterprise,  conceiving  the  idea  of  conveying 
his  fleet  to  Spain  by  a  voyage  round  the  north 
of  Great  Britain.  A  hurricane  which  now  broke 
forth  with  tremendous  violence  on  the  already 
dispirited  Spaniards,  scattered  their  ships  in  all 
directions.  Some  went  down  on  the  cliffs  of 
Norway,  others  in  the  open  sea,  and  still  others 
on  the  Scottish  coast.  About  30  vessels  reached 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  of  these  several  were 
driven  by  a  west  wind  on  the  coast  of  Ireland 
and  wrecked.  In  all,  the  armada  is  said  to 
have  lost  in  the  open  sea  72  large  vessels,  ex- 
clusive of  smaller  craft,  and  10,185  men,  while 
every  family  of  distinction  in  Spain  had  to  mourn 
the  loss  of  one  or  more  of  its  members.  Only 
about  50  vessels  reached  Spain  on  the  return 
voyage. 

Bibliography. —  Corbett,  'Drake  and  the  Tu- 
dor Navy';  Creasy,  'Fifteen  Decisive  Battles'; 
Fronde,  'The  Spanish  Story  of  the  Armada'  ; 
Gardiner,  'Historical  Biographies:  Drake'; 
Green,  'History  of  the  English  People'  ;  Mot- 
ley,   'History   of   the   United    Netherlands.' 

Ar'madale,  the  title  of  a  novel  by  Wilkie 
Collins  (1866).  The  plot  of  this,  like  that  of 
'The  New  Magdalen,'  and  other  of  its  au- 
thor's later  novels,  is  a  gauntlet  of  defiance  to 
the  critics  who  had  asserted  that  all  the  interest 
of  his  stories  lay  in  the  suspension  of  know- 
ledge as  to  the  denouement.  The  machinery  is 
in  full  view,  yet  in  spite  of  this  disclosure,  the 
reader's  attention  is  held  until  he  knows  whether 
the  villain  or  her  victims  will  come  out  victori- 
ous. 

Armadillo  (Sp.  dim.  of  armada,  armed, 
referring  to  its  bony  shell).  I.  A.  edentate 
mammal  of  the  family  Dasypodida,  found  in 
South  and  Central  America  and  notable  for  its 
defensive  armor.  This  armor  consists  of  small 
roundish  bony  plates,  ossified  within  the  skin, 
and  united  to  form  solid  shields,  one  over  the 
shoulders,  one  over  the  haunches,  and,  between 
these  two,  transverse  bands  of  movable  plates, 
which  protect,  but  leave  freedom  of  motion,  to 
the  trunk  of  the  body.  These  plates  are  over- 
laid by  a  thin,  horny  pellicle,  and  between  them 
grow  hairs  varying  in  length  and  amount  with 
the  species,  from  almost  none  in  some  to  a  coat 
in  others,  hiding  the  shell;  and  the  unarmored 


ARMADILLOS  AND  ANT-EATERS. 


i.  Pangolin  (Mams  pentadactyla). 

2.  Three-handed  Armadillo  (Tolypeut 

3.  Aard-Vark  ((  trycteropu 


I     lamydophorus   truncatus), 
1  1    Lin  and  u  a  tetradactyla). 

it  Ant-Eater  1  M\  rme<    phaga  jubata). 


ARMADILLO  —  ARMATOLES 


ventral  surface  is  also  hairy.  The  head  is  pro- 
vided with  a  shield  entirely  separate  from  that 
of  the  shoulders,  and  in  some  species  even  the 
tail  is  protected  by  bands  of  plates.  The  various 
forms  of  armadillos  are  distinguished  largely 
by  the  number  of  movable  thin  bands  of  plates 
lying  between  the  large  fixed  anterior  and  pos- 
terior shields,  up  to  as  many  as  a  dozen  in  the 
cabassous  (Xcnurus).  This  armor  serves  the 
purpose  of  defense,  and  some  of  the  tribe  (only 
those  of  the  genus  Tolypcutes,  however),  in- 
crease its  value  by  exercising  the  power  of  roll- 
ing themselves  up  into  a  ball  so  that  the  tender 
under  parts  of  the  body  may  be  completely  pro- 
tected. This  ability  depends  upon  the  number  of 
bands  in  the  central  portion  of  the  armor-case. 
Although  true  Edentates,  these  animals  have  a 
few  small,  useless  teeth,  without  true  roots ;  the 
tongue  is  covered  with  a  sticky  fluid  like  that 
secreted  by  the  tongue  of  an  ant-eater,  but  it  is 
not  protrusile. 

The  armadillos  are  timid,  nocturnal  animals, 
living  on  insects,  carrion,  and  vegetable  matter ; 
their  legs  and  claws  are  adapted  to  burrowing, 
and,  when  pursued,  they  usually  bury  them- 
selves more  quickly  than  the  pursuer  can  follow 
them.  Only  one  species  (Dasypus  villosus)  is 
sufficiently  adaptable  to  hold  its  own  when  a 
wild  region  is  settled ;  the  others  soon  disappear. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  of  them  all  is  the 
pichichago  (Chlamydophorus  truncatus),  found 
in  Argentina,  which  lives  entirely  under- 
ground like  a  mole,  and  exhibits  a  peculiar 
structure  in  many  ways,  the  body  having  an 
appearance  of  truncation,  as  if  the  hinder  part 
had  been  cut  squarely  off,  instead  of  ending  in 
curved  lines.  It  is  very  small,  only  five  to  six 
inches  long,  while  the  giant  armadillo  (Priodon 
gigas)  measures  three  feet,  exclusive  of  the  tail. 
Some  of  the  armadillos  range  north  and  south 
as  far  as  Texas  and  Argentina ;  among  these  is 
the  peba,  or  nine-banded  armadillo  ( Tatusia 
novemcincta) .  The  family  is  divided  into  sev- 
eral genera  and  the  species  are  numerous  and 
are  known  as  peludos,  cabassous,  apars,  etc., 
elsewhere  described.  They  are  eaten  by  the 
South  Americans  and  even  esteemed  delicate,  but 
their  flesh  is  usually  so  flavored  by  the  insects 
and  decayed  matter  which  they  eat  that  only  a 
few  vegetable-eating  species  are  inoffensive  to 
an  unaccustomed  palate. 

Many  forms  of  fossil  armadillos  are  known 
from  both  North  and  South  America,  a  fossil 
species  of  Dasypus  having  been  six  feet  long. 
Another  genus  was  Eutatus,  which  had  a 
shield  formed  of  36  distinct  bands,  of  which  the 
last  12  were  soldered  together.  These  lead  back 
to  the  large  group  Gravigrada.  (See  also 
Glyptodon  ;  Mylodon.)  Good  accounts  of  the 
armadillos  are  given  in  both  the  'Standard'  and 
the  "New  (Royal)'  Natural  Histories.  Consult 
also  Hudson's  'Naturalist  on  the  La  Plata* 
(1892)  ;  Alston's  'Biologia  Americana  Centrali'  ; 
'Mammals',  (1879-82),  with  colored  plates; 
Azara's  'Historia  Natural  de  los  Paxaros  del 
Paraguay'  (Madrid,  1805)  ;  'Mammals  of  Uru- 
guay' in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  So- 
ciety of  London  for  1894. 

Ar'madil'lo,  in  entomology.    See  Wood-lice. 

Armageddon,  ar'ma-ged'don.  the  great 
battlefield  where  occurred  the  chief  conflicts  be- 
tween   the   Israelites   and    their   enemies.     The 


name  was  applied  to  the  tableland  of  Esdraelon 
in  Galilee  and  Samaria,  in  the  centre  of  which 
stood  the  town  Megiddo,  on  the  site  of  the 
modern  Lejjun;  used  figuratively  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse to  signify  the  place  of  "the  battle  of  the 
great  day  of  God." 

Armagh,  ar-ma',  a  county  of  Ireland,  in 
the-  province  of  Ulster.  The  northern  part  of 
the  county,  bordering  on  Lough  Neagh,  con- 
sists principally  of  extensive  bogs  of  great  depth, 
with  a  remarkably  black  soil.  The  manufacture 
of  linen  is  carried  on  very  extensively.  The 
chief  towns  are  Armagh,  T.urgan,  Portadown, 
and  Newry.  Armagh  is  the  county  town.  Pop. 
(1901)  125,238. 

Armagh,  a  city  of  Ireland,  capital  of  the 
county  of  Armagh.  It  contains  two  cathedrals, 
a  Protestant  and  a  Roman  Catholic;  county 
court-house,  prison,  infirmary,  lunatic  asylum, 
linen  hall,  music  hall,  a  public  library  and  an 
observatory.  In  the  Middle  Ages  Armagh  was  an 
extensive  and  populous  city,  and  celebrated  for 
its  learning,  having  at  one  period,  according  to 
Irish  historians,  7,000  students  at  its  college.  It 
is  the  see  of  an  archbishop  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  who  is  primate  of  all  Ireland.  Pop. 
(1901)   7,438. 

Armagnac,  ar'ma-nyak',  Counts  of,  an  an- 
cient French  family,  said  to  have  sprung  from 
a  branch  of  the  Merovingians.  Many  of  its 
members  hold  a  prominent  place  in  the  history 
of  France.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  was 
Bernard  VII.,  son  of  John  II.,  surnamed  the 
Hunchback.  He  succeeded  his  brother,  John 
III.,  in  1391,  and  greatly  extended  his  terri- 
tories by  the  most  unscrupulous  means,  putting 
several  of  his  relations  to  death  because  they 
stood  in  the  way  of  his  ambitious  schemes.  An- 
other of  the  family,  John  V.,  grandson  of  the 
above,  who  succeeded  his  father,  John  IV.,  in 
1450,  made  himself  notorious  for  his  crimes. 
On  a  pretended  dispensation  from  the  Pope  he 
married  his  own  sister,  by  whom  he  had  three 
children. 

Ar'magnac',  the  title  of  a  former  district 
of  France  now  included  in  the  department  of 
Gers.  Its  inhabitants  figured  largely  in  the  wars 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  one  of  their  contests  being 
known  as  the  "Armagnac  War."  in  which  the 
Armagnac  mercenaries  of  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick III.  were  defeated  by  the  Swiss,  26  Aug. 
1444.     See  Berthault's  'L'Armagnac'    (1S99). 

Armagnac  War,  The  (Bellum  Armenia- 
cum;  in  German  called  frequently  Armegeckeu- 
krieg),  the  struggle  between  the  Swiss  and  the 
Armagnac  mercenaries  of  Frederick  III.  in  1444. 
The  war  was  concluded  by  the  defeat  of  the 
Armaguacs  at  Saint  Jacob  on  the  Birs  26  Aug. 
1444.    See  Asmagnacs,  The. 

Armagnacs,  The,  mercenary  bands,  de- 
rived chiefly  from  the  district  of  Armagnac  in 
southern  France,  and  largely  trained  in  the 
army  recruited  in  1410  by  Count  Bernard  of 
Armagnac  for  his  contest  with  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy. They  made  themselves  extremely  op- 
pressive in  France  through  their  plundering; 
and  when  the  Emperor  Frederick  III.  requested 
auxiliary  troops  from  Charles  VII.,  to  assist  in 
the  conquest  of  the  Swiss,  the  latter  gladly  de- 
spatched the  Armagnacs.  Doubtless  the  king 
believed  he  might  at  the  same  time  be  able  to 


ARMANCON  — ARMAMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 


gain  control  of  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Upper  Rhine.  What  is  known  as  the  Armagnac 
war  ensued.  In  Germany  the  word  Armagnac 
was  converted  into  armer  Gcck  ("poor  fool"), 
and  the  war  frequently  styled  Armegeckenkrieg. 
One  band  of  20,000  Armagnacs  proceeded  by 
way  of  Lorraine,  another  of  30,000  to  southern 
Alsace,  whence  it  marched  against  the  Swiss. 
At  Saint  Jacob  011  the  Birs,  26  Aug.  1444,  it  was 
badly  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  6,000,  by  2,000 
Swiss.  It  then  retired  to  Alsace,  and  on  28  Oc- 
tober a  treaty  (that  of  Ensishcim)  was  con- 
cluded between  France  and  the  Swiss  Confed- 
eration. The  Armagnacs  continued  for  a  time 
to  work  havoc  in  Alsace  and  Swabia,  where  the 
peasantry  retaliated  by  condemning  to  death  an 
Armagnac  whenever  they  caught  one.  In  1445 
the  remnant  was  in  part  dismissed  by  Charles 
VII.,  in  part  incorporated  with  other  companies 
of  soldiery.  Consult  the  article  by  Barthold  in 
Raumer's  '  llistorisches  Tascberbuch,'  2d  series, 
Vol.  III.  (1842);  Wiilcker.  'Urkunden  und 
Schreiber,  Betreffend  den  Zug  der  Armagna- 
ken>   (1873). 

Armangon,  a  river  of  France,  in  the  Seine 
basin.  It  rises  about  3  miles  south  of  Pouilly- 
en-Auxois  (Cote-d'Or),  flows  about  170  miles 
in  a  general  northwesterly  direction,  and  empties 
into  tin-  Yonne  at  La  Roche.  From  Buffon  it 
is  followed  by  the  Burgundian  Canal.  Its  trib- 
utaries are  the  Brenne  and  the  Armance. 

Armament  of  the  World.  Arrange- 
ments made  for  defense  with  small  arms  and 
artillery  belong  to  what  is  termed  the  armament. 
With  small  arms  it  is  complete  when  the  ban- 
quette and  the  interior  and  superior  slopes  are 
properly  arranged  to  enable  the  soldier  to  de- 
liver his  fire  with  effect,  and  to  mount  on  the 
parapet  to  meet  the  enemy  with  the  bayonet. 
The  armament  with  artillery  is,  in  like  manner, 
complete  when  suitable  means  are  taken  to  allow 
the  guns  to  fire  over  the  parapet  or  through 
openings  made  in  it,  and  when  all  the  required 
accessories  are  provided  for  the  service  of  the 
guns.  The  manner  of  placing  artillery  and  its 
employment  must  be  regulated  by  its  relative 
importance,  under  given  circumstances,  with  re- 
spect to  the  action  of  other  arms.  In  the  de- 
fensive, the  principal  part  is  usually  assigned  to 
the  artillery,  and  the  positions  taken  up  by  the 
other  arms  will,  therefore,  be  subordinate  to 
those  "f  this  arm.  In  offensive  movements,  the 
reverse  generally  obtains.  Unless  the  batteries 
are  on  points  which  are  inaccessible  to  the  en- 
emy's cavalry  and  infantry,  they  must  be  placed 
under  the  protection  of  the  other  troops,  and  be 
outflanked  by  them.  Preparations  should  be 
made  to  receive  the  enemy  on  every  point ;  the 
kilteries  must  be  distributed  along  the  entire 
front  of  the  position  occupied,  and  on  those 
points  from  which  they  can  obtain  a  good  sweep 
over  the  avenues  of  approach  to  it ;  the  guns 
being  masked,  when  the  ground  favors,  from 
the  enemy's  view,  until  the  proper  moment  ar- 
rives for  opening  their  fire.  Field  artillery,  used 
in  the  operations  of  an  army  in  the  field,  must 
have  the  essential  quality  of  mobility.  The  light 
pieces  are  constructed  to  follow  the  rapid  move- 
ments of  light  troops  and  cavalry.  The  heavy 
pieces  are  employed  to  follow  the  movements  of 
heavy  troops,  to  commence  an  action  at  long 
distance,  to  defend  field-works  and  important 
positions  on  the  field  of  battle,  etc.     Field  artil- 


lery is  used  in  combination  with  infantry  and 
cavalry,  or  with  both  to  augment  their  tire  and 
to  weaken  that  of  the  enemy.  It  prepares  the 
way  for  subsequent  operations  by  it >  tire  upon 
the  enemy  before  be  comes  within  reach  of  other 
weapons;  it  supports  the  movements  of  the 
various  arms,  and  forms  points  of  support  and 
assembly  for  troops  when  driven  back.  The 
armament,  small  arms  and  field  artillery,  in  the 
various  countries,  now  used  or,  at  this  time, 
commended  and  undergoing  experiment  with  a 
view  to  adoption,  is  set  out  in  detail  in  this 
article. 

Austria-Hungary. — The  infantry  is  armed 
with  the  model  1895  repeating  rifle.  The  tech- 
nical troops,  the  field  ami  foot  artillery,  and  the 
enlisted  personnel  of  the  subsistence  branches, 

carry  the  model  repeating  carbine  (  Repetier- 
StUtzen).  The  cavalry  has  the  model  1895  re- 
pealing carbine  (Repetier-Karabiner).    All  these 

arms  are  of  the  Mannlichcr  system  and  have  a 
caliber  of  8  millimeters.  The  Hungarian  Hou  e 
of  Representathcs  recently  passed  a  law  to  aim 
the  landsturm  with  8  millimeter  repeating  rilles. 
The  officers,  cadets,  and  sergeants  of  the  pio- 
neers are  armed  with  revolvers  and  are  inde- 
pendent and  capable  of  defending  themselves. 
Experiments  are  now  being  made  with  the  Roth 
automatic  pistol  with  a  view  to  its  replacing  the 
repeating  revolver,  model  [898,  at  present  in  use 
in  the  infantry.  This  pistol  is  provided  with  a 
hammerless  firing  mechanism  and  a  breech  clos- 
ure composed  of  two  rigid  and  symmetrical 
locking  lugs  and  can  receive  10  cartridges.  The 
cavalry  is  partly  armed  with  the  model  1S70-74 
revolver,  of  the  Gasser  system,  and  partly  with 
the  model  1898  revolver  transformed,  this  latter 
being  adopted  experimentally.  Trials  have  taken 
place  in  Austria  of  machine  guns  for  use  with 
cavalry  and  for  mountain  warfare.  The  gun  for 
the  cavalry  has  a  wheel  mounting,  drawn  by  a 
horse.  In  the  mountain  section  the  gun  is  car- 
ried by  mules,  one  animal  for  the  gun  itself  and 
two  for  the  ammunition  and  mounting,  and  111 
action  is  used  upon  a  tripod,  variable  in  height 
and  having  a  seat  for  the  gunner  upon  the  leg 
behind  the  breech.  The  mountain  guns  are 
upon  the  Maxim-Nordenfelt  system,  and  fire  the 
ordinary  infantry  cartridge  with  a  rapidity  of 
500  rounds  per  minute,  and  sights  graduated 
from  200  to  2,000  metres.  The  supply  of  ammu- 
nition carried  with  the  two  guns  upon  the  mules 
provides  for  11,000  rounds.  Austria-Hungary  is 
experimenting  with  new  artillery  material.  The 
long  recoil  system  has  been  adopted  on  principle, 
but  the  special  model  has  not  yet  been  decided 
upon.  Some  batteries  of  guns  submitted  by 
Ehrhardt  and  Skoda  are  at  present  in  the  hands 
of  the  troops.  The  type  of  the  carriage  and 
whether  the  caisson  should  be  armored,  are  two 
questions  now  being  carefully  considered.  The 
gun  has  been  determined  to  be  of  75  mm.  cali- 
ber, with  long  recoil  on  the  carriage,  and  is 
provided  with  shields  and  hinged  portions  and 
the  interrupted-screw  fermeture.  With  regard 
to  the  carriage,  very  complete  and  satisfactory 
tests  have  held  with  telescope-trail  carriages  of 
the  Ehrhardt-Mannesmann  system,  and  with 
carriages  of  the  Skoda  system.  Both  of  the 
models  have  been  modified  and  highly  improved 
in  the  course  of  the  experiments.  It  is  believed 
that  the  Austrian  War  Department,  adopting  the 
idea  that  in  battle  the  caissons  will  be  under 
cover  in  rear  of  the  line  of  pieces  in  battery,  will 


ARMAMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 


give  up  the  idea  of  introducing  armored  cais- 
sons. 

Belgium. — The  infantry,  technical  troops,  cav- 
alry, and  civil  grades  are  armed  with  the  7.6- 
millimeter,  model  1S89,  Mauser  rifle.  The  non- 
commissioned officers  and  trumpeters  of  the 
mounted  arms  and  the  drivers  of  the  field  artil- 
lery have  the  Nagant  revolver.  The  officers  of 
the  entire  army  and  the  noncommissioned 
officers,  "brigadiers,"  and  enlisted  men  of  the 
gendarmerie  carry  the  Browning  automatic  pis- 
tol. The  field  artillery  consists  of  34  regular 
and  6  reserve  batteries,  all  with  6  guns.  They 
are  divided  into  field  and  horse  artillery  bat- 
teries. The  field  batteries,  armed  with  8.7-cm. 
guns,  are  attached  to  the  army  divisions ;  the 
gorse  artillery  batteries  accompany  the  cavalry 
divisions  and  are  armed  with  7.5-cm.  guns.  The 
first  and  third  field  artillery  regiments  each 
consist  of  a  staff  of  8  regular  and  1  reserve  bat- 
tery, plus  another  reserve  battery  for  furnish- 
ing 3  ammunition  columns  and  a  depot.  The 
second  and  fourth  regiments  each  consist  of  a 
staff,  7  regular  field  and  2  regular  horse  artillery 
batteries ;  of  2  reserve  field  batteries,  plus  I  re- 
serve battery,  for  providing  3  artillery  ammuni- 
tion columns  and  a  depot.  Up  to  the  present 
the  Belgian  field  artillery  has  consisted  of  guns 
of  the  1878  Krupp  model  of  2  calibers  —  one  of 
2.95-inch  for  the  horse  artillery,  and  one  of  3.42 
for  the  foot  artillery.  At  the  beginning  of  1900 
a  committee  was  formed  to  decide  on  the  best 
type  for  new  guns,  and  as  a  result  of  the  com- 
mittee's deliberations  a  battery  of  guns  of  a 
new  type  was  ordered  from  the  John  Cockerill 
Nordenfeldt  Company,  at  Seraing,  in  order  that 
the  guns  might  be  put  to  the  test  of  actual  use 
in  the  army.  In  these  guns  the  barrel  and  car- 
riage form,  for  the  purpose  of  firing,  one  rigid 
piece;  and  this  type  of  gun  would  probably  have 
been  selected  for  the  Belgian  artillery  had  not 
the  new  French  gun  prevented  the  committee 
from  coming  to  a  final  decision.  The  principle 
of  the  French  gun  is  the  very  opposite  to  the 
Cockerill  gun,  as  in  its  case  the  barrel  slides 
backward  and  forward  on  the  carriage. 

Brazil. — At  the  present  time  the  troops  carry 
the  7  millimeter,  model  1893,  Mauser  rifle.  Ex- 
periments are  going  forward  with  a  view  to  par- 
tial rearmament,  particularly  with  a  view  to  the 
adoption  of  an  automatic  pistol.  Competitive 
trials  were  held  in  1902  between  the  Krupp  and 
Creusot  types,  and  according  to  Brazilian  reports 
these  tests  have  demonstrated  the  superiority  of 
the  German  model.  Further  trials,  however,  of 
other  types  are  in  progress.  Creusot,  Krupp, 
Vickers,  and  Ehrhardt  being  in  competition. 

Bulgaria. — The  infantry  is  armed  with  the 
8-mm.  Mannlicher  rifle  of  the  1888  patterns. 
Each  rifle  is  supplied  with  200  cartridges,  100 
being  carried  by  the  soldier,  50  in  the  regimental, 
and  50  in  the  artillery  park  transport.  Officers 
and  sergeant-majors  are  all  armed  with  the 
Smith  &  Wesson  revolver  and  a  Russian-pattern 
sword.  The  militia  are  armed  with  Berdan 
rifles  and  have  80  cartridges  per  rifle.  The  cav- 
alry is  armed  with  the  Mannlicher  carbine  and 
a  Russian  dragoon  sword.  Each  carbine  has  60 
cartridges.  The  Parabelhmi  automatic  pistol, 
model  1903,  is  being  substituted  in  place  of  the 
Smith  &  Wesson  revolver,  for  officers.  Bulgaria 
has  taken  no  recent  steps  for  rearmament  of  her 
artillery.  The  present  field  artillery  has  S.7-cm. 
Krupp  guns  with   120  shots  per  gun. 


The   re- 


serve artillery  has  75-111111.  guns  with  149  shots 
per  gun,  and  90-mm.  bronze  Russian  guns.  The 
mountain  artillery  has  75-mm.  guns  with  133 
shots  per  gun.  The  gunners  are  being  armed 
with  carbines. 

Chile. —  Like  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Colombia  and 
Uruguay,  the  troops  are  armed  with  the  7-milli- 
meter, model  1893,  Mauser  rifle  ;  but  experiments 
are  now  going  forward  with  a  view  to  partial 
rearmament.  Chile  seems  content  with  its  pres- 
ent field  artillery  material.  This  is  a  light  field 
gun  of  the  Krupp  system,  with  elastic  trail- 
spade,  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  local  condi- 
tions of  the  country. 

Denmark. — The  troops  are  armed  with  the 
8-millimeter,  model  1889,  repeating  rifle  of  the 
Krag-Jiirgensen  system.  During  the  course  of 
1901  the  Copenhagen  militia  was  armed  with 
8-millimeter,  model  i88g,  rifles,  having  hitherto 
had  the  models  1867-96  breech-loading  rifles.  A 
machine  gun,  invented  by  a  Danish  lieutenant 
and  adopted  in  the  Danish  army  and  navy,  has 
a  caliber  of  6.5  millimeters  and  a  weight  of  6 
kilograms ;  the  initial  velocity  is  720  meters. 
The  rapidity  of  fire  is  attained  by  means  of  a 
loading  frame  holding  30  cartridges,  which  can 
be  fired  in  two  seconds.  The  rate  of  fire  is  thus 
300  rounds  per  minute,  including  the  time  re- 
quired to  substitute  full  loading  frames  for  the 
empty  ones.  Experiments  of  new  field  guns 
have  been  completed,  and  the  firm  of  Krupp 
has  been  commissioned  to  deliver  the  new  ma- 
terial, excepting  the  ammunition.  The  gun  is 
75  mm.  caliber,  on  the  "Rohrrucklauf"  carriage, 
with  shield.  The  weight  of  the  projectile  is 
6.75  kgs. ;  initial  velocity,  500  meters  per  sec- 
ond. Rapidity  of  fire,  15  to  20  shots  a  minute. 
Weight  of  carriage  is  1,000  kgs.  Weight  of 
gun,  including  ammunition  and  limber  (44 
rounds),  1,800  kgs.  The  ammunition  carts  are 
armored. 

France. — The  troops  are  armed  with  the  8- 
millimeter,  models  1886  and  1893,  rifles  and  car- 
bines. At  the  normal  firing  school  of  the  forti- 
fied camp  of  Chalons-sur-Marne  experiments 
were  made  in  the  summer  of  1902  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  the  firearms  of  the  infantry. 
The  object  was  to  do  away  with  the  exceedingly 
sensitive  repeating  mechanism  and  to  substitute 
for  it  a  loader  which,  without  impairing  the 
rapidity  of  fire,  would  preclude  any  possibility 
of  the  weapons  being  rendered  unserviceable. 
The  latest  invention,  which  is  said  to  have  at- 
tained good  results,  is  a  new  projectile  called 
"bullet  D."  Very  satisfactory  experiments  were 
carried  out  with  this  bullet.  Preparations  arc 
being  made  for  the  manufacture  of  30,000  car- 
bines of  a  new  model  for  the  colonial  army.  It 
is  intended  to  substitute  this  new  weapon  for 
the  models  1886-93  rifles  and  the  model  1892 
carbine  in  the  colonial  infantry  and  artillery. 
The  rifle  has  proved  too  heavy  and  cumbersome 
for  the  difficult  and  fatiguing  service  which 
these  troops  have  to  perform  on  their  extensive 
expeditions.  The  old  carbine  has  not  shown 
itself  equal  to  requirements.  Not  to  mention 
its  heavy  recoil,  in  certain  cases  it  does  not  pro- 
duce sufficient  intensity  of  fire  and  therefore 
does  not  inflict  as  heavy  losses  on  the  enemy  as 
are  necessary.  It  has.  therefore,  been  decided 
to  adopt  a  mixed  model  in  which  the  ballistic 
qualities  of  the  Lebel  rifle  and  the  present 
cartridge  are  retained  but  a  different  repeating 
mechanism   is   used.     The  experiments  with  au- 


ARMAMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 


tomatic  rifles  are  being  continued  uninterruptedly 
in   France.      In    the   > | > r  1 1 1  .u    "I    1902   experiments 

were  made  with  the  Mondragon  automatic  rule 
and  carbine  on  the  firing  grounds  of  Hotcbkiss 
&  Co.,  at  St.  Denis,  and  gave  complete  satis- 
faction and  proved  the  superiority  of  the 
weapon  over  all  others  tested  theretofore. 

However  much  opinions  may  differ  regarding 
the  military  utility  of  automatic  rifles,  there  is 
certainly  a  manifest  tendency  toward  increas- 
ing the  rapidity  of  fire  of  small  arms  to  cor- 
respond with  the  improvements  that  have  re- 
cently been  made  in  rapid-tire  cannon.  The 
automatic  rifle  bids  fair  to  become  the  weapon 
of  the  future.  Germany  and  Italy  already  have 
a  model  which  is  by  no  means  inferior  to  the 
Mondragon  rifle  as  a  military  weapon.  These 
models,  however,  are  being  carefully  preserved 
in  arm  depots.  The  authorities  are  ready  to 
begin  their  manufacture  and  to  arm  the  troops 
with  them  as  soon  as  France  has  set  the  ex- 
ample. Most  foreign  officers  have  acknow- 
ledged the  superiority  of  the  automatic  rifle, 
but  its  adoption  is  being  indefinitely  deferred 
because  it  would  entail  an  enormous  burden  on 
the  military  budgets  of  the  European  countries. 

The  French  field  batteries  have  been  armed 
with  the  new  75  mm.  rapid-fire  material  since 
1897.  This  is  a  long  recoil  field  gun  with  pro- 
tective shields  and  was  manufactured  with 
great  secrecy  in  the  government  work  shops  at 
Brouges.  Although  the  secret  of  the  details  of 
construction  is  not  divulged,  it  is  nevertheless 
known  that  this  gun  possesses  great  ballistic 
power,  and  that  its  projectiles  weigh  somewhat 
more  than  those  of  similar  guns  constructed 
elsewhere.  Its  only  disadvantage  appears  to  be 
the  weight  of  gun  and  carriage.  Criticism  has 
also  been  made  of  the  shields  used,  as  present- 
ing rather  a  reduced  amount  of  surface  for  the 
protection  of  the  cannoneers.  The  pneumatic 
recuperator  is  about  to  be  given  up  for  a  light 
rapid-fire  gun  suitable  for  the  horse  artillery. 

Germany. —  The  marine  infantry,  the  infantry 
regiments  of  the  East  Asiatic  brigade  of  occu- 
pation, the  guard  corps,  and  parts  of  the  first  to 
seventh,  ninth,  eleventh,  twelfth,  fourteenth, 
and  eighteenth  army  corps,  and  of  the  non- 
commissioned officers'  schools  are  armed  with 
the  model  1898  rifle.  The  issue  of  the  model 
1898  carbine  has  been  begun.  A  new  weapon 
(a  sort  of  carbine)  will  be  purchased  for  the 
foot  artillery  after  the  rearmament  of  the  in- 
fantry is  completed.  All  the  remaining  organ- 
izations of  the  German  army  now  carry  the 
model  1888  rifle  or  carbine.  The  small-arms 
and  ammunition  factory  of  Adolph  Loeschc  at 
Magdeburg,  has  placed  a  target  rifle  on  the 
market  which  is  in  use  in  several  Infantry  regi- 
ments with  great  success.  Three  kinds  of 
cartridges  are  adapted  to  this  rifle.  Experi- 
ments are  now  in  progress  with  the  Borchardt, 
Mauser,  Mannlicher,  Parabellum  and  Browning 
automatic  pistols. 

Germany  is  now  inclining  to  the  new  long 
recoil  system  in  artillery.  Although  the  minis- 
ter of  war  maintains  his  opinion  before  the 
reichstag  of  the  superiority  of  the  German  elas- 
tic trail-spade  type  over  the  French  long  recoil, 
Germany,  nevertheless,  continues  the  process 
of  transformation  or  suppression  of  the  model 
1896.  The  necessity  for  rearmament  is  appre- 
ciated and  desired,  but  such  haste  was  made  in 
adopting   the   model    1896   material    with    elastic 


trail-spade  that  financial  considerations  prevent 
Germany  from  undertaking  at  present  a  com- 
pletely new  rearmament  of  the  field  artillery. 
The  result  is  that  trials  are  now  going  on  to 
change  the  field  guns,  model  1S96,  into  long 
recoil  guns  by  an  adaptation  of  recoil  on  the 
carriage  to  the  present  gun,  that  is  to  say,  while 
keeping  the  gun  itself,  a  carriage  has  been  de- 
signed with  a  cradle  for  the  piece.  The  carriage 
has  also  been  fitted  with  protective  shields.  The 
guns  thus  modified  do  not  possess  the  double- 
laying  arrangement  applied  to  the  cradle  or  top 
carriage.  The  gun  itself  retains  the  rear  sight 
and  fore  sight,  and  the  changes  that  have  been 
made  affect  principally  the  carriage.  According 
to  the  German  press,  the  results  have  been  sat- 
isfactory both  in  regard  to  acting  during  firing 
and  in  maneuvering  facilities.  In  spite  of  the 
added  weight  of  the  shields,  the  total  weight 
does  not  exceed  the  usual  limits.  Thirty-six  of 
these  altered  guns  are  in  the  hands  of  troops, 
attached  in  part  to  the  guard  at  Berlin,  three 
batteries,  and  in  part  to  the  Field  Artillery 
Shooting  School  at  Juterbog.  Five  batteries 
have  taken  part  in  last  autumn's  maneuvers  and 
have  given  satisfaction.  In  addition  to  the 
foregoing,  Germany  is  also  engaged  in  con- 
ducting trials  of  new  long  recoil  types.  The 
Ehrhardt  new  model,  1899,  has  been  found  in- 
adequate and  Krupp's  model,  1900,  has  proved 
better.  Two  of  these  guns  were  tested  in  1902 
by  an  artillery  commission  and  resulted  in  or- 
ders being  given  for  seven  trial  batteries,  which 
were  thoroughly  proved  under  service  condi- 
tions in  1903,  and  were  found  to  be  very  satis- 
factory, but  the  design  was  modified  slightly  and 
submitted  for  further  test.  The  Krupp  gun 
chosen  is  similar  in  all  particulars  to  that 
adopted  by  the  Swiss,  and  like  that  model  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  best  of  the  recently  con- 
structed rapid-fire  systems. 

Great  Britain. — The  European  and  the  great- 
est part  of  the  Indian  native  troops  carry  the 
7.7-millimeter  Lee-Metford  rifle,  model  1889-91, 
and  the  models  1895  Lee-Enfield  rifle ;  the 
remainder  of  the  Indian  native  troops  are 
still  armed  with  various  old  models,  among 
which  are  the  Martini-Henry  and  Snider  rifles, 
while  certain  select  corps  and  the  military  police 
on  the  northwest  frontier  carry  Mauser  rifles 
captured  in  South  Africa.  The  unmounted 
officers  of  the  foot  troops  carry  the  Lee-Enfield 
carbine,  while  the  other  officers  are  armed 
with  the  revolver.  The  contemplated  improve- 
ments in  the  Lee-Enfield  rifle  shown  to  be 
necessary  in  the  South  African  war  appear 
to  be  essentially  as  follows:  The  barrel  will  be 
shortened  by  127  millimeters  and  will  thus  be 
the  shortest  barrel  possessed  by  any  rifle  yet 
adopted.  In  order  to  compensate  for  the  de- 
creased stability  of  the  projectile  caused  by 
this  shortening  of  the  barrel,  the  seven  rifling 
grooves  are  to  be  given  a  somewhat  higher 
pitch,  so  that  the  trajectory  will  remain  similar 
to  the  previous  one.  The  Mauser  breech-clos- 
ing mechanism  has  been  adopted,  with  some 
improvements  enabling  it  to  be  taken  apart 
without  the  use  of  a  screw-driver.  It  will  be 
fed  by  means  of  a  loading  clip  containing  five 
cartridges.  The  sight  has  been  improved  and 
provides  for  an  allowance  for  wind  and  tem- 
perature. A  triangular  dagger  bayonet  35  cen- 
timeters long  and  slightly  heavier  than  the 
present    one    has    been    adopted.     In    order    to 


ARMAMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 


lighten  the  weapon  holes  are  bored  longitudi- 
nally through  the  handguard  and  transversely 
through  the  stock,  the  butt  plate  being  of  alu- 
minum. The  total  reduction  of  weight  amounts 
to  .530  kilogram,  leaving  the  weight  of  the  rifle 
4.12  kilograms.  Experiments  with  the  Ross 
straight-pull  breech  closure,  the  Harris  maga- 
zine, and  the  Hylard  rifle  do  not  appear  to  have 
resulted  favorably.  Canada  has,  however,  de- 
cided to  adopt  the  Ross  rifle,  and  both  rifle  and 
ammunition  are  to  be  manufactured  in  the  gov- 
ernment factory  at  Quebec,  the  number  of  rifles 
to  be  turned  out  yearly  being  from  12,000  to 
15,000.  The  length  of  the  Ross  rifle  without 
bayonet  is  I.22  meters,  and  with  bayonet  1.44 
meters ;  the  weight  without  bayonet  is  3.43  kilo- 
grams;  with  bayonet  3.74  kilograms.  The  Aus- 
tralian colonies  appear  to  have  decided  to  adopt 
the  Ross  rifle.  Major  Woodgate,  of  the  Brit- 
ish army,  has  recently  invented  a  new  system  of 
automatic  rifle,  which  is  very  simple  and  capa- 
ble of  adjustment  to  rifles  already  in  service,  in- 
cluding the  Lee-Enfield.  The  chamber  of  this 
rifle  has  a  capacity  for  20  cartridges  (10  being 
the  normal  number),  so  that  the  number  of 
rounds  per  minute  can  be  brought  up  to  200. 

In  artillery  England  has  18  batteries  of  Ehr- 
hardt  rapid-fire  guns,  of  3-inch  caliber,  firing  a 
projectile  weighing  14  pounds  15  ounces.  The 
carriage  has  a  hydraulic  buffer  with  spring  re- 
cuperators for  returning  the  piece  in  battery, 
and  a  telescopic  trail.  After  several  years  of 
experiment,  a  long  recoil  gun,  combining  the 
best  qualities  of  recent  designs  by  Armstrong 
and  Vickers,  and  much  superior  to  the  former 
15-pounder,  has  been  adopted.  The  new  gun 
is  exceptionally  powerful  and  efficient.  The 
improved  time  fuse  permits  of  effective  shrap- 
nel fire  at  a  range  of  6,000  yards,  an  enormous 
advance  on  anything  possible  with  the  old  type 
of  field  gun.  There  are  four  special  points  in 
which  the  new  type  surpasses  the  old.  These 
are  simplicity  of  the  breech  action,  in  which 
the  interrupted  screw  is  abolished,  increased 
range,  vastly  increased  rapidity  of  fire,  and 
perfect  absorption  of  the  recoil.  In  the  old 
type  of  gun  a  coned  steel  block  carrying  an  in- 
terrupted screw  thread  was  used  to  close  the 
breech,  and  intricate  and  comparatively  delicate 
mechanism  was  necessary  to  work  it  quickly, 
■while  the  danger  of  barring  or  injuring  the 
screw  threads  when  inserting  the  shell  necessi- 
tated an  amount  of  care  which  materially  in- 
terfered with  the  loading  of  the  gun. 

Greece. — The  infantry  is  armed  with  the 
11-millimeter,  model  1871,  Gras  rifle;  but  ex- 
periments are  in  progress  to  decide  upon  a  re- 
armament with  a  small  caliber  rifle.  For  finan- 
cial reasons,  Greece  has  not  made  any  decision 
as  regards  the  rearmament  of  field  artillery. 

Italy. — All  the  infantry  of  the  line  and  the 
mobile  militia  are  armed  with  the  model  1S01 
rifle,  the  cavalry  with  the  model  1891  carbine, 
and  the  special  arms  with  the  model  1891  car- 
bine (Stutzen),  all  of  the  6.5  millimeter  caliber. 
The  territorial  militia  carries  the  modified  Vet- 
terli  rifle,  caliber  10.4  millimeters.  A  new  pis- 
tol, embodying  all  the  latest  improvements,  has 
been  adopted  for  the  officers  of  the  army  in 
place  of  the  10.35-millimeter,  model  1889,  re- 
volver. It  has  an  automatic  mechanism,  is  of 
small  caliber,  and  fires  smokeless  powder.  The 
loading  is  done  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
model  1891  rifle.  The  field  gun  question  in 
Vol.  1  —  45. 


Italy  has  long  been  a  subject  of  controversy. 
Discussion  of  the  question  of  the  proper  type  of 
new  material  has  been  vigorously  conducted  on 
both  sides  by  critics  and  leading  military  writ- 
ers, but  the  Italian  army,  it  seems,  is  the  one 
that  has  remained  for  the  longest  time  averse  to 
the  idea  of  a  field  gun  with  long  recoil  on  the 
carriage.  As  is  known,  the  Italian  field  artil- 
lery consisted  of  two  calibers  of  guns,  the 
87  mm.  B,  of  steel,  forming  the  armament  of  the 
larger  part  of  the  batteries,  and  the  75  mm.  B, 
of  bronze.  In  1896  and  1897  when  France  and 
Germany  effected  the  transformation  of  their 
field  material  a  partial  transformation  was  de- 
cided upon  in  Italy.  For  the  material  87  mm. 
B,  the  cast-iron  shrapnel  was  retained,  and  the 
changes  made  were  confined  to  limiting  the  re- 
coil of  the  piece  by  the  addition  of  a  trail-spade, 
and  to  increasing  the  rapidity  of  loading  by 
improvements  in  the  breech  mechanism. 

Japan.— All  the  infantry  is  armed  with  the 
6.5  millimeter  30  Meiji  rifle,  and  the  cavalry 
with  the  Meiji  carbine.  The  weight  of  pro- 
jectile of  the  new  rifle  is  10.3  grams,  and  the 
velocity  of  the  bullet  at  25  meters  from  the 
muzzle  is  706  meters.  The  Mourata  guns 
of  the  1880  and  1887  types  arm  the  troops 
of  the  second  line.  The  new  gun  of  Col. 
Ansaka,  model  1897,  manufactured  at  the 
Tokio  works,  like  the  Russian  gun,  is  a 
repeater  of  small  calibre  (.25  inch)  with 
a  central  magazine  for  five  cartridges  It 
belongs  to  the  Mauser  tvpe.  The  barrel  is  31 
inches  in  length  and  is  provided  with  six 
grooves  turning  from  left  to  right.  The  breech 
sight  is  mounted  upon  it  by  means  of  a  long 
sleeve,  the  upper  part  of  which,  flattened  and 
hollowed,  forms  its  foot.  The  prismatic  muzzle- 
sight  is  secured  to  a  small  hoop  surrounding 
the  barrel.  The  movable  breech  is  of  the  bolt 
system,  and  turns  back  upon  the  side.  The 
magazine,  closed  at  its  lower  part  by  a  cover, 
contains  an  elevating  plate  actuated  by  a  spring. 
The  recharging  is  done  by  means  of  a  brass 
charging  plate  provided  with  five  cartridges. 
The  breech  sight,  without  steps,  is  graduated 
from  400  to  2.000  yards.  A  sabre-bayonet  hav- 
ing a  21-inch  blade,  with  bevelled  and  hollowed 
sides,  is  attached  in  the  usual  manner.  The 
cartridge  weighs  336  grains.  The  initial  ve- 
locity is  2,378  feet  and  the  pitch  of  the  trajectory 
is  387  feet  at  500  yards.  The  gun,  with  the 
bayonet,  is  5.44  tret  and  weighs  9.6  pounds. 
The  Japanese  foot  soldier  carries  120  cartridges, 
partly  in  two  cartridge  boxes  and  partlv  in 
boxes  in  the  knapsack.  Japan  seems  very  well 
satisfied  with  their  Arisaka  gun  for  artillery 
use,  and  nothing  has  appeared  of  any  steps 
being  taken  towards  the  introduction  of  a  new 
material. 

Mexico.— The  infantry  is  armed  with  the 
7-milhmeter,  model  1893,  Mauser  rifle,  and  the 
cavalry  with  the  7-millimeter  Mauser  carbine. 
1  here  are  probably  about  10,000  modified  Rem- 
ington rifles  (arranged  for  Mauser  ammunition) 
and  15.000  Remington  rifles  of  larger  caliber  on 
hand.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  rifle,  which 
was  first  manufactured  in  the  French  rifle  fac- 
tory at  Saint  Etienne,  reallv  possesses  thi 
ities  attributed  to  it,  name! v.  absolute  reliabil- 
ity, accuracy,  and  a  rate  of  fire  of  60  rounds 
per  minute  when  used  automatically.  Accord- 
ing to  trustworthy  reports  a  rate  of  tire  of  13 
to  15  shots  per  minute  was  attained  during  ex- 


ARMAMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 


perinients  made  in  Mexico  with  the  Mondragon 
rifle  used  as  a  repeater  in  aimed  fire;  in  filling 
the  magazine  the  marksman  had  to  place  the 
rifle  against  his  thigh,  probably  in  order  to 
overcome  a  strong  resistance  of  the  lock  mech- 
anism. When  used  as  an  automatic  arm  a  rate 
of  31  shots  per  minute  was  attained  only  once, 
which  resulted  in  injuring  the  breech  mechan- 
ism. The  latter  is  said  to  get  out  of  order 
very  easily,  and,  moreover,  the  muzzle  jumps 
at  every  shot,  so  that  the  accuracy  cannot  be 
very  great  during  automatic  rapid  fire.  In  ar- 
tillery Mexico  has  carried  out  long  competitive 
trials  and  at  their  conclusion,  after  having  or- 
dered four  batteries  of  guns  from  Creusot  in 
1002,  asked  Saint  diamond  in  1003  to  submit  a 
model  of  the  Saint  Chamond-Mondragon  type 
modified  according  to  the  desires  of  the  Mex- 
ican commission.  If  this  type  proves  satisfac- 
tory, eight  batteries  are  to  be  ordered  at  once. 
Montenegro. — This  principality  has  30.000 
Russian  three-line  repeating  rifles  and  80,000 
rifles  of  various  other  systems,  principally  Ber- 
dan  and  Werndl  rifles.  The  enlisted  men  of 
the  first  seniority  are  armed  in  peace  with  one 
new  and  one  old  rifle  each.  The  field  artillery 
consists  of  the  Krupp  steel  gun,  caliber  75  mm. 

Netherlands. — All  troops  are  armed  with  the 
6.5-millimeter,  model  1895,  Mannlicher  rifle  and 
the  9.4-millimeter,  model  1873,  revolver,  Chame- 
lot-Deloigne  system.  The  6.5-millimeter  rifle 
fires  a  bullet  weighing  10.15  grams  with  an  in- 
itial velocity  of  723  meters.  The  present  field 
artillery  dates  from  1878,  and  no  longer  fulfills 
the  ballistic  and  other  technical  requirements  of 
the  present  day.  The  necessity  of  rearmament 
was  taken  under  consideration  in  1001  and  mod- 
els were  entered  by  Ehrhardt,  Schneider-le- 
Creusot  and  Krupp.  It  has  been  determined 
that  Krupp's  75  mm.  long  recoil  gun  deserved 
the  preference  and  the  same  has  been  recently 
recommended  for  adoption  and  a  contract  for 
204  field  guns  of  this  type  is  now  pending.  The 
adopted  type  is  the  Krupp  nickel-steel  field  gun 
with  long  recoil  on  the  carriage :  its  length  is 
30  calibers,  and  it  is  provided  with  nickel-steel 
shields  3  to  4  mm.  thick.  It  fires  shrapnel 
and  explosive  shell  weighing  13.2  pounds,  fixed 
ammunition  being  used.  The  muzzle  velocity  is 
1,640  f.  s.,  rapidity  of  fire  20  shots  per  minute. 
The  shrapnel  contains  270  bullets,  each  weighing 
11  grams.  The  extreme  range  is  7,000  yards, 
and  that  for  shrapnel  with  time  fuse  6,125  yards. 
The  unlimbered  gun  weighs  with  shields  and 
complete  equipment  not  quite  2,200  pounds. 
Each  gun  with  its  limber  and  3  caissons  counts 
336  rounds.  The  introduction  of  this  material 
will  be  completed  by  the  end  of  1906. 

Norzt'Ciy. — The  infantry  is  armed  with  the 
6.5-millimeter,  model  1894,  Krag-Jorgensen  rifle, 
which  fires  the  model  1896  cartridge.  Experi- 
ments, concluding  in  1891,  were  made  with 
models  of  long  recoil  guns  from  Armstrong, 
Hotchkiss,  Nordenfelt-Cockerill,  Saint  Chamond, 
Schneider-le-Creusot,  and  Ehrhardt,  and  finally 
gave  preference  to  the  last  named.  The  pro- 
gram of  the  tests  was  very  thorough  and  severe. 
It  included  firing  350  rounds  from  each  gun, 
transportation  over  long  distances  both  by  rail 
and  in  ordinary  carts  over  mountainous  coun- 
try, in  which  the  material  received  much  rough 
treatment,  more  firing  tests  and  finally  a  long 
march  over  difficult  country  and  under  varied 
conditions.     The    final    firing    showed    that    the 


material  was  in  good  condition,  all  the  parts 
functioned  well,  and  the  hydro-pneumatic  brake 
was  in  perfect  order.  Norway  has  obtained 
132  guns  of  the  Ehrhardt  system  and  72.  cais- 
sons. As  in  the  case  of  France,  the  adopted 
gun  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  rather  heavy, 
2,209  pounds,  without  any  shields.  The  ques- 
tion of  shields  has  only  been  considered  after 
the  guns  were  ordered,  so  that  its  weight  makes 
the  problem  of  providing  it  with  shields  a  dif- 
ficult one. 

Portugal. — The  infantry  of  the  active  army 
and  of  tlie  first  reserve  is  armed  with  the  6.5- 
millimeter,  Mannlicher  rifle;  the  infantry  of  the 
second  reserve  is  armed  with  the  8-millimeter, 
model  1886  Kropatschek  rifle ;  and  the  colonial 
infantry  and  artillery  and  the  cavalry  carry  the 
6.5-millimetcr  Mannlicher  carbine.  The  only 
modern  field  artillery  Portugal  possesses  are 
two  horse  batteries  having  guns  with  elastic 
trail-spade  carriages.  The  government  sent  a 
special  commission  some  time  ago  to  different 
countries  to  gather  information  from  the  promi- 
nent gunmakers.  This  commission  has  sub- 
mitted its  report,  on  the  strength  of  which  it 
has  been  decided  to  make  conclusive  trials  in 
Portugal  with  some  proposed  constructions  by 
Krupp  and  Schneider. 

Russia. — The  active  and  reserve  troops  are 
armed  with  the  three-line  ritle  (7.62  milli- 
meters), model  1891,  and  the  cavalry  with  the 
7.62-millimeter,  model  1896,  Cossack  carbine. 
The  7.62-millimeter  Nagant  six-shooter,  non- 
gas-leaking  revolver  has  been  officially  adopted 
and  is  manufactured  in  the  Belgian  arm-factory 
by  Leon  Nagant  at  Luttich.  The  extensive 
small  arm  factories  in  Russia  are  those  of  Tula, 
Sestrorietsk,  and  Ijevsk.  They  not  only  manu- 
facture rifles,  but  all  other  kinds  of  war  stores. 
The  3-line  (.275-inch)  gun  of  the  1891  model 
is  the  invention  of  Col.  Mossine  of  the  Rus- 
sian artillery  and  is  a  repeating  arm  with  a 
central  magazine  for  five  cartridges.  The  bar- 
rel has  four  grooves  directed  from  left  to  right 
and  is  30  inches  in  length.  The  breech  box, 
screwed  to  the  rear  of  the  barrel,  is  provided 
on  the  side  to  the  left  with  a  piece  that  acts 
as  cartridge  shell  ejector  and  isolator.  The 
movable  breech  is  of  the  bolt  type  and  swings 
back  at  the  side.  The  magazine  contains  the 
elevating  mechanism,  formed  of  a  lever  joined 
to  the  cover  and  a  plate  jointed  to  the  lever. 
It  receives  a  loader  provided  with  five  car- 
tridges. The  breech  sight  is  stepped  and  pro- 
vided with  a  slider,  which  is  held  in  place  by  a 
spring  and  serves  for  indicating  distances.  The 
bayonet  comprises  a  quadrangular  blade  and 
remains  fixed  to  the  end  of  the  barrel,  even 
during  firing.  The  cartridge  weighs  590  grains. 
The  initial  velocity  is  2,035  feet  and  the  pitch 
of  the  trajectory  at  1,970  feet  is  72  feet.  The 
length  of  the  gun  with  bayonet  is  5.7  feet  and 
weighs  9.5  pounds.  The  Russian  soldier  car- 
ries 120  cartridges,  partly  in  two  cartridge 
boxes  and  partly  in  the  knapsack.  After 
protracted  experiments  Russia  has  provisionally 
chosen  for  the  field  artillery  a  type  of  gun 
and  carriage  designed  by  General  Engel- 
hart.  A  large  part  of  the  Russian  field  artil- 
lery has  been  armed  with  this  new  gun  con- 
structed at  the  Poutilov  works.  The  gun, 
together  with  the  cradle  that  supports  it,  re- 
coils on  the  lower  carriage,  and  the  recoil  is 
controlled   by  a  glycerine  brake,  and  a  column 


ARMAMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 


of  rubber  buffers  fitted  in  the  trail.  These  rub- 
ber cushions  act  as  return  springs  to  return  the 
gun  in  battery.  This  gun  is  of  great  ballistic 
power,  but  the  same  objection  is  raised  against 
it  as  in  the  case  of  the  French  and  Norwegian 
material,  its  great  weight.  Nor  is  the  carriage 
provided  with  shields.  Whether  the  caissons 
are  to  be  armored  is  not  known,  though  the 
regulations  prescribe  placing  them  beside  the 
pieces  in  action. 

Servia. — The  infantry  carries  the  "-milli- 
meter, model  1899,  Mauser  rifle,  and  million 
rounds  of  ammunition  for  this  rifle  has  been 
purchased.  The  engineers,  fortress  artillery, 
and  militia  have  a  reserve  of  Berdan  and  Pea- 
body  rifles.  The  cavalry  carry  Mauser-Kota 
carbines  and  swords.  The  artillery  is  armed 
with  80  mm.  de  Bange  guns,  and  has,  in  addi- 
tion, 60  Krupp  and  40  mountain  guns.  The 
gunners  are  armed  with  the  same  rifle  as  the 
infantry.  The  siege  artillery  has  90  guns  of  six 
different  types,  and  in  the  fortress  artillery  the 
difference  of  the  systems  is  even  more  marked. 
Up  to  the  present  time,  the  trials  contemplated 
in  Servia  have  been  only  with  a  battery  of 
Skoda  guns.  They  were  being  begun  at  the 
time  of  the  assassination  of  King  Alexander. 
Additional  trials  are  now  contemplated. 

Spain. — The  Spanish  army  is  armed  with  the 
7-millimeter  Mauser  rifle.  In  artillery  Spain 
after  prolonged  trials  ordered  three  years  ago 
from  Saint  Chamond  and  from  Krupp  120  guns 
of  a  transition  type.  The  carriages  are  equipped 
with  hydraulic  brakes,  have  a  trail-spade,  and 
there  are  spring  recuperators  under  the  body 
of  the  carriage.  This  material  was  delivered 
about  two  years  ago.  At  about  the  same  time 
24  field  pieces  with  long  recoil  on  the  carriage 
were  ordered  from  Creusot,  which  were  ac- 
cepted only  after  much  delay  due  to  the  failure 
of  the  material  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
Spanish  artillery.  Recently  the  Spanish  gov- 
ernment opened  a  new  competition  for  guns 
with  long  recoil  on  the  carriage,  but  it  seems 
that  no  decision  has  been  arrived  at  as  to  the 
type  to  be  adopted  for  the  field  artillery.  It  is 
reported  that  the  idea  of  experimenting  at  home 
has  been  given  up,  and  a  special  board  of  in- 
formation has  been  sent  to  France,  England 
and  Germany. 

Sweden.— The  infantry  is  armed  with  the  6.5 
millimeter,  model  1896,  rifle,  and  the  cavalry 
with  the  model  1896  carbine,  both  of  the 
Mauser  system.  In  order  to  replenish  the  sup- 
ply, 350,000  rifles  and  50,000  carbines  of  the 
above-mentioned  models  are  to  be  purchased 
for  the  Swedish  army.  When  recent  artillery 
trials  began  in  Sweden,  Cockerill  and  Krupp 
were  the  only  competitors.  The  two  French 
firms,  Schneider  and  Saint  Chamond,  found  it 
impossible  to  fill  the  specifications  as  to  the 
weight  of  the  unlimbered  gun.  The  Krupp 
long  recoil  material  was  adopted  for  the  field 
artillery,  and  Sweden  has  ordered  132  guns 
and  66  caissons  from  Essen.  For  the  horse  ar- 
tillery the  Krupp  short  recoil  material  was 
chosen,  and  24  guns  with  elastic  trail-spade  have 
been  bought  from  the  Krupp  works. 

Sn-itzerland. — The  infantry  has  the  7.5-milli- 
meter, model  1889-96,  Schmidt-Rubin  rifle;  the 
cavalry  carries  the  7.5-millimeter,  model  1893, 
rifle,  with  Mannlicher  breech  closure :  the  posi- 
tion artillery,  fortress  troops,  telegraph  com- 
panies, balloon  company,  and  cyclist  detachment 


are  armed  with  the  7.5  millimeter,  model 
1889-1900,  short  rifle ;  the  cadets  have  the  7.5- 
millimcter,  model  1897,  cadet  rifle;  the  officers 
carry  the  7.65-millimeter,  model  1900,  pistol ;  the 
noncommissioned  officers  and  buglers  of  the 
elite  cavalry  and  artillery  are  provided  with 
model  1882  revolvers ;  the  remainder  have 
the  model  1878  revolvers.  A  spirited  con- 
troversy has  arisen  in  regard  to  the  qual- 
ities of  the  recently  adopted  model  1900 
automatic  pistol  (Parabellum).  The  arguments 
advanced  are  specially  worthy  of  interest  as 
affording  an  idea  of  how  the  Parabellum  pistol 
behaves  in  actual  service,  Switzerland  and  Bel- 
gium being  the  only  countries  that  have  thus 
far  adopted  an  automatic  pistol  to  any  great 
extent.  The  general  impression  gained  is  that 
in  changing  from  a  revolver  to  a  pistol  the 
troops  did  not  perhaps  receive  adequate  instruc- 
tions as  to  the  management  of  the  latter,  so 
that  a  number  of  accidents  occurred  which 
were  rather  due  to  the  ignorance  of  the  posses- 
sors regarding  the  weapon  than  to  any  inherent 
defect  in  the  weapon  itself.  From  a  circular  is- 
sued by  the  chief  of  artillery  forbidding  the 
making  of  any  changes  in  the  pistol  by  private 
armorers  it  appears  probable  that  the  accidents 
which  have  occurred  are  attributed  to  such 
changes.  In  the  recent  Swiss  trials  of  artillery 
nearly  all  the  leading  gun  factories  of  Europe 
competed  and  Cockerill,  Ehrhardt,  Krupp, 
Schneider  and  Skoda  furnished  their  latest 
models.  Saint  Chamond  accepted  the  invita- 
tion to  compete,  but  did  not  deliver  its  gnu  in 
time  and  did  not  participate  in  the  trials.  Later 
on  this  gun  was  inspected  at  Saint  Chamond 
but  without  result.  In  fact,  the  artillery  com- 
mission on  field  artillery  rearmament  has  dur- 
ing the  last  six  years  submitted  all  the  models 
that  it  has  been  able  to  procure  and  experiment 
with,  to  most  searching  examination  and  most 
thorough  tests  under  all  conditions.  The  final 
trials  commenced  in  1901,  and  in  March  1903 
the  commission  submitted  its  report  declaring 
that  the  Krupp  75  mm.  long  recoil  model  was 
not  only  the  most  satisfactory  in  all  respects 
and  the  best  of  all  the  models  tested,  but  that 
it  was  the  best  adapted  for  service  in  the  field. 
The  Federal  Council  addressed  a  message  to 
the  Federal  Assembly  on  I  May  1903,  deciding 
on  the  adoption  of  the  new  gun,  and  in  that  year 
the  Swiss  government  ordered  from  Krupp  288 
guns,  with  which  it  is  proposed  to  arm  72  bat- 
teries of  4  pieces  each.  This  docs  not  include 
reserve  material  and  that  for  instruction  pur- 
poses. The  material  adopted,  officially  desig- 
nated "field  artillery  material,  1903,"  is  Krupp's 
latest  design  of  long  recoil  field  gun  with  spring 
recuperator  and  shields.  The  question  of  ths 
exact  dimensions  of  the  shield  is  deferred  for 
the  time  being;  the  size  may  be  reduced  and  the. 
side  wings  dispensed  with.  It  was  decided  by 
the  commission  to  armor  the  caisson  bodies. 
Fixed  ammunition  is  used.  The  larger  part 
will  consist  of  shrapnel  with  combination  fuses, 
that  being  considered  the  principal  projectile, 
but  the  batteries  will  also  be  provided  with  ex. 
plosive  shell  with  percussion  fuses.  All  pro- 
jectiles will  have  the  same  weight.  The  ammu- 
nition supply  will  be  800  rounds  per  gun.  The 
commission  also  studied  the  question  of  field 
howitzers,  making  trials  of  different  models  sub- 
mitted by  Krupp  and  Skoda,  and  decided  in 
favor  of  one  of  12  cm.  caliber,  but  the  particular 


ARMAMENT  OF  THE  WORLD 


model  is  still  to  be  selected.  The  commission 
was  of  the  opinion  that  the  introduction  of  a 
howitzer  for  the  Swiss  artillery  should  not  be 
made  at  the  price  of  reducing  the  number  of 
field  guns.  It  estimated  that  there  was  neces- 
sity for  the  purchase  of  8  batteries  of  4  pieces 
each,  constituting  4  groups  of  2  batteries.  For 
the  howitzers,  the  ammunition  supply  will  be 
500  rounds  per  gun.  In  regard  to  mountain 
guns,  the  commission  has  conducted  several 
tests  of  a  Krupp  gun  of  a  system  similar  to  that 
of  the  field  material,  1903.  Although  the  re- 
sults obtained  thus  far  have  been  satisfactory,  it 
has  been  thought  best  to  continue  the  experi- 
ments with  two  pieces  in  which  certain  modifica- 
tions of  details  have  been  made. 

Turkey. — The  cadres  of  the  European  army 
corps  (first,  second,  and  third)  are  armed  with 
the  7.65-millimeter  Mauser  rifle,  the  fourth 
corps  (Asia  Minor)  has  the  9.5-millimeter 
Mauser  magazine  rifle,  and  the  troops  of  the 
other  corps  carry  the  1 1. 4-millimeter  Martini- 
Henry  and  Peabody  rifle.  The  manufacture  of 
the  7.65-millimeter  Mauser  rifles  in  Turkish 
shops  has  encountered  difficulties,  for,  accord- 
ing to  authentic  reports,  200,000  rifles  of  caliber 
7.5  mm.  were  ordered  in  Germany  at  the  end 
of  1902.  The  Turkish  field  artillery  consists 
of  248  batteries,  of  which  18  are  field,  178  horse, 
46  mountain,  and  6  howitzer_  batteries.  It  is 
said  that  9  more  batteries  are  in  course  of  for- 
mation. Without  having  any  recent  trials  at 
home,  Turkey  has  ordered  from  the  Krupp 
works  184  guns  with  which  it  is  intended  to 
equip  16  batteries  of  6  pieces  each,  and  22  bat- 
teries of  4  pieces.  These  guns  are  of  the  mod- 
ern long  recoil  system.  The  order  included  all 
accessories,  caissons,  battery  wagons,  ammuni- 
tion and  harness.  The  government  is  now  urg- 
ing the  delivery  of  the  first  six  batteries  con- 
structed. Turkey  has  in  the  past  sent  several 
delegations  to  Essen  and  on  two  occasions  also 
to  other  workshops.  A  military  commission  of 
prominent  officers  of  the  sultan's  army  is  now 
in  France  visiting  the  establishments  of  Creusot 
and  Saint  diamond  in  order  to  study  the  most 
recent  models  of  long  recoil  rapid-fire  guns. 

United  Stales. — The  new  Springfield  maga- 
zine rifle,  possessing  numerous  improvements  on 
the  Krag-Jorgensen  rifle,  is  now  under  construc- 
tion and  will  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  all 
troops,  regular  army  and  National  Guard,  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  The  principal  points  of  its 
difference  from  the  Krag-Jorgensen  are  the  use 
of  two  lugs  instead  of  one  for  holding  the  bolt 
against  the  rearward  pressure  of  the  powder, 
with  resulting  increase  of  strength  sufficient  to 
enable  a  velocity  of  2,300  feet  per  second  to  be 

lined;  the  housing  of  the  magazine  in  the 
stock  directly  below  the  chamber  instead  of 
having  its  project  to  one  side.  In  addition  to 
these  there  are  various  changes  of  details  which 
both  improve  the  rifle  and  cheapen  and  acceler- 
ate its  production.  The  arm  is  supplied  with 
a  cleaning  rod  which  can  be  partially  pulled 
from  its  place  below  the  barrel  and  held  with  a 
catch  so  as  to  form  a  bayonet.  Its  great  ad- 
vantage is  that  it  lightens  the  weight  made  up 
of  the  gun,  bayonet,  and  bayonet  scabbard,  and 
by  dispensing  with  the  latter  two  as  separate 
articles  to  be  carried  permits  the  soldier  to 
carry  with  him  an  intrenching  tool  of  sufficient 
size  and  weight  to  be   serviceable.    There  are 


differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  value  of  the  rod 
bayonet ;  although  less  effective  as  a  bayonet 
alone  than  the  one  now  in  use  in  the  service,  it 
is  undoubtedly  of  some  value  in  converting  the 
musket  into  a  pike,  and  in  view  of  the  increas- 
ing prominence  of  the  intrenching  tool  and  the 
decreasing  occasion  for  the  use  of  the  bayonet 
its  experimental  substitution  is  in  line  with  ap- 
parent progress  in  subordinating  the  latter  to 
the  former.  The  piece  is  centrally  fed  by  means 
of  clips,  each  of  which  holds  five  cartridges.  H 
has  a  caliber  of  .30  inch,  and  the  rilling  is  made 
up  of  four  grooves  of  a  depth  of  0.004  inch,  the 
twist  being  one  turn  in  10  inches.  The  bullet 
weighs  220  grains,  which  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  Krag-Jorgensen,  but  the  powder  charge 
has  been  raised  from  37.6  to  43.3  grains.  In 
spite  of  the  considerable  increase  in  its  power 
the  weapon  has  been  greatly  reduced  in  weight ; 
for  while  the  Krag-Jorgensen  rifle  weighs  10.64 
pounds,  the  Mauser  10.5  pounds,  and  the  Ger- 
man military  rifle  11.54  pounds,  the  new  weapon 
weighs  only  9.47  pounds.  It  follows,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  course,  that,  with  such  high  velocity  and 
fairly  heavy  bullet,  the  trajectory  is  correspond- 
ingly flat,  the  maximum  ordinate  of  the  1,000- 
yard  trajectory  being  only  20.67  feet  as  against 
25.8  feet  for  the  Krag-Jorgensen  gun,  a  very 
material  difference.  The  cartridge  for  the  .30 
caliber  arm  consists  of  the  case,  bullet,  primer 
and  charge  of  smokeless  powder.  The  case  has 
a  flanged  head,  primer  seat,  conical  body,  shoul- 
der, cylindrical  neck,  and  is  made  of  brass.  The 
bullet  is  lubricated,  and  has  a  core  of  lead  and 
tin  composition  jacketed  with  cupro-nickel ;  it 
has  three  grooves,  and  the  mouth  of  the  case  is 
crimped  into  the  front  groove  to  secure  the 
bullet  in  place.  The  core  is  composed  of  I  part 
of  tin  and  25  parts  of  lead  by  weight;  this  pro- 
portion is  varied  slightly  in  order  to  keep  the 
weight  of  the  finished  bullet  constantly  at  220 
grains.  The  primer  is  composed  of  a  cup,  made 
of  cartridge  copper  and  containing  the  compo- 
sition, a  water-proofed  paper  disk,  and  a  brass 
anvil.  In  plan,  the  anvil  is  a  circle  with  two 
small  semicircular  portions  removed  from  op- 
posite sides ;  these  two  openings  form  vents  for 
the  passage  of  the  flame  from  the  composition  to 
the  powder.  The  powder  is  of  the  nitroglycerine 
type.  Up  to  the  present  time  three  different 
powders  have  been  used  (Peyton,  Du  Pont  and 
Laflin  &  Rand,  W.  A.).  The  charge  varies 
with  the  powder  used  from  35  to  42  grains.  The 
primer  composition  is  known  as  H-48,  and  con- 
sists of  8.63  per  cent  sulphur,  25.12  per  cent 
antimony  sulphide,  49.61  per  cent  potassium 
chlorate,  and  16.64  per  cent  glass  crystals.  The 
weight  of  the  cartridge  complete  varies  from 
435  to  442  grains.  The  standard  instrumental 
velocity,  at  53  feet  from  the  muzzle,  of  this  am- 
munition in  the  rifle,  is  1,966  feet  per  second, 
with  an  allowed  variation  of  but  15  feet  per 
second  on  either  side  of  the  standard.  This  in- 
strumental velocity  at  53  feet  corresponds  to  a 
muzzle  velocity  in  the  rifle  of  about  2,000  feet 
per  second.  The  velocity  in  the  carbine  is  80 
feet  per  second  less  than  in  the  rifle.  Experi- 
ments with  automatic  pistols  and  their  trial  in 
the  hands  of  troops  are  in  progress,  but  the  con- 
flicting reports  of  the  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages of  the  weapons  issued  for  trial  have 
not  been  such  as  to  warrant  the  abandonment  of 
the  present  service  revolver  for  any  of  the  types 
tried. 


ARMAND  —  ARMATOLES 


Work  upon  the  lately  adopted  3-inch  field 
artillery  material  is  progressing  rapidly.  There 
are  under  construction  25  batteries  for  the  regu- 
lar service  and  16  for  the  militia.  The  caisson 
for  the  material  differs  from  that  in  use  with  the 
3.2  inch  B.  L.  rifle  in  being  a  metal  fabrication, 
and  in  having  a  single  chest,  instead  of  two, 
upon  the  caisson  body,  and  the  omission  of 
means  for  carrying  spare  wheels,  these  latter 
being  transported  on  the  combined  forge  and 
battery  wagon.  The  manufacture  of  90  moun- 
tain guns,  carriages  and  pack  outfits  of  the 
Vickers  Sons  &  Maxim  system,  with  several 
suggested  improvements,  is  in  progress.  The 
aparejo  to  be  used  is  a  modification  of  the  for- 
mer regulation  pattern,  with  a  view  to  facilitat- 
ing packing  and  general  adaptability.  Experi- 
ments and  investigations  are  now  active  with  a 
view  to  bettering  the  mountain,  field,  and  siege 
artillery,  and  machine  and  automatic  guns,  of 
which  the  famous  Galling  is  the  pioneer.  The 
models  in  use  at  the  present  time  are  the 
1.456-inch  (37-millimeter,  i-pounder)  automatic 
gun,  1.50-inch  revolving  cannon,  1.65-inch  B.  L. 
mountain  gun,  2.95-inch  Vickers-Maxim  moun- 
tain gun,  3-inch  Hotchkiss  mountain  gun,  3.2- 
inch  B.  L.  rifle,  3.6-inch  B.  L.  rifle,  3.6-inch  B.  L. 
mortar,  5-inch  B.  L.  siege  rifle,  7-inch  B.  L. 
howitzer,  and  7-inch  B.  L.  mortar,  together  with 
a  variety  of  pieces  used  for  saluting  purposes 
and  for  firing  the  morning  and  evening  guns 
at  posts.  These  latter  are  nearly  all  of  the  old 
3-inch,  wrought-iron  type,  or  12-pounder  bronze 
smooth-bores. 

Sea  Coast  Artillery. — It  is  only  recently  that 
we  have  become  accustomed  to  the  term  "Sea 
Coast  Artillery."  A  few  years  ago  all  guns 
were  comparatively  small,  using  the  same  pro- 
pelling agent  and  firing  spherical  projectiles. 
Not  long  ago,  any  siege  gun  would  have  been 
serviceable  against  the  wooden  ships  of  the 
day.  To-day,  all  countries  have  sea  coast  guns 
to  resist  naval  attacks  and  siege  guns  for  the 
reduction  of  fortified  positions.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  the  United  States  may  be  soon 
called  upon  to  use  sea  coast  guns,  while  it  is 
difficult  to  imagine  circumstances  under  which 
we  might  employ  our  siege  artillery.  In 
Europe  —  that  is,  on  the  continent  —  sea  coast 
artillery  is  unimportant ;  for  there,  war  con- 
sists practically  of  land  fighting  and  conse- 
quently the  field  artillery  comes  prominently 
forward.  France  and  other  countries  have  a 
mongrel  lot  of  obsolescent  guns  in  their  shore 
defences,  while  they  have  recently  _  spent  mil- 
lions of  dollars  for  rapid-fire  field  pieces  of  the 
latest  designs.  Twenty-five  years  ago  the  pro- 
pelling agent  was  black  powder ;_  and.  in  load- 
ing, the  powder  charge,  the  projectile  and  the 
primer  were  separately  put  in  place.  _  Now  these 
are  in  one  piece,  smokeless  powder  is  used,  and 
great  improvements  in  the  breech  mechanism 
have  wonderfully  increased  the  rate  of  aimed 
fire.  The  control  of  the  recoil  and  the  universal 
use  of  shrapnel  is  a  great  step  toward  the  possi- 
bility of  disabling  an  antagonist  before  he  can 
fire  a  shot  in  return. 

The  rapid  fire  and  sea  coast  guns  of  the 
United  States,  at  present  in  use.  many  of  which 
are  almost  obsolete,  are  the  6-pounder  Amer- 
ican Ordnance  Company  gun.  the  6-pounder 
Driggs-Seaburv  gun,  the  15-pounder  gun.  the 
4-inch  Driggs-Seabury  gun,  the  4.72-inch  Arm- 
strong     gun,      the      6-inch      Armstrong     gum 


the  5-inch  Ordnance  Department  gun,  the 
6-inch  Ordnance  Department  model  1897 
gun,  the  6-inch  Ordnance  Department  model 
1900  gun,  the  8-inch  B.  L.  R.  gun,  the  10-inch 
B.  L.  R.  gun,  the  12-inch  B.  L.  R.  gun,  the  12- 
inch  B.  L.  M.,  cast-iron  body  gun,  and  the  12- 
inch  B.  L.  M.  steel  gun.  These  guns,  together 
with  several  experimental,  including  the  10-  and 
6-inch  Brown  segmental  tube  wire  guns,  the 
6-inch  wire-wound  gun  (Ordnance  Department 
design),  and  a  6-inch  Bofors  R.  F.  gun  with 
semi-automatic  breech  action  constituting  our 
coast  armament  of  to-day,  are  far  from  satisfac- 
tory and  invite  the  development  and  substitu- 
tion of  new  features.  The  16-inch  gun,  called 
for  by  the  Fortification  Board  in  1885,  has  been 
recently  constructed.  As  no  gun  of  this  power 
has  heretofore  been  built,  and  as  a  special  pow- 
der had  to  be  made  for  it,  the  test  was  watched 
with  much  interest.  It  was  designed  to  fire  a 
2,400-pound  projectile  with  a  muzzle  velocity  of 
2,300  feet  per  second  and  a  powder  pressure  n"t 
exceeding  38,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  The 
proof  firing  was  attended  with  entire  success. 
At  the  fourth  round  with  a  charge  of  640 
pounds  of  Du  Pont's  smokeless  powder  and  a 
2,400-pound  projectile,  a  velocity  of  2,317  feet 
per  second  with  a  pressure  of  36,700  pounds  per 
square  inch  was  attained.  That  the  design  and 
construction  of  such  a  huge  weapon  should  be 
successfully  accomplished  without  a  mishap  of 
any  kind,  and  that  the  calculated  ballistic  results 
should  be  so  accurately  verified,  are  subjects  of 
gratification.  The  use  of  smokeless  powder  in 
such  large  charges  was  beyond  the  experience 
of  the  world,  and  the  demonstration  that  it 
would  when  so  used  follow  the  same  law  of 
burning  as  with  charges  of  the  size  previously 
employed  is  a  service  to  the  art  of  the  con- 
struction of  ordnance.  Whether  this  gun  will 
be  reproduced  for  use  in  sea  coast  fortifications 
is  a  matter  still  to  be  determined;  there  are  at 
present  no  plans  calling  for  its  installation,  but 
it  is  satisfactory  to  know  from  the  results  of 
actual  trial  that,  in  considering  at  any  time  the 
desirability  of  employing  guns  of  greater  power 
than  those  of  the  caliber,  12  inches,  now  consti- 
tuting our  most  powerful  weapons,  the  subject 
need  not  be  complicated  by  the  question  of 
practicability. 

Capt.  Edward  S.  Farrow, 
Late    Assistant    Instructor    of    Tactics    at    the 
United  States  Military  Academy. 

Armand,  Sr'man,  Charles  Teffin,  a  French 
soldier:  b.  in  1753;  d.  in  1793.  Coming  to 
America  in  1777.  he  was  given  a  colonel's  com- 
mission  in  the  American  army,  succeeded  Pulas- 
ki in  command  of  the  "Pulaski  Legion,"  in 
1770.  and  became  a  brigadier-general  in  1783. 
Returning  to  France  he  was  active  on  the  Roy- 
alist side  in  the  French  Revolution. 

Armande,  ar-maiid',  an  elder  sister  of 
Henriette  in  Moliere's  <Les  Femmes  Savant 

Armansperg,  ar'mans-perg,  Joseph  Lud- 
wig,  Count  von,  a  Bavarian  statesman:  b. 
in  1787;  d.  in  1853.  He  was  president  of  the 
regency  of  Greece,  1833-5,  and  chancellor  of 
state,  1835-7. 

Armatoles,  ar'ma-tolz,  bodies  of  Greek 
militia  inhabiting  districts  in  the  mountains  of 
Greece  assigned  to  a  capitani  for  protection  be- 
fore Greece  became  independent  of  Turkey.    To 


ARMATURE  —  ARMENIA 


these  fastnesses  fled  the  independent  part  of  the 
Greeks,  in  order  to  continue  the  war  under  lead- 
ers called  capitanis.  A  capitani  collected  gen- 
erally a  troop  of  from  50  to  200  men,  who  re- 
mained true  to  him  through  every  variety  of 
fortune,  and  attacked  the  enemy  everywhere. 
Thus  involved  in  an  endless  struggle  with  their 
oppressors,  these  Greeks  were  apt  to  degenerate 
and  become  little  better  than  bandits.  A  large 
number  of  them  were  careful  to  confine  their 
depredations  to  Mussulmans;  but  many  in- 
stances occurred  in  which  Greeks  were  attacked 
when  the  booty  expected  was  considerable.  The 
Turkish  pashas,  unable  to  subdue  the  armatoles, 
generally  treated  with  them;  and  the  capitanis 
received,  on  condition  of  remaining  quiet, 
money,  stores,  or  other  perquisites. 

Ar'mature,  a  term  applied  to  the  piece 
of  soft  iron  placed  across  the  poles  of  permanent 
or  electro-magnets  to  receive  and  concentrate 
the  attractive  .force.  In  the  case  of  permanent 
magnets  it  is  also  important  for  preserving  their 
magnetism  when  not  in  use,  and  hence  it  is 
sometimes  termed  the  keeper.  It  produces  this 
effect  in  virtue  of  the  well-known  law  of  induc- 
tion, by  which  the  armature,  when  placed  near 
or  across  the  poles  of  the  magnet,  is  itself  con- 
verted into  a  temporary  magnet  with  reversed 
poles,  and  these,  reacting  upon  the  permanent 
magnet,  keeps  its  particles  in  a  state  of  constant 
magnetic  tension,  or,  in  other  words,  in  that 
constrained  position  supposed  to  constitute  mag- 
netism. A  horse-shoe  magnet  should  therefore 
never  be  laid  aside  without  its  armature;  and  in 
the  case  of  straight  bar-magnets,  two  should  be 
placed  parallel  to  each  other,  with  poles  re- 
versed, and  a  keeper  or  armature  across  them  at 
both  ends.  The  term  armature  is  also  applied 
to  the  core  and  coil  of  the  electro-magnet,  which 
revolves  before  the  poles  of  the  permanent  mag- 
net in  the  magneto-electric  machine,  and  to  a 
part  of  the  telegraph  sounder. 

Armed  Neutral'ity,  a  term  denoting  the 
condition  of  affairs  when  a  nation  not  only  as- 
sumes a  threatening  position,  but  maintains  an 
armed  force  to  repel  any  aggression  on  the  part 
of  belligerent  nations  between  which  it  is  neu- 
tral. The  term  is  applied  in  history  to  a  coali- 
tion entered  into  by  the  northern  powers  in  1780 
and  again  in  1800. 

Armed  Sol'dier  of  Democracy,  a  term 
occasionally  applied  to  Napoleon  Bonaparte  be- 
cause of  his  supposed  expression  of  the  ideals 
following  tin.   French   Revolution. 

Armenia,  ar-me'nif-a,  a  mountainous  re- 
gion of  western  Asia  with  an  area  of  about 
120,000  square  miles.  It  is  now  partitioned 
among  Turkey,   Persia,  and  Russia. 

The  plateau  of  which  Armenia  chiefly  on- 
sists  is  mountainous  and  volcanic.  The  ridges, 
of  which  there  are  four  principal,  are  generally 
parallel  to  each  other,  running,  with  sundry 
deviations,  east  and  west,  and  between  them  are 
broad  valleys  and  plateaux  ;  that  of  the  Aras.  at 
Mount  Ararat,  being  2.800  feet,  and  many  others 
5,000  to  8,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The 
mountains  are  mainly  composed  of  trachytic 
porphyry:  with  slate,  limestone,  etc.,  appearing 
on  the  sides  of  the  chains,  and  sometimes  ris- 
ing up  with  the  porphyry.  Granite  is  also  met 
with,  but  is  not  frequent :  and  in  the  north  Terti- 


ary fossiliferous  rocks  are  found.  Its  volcanoes 
are  all  quiescent,  unless  we  except  Ararat,  of 
which  an  eruption  took  place  in  1840,  accom- 
panied by  a  disastrous  earthquake.  A  few 
mountains,  as  Ararat,  Alaghez,  and  Bangol- 
dagh,  rise  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow,  but 
this  is  not  generally  the  case;  ami  there  arc  no 
passes  but  such  as  can  be  crossed  in  a  single  day. 
Silver,  lead,  iron,  and  copper  are  found  in  the 
mountains :  and  the  last  two  have  to  some  ex- 
tent been  wrought  in  modern  times.  Rock  salt 
is  plentiful,  and  is  exported  in  considerable 
quantities  to  Persia  and  elsewhere.  Mineral  wa- 
ters abound,  but  little  or  nothing  is  known  of 
their  qualities.  Several  important  rivers  take 
their  rise  in  Armenia,  namely  the  Kur  or  Cyrus. 
and  its  tributary  the  Aras  or  Araxes,  flowing 
east  to  the  Caspian  Sea;  the  Akampsis  or 
Tchorak.  and  the  Halys  or  Kizil-Innak,  flow- 
ing north  to  the  Black  Sea  ;  and  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  which  flow  into  the  Persian  Gulf. 
There  are  also  several  minor  tributary  streams. 
The  only  considerable  lakes  are  those  of  Van.  70 
miles  in  length  and  about  28  in  breadth; 
Goukcha.  Sevanga  or  Sevan  northeast  of  Eri- 
van,  about  40  miles  long  by  15  broad ;  and 
Urumiyah. 

The  climate  of  Armenia  is  very  severe,  pre- 
senting a  marked  contrast  to  that  of  the  warm 
regions  of  the  Lower  Euphrates,  and  to  the 
mildness  prevalent  on  the  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea.  Winter  in  Armenia  continues  from  Octo- 
ber to  May,  spring  and  harvest  a  month  each, 
and  the  change  to  the  summer  is  very  rapid.  The 
heat,  especially  in  the  valleys,  during  summer, 
is  great,  and  rain  seldom  falls.  In  Erivan,  which 
is  a  degree  of  latitude  south  from  Trebizond, 
the  thermometer  in  winter  falls  36°  F.  lower 
than  it  does  in  the  latter ;  and  in  summer  it 
rises  240  F.  higher.  On  the  plateaux  of  Erze- 
room,  Gumri,  etc.,  the  difference  is  still  greater; 
indeed,  in  the  town  of  Erzeroom  the  snow  lies 
in  the  streets  for  eight  months  of  the  year.  East 
and  southeast  winds  in  summer,  west  winds  in 
spring  and  northeast  storm  winds  in  winter,  are 
most  prevalent.  The  soil  of  Armenia  is  reckoned 
on  the  whole  productive,  though  in  many  places  it 
would  be  quite  barren  were  it  not  for  the  great 
care  taken  to  irrigate  it.  Wheat,  barley,  tobac- 
co, hemp,  grapes,  and  cotton  are  raised ;  and  in 
some  of  the  valleys  apricots,  peaches,  mulber- 
ries, and  walnuts  are  grown.  From  the  nature 
of  the  country  the  rearing  of  stock  is  carried 
on  to  a  greater  extent  than  agriculture.  The 
horses  are  spirited,  fleet,  and  fiery.  Pines, 
birches,  poplars,  and  beeches  flourish,  but 
there  are  no  thick  forests,  except  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  country.  The  flora  is 
not  so  varied  as  might  be  expected  in  such  an 
Alpine  country  ;  in  several  respects  it  resembles 
the  vegetation  of  the  Alps  of  Tyrol  and  Switzer- 
land. 

The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  of  the  genuine 
Armenian  stock ;  but  besides  them,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  repeated  subjugation  of  the  coun- 
try, various  other  races  have  obtained  a  footing. 
Of  these  the  principal  are  the  Turcomans,  who 
still  maintain  their  nomadic  habits,  and  from 
whom  the  country  has  received  the  name  of 
Turcomania.  In  the  southern  portion  are  the 
predatory  Kurds  and  the  Turks;  on  the 
Tchorak,  Georgians ;  and  throughout  the  whole 
country,  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Gypsies.     The  total 


ARMENIA 


number  of  Armenians  has  been  estimated  at 
2.000,000,  of  whom  probably  one  half  are  in 
Armenia.  The  remainder,  like  the  Jews,  are 
scattered  over  various  countries,  and  being 
strongly  addicted  to  commerce,  play  an  impor- 
tant part  as  merchants.  They  are  found  over 
all  western  Asia ;  about  200,000  are  in  Con- 
stantinople and  its  vicinity ;  numbers  are  in 
Russia,  Hungary,  and  Italy;  some  in  Africa 
and  America;  and  a  large  number  in  India, 
chiefly  in  the  great  marts,  Bombay,  Madras,  and 
Calcutta.  Everywhere  they  are  engaged  in 
banking  and  trading.  Their  eyes  and  hair  are 
black,  their  look  lively,  noses  aquiline,  and  their 
complexion  somewhat  swarthy.  The  women  are 
remarkable  for  the  delicacy  and  regularity  of 
their  features.  Like  the  Jews,  whom  in  many 
respects  they  resemble,  their  ruling  passion  ap- 
pears to  be  an  inordinate  love  of  gain,  but  they 
are  generally  esteemed  honest.  Their  mental 
capacity  is  good,  and  those  who  are  educated 
are  distinguished  by  superior  cultivation  and 
refined  manners ;  but  the  mass  of  the  people  in- 
habiting their  native  country,  in  consequence  of 
centuries  of  neglect,  are  grossly  ignorant  and 
superstitious. 

History. —  The  legendary  history  of  Armenia 
begins  with  Ha'ik,  son  of  Togarmah,  the  great- 
grandson  of  Noah,  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  3.  He 
is  said  to  have  taken  refuge  in  Armenia  from 
the  tyranny  of  Belus,  king  of  Babylon,  who  was 
slain  in  pursuit  of  him.  The  seventh  king  in 
descent  from  Ha'ik  was  killed  in  battle  with 
Semiramis,  and  the  country  became  tributary  to 
Assyria.  From  Haik  the  country  derived  the 
name  Haikistan,  and  from  Aram,  his  sixth  suc- 
cessor, that  of  Armenia.  Armenia  continued 
subject  to  Assyria  under  its  own  princes  till  the 
revolt  of  the  Medes  and  Babylonians  against 
Sardanapalus,  when  Barbak,  the  king  of  Ar- 
menia, joined  these  powers  and  recovered  his  in- 
dependence. Tigranes  I.  is  said  to  have  been 
the  ally  of  Cyrus  against  Astyages,  and  to  have 
built  the  city  of  Tigranocerta.  His  successor, 
Vhakin,  the  legendary  hero  of  Armenia,  was  dei- 
fied after  his  death.  Vahi,  the  last  of  the 
dynasty  of  Ha'ik,  was  killed  in  fighting  against 
Alexander  as  the  ally  or  vassal  of  Darius.  The 
duration  of  the  dynasty  was  about  1,800  years. 
Armenia  was  now  incorporated  with  the  king- 
dom of  Syria.  It  recovered  its  independence 
under  Ardvates,  317  B.C.,  during  the  dissension 
among  the  successors  of  Alexander,  but  on  his 
death  submitted  to  the  Seleucidre.  About  190 
B.C.  Artaxias  and  Zariadres,  two  Armenian  no- 
bles, freed  themselves  from  the  dominion  of  An- 
tiochus  the  Great  and  established  the  kingdoms 
of  Armenia  Major  and  Armenia  Minor.  Ar- 
mena  Major  was  re-conquered  from  Artaxias 
II.  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  About  149  B.C. 
Mithridates,  or  Arsaces  VI. ,  king  of  Parthia, 
whose  dominion  extended  over  Media,  Persia, 
and  Babylonia,  placed  his  brother  Waghershag 
or  Valarsaces  on  the  throne  of  Armenia,  and  in- 
troduced the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacida?  into  the 
country.  He  built  cities  and  organized  the  de- 
fenses of  the  country.  His  great-grandson,  Ti- 
granes II.,  whose  long  reign  appears  to  have 
begun  about  96  B.C.,  conquered  Artenes,  king  of 
Sophene  or  Armenia  Minor,  and  united  all  Ar- 
menia under  his  sway.  He  was  successful  in 
war  against  the  Parthians,  and  made  himself 
master  of  the   whole   Syrian   monarchy.     He   is 


also  said  to  have  founded  or  built  Tigranocerta, 
the  origin  of  which  is  likewise  attributed  to  his 
probably  mythical  predecessor.     Being  the   son- 
in-law    of    Mithridates,    king   of    Pontus,    while 
Mithridates    was    preparing    to    renew    his    war 
with   the   Romans   after   the   death   of   Sulla   he 
invaded   Cappadocia  at  his  instigation   and  car- 
ried    away    much     spoil    and    many    prisoners. 
Mithridates,  after  his   defeat,   took  refuge   with 
Tigranes,  who  does  not  seem  to  have  been  dis- 
posed to  render  him  active  assistance;  but   Lu- 
cullus    made    a    peremptory     demand    through 
Appius  Clodius  for  his  surrender,  which  left  Ti- 
granes no  alternative  but  a  declaration  of  war, 
69    B.C.     Disregarding    an    invasion    of    Cilicia, 
Lucullus  at  once  carried  the  war  into  Armenia, 
defeated  the  numerous  forces  of  Tigranes.  and 
captured  Tigranocerta.     Antiochus  Eusebes  was 
reinstated  on  the  throne  of  Syria,  and  other  de- 
pendents of  Tigranes  revolted.     Tigranes  in  the 
meantime,    with    the    assistance    of    Mithridates, 
collected  another  army  which  was  again  defeated 
by  Lucullus.     Favored  by  disaffection  among  the 
Roman  troops,  however,  Tigranes  recovered  the 
greater  part  of  Armenia,  and  defeated  Fannius, 
the   lieutenant   of   Lucullus.     Pompey,    who   ar- 
rived in  66  B.C.,  after  overthrowing  Mithridates, 
who  had  also  recovered  his  dominions,  advanced 
to   Armenia,    which    was   at   the   same    time    in- 
vaded by  the  Parthians,  instigated  by  the  revolt- 
ed   son    of    Tigranes.     The    Parthians    speedily 
withdrew,  and  young  Tigranes  fled  to  Pompey. 
At  this  critical  juncture  the  elder  Tigranes  has- 
tened to  make  his  submission  to  the  Roman  gen- 
eral,  who   left   him    in   possession   of   his   king- 
dom,   but    deprived    him    of    the    provinces    of 
Sophene  and  Gordyene,  which  he  erected  into  a 
kingdom  for  the  younger  Tigranes.     The  elder 
Tigranes   continued   faithful   to   the   Roman   al- 
liance, and  Gordyene,  which  had  been  seized  by 
the  Parthians,  was  soon  after  restored  to  him. 
Tigranes  died  about  55  B.C.     His  son  Artavasdes 
was  made   prisoner   by   Antony   and   carried   to 
Egypt,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by  Cleopatra 
in    30    B.C.     Armenia    continued    subject    to    the 
Romans,  who  appointed  its  princes  from  the  fam- 
ily of  the  Arsacidx  till  the  time  of  Trajan,  who 
made  it  a  province.     It  was  given  up  by  Hadrian 
and  again  ruled  by  the  Arsacidas.     Chosroes  de- 
fended it  during  a  long  reign  against  the  power 
of  Persia,  which  had  recently  re-established  its 
monarchy  on  the  ruins  of  the  Parthian  empire; 
but  about  258-259  a.d.  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  un- 
able to  subdue  Chosroes  by  force  of  arms,  caused 
him  to  be  assassinated,  and  his  son  Tigranes  be- 
ing an   infant,   took  possession  of  the  country. 
Tigranes  was  restored   by   the   Romans   in   286, 
the  third  year  of  Diocletian.     At  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  he  persecuted  the  Christians,   who 
were    numerous    in    Armenia,    but    was    himself 
converted  to  Christianity,  it  is  said,  by  Gregory 
the    Illuminator.      Armenia    was    thus    the    first 
country    which    officially    embraced    Christianity. 
On   the   defeat   of  Galerius   by   the    Persians   in 
296  Tiridatcs,  who  fought  valiantly  as  the  ally 
of  the  Romans,  was  compelled  to  follow  the  re- 
treat of  his  protectors;  but  the  succeeding  cam- 
paign restored  him,  and  his  dominions  were  ex- 
tended in  the  peace  with  Persia  which  followed. 
By  the  treaty  into  which  Jovian,  the  successor 
of  Julius,   entered   with   Sapor   II.  363   a.d.,   the 
Romans  were  compelled  to  abandon  the  protec- 
tion of  Armenia.     It  was  speedily  reduced  to  a 


ARMENIA 


Persian  province,  but  after  the  death  of  Sapor 
its  independence  was  restored  in  a  new  treaty 
of  peace  made  with  Theodosius  in  384.  The 
country,  long  oppressed  by  the  contentions  be- 
tween the  Romans  and  Persians,  soon  fell  into 
division  through  the  attraction  of  these  rival 
powers.  A  Persian  king  or  governor,  Chosroes, 
was  set  up  over  the  eastern,  and  a  Roman,  Ar- 
saces,  over  the  western  portion  of  the  country, 
both  being  of  the  royal  house  of  Armenia.  On 
the  death  of  Arsaces  the  Romans  suppressed 
the  form  of  royalty,  and  annexed  their  portion 
of  the  country  to  the  empire  under  the  military 
command  of  a  count  of  the  Armenian  frontier. 
This  occurred  in  the  reign  of  Theodosius  II. 
On  the  death  of  Artasires  or  Ardashir,  the  suc- 

or  of  Chosroes,  Bahrain  V.  of  Persia  (about 
431)  annexed  the  Persian  portion  under  the  name 
of  Persarmenia.  The  Persians  exerted  them- 
selves to  extirpate  Christianity,  but  failed  to  do 
so;  and  on  the  fall  of  the  Sassanidae  (6,32)  the 
country  was  united  again  under  the  Greek  em- 
pire. It  now  became  the  scene  of  incessant 
struggles  between  the  declining  empire  and  the 
rising  Mohammedan  power,  and  as  it  was  per- 
secuted by  the  emperors  for  its  adoption  of  the 
Monophysite  heresy  its  sympathies  were  not  al- 
ways with  the  former.  The  dynasty  of  the  Pa- 
gratids  or  Bagratidse  was  established  by  the 
arms  and  influence  of  the  caliphs.  It  was  a 
family  of  Jewish  origin  and  appears  to  have 
risen  gradually  to  influence  in  the  country.  The 
date  of  its  elevation  to  royalty  is  usually  given 
as  885,  but  a  much  earlier  date  is  sometimes  as- 
signed. It  lasted  till  1079,  when  the  country 
again  became  dependent  on  the  Greek  empire. 
During  this  period  several  other  dynasties  which 
il  is  not  necessary  specifically  to  notice  reigned 
simultaneously  in  different  parts  of  the  country. 
On  the  fall  of  the  Pagratidos  a  relative  of  the 
last  king  founded  a  small  kingdom  in  the  north 
of  Cilicia,  which  gradually  extended  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  was  known  as  Lesser  Armenia. 
It  was  overthrown  by  the  Mamelukes  in  1375. 
Armenia  formed  part  of  the  empires  of  Gen- 
ghis Khan  and  Tamerlane,  and  a  great  part  of  it 
was  conquered  by  Selim  II.  in  1522.  Hence- 
forth it  was  shared  between  the  Turks  and  Per- 
sians, the  former  having  the  greater  part  of  it. 
In  1828  Russia  obtained  a  considerable  portion 
of  it,  and  this  was  greatly  augmented  by  the 
treaty  of  Berlin  (1878).  Russian  Armenia  in- 
cludes the  governments  of  Erivan  and  Eliza- 
bethpol,  the  territory  of  Kars,  etc.,  with  the  im- 
portant towns  of  Tiflis,  Kars,  and  Erivan.  At 
the  time  of  the  Berlin  treaty  Turkey  made  prom- 
ises of  better  treatment  for  her  Armenian  sub- 
jects, but  these  have  been  disregarded  and  in 
1895-6  many  thousands  of  the  Armenians  in  dif- 
ferent localities  were  massacred  and  atrocious 
cruellies  perpetrated  upon  them  by  the  Turks, 
with  full  approval,  it  would  seem,  of  the  Sultan 
and  his  advisers. 

Art. —  The  only  important  ruins  of  the  Ro- 
man period  are  at  Kami.  After  the  country  had 
become  Christian  many  churches  were  built, 
possessing  much  architectural  character.  The 
most  interesting  of  these  is  the  cathedral  at 
Ani.  built  about  1010,  while  of  nearly  equal  im- 
portance is  the  cathedral  of  Kiutas,  on  the  basili- 
can  plan.  A  church  with  a  striking  dome  and  five 
naves  is  found  at  Mowki,  and  there  are  many 
others  remarkable  for  the  delicacy  of  decorative 


details.  The  most  richly  ornamented  of  these  is 
that  at  Mtzkhct  in  Georgia.  The  Armenian  ar- 
chitects and  artists  were  much  given  to  the  em- 
ployment of  decorative  inscriptions,  as  were 
their  Mohammedan  neighbors.  Carving  in 
wood  and  ivory  were  much  practised,  but  the 
Armenians  especially  excelled  in  the  production 
of  cloisonne  enamel  and  in  the  employment  of 
geometric  ornament  applied  to  buildings  as  well 
as  to  small  objects,  such  as  the  sacred  vessels  of 
the  church  and  toilet  articles.  Wall  painting 
was  also  an  Armenian  accomplishment  and  one 
in  which  not  a  little  independence  of  Byzantine 
influence  was  exhibited. 

Armenian  Church. —  The  Armenians  received 
Christianity  as  early  as  the  3d  century.  During 
the  Monophysitic  disputes,  being  dissatisfied 
with  the  decisions  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon 
(451),  they  separated  from  the  Greek  Church  in 
the  year  536.  The  Popes  have  at  different  times 
attempted  to  gain  them  over  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith,  but  have  not  been  able  to  unite 
them  permanently  and  generally  with  the  Roman 
Church.  There  are,  however,  at  present,  about 
100,000  United  Armenians  who  acknowledge 
the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Pope;  they  aeo  . 
in  their  doctrines  with  the  Catholics,  but 
retain  their  peculiar  ceremonies  and  discipline. 
At  different  times  force  has  been  used  to  make 
them  conform  to  the  religion  of  Mohammed; 
but  the  far  greater  part  are  yet  Monophysites, 
and  have  remained  faithful  to  their  old  religion 
and  worship.  Their  doctrine  differs  from  the 
orthodox  chiefly  in  their  admitting  only  one 
nature  in  Christ,  and  believing  the  Holy  Spirit 
to  issue  from  the  Father  alone.  In  their  seven 
sacraments,  which  they  call  mysteries,  there  are 
these  peculiarities,  that  in  baptism  they  sprinkle 
thrice  and  dip  thrice,  and  this  is  immediately 
followed  by  confirmation ;  that  in  the  Lord's 
Supper  they  mix  no  water  with  the  wine,  and 
use  leavened  bread,  which  they  distribute  dipped 
in  wine;  and  that  they  allow  extreme  unction 
04ily  to  divines  immediately  after  their  death. 
They  adore  saints  and  their  images,  but  do  not 
believe  in  purgatory.  In  fasting  they  surpass 
the  Circeks.  Their  feasts  are  fewer  than  those  of 
the  Greeks,  but  they  celebrate  them  more  de- 
voutly. They  worship,  in  Turkey,  mostly  in 
the  night  time;  the  mass  is  said  in  the  ancient 
Armenian,  the  sermon  is  preached  in  the  mod- 
ern. Their  hierarchy  differs  little  from  that  of 
the  Greeks.  The  catholicus  or  head  of  the 
Church  has  his  seat  at  Etchmiadzin.  a  monas- 
tery near  Erivan,  the  capital  of  the  Russian  Ar- 
menia, on  Mount  Ararat.  The  holy  oil,  which 
he  prepares  and  sells  to  the  clergy,  and  the  fre- 
quent pilgrimages  of  the  Armenians  to  Etchmi- 
adzin, supply  him  with  means  for  the  support  of 
a  magnificent  style  of  worship  and  of  estab- 
lishments for  education.  He  maintains  in  his 
residence  a  seminary  for  the  education  of  di- 
vines. There  is  here  also  a  printing  press.  The 
patriarchs,  bishops,  and  archbishops  of  the  Ar- 
menians arc  invested  by  him,  and  every  three 
years  confirmed  in  their  offices  or  recalled.  The 
remainder  of  the  clergy  resemble  the  priests  of 
the  orthodox  church  in  rank  and  duties.  The 
monks  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Basil.  The  varta- 
bcls,  who  live  like  monks,  cultivate  the  sciences, 
take  degrees,  which  may  be  compared  with  the 
usual  academical  honors,  and  are  the  vicars  of 
the  bishops,  form  a  class  of  divines  peculiar  to 


ARMENIAN  ART  — ARMFELT 


the  Armenian  Church.  The  secular  priests  must 
be  married  once,  but  are  not  allowed  to  take 
a  second  wife.  Both  monks  and  clergy  in  gen- 
eral are  ignorant  and  superstitious.  Armenian 
churches  have  been  established  in  the  United 
States  wherever  a  considerable  body  of  Arme- 
nian refugees  have  settled. 

Language  and  Literature. —  The  Armenian 
language  belongs  to  the  great  Indo-European 
family  of  languages,  and  is  most  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Iranic  group.  'The  Old  Arme- 
nian or  Haikan  language,  which  is  still  the 
literary  and  ecclesiastical  language,  is  distin- 
guished from  the  New  Armenian,  the  ordinary 
spoken  language,  which  contains  a  large  inter- 
mixture of  Persian  and  Turkish  elements.  The 
most  learned  Armenian  antiquaries  do  not  pre- 
tend tO'  trace  their  literature  further  back  than 
about  150  years  before  the  Christian  era,  when 
Marabas  Catina  wrote  a  history  of  Armenia,  and 
earned  for  himself  the  title  of  the  Armenian 
Herodotus.  H"e  was  followed  by  some  half 
dozen  historians  and  mythologists,  but  all  these 
early  productions  are  lost,  though  they  have  not 
been  quite  valueless,  inasmuch  as  they  were  the 
sources  whence  later  Armenian  writers  compiled 
works  still  extant.  The  authors  who  lived  in 
the  4th  century  of  the  Christian  era  are  the 
first  whose  writings  have  been  preserved.  Chris- 
tianity then  prevailed  in  Armenia,  and  her  au- 
thors were  princes  and  prelates.  The  5th  century 
was  the  golden  age  of  Haikan  literature.  This 
century  was  fruitful  in  authors,  and  was  further 
distinguished  by  two  events  important  to  the 
progress  of  learning.  The  Armenians  till  then 
had  had  no  alphabet  of  their  own,  indifferently 
using  Greek,  Syriac,  and  Persian  characters. 
Early  in  the  5th  century  Mesrop  Masdoty  in- 
vented a  Haikan  alphabet  of  38  letters,  still 
called,  in  honor  of  the  inventor,  Mesropian,  and 
now  employed  as  capitals,  since  others  of  more 
convenient  form  have  supplanted  them  in  com- 
mon use.  About  the  same  time  schools  were  in- 
stituted throughout  Armenia,  and  the  scholars 
there  trained  exerted  themselves  in  producing 
Haiken  versions  of  the  Bible,  and  of  the  master- 
pieces of  Greece  and  Rome.  One  of  the  most 
distinguished  authors  who  now  appeared  was 
Archbishop  Moses  Chorenensis  or  Chorenabyi. 
Besides  innumerable  translations,  he  wrote  a 
history  of  Armenia,  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  and  a 
treatise  on  geography  —  all  of  which,  together 
with  some  homilies,  have  been  preserved,  as 
well  as  some  hymns  sfill  habitually  sung  in  the 
Armenian  Church  service.  His  'History  of  Ar- 
menia' was  published  in  1736,  with  a  Latin  trans- 
lation, by  the  celebrated  W.  Whiston  and  his  son 
George.  In  the  6th  century  Haikan  literature 
first  remained  stationary,  and  then  began  to  de- 
cline. This  decline  continued  down  to  the  16th 
century.  During  this  period  authors  abounded, 
but  in  a  literary  sense  their  productions  were 
worthless.  A  few  histories,  however,  national, 
Tartar,  Arab,  etc.,  some  of  them  inverse,  deserve 
esteem  for  the  information  they  contain.  In  the 
17th  century  Armenian  schools  and  colleges 
arose  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  Armenian 
printing  presses  were  set  up  in  various  towns, 
and  Armenian  literature  began  to  revive.  In  the 
18th  century  the  revival  was  complete,  very 
much  owing  to  the  zealous  and  judicious  exer- 
tions of  Petro  Mechitar,  a  Catholic  Armenian, 
who  in  1701  founded  a  religious  society  at  Con- 


stantinople for  the  purpose  of  elevating  the 
Armenians  by  diffusing  among  them  a  know- 
ledge of  their  ancient  literature  and  language. 
Being  persecuted  by  the  opposite  sect  he  fled 
with  his  adherents  to  the  Morea,  then  under  the 
Venetians,  and  established  a  monastery  and 
academy  at  Modon.  The  Morea  reverting  to  the 
Ottoman  sceptre,  Mechitar  transferred  his  insti- 
tution to  the  small  island  of  San  Lazaro  at 
Venice,  where  it  has  ever  since  remained  and 
prospered.  Abbot  Mechitar,  during  the  re- 
mainder of  his  life  (he  died  in  1749)  success- 
fully exerted  himself  to  render  his  monastic 
college  the  chief  seat  of  Armenian  erudition 
and  education.  The  best  Armenian  press  ex- 
tant is  the  Mechitarist,  from  which  issues  a 
newspaper  that  circulates  widely  in  the  Levant. 
Here  many  of  the  classical  works  of  England, 
France,  Italy,  and  Germany  have  been  trans- 
lated into  Armenian.  There  is  also  a  Mechitarist 
college  in  Vienna,  and  a  branch  in  Munich. 
Wherever  any  extensive  community  of  Armeni- 
ans have  settled  they  have  set  up  a  printing 
press,  as  in  Amsterdam,  Leghorn,  Moscow, 
Venice,  Astrakhan,  Constantinople,  Smyrna, 
Tiflis,  St.  Petersburg,  Madras,  Calcutta,  etc., 
and  at  several  of  these  places  periodicals  are 
published.  The  best  Armenian  dictionaries  for 
foreigners  are  the  Armenian-French  one  pub- 
lished at  Venice  in  1812 :  the  Armenian-Italian 
of  Emmanuel  Tchaktchak  (Venice  1837)  ;  the 
Armenian-English  of  Aucher  as  improved  by 
Bedrossian  (Venice  1868-79)  I  both  Armenian- 
English  and  English-Armenian)  ;  and  the 
French- Armenian  of  Norayr  (Constantinople 
1884). 

Bibliography. —  Creagh,  'Armenians,  Koords 
and  Turks'  ;  Gladstone,  'The  Armenian  Ques- 
tion' ;  Greene,  'The  Armenian  Crisis  and  the 
Rule  of  the  Turk';  Gregor,  'History  of  Ar- 
menia' :  Norman,  'Armenia'  ;  Lynch,  'Arme- 
nia' ;  Nazarbek,  'Armenian  Revolutionists  upon 
Armenian  Problems';  Vartooguian,  'Armenia's 
Ordeal'  ;  Hanrachod,  'Chronological  Succession 
of  the  Armenian  Patriarchs'  ;  'Life  and  Times 
of  St.  Gregory,  the  Illuminator'  ;  Bedrossian, 
'New  Armenian  Dictionary'  ;  Mseriantz,  'Stud- 
ies on  Armenian  Dialectology.' 

Arme'nian  Art.     See  Armenia. 

Armenian   Church.     See  Armenia. 

Arme'nian  Language  and  Literature.     See 

Armenia. 

Armentieres,  iir'man'tyar'  (Latin.  Armett- 
taria),  a  town  in  France,  on  the  Belgian  fron- 
tier, 10  miles  west-northwest  of  Lille,  on  the 
Lys.  The  town  has  a  communal  college  and 
factories  for  spinning  flax,  hemp,  and  cotton 
yarn.  There  are  also  manufactories  of  woolen 
cloth,  table  linen,  calicoes,  lace,  thread,  beet- 
root sugar,  and  tobacco;  bleachfields,  distilleries, 
soap-works,  tanneries,  and  salt-refineries,  with 
a  considerable  trade  in  grain,  brandy,  iron,  to- 
bacco, soap,  etc.  Bricks  are  made  in  the  neigh- 
borhood in  large  quantities.     Pop.  (1001)  29.401. 

Arm'felt,  Gustav  Moritz,  Count  of,  a 
Swedish  soldier:  b.  1757;  d.  1814.  Though  he 
had  been  highly  favored  by  Gustavus  III.,  he  in- 
curred the  enmity  of  the  Duke  of  Sudcrmania, 
guardian  to  the  young  king.  Gustavus  IV.,  and 
was  deprived  of  all  his  titles  and  possessions. 
He  was  restored  to  his  fortune  and  honors  in 
'799.  when  Gustavus  IV.  attained  his  majority. 


ARMIDA  — ARMISTICE 


and  held  several  high  military  posts.  Subse- 
quently entering  the  Russian  service,  he  was 
made  count,  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Abo, 
president  of  the  department  for  the  affairs  of 
Finland,  member  of  the  Russian  Senate,  and 
served  in  the  campaign  against  Napoleon  in  1812. 

Armida,  ar-me'da,  the  beautiful  enchan- 
tress in  lasso's  'Jerusalem  Delivered.'  She 
succeeds  in  bringing  the  hero  Rinaldo  to  her 
enchanted  gardens,  where  he  forgets  his  vows 
for  a  time.  Messengers  from  the  Christian  host 
having  arrived,  Rinaldo  escapes  with  them  by 
means  of  a  powerful  talisman.  In  the  sequel 
Armida  becomes  a  Christian. 

Armies.  See  Ashy. 

Ar  miliary  Sphere  (  L.  armitta,  a  hoop),  an 
astronomical  instrument  composed  of  a  series  of 
rings,  all  circles  of  one  sphere,  intended  to  rep- 
resent the  principal  circles  of  the  celestial  globe, 
the  rings  standing  for  the  meridian  of  the  sta- 
tion, the  ecliptic,  the  tropics,  the  Arctic  and  Ant- 
arctic Circles,  etc.,  in  their  relative  positions. 
Its  purpose  is  to  represent  the  apparent  mo- 
tions of  the  solar  system. 

Arminianism,  a  term  applied  to  a  certain 
phase  of  Protestant  theology.  In  the  Nether- 
lands early  in  the  17th  century  there  was  a 
revolt  against  the  doctrine  of  unconditional 
election  as  taught  by  the  rigid  Calvinists.  The 
most  important  person,  thoueh  not  the  first  one, 
in  this  revolt  was  James  Arminius  (q.v.).  A 
controversy  was  carried  on  between  him  and 
Gomarus  over  the  question  of  predestination, 
and,  after  the  death  of  Arminius,  with  increased 
vigor  by  their  followers.  In  1610  the  Arminians 
set  forth  their  views  in  a  'Remonstrance1  cov- 
ering the  points  in  controversy  which  in  sub- 
stance was  as  follows : 

(1)  God  decreed  to  save  through  Christ 
those  who  believe  in  his  Son  and  who  persevere 
in  faith  and  obedience  through  life,  but  he 
leaves  in  sin  those  who  are  not  believers.  (2) 
Christ  died  for  all,  but  no  one  except  the  be- 
liever has  remission  of  sins.  (3)  Man  can 
neither  do  nor  think  anything  truly  good  until 
he  is  born  again  through  the  Holy  Spirit.  ( 4  I 
All  good  in  the  regenerate  man  is  brought  about 
by  the  grace  of  God,  but  this  grace  is  not  irre- 
sistible. (5)  Those  who  are  truly  converted 
have  power  given  them  through  the  Holy  Spirit 
and  the  help  of  Christ,  so  that  if  they  desire 
his  aid  and  are  not  inactive,  no  power  can  take 
them  away  from  Christ. 

In  1618  the  Synod  of  Dort  met  and  con- 
demned the  five  articles,  and  many  of  the 
remonstrant  ministers  were  deposed,  but  in 
1630  they  were  granted  religious  liberty.  They 
have  continued  to  the  present  as  one  of  the 
smaller  religious  sects  of  Holland  with  a  pres- 
byterial  organization  and  a  theological  seminary 
at  Amsterdam.  The  present  importance  of 
Arminianism  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  founders 
of  Methodism  (q.v.)  incorporated  into  their 
system  the  teachings  of  Arminius  and  his  im- 
mediate followers.  This  is  the  belief  of  the 
Methodist  Church  to-day,  as  well  as  that  of 
many  individuals  belonging  to  churches  nomi- 
nally Calvinistic. 

Armin'ius,  a  German  chief  celebrated  by 
his  fellow-countrymen  as  their  deliverer  from 
the  Roman  yoke :  b.  about  18  b.c.  ;  assassinated 


a.d.  19.  Sent  as  a  hostage  to  Rome  he  served  in 
the  Roman  army,  and  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
eques.  Finding  on  his  return  to  Germany  that 
the  Roman  governor,  Quintilius  Varus,  was 
making  efforts  to  Romanize  the  German  tribes 
near  the  Rhine,  lie  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  discontented  tribes  and  completely  annihi- 
lated the  army  of  Varus,  consisting  of  three  le- 
gions, in  a  three  days'  battle  fought  in  the  Teu- 
toberg  forest.  After  many  years'  resistance  to 
Rome  he  drew  upon  himself  the  hatred  of  his 
countrymen  by  aiming  at  the  regal  authority, 
and  was  assassinated.  A  national  monument 
to  his  memory  was  erected  on  the  Grotenburg, 
near  Detmold,  in  1875. 

Armin'ius,  Jacobus,  the  founder  of  Ar- 
minianism (q.v.)  :  b.  Oudewater,  Holland,  in 
1560;  d.  in  1609.  He  early  showed  marked 
promise  as  a  scholar,  and  entered  the  Univer- 
sity of  Leyden  at  the  age  of  15.  His  ability 
was  so  apparent  that  certain  officials  of  Amster- 
dam undertook  the  expense  of  his  education  for 
the  service  of  the  Church.  This  enabled  him 
to  study  at  Geneva,  where  Beza  was  at  the 
height  of  his  influence  and  by  whom  Arminius 
was  greatly  influenced.  He  also  studied  at 
Basel  and  Padua  and  visited  Rome.  Returning 
to  Holland  he  was  ordained  in  1588  and  became 
pastor  of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Amsterdam. 
At  that  time  he  was  a  rigid  Calvinist.  but  milder 
views  of  predestination  than  those  which  he 
had  learned  from  Beza  having  made  their  way 
into  Holland,  Arminius  was  called  upon  for  a 
defense  of  Calvinism.  He  made  a  more  care- 
ful examination  of  the  disputed  points  and  as 
a  result  modified  his  own  views,  though  still 
holding  to  predestination.  In  spite  of  the  oppo- 
sition which  arose  because  of  his  changed  opin- 
ions he  was  offered  and  accepted  a  professor- 
ship in  the  University  of  Leyden  in  1603.  A 
controversy  soon  broke  out  between  him  and 
his  colleague.  Gomarus,  a  zealous  and  extreme 
Calvinist.  Two  parties  were  formed  in  and 
beyond  the  university,  and  the  controversy  was 
kept  up  till  his  death  in  1609.  See  Arminian- 
ism. 

Ar'mistead,  George,  an  American  soldier: 
b.  in  New  Market.  Va.,  about  1780 ;  d.  in  1818. 
He  entered  the  United  States  army  in  1799,  be- 
came a  major  in  1813.  and  distinguished  him- 
self for  bravery  at  the  capture  of  Fort  George 
in  Canada  in  1813  and  the  defense  of  Fort  Mc- 
Henry  near  Baltimore  the  next  year. 

Ar'mistice,  a  suspension  of  hostilities  be- 
tween two  belligerent  powers  or  two  armies  by 
mutual  agreement.  It  may  either  be  for  a 
definite  period  or  until  its  termination  is  pro- 
claimed. An  armistice  throughout  the  whole 
theatre  of  war  can  be  concluded  only  by  the 
belligerent  governments,  and  does  not  take  full 
effect  until  it  has  been  ratified.  A  partial 
armistice  may,  however,  be  concluded  by  the 
commanders  of  individual  armies  or  army  corps, 
and  such  an  armistice  requires  no  ratification, 
although  it  may  be  disapproved  and  abolished 
by  the  government.  An  armistice  is  often  con- 
cluded for  only  a  few  hours  to  bury  the  slain, 
remove  the  wounded,  and  exchange  prisoners, 
as  also  sometimes  to  allow  of  a  parley  between 
the  opposing  generals.  A  breach  of  an  armis- 
tice is  regarded  as  a  violation  of  the  law  of 
nations.     Sometimes  a  regular  armistice  is  pre- 


ARMITAGE  —  ARMOR-PLATE 


ceded  by  an  actual  suspension  of  hostilities.  If 
the  conditions  on  which  an  armistice  was  agreed 
upon,  as  that  while  it  lasted  all  preparations  for 
attack  or  defense  should  cease,  are  violated  by 
either  side,  the  enemy  is  entitled  to  resume  hos- 
tilities at  once.  A  general  armistice  is  usually 
the  preliminary  of  a  peace,  and  can  only  be 
proclaimed  by  the  commanders-in-chief  or  their 
home  governments. 

Ar'mitage,  Edward,  an  English  historical 
and  mural  painter:  b.  London,  20  May  1817;  d. 
in  1896.  He  studied  in  Paris,  where,  in  1842, 
he  exhibited  his  first  independent  work.  In  the 
following  year  his  'Landing  of  Caesar'  gained  a 
prize  of  $1,500  in  London;  and  in  1845  and  1847 
he  carried  off  prizes  of  $1,000  and  $2,500.  He 
was  made  a  fellow  of  the  Royal  Academy  in 
1872,  and  in  1875  was  appointed  lecturer  on 
painting  there.  His  mural  paintings  include  a 
series  of  noble  figures  of  Christ  and  the  12  apos- 
tles, executed  for  Saint  John's  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  London. 

Ar'mitage,  Thomas,  an  American  clergy- 
man: b.  Pontefract.  England,  2  Aug.  1819;  d. 
Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  20  Jan.  1896.  He  prepared  him- 
self for  the  ministry  and  preached  his  first  ser- 
mon when  16  years  old.  Coming  to  New  York 
city  in  1838,  he  was  actively  engaged  in  the  min- 
istry of  the  Methodist  Church  until  1848,  when 
he  became  a  Baptist,  and  was  pastor  of  the  Nor- 
folk Street  Church  (later  the  Fifth  Avenue  Bap- 
tist Church).  In  1890  he  was  made  pastor 
emeritus,  given  a  residence  in  Yonkers.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  American  Bible 
Union.  He  published  'Jesus:  His  Self-Intro- 
spection1 (1878)  ;  'Lectures  on  Preaching' 
(1880)  ;  'History  of  the  Baptists'   (1886). 

Ar'mor.     See  Arms  and  Armor. 

Armorclads.     See  Warships. 

Ar'mor-plate,  in  modern  usage,  a  metallic 
covering  for  ships  or  fortifications,  intended  to 
furnish  protection  against  gun-fire.  John  Ste- 
vens of  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  is  universally  credited 
with  having  originated  the  idea  of  applying 
armor  to  the  sides  of  ships,  he  having  designed 
a  vessel  with  battery  protected  by  inclined  ar- 
mor and  submitted  her  plans  to  the  United 
States  government  during  the  War  of  1812; 
but  it  was  the  development  of  the  naval  shell 
gun  which  led  to  the  actual  use  of  armor. 
The  annihilation  of  the  Turkish  fleet  at  Linope 
in  1853  first  drew  general  attention  to  the  neces- 
sity of  providing  some  protection  against  ex- 
plosive shell,  and  the  incident  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  the  construction  of  armored  ships 
in  the  United  States,  France,  and  England. 
The  "Stevens  Battery,"  a  steam,  armored  war 
vessel,  was  begun  in  the  United  States  in 
1854.  a  few  months  earlier  than  the  first  iron- 
clad was  laid  down  in  Europe,  but  the  French 
were  the  first  to  complete  their  vessels,  and 
on  17  Oct.  1855,  the  Devastation,  Love,  and 
Tounante,  the  first  ironclad  squadron  ever  seen, 
after  a  close  engagement  of  four  hours,  silenced 
the  Russian  forts  at  Kinburn.  which  had  pre- 
viously held  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and 
England  at  bay.  No  sooner,  however,  had  the 
first  thin  iron  plates  proved  themselves  an 
effective  shield  against  gun-fire,  than  the  in- 
troduction of  new  and  more  powerful  guns 
forced  a  corresponding  development  in  the  thick- 
ness and  quality  of  armor.     The  progress  of  the 


contest  is  shown  by  the  facts  that,  while  in 
1863  4^-inch  iron  plating  made  a  ship  invulner- 
able, in  1868  9-inch  plating  was  required  to  the 
same  end,  and  in  1872  a  12-inch  plate  was 
pierced  on  the  firing  ground.  With  the  produc- 
tion of  12-inch  plates  the  litnit  of  regularity  in 
manufacture  with  wrought  iron  seemed  to  be 
reached,  and  the  cost  of  the  plate  upon  plate 
system,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of  making  the 
plates  fit  each  other,  led  to  the  use  of  the  sand- 
wich system,  in  which  layers  of  wood  separated 
layers  of  iron  plating.  The  advent  of  the 
Krupp  i4}/>-inch  rifle  and  of  the  Woolwich  81- 
ton  gun  marked  the  final  supremacy  of  the  gun. 
Wrought  iron  armor  had  then  reached  its  high- 
est development  on  the  British  ship  Inflexible, 
which  was  protected  by  two  layers  of  12-inch 
plates  with  11  inches  of  teak  between  them  and 
backed  by  6  inches  of  teak  and  two  1-inch  skin 
plates.  Compound  armor,  composed  of  a  hard 
steel  face  welded  upon  a  wrought  iron  back, 
next  came  into  general  use,  but  homogeneous 
steel,  first  made  in  the  form  of  heavy  plating  by 
Schneider  &  Co.  of  France,  disputed  with  it  for 
the  palm  and  finally  proved  its  superiority.  In 
1890  nickel  steel  had  its  first  public  trial,  on  the 
United  States  naval  proving  ground  at  Annapo- 
lis, Md.,  in  competition  with  compound  armor 
and  with  homogeneous  steel ;  and  in  the  same 
year  a  steel  plate  hardened  on  one  face  was  also 
tried  at  Annapolis  and  showed  phenomenal  re- 
sistance to  perforation.  Further  tests  demon- 
strated the  decisive  superiority  of  the  surface- 
hardened  steel  plates,  called  Harveyized  from 
the  inventor  of  the  process,  and  in  a  very 
short  time  they  were  universally  adopted  for 
armoring  ships.  The  following  briefly  describes 
the  method  of  manufacturing  this  armor.  The 
ingot,  of  approximately  rectangular  cross  sec- 
tion and  about  twice  the  weight  of  the  fin- 
ished plate,  is  made  of  open-hearth  steel,  suffi- 
cient nickel  being  added  to  the  furnace  charge 
to  give  about  2>V\  Per  cent  >n  the  casting.  Af- 
ter cooling,  the  ingot  is  stripped,  reheated,  and 
forged  to  nearly  the  required  thickness,  being 
handled  by  a  porter  bar  forged  from  the  upper 
end,  and  the  entire  forging  operation  usually 
requiring  several  heats.  In  the  early  days  of 
steel  armor  manufacture  immense  steam  ham- 
mers were  used  for  forging,  but  now  hydraulic 
presses  are  preferred.  After  forging,  the  upper 
end  of  the  plate  is  cut  off  under  the  hammer  or 
press,  and  the  remainder,  after  cooling,  placed 
in  the  Harveyizing  furnace  with  its  back  and 
sides  well  protected  by  refractory  materials  and 
its  face  covered  with  a  carbonizing  mixture, 
where  it  is  raised  to  a  high  temperature  and  left 
to  soak  for  several  days.  When  the  carbon  has 
penetrated  sufficiently  into  its  face,  the  plate 
is  removed  from  the  furnace  and  given  a  sec- 
ondary forging  which  reduces  it  to  the  required 
thickness,  after  which  it  is  trimmed  to  size  in  a 
planer  and  its  face  is  cleaned.  The  next  opera- 
tion consists  of  heating  the  plate  and  chilling 
its  surface  with  a  spray  of  cold  water,  which 
hardens  the  highly  carbonized  face  but  leaves 
the  body  of  the  plate  still  soft.  If  the  plate  is 
to  be  bent  or  curved  this  operation  is  performed 
under  a  press  after  the  carbonizing  but  before 
the  final  heating  for  hardening  the  face.  The 
final  operation  is  boring  and  tapping  the  bolt 
holes  in  the  back  of  the  plate.  If  holes  are 
required    for    structural    purposes    in    the    hard 


ARMORED  TRAIN 


face  of  a  plate,  it  is  softened  at  the  proper 
places  by  means  of  an  electric  current,  since 
otherwise  it  will  resist  any  tool.  Within  the 
last  few  years  improvements  upon  the  Harvey 
process  have  been  developed  by  Krupp  at  Essen, 
and  the  Krupp  process  is  now  widely  used.  The 
details  are  kept  secret,  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  essential  feature  is  the  use  of  chrome  as 
well  as  nickel  in  the  steel,  this  alloy  permitting 
the  chill  to  be  carried  deeper  into  the  plate  than 
when  steel  containing  nickel  only  is  used.  The 
supercarbonization,  though  brought  about  by  the 
use  of  a  hydrocarbon  gas,  is  the  equivalent  of 
ordinary  cementation,  and  the  usual  cold  spray 
is  used  to  chill  the  surface.  Kruppized  plates 
offer  some  20  per  cent  more  resistance  to  or- 
dinary armor-piercing  projectiles  than  Har- 
veyized  plates,  but  when  attacked  by  the  capped 
projectiles  now  coming  into  general  use  the 
gain  in  resistance  is  much  less.  Their  freedom 
1 1.  in  cracking  is  a  further  point  of  superiority. 
The  armor  applied  to  the  protection  of  ships 
is  also  used  on  coast  and  frontier  defenses,  but 
another  armor,  ill  adapted  to  naval  use  on  ac- 
count of  its  weight,  has  also  been  developed. 
Chilled  cast  iron  was  first  tested  as  armor  in 
Prussia  in  1868,  and  then  and  in  many  subse- 
quent trials  showed  remarkable  resistance  to 
gun-fire.  The  Grason  system,  in  which  ellip- 
soidal-shaped turrets  are  built  up  of  very  heavy 
iron  castings,  chilled  on  the  outer  surface,  and 
fitted  together  without  bolts,  has  been  largely 
used  for  land   fortifications  in  Europe. 

Backing  and  Fastenings. —  Armor  was  first 
applied  to  wooden  ships,  and  when  iron  and 
steel  ships  succeeded  these  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  interpose  wood  between  the  skin-plating 
of  the  ship  and  the  armor  to  provide  a  surface 
which  could  be  trimmed  to  fit  the  latter,  and 
to  decrease  the  injury  caused  to  the  ship's  side 
by  the  impact  of  shot.  East  India  teak  is  used 
for  armor  backing,  but  the  modern  tendency  is 
to  reduce  its  thickness  as  far  as  is  practicable, 
and  even  to  dispense  with  it  entirely  in  above- 
water  structures.  Through  bolts  were  first  used 
for  fastening  armor  to  ships,  but  they  caused 
leaks,  besides  weakening  the  armor,  and  the 
bolts  now  used  only  screw  a  short  distance  into 
the  backs  of  the  plates,  being  set  up  with  nuts 
on  their  inner  ends.  They  are  made  of  forged 
steel ;  have  shanks  of  reduced  diameter  to  pre- 
vent breaking  at  the  threads ;  have  packing  to 
prevent  leakage  around  them ;  and  usually  have 
rubber  washers  under  their  nut  heads.  One  bolt 
is  used  to  about  every  4x/i  square  feet  of  plating, 
and  their  diameters  are  from  lYz  to  J,Vi  inches 
according  to  the  thickness  of   the  armor. 

Disposition  and  Uses. —  When  sea-going  ar- 
mored ships  first  began  to  be  built  it  was  possible 
to  completely  cover  them  with  armor  then  im- 
penetrable, but  the  increasing  power  of  guns  soon 
made  it  necessary  to  restrict  the  defended  area 
if  it  was  to  be  given  complete  protection.  In 
the  hopeless  attempt  to  secure  invulnerability 
armor  was  gradually  stripped  from  other  por- 
tions and  concentrated  over  parts  considered 
vital.  The  restriction  of  batteries  to  a  few 
heavy  guns,  mounted  in  turrets  or  a  central 
citadel,  allowed  the  thickness  of  armor  protect- 
ing men  and  guns  to  be  greatly  increased,  with 
a  corresponding  reduction  in  its  extent,  and  at 
the  same  time  water-line  armor  was  made  thick- 
er and  thicker  and  of  less  and  less  area.     Of 


late  years,  however,  there  has  been  a  growing 
tendency  to  return  to  the  early  practice  of 
expanding  armor  over  a  large  area.  Great 
are  the  displacements  of  modern  battleships  it 
is  not  deemed  wise  to  attempt  to  secure  complete 
protection  for  any  one  portion  of  them ;  it  is 
recognized  that  armor  can  only  be  expected  to 
furnish  a  reasonable  amount  of  security  to 
what  it  covers;  to  keep  out  all  small  projectiles; 
and  above  all  to  keep  out  explosive  shell  with 
large  bursting  charg  lling  resort  to  ar- 

mor-piercing shell.  Modern  battleships  often 
carry  as  much  as  4.000  tons  weight  of  armor. 
The  principle  of  inclining  armor  so  as  to  cause 
it  to  deflect  projectiles  is  largely  used  in  pro- 
tective decks  covering  the  propelling  machinery, 
and  also  to  some  extent  in  shields  for  the  de- 
fense of  guns'  crews.  Hard  faced  armor  plates 
of  as  great  weight  as  50  tons  and  of  as  great 
thickness  as  18  inches  have  been  applied  to 
ships,  but  in  the  best  present  practice  a  thickness 
of  12  inches  is  seldom  exceeded.  A  width  of 
about  9  feet  and  a  length  of  about  18  feet  are 
the  limiting  sizes  of  armor  plates  now  made. 
Modern  naval  guns,  firing  capped  projectiles, 
will  more  than  overmatch  the  best  armor  plate, 
of  thicknesses  equal  to  their  respective  calibres, 
up  to  3,000  yards'  distance,  provided  the  impact 
be  normal  to  the  plate's  surface,  but  the  fact  that 
in  actual  battle  most  impacts  will  be  at  some 
inclination  to  the  surface  struck  adds  greatly  to 
the  real  value  of  armor.  There  are  two  great 
plants  in  the  United  States  for  the  manufacture 
of  armor  —  the  Bethlehem  Steel  Co.  at  Beth- 
lehem, Pa.,  and  the  Carnegie  Steel  Co.  at  Pitts- 
burg. The  greatest  foreign  plants  are  at 
Sheffield,  England,  at  the  Creusot  and  the  St. 
diamond  works  in  France,  and  at  Krupp's 
works  in  Germany.  Philip  R.  Ai.ger, 

U.  S.  Naval  Academy,  Annapolis. 

Armored  Train,  a  modern  instrument  of 
war  severely  tested  in  the  American  operations 
against  Filipino  insurgents  in  1898-99,  and  in 
those  of  the  British  against  the  Boers  in  1899- 
1900.  Credit  has  been  given  to  Admiral  Fisher 
of  the  British  navy  for  the  first  use  of  the 
armored  train  in  war.  when,  in  1882,  he  covered 
a  locomotive  with  boiler  plate  and  equipped  cars, 
similarly  protected,  with  field  guns  and  put 
them  to  effective  practical  use.  But  the  germ 
of  the  idea  was  of  earlier  date.  When  the  Ger- 
mans invested  Paris,  the  French  made  frequent 
sorties  from  the  city,  and  in  many  of  these 
attacks  were  assisted  by  field  guns  mounted  on 
wagons  and  carriages.  Later  they  were  mount- 
ed on  railroad  cars,  which  were  protected  in 
their  vital  points  against  the  enemy's  guns. 
Since  1882  most  of  the  military  powers  of  Eu- 
rope have  been  experimenting  in  this  direction 
and  Great  Britain  has  now  probably  the  most 
complete  and  efficient  armored  trains  in  the 
world.  The  best  that  the  British  army  possesses 
is  the  engine  and  train  of  the  First  Sussex  Ar- 
tillery Volunteers.  The  model  design  was  made 
from  special  designs  for  war  purposes.  The 
protected  engine  carries  a  Maxim  gun,  and  the 
protected  cars  have  heavy  field  guns,  operated 
by  machinery,  so  that  any  part  of  the  surround- 
ing country  can  quickly  be  covered.  Arrange- 
ments are  made  to  compensate  for  the  recoil,  and 
also  to  give  steadiness  and  stability  to  the  cars. 
This  latter  is  accomplished  by  an  arrangement 


ARMORER  — ARMS  AND  ARMOR 


for  clamping  the  truck  to  the  rails  by  strong 
screw  clips  whenever  the  gun  is  fired.  There 
are  also  several  steel-plated  vans  accompanying 
the  train,  in  which  horses  and  soldiers  can  be 
safely  conveyed.  This  type  of  movable  fortress 
performed  notable  achievements  in  South  Africa, 
and  in  the  sorties  from  Ladysmith  and  Kim- 
berley  was  the  chief  implement  that  forced  the 
Boers  back.  With  machine  guns  and  field  pieces 
the  moving  train  becomes  a  valuable  offensive 
apparatus,  being  able  to  move  up  close  to  the 
enemy's  lines  or  retreat  to  a  point  beyond  the 
range  of  small  arms.  The  rapidity  with  which 
the  train  can  change  its  base  of  action  renders 
it  a  difficult  object  for  the  batteries  of  an  enemy 
to  hit,  and  almost  the  only  way  to  defeat  its 
operations  is  to  wreck  or  derail  it ;  it  then 
becomes  a  helpless  target  for  long-range  guns. 
Probably  the  first  attempt  in  the  United  States 
to  provide  an  armored  car  was  that  made  by 
the  Michigan  Central  Railroad  Company,  on  the 
order  of  the  American  Express  Company,  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the  valuable  articles 
carried  on  its  special  express  trains.  These 
armored  or  "arsenal  cars"  were  so  constructed 
as  to  make  the  centre  of  them  with  its  steel 
plating  a  thoroughly  bullet-proof  room,  with 
apertures  so  disposed  as  to  enable  the  guards 
within  to  resist  an  attack  by  thieves  from  any 
quarter.  During  the  remarkable  dash  of  the 
American  troops  in  the  Philippines  into  the 
northern  part  of  the  island  of  Luzon,  in  search 
of  the  fugitive  insurgent  leader  Aguinaldo,  in 
1899.  much  effective  work  was  accomplished  by 
an  improvised  armored  train. 

Ar'morer,  a  term  formerly  applied  to  a 
maker  of  arms  and  armor,  a  very  important 
handicraftsman  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  down  to 
the  end  of  the  16th  century  and  even  later. 
(See  Arms  and  Armor.)  At  the  present  day 
the  term  denotes  persons  employed  to  keep  the 
arms  of  the  soldiers  in  repair,  or  the  custodian 
of  an  armory.  On  board  a  man-of-war  the  ar- 
morer is  a  petty  officer  appointed  to  keep  the 
small  arms  in  complete  condition  for  service. 

Armor'ica,  the  country  of  the  Armorici. 
The  name  was  formed  from  two  Celtic  words 
signifying  "upon  the  sea,"  and  was  apparently 
applied  in  ancient  times  to  the  whole  northern 
and  western  coast  of  Gaul.  It  was  afterward 
confined  to  the  province  of  Brittany. 

Ar'mory,  a  building,  or  military  station 
appropriated  to  the  storage  of  arms,  or  the  use 
of  troops.  In  the  United  States  the  term  is 
generally  applied  to  the  headquarters  of  the 
local  militia,  and  signifies  almost  the  equivalent 
of  a  club  house,  to  which  is  added  a  drill 
shed,  for  military  manoeuvres. 

Ar'mour,  Herman  Ossian,  an  American 
merchant :  b.  Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  in  1837.  After 
several  years  spent  in  the  grain  commission  bus- 
iness in  Chicago  he  became  in  1865  the  New 
York  representative  of  the  Milwaukee  packing 
firm  of  Armour,  Plankinton  &  Co..  which  re- 
tained the  firm  name  of  H.  O.  Armour  &  Co. 
until  1870.  The  name  was  then  altered  to 
Armour  &  Co.,  which  is  now  the  most  im- 
portant provision  firm  in  the  world. 

Ar'mour,  Philip  Danforth,  an  American 
philanthropist:  b.  Stockbridge,  N.  Y.,  16  May 
1832 ;  d.  6  Jan.  1001.  He  was  a  miner  in  Cali- 
fornia   in    1852-56,    but    engaged    in    the    com- 


mission business  in  Milwaukee  in  1856-63 ;  and 
later  became  the  head  of  the  pork  packing  firm 
of  Armour,  Plankinton  &  Co.,  Chicago.  He 
founded  the  Armour  Mission  and  the  Armour 
Institute  of  Technology  (q.v.),  both  in  Chicago; 
the  former  at  a  cost  of  about  $250,000,  and  the 
latter  with  an  endowment  of  $1,500,000,  subse- 
quently increased. 

Ar'mour  Institute  of  Technology,  an 
American  co-educational  institution,  founded  in 
Chicago,  111.,  by  Philip  D.  Armour,  in  1893.  Its 
scheme  includes  ( 1 )  The  Technical  College ; 
(2)  The  Department  of  Commercial  Tests;  (3) 
The  Armour  Scientific  Academy.  The  institu- 
tion had  666  students  in  1901  and  38  professors 
in  its  faculty.  Its  property  was  valued  at  $4,- 
560,000. 

Arms  and  Armor.  The  earliest  arms 
were  everywhere  made  of  stone.  Stone  was 
succeeded  by  bronze  in  the  manufacture  of 
weapons  of  war.  The  commonest  warlike  relics 
of  the  bronze  age  that  have  come  down  to  us 
are  daggers  and  spear-heads.  From  the  descrip- 
tions of  Homer  we  know  that  almost  all  the 
Grecian  armor,  defensive  and  offensive,  in  his 
time  was  of  bronze,  although  it  is  evident  that 
iron  was  sometimes  used  in  the  time  of  Homer 
for  making  weapons,  from  the  fact  that  he  oc- 
casionally uses  the  Greek  word  for  iron  (si- 
dcros)  for  a  sword.  Not  the  sword,  however, 
but  the  lance,  spear,  and  javelin,  were  the  prin- 
cipal weapons  of  this  age  among  the  Greeks. 
The  bow  is  not  often  mentioned,  although  a 
bow  belonging  to  Pandarus  is  described  in  the 
Iliad,  and  in  the  Odyssey  Ulysses  is  represented 
as  very  expert  in  the  use  of  this  weapon. 
Among  the  most  ancient  nations  the  Egyptians 
seem  to  have  been  most  accustomed  to  the  use 
of  the  bow,  which  was  the  principal  weapon  of 
the  Egyptian  infantry.  The  Egyptian  bow  was 
somewhat  shorter  than  the  height  of  a  man ; 
the  arrow  was  usually  made  of  reed,  the  head 
of  bronze,  but  sometimes  of  flint.  Peculiar  to 
the  Egyptians  was  a  defensive  weapon  the  ob- 
ject of  which  was  to  catch  and  break  the  sword 
of  the  enemy.  With  the  Assyrians  also  the 
bow  was  a  favorite  weapon ;  but  with  them 
lances,  spears,  and  javelins  were  in  more  com- 
mon use  than  with  the  Egyptians.  Most  of  the 
large  engines  of  war,  chariots  with  scythes 
projecting  at  each  side  from  the  axle,  catapults, 
and  ballistae,  seem  to  have  been  of  Assyrian 
origin.  All  of  those  mentioned  can  at  any  rate 
be  traced  back  to  the  Assyrians,  to  whom  the 
invention  of  the  catapult  and  the  ballista  was  at- 
tributed by  classical  writers.  During  the  his- 
torical age  of  Greece  the  characteristic  weapon 
was  a  heavy  spear  from  21  to  24  feet  in  length. 
The  sword  used  by  the  Greeks  was  short,  and 
was  worn  on  the  right  side.  The  Roman  sword 
was  of  Spanish  origin,  from  22  to  24  inches  in 
length,  straight,  two-edged,  and  obtusely  point- 
ed, and  as  by  the  Greeks  was  worn  on  the  right 
side.  It  was  used  principally  as  a  stabbing 
weapon.  On  the  Trajan  column,  belonging  to 
114  A  p.,  the  sword  appears  considerably  longer 
than  that  used  at  an  earlier  period.  The  Roman 
sword  was  originally  of  bronze,  but  like  all 
other  offensive  weapons  among  the  Romans  was 
always  of  iron  in  the  time  of  Polybius  (2d 
century  B.C.),  when  bronze  continued  in  use  only 
for  defensive  armor.  The  characteristic  weapon 
of  the  Roman  soldier  was  the  pilum,  a  kind  of 


ARMS  AND  ARMOR 


pike  or  javelin,  about  5  or  6  feet  in  length,  with 
a  wooden  shaft  and  an  iron  bead,  the  latter  of 
which  was  about  one  third  of  the  length  of  the 
whole.  The  pilum  was  sometimes  used  at  close 
quarters  both  as  an  offensive  weapon  and  as  a 
means  of  parrying  blows,  but  more  commonly 
it  was  thrown  along  with  the  other  javelin, 
which  every  Roman  spearman  (hastarius)  car- 
ried when  within  10  or  15  paces  of  the  enemy. 
The  pilum,  when  thrown  from  this  distance, 
would  fix  itself  in  the  enemy's  shield,  where- 
upon the  Romans  would  rush  up,  and  seizing 
hold  of  the  shafts  of  their  pila  draw  down  the 
shields  in  which  they  were  fixed,  and  follow 
up  the  attack  with  their  swords.  In  addition 
to  tin-  large  engines  of  war  that  have  been  al- 
ready mentioned  as  of  Assyrian  origin  (scythe- 
chariots,  catapults,  and  ballista?)  the  Romans 
made  use  of  battering-rams  for  making  breaches 
in  the  walls  of  fortified  places.  The  Greeks  are 
said  to  have  used  a  sort  of  cannon  made  on  the 
principle  of  the  modern  air-gun.  The  Romans 
also  employed  caltrops  to  embarrass  the  move- 
ments of  an  enemy's  cavalry. 

The  principal  pieces  of  defensive  armor  used 
by  the  ancients  were  shields,  helmets,  cuirasses, 
and  greaves.  No  shields  were  carried  by  the 
Egyptian  archers ;  but  the  Egyptian  spearmen 
had  large  shields,  rectangular  below  and  semi- 
circular at  the  top,  and  with  a  round  sight-hole 
in  this  semicircular  part.  In  the  heroic  age  of 
Greece  the  shield  is  described  as  of  immense 
size,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  defending  the  whole 
body.  In  the  early  monuments  the  shield  is 
still  large,  though  not  so  large  as  it  appears  to 
have  been  in  the  heroic  age.  In  shape  it  is 
round  or  oval,  with  a  very  considerable  degree 
of  convexity.  At  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian 
war  a  still  smaller  shield  came  into  use.  The 
Romans  had  two  sorts  of  shields  —  the  scutum, 
a  large,  oblong,  rectangular,  highly  convex 
shield,  carried  by  the  legionaries  —  and  the  par- 
ma,  a  small,  round  or  oval,  flat  shield,  carried 
by  the  light-armed  troops  and  the  cavalry.  In 
the  declining  days  of  Rome  the  shields  became 
larger  and  more  varied  in  form.  The  helmet 
was  a  characteristic  piece  of  armor  among  the 
Assyrians,  Greeks,  Etruscans,  and  Romans. 
Like  all  other  body  armor  it  was  usually  made 
of  bronze.  The  Assyrian  helmet  was  frequently 
conical.  Sometimes  it  had  the  form  of  a  trun- 
cated cone,  and  sometimes  the  pointed  extremity 
was  curved  forward.  The  helmet  of  the  his- 
torical age  of  Greece  was  distinguished  by  its 
lofty  crest,  which  tapered  downward  to  the  back 
of  the  neck.  The  Etruscan  helmet  was  also 
very  high  crested  and  sometimes  had  a  wing  ris- 
ing to  a  considerable  height  on  either  side  from 
points  near  the  summit.  The  Roman  helmet 
in  the  time  of  the  early  emperors  fitted  close  to 
the  head  and  had  a  hollow  neck-guard  and 
hinged  cheek-pieces  fastened  under  the  chin,  and 
a  small  bar  across  the  face  for  a  visor.  The 
neck-guard  and  cheek-pieces  were  not  peculiar 
to  the  Roman  helmet,  but  were  in  common  use 
wherever  the  helmet  was  worn.  In  later  days 
the  helmet  of  the  Romans  had  a  higher  crown 
than  that  of  the  early  emperors.  The  cuirasses 
of  the  Assyrians  were  close-fitting  tunics  made 
of  several  layers  of  flax  plaited  or  interwoven 
and  glued  together.  This  kind  of  cuirass  was 
introduced  into  Greece  during  the  Pelopon- 
nesian war  and  was  sometimes  used  even  by  the 


Romans.  Before  the  Peloponnesian  war  the 
dmks  had  the  upper  part  of  their  body  defend- 
ed by  bronze  cuirasses.  The  defensive  body 
armor  of  the  Egyptian  archers  consisted  of  a 
quilted  coat.  The  Egyptian  spearmen  had  cui- 
rasses of  bronze  scales  or  quilted  with  bands  of 
metal.  Under  the  Roman  republic  all  the  le- 
gionaries wore  a  bronze  cuirass,  consisting  of  a 
breast  and  back  plate,  with  a  border  of  pendent 
leather  straps  defending  the  lower  part  of  the 
body.  On  the  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antonine 
this  cuirass  is  given  only  to  officers,  the  legion- 
aries wearing  at  that  period  only  leather  or 
linen  cuirasses,  on  which  circular  plates  of  metal 
and  metal  shoulder-pieces  were  sewed,  and  to  the 
lower  border  of  which  were  attached  oblong 
plates  which  served  the  purpose  of  the  leather 
straps  of  the  other  cuirass.  In  the  time  of  Tra- 
jan and  Septimius  Severus  a  flexible  cuirass  was 
added  to  the  equipment  of  the  Roman  knight  or 
horseman.  This  was  made  either  of  scales  (lo- 
rica  squamata)  or  of  chains  (lorica  hamuta). 
One  of  the  latter  kind  has  been  found  at 
Avenches  in  Switzerland,  and  is  there  exhibited. 
Greaves  do  not  seem  to  have  been  worn  by  any 
of  the  eastern  nations  except  the  Persians, 
wdiose  defensive  armor  resembled  pretty  closely 
that  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  greaves  of  the 
Greeks  (knemides)  were  made  in  two  pieces 
which  were  fastened  together  by  clasps.  The 
Roman  greaves  (ocrea)  were  made  in  one 
piece  and  were  often  worn  only  on  one  leg. 
The  Samnite  practice  was  to  wear  the  greave 
upon  the  left  leg,  which  is  the  leg  advanced 
in  fighting  with  a  shield  on  the  left  arm;  but 
Vegetius  mentions  that  the  greave  was  worn  by 
the  Roman  legionaries  upon  the  right  leg.  The 
greave  reached  only  from  the  knee  to  the  ankle. 
The  Roman  soldiers  had  their  feet  protected  by 
shoes  set  with  nails   (caliga). 

The  favorite  weapons  of  the  Germanic  races, 
by  which  the  ancient  civilization  of  Rome  was  to 
a  large  extent  overthrown,  were  the  battle-axe, 
the  lance  or  dart,  and  the  sword.  Their  defen- 
sive armor  consisted  almost  exclusively  of  a 
shield  made  of  plaited  osier  covered  with  leather 
and  generally  8  feet  by  2  in  size.  Afterward  it 
was  made  round  and  bound  with  iron,  and  had 
several  prominent  bosses  on  its  surface.  The 
Frankish  form  of  the  German  battle-axe  was 
called  francisca  (francisque),  and  was  the  cha- 
racteristic weapon  of  that  tribe.  It  had  a  broad 
single-edged  blade  and  a  short  haft,  and  was 
often  used  as  a  missile.  The  lance  or  dart  of 
the  Franks,  called  augon,  closely  resembled  and 
was  used  exactly  in  the  same  way  as  the  Roman 
pilum.  The  sword  among  the  Franks  was  only 
a  horseman's  weapon.  The  shield  of  the  Franks 
was  round.  Hardly  any  body  armor  (scarcely 
even  a  helmet)  was  used  by  them  until  the  Car- 
Iovingian  days.  Swords  belonging  to  the  early 
iron  age  in  Scandinavia  are  frequently  found  in 
the  mosses  of  Schleswig.  They  are  long, 
straight,  two-edged,  and  often  richly  dama- 
scened. Shields  belonging  to  the  same  district 
and  epoch  were  made  of  wood,  and  were  flat, 
round,  and  from  22^2  to  44  inches  in  diameter. 
They  were  bossed  and  otherwise  mounted,  gen- 
erally in  bronze,  sometimes  in  iron.  The  com- 
mon arms  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  infantry  were  a 
spear,  an  axe,  and  a  scramasax  (a  heavy  single- 
edged  knife).  With  the  Anglo-Saxons  as  with 
the   Franks  the  sword  was  especially  a  horse- 


ARMOR. 


1.  French  Foot  Soldier.  Eisrhth  Centurv. 

2.  Polish  Knight,  end  of  Fifteenth  Century. 

3.  French  Soldier,  about  1120  A.  D. 

4.  Battle  of  Askalon  ( 1099)  from  a  Window  In  the 

Church  of  St.  I.ouis,  Paris 


5-6.    German  Full  Armor,  of  the  time  of  Maximilian  I. 

A.  Mottled  or  Striped  Armor.  B.  Ringed  Armor.  C. 
Fettered  Armor.  D.  Shield  Ornament.  E.Plate 
Armor.    F.  Chain  Armor 


ARMS  AND  ARMOR. 


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ARMS  AND  ARMOR 


man's  weapon,  being  carried  by  none  under  the 
rank  of  thane.  The  sword  carried  by  them  was 
3  feet  long,  broad  in  the  blade,  and  round  at  the 
point.  The  Saxon  shield  was  round  or  oval, 
made  of  wood  covered  with  leather,  and  fur- 
nished with  a  high  conical  boss. 

The  arms  and  armor  both  of  the  Normans 
and  Anglo-Saxons,  but  especially  of  the  former, 
at  the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest  of  England 
are  pretty  fully  illustrated  by  the  Bayeux  tap- 
estry. On  this  work  the  horsemen  appear  armed 
with  long  lances  as  well  as  swords.  The  Nor- 
mans are  represented  as  well  furnished  with 
archers  and  cavalry,  of  which  arms  the  Saxons 
do  not  seem  to  have  had  any.  Maces,  clubs, 
axes  with  shafts  from  4  to  5  feet  long,  are  seen 
in  the  hands  of  both.  The  shields  are  long, 
rounded  above  and  tapering  to  a  point  at  the 
bottom.  The  body-armor  consists  of  a  long 
hauberk  ringed  or  trellised.  The  helmet  is  coni- 
cal and  has  a  sort  of  tongue  in  front  which 
comes  down  over  the  nose. 

Chain  armor  of  interlinked  rings  came  into 
use  at  the  time  of  the  Crusades  and  continued 
in  use  till  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century. 
From  the  latter  date  to  early  in  the  15th  cen- 
tury mixed  chain  and  plate  armor  was  in  use, 
and  from  about  the  year  1410  to  the  beginning 
of  the  next  century  the  body  armor  was  en- 
tirely of  plate,  and  complete  suits  of  plate  armor 
did  not  altogether  go  out  of  use  for  another  cen- 
tury. Below  the  waist  the  body  was  protected 
by  taces,  a  series  of  narrow  overlapping  plates 
attached  to  a  lining  of  leather.  After  the  in- 
troduction of  complete  suits  of  plate  armor  the 
chief  modifications  consisted  in  the  strengthen- 
ing of  the  weakest  parts,  especially  on  the  right 
side.  By  the  end  of  the  15th  century  plate 
armor  had  attained  its  highest  development, 
even  the  horses  at  that  period  being  protected 
by  plate  armor  everywhere  except  on  the  legs. 
By  this  time,  in  fact,  the  fabrication  of  armor 
had  reached  such  a  degree  of  perfection  that 
it  was  scarcely  possible  for  men-at-arms  en- 
gaged in  combat  to  find  any  spot  where  the 
armor  of  their  antagonist  could  be  pierced. 
Combatants  equipped  in  this  manner  aimed  ac- 
cordingly less  at  wounding  than  at  unhorsing 
one  another,  for  a  man-at-arms  unhorsed  was 
at  the  mercy  of  his  antagonist,  who,  if  he  could 
not  find  any  weak  point  where  he  could  pierce 
the  armor  of  his  fallen  foe,  might  beat  him  to 
death  with  the  heavy  mace  with  which  he  was 
armed.  Many  savage  encounters  of  this  nature 
are  recorded  by  the  chroniclers  of  the  time. 
Usually,  however,  a  man-at-arms  when  un- 
horsed became  the  prisoner  of  his  conqueror, 
and  many  battles  were  decided,  especially  in  the 
wars  between  the  states  of  Italy,  carried  on  by 
means  of  mercenaries,  almost  or  altogether 
without  the  shedding  of  blood  either  on  the  side 
of  the  vanquisher  or  the  vanquished.  When 
body-armor  had  come  to  be  manufactured  with 
such  perfection  shields  were  almost  entirely 
discarded.  In  England,  indeed,  no  effigy  has 
been  found  representing  a  man-at-arms  bearing 
a  shield  of  later  date  than  the  last  quarter  of 
the  14th  century,  from  which  it  would  seem  that 
that  defense  had  gone  out  of  use  even  before 
the  adoption  of  complete  suits  of  plate  armor. 
Perhaps  the  most  characteristic  portion  of  the 
body-armor  of  the  15th  century  was  that  which 
protected  the  feet.    The  coverings  for  the  feet 


during  this  period  were  laminated  sollerets  (as 
they  were  called),  acutely  pointed  or  rounded  off 
at  the  toes.  In  the  following  century  these 
were  succeeded  by  sabbatons,  cut  off  square  at 
the  toes.  In  this  century  the  armor  gradu- 
ally became  less  rigid  and  cumbrous,  and 
often  consisted  of  small  plates  of  metal  quilted 
within  linen  or  other  tissues.  As  the  century 
advanced  the  manufacture  of  body-armor  de- 
clined, and  after  the  close  of  the  century  armor 
was  worn  as  much  for  show  as  for  real  ser- 
vice. Metal  cuirasses  gave  place,  as  a  rule,  to 
buff  suits  and  jerkins,  although  the  former 
armor  is  not  entirely  disused  even  at  the  pres- 
ent day.  The  principal  weapons  of  the  man-at- 
arms  were  the  lance,  sword,  battle-axe,  and 
mace,  all  of  which  were  remarkable  for  their 
massiveness,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  re- 
sistance they  had  to  meet.  The  lance  (see 
Lance  and  Tournament)'  was  the  weapon 
which  he  used  to  unhorse  his  antagonist  if  he 
could  not  wound  him  with  it.  Two-handed 
swords  were  in  common  use  in  the  16th  century. 
The  sword-breaker,  consisting  of  a  deeply 
notched  blade  about  15  inches  in  length,  and  in- 
tended to  catch  and  break  the  sword  of  an  an- 
tagonist, belongs  to  the  same  period. 

During  all  the  time  that  the  use  of  heavy 
armor  prevailed,  the  horsemen,  who  alone  were 
so  armed,  formed  the  principal  strength  of 
armies ;  and  so  much  was  this  the  case  that  in- 
fantry were  generally  regarded  as  of  hardly  any 
account.  An  exception  must,  however,  be  made 
in  the  case  of  England,  the  archers  of  which 
were  almost  at  all  times,  before  the  invention  of 
gunpowder,  an  important  and  sometimes  the 
chief  force  in  the  army.  It  has  been  already 
mentioned  that  the  Bayeux  tapestry  furnishes 
us  with  evidence  of  the  fact  that  the  Normans 
were  provided  with  archers  at  the  time  of  the 
conquest.  The  bows  used  by  them  were  small, 
being  little  more  than  a  yard  in  length.  The 
deadly  weapon  afterward  used  by  the  English 
archers  was  from  5  to  6  feet  in  length,  and  the 
arrow  discharged  from  it  was  itself  a  yard  long. 
The  bow  used  in  Germany  as  well  as  that  used 
in  Italy  (where  steel  was  the  material  of  which 
it  was  usually  made)  was  about  a  yard  and  a 
half  long.  There  is  no  evidence  of  the  cross- 
bow having  been  used  before  the  nth  century. 
Its  use  against  Christians  was  forbidden  by  the 
Council  of  the  Lateran  in  1139.  The  long-bow 
continued  in  general  use  in  England  till  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  even  as  late 
as  1627  there  was  a  body  of  English  archers 
in  the  pay  of  Richelieu  at  the  siege  of  La  Ro- 
chelle.  The  cross-bow  did  not  go  out  of  use 
in  the  French  army  til!  the  17th  century. 
Among  the  other  hand-arms  in  use  before  the 
invention  of  gunpowder  were  the  sling  and  the 
fustibale,  which  was  nothing  else  than  a  sling 
with  a  handle  to  it.  The  large  engines  of  war 
used  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  the  same  as  those 
that  had  been  employed  by  the  Romans,  with 
only  slight  modifications.  A  coat  made  of 
leather  or  quilted  stuff,  called  in  French  gam- 
boison  or  gambeson,  was  almost  the  only  de- 
fensive armor  of  the  foot-soldier  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  period  of  which  we  are  now 
treating. 

The  use  of  gunpowder  as  a  means  of  dis- 
charging projectiles  and  the  gradual  improve- 
ment of  firearms   effected   in  course   of     ime   a 


ARMS  —  ARMSTRONG 


complete  change  in  all  the  methods  and  acces- 
sories of  warfare.  Details  regarding  the  con- 
struction and  recent  improvements  of  large  and 
small  tirearms  and  projectiles  will  be  found  un- 
der Bomb,  Bullet,  Cannon,  Gun,  Musket, 
Rifle,  Shell,  etc.  Gunpowder  was  not  used  in 
Europe  to  discharge  projectiles  till  the  begin- 
ning of  the  14th  century.  Cannon  are  first 
mentioned  in  England  in  1338,  and  there  seems 
no  doubt  that  they  were  used  by  the  English  at 
the  siege  of  Cambrai  in  1339.  All  early  cannon 
were  breech-loaders.  In  the  oldest  form  the 
breech  consists  of  wedges  of  wood  or  metal,  and 
this  form  was  succeeded  by  cannons  with  mov- 
able breech-piece.  The  projectiles  first  used  for 
cannon  were  of  stone.  Field-guns  were  intro- 
duced in  the  course  of  the  15th  century.  A  ri- 
fled cannon  of  the  15th  century  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  museum  of  The  Hague.  Mortars  were  in- 
troduced into  the  French  army  in  1634.  Hand 
firearms  date  from  the  15th  century.  Tin- 
Swiss  at  the  battle  of  Morat  in  1476  are  said 
to  have  been  provided  with  6.000  arms  of  this 
kind.  In  England  the  yeomen  of  the  guard 
were  armed  with  them  in  1485.  At  first  they 
required  two  men  to  serve  them,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  rest  the  muzzle  on  a  stand  in  aim- 
ing and  firing.  Lighter  hand-firearms  called  pe- 
tronels  seem  to  have  been  first  used  by  cavalry. 
Hand-firearms  were  at  first  fired  in  the  same 
way  as  cannon,  by  means  of  a  slow  match  carried 
in  the  hand  and  applied  to  the  powder  at  the 
touchhole.  The  first  improvement  was  the  in- 
vention of  the  matchlock  about  1476.  In  the 
matchlock  the  slow  match  was  held  at  the  end 
of  one  arm  of  a  bent  lever  attached  to  the  side 
of  the  piece  in  such  a  manner  that  by  the  action 
of  a  trigger  it  could  be  brought  down  upon  the 
powder  in  the  pan  at  the  touchhole.  This  kind 
of  lock  was  superseded  by  two  others,  the 
wheel-lock  and  the  snaphance,  that  seem  to  have 
been  invented  about  the  same  time  early  in  the 
16th  century,  although  the  matchlock  contined  in 
use  long  after  that  date,  and  indeed  was  not 
altogether  abandoned  till  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century.  The  wheel-lock  is  generally  said 
to  have  been  invented  at  Nurnberg,  and  was 
largely  used  in  Germany.  It  consisted  of  a  steel 
wheel  which  was  made  to  revolve  by  a  spring, 
and  in  revolving  struck  fire  from  a  flint,  and  at 
the  same  time  lifted  a  cap  which  kept  the  powder 
in  the  pan  from  being  wet  by  rain  or  blown  away 
by  the  wind.  The  chief  objection  to  it  was  that 
it  was  slow  in  its  operation,  as  the  spring  had  to 
be  wound  up  every  time  it  was  used.  The  snap- 
hance was  largely  used  in  the  Spanish  domin- 
ions. It  was  the  immediate  predecessor  of  the 
flintlock,  from  which  it  differed  only  in  making 
the  flint  strike  against  a  fixed  upright  piece  of 
iron  in  front  of  the  powder-pan,  while  in  the 
flintlock  this  upright  piece  was  attached  to  an- 
other piece  that  covered  the  pan  and  which 
turned  on  a  hinge,  so  that  when  the  flint  de- 
scended and  struck  sparks  from  the  iron  it  at 
the  same  time  uncovered  the  pan.  The  flint- 
lock was  invented  in  France  about  1640,  and 
gradually  came  into  universal  use,  until  it  was 
itself  superseded  by  the  percussion-lock.  This 
last  was  patented  by  a  Scotch  clergyman  named 
Alexander  Forsyth  in  1807,  and  had  been  adopt- 
ed everywhere  by  the  year  1820.  The  first  model 
of  the  needle-gun  was  made  in  1827  by  J.  N. 
Dreyse   of    Erfurt.     It    was   first   made   breech- 


loading  in  1836.  The  only  important  weapon 
not  a  firearm  that  has  been  invented  since  the 
introduction  of  gunpowder  is  the  bayonet,  which 
is  believed  to  h.ivc  been  invented  about  1(150. 
The  socket-bayonet,  titled  round  the  muzzle  of 
the  gun,  was  introduced  into  the  French  army 
by  Vauban. 

The  earliest  collection  of  arms  and  armor 
was  that  made  by  Loui>  XII.  at  Amboise  in 
1502.  There  is  a  fine  collection  at  Die-den.  be- 
gun in  1553.  Among  others  may  be  mentioned 
the  Ambras  collection,  commenced  in  1570,  now 
at  Vienna,  and  those  at  Turin,  Sigmaringen, 
1  sarsko-selo,  St.  Petersburg,  Madrid,  and  in 
the  Tower  of  London.  The  last  mentioned  was 
classified  by  Dr.  Meyrick,  and  catalogued  by  J. 
Hewitt.  The  Antiquarian  Museum  of  Edin- 
burgh is  rich  in  weapons  of  the  stone  and 
bronze  periods,  but  has  few  specimens  of  arms 
and  armor  of  more  modern  tunes.  Of  works 
specially  devoted  to  the  subject  of  arms  and 
armor  the  most  worthy  of  mention  are:  Grose, 
'Treatise  on  Ancient  Armor  and  Weapons' 
(1785-6;  Supp.  1789;  afterward  annexed  to  the 
second  edition  of  the  same  author's  'Military 
Antiquities,1  1801),  and  Meyrick's  'Critical  In- 
quiry into  Ancient  Armor  as  it  existed  in  Eu- 
rope, but  particularly  in  England,  from  the  Nor- 
man Conquest  to  the  reign  of  King  Charles  II.' 
(1824).  An  excellent  compendium  on  the  sub- 
ject by  Auguste  Denimin  was  published  in  1869 
in  French,  English,  and  German.  The  title  of 
the  English  edition  is  'Weapons  of  War'  ;  it 
gives  a  history  of  arms  and  armor  from  the  earli- 
est period  to  the  present  time.  See  Armament. 
of  the  World. 

Arms,  Stand  of,  the  outfit  of  arms  neces- 
sary for  the  equipment  of  a  single  soldier. 

Armstead,  Henry  Hugh,  a  noted  English 
sculptor:  b.  in  1828.  He  executed  many  alle- 
gorical groups  on  the  Albert  Memorial,  London, 
and  several  fine  recumbent  effigies  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey. 

Arm'strong,  Sir  Alexander,  an  English 
physician:  b.  in  Ireland  about  1820;  d.  5  July 
1899.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin, and  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh ;  and 
became  widely  known  as  an  explorer.  Entering 
the  British  navy  at  an  early  age,  he  served  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  took  part  in  an  expe- 
dition to  Xanthus  in  Syria ;  spent  five  consecu- 
tive years  in  the  Arctic  regions,  searching  for 
Sir  John  Franklin;  and  circumnavigated  the 
,  American  continent,  in  which  voyage  he  became 
one  of  the  discoverers  of  the  Northwest  Pas- 
sage. For  several  years  he  was  director-general 
of  the  medical  department  of  the  British  navy. 
His  publications  include  <A  Personal  Narrative 
of  the  Discovery  of  the  Northwest  Passage,' 
and  'Observations  on  Naval  Hygiene,  Particu- 
larly in  Connection  with  Polar  Service.' 

Armstrong,  David  Maitland,  an  American 
genre  and  decorative  artist:  b.  near  Newburg, 
N.  Y..  12  June  1837.  He  was  graduated  from 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  1858;  prac- 
tised law  a  few  years,  and  then  studied  art  in 
Paris  and  Rome.  He  was  United  States  consul- 
general  for  Italy  for  four  years,  and  director  of 
the  American  Art  Department  at  the  Paris  Ex- 
position in  1878,  receiving  the  Legion  of  Honor 


ARMSTRONG  — ARMSTRONG  GUN 


decoration  for  his  services.  For  many  years  he 
was  at  the  head  of  a  decorative  glass  establish- 
ment in  New  York  city. 

Armstrong,  George,  called  the  "Father 
of  the  United  States  Railway  Mail  Service" : 
b.  Armagh,  Ireland,  27  Oct.  1822;  d.  Chicago 
5  May  1871.  His  parents  came  to  the  United 
States  when  he  was  eight  years  old  and  settled 
in  Baltimore.  He  entered  the  postal  service  in 
Washington  when  a  young  man,  and  his  ability 
won  him  promotion  in  1854  to  assistant  post- 
master at  Chicago.  He  then  made  a  study 
of  mail  transportation,  wrote  exhaustively  on 
the  subject,  and  in  July  1864  was  given  authority 
by  Postmaster-General  Montgomery  Blair  to 
experiment  on  any  railroad  he  might  select. 
The  first  trial  took  place  on  the  Northwestern 
Railroad  28  Aug.  1864,  between  Chicago  and 
Clinton,  Iowa,  and  was  a  complete  success.  He 
was  the  head  of  the  service  from  the  start  but 
was  assigned  to  headquarters  in  the  West,  with 
general  supervision  of  the  service  in  the  East. 
In  1869  President  Grant  directed  that  a  bureau 
be  made  of  the  railway  postal  service,  and 
placed  Armstrong  at  the  head  as  general  super- 
intendent, a  position  which  he  held  until  his 
death  two  years  later.  A  bronze  statue  in  mem- 
ory of  his  work  was  erected  in  the  post-office 
building,  Chicago,  in  May  1881.  See  Postal 
Service  in  Commerce. 

Arm'strong,  John,  an  American  author 
and  soldier:  b.  Carlisle,  Pa.,  25  Nov.  1758;  d. 
Red  Hook,  N.  Y.,  1  April  1843.  He  served 
in  the  War  of  the  Revolution  on  the  staff  of 
Gen.  Gates.  He  was  United  States  minister  to 
France,  1804-10,  and  afterward  to  Spain :  and 
secretary  of  war,  1813-14.  He  wrote  the  'New- 
burg  Addresses'  in  1783,  anonymously,  with  the 
intent  to  arouse  Congress  to  redress  army  griev- 
ances. He  also  wrote  'Notices  of  the  War  of 
i8i2>    (1836). 

Arm'strong,  Samuel  Chapman,  an  Ameri- 
can educator :  b.  Wailuku,  Maui,  Hawaii,  30 
Jan.  1839;  d.  Hampton,  Va.,  11  May  1893.  He 
was  a  son  of  Richard  Armstrong,  one  of  the 
earliest  American  missionaries  to  Hawaiian  Is- 
lands and  founder  of  their  educational  system. 
The  son  was  educated  at  Oahu  College,  Hono- 
lulu, till  i860,  and  graduating  from  Williams 
College  in  1862,  at  once  entered  the  Union 
army.  He  served  till  the  end  of  the  Civil  War 
and  was  mustered  out  with  the  rank  of  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers.  In  1866  Gen.  O.  O. 
Howard,  who  had  noted  Armstrong's  interest  in 
the  colored  troops,  induced  him  to  take  a  posi- 
tion with  the  Freedman's  Bureau,  where  he  was 
charged  with  the  oversight  of  all  colored  people 
in  10  Virginia  counties.  After  two  years  of 
successful  administration,  during  which  he  had 
worked  out  a  careful  plan  of  negro  education, 
he  enlisted  the  aid  of  the  American  Missionary 
Association  and  personal  friends  in  the  North, 
and  founded  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricul- 
tural Institute.  Its  object  was  to  give  the  ne- 
groes practical  education,  to  train  teachers,  and 
to  render  its  graduates  self-supporting.  For  10 
years  the  students  were  negroes  exclusively : 
then  (1878)  the  United  States  government,  at- 
tracted by  Armstrong's  success,  arranged  to  have 
Indian  children  taught  there.  This  experiment 
has  also  proved  successful.     Gen.  Armstrong  de- 

Vol.  1—46 


voted  his  life  to  the  school  and  made  it  the 
best  known  and  studied  one  of  its  kind  in  the 
world.  At  his  death  it  had  100  teachers  and 
employees,  200  Indian  and  600  colored  students. 

Arm'strong,    William    George,    Baron,   an 

English  engineer  and  mechanical  inventor:  b. 
Newcastle-on-Tyne,  10  Nov.  i<Sio;  d.  27  Nov. 
1900.  He  was  trained  as  a  solicitor,  and  prac- 
tised as  such  for  some  time,  though  his  tastes 
scarcely  lay  in  that  direction.  Among  his  early 
inventions  were  the  hydro-electric  machine,  a 
powerful  apparatus  for  producing  frictional  elec- 
tricity, and  the  hydraulic  crane.  In  1847  the 
Elswick  works,  near  Newcastle,  were  established 
for  the  manufacture  of  his  cranes  and  other 
heavy  iron  machinery,  and  these  works  are  now 
among  the  most  extensive  of  their  kind.  Here 
the  first  rifled  ordnance  gun  which  bears  his 
name  was  made  in  1854.  (See  ARMSTRONG 
Gun*.)  His  improvements  in  the  manufacture 
of  guns  and  shells  led  to  his  being  appointed 
engineer  of  rifled  ordnance  under  government, 
and  he  was  knighted  in  1858.  This  appointment 
came  to  an  end  in  1863,  since  which  time  his 
ordnance  has  taken  a  prominent  place  in  the 
armaments  of  different  countries.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Armstrong  in 
1887. 

Arm'strong  Gun,  a  description  of  rifled 
cannon,  named  from  its  inventor,  the  late  Baron 
Armstrong.  It  is  constructed  of  small  pieces  of 
the  very  best  wrought-iron  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  Bars  of  wrought-iron,  having  a  width  of 
2  inches,  are  raised  to  a  white  heat  and  then 
twisted  round  a  steel  bar  or  core,  and  other  bars 
are  twisted  successively  over  these  till  the  requi- 
site degree  of  thickness  and  strength  is  obtained. 
The  various  layers  of  bars  are  then  firmly 
welded  together  at  a  white  heat  by  the  steam- 
hammer.  Two  of  these  welded  pieces,  each  of 
them  having  a  length  of  three  feet,  are  trimmed 
and  adjusted  at  the  ends,  which  are  brought 
close  together,  and  united  by  a  ring  of  wrought- 
iron,  bound  round  them  at  a  white  heat.  The 
length  of  the  gun  may  be  increased  by  lengthen- 
ing or  adding  to  the  number  of  welded  pieces. 
The  steel  bar  which  formed  the  core  of  the 
gun  is  now  removed,  and  the  sides  of  the  bore 
rifled  with  upward  of  40  small  close  grooves. 
The  advantages  secured  by  the  Armstrong  gun 
were  at  once  manifest  as  of  the  highest  im- 
portance. Its  range  exceeded  9,000  yard's,  or 
upward  of  5  miles,  being  about  three  times  the 
extent  of  that  of  an  old-type  cannon.  Its  pre- 
cision of  firing  is  also  remarkable ;  and  a  target 
9  feet  square,  placed  at  distance  of  4,000  yards, 
has  been  hit  90  times  in  100.  At  1,000  yards' 
distance  an  Armstrong  gun  has  hit  every  time 
an  object  which,  aimed  at  by  the  same  gunner 
with  an  old  32-pounder,  has  been  missed  56 
times  out  of  57.  Another  great  advantage  pos- 
<e-sed  by  this  description  of  gun  is  its  light- 
ness, an  ordinary  32-pounder  weighing  56  hun- 
dredweight, while  Armstrong's  32-pounder 
weighs  only  20  hundredweight.  Lastly,  the 
charge  of  powder  required  is  only  about  half 
the  quantity  necessary  for  an  ordinary  can- 
non, and  the  number  of  times  which  the  piece 
may  be  discharged  without  exhibiting  any 
injury  far  exceeded  anything  recorded  in  the 
history  of  gunnery  down  to*  the  time  of  its  in- 
vention.    See  Ordnanc:'. 


ARMY 


Ar'my.  Among  nations  of  antiquity  all 
men  capable  of  bearing  arms  were  liable  to  be 
called  mi  to  serve  as  soldiers,  with  the  excep- 
tion oi  the  Egyptians,  Indians  of  Aryan  race, 
and  Israelites.  In  the  first  two  of  these  nations 
the  warrior  formed  a  separate  class  or  caste  of 
the  community,  ranking  next  in  dignity  and 
influence  to  that  of  the  priests.  In  Egypt  the 
military  caste  shared  with  the  king  and  the 
priests  the  whole  of  the  soil.  The  members  of 
the  caste  were  interdicted  from  all  handicrafts. 
The  Egyptian  infantry  was  mainly  composed  of 
archers.  Foreign  auxiliaries  were  also  em- 
ployed, but  kept  in  a  strictly  subordinate  posi- 
tion, except  under  the  last  native  kings  of  Egypt  ; 
and  the  different  policy  pursued  by  them  was 
without  doubt  in  a  great  measure  to  blame  for 
the  easy  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses.  In 
India  the  members  of  the  warrior  caste  were 
called  Kshatriyas,  and  after  the  complete  subju- 
gation of  the  non-Aryan  inhabitants  whom  they 
found  in  the  peninsula  when  it  was  invaded  by 
them,  seem  generally  to  have  lived  an  indolent 
life.  Among  the  Israelites  the  only  portion  of 
the  male  population  exempt  from  military  ser- 
vice was  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  In  the  other 
tribes  all  men  above  20  might  be  called  upon 
to  serve  in  the  army  when  occasion  required. 
At  first  the  army  of  the  Israelites  consisted  en- 
tirely of  infantry.  David  introduced  charioteers, 
and  Solomon  added  a  regiment  of  cavalry.  In 
later  times  an  Egyptian  auxiliary  cavalry  is 
sometimes  found  serving  in  the  Jewish  armies. 
The  beginning  of  a  standing  army  was  made  by 
Saul,  wdio  raised  a  body-guard  of  3,000  men. 
After  the  captivity  a  new  organization  developed 
itself  under  the  Maccabees.  John  Hyrcanus 
raised  an  army  of  foreign  soldiers,  chiefly  Arabs. 

From  the  monuments  found  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  we  learn  that 
at  an  early  date  the  Assyrians.  Babylonians,  and 
Medes  possessed  armies  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
charioteers,  and  divided  into  light  and  heavy 
armed  troops,  distinguished  by  dress,  equip- 
ment, and  arms.  But  it  was  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Persian  empire  that  the  army 
system  of  the  East  attained  its  highest  point 
of  development.  When  the  Persians  had  ex- 
tended their  empire  over  almost  the  whole  of 
western  Asia  it  was  necessary  to  maintain  a 
standing  army  to  keep  down  conquered  tribes 
and  to  guard  the  frontiers.  The  various  sec- 
tions of  this  army  were  each  levied  in  the 
province  to  which  it  belonged,  and  were  partly 
stationed  in  fortified  towns,  partly  distributed 
over  the  country  districts.  Their  pay  was  de- 
rived from  the  revenues  of  the  province,  but 
their  commanders  were  wholly  independent  of 
the  satraps  or  provincial  governors.  Yearly  re- 
views were  held  in  order  to  see  that  they  were 
constantly  kept  in  a  state  of  efficiency.  The 
troops  of  the  standing  army  included  a  light 
and  a  heavy  infantry,  as  well  as  strong  bodies 
of  cavalry,  part  of  whom  were  clad  in  armor. 
The  subdivisions  of  the  army  (both  cavalry 
and  infantry)  were  according  to  the  decimal 
system.  Originally  all  the  forces  were  Persians, 
but  in  later  times  Asiatics  and  Greeks  were  also 
enrolled.  Express  messengers,  stationed  through- 
out the  empire  at  the  distance  of  a  day's  journey 
from  one  another,  formed  the  means  of  com- 
munication between  the  different  parts  of  the 
army.      In  addition  to  this  provincial  force  the 


king  had  a  body-guard  of  10,000  men.  called 
the  immortals,  from  the  fact  that  their  numbers 
were  always   kept   full.     When  great  expeditions 

(such  as  the  invasions  of  Greece)  were  under- 
taken a  levy  of  the  whole  people  was  made. 
Fifty-six  nations,  according  to  Herodotus,  were 
represented  in  the  levy  made  by  Xerxes  for  his 
celebrated  Greek  expedition. 

In  the  small  free  states  of  Greece  the  armies 
consisted  of  a  civic  militia,  in  which  it  was 
the  right  and  duty  of  every  freeman  to  serve.  In 
times  of  emergency  the  slaves  also  were  armed. 
The  Greek  armies  often  consisted  exclusively  of 
infantry.  Athens  never  had  more  than  1.000 
cavalry.  The  foot  soldiers  were  divided  into 
hoplitai,  or  heavy-armed,  whose  equipments  con- 
sisted of  a  long  lance,  a  sword,  and  a  large 
shield  ;  peltctstai,  armed  with  a  short  spear,  and 
carrying  a  small  round  shield:  psiloi,  carrying 
no  shields,  and  armed  only  with  javelins,  bows 
and  arrows,  or  slings;  and  gymnltes,  also  with- 
out shields,  and  chiefly  composed  of  slaves  and 
foreigners.  The  age  for  military  service  was 
20  to  40  at  Athens  and  20  to  60  at  Sparta. 
In  Athens,  however,  every  youth  was  enrolled  at 
the  age  of  18,  although  not  liable  to  be  called  on 
for  active  service  till  he  had  reached  the  age 
of  20.  The  command  of  the  Athenian  army  was 
divided  between  10  generals,  wdio  were  elected 
for  one  year,  one  by  each  of  the  to  Attic  tubes, 
and  each  of  whom  had  the  chief  command  in 
turn  for  one  day,  when  they  were  all  present 
with  the  army.  To  obviate  the  manifest  incon- 
venience of  this  arrangement  nine  of  the  gen- 
erals were  sometimes  left  behind,  and  sometimes 
one  of  the  archons  called  the  Polemarch  took 
the  field,  in  which  case  the  duties  of  a  com- 
mander-in-chief were  in  a  great  measure  left 
to  him.  Until  after  the  Peloponnesian  war 
Athenian  soldiers  received  no  pay.  but  from  that 
date  a  small  pay  was  given  to  those  in  the  field. 
At  Sparta  the  command  of  the  army  belonged 
to  the  two  kings,  and  usually  two  armies  were 
formed,  each  king  having  the  command  of  one 
of  them.  When  only  one  army  was  formed  one 
of  the  kings  remained  at  home.  Although  in 
Sparta,  as  in  Athens,  the  army  consisted  of  the 
free  citizens  generally,  yet,  as  in  the  former 
city  it  was  always  kept  ready  for  war,  it  consti- 
tuted a  kind  of  standing  army.  It  was  divided 
into  five  moras  or  regiments,  one  for  each 
tribe.  After  the  time  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
it  became  more  and  more  common  for  all  the 
Greek  states  to  employ  mercenary  troops,  and 
the  Greeks  themselves  often  entered  into  for- 
eign service.  The  Macedonian  standing  army 
was  created  by  Philip,  and  from  the  time  of 
Alexander  was  composed  chiefly  of  mercenaries. 
The  Carthaginian  armies  consisted  in  large  part, 
and  indeed  mainly,  of  mercenaries.  The  body- 
guard of  the  general,  called  the  "sacred  band," 
was,  however,  entirely  made  up  of  Carthaginians 
by  birth,  but  was  distinguished  less  by  its  valor 
than  by  the  splendor  of  its  equipments.  In  the 
army  of  Hannibal,  Gauls,  Iberians,  and  Ligurians 
formed  the  main  force ;  Numidian  cavalry  hov- 
ered on  the  wings ;  Balearic  slingers  and  ele- 
phants led  by  Ethiopian  masters  were  drawn  up 
in  front  In  Rome  every  citizen  from  the  age 
of  17  to  46  was  bound  to  serve  in  the  army  till 
he  had  made  16  (or  in  emergencies  20)  cam- 
paigns on  foot  or  10  in  the  cavalry,  and  no  citi- 
zen could  become  a  candidate  for  any  magiste- 


ARMY 


rial  office  unless  he  had  been  10  years  on  foot  or 
5  mounted.  During  the  best  times  of  the  Ro- 
man army  the  troops  were  selected  with  great 
care,  and  the  discipline  and  training  of  the 
legions  were  admirable,  so  that  the  Roman  in- 
fantry (of  which  the  legions  were  mainly  com- 
posed) was  the  best  the  world  had  yet  seen. 
The  Roman  cavalry,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
numerically  weak,  and  was  excelled  by  the  Nu- 
midian,  and  still  more  so  by  the  Parthian.  Pay 
was  given  to  the  Roman  troops  from  the  time  of 
the  siege  of  Veii  (406  B.C.).  When  the  Roman 
empire  in  the  West  fell  to  pieces,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  repeated  inroads  and  settlement 
within  its  borders  of  German  tribes,  there  was 
an  end  for  the  time  to  all  regular  army  organi- 
zation in  western  Europe.  The  forces  by  means 
of  which  the  Roman  empire  had  been  gradually 
dismembered  consisted,  like  the  Persian  hordes 
that  1,000  years  before  had  conquered  western 
Asia,  of  armed  nations;  but  a  new  military 
organization,  greatly  inferior,  however,  to  that 
of  the  Romans,  grew  up  in  process  of  time  out 
of  an  institution  common  to  all  the  German 
tribes.  This  was  the  practice  followed  by  the 
chiefs  of  gathering  round  themselves  bodies  of 
retainers  constantly  ready  to  fight  under  them, 
in  the  expectation  of  being  rewarded  out  of  the 
spoils  of  conquest.  As  long  as  the  Germans 
were  confined  to  their  original  settlements  out- 
side the  Roman  empire  these  bodies  of  retainers 
bore  a  small  proportion  to  the  total  strength 
of  the  armed  population ;  but  when  extensive 
conquests  of  land  were  made  within  the  Roman 
empire  more  or  less  of  the  conquered  territory 
was  always  seized  by  the  conquerors,  and  the 
personal  retainers  of  the  conquering  chiefs  were 
often  so  richly  rewarded  that  the  retinues  of  the 
chiefs  were  rapidly  swelled  by  the  adhesion  of 
those  who  hoped  for  equal  gain.  At  first  these 
grants  were  looked  upon  simply  as  rewards 
for  past  services,  but  they  soon  came  to  be 
given  and  received  as  pledges  of  future  service, 
every  person  receiving  a  grant  being  bound  to 
serve  his  chief  in  war  whenever  called  upon.  In 
this  way  the  feudal  system,  as  it  is  called, 
gradually  arose,  and  feudal  armies  finally  super- 
seded  the  national  levies  of  the  German  tribes. 
When  Charles  Martel  conquered  the  Saracens 
at  Tours  in  732  the  transition  from  national 
to  feudal  armies  was  not  yet  accomplished,  but 
it  was  almost  completed  under  Charlemagne  at 
the  end  of  the  same  century.  The  chief  strength 
of  the  feudal  armies  lay  in  the  men-at-arms, 
who  were  all  mounted,  heavily  armed,  and  pro- 
tected by  shields  and  defensive  armor.  After 
the  introduction  of  firearms,  shields  and  armor 
ceased  to  be  an  effectual  protection,  personal 
valor  and  bodily  strength  became  of  less  mo- 
ment, disciplined  armies  were  found  to  be  neces- 
sary, and  the  knights  entered  these  armies  as 
officers.  The  military  forces  of  the  small  states 
that  rose  up  in  Italy  from  the  12th  century 
resembled  those  of  the  states  of  ancient  Greece 
in  being  at  first  nothing  more  than  a  civic 
militia.  In  later  times  hardly  any  troops  were 
used,  but  mercenaries  were  employed,  led  by 
condottieri,  and  these  at  last  were  superseded 
by  standing  armies. 

Among  the  countries  of  modern  Europe  the 
foundation  of  a  standing  army  was  first  laid  in 
France.  In  1439  Charles  VII.  of  France  issued 
an    ordinance   called   the   ordinance   of   Orleans 


for  the  creation  of  a  number  of  troops  of  horse 
(hence  called  compagnies  d'ordonnance  or  ordi- 
nance companies),  which  were  to  be  main- 
tained by  the  cities  and  villages  in  war  and 
peace.  In  1448  the  same  king  established  a 
corresponding  body  of  infantry  called  Francs- 
archers.  Henceforward  the  feudal  militia  fell 
more  and  more  into  disrepute,  and  the  vassals 
assembled  their  forces  only  on  occasions  of 
great  emergency.  The  example  of  France  was 
followed  elsewhere,  and  during  the  wars  of 
Francis  I.  and  Charles  V.  at  the  beginning  of 
the  16th  century,  France,  Germany,  and  Spain 
were  all  in  possession  of  considerable  standing 
armies.  These  armies  were  all  raised  mainly 
by  voluntary  enlistment,  compulsory  levies  being 
resorted  to  only  under  the  pressure  of  exception- 
al circumstances.  The  usual  practice  was  for 
the  king  to  contract  with  some  nobleman  or 
gentleman  for  the  raising  of  a  regiment ;  but  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  war  Gustavus  Adolphus  set 
the  example  of  raising  all  his  troops  directly  for 
his  own  service.  In  this  same  war,  however,  a 
whole  army  was  raised  for  the  emperor  by  a 
private  gentleman  (the  celebrated  Wallenstein), 
the  emperor  engaging  to  give  him  the  command 
of  it.  Gustavus  Adolphus  was  also  the  author 
of  many  reforms  in  army  organization.  He  es- 
tablished smaller  divisions,  introduced  lighter 
weapons,  separated  the  pikemen  from  the  mus- 
keteers, who  had  hitherto  been  mixed  together, 
and  made  many  improvements  in  the  artillery; 
by  all  of  which  changes  quicker  and  more  com- 
plicated movements  became  practicable.  The 
soldier  was  more  thoroughly  drilled  and  re- 
duced almost  to  a  machine,  while  the  respon- 
sibilities of  the  officers  were  increased.  The 
wars  of  Louis  XIV.  led  to  further  improvements 
in  military  organization  and  tactics,  and  in  a 
still  greater  degree  to  the  increase  of  the  size  of 
armies.  Instead  of  the  14,000  men  maintained  by 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  Louis  XIV.,  after  the 
Peace  of  Nijmegen  (1678)  had  on  foot  an  army 
of  140,000  men.  Armies  were  likewise  increased 
by  all  the  other  powers  of  Europe  except  Eng- 
land and  Holland,  where  the  strengthening  of 
the  standing  army  was  looked  on  with  great 
jealousy,  and  till  the  time  of  William  III.  con- 
tinually opposed  by  the  representatives  of  the 
people  as  dangerous  to  freedom.  Among  the 
military  powers  that  came  to  the  front  in 
the  next  century  the  new  Prussian  monarchy  was 
perhaps  the  most  conspicuous.  Frederick  Wil- 
liam I.  devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  creation 
of  a  strong  military  force,  and  his  army  of 
80.000  was  increased  by  Frederick  II.  to  200,000. 
The  latter  introduced  the  system  which  still  pre- 
vails in  Prussia,  and  is  now  extended  to  the 
whole  German  empire,  of  localizing  the  different 
sections  of  his  army.  Each  regiment  was  as- 
signed to  a  certain  district,  which  was  hound  to 
keep  it  at  its  full  complement  Where  volun- 
tary enlistment  did  not  suffice  for  this  purpose 
lesort  was  had  to  conscription;  but  this  was 
applied  only  to  the  lowest  classes  of  the  com- 
munity. The  systems  of  drill  now  followed  in 
all  European  armies  are  founded  on  that  in- 
troduced into  the  Prussian  army  by  Leopold  of 
Dessau,  who  organized  it  under  Frederick  Wil- 
liam I.  Cavalry  tactics  were  greatly  improved 
by  Frederick  the  Great  himself,  who  als>>  was 
the  first  to  use  horse  artillery.  The  dividing 
of  artillery   into  batteries  is  of  about  the  same 


ARMY 


date,   but    is   due   to   a   Frenchman   named   Gri- 
bi  auval. 

Since  the  lime  of  Frederick  the  Great  a 
great  change  has  taken  place  in  the  composition 
of  armies  through  the  reintroduction  of  the 
principle  of  the  universal  liability  of  all  men 
capable  of  bearing  arms  to  military  service,  or, 
in  other  words,  through  the  raising  of  armies  by 
a  general  conscription,  now  practised  in  every 
European  country  except  England.  Conscrip- 
tion was  first  adopted  by  France  in  1798,  and  it 
was  by  means  of  it  that  Napoleon  was  able  to 
raise  the  large  armies  with  which  he  overran 
and  conquered  a  great  part  of  the  Continent. 
In  180S  it  was  adopted  by  Prussia,  by  which 
power  it  lias  been  applied  with  greater  rigor 
than  by  any  other.  In  Prussia  it  was  combined 
with  the  short-service  system,  a  mode  of  train- 
ing tin-  population  to  arms  suggested  by  Napo- 
leon's attempt  in  the  Peace  of  Tilsit  to  limit 
the  Prussian  army  to  a  certain  strength.  This 
system  consists  in  requiring  those  serving  in  the 
active  army  to  remain  under  arms  for  a  com- 
paratively short  term  (in  Prussia  three  years), 
during  which  they  become  thoroughly  trained 
soldiers  ready  for  active  service  on  any  emer- 
gency. Every  year  a  certain  number  return 
from  the  army  to  civil  lite,  and  are  replaced  by 
others  who  are  subjected  to  military  training  for 
the  same  term.  By  this  means  Prussia,  while 
never  maintaining  a  larger  active  army  than 
that  prescribed  by  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,  was  able 
to  train  its  whole  able-bodied  male  population 
to  arms,  and  that  without  allowing  the  fact  to 
be  discovered  until  it  was  made  manifest  by  the 
war  of  revenge  in  1813.  In  other  countries 
where  the  principle  of  conscription  had  been 
adopted  its  operation  was  greatly  weakened  by 
the  numerous  exemptions  that  might  be  ob- 
tained, and  especially  by  allowing  those  required 
to  serve  to  obtain  exemption  by  paying  for  a 
substitute.  Especially  was  this  the  case  in 
France,  where,  under  Napoleon  III.,  the  army 
had  again  become  to  all  intents  and  purposes 
a  professional  one.  In  army  organization  the 
principal  change  that  has  been  made  since  the 
introduction  of  conscription  has  been  the  estab- 
lishment of  army  corps  (corps  d'armee),  that  is, 
divisions  of  an  army  composed  of  all  arms  (in- 
fantry, cavalry,  and  artillery),  and  placed  under 
the  command  of  a  single  general.  These  divi- 
sions were  first  established  by  Napoleon,  who 
placed  them  under  the  command  of  his  mar- 
shals. Tin-  division  was  afterward  adopted  by 
Prussia  and  extended  to  the  German  empire, 
where  the  further  improvement  is  made  of  local- 
izing each  army  corps  in  a  certain  province  or 
member  of  the  empire,  in  which  it  is  reunited, 
and  in  which  are  kept  all  the  arms  and  other 
equipments  necessary  for  its  mobilization.  In 
the  Prussian  army  the  cavalry  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  are  used  principally  on  the  march, 
when  they  are  sent  in  front  to  cover  the  advance 
of  the  main  body  of  the  troops,  and  to  collect 
information.  In  all  armies  considerable  changes 
in  tactics  have  resulted  from  the  increased 
range,  precision,  and  rapidity  of  fire  of  the  im- 
proved artillery  and  musketry  now  in  use. 

In  most  nations,  will  now  be  found  an  army 
of  reserve,  intended  to  augment  the  standing 
army  from  a  peace  to  a  war  strength,  and  con- 
sisting of  two  classes  —  those  waiting  an  imme- 
diate call  to  arms,  if   required,  and  those  con- 


stituting the  militia  —  the  entire  effective  mili- 
tary power  of  the  state.  It  may  be  of  interest 
h(  re  to  mention  certain  distinctions  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  word  army.  A  covering  army  is 
encamped  for  the  protection  of  the  different 
passes  or  roads  which  lead  to  the  town  or  other 
place  to  be  protected.  A  siege  army  is  ranged 
around  or  in  front  of  a  fortified  place,  to  capture 
it  by  a  regular  process  of  besieging.  A  blockad- 
ing army,  either  independent  of,  or  auxiliary  to, 
a  siege  army,  is  intended  to  prevent  all  ingress 
and  egress  at  the  streets  or  gates  of  a  besieged 
place.  An  army  of  observation  takes  up  an 
advanced  position,  and  by  celerity  of  movement 
keeps  a  close  watch  on  all  the  mamctfvres  of 
the  enemy.  An  army  of  reconnaissance  has  a 
more  special  duty  at  a  particular  time  and  place, 
to  ascertain  the  strength  and  position  of  the 
enemy's  forces.  A  flying  column  is  a  small 
army  carrying  all  its  supplies  with  it,  so  as  to 
be  able  to  operate  quickly  and  in  any  direction, 
independently  of  its  original  base  of  opera- 
tions. 

Armies  of  the  World. —  The  following  table 
shows  the  armed  strength  of  the  military  na- 
tions of  the  world  as  reported  in   1900: 

Argcnti)ie  Republic. —  Regular  army,  945  offi- 
cers and  312.073  men;  national  guard,  480,000 
officers  and   men. 

Austria-Hungary. —  Peace  footing,  24.583  of- 
ficers and  333,628  men ;  war  footing,  45,238  offi- 
cers and  1,826,940  men;  levy  in  mass,  over 
4,000.000. 

Belgium. —  Peace  footing,  3,419  officers  and 
48,014  men;  war  footing,  4,466  officers  and  143,- 
628  men;  Garde  Civique,  42,827  officers  and 
men. 

Bolivia. —  Peace  footing.  1.021  officers  and 
2,000  men ;  war  footing,  82,000  officers  and  men. 

Brazil. —  Peace  footing,  4,000  officers  and  24,- 
160  men;  gendarmerie,  20,000. 

British  Empire. —  Regular  army,  8,109  com- 
missioned officers,  1,087  warrant  officers,  17,100 
sergeants,  3.941  musicians,  and  150,267  rank  and 
file ;  reserves,  regular,  first  and  second  classes, 
83,000  officers  and  men,  militia,  138,961,  yeoman- 
ry, 11,891,  volunteers,  263,963;  total  home  and 
colonial  forces,  669,259;  regular  forces  on  In- 
dian establishments,  73,162;  grand  total,  742,421 
officers  and  men,  of  whom  664.189  were  classed 
as  effectives.  Owing  to  the  war  in  South  Africa 
these  numbers  were  increased  considerably  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  year. 

Chile. —  Regular  army,  623  officers  and  29,- 
282  men;  national  guard,  512,700. 

Cliina. — The  Eight  Banners,  about  300.000 
officers  and  men:  Ying  Ping  (national  army) 
from  540.000  to  600.000  men ;  active  armies  of 
the  Centre,  Manchuria,  and  Turkestan,  number 
unknown ;  total  land  army  on  peace  footing 
about  300.000;  on  war  footing,  about  1,000.000. 

Colombia. —  Peace  footing  fixed  at  1,000,  in 
1898;  war  footing  fixed  by  Congress  as  circum- 
stances may  require. 

Costa  Rica. —  Peace  footing,  600  officers  and 
men,  and   12.000  militia;  war  footing,  34,000. 

Denmark. —  Peace  footing,  800  officers  and 
9,000  men;  war  footing,  1,350  officers  and  58,600 
men. 

Ecuador. —  Peace  footing,  3,341  officers  and 
men  :  war  footing,  30,000. 

Egypt. —  Regular,   about   100  English   officers 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 


and  18,000  men.  The  English  army  of  occupa- 
tion numbers  5,553  officers  and  men. 

France. —  Peace  footing,  26,849  officers  and 
520,666  men,  with  140,912  horses;  in  Algeria, 
2,195  officers  and  55,122  men;  in  Tunis,  560  offi- 
cers and  13,455  men.  Active  army  and  its  re- 
serve, 2,350,000;  territorial  army,  900,000;  terri- 
torial reserve,  1,100,000;  total,  4,350,000  men  of 
whom  about  2,500,000  were  effectives. 

German  Empire. —  Peace  footing,  23,176  offi- 
cers and  562,277  men,  with  98,038  horses ;  war 
footing,  strength  not  officially  published,  but 
estimated  at  over  3,000,000  trained  officers  and 
men.  There  are  494  field  batteries,  of  which  47 
are  mounted. 

Greece. —  Peace  footing,  1,880  officers  and 
23453  me"  :  war  footing,  about  82,000  men ;  ter- 
ritorial army,  about  96,000  men. 

Guatemala. —  Peace  footing,  about  7,000  offi- 
cers and  men ;  war  footing,  56,900  men. 

Haiti. —  Peace  footing,  6,828  officers  and  men, 
and  special  guard  of  10  officers  and  650  men. 

Honduras. —  Peace  footing,  500  officers  and 
men  ;  with  20,000  militia. 

Italy. — ■  Permanent  army,  under  arms,  14,324 
officers  and  237,660  men;  on  unlimited  leave, 
556,984  officers  and  men ;  mobile  militia,  475,972 
officers  and  men ;  territorial  militia,  10,793  offi- 
cers and  2,003,474  men ;  total  officers  and  men, 

3,299,439- 

Japan. —  Imperial  Guard,  370  officers  and  10,- 
843  men ;  6  divisions,  2,745  officers  and  73,606 
men  ;  reserves,  696  officers  and  82,384  men  ;  Yezo 
militia,  95  officers  and  4,482  men ;  the  gendar- 
merie, 51  officers  and  1,0 11  men;  territorial 
army,  357  officers  and  104,597  men;  total 
strength,  4,760  officers  and  279,981  men,  with 
about  29,000  horses. 

Kongo  Free  State. —  Peace  footing,  234  Eu- 
ropean officers  and  173  sergeants,  and  15,580 
native   troops. 

Korea. — An  army  of  5,000  officers  and  men. 

Madagascar. — An  army  of  191  officers  and 
5,508   men. 

Mexico. —  Peace  footing,  2,068  officers  and 
30,095  men ;  war  footing,  including  reserves, 
151,500  officers   and   men. 

Montenegro. —  No  standing  army;  all  males 
physically  able  are  liable  to  military  service-, 
there  are  about  100,000  rifles  in  the  country. 

Morocco. —  Peace  footing,  about  12,000  offi- 
cers and  men,  and  18,000  militia ;  war  footing, 
in  addition,  about  40,000. 

Netherlands. —  Peace  footing,  1,466  officers 
and  40,195  sub-officers  and  soldiers;  war  foot- 
ing,  indefinite. 

Nicaragua. —  Peace  footing,  2,000  officers  and 
men ;  war  footing,  in  addition,  10,000  reserve 
and  national  guard,  5,000. 

Nonvay. — Troops  of  the  line  and  reserves, 
900  officers  and  30,000  men ;  not  over  18,000 
troops  can  be  put  under  arms,  even  in  war, 
without  consent  of  the  Storthing. 

Orange  Free  State. —  Standing  army,  150  of- 
ficers and  men,  and  550  artillerymen,  as  a  re- 
serve; available  war  strength,  17,381. 

Paraguay. —  Standing  army,  82  officers  and 
1,345  men;  every  male  20  to  35  years  old  is 
liable  to  war  service. 

Persia. —  Standing  army,  24,500;  nominal, 
105,500;   liable  to  service,   53.520. 

Peru. —  Peace  footing,  3.157  officers  and  men 
with  a  police  force  of  from  2,000  to  3,000. 


Portugal. —  Peace  footing,  35.337  officers  and 
men;  war  footing,  160,000;  colonial  forces,  0.47S 
officers  and  men,  the  greater  number  being  na- 
tive   troops. 

Rumania. —  Peace  footing,  3,478  officers,  448 
employees,  and  56,489  men,  i_>,'>75  horses,  and 
390  guns ;  territorial  army  75,000  men,  and  8,050 
horses;  war  footing,  indefinite. 

Russia. —  Peace  footing,  30.000  officers  and 
860,000  men ;  war  footing,  63,000  officers  and 
3,440,000   men. 

Salvador. —  Standing  army,  4,000  officers  and 
men ;    militia,    18,000. 

Santo  Domingo. —  Small  army  and  reserve  at 
the  capital  of  each  province,  every  physically 
able  male  liable  to   service. 

Servia. —  Standing  army,  160,751  officers  and 
men  :   war  footing,  353,366  officers  and  nun. 

Siatn. —  Standing  army,  12,000;  no  armed 
militia;    all   males   liable    for   war    service. 

South  African  Republic. —  No  standing  army; 
males  liable  for  war  service,  26,299. 

Spain. —  Peace  footing,  [28,559  officers  and 
men  :   war  footing,   183.972  officers  and  men. 

Sweden. —  Standing  army,  1,946  officers  and 
37,175   men. 

Switzerland. —  No  standing  army  ;  war  effec- 
tive, Elite.  147.191  officers  and  nun;  Lander- 
wehr,  83.283;   Landstrum,   271.780. 

Turkey. —  Standing  army.  700,62c  officers 
and  men ;  war  footing,  900.000. 

United  States.     See  Army  of  United  States. 

Uruguay. —  Permanent  army.  233  officers  and 
3,222  men;  armed  police  force,  3,200;  national 
guard,  20.000. 

Venesuela. —  Standing  army.  3,600  officers 
and  men;  national  militia  (males  18  to  45  years 
old),  60,000  men. 

Army  and  Navy,  Mutual  Relations  of. 
The  campaign  of  the  United  States  army  and 
navy  in  the  Caribbean  region,  while  instructive 
from  many  points  of  view,  has  especial  value  at 
the  present  moment  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  as  illustrative  of  certain  necessary  out- 
lines of  our  future  naval  and  military  policy. 
Estimating  at  the  lowest  the  permanent  results 
of  the  late  war,  the  nation  finds  itself  charged 
with  valuable  transmarine  possessions,  which 
have  not  merely  to  receive  the  local  defence 
which  is  —  or  should  be  —  common  to  the  coun- 
try in  general,  but  must  also,  for  the  welfare 
of  the  Commonwealth,  be  knit  to  the  home  body 
by  the  only  military  bonds  that  can  cross  the 
stretch  of  the  seas.  Local  protection  is  indeed 
imperative;  but  from  the  military  point  of  view, 
national  defence,  in  any  real  sense,  cannot  be 
said  to  exist  when  the  localized  defences  are  not 
knit  together  and  co-ordinated  into  a  system, 
which  insures  freedom  of  communication  and 
thereby  mutual  support.  Gibraltar  and  its  rock 
are  the  proverbial  synonym  of  impregnability  : 
yet  Gibraltar  in  its  time  not  only  has  fallen  by 
local  neglect,  but  has  more  than  once  narrowly 
escaped  a  like  fate  through  inferiority  of  naval 
force  —  through  severance  of  communications 
with  the  body  of  which  it  is  a  member. 

The  fortified  places  upon  which  a  system  of 
defence  rests  are  stationary.  They  contribute 
to  the  general  safety,  directly,  only  so  far  as 
their  guns  can  range,  or  as  conducive  to  delay 
in  case  of  attack:  but  when  to  them  is  added 
a  mobile  force,  which  either  issues  from  them 
to  assume  the  offensive,  or  which,  in  its  move- 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 


ments,  in  the  open,  knows  that  in  them  security 
can  be  found  in  case  of  reverse,  the  various 
members  are  brought  into  a  living  union,  where- 
in each  contributes  its  proportion  to  the  strength 
of  the  whole.  On  land  such  mobile  force  is 
represented  by  the  active  army  in  the  field ;  at 
sea  by  the  fleet.  Both  need  the  support  of  sta- 
tionary fortifications;  and  both,  as  has  just  been 
said,  are  essential  in  turn  to  the  fortresses 
themselves.  Jomini  has  truly  said,  "When  a 
state  depends  wholly  upon  fortified  places  (that 
i-.,  upon  mere  defence)  for  its  safety,  it  has 
touched  the  verge  of  ruin."  It  may  be  deemed 
fortunate,  that  at  the  moment  of  starting  upon  a 
new  career,  the  United  States  received  an  ob- 
ject lesson  in  the  mutual  relations  of  army  and 
navy,  of  stationary  defences  to  mobile  force; 
a  dramatic  presentation  of  the  part  played  by 
each,  not  only  on  the  field  of  battle,  but  in  the 
general  maintenance  of  national  security  and 
power.  Upon  this  living  picture  the  eyes  of 
the  whole  nation  were  fixed,  with  the  vivid  in- 
terest which  always  follows  the  progress  of 
arms.  The  campaign  against  Cuba  —  and  espe- 
cially against  Santiago  —  by  sea  and  by  land, 
has  for  us  the  particular  value  that  it  lies 
wholly  within  our  own  experience,  and  speaks 
to  us  therefore  with  the  force  which  belongs 
to  experience  alone  among  the  teachers  of  man- 
kind. 

It  is  wise,  says  an  old  proverb,  to  learn 
from  one's  enemy.  Let  us,  for  our  instruction, 
turn  our  eyes  for  a  moment  ufon  our  recent 
enemy,  upon  him  who  400  years  ago,  in  the 
heyday  of  Europe's  adolescence,  went  forth,  a 
youth  among  other  youths,  to  possess  the  land, 
and  who  now  returns  a  discomfited  prodigal, 
abandoning  the  last  of  the  fair  heritage  upon 
which  he,  favored  above  his  fellows,  then  en- 
tered. It  is  not  indeed  admissible  in  a  short 
article,  dealing  avowedly  with  a  particular  brief 
episode  of  history,  to  attempt  to  trace  the  gen- 
eral causes  of  Spain's  downfall.  Suffice  it  to 
note,  in  pursuance  of  our  previous  allegory, 
that  from  the  beginning  Spain's  ideas,  both  in- 
dividual and  national,  carried  within  them  the 
seeds  of  inevitable  and  early  blight.  She  shared 
with  her  contemporaries  the  restless  ebullience 
of  early  manhood,  as  the  nations  were  breaking 
out  of  the  nursery  of  tradition  and  authority ; 
but  she  went  forth  imbued,  not  with  principles 
of  action,  but  with  mere  habits  of  thought,  ex- 
ternally imposed,  and  accepted  without  the  self- 
questioning  that  comes  from  the  collision  of 
mind  with  mind.  So,  while  the  world  was 
growing,  Spain  grew  not.  A  century  after 
America  was  discovered,  she  was  in  thought 
and  method  just  where  Ferdinand  and  Isabella 
were ;  as  it  is  recommended  to  us  now  to  re- 
main just  where  Washington  or  Jefferson, 
under  different  conditions,  stood  100  years  ago. 
The  colonial  system  of  Spain,  which  gasped  its 
last  this  year,  continued  essentially  the  same 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end;  even  as  we  are 
told  by  foreigners  familiar  with  the  peninsula 
that  people  there  live  for  the  most  part  in  the 
ideas  of  centuries  ago.  Shock  after  shock  failed 
to  loosen  the  hold  of  tradition,  and  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  even  the  final  crash  will  pene- 
trate through  men's  ears  to  the  brain. 

One  thing  Spain  has  never  been  since  the 
time  that  the  unity  of  the  peninsula  was 
achieved  —  a  maritime  nation.  Seamen,  doubt- 
less, she  has  had  ;  it  would  be  rash  indeed  to 
deny   that  name  to  the  men  who  accompanied 


Columbus,  although  the  great  adventurer  was 
himself  Italian ;  but  for  all  that,  as  a  nation, 
the  heart  of  Spam  has  never  turned  to  the  sea. 
Yet  Great  Britain  herself  was  scarcely  more 
favorably  situated  for  the  development  of  mari- 
time instincts  and  maritime  power.  Like 
France,  Spain  borders  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mediterranean ;  but  above  France  she  possessed 
the  advantage  that  her  only  land  frontier  (leav- 
ing little  Portugal  out  of  account)  was  a  lofty 
and  difficult  mountain  range.  Like  the  United 
States  of  to-day,  which  borders  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific,  Spain  was  practically  an  insular 
power ;  for,  unlike  the  United  States  in  the 
days  of  Washington,  she  had  no  dangerous  con- 
tinental frontiers.  In  this  security  from  attack 
by  land,  in  the  power  of  her  sovereigns,  un- 
rivaled in  the  16th  century,  in  her  remoteness 
from  the  turmoil  of  central  Europe,  and  in  the 
one  single  danger  to  which  she  was  exposed  — 
the  ravaging  of  the  coasts  by  the  .Mohammedan 
pirates  —  was  found  a  combination  of  circum- 
stances, which,  so  far  as  external  pressure 
molds  character,  should  have  made  Spain  a 
respectable,  if  not  a  great,  naval  state.  From 
the  resources  and  exposure  of  her  extensive 
and  lucrative  colonies  there  arose  an  additional 
incentive  to  commercial  and  naval  development ; 
but  none  followed.  The  root  of  the  matter  was 
not  in  her.  What  she  was,  that  she  remained. 
Often  rebuked  by  disaster,  she  hardened  her- 
self against  change;  until,  in  the  end,  she  has 
suddenly  been  .  destroyed,  and  that  without 
remedy. 

Yet  no  people  more  than  the  Spaniards  un- 
derstood and  practised  the  art  of  fortification 
as  it  existed  in  the  days  of  their  power.  It 
was  not  lack  of  local  defences  that  enfeebled 
the  colonial  empire  of  Spain,  and  so  often 
caused  particular  localities  to  fall  before  an 
invader.  It  was  the  lack  of  control  over  the 
communications  —  over  the  sea,  by  which  alone 
communication  could  be  had  —  which  permitted 
the  enemy  to  assemble  his  forces  with  impu- 
nity, and  prevented  the  Spaniards  from  reinforc- 
ing where  needed ;  in  a  word,  it  was  defect  in 
the  sea  power,  which  insures  mutual  support 
and  the  possibility  of  offensive  action.  Defence, 
whether  greater  or  less,  only  imposes  delay; 
and  delay  must  be  improved,  or  it  is  useless. 
Like  a  burglar  at  a  safe,  so  is  the  besieger ; 
except  that  interruption  may  come,  the  time 
more  or  less  does  not  matter.  The  essential 
thing  for  the  party  who,  as  regards  the  war,  is 
on  the  defensive  —  who  has  the  most  to  lose  — 
is  to  retain  in  his  hands  the  power  to  move  at 
will  and  rapidly  from  point  to  point ;  not  merely 
to  defend  locally,  but  to  attack  the  assailant 
either  in  transit,  or  at  his  point  of  destination; 
or,  it  may  be,  even  by  offensive  operations  on 
the  enemy's  own  coasts.  Such  power  —  sea 
power — Spain  has  never  had.  The  material 
elements  she  did  indeed  from  time  to  time  cre- 
ate. <(I  never  saw  finer  ships,"  said  Nelson  a 
century  ago.  aThe  Dons  make  fine  ships ;_  they 
cannot,  however,  make  men."  This  manifests 
again  the  impotence  of  mere  government,  or  ex- 
ternal compulsion,  to  impress  upon  man  or 
people  qualities  which  find  within  no  root  of 
life,  native  or  implanted.  In  the  inward  realm 
of  ideas,  diffused  among  the  people,  is  the  true 
strength  of  nations  to  be  found.  May  we  heed 
the  warning. 

The  history  of  four  centuries  only  repeats 
itself  in  miniature  when  the  final  scene  in  the 


ARMY  AND  NAVY 


long  drama  of  Spain's  colonial  history  is  crit- 
ically regarded.  The  last  Cuban  revolt  had 
continued  already  three  years  when  the  United 
States  intervened.  During  that  period,  Spain 
had  sent  over  200,000  soldiers  to  her  colonies, 
and  had  incurred  an  extraordinary  expenditure 
of  some  $400,000,000  for  the  campaigns ;  an  im- 
mense effort,  whether  regarded  in  itself  alone, 
or  relatively  to  the  resources  of  the  mother- 
country.  Yet,  although  the  mutterings  that  ran 
throughout  the  United  States  were  audible  in 
Europe,  and  it  could  have  been  plainly  recog- 
nized that  behind  a  mere  political  bluster  there 
was  unquestionable  popular  impulse  —  a  most 
dangerous  condition  —  no  important  addition 
was  made  to  the  fleet.  Even  the  vessels  on 
hand,  antiquated  though  some  were,  were  not 
brought  up  to  the  full  efficiency  they  might  have 
received.  Cervera  sailed  with  but  four  ships. 
Not  till  six  weeks  later  was  Camera  able  to 
get  away,  and  then  there  went  with  him  only  two 
armored  vessels.  The  inference  is  reasonable 
that  such  others  as  there  were  —  and  there 
were  others  —  could  not  be  got  ready ;  that 
even  the  nominal  force  was  not  available.  Yet 
one  thing  demonstrably  certain  is,  that  had  the 
Spaniards  maintained  a  navy  superior  to  our 
own,  the  expense  of  which  would  have  been 
far  less  than  the  cost  of  their  troops  in  Cuba, 
it  would  have  excluded  us  from  the  island, 
which  otherwise  its  fortifications  and  armies 
could  not  do.  It  may  be  assumed,  indeed,  that 
had  the  Spanish  navy  been  decisively  superior 
to  our  own  we  would  have  refrained  from  war, 
unless  determined  to  it  by  the  loss  of  the 
Maine ;  for  nothing  so  certainly  maintains  the 
peace  as  the  evident  readiness  of  the  enemy. 
This  the  great  armies  of  Europe  now  show. 
As  it  was,  when  Cervera  was  shut  up  in  San- 
tiago, we  dared  to  send  15,000  men  a  thousand 
miles  by  sea,  to  land  at  the  very  mouth  of  the 
harbor ;  and  after  this  squadron  was  destroyed 
we  were  quite  at  our  ease  as  regards  the  rest  of 
the  task.  Utterly  undeveloped  as  our  military 
preparations  were,  we  could  take  our  time. 
The  Spanish  force  in  Cuba  must  waste ;  ours 
could  not  but  increase.  The  end  was  thence- 
forth predetermined,  and  Spain  wisely  asked 
for  peace. 

Yet  while  this  lesson  is  clear,  and  in  the 
opinion  of  the  writer  is  the  one  of  primary  im- 
portance to  ourselves  —  as  to  any  nation  under- 
taking to  have  colonies  —  it  would  be  a  most 
incomplete  and  misleading  view  did  we  not 
further  recognize  the  complementary  element 
of  land  forces  and  fortifications  in  deciding  the 
issue  of  the  war.  Had  there  remained  to  Spain 
a  fleet  —  a  "fleet  in  being,"  to  use  a  phrase  now 
widely  accepted  as  technical  —  at  all  equal  to 
our  own,  and  able  shortly  to  get  to  sea,  our 
advantage  at  Santiago  would  have  been  but 
momentary  and  indecisive.  The  presence  of 
the  Spanish  army,  100,000  strong,  of  as  good 
fighting  quality  as  the  Santiago  garrison  is  said 
to  have  shown,  while  it  would  not  have  con- 
trolled the  whole  island,  would  have  effectually 
excluded  us  from  the  more  important  part,  until 
the  Spanish  navy,  temporarily  eliminated  by 
Cervera's  defeat,  could  have  again  been  brought 
into  play.  The  co-ordinate  value  of  mere  de- 
fence would  have  received  conspicuous  illustra- 
tion. The  Spanish  army  in  Cuba,  and  its  forti- 
fications of  even,'  kind,  seacoast  or  otherwise, 
were,  as  regards  the  general  war,  strictly  lim- 
ited  to   the   defence   of   the   island.    The   com- 


munications between  it  and  the  United  States  — 
the  roads  —  were  in  our  hands,  to  transport 
troops  as  we  pleased ;  but  only  temporarily  so, 
on  the  present  hypothesis,  namely,  that  Spain 
had  still  a  fleet  which,  upon  arrival  in  the 
Caribbean,  would  have  a  fighting  equality  or 
superiority  to  ours.  The  question  therefore  at 
such  a  stage  would  be  one  of  delay.  Can  the 
Spanish  army  keep  the  field  until  its  fleet  ap- 
pears and  exclude  us  from  the  control  of  the 
vital  centre  of  the  island?  Failing  this,  can  it 
even,  by  retiring  to  its  fortresses,  preserve  its 
integrity,  and  prevent  our  obtaining  that  essen- 
tial foothold  for  maritime  enterprise,  a  fortified 
seaport  close  to  the  scene  of  operation  —  a 
bridgehead  for  entrance  when  ready?  If  so,  it 
secures  the  necessary  delay  until  the  all-im- 
portant decisive  factor  in  maritime  wars,  the 
navy,  can  make  itself  again  felt. 

It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  while  an  incon- 
testable and  inalienable  primacy  belongs  to  the 
navy  in  all  cases  of  transmarine  warfare,  the 
maintenance  of  an  adequate  territorial  army, 
resting  upon  proper  fortified  bases,  is  likewise 
indispensable,  if  secondary.  And  indeed,  this 
hypothetical  case,  of  a  fleet  remaining  to  Spain 
after  Cervera's  mishap,  was  the  actual  condi- 
tion before  that  event ;  to  the  extent  at  least  of 
our  certain  knowledge  of  what  the  Spanish 
navy  might,  or  might  not,  be  able  to  do.  Had 
the  enemy  had  no  army  in  Cuba,  and  had  he 
pursued  his  proper  course  by  recalling  Cer- 
vera from  the  Cape  Verde  Islands  to  Spain,  as 
a  preliminary  to  sending  the  concentrated  fleet 
across  the  ocean,  we  might  have  sent  troops  to 
seize  and  strengthen  themselves  in  Cuba's  stra- 
tegic ports;  but,  in  the  face  of  the  then  Spanish 
army,  it  was  not  possible  to  do  so  to  any  good 
effect.  Consequently,  we  did  not  attempt  it, 
until  Cervera  was  cornered. 

Probably  our  people  at  large  are  conscious 
that  colonial  possession  involves  a  colonial 
army.  This  the  experience  of  Great  Britain  tells 
us  may  be  largely,  though  not  wholly,  aborig- 
inal :  and  that  the  less  developed  the  civilization 
of  the  natives,  the  greater  the  proportion  of 
the  latter  may  be  to  the  whole  force.  But  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  general  acquiescence  in 
the  necessity  of  such  an  army  is  accompanied 
by  an  exact  understanding  of  the  part  it  plays  in 
maintaining  possession ;  what  its  strength  is, 
and  what  its  weakness,  considered,  not  in  itself 
alone,  but  in  relation  to  the  whole  problem 
of  national  and  colonial  defence.  _  The  function 
and  effect  of  the  Spanish  army  in  Cuba  illus- 
trate this,  and  therefore  are  important  to  be 
understood,  for  the  appreciation,  not  of  recent 
history  only,  but  _  of  the  necessary  future 
policy  of  the  United  States  as  well.  The 
navy  binds  all  together;  without  it  each 
falls  in  time,  isolated  and  unsupported.  In 
1762,  as  in  1898,  in  one  twelve-month  Spain 
lost  both  Manila  and  Havana,  and  for  the 
same  reason  —  defective  sea  power.  But  in 
order  that  the  navy,  the  mobile  force,  may  as- 
sure the  whole,  it  is  necessary  that  each  part 
be  able  to  resist  attack  during  a  measurable 
period,  exactly  as  a  fortress  on  any  scene  of 
warfare.  Each  colony,  until  it  becomes  self- 
supporting  and  fit  for  independence,  is  an  ex- 
posed garrison.  They  are  plausibly  right,  there- 
fore, who  argue  that  as  a  general  rule  a  country 
does  not  consult  its  immediate  interests  by 
acquiring  colonies.     Their  error  is  in  failing  to 


ARMY  CORPS  — ARMY  RESERVE 


recognize  that  immediate  self-interest  is  not  al- 
ways the  sole  lest,  although  it  furnishes  us  a 
very  adequate  reason  for  taking  Hawaii.  It 
may  be  a  duty  to  accept  a  responsibility  which 
is  not  to  one's  convenience,  For  what  other 
reason  than  duty  is  civic  activity  immediately 
incumbent  on  the  well-to-do? 

It  is  interesting  to  find  the  same  conditions 
revealing  themselves  in  the  minutiae  of  specific 
instances  as  truly  as  in  broad  generalizations. 
In  the  broad  history  of  policy  we  shall  find 
illustrated  the  mutual  dependence  of  the  active 
army  and  navy,  of  seacoast  fortification  and 
the  fleet  It  is  a  curiously  ironical  comment 
upon  human  foresight  that  the  issue  of  the  war 
turned  upon  the  tenure  of  that  one  of  the  great 
Cuban  ports,  which  at  the  first  certainly  seemed 
least  likely  to  be  involved,  as  a  scene  of  actual 
conflict.  From  Spanish  sources  we  learn  that 
Cervera  entered  the  port  because  it  was  the 
only  one  available.  If  such  was  actually  the 
reason  for  this  seemingly  fortuitous  step,  he 
acted  under  a  misapprehension  of  our  disposi- 
tions. Until  he  had  so  entered,  however,  his 
squadron  was  the  controlling  factor  in  the  gen- 
eral situation.  The  navy  of  the  defence,  though 
locally  much  inferior  to  its  opponent,  was  yet 
too  strong  to  justify  our  exposing  troops  upon 
the  maritime  high  roads;  and  it  rested  also  on 
several  fortified  ports,  from  any  of  which  it 
might  issue  to  attack  our  interests,  and  in 
which  it  might  find  refuge,  when  pressed  for 
supplies  or  by  our  ships.  The  Spanish  tenure 
of  Santiago  made  the  squadron  therein  secure ; 
and  although  a  singular  lack  of  enterprise,  as 
yet  unexplained,  paralyzed  it  as  an  active  factor, 
the  mere  possibilities  of  offensive  movement 
open  to  it  imposed  upon  us  its  neutralization 
and,  if  feasible,  its  destruction.  The  former 
was  insured  to  the  utmost  degree  practicable 
when  our  fleet  had  been  concentrated  before 
the  port ;  but  from  direct  attack  it  was  pre- 
served by  the  territorial  arm)',  supporting  the 
permanent  fortifications  and  the  lines  of  tor- 
pedoes. These  cannot  be  overcome  by  ships 
alone,  unless  the  assailant  is  able  to  throw  away 
not  only  lives  of  men,  who  may  be  replaced,  but 
ships  which  cannot.  Those  who  can  recall  con- 
ditions at  the  time,  not  only  as  regards  our  im- 
mediate enemy,  but  the  rumored  dispositions  of 
other  states  reported  to  be  unfriendly  toward 
us,  will  understand  that  the  preservation  of 
our  navy  in  undiminished  force  was  a  political 
consideration  of  paramount  importance.  We 
could  not  afford  then  to  lose  ships,  unless  at  the 
same  time  we  diminished  by  at  least  an  equal 
amount  the  naval  force  which  might  yet  be  ar- 
rayed  against   us. 

Our  army,  therefore,  was  called  upon  to 
make  untenable  the  refuge  which  sheltered  the 
hostile  fleet.  That  we  were  able  to  move  our 
troops  to  the  scene  of  action  with  perfect  as- 
suredness was  due  to  the  fact  that  our  navy 
had  established  its  predominance  in  the  local 
waters ;  and  conversely,  Spain  suffered  invasion 
of  her  colony  because  she  had  lost  control  of 
the  sea.  Our  troops,  when  landed,  depended  for 
their  security  and  for  their  supplies  upon 
the  continuance  of  this  maritime  condition ; 
the  sea,  in  short,  was  its  line  of  communica- 
tions, which  the  navy  protected.  On  the  other 
hand,  unless  Cervera  were  forced  to  quit  the 
port  by  famine,  produced  by  the  blockade  —  a 
not    impossible    contingency  —  the    navy    could 


not  get  at  his  ships  to  destroy  them  without  the 
aid  of  the  army ;  and  destruction  was  neces- 
sary, for,  as  the  French  proverb  say>,  "It  is 
only  the  dead  who  do  not  return"  inconven- 
iently. The  army's  aid  might  be  extended  in 
one  of  two  ways.  Either  it  might  —  if  it  could 
—  get  possession  of  the  town  by  its  own  un- 
aided efforts,  or  by  establishing  a  dominant 
position  overlooking  it;  or  it  might  direct  its 
attempt,  aided  by  the  navy,  upon  the  works 
commanding  the  harbor's  mouth.  These  re- 
duced, the  navy  would  be  able  to  remove  the 
torpedoes,  enter  the  port,  and  engage  the  hos- 
tile squadron. 

These  details  of  comment,  however,  do  not 
at  all  affect  the  general  propositions  upon  which 
the  writer  has  sought  to  fasten  the  attention  of 
his  readers ;  the  mutual  dependence  of  army 
and  navy,  in  the  attack  or  defence  of  maritime 
regions,  and  the  primacy  therein  of  the  navy, 
which  represents  both  the  communications  and 
the  offensive  element  of  the  war  upon  the  sea. 
By  the  neglect  of  these  considerations  Spain 
lost  her  colonial  empire.  By  the  observance  of 
them  Great  Britain  has  preserved  hers,  and  the 
English-speaking  race  dominates  the  sea.  In 
this  predominance,  further,  are  involved  the 
issues  of  that  mysterious  future,  the  movings 
of  which  we  are  now  beginning  to  discern,  as 
in  a  glass  darkly ;  and  which  the  race  holds 
within  its  grasp,  if  only  through  wise  guidance 
of  popular  thought  by  those  who  have  time  to 
think,  it  can  find  its  way,  not  by  formal  alli- 
ance but  by  political  comprehension,  to  com- 
mon action  and  to  mutual  support. 

A.   T.   Maiian, 
Author  of  'Influence  of  Sea-Power,*  Etc. 

Ar'my  Corps,  a  term  denoting  one  of  the 
largest  divisions  of  an  army  in  the  field,  com- 
prising all  arms,  and  commanded  by  a  general 
officer ;  but  subdivided  into  divisions,  which  may 
or  may  not  comprise  all  arms. 

Ar'my  Hospital  Train,  a  railway  contriv- 
ance for  military  purposes,  introduced  by  the 
surgeon-general  of  the  United  States  army  dur- 
ing the  war  with  Spain,  in  1898,  for  the  purpose 
of  conveying  sick  and  wounded  soldiers,  on  their 
arrival  from  Cuba,  at  Florida  ports,  to  various 
military  hospitals  in  the  United  States.  This 
train  had  a  full  staff  of  physicians,  surgeons, 
and  trained  nurses,  and  was  completely  equipped 
with  everything  necessary  for  medical  and  sur- 
gical treatment  of  soldiers.  It  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  first  train  service  completely  or- 
ganized for  such  purpose. 

Ar'my  Register,  an  annual  publication  of 
the  United  States  government  giving  personal, 
regimental,  and  other  details  of  the  regular 
arm  v.  and  corresponding  to  the  British  'Army 
List' 

Ar'my  Reserve,  in  most  European  armies, 
a  force  consisting  of  a  first  and  second  class 
army  reserve  and  a  militia  reserve.  The  first 
class  army  reserve  consists:  (1)  Of  men  whe 
have  completed  their  period  of  seven  years  in 
the  active  army,  and  of  men  who,  after  having 
served  not  less  than  three  years  in  the  active 
army,  have  been  transferred  to  the  reserve  tc 
complete  the  term  of  their  engagement ;  (2)  of 
soldiers  who  have  purchased  their  discharge  and 
enrolled  themselves  in  the  reserve  for  five  years. 


ARMY  SCHOOLS  — ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


In  time  of  war  or  when  the  country  is  threat- 
ened, the  men  of  this  class  become  liable  for 
the  same  services  as  the  active  army.  The  sec- 
ond class  army  reserve  is  made  up  of  enrolled 
pensioners,  and  is  liable  only  for  service  at 
home.  The  militia  reserve  is  composed  of  men 
belonging  to  the  militia  who  voluntarily  enroll 
themselves  in  this  reserve  for  a  period  of  six 
years,  thus  rendering  themselves  liable  to  be 
drafted  into  the  regular  army  in  case  of  war. 
In  the  United  States  there  is  no  Federal  army 
reserve,  but  each  State  maintains  a  militia  force 
under  the  command  of  the  governor,  principally 
to  aid  the  legal  authorities  in  maintaining  peace 
within  its  limits.  In  emergencies  threatening 
the  whole  country,  and  where  the  regular  army 
is  insufficient,  the  President  calls  for  .volun- 
teers, apportions  the  number  needed  among  the 
several  States,  and  asks  the  governors  to  sup- 
ply the  determined  quotas.  The  bulk  of  the 
volunteer  army  is  thus  drawn  from  the  miltia. 
Army  Schools.  See  Army  War  College; 
Military  Schools. 

Army  of  the  United  States,  The.  The  Con- 
stitution gives  to  Congress  the  power  to  provide 
for  the  common  defense  and  general  welfare  of 
the  United  States,  "to  declare  war,"  "to  raise 
and  support  armies,"  and  "  to  make  rules  for  the 
government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval 
forces."  The  responsibility,  therefore,  for  the 
common  defense  rests  with  Congress,  for  all  the 
power  essential  to  meet  it  is  vested  in  the  legis- 
lature of  the  nation,  which  has  supreme  control. 

During  the  War  of  the  Revolution  General 
Washington  was  unanimously  elected  15  June 
I77S>  "  to  command  all  the  continental  forces 
raised  or  to  be  raised,  for  the  defense  of  Amer- 
ican liberty,"  but  on  assuming  command,  he  found 
an  heterogeneous  and  undisciplined  force,  and 
immediately  took  measures  to  bring  order  out 
of  confusion ;  and  the  General  having  recom- 
mended to  the  Congress  and  pointed  out  the 
necessity  for  a  war  office,  that  body,  on  13  June 
1776,  created  a  Board  of  War,  composed  of 
its  own  members,  which  body  was  the  germ  of 
the  War  Department  of  our  Government.  Dur- 
ing 1 781  the  Continental  Congress,  having  under 
consideration  a  plan  for  the  arrangement  of  the 
civil  executive  departments,  established  among 
others  the  office  of  Secretary  of  War,  to  which 
Major-General  Lincoln  was  elected,  and  at  this 
juncture  several  acts  were  passed  defining  the 
duties  of  the  office,  organizing  various  of  the 
Staff  Corps,  and  providing  for  a  military  es- 
tablishment. 

From  that  period,  although  Congress  has 
made  appropriations  for  the  support  of  the  army, 
and  passed  laws  for  its  better  efficiency,  the 
evolution  of  organization  and  equipment  and 
of  the  general  (administrative  and  supply) 
staff  has  only  been  accomplished  through  ten- 
tative measures,  and  to  meet  emergencies.  It 
is  of  little  interest,  therefore,  to  review  its 
history  in  this  respect,  for  the  past  few  years 
have  brought  about  a  complete  revolution  in 
the  organization,  equipments,  tactics,  and  arma- 
ments of   an  army. 

From  the  early  history  of  our  country  the 
sentiment  of  the  people  as  expressed  through  the 
Congress,  has  always  been  opposed  to  a  stand- 
ing army  in  time  of  peace,  but  the  Constitution 
itself    declares    that    "  A    well-regulated    militia 


being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free  state, 
the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms 
shall  not  be  infringed."  It  has  been  the  con- 
tinuous policy  of  the  government  to  maintain 
only  a  small  army,  and  to  rely  in  any  great  war 
upon  the  volunteers,  and  after  each,  to  disband 
the  citizen  soldiery  and  reduce  the  regular  es- 
tablishment to  a  peace  basis. 

With  the  exception  of  periods  of  actual  war- 
fare, the  functions  of  the  regular  army  are  to 
man  the  seacoast  fortifications,  which  protect 
our  harbors  and  great  cities  from  hostile  attack, 
and  to  garrison  the  outposts  on  the  western 
frontier,  and  at  such  strategic  points  as  Con- 
gress determines  to  be  suitable ;  to  be  always 
ready  to  fight  for  the  country  in  any  sudden 
emergency  which  may  come  upon  it  before 
there  is  time  to  raise  a  volunteer  force,  and 
during  the  time  such  a  force  is  being  raised; 
to  constantly  study,  and  experiment  upon,  and 
exercise  in,  all  the  improvements  in  military 
science,  both  in  arms,  ammunition,  equipment, 
supplies,  sanitation,  transportation,  drill  and 
tactics;  to  furnish  a  nucleus  of  officers  and  men 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  business  for 
strengthening  and  ready  instruction  of  the  vol- 
unteer army. 

Strength  and  Organization. —  The  following 
table  shows  the  authorised  strength  of  the  regu- 
lar army  under  the  various  acts  of  Congress 
from  1789  to  1901  : 


Acts. 

Officers. 

Enl.  Men. 

Sept. 

29,   1789 

46 

840 

April 
March 

30,   1790 

57 

1,216 

3,  179: 

104 

2,128 

March 

5.    1792 

258 

5.156 

May 

30,    1796 

233 

3.126 

April 
May 

27,    1798 

289 

3,870 

27,    1798 

303 

10,000 

July 

16,    1798 

783 

13,638 

March 

3,    1799 

2,447 

49.244 

May 

14,    1800 

3l8 

4,118 

March 

16,    1802 

241 

3,046 

April 

12,    1808 

774 

9.147 

June 

26,    1812 

>,657 

34.095 

March 

3.    1813 

3,260 

54.091 

March 
March 

30,    1814 

3.495 

59.170 

3.    181S 

674 

11.709 

March 

2,    1821 

589 

5.586 

April  5 

,  June  15,  28, 

1832 

540 

6.540 

March 

2,   1833 

599 

6.595 

May  23  and  July  4,  1 

836 

647 

7.310 

July  5 

and  7,  1838 

735 

1 1,804 

May  and   June,    1846 

775 

17,020 

Feb.  1 

and  March  3 

1847 

■  •353 

29,512 

Aug.   1 

i,  1848 

882 

9.435 

June    1 

7,    18500 

889 

11,000 

March 

3,    i855* 

1,040 

16,882 

July  2c 

and   Aug.  3, 

1861 

2,009 

37.264 

July   28,    1866c 

3,036 

51.605 

March 

3,  1869 

2,277 

35,036 

July   1. 

,   1870 

2,264 

30,000 

J.ine   r 
March 

5,    1874 

2,151 

25,000 

8,    1898 

2,137 

26,610 

April  2 

6  and  July  7, 

1898 

2,43a 

63,106 

March 

2,   1899 
1901a 

2.585 

65,000 

Feb.   2, 

3,860 

60,450 

a  By  the  Act  of  17  June  1S50  the  President  is  au- 
thorized to  increase  the  number  of  privates  in  each  of  the 
companies  of  the  army,  serving,  or  which  may  hereafter 
serve,  at  the  military  posts  of  the  western  frontier,  and 
at  remote  am!  distant  stations,  to  any  number  not  ex- 
ceeding 74,  which  if  all  had  been  serving  at  distant 
stations  would  have  made  the  total  maximum  enlisted 
strength    13,8s?,   the  minimum   being  0,385   enlisted  men. 

b  The  minimum  authorized  enlisted  strength  under 
the  Act  of  3  March  1855,  was  11,658,  and  the  maxi- 
mum  17,278. 

c  The  Act  of  28  July  1866  fixed  the  minimum  en- 
listed   strength  at   51,605,  and  the  maximum   at    77, 

d  The  Act  of  2  February  1901  fixes  the  minimum 
Strength  at  59,131  enlisted  men  and  the  maximum  at 
100,000,  the  number  of  officers  remaining  the  same. 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


The  regular  army  on  I  Jan.  1898,  just 
prior  to  the  declaration  of  war  with  Spain, 
consisted  of  2,157  officers  and  25,350  men,  all 
told.  War  being  imminent,  the  Congress  dur- 
ing March  and  April,  1898,  passed  certain  acts 
for  the  better  organization  of  the  line  of  the 
army,  which  authorized  a  maximum  enlisted 
strength  of  65,000  men ;  increased  the  artillery 
by  two  regiments ;  added  to  each  infantry  regi- 
ment a  third  battalion  of  four  companies  each ; 
provided  for  additional  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers for  the  regiments,  squadrons,  and  battal- 
ions, and  for  the  troops  and  companies ;  and 
the  enlisted  strength  of  each  unit  was  consider- 
ably augmented. 

By  an  act  approved  22  April  1898,  the  Con- 
gress made  provision  for  accepting  into  the 
service  the  militia  (National  Guard  organiza- 
tions) and  volunteers  from  the  various  States, 
and  made  the  following  declaration  with  respect 
to  the   National  forces : 

All  able-bodied  male  citizens  of  the  United  States, 
and  persons  of  foreign  birth  who  shall  have  declared 
their  intention  to  become  citizens  of  the  United  States 
.  .  .  between  the  ages  of  18  and  45,  are  hereby 
declared  to  constitute  the  National  forces,  and  with 
such  exceptions  and  under  such  conditions  as  may 
be  prescribed  by  law,  shall  be  liable  to  perform  military 
duty  in  the  service  of  the  United  States. 

That  the  organized  and  active  land  forces  of  the 
United  States  shall  consist  of  the  army  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States  when 
called  into  the  service  of  the  United  States:  Provided, 
that  in  time  of  war  the  army  shall  consist  of  two 
branches  which  shall  be  designated,  respectively,  as  the 
regular  army  and  the  volunteer  army  of  the  United 
States. 

That  the  regular  army  is  the  permanent  military 
establishment,  which  is  maintained  both  in  peace  and 
war  according  to  law.  That  the  volunteer  army  shall 
be  maintained  only  during  the  existence  of  war.  or 
while  war  is  imminent,  and  shall  be  raised  and  organized 
(as  prescribed  by  the  statute)  only  after  Congress  has, 
or  shall  have  authorized  the  President  to  raise  such  a 
force  or  to  call  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United 
States  the  militia  of  the  several  States. 

The  law  authorized  enlistments  to  be  made 
for  the  term  of  two  years,  unless  sooner  termi- 
nated,  and  that  all  officers  and  men  composing 
the  volunteer  army  should  be  discharged  when 
the  purposes  for  which  they  were  called  into 
service  were  accomplished,  or  on  the  conclusion 
of  hostilities. 

The  law  further  prescribed  that  the  President 
should  issue  his  proclamation,  when  it  became 
necessary  to  raise  the  volunteer  army,  stating 
the  number  of  men  desired  (within  the  limits 
prescribed)  ;  enjoined  the  Secretary  of  War  with 
the  duty  of  examining,  organizing  (as  prescribed 
for  in  the  regular  army),  and  receiving  into  the 
service  the  men  called  for,  and  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable these  troops  were  to  be  accepted  only  in 
proportion  to  the  population  of  the  several 
States  and  Territories.  The  law  also  required 
that  the  organizations  of  the  volunteer  army 
should  be  maintained  as  near  their  maximum 
strength  as  was  deemed  necessary  by  the  Presi- 
dent, and  prohibited  the  acceptance  of  new 
organizations  unless  those  already  in  service 
from  the  States  were  kept  fully  recruited. 

The  law  also  authorized  (in  addition  to  those 
already  provided  for  by  law)  the  appointment  of 
general,  and  general  staff  officers  of  volunteers, 
sufficient  for  the  proper  command  of  the  com- 
bined forces,  and  permitted  of  regular  officers 
holding  volunteer  commissions  without  preju- 
dice to  their  regular  army  status. 

Of  this  army,  three  regiments  of  engineer 
troops,    three   of    cavalry,    and   ten    of   infantry 


were  United  States  volunteers  recruited  from 
the  nation  at  large  —  all  of  the  officers  being 
commissioned  by  the  President.  As  fast  as  the 
State  troops  were  presented  properly  organized, 
they  were  mustered  into  the  service  of  the 
United  States.  The  total  number  furnished  for 
the  war  with  Spain  was  10.017  officers  (387  offi- 
cers of  the  regular  army  received  volunteer  com- 
missions) and  213,218  enlisted  men. 

The  close  of  the  war  brought  into  operation 
the  provisions  of  the  acts  of  22  April  and  26 
April  1898,  which  required  that  at  the  end  of  the 
war  the  entire  volunteer  forces  should  be  dis- 
charged and  the  regular  army  reduced  to  a 
peace  basis,  thus  making  necessary  the  discharge 
of  about  35,000  regular  troops,  1 10.000  volun- 
teers, and  substantially  all  of  the  5,000  volun- 
teer line  and  staff  officers. 

The  act  of  2  March  1899,  was  passed  in  view 
of  the  insurrection  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  gave  authority  to  again  increase  the  regular 
army  to  a  strength  not  exceeding  65,000  men, 
and  to  raise  a  force  of  not  more  than  35,000 
volunteers  to  be  recruited  from  the  country  at 
large  —  the  field  officers  being  appointed  from 
among  the  officers  of  the  regular  army,  233 
officers  holding  such  commissions.  All  the  vol- 
unteers authorized  by  this  act  were  recruited 
and  forwarded  to  the  Philippine  Islands  by 
January  1900,  and  there  actively  employed  in 
military  operations.  During  that  year  about 
42.000  men  of  the  regular  army  and  31,000  of 
the  volunteers  were  in  service  in  the  Philippine 
archipelago.  This  act  contained  the  provision 
that  all  general  staff  and  line  officers  appointed, 
and  the  volunteer  troops  raised,  under  its  pro- 
visions,   should    be    discharged    not    later    than 

1  July  1901  and  the  regular  army  reduced  to 
the  number  as  provided  by  law  prior  to  1  April 
1898,  exclusive  of  the  addition  made  to  the 
artillery;  but  the  Congress,  recognizing  the  ne- 
cessity for  a  larger  and  more  perfectly  organ- 
ized army,  passed  a  law,  which   was  approved 

2  Feb.  1901,  providing  for  an  increase  of  line 
organizations  from  25  regiments  of  infantry  to 
30,  and  10  regiments  of  cavalry  to  15,  and  from 
7  regiments  of  artillery,  including  14  field  and 
2  siege  batteries,  to  the  equivalent  of  13  regi- 
ments (organized  into  30  batteries  of  field  ar- 
tillery and  130  companies  of  coast  ar- 
tillery), and  5  companies  of  engineers  to  12 
companies,  representing  3  battalions.  The  min- 
imum and  maximum  numbers  of  enlisted  men 
for  the  different  arms  were  established  by  the 
same  statute,  so  that  the  total  number  of  en- 
listed men  might  be  varied  by  the  President 
according  to  exigencies  from  a  minimum  of 
59,131  to  a  maximum  of  100,000  (including  a 
corps  of  Philippine  Scouts,  which  is  limited  to 
12,000),  the  commissioned  personnel  remaining 
the  same. 

The  regular  army  is  recruited  (through  the 
agency  of  recruiting  officers  maintained  in  the 
principal  cities  and  towns)  in  times  of  peace 
and  war  by  voluntary  enlistments  (term  of  ser- 
vice three  years)  from  among  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  between  the  ages  of  18  and  35, 
of  good  character  and  temperate  habits,  able- 
bodied,  free  from  disease,  and  with  educational 
capacity  to  speak,  read,  and  write  the  English 
language.  The  native  born  constitute  about  90 
per  cent  of  the  enlistments  in  the  army. 


INSIGNIA  UNITED  STATES  ARMY. 


Arranged  by  Harold  L.  Crane,  N.  Y.  City. 


i.  Judge- Advocate   General's    1  >epartt.  ent. 

2.  Infantry. 

3.  Inspector  General's    Stall'. 

4.  Pay  Department. 

5.  Engineer    Corps. 

6.  Subsistence    Department. 

7.  Quartermaster's    Department. 

8.  Cavalry. 


>3- 
14. 


Signal    Corps. 
Medical  Department. 

Coat  of  Arms. 

i  Ordnance    Department. 

Field    Artillery. 

Adjutant    General's    Department 

Coast    Artillery. 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


In  addition  to  the  pay  ($13.00  per  month  for 
the  private  being  the  minimum),  all  soldiers  re- 
ceive from  the  government,  rations,  clothing, 
shelter,  medicine  and  medical  attendance,  and 
certain  increases  in  the  fixed  pay  for  continuous 
service.  Soldiers  can  deposit  their  savings  with 
the  paymasters,  and  are  allowed  four  per  centum 
per  annum  thereon  on  final  discharge.  For  those 
who  have  served  honestly  and  faithfully  20 
years,  or  who  have  been  discharged  for  wounds 
received  or  disease  incurred  in  service,  a  com- 
fortable home  is  maintained  in  the  city  of 
Washington,  toward  the  maintenance  of  which 
each  soldier  contributes  12Y2  cents  per  month 
from  his  pay,  and  all  court-martial  fines  and 
forfeitures  and  pay  due  deserters  go  to  the  home. 

In  addition  to  the  combatant  force  proper, 
the  law  authorizes  the  enlistment  of  musicians; 
for  the  cavalry  troops,  cooks,  blacksmiths  and 
farriers,  saddlers  and  wagoners ;  for  the  artil- 
lery corps,  electricians,  cooks,  mechanics  and 
artificers ;  and  cooks  and  artificers  for  the  in- 
fantry. Special  technical  skill  is  required  for 
enlistment  in  the  engineer,  signal  and  hospital 
corps. 

Officers:  Appointment  to,  Advancement  in, 
and  Retirement  from  the  Military  Service. — 
The  power  to  make  appointments  is  vested  in 
the  President  and  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States,  acting  concurrently,  within  the  limits 
of  the  enactments  of  Congress,  which  do  not 
encroach  upon  the  prerogatives  of  the  executive, 
who,  under  the  Constitution  is  the  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of  the  United 
States. 

The  army  is  officered,  (1)  from  the  gradu- 
ates of  the  Military  Academy,  to  which  young 
men  may  be  admitted  between  the  ages  of  17 
and  22.  Candidates  must  be  free  from  any 
infectious  or  immoral  disorder,  and  any  defi- 
ciency which  may  render  them  unfit  for  the 
military  service,  and  must  be  possessed  of  a 
good  elementary  education ;  the  examination  for 
entrance  being  made  to  conform  to  the  courses 
of  study  ordinarily  covered  in  the  high  schools 
and  academies  of  the  country  by  boys  of  aver- 
age age  of  appointees,  and  they  may  be  admit- 
ted upon  certificates  from  educational  institu- 
tions. Two  cadets-at-large  are  allowed  each 
State  (designated  by  the  respective  Senators), 
and  one  for  each  congressional  district,  Terri- 
tory, and  the  District  of  Columbia.  In  addition 
to  this  number  the  President  is  allowed  a  num- 
ber of  appointments,  which  are  usually  made 
from  among  the  sons  of  officers  of  the  army 
and  navy. 

The  commanding  officer  of  the  academy,  who 
has  the  title  of  Superintendent,  is  detailed  from 
the  army  and  has  the  temporary  rank  of  colonel. 
For  the  purpose  of  discipline  and  tactical  in- 
struction, the  cadets  are  organized  as  a  battalion 
of  four  companies,  with  officers  and  non-com- 
missioned officers  selected  from  among  their 
own  numbers.  The  corps  is  commanded  by  an 
officer  having  the  temporary  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel.  He  is  also  an  instructor  in  drill  regu- 
lations of  the  three  arms  of  the  service. 
An  officer  of  engineers  and  of  ordnance  are 
detailed  as  instructors  of  practical  military 
engineering  and  of  ordnance  and  gunnery, 
respectively.  The  heads  of  the  other  departments 
of  instruction  have  the  title  of  professors.  They 
are  selected  generally  from  officers  of  the  army, 


and  their  positions  are  permanent.  The  officers 
before  mentioned  and  the  professors  constitute 
the  academic  board.  The  military  staff  and  as- 
sistant instructors  are  officers  of  the  army.  The 
course  of  instruction  covers  four  years,  and, is 
very  thorough.  Theoretical  instruction  com- 
prises mathematics,  French,  Spanish,  English, 
drawing,  physics,  astronomy,  chemistry,  ord- 
nance and  gunnery,  art  of  war,  civil  and  mili- 
tary engineering,  international,  constitutional, 
and  military  law,  history,  and  drill  regulations 
of  all  arms.  The  practical  instruction  com- 
prises service  drills  in  infantry,  cavalry,  and  ar- 
tillery, surveying,  reconnaissances,  field  engi- 
neering,  and  gymnastics.  The  discipline  at  the 
academy  is  very  strict  —  more  so  than  in  the 
army.  In  addition  to  a  training  and  education 
fitting  the  cadets  for  the  military  service,  the 
aim  is  to  inculcate  habits  of  prompt  and  cheer- 
ful obedience  to  lawful  authority,  of  neatness, 
order,  and  regularity,  and  of  thoughtfulness  and 
attention  to  the  discharge  of  duty.  A  scrupu- 
lous regard  for  truthfulness  is  also  required. 
Upon  graduation  commissions  for  the  rank  of 
second  lieutenant  are  usually  conferred  by  the 
President,  and  the  graduates  are  given  a  choice 
as  to  the  arm  of  service  and  regiments,  as  far  as 
practicable,  those  graduating  at  the  head  of  the 
class  having  preference.  The  military  academy, 
on  1 1  June  1902,  celebrated  with  appropriate 
ceremonies  the  completion  of  one  hundred 
years  of  honorable  and  useful  service ;  and 
liberal  appropriations  by  Congress  for  rebuild- 
ing and  extending  the  institution  will  enable 
it  to  begin  its  second  century  with  the  well- 
founded  hope  of  larger  and  long-continued  use- 
fulness. 

In  the  event  of  remaining  vacancies  in  the 
grade  of  second  lieutenant  in  any  year  further 
appointments  are  made,  (2)  from  among  the 
enlisted  men  of  the  army  who  are  authorized 
by  law  to  enter  a  competitive  examination,  after 
two  years'  service,  provided  they  be  between 
the  ages  of  21  and  30,  unmarried,  and 
physically  and  morally  qualified.  To  obtain  a 
commission  the  candidate  must  pass  an  edu- 
cational and  physical  examination  before  a  board 
of  officers.  The  board  also  takes  into  consider- 
ation the  character,  capacity,  and  military  rec- 
ord of  the  candidate.  Many  well-educated  young 
men,  unable  to  obtain  appointments  to  West 
Point,  enlist  in  the  army  for  the  express  pur- 
pose of  becoming  officers  through  this  medium. 
And  (3)  civilians  are  appointed  to  vacancies 
that  may  be  left  when  the  two  first  classes  have 
been  exhausted.  To  be  eligible  for  appointment 
the  candidate  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  unmarried,  between  the  ages  of  21  and 
27  years,  and  must  be  approved  by  an  examin- 
ing board  as  to  habits,  moral  character,  physical 
ability,  education,  and  general  fitness  for  the 
service. 

Although  the  military  academy  has  in  the 
past  supplied  a  majority  of  the  officers  entering 
the  service  in  each  year,  the  partial  increase  of 
the  army  in  1898  by  reason  of  the  breaking  out 
of  hostilities  with  Spain,  and  resulting  casual- 
ties, and  its  re-organization  with  increased  num- 
bers on  the  disbandment  of  the  volunteer  army 
called  into  service  during  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can war,  has  necessitated  the  appointment  of  a 
large  number  of  officers  from  among  the  enlisted 
men,    volunteers,    and    civilians.      Of    the    ap- 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


poinltnents  to  the  line  of  the  army  in  the  four 
years  following  the  Spanish-American  War, 
about  one-sixth  were  supplied  by  the  military 
academy ;  the  others  having  been  appointed 
from  die  ranks,  civil  life,  and  from  the  vol- 
unteers of  the  war  with  Spain  and  in  the  Phil- 
ippines. The  volunteers  and  enlisted  men  had 
acquired  useful  experience  and  were  selected  on 
the  ground  of  their  military  conduct  and  intel- 
ligence, yet  this  considerable  influx  in  the  com- 
missioned personnel  had  not  permitted  of  a 
systematic  military  education.  To  overcome  this 
deficiency,  and  with  a  view  to  maintaining  a 
high  standard  of  instruction  and  general  train- 
ing of  the  officers  of  the  army,  and  to  keep  pace 
with  the  difficulties  of  the  problems  involved  in 
transporting,  supplying,  and  handling  armies 
of  modern  times,  and  for  caring  for  and 
rendering  effective  the  increasing  complexity  of 
tin-  machines  and  material  used  in  the  defense 
of  the  coast  fortifications,  a  system  of  military 
instruction  is  required,  and  accomplished 
through  officers'  schools  at  each  military  post, 
for  elementary  instruction  in  theory  and  prac- 
tice, and  at  special  service  schools — (a)  The 
Artillery  School  at  Fort  Monroe,  Va. ;  (b)  The 
Engineer  School  of  Application,  Washington 
Barracks,  D.  C. ;  (c)  The  School  of  Submarine 
Defense,  Fort  Totten,  N.  Y. ;  (d)  The  School 
of  Application  for  Cavalry  and  Field  Artillery 
at  Fort  Riley.  Kansas;  (e)  The  Army  Medical 
School.  A  General  Service  and  Staff  College 
is  also  maintained  at  Forth  Leavenworth  ;  and 
a  War  College,  at  the  city  of  Washington,  for 
(he  most  advanced  instruction  in  the  military 
art  and  science.  The  Congress  has  made  pro- 
vision for  the  maintenance  of  these  schools,  and 
given  its  sanction  to  the  general  system  of  mil- 
itary education  prescribed  therein. 

Promotions  in  the  line  are  made  through 
the  whole  army  by  seniority,  in  the  several  arms, 
namely,  artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry,  re- 
spectively, between  first  lieutenant  and  briga- 
dier-generals, relative  rank  being  determined 
by  length  of  service  as  an  officer  of  the  United 
States  either  in  the  regular  or  volunteer  forces. 
Promotions  among  officers  of  the  staff  holding 
permanent  commissions  are  made  in  like  man- 
ner in  the  several  departments  and  corps,  re- 
spectively. 

Educational  and  physical  examinations  are 
required  of  officers  of  the  line  upon  promotion 
between  the  grades  of  first  lieutenant  and  ma- 
jors. 

In  every  service,  to  maintain  a  reasonably 
low  age  among  the  persons  actively  employed, 
it  is  essential  that  some  scale  be  fixed  for  the 
retirement  of  old  and  worn-out  officers,  and 
those  incapacitated  for  active  military  service. 
When  an  officer  in  the  line  of  promotion  is  re- 
tired from  active  service,  or  in  the  event  of 
casualties,  by  reason  of  retirements,  resigna- 
tions, or  deaths,  the  next  officer  in  rank  is  pro- 
moted to  his  place,  and  the  same  rule  of  pro- 
motion is  applied  successively,  to  the  vacancies 
consequent   upon    such   casualties. 

The  laws  for  the  retirement  from  the  mil- 
itary service  provide : 

(i)  If  an  officer  has  had  30  years'  ser- 
vice (and  makes  application  therefor),  or  if  he 
has  reached  the  age  of  62,  he  may  be  placed  on 
the  retired  list. 


(2)  If  an  officer  has  been  borne  on  the  army 
register    for   40   years    (and   makes    application 

therefor),  or  if   he  has  reached   the  age  of  64, 
he  shall  be    retired    from   active    service. 

(3)  An  officer  may  also  be  retired  on  ac- 
count of  disability  contracted  in  the  line  of 
duty;  or,  wholly  retired,  if  his  incapacity  is 
not  the  result  of  an  incident  of  service,  and  his 
name   dropped   from  the  rolls  of  the  army. 

14)  In  like  manner  enlisted  men  of  the  army 
may  be  retired  after  40  years  of  service. 

Officers  and  enlisted  men  on  the  retired  list 
receive  75  per  cent  of  the  pay  of  the  rank  held 
upon  retirement,  hut  they  are  withdrawn  from 
command  and  promotion,  except,  that  officers 
may  be  assigned  to  duty  as  military  instructors 
at  colleges,  and  at  the  Soldier-,'  Home  (I).  C), 
They  are,  however,  amenable  to  the  rules  and 
articles  of  war,  and  subject  to  trial  by  court- 
martial  for  a  violation   thereof. 

The  Staff  of  the  Army. —  The  Secretary  of 
War  is  the  head  of  the  War  Department,  and 
performs  such  duties  as  are  required  of  him  by 
law,  or  may  be  enjoined  upon  him  by  the  Pres- 
ident concerning  the  military  establishment  and 
administers  its  affairs  and  promulgates- the  or- 
ders and  directions  of  the  President  through  a 
chief  of  staff,  who  has,  under  the  Secretary  of 
War,  supervision  of  all  troops  of  the  line  and 
of  the  administration  of  the  several  staff  de- 
partments. The  Secretary  of  War  is  charged 
with  the  supervision  of  estimates  of  appro- 
priations, of  all  purchases  of  army  supplies, 
of  all  expenditures  for  the  support,  trans- 
portation, and  maintenance  of  the  army; 
and  such  expenditures  of  a  civil  nature 
as  may  be  placed  by  Congress  under  his  direc- 
tion. He  also  has  supervision  of  the  Military 
Academy  and  of  military  education  in  the  army, 
of  the  Board  of  Ordnance  and  Fortification,  o{ 
the  various  battlefield  commissions.  He  has 
charge  of  all  matters  relating  to  national  de- 
fense and  seacoast  fortifications,  army  ordnance, 
river  and  harbor  improvements,  etc.  He  also 
has  charge  of  the  establishment  or  abandon- 
ment of  military  posts,  and  of  all  matters  re- 
lating to  lands  under  the  control  of  the  War 
Department.  His  duties  also  embrace  all  mat- 
ters pertaining  to  civil  government  in  the  island 
possessions  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
War  Department. 

But  twice  in  the  history  of  military  legisla 
tion  has  provision  been  formally  made  for  the 
office  of  Chief  of  Staff  of  the  Army:  (1)  in  the 
act  of  3  March  1813,  which  has  never  been  re- 
pealed in  express  terms,  and  (2)  in  the  act  of 
3  March  1865,  repealed  by  the  act  of  3  April 
1869. 

While  legislative  sanction  is  not  required  to 
enable  the  President  to  assign  an  officer  to  duty 
as  Chief  of  Staff,  a  position  demanded  by  the 
necessities  of  the  service,  Congress,  by  the  act 
of  14  Feb.  1903,  formally  authorized  the  office 
and  declared  that  under  the  direction  of  the 
President  or  the  Secretary  of  War,  that  the  Chief 
of  Staff  shall  have  supervision  of  all  troops  of 
the  line  and  of  the  Adjutant-General's,  Inspec- 
tor-General's, Judge  Advocate's,  Quartermas- 
ter's, Subsistence,  Medical,  Pay  and  Ordnance 
Department,  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  and  the 
Signal   Corps. 

It  is  required  of  the  general  staff  under  the 
law,  to  prepare  plans   for  the  national   defense 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


and  for  the  mobilization  of  the  military  forces 
in  time  of  war ;  to  investigate  and  report  upon 
all  questions  affecting  the  efficiency  of  the  army 
and  its  state  of  preparation  for  military  opera- 
tions; to  render  professional  aid  and  assistance 
to  the  Secretary  of  War  and  to  general  officers 
and  other  superior  commanders,  and  to  act  as 
their  agents  in  informing  and  co-ordinating  the 
action  of  all  the  different  officers  who  are  sub- 
ject to  the  supervision  of  the  Chief  of  Staff  and 
to  perform  such  other  military  duties,  not  oth- 
erwise assigned  by  law,  as  may  be,  from  time 
to  time,  prescribed  by  the  President  or  the  Secre- 
tary of  War. 

With  respect  to  the  staff  the  tendency  has 
been  to  fill  its  offices  from  the  line,  and  this  pre- 
vails at  this  day,  except  in  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment (which  is  open  to  appointment  from  civil 
life,  after  examination  as  to  professional  ca- 
pacity) and  the  chaplains;  but  since  1851,  when 
the  regular  law  of  promotion  was  secured  to 
each  of  them,  it  has  been  necessary  that  a  new- 
comer should  enter  at  the  foot  of  the  list,  ex- 


over  all  the  troops  within  the  limits  of  the  de- 
partment. The  commander  is  assigned  to  duty 
by  the  President,  who  alone  can  relieve  him, 
and  who  also  fixes  the  limits  or  boundaries  of 
the  command. 

In  time  of  war,  military  forces  are  organ- 
ized into  armies,  corps,  divisions  and  brigades ; 
and  for  each  (as  well  as  the  commander  of  a 
military  department)  is  provided  a  competent 
administrative  staff,  which  is  allied  in  its  per- 
sonnel and  duties  to  the  staff  for  the  whole  army, 
which  is  outlined  below  : 

*  Sec.  26  of  the  act  of  2  Feb.  1901,  provides,  "  that 
so  long  as  there  remain  any  officers  holding,  permanent 
appointments  in  the  Adjutant-General's  Department, 
the  Inspector-General's  Department,  the  Quartermaster's 
Department,  the  Subsistence  Department,  the  Pay  De- 
partment, the  Ordnance  Department,  and  the  Signal 
Corps,  including  those  appointed  to  original  vacancies 
in  the  grades  of  captain  and  first  lieutenant  under  the 
provisions  of  sections  sixteen,  seventeen,  twenty-one, 
and  twenty-four  of  this  act,  they  shall  be  promoted  ac- 
cording to  seniority  in  the  several  grades,  as  now  pro- 
vided by  law,  and  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be 
deemed  to  apply  to  vacancies  which  can  be  filled  by 
such  promotions  or  to  the  periods  for  which  the  officers 


ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  STAFF  OF  THE  U.  S.  ARMY. 


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cept  indeed  he  entered  at  its  head,  as  Generals 
Johnston  and  Meigs  did  in  the  Quartermas- 
ter's Department ;  but  that  was  in  the  days 
when  all  general  officers  were  selected  from 
the  army  at  large.  At  present  the  law  confines 
the  selection   to  the  chiefs  of  departments. 

Having  in  view  especially  the  duties  to  be 
performed  by  regular  officers  in  connection  with 
the  volunteer  force,  a  system  of  detail  from  the 
line  of  the  army  has  been  provided  for  (which 
in  a  measure  abolishes  the  permanent  staff),  in 
order  to  give  a  training  for  as  many  officers  as 
possible  in  a  variety  of  experience  which  will 
fit  them  for  the  duties  of  the  staff  and  regular 
command  in  the  combined  force  of  regulars 
and  volunteers. 

In  time  of  peace  the  military  administration 
of  the  army  is  conducted  by  the  Secretary  of 
War  through  the  Chief  of  Staff  and  the  several 
bureaus;  and  the  country  is  divided  into  mil- 
itary geographical  departments,  which  is  simi- 
lar to  the  command  of  a  separate  army,  with 
the    same   powers    and    duties    in    similar    cases 


so  promoted,  shall  hold  their  appointments;  and  when 
any  vacancy,  except  that  of  the  chief  of  the  department 
or  corps,  shall  occur,  which  can  not  be  filled  by  promo* 
tion  as  provided  in  this  section,  it  shall  be  filled  by 
detail  from  the  line  of  the  Army,  and  no  more  perma- 
nent appointments  shall  be  made  in  those  departments 
or  corps  after  the  original  vacancies  created  by  this  act 
shall  have  been  filled.  Such  details  shall  be  made  from 
the  grade  in  which  the  vacancies  exist,  under  such 
system  of  examination  as  the  President  may  from  time 
to  time  prescribe. 

"  All  officers  so  detailed  shall  serve  for  a  period  of 
four  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which  time  they  shall 
return  to  duty  with  the  line,  and  officers  below  the  rank 
of  lieutenant-colonel  shall  not  again  be  eligible  for 
selection  in  any  staff  department  until  they  shall  have 
served  two  years  with  the  line. 

*'  That  when  vacancies  shall  occur  in  the  position  of 
chief  of  any  staff  corps  or  department  the  President 
may  appoint  to  such  vacancies,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  officers  of  the  Army  at  large 
not  below  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel,  and  who  shall 
hold  office  for  terms  of  four  years.  When  a  vacancy 
in  the  position  of  chief  of  any  staff  corps  or  department 
is  filled  by  the  appointment  of  an  officer  below  the  rank 
now  provided  by  law  for  said  office,  said  chief  shall, 
while  so  serving,  have  the  same  rank.  pay.  and  allow- 
ances now  provided  for  the  chief  of  such  corps  or  de- 
partment. And  any  officer  now  holding  office  in  any 
corps  or  department  who  shall  hereafter  serve  as  chief 
of  a  staff  corps  or  department  and  shall  subsequently  be 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


The  Adjutant-General  promulgates  all  or- 
ders of  a  military  character  of  the  President, 
and  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  conducts  the  gen- 
eral correspondence  of  the  army  ;  receives  reports 
and  returns;  prepares  commissions,  appoint- 
ments, and  acceptances  of  resignations  for  issu- 
ance; and  has  charge  of  the  recruiting  service. 

The  Inspector-General,  with  his  assistants, 
inspects  all  military  commands  and  stations, 
the  schools  of  application,  the  military  depart- 
ments of  all  colleges  and  schools  at  which 
officers  of  the  army  are  detailed,  all  depots,  ren- 
dezvous,  armories,  arsenals,  fortifications,  and 
public  works  of  every  kind  under  charge  of 
or  carried  on  by  officers  of  the  army;  and  also 
the  money  accounts  of  all  disbursing  officers  of 
the  army. 

The  Quartermaster-General,  aided  by  assist- 
ants, provides  transportation  for  the  army ;  also 
clothing  and  equipage,  horses,  mules,  and  wa- 
gons, vessels,  forage,  stationery,  and  other  mis- 
cellaneous quartermaster  stores  and  property 
for  the  army,  and  clothing  and  equipage  for 
the  militia ;  constructs  necessary  buildings, 
wharves,  roads,  and  bridges  at  military  posts, 
and  repairs  the  same ;  furnishes  water,  heating 
and  lighting  apparatus;  pays  guides,  spies, 
scouts,  and  interpreters,  and  is  in  charge  of 
national  cemeteries. 

The  Commissary-General  of  Subsistence  has 
administrative  control  of  the  Subsistence  De- 
partment; the  disbursement  of  its  appropria- 
tions; the  providing  of  rations  and  their  issue 
to  the  army ;  the  purchase  and  distribution  of 
articles  authorized  to  be  kept  for  sale  to  of- 
ficers and  enlisted  men;  the  administrative  ex- 
amination of  accounts  of  subsistence  funds 
preliminary  to  their  settlement  by  the  proper 
accounting  officers  of  the  Treasury ;  and  the  ex- 
amination and  settlement  of  returns  of  subsist- 
ence supplies. 

The    Surgeon-General    is    charged   with    the 

retired,  shall  be  retired  with  the  rank,  pay,  and  allowances 
authorized  by  law  for  the  retirement  of  such  corps  or 
department  chief:  Prpvidcd,  That  so  long  as  there 
remain  in  service  officers  of  any  staff  corps  or  depart- 
ment  holding  permanent  appointments,  the  chief  of  such 
statf  corps  or  department  shall  be  selected  from  the 
officers  so  remaining  therein." 

a.  Assistant  surgeons  have  the  rank,  pay,  and 
emoluments  of  First  Lieutenants  of  Cavalry  for  the 
first  five  years'  service,  and  the  rank,  pay,  and  emolu- 
ments  of  the  grade  of  captain  after  five  years'  service. 
(Sec.   4,   Act   23   June    1874.) 

b.  By  the  Act  of  3  March  1873,  the  Secretary  of 
War  is  authorized  to  select  from  the  sergeants  of  the 
line  of  the  Army,  who  shall  have  faithfully  served 
therein  five  years,  three  years  of  which  in  the  grade  of 
non-commissioned  officer,  as  many  Commissary  Ser- 
geants as  the  service  may  require,  not  to  exceed  one  for 
each  military  post  or  place  of  deposit  of  subsistence 
supplies. 

c.  By  the  Act  of  5  July  1884,  the  Secretary  of  War 
is  authorized  to  appoint  as  many  Post  Quartermaster 
Sergeants  as  he  may  deem  necessary  for  the  interests  of 
the  service,  r.ot  to  exceed  eighty,  to  be  selected  by 
examination  from  the  most  competent  enlisted  men  of 
the  Army  who  shall  have  served  at  least  four  years. 
The  act  of  8  July  1898,  increased  the  number  of  Post 
Quartermaster  Sergeants  to  one  hundred  and  five;  and 
the  Act  of  2  Feb.  1001.  further  increased  the  number 
to  one  hundred  and  fifty. 

d.  The  Act  of  1  March  1887,  organizing  the  Hospital 
Corps  provides  that  it  shall  consist  of  Hospital  Stew- 
ards. Acting  Hospital  Stewards,  and  Privates,  and  that 
it  shall  be  permanently  attached  to  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment, and  shall  not  be  included  in  the  effective  strength 
of  the  Army  nor  counted  as  a  part  of  the  enlisted  force 
provided  by  law. 

e.  The  Act  of  2  Feb.  1901,  provides  for  three  bat- 
talions of  engineer  troops,  and  although  commanded  by 
listed  force  is  included  in  the  strength  of  the  line  of 
the  Army. 


administrative  duties  of  the  Medical  De- 
partment; the  designation  of  the  stations 
of  medical  officers,  and  the  issuing  of  all 
orders  and  instructions  relating  to  their 
professional  duties.  He  directs  as  to  the  loca- 
tion, purchase,  and  distribution  of  the  medical 
supplies  to  the  army.  The  Army  Medical  Mu- 
seum and  the  official  publications  of  the  Sur- 
geon-General's office  are  also  under  his  direct 
control. 

The  Paymaster-General  is  charged  with  the 
payment  of  the  officers  and  enlisted  men  of  the 
army  and  civil  employees  of  the  Department ; 
with  furnishing  funds  to  his  officers  and  see- 
ing that  they  duly  account  for  the  same,  and 
with  a  preliminary  examination  of  their  ac- 
counts ;  also  with  the  payment  of  Treasury  cer- 
tificates for  bounty,  back  pay,  etc.,  and  balances 
due  deceased  officers  and  soldiers  of  the  Vol- 
unteer and   Regular  army. 

The  Chief  of  Engineers  is  charged  with  all 
duties  relating  to  construction  and  repair  of 
fortifications,  whether  permanent  or  temporary; 
with  all  works  of  defense ;  with  all  military 
roads  and  bridges,  and  with  such  surveys  as 
may  be  required  for  these  objects,  or  the  move- 
ment of  armies  in  the  field.  It  is  also  charged 
with  the  river  and  harbor  improvements,  with 
military  and  geographical  explorations  and  sur- 
veys, with  the  survey  of  the  lakes,  and  with  any 
other  engineer  work  specially  assigned  to  the 
corps  by  acts  of  Congress  or  orders  of  the  Sec- 
retary of  War. 

The  duties  of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance  con- 
sist in  providing,  preserving,  distributing,  and 
accounting  for  every  descrintion  of  artillery, 
small  arms,  and  all  the  munitions  of  war  which 
may  be  required  for  the  fortresses  of  the  coun- 
try, the  armies  in  the  field,  and  for  the  whole 
body  of  the  militia  of  the  Union.  In  these 
duties  are  comprised  that  of  determining  the 
general  principles  of  construction  and  of  pre- 
scribing in  detail  the  models  and  forms  of  all 
military  weapons  employed  in  war.  They  com- 
prise also  the  duty  of  prescribing  the  regulations 
for  the  proofs  and  inspection  of  all  these  weap- 
ons, for  maintaining  uniformity  and  economy  in 
their  fabrication,  for  insuring  their  good  qual- 
ity, and  for  their  preservation  and  distribution. 
The  Judge-Advocate-General  is  directed  by 
law  to  "  receive,  review,  and  cause  to  be  re- 
corded the  proceedings  of  all  courts-martial, 
courts  of  inquiry,  and  military  commissions." 
He  also  furnishes  the  Secretary  of  War  infor- 
mation and  advice  relating  to  lands  under  con- 
trol of  the  War  Department,  and  reports  and 
opinions  upon  legal  questions  arising  under  the 
laws,  regulations,  and  customs  pertaining  to 
the  army,  and  upon  questions  arising  under  the 
civil  laws ;  reports  upon  applications  for  clem- 
ency in  the  cases  of  military  prisoners ;  exam- 
ines and  prepares  legal  papers  relating  to  the 
erection  of  bridges  over  navigable  waters ;  drafts 
bonds,  and  examines  those  given  to  the  United 
States  by  disbursing  officers,  colleges,  and  oth- 
ers ;  examines,  revises,  and  drafts  charges  and 
specifications  against  officers  and  soldiers ;  and 
also  drafts  and  examines  deeds,  contracts,  li- 
censes,  leases,   and    legal    papers    generally. 

The  Chief  Signal  Officer  is  charged  with  the 
supervision  of  all  military  signal  duties,  and 
devices  connected  therewith,  including  tele- 
graph and  telephone  apparatus  and   the  neces- 


ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


sary  meteorological  instruments  for  use  on 
target  ranges  and  other  military  uses ;  the  con- 
struction, repair,  and  operation  of  military  tele- 
graph lines,  and  the  duty  of  transmitting 
information  for  the  army  by  telegraph  or  other- 
wise, and  all  other  duties  usually  pertaining  to 
military   signaling. 

The  Chief  of  the  Record  and  Pension  Office 
is  charged  by  law  with  the  custody  of  the  mili- 
tary and  hospital  records  of  the  volunteer  ar- 
mies and  the  transaction  of  the  pension  and 
other  business  of  the  War  Department  connected 
therewith,  including  the  publication  of  the  Offi- 
cial Records  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 

Organization  of  the  Line  of  the  Army. — 
Each  regiment  of  cavalry  consists  of  12  troops 
and  one  band,  organized  into  3  squadrons  of  4 
troops  each,  and  under  the  minimum  require- 
ments of  the  law  is  constituted  as  follows : 

For  each  regiment :  1  colonel  and  1  lieuten- 
ant-colonel, I  chaplain,  and  2  veterinarians.  The 
non-commissioned  staff  consists  of  a  regimental 
sergeant-major,  1  quartermaster-sergeant,  I  com- 
missary-sergeant, and  2  color  sergeants.  Three 
additional  captains  and  3  first  and  second  lieu- 
tenants, being  authorized  beyond  the  require- 
ments of  the  troops,  are  available  for  detail  as 
regimental  and  squadron  adjutants,  quarter- 
masters and  commissaries.  For  each  troop :  I 
captain,  I  first  and  1  second  lieutenant,  the  en- 
listed force  consisting  of  I  first  sergeant,  1  quar- 
termaster-sergeant, 6  sergeants,  6  corporals,  2 
cooks,  2  blacksmiths  and  farrier,  1  saddler,  I 
wagoner,  2  trumpeters,  and  43  privates.  A  ma- 
jor commands  each  squadron,  for  which  a  staff 
consisting  of  an  adjutant  (1st  lieutenant)  and 
quartermaster  and  commissary  (2d  lieutenants) 
and  1  sergeant-major  is  authorized. 

The  regimental  organization  of  the  artillery 
arm  has  been  discontinued,  and  it  is  constituted 
and  designated  as  the  Artillery  Corps,  compris- 
ing two  branches,  namely :  The  Coast  Artillery, 
defined  by  law  as  that  portion  charged  with  care 
and  use  of  the  fixed  and  movable  elements  of 
land  and  coast  fortifications,  including  sub- 
marine mine  and  torpedo  defenses ;  and  the 
Field  Artillery,  as  that  portion  accompanying  an 
army  in  the  field,  and  including  field  and  light 
artillery  proper,  horse  artillery,  siege  artillery, 
mountain  artillery,  and  also  machine-gun  bat- 
teries. 

The  Artillery  Corps  consists  of  a  chief  of 
artillery  selected  and  detailed  by  the  President 
from  among  the  colonels  of  artillery  to  serve  as 
a  member  of  the  General's  staff,  his  duties  being 
prescribed  by  the  Secretary  of  War ;  14  colonels 
(one  of  whom  shall  be  chief  of  artillery,  with 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general),  13  lieutenant- 
colonels,  39  majors,  195  captains,  12  chap- 
lains, 195  first  lieutenants,  195  second  lieu- 
tenants (surplus  captains  and  lieutenants  not 
required  for  duty  with  batteries  or  com- 
panies being  available  for  duty  as  staff 
officers  of  the  various  artillery  garrisons, 
and  other  details)  ;  21  sergeants-major  senior 
grade,  and  27  sergeants-major  junior  grade;  1 
electrician-sergeant  is  authorized  for  each  coast 
artillery  post  having  electrical  appliances ;  30 
batteries  of  field  artillery,  126  batteries  of  coast 
artillery,  and  10  bands  constitute  the  strength 
of  an  artillery  force  not  to  exceed  18.920  men, 
the    enlisted    strength    of   the   companies    being 


fixed  by  the  President  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  service. 

The  enlisted  strength  authorized  (24  Oct. 
1902)   for  each  field  battery  is  as  follov. 

One  first  sergeant,  1  quartermaster-sergeant, 
I  stable-sergeant,  6  sergeants,  12  corporals,  2 
cooks,  4  artificers,  2  musicians,  91  privates ;  and 
for  each  company  of  coast  artillery :  1  first  ser- 
geant, 1  quartermaster-sergeant,  8  sergeants,  12 
corporals,  2  cooks,  2  mechanics,  2  musicians,  and 
8l   privates. 

The  United  States,  as  far  back  as  1886,  rec- 
ognizing the  necessity  for  providing  modern  sea- 
coast  defenses  to  protect  the  cities  and  harbors, 
adopted  a  policy  of  liberal  appropriations  for 
seacoast  defense,  and  to  carry  out  a  general 
plan  for  the  continuing  appropriations  made 
available,  passed  a  law  creating  a  board  of  ord- 
nance and  fortification  whose  duty  it  is  « to 
make  all  needful  and  proper  purchases,  experi- 
ments, and  tests  to  ascertain,  with  a  view  to 
their  utilization  by  the  government,  the  most 
effective  guns,  small  arms,  cartridges,  projectiles, 
fuses,  explosives,  torpedoes,  armor  plate,  and 
other  implements  and  engines  of  war.»  The 
membership  of  this  board  comprises  the  lieuten- 
ant-general commanding  the  army  (who  is  its 
president),  one  officer  each  from  the  corps  of 
engineers  and  the  ordnance  department,  two 
from  the  artillery,  and  one  civilian. 

Each  regiment  of  infantry  consists  of  12 
companies  and  I  band,  organized  into  3  bat- 
talions of  4  companies  each,  and  under  the 
minimum  requirements  of  the  law  is  constituted 
as  follows :  For  each  regiment  I  colonel  and 
I  lieutenant-colonel  and  I  chaplain.  The  non- 
commissioned force  consists  of  a  regimental 
sergeant-major,  I  quartermaster-sergeant,  I 
commissary-sergeant,  and  2  color-sergeants. 
Three  additional  captains  and  3  additional  first 
and  second  lieutenants,  being  authorized  beyond 
the  requirements  of  the  companies,  are  available 
for  detail  as  regimental  and  squadron  adjutants, 
quartermasters,  and  commissaries.  For  each 
company,  I  captain,  I  first  and  I  second  lieuten- 
ant, the  enlisted  force  consisting  of  1  first  ser- 
geant, 1  quartermaster-sergeant,  4  sergeants.  6 
corporals,  2  cooks,  2  musicians,  I  artificer,  and 
48  privates. 

The  President  is  also  authorized  to  enlist 
«  when  in  his  opinion  the  conditions  in  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands  justify  such  action"  not  to  ex- 
ceed 12,000  natives  of  those  islands  f.  ir  service 
as  scouts,  with  such  officers  as  shall  be  deemed 
necessary,  and  organize  them  into  troops,  com- 
panies, squadrons,  and  battalions,  but  this  force 
shall  be  included  in  the  maximum  enlisted 
strength  of  100.000  for  the  whole  army.  Ac- 
cordingly, there  have  been  enlisted  and  there  are 
now  in  service  (15  Oct.  1902).  about  5,000  Phil- 
ippine Scouts.  A  provisional  regiment  of  native 
Porto  Ricans  is  also  maintained.  The  field  offi- 
cers are  selected  from  officers  of  the  next  lower 
grade  in  the  regular  army,  the  company  and 
regimental  and  staff  officers  being  selected  by 
the  President.  The  strength  of  the  regiment 
on  15  Oct.  1902  was  29  officers  and  840  enlisted 
men. 

Militia. —  The  militia  becomes  national  only 
when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  Fed- 
eral government.  The  Constitution  makes  it  the 
duty  of  Congress  « to  provide  for  organizing, 
arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,"  and  «  for 


ARMY  AND  NAVY  MANEUVERS 


calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of 
the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  in- 
vasions.10 Though  the  necessity  for  a  well- 
regulated  militia  to  the  security  of  a  free  state 
is  recognized  by  the  Constitution,  the  arguments 
and  the  logic  of  facts  have  alike  failed  to  se- 
cure that  attention  demanded  by  the  gravity  of 
the  subject  prior  to  the  act  of  21  Jan.  1903, 
which  brings  the  militia  laws  to  conform  to 
modern  requirements  for  efficiency  and  effect- 
iveness, although  repeated  efforts  have  been 
made  to  accomplish  this  result  from  the  day  of 
Washington. 

The  military  reserve  of  the  United  States  is 
more  than  10,000,000  men,  hut  the  volunteer  or- 
ganizations maintained  in  the  States  have  not  in 
the  past    (1902)    exceeded   100,000  men. 

The  President  is  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
militia  of  the  several  States  when  called  into  the 
actual  service  of  the  United  States;  and  is  em- 
powered to  call  out  these  forces  in  event  of  in- 
vasion, actual  or  imminent,  and  in  cases  of  insur- 
rection or  rebellion  against  the  authority  of  the 
United  States  or  any  one  of  the  States  thereof, 
for  a  term  of  service  not  exceeding  nine  months. 
While  so  employed  the  troops  receive  the  pay, 
rations,  etc.,  of  regular  soldiers,  are  subject  to 
the  Rules  and  Articles  of  War,  and  their  offi- 
cers take  precedence  in  rank  next  after  officers 
of  like  grade  in  the  regular  service,  or  in  such 
volunteer  organizations  as  may  also  be  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States.  The  appointment 
of  the  officers  (to  the  grade  of  brigadier-gen- 
eral) and  the  authority  for  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Con- 
gress are  expressly  reserved  to  the  respective 
States. 

The  relations  of  the  National  Guard,  how- 
ever, to  the  Federal  government  have  never 
been  defined  or  settled.  The  confusion,  contro- 
versy, and  bad  feeling  arising  from  this  uncer- 
tain status  have  been  made  painfully  apparent 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  at  the  beginning  of 
the  war  with   Spain. 

The  militia  is  capable  of  being  utilized,  first, 
as  active  militia  when  called  out  by  the  Presi- 
dent for  the  specific  purposes  enumerated  in  the 
Constitution ;  second,  as  an  already  organized 
volunteer  force  wdien  its  organizations  respond 
as  such  to  calls  for  volunteers  for  general  mili- 
tary purposes  under  authority  of  Congress ;  and, 
third,  as  the  great  school  of  the  volunteer  sol- 
dier, the  benefits  of  which  are  received  by  the 
country  when  the  members  of  the  guard  respond 
individually  to  calls  for  volunteers. 

Under  the  militia  law  the  regularly  enlisted, 
organized,  and  uniformed  active  militia  (popu- 
larly known  as  the  National  Guard)  in  the  sev- 
eral States  and  Territories  and  the  District  of 
Columbia,  constitute  the  organized  militia  of 
the  United  States ;  and  provides  that  the  or- 
ganization and  discipline  thereof  shall  conform 
with  that  provided  for  the  regular  and  volunteer 
armies ;  and  contemplates  establishing  closer  re- 
lations and  better  co-operation  between  the  Na- 
tional Guard  and  the  regular  army,  and  to  pro- 
mote the  general  efficiency  and  dignity  of  the 
Guard  as  a  part  of  the  military  system  of  the 
United    States. 

To  aid  in  accomplishing  these  objects,  the  law 
provides  that  the  general  government  shall  fur- 
nish to  the  Guard  the  same  arms  which  it  fur- 
nishes to  the  regular  army,  and   for  the  volun- 


tary participation  by  the  Guard  with  the  regular 
army  in  maneuvers  and  field  exercises  (or  brief 
periods  in  each  year.  The  law  also  contains 
provisions  making  the  National  Guard  organ- 
izations which  choose  voluntarily  to  go  beyond 
the  limitations  of  militia  service  in  effect  a 
first  volunteer  reserve.  It  also  provides  for  as- 
certaining by  practical  tests,  in  advance  of  a 
call  for  volunteers,  the  fitness  to  hold  volunteer 
commissions,  of  members  of  the  National  Guard, 
graduates  of  the  military  schools  and  colleges, 
and  other  citizens  with  military  training,  thus 
constituting  an  eligible  list  from  which  in  case 
of  a  call  for  volunteers  officers  may  be  taken. 

The  military  forces  of  the  United  Stales  are, 
therefore,  as   follows : 

1.  A  regular  army,  capable  of  enlargement 
by  the  President  when  he  sees  war  coming,  to 
100,000  men. 

2.  Such  of  the  organized  militia,  trained  as 
National  Guard,  as  the  President  shall  see  fit  to 
call  into  the  service  of  the  United  States. 

3.  Such  other  volunteers  as  Congress  may 
deem  necessary  to  call  forth  from  the  States  ac- 
cording to  the  respective  quotas.     See  General 


Staff  of  the  Army. 


H.    C.    CORBIN, 


Major-Gencral  and  Adjutant-General,  U.  S.  A. 

Army  and  Navy  Maneuvers.  The  object 
of  maneuvers  is  to  train,  in  time  of  peace,  the 
fighting  forces  of  a  nation  by  handling  them,  as 
far  as  practicable,  as  in  time  of  war.  the  forces 
designated  being  divided,  for  this  purpose,  into 
two  opposing  bodies.  Previous  military  training, 
or  drill,  is  presupposed.  Maneuvers  are  of  three 
kinds :  First,  Land  maneuvers,  taking  place 
entirely  on  land ;  second,  Naval  maneuvers, 
where  fleets  maneuver  against  fleets;  third,  Com- 
bined army  and  navy  maneuvers.  The  last  two 
are  of  comparatively  recent  origin. 

European  Maneuvers. —  In  the  days  of  the  old 
French  monarchy,  previous  to  the  Revolution,  the 
necessity  for  practice  in  handling  large  bodies  of 
troops  became  apparent,  and  under  Louis  XIV. 
and  Louis  XV.  large  camps  of  instruction  were 
instituted  in  France,  then  the  leading  military 
nation  of  the  world.  In  these  camps  troops  of 
all  arms  were  concentrated  for  practice  in  field 
and  siege  warfare.  Maneuvers  are  now  annually 
held  in  all  the  principal  countries  of  Europe. 
Prussia  was  the  first  country  to  follow  the  lead 
of  France,  and  as  in  no  other  country  than  in 
Germany  have  they  reached  a  higher  development 
the  German  maneuvers  will  be  taken  as  a  type. 
They  are  the  culmination  and  test  of  the  military 
instruction  of  the  year.  As  in  almost  all  coun- 
tries where  military  service  is  compulsory,  the 
annual  contingent  of  conscripts  drawn  for  ser- 
vice is  called  to  the  colors  in  the  autumn.  Be- 
ginning with  individual  instruction,  a  progressive 
system  of  military  training  is  carried  on  until 
the  following  summer,  by  which  time  the  troops 
have  been  thoroughly  drilled  and  are  ready  for 
the  maneuvers.  As  operations  in  the  grand  ma- 
neuvers are  carried  on  over  a  large  extent  of 
territory,  the  time  fixed  is  after  the  crops  are 
harvested  so  that  agricultural  interests  are  in- 
terfered with  as  little  as  possible.  The  annual 
maneuvers  begin  with  regimental  and  brigade 
exercises  for  the  infantry,  with  battalion  exer- 
cises for  field  artillery  (a  battalion  consists  of 
two  or  more  batteries)  and  with  special  maneu- 
vers for  cavalry.    Maneuvers  are  also  carried  on 


ARMY   AND    NAVY    MANEUVERS 


all  over  the  country  by  the  army  corps  not  par- 
ticipating in  the  grand  maneuvers.  The  pro- 
gramme for  the  grand  maneuvers  is  carefully 
worked  out  beforehand  by  the  Great  General 
Staff  at  Berlin.  When  the  maneuvers  of  one 
year  are  over,  work  is  begun  on  the  scheme  of 
those  for  the  next  year.  Staff  officers  are  sent 
out  to  select  the  ground,  which  is  changed  from 
year  to  year  so  that  the  terrain  may  be  varied 
and  the  interests  of  the  inhabitants  may  be  con- 
sidered. Districts  where  there  are  vineyards 
or  growing  autumn  crops  are  generally 
avoided.  The  troops  to  take  part  are  selected 
and  depots  of  supplies  at  convenient  points  in  the 
theatre  of  operations  are  provided  for.  Foreign 
officers  of  distinction,  and  especially  the  foreign 
military  attaches,  are  invited  to  attend.  They 
are  during  the  maneuvers  the  guests  of  the  em- 
peror. Officers  are  specially  detailed  to  accom- 
pany them.  They  are  furnished  with  plans  of 
operations,  with  maps,  and  with  all  other  neces- 
sary information.  In  the  grand  maneuvers  a 
large  body  of  troops  of  all  arms  always  takes 
part ;  often  as  many  as  four  army  corps,  seldom 
less  than  two.  In  1901,  for  instance,  the  forces 
comprised  two  army  corps,  with  some  addi- 
tional regiments  of  infantry  from  other  corps, 
two  divisions  of  cavalry,  and  538  guns,  in- 
cluding horse  artillery,  light  artillery,  field 
howitzers  and  machine  guns;  altogether  about 
75,000  men  and  18,000  horses.  (In  the 
grand  maneuvers  in  France  in  1901,  which  were 
witnessed  by  the  Czar  of  Russia,  about  140,000 
troops  took  part.) 

The  supreme  control  of  the  grand  maneuvers 
is  exercised  by  a  director  of  maneuvers,  who  is 
frequently  the  emperor  himself.  Several  officers 
of  high  rank  are  designated  as  umpires.  Their 
duty  is  to  watch  all  the  operations  carefully,  ob- 
serve mistakes  and  estimate  results.  They  de- 
cide, for  instance,  whether  a  certain  attack  was 
properly  made,  and  whether  or  not  it  was  suc- 
cessful. They  direct  to  be  temporarily  withdrawn 
from  action  a  unit  supposed  to  be  disabled  or 
captured.  In  actual  war  this  would  not  be  neces- 
sary, but  in  simulated  war,  where  blank  car- 
tridges are  used,  no  one  on  either  side  is  hurt 
and  the  opposing  lines  come  within  close  dis- 
tance of  each  other  without  loss  of  numbers  and 
with  their  nerves  unshaken.  It  is  therefore 
necessary  to  have  expert  disinterested  judges 
to  decide  what  the  losses  would  have  been,  to 
what  extent  the  morale  of  the  troops  might  have 
been  impaired,  and  what  the  results  of  the  con- 
flict would  have  been  had  it  been  a  real  and 
not  an  imaginary  battle. 

The  time  for  concentration  having  arrived, 
the  troops  designated  proceed  to  their  rendez- 
vous by  marching  or  by  rail.  In  1901  the  first 
corps  marched  nearly  200  miles  at  an  average  rate 
of  23  miles  a  day.  As  the  railroads  are  under 
government  control,  all  arrangements  for  trans- 
portation of  troops  and  supplies  are  easily  made 
so  that  regular  traffic  is  interfered  with  but 
little.  No  tents  are  carried,  the  troops  being 
billeted  on  the  inhabitants  at  prescribed  rates 
or  going  into  bivouac.  Large  wagon  trains  are 
therefore  not  needed.  What  wagons  are  re- 
quired to  carry  supplies  from  the  depots  to  the 
troops  are  requisitioned  in  the  district.  The 
troops  are  in  heavy  marching  order  and  carry 
their  heavy  packs  without  fatigue.  This  is  be- 
cause they  are  trained  to  it,  habitually  carrying 
their  packs  in  all  military  exercises  throughout 

Vol.  1-47 


the  year.  The  concentration  having  been  ef- 
fected, the  troops  are  organized  into  two  armies, 
each  with  a  general  in  command  selected  by  the 
emperor.  For  convenience,  each  army  is  given 
a  temporary  designation,  as  the  Red  Army,  the 
Blue  Army. 

A  general  war  situation  is  announced.  The 
Red  Army  is  supposed  to  be  an  invading  army 
and  to  advance  across  the  frontier  with  some 
important  city  as  an  objective.  The  Blue  Army 
is  on  the  defensive.  The  armies  are  at  the  be- 
ginning many  miles  apart,  the  whole  theatre  of 
operations  covering  perhaps  60  or  70  miles 
square.  Each  commanding  general  makes  his 
dispositions,  posts  his  troops,  and  issues  such 
orders  as  he  thinks  necessary.  Beyond  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  general  scheme,  he  knows  nothing 
about  the  movements  or  location  of  the  enemy 
except  what  he  finds  out  from  reconnoissances, 
spies,  etc.,  as  in  actual  war.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  day's  operations  the  results  are  determined 
by  the  director  and  the  umpires  and  the  general 
situation  is  summed  up.  The  work  of  the  day 
is  criticised  and,  if  necessary,  the  director  gives 
the  generals  in  command  additional  instructions 
for  the  following  day.  Each  general  then  goes 
on  with  his  plan  or  modifies  it  according  to 
his  instructions  or  the  developments  of  the 
day,  and  issues  his  orders  for  the  next  day ;  and 
so  on  throughout  the  maneuvers.  To  describe 
clearly  the  operations  day  by  day  in  detail 
throughout  the  maneuver  period  is  impracticable 
without  the  assumption  of  a  concrete  case  and 
the  use  of  maps,  so  it  will  not  be  attempted. 
A  feature  of  the  maneuvers  is  often  a  charge 
upon  infantry  in  position  by  the  combined 
cavalry  force.  This  is  somewhat  spectacular 
and  would  probably  not  be  done  under  similar 
circumstances  in  war,  but  this  fact  is  recognized 
by  all  concerned  and  the  operation  is  there- 
fore not  misleading.  It  gives  an  opportunity  to 
show  the  training  of  the  cavalry  and  how  it  can 
be  handled  in  large  masses.  As  the  director  of 
maneuvers  has  absolute  control  of  both  sides, 
he  can  arrange  the  problems  so  that  the  maneu- 
vers shall  take  place  in  the  exact  localities  de- 
sired. The  question  of  the  location  of  supply 
depots  at  convenient  places  beforehand  is  there- 
fore an  easy  one. 

A  large  captive  signal  balloon  accompanies 
the  emperor's  headquarters.  It  is  distinguished 
from  other  captive  balloons  by  a  special  flag. 
Signals  are  made  by  attaching  to  the  balloon 
combinations  of  balls  and  inflated  bags.  These 
signals  are  known  to  all,  can  be  seen  for  great 
distances  and  consequently  orders  can  thus  be 
transmitted  to  all  the  troops  more  quickly  than 
in  any  other  way  yet  devised. 

Great  attention  is  paid  to  sanitary  conditions 
and  in  consequence  the  percentage  of  sickness  is 
very  small.  Formerly  in  maneuvers  much  sick- 
ness prevailed  among  the  troops  due  to  the  use 
of  impure  water.  To  guard  against  this  a  care- 
ful inspection  of  the  water  supply  of  the  region 
is  made  beforehand,  and  placards  are  put  up 
showing  where  water  is  to  be  had  and  its  con- 
dition. 

These  maneuvers  are  of  great  value  in  train- 
ing officers,  especially  staff  officers.  They  also 
serve  as  a  sort  of  examination  for  officers,  whose 
work  in  the  field  comes  under  the  observation  of 
their  superiors,  from  (he  emperor  down.  Offi- 
cers showing  zeal  and  ability  are  marked  for 
advancement,  while  those  whose  work  does  not 


ARMY  AND  NAVY  MANEUVERS 


come  up  to  the  standard  arc  reproved  or  even 
more  severely  dealt  with,  officers  whose  handling 
of  their  men  dues  not  suit  the  emperor  being 
often  relieved  from  their  commands.  The  ma- 
neuvers are  terminated  by  a  grand  review  before 
the  emperor,  all  the  troop  taking  part,  after 
which  they  return  to  their  garrisons. 

Amencan  Maneuvers. —  In  the  United  States 
circumstances  have  heretofore  prevented  the 
carrying  on  of  maneuvers  as  in  Europe.  Our 
army  was  so  small  and  so  widely  scattered  that 
a  large  enough  force  to  make  it  worth  while 
could  not  be  brought  together  without  great 
inconvenience  and  expense.  Maneuvers  on  a 
small  scale  were  had  in  Indian  Territory  in 
1889,  in  which  troops  stationed  within  march- 
ing distance  took  part,  but  they  were  not  again 
attempted  until  1902,  when  the  first  of  what  it 
is  hoped  will  be  an  annual  series  took  place 
They  marked,  too,  for  the  first  time  in  the 
United  States  the  participation  of  the  National 
Guard  in  conjunction  with  regulars.  In  order 
to  give  a  clear  idea  of  how  they  are  managed  in 
the  United  States  it  will  be  best  to  give  a  brief 
account  of  the  maneuvers  of  that  year.  They  will 
be  improved  upon  and  developed  as  time  goes 
on,  but  the  work  done  then  will  serve  as  a  basis. 
The  place  selected  was  the  large  military  reser- 
vation of  Fort  Riley,  Kansas.  The  department 
commander  was  selected  to  direct  them.  A 
board  of  officers  was  convened  at  Omaha  be- 
forehand to  draw  up  plans  for  the  maneuvers 
and  rules  for  their  conduct.  Besides  the  garri- 
son of  Fort  Riley,  troops  were  ordered  from 
posts  in  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Arkansas  and  Okla- 
homa. The  troops  from  Arkansas  and  Okla- 
homa went  by  rail :  the  others  marched.  Marches 
wrre  conducted  with  all  the  precautions  that 
would  be  necessary  in  an  enemy's  country.  The 
force  collected  comprised  a  battalion  of  engi- 
neers, three  regiments  of  infantry,  three  squad- 
rons of  cavalry,  five  batteries  of  field  artillery 
and  detachments  of  the  Signal  and  Hospital 
Corps.  Invitations  were  sent  by  the  war  de- 
partment to  the  governors  of  States  to  send 
National  Guard  troops  to  take  part  in  the  ma- 
neuvers. As  the  necessary  expense  was  not  at 
that  time  borne  by  the  government,  only  two 
States,  Kansas  and  Colorado,  sent  troops :  the 
former,  two  regiments;  the  latter,  one  battalion. 
Many  National  Guard  officers,  however,  were 
suit  from  their  States  as  observers.  Foreign 
military  attaches  were  also  invited.  The  troops 
hail  both  blue  and  khaki  uniforms.  When 
divided  into  opposing  forces,  one  wore  blue,  the 
other  khaki,  and  they  were  designated  as  the 
Blues  and  the  Browns,  respectively.  An  officer 
was  named  as  chief  umpire,  with  a  number  of 
other  officers  as  his  assistants,  one  being  chief 
umpire  for  the  Blues ;  another,  chief  umpire 
for  the  Browns.  A  decision  of  an  umpire  on 
any  point  must  be  observed,  but  if  any  officer 
concerned  should  think  it  a  wrong  one,  he  could 
appeal  from  it  after  the  maneuver.  The  rules 
provided  that  firing  should  cease  when  opposing 
forces  came  within  one  hundred  yards  of  each 
other,  and  that  cavalry'  charges  should  stop  at 
the  same  distance.  The  greatest  care  was  taken 
to  see  that  no  ball  cartridges  were  carried  by  the 
men.  Men  supposed  to  be  wounded  were  im- 
mediately taken  care  of  by  the  Hospital  Corps. 
Connection  by  telegraph  and  telephone  was  es- 
tablished and  maintained  by  the  Signal  Corps. 
Poles   were  set  up  and   wire   strung  as   fast  as 


troops  marched,  and  any  part  of  a  force  could 
be  kept  constantly  in  communication  with  any 
other  part  or  with  headquarters,  A  ^nioke  sig- 
nal bomb,  which  could  be  seen  tor  long  distances, 
was  sent  up  at  the  conclusion  of  the  operations 
eaeli  day  and  the  troops  were  then  marched 
back  to  their  camps.  The  programme  for  the 
maneuvers  provided  for  a  series  of  military 
problems,  varying  in  character  from  day  to  day, 
each  being  completed  in  one  day.  As  the  Na- 
tional Guard  contingent  did  not  arrive  as  soon 
as  the  regulars,  they  took  no  part  in  the  opera- 
tions of  the  first  few  days.  There  were  nine 
problems  during  the  maneuvers.  Some  of  them 
will  be  briefly  stated.  In  the  descriptions  "bat- 
talion" signifies  a  battalion  (four  companies)  of 
infantry  or  engineers;  "squadron",  a  squadron 
(four  troops)   of  cavalry. 

Problem  1.  "The  Blues  represent  the  out- 
posts of  an  army  corps  on  the  defensive,  hold- 
ing Fort  Riley.  Strength:  9  battalions,  1  squad- 
ron, 3  batteries.  They  are  placed  from  right  to 
left  as  an  outpost  line.  The  guns  occupy  com- 
manding positions  in  the  line  and  are  sheltered 
by  gun-pits  constructed  after  their  arrival  in 
position.  The  line  selected  was  judged  very 
satisfactory  and  the  time  made  excellent  as  the 
Blues  marched  three  miles  and  then  established 
their  line  four  miles  long  in  two  hours  and 
a  half,  the  ground  being  heavy  and  the  roads 
muddy.  The  Browns  represent  two  reconnoiter- 
ing  parties  of  an  advancing  army  corps.  The 
first  consists  of  I  battalion,  I  squadron,  I  bat- 
tery ;  the  second  of  1  squadron,  and  I  battery. 
Approaching  from  different  directions,  they  have 
orders  to  unite  near  Fort  Riley  for  a  demon- 
stration against  the  enemy's  position  in  order 
to  ascertain  his  strength.  The  Brown  batteries 
were  ordered  to  locate  and  engage  the  hostile 
batteries.  One  opened  fire  at  3,000  yards.  The 
other,  through  an  error,  came  under  fire,  in 
column,  at  1,400  yards.  As  the  hostile  batteries 
were  under  shelter  while  the  Browns  were  in 
the  open,  the  umpires  decided  that  both  Brown 
batteries  had  been  put  out  of  action.  They  also 
decided  that  the  Brown  infantry  and  cavalry 
were  not  handled  aggressively  enough  for  a 
reconnoissance  in  force,  that  the  strength  of 
the  Blues  had  not  been  fully  developed,  and 
that  the  information  gained  by  the  Brown  com- 
mander as  a  result  of  the  reconnoissance  would 
consequently  have  been  misleading.  The  re- 
sults of  the  day  were  in  favor  of  the  Blues. 

Problem  2.  Attack  and  defense  of  a  convoy. 
The  Blue  army  is  operating  about  50  miles 
southwest  of  Topeka.  with  that  point  as  a  base. 
The  railroads  are  assumed  to  be  broken  up 
and  supply  by  wagon  train  is  necessary.  One  of 
the  trains,  consisting  of  180  wagons,  has  camped 
about  25  miles  from  Topeka.  A  raiding  force 
of  the  Browns  has  gotten  in  rear  of  the  main 
Blue  army.  Its  commander  has  learned  of  the 
train  and  plans  its  capture  or  destruction.  The 
Blue  escort  consists  of  6  battalions,  I  battery,  2 
troops ;  the  train  is  in  two  divisions.  The  com- 
mander expects  to  be  attacked  and  moves  out 
with  advance  and  rear  guards  and  with  a  half 
battalion  on  each  flank  of  each  division  of  the 
train.  The  remainder  of  his  force,  2  battalions 
and  I  battery,  is  between  the  two  divisions.  The 
commander  has  orders  to  push  on  as  rapidly 
as  possible  as  the  supplies  are  badly  needed. 
The  Brown  raiding  force  consists  of  a  platoon 
of  artillery  and    10  troops  of  cavalry.     The  op- 


ARMY  AND  NAVY  MANEUVERS 


posing  forces  having  come  in  contact,  a  series 
of  detached  actions  ensue,  the  result  being  that 
the  Browns  are  finally  driven  off  after  having 
destroyed  36  wagons.  This  is  due  to  faulty 
disposition  of  the  train,  it  having  been,  at  one 
point,  unnecessarily  exposed  to  hostile  artillery 
fire.  With  this  exception  the  Blues  were  ad- 
judged to  have  been  in  the  main  well  handled. 
The  Browns  were  criticised  for  not  having 
thoroughly  informed  themselves  of  the  enemy's 
dispositions,  in  consequence  of  which  a  portion 
of  their  force  came  unexpectedly  upon  a  largely 
superior  force  of  the  enemy  and  was  declared 
out  of  action.  A  charge  was  also  made  upon 
infantry  in  position,  which  should  not  have 
been  done.  Had  the  Browns,  with  their  infe- 
rior force,  acted  with  more  caution,  they  could 
have  kept  up  their  harassing  tactics  and  in  the 
end  have  inflicted  much  more  damage  on  the 
train. 

Problem  3.  This  consisted  of  three  separate 
exercises,  each  embracing  the  employment  of 
a  regiment  as  an  outpost  for  an  imaginary  larger 
command.  In  each  case  the  outpost  was  es- 
tablished by  a  regular  regiment,  National  Guard 
officers  accompanying  the  commander  as  spec- 
tators. Each  outpost,  when  completely  estab- 
lished, was  relieved  by  a  National  Guard  regi- 
ment. When  a  National  Guard  outpost  was  es- 
tablished a  small  force  of  regulars,  represent- 
ing an  outlined  enemy,  attacked  and  the  outpost 
made  the  necessary  preparations  for  defense. 
For  the  instruction  of  the  National  Guard,  great 
care  was  taken  to  explain  the  function  of  an 
outpost  and  the  manner  of  receiving  the  attack. 
It  was  also  explained  that  the  attacking  force 
was  supposed  to  be  superior  in  strength  to  the 
outpost  In  the  execution  of  these  exercises 
the  criticism  was  made  that  the  tendency  of  the 
men  was  to  hold  on  to  their  advanced  positions 
too  long,  the  idea  of  retreat  being  repugnant. 
Such  a  retreat,  however,  would  have  been  neces- 
sary had  the  simulated  attack  been  real,  and  in 
this  case  it  was  necessary  for  carrying  out  the 
exercise  ordered.  The  object  of  the  exercise, 
which  was  often  lost  sight  of,  was  not  to  main- 
tain a  line  of  outposts  under  attack,  but  to  show 
how  entire  outposts  could  be  brought  into  united 
defensive  action  in  order  to  give  the  main  body 
time  to  make  its  dispositions.  The  unani- 
mous opinion  of  the  umpires  was  that  the  em- 
ployment of  a  small  number  of  men  to  rep- 
resent a  large  imaginary  force  is  unsatisfactory, 
and  should  be  discontinued  in  future  maneuvers. 
The  situation  is  unreal  and  it  is  difficult  to  make 
the  participants  realize  it. 

In  the  evenings  the  officers  were  assembled 
and  the  events  of  the  day  were  discussed.  The 
board  appointed  to  draw  up  plans  for  the  ma- 
neuvers agreed  that  the  most  desirable  form  is 
that  employed  in  Europe,  where  two  large  bodies, 
each  operating  from  a  definite  base,  move  for- 
ward in  the  execution  of  a  large  strategical 
problem,  occupying  several  days  and  covering  a 
large  extent  of  country.  All  the  features  of 
an  active  campaign  are  introduced  and  all  the 
elements  of  tactics  are  brought  in.  but  circum- 
stances prevent  it  in  the  United  States,  as  the 
necessary  ground  is  not  available  within  reason- 
able distances.  The  general  prevalence  of 
fences,  which  in  agricultural  districts  of  con- 
tinental Europe  are  absent,  prevent  free  move- 
ment over  ground  not  owned  by  the  government 
and  their  destruction  or  removal  would  be  too 


expensive.  The  general  opinion  after  the  ma- 
neuvers was  that  they  were  instructive  and  valu- 
able in  the  highest  degree  and  were  well  worth 
the  cost  The  conditions  of  actual  warfare  were 
well  maintained  and  show  features  were  entirely 
eliminated. 

Permanent  Drill  Grounds. —  The  Act  of 
Congress  of  2  Feb.  1901,  authorized  the  secre- 
tary of  war  "to  cause  preliminary  examinations 
and  surveys  to  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  se- 
lecting four  sites  with  a  view  to  the  establish- 
ment of  permanent  camp  grounds  for  instruc- 
tion of  troops  of  the  regular  army  and  National 
Guard,  with  estimates  of  the  cost  of  the  sites 
and  their  equipment  with  all  modern  appliances, 
and  for  this  purpose  is  authorized  to  detail  such 
officers  of  the  army  as  may  be  necessary  to 
carry  on  the  preliminary  work."  In  accordance 
with  this  act  four  sites  were  selected,  regard 
being  had  to  geographical  conditions,  so  that 
they  would  be  available  for  as  large  a  part 
of  the  army  and  militia  throughout  the  United 
States  as  possible  without  undue  expense  for 
transportation  of  troops  and  supplies.  The 
Militia  bill,  which  became  a  law  21  Jan.  1903, 
contained  the  following  provisions :  "That  the 
secretary  of  war  is  hereby  authorized  to  pro- 
vide for  participation  by  any  part  of  the  or- 
ganized militia  of  any  State  or  Territory  on 
the  request  of  the  governor  thereof  in  the  en- 
campment, maneuvers  and  field  instruction  of 
any  part  of  the  regular  army  at  or  near  any 
military  post  or  camp  or  lake  or  seacoast  de- 
fenses of  the  United  States.  In  such  case  the 
organized  militia  so  participating  shall  receive 
the  same  pay,  subsistence,  and  transportation  as 
is  provided  by  law  for  the  officers  and  men  of 
the  regular  army,  to  be  paid  out  of  the  appro- 
priation for  the  pay,  subsistence,  and  trans- 
portation of  the  army."  "That  whenever  any 
officer  of  the  organized  militia  shall,  upon  recom- 
mendation of  the  governor  of  any  State,  Terri- 
tory, or  general  commanding  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  when  authorized  by  the  President, 
attend  and  pursue  a  regular  course  of  study  at 
any  military  school  or  college  of  the  United 
States  such  officer  shall  receive  from  the  an- 
nual appropriation  for  the  support  of  the  army 
the  same  travel  allowances,  and  quarters,  or 
commutation  of  quarters,  to  which  an  officer  of 
the  regular  army  would  be  entitled  if  attending 
such  school  or  college  under  orders  from  proper 
military  authority,  and  shall  also  receive  com- 
mutation of  subsistence  at  the  rate  of  one  dollar 
per  day  while  in  actual  attendance  _  upon  the 
course  of  instruction."  Congress  having  recog- 
nized the  value  of  maneuvers  and  having  made 
provision  for  them  to  be  carried  on,  they  may 
now  be  considered  a  permanent  feature  of  our 
military  system.  The  armed  land  forces  of  the 
country,  regulars  and  militia,  will  hereafter  be 
trained  in  practical  military  work  together  as 
they  never  have  been  in  years  gone  by  and  the 
outbreak  of  another  war  should  find  the  country 
better  prepared  to  meet  it  than  at  any  previous 
time  in  its  history. 

Naval  Maneuvers  may  be  tactical  or  stra- 
tegical ;  the  former  having  to  do  with  the 
handling  of  fleets  when  they  are  within  sight  of 
each  other,  the  latter  when  they  are  not.  As  all 
the  elements,  such  as  si»?  and  speed,  character 
and  arrangement  of  armor,  number  and  power 
of  guns,  of  different  classes  of  ships,  battle- 
ships,   cruisers,    and    torpedo    boats,    are    well 


ARMY  AND  NAVY  MANEUVERS 


known,  it  is  supposed,  when  they  come  in  con- 
flict, that  the  result  will  be  a  foregone  conclu- 
sion, assuming  the  personnel  to  be  of  equal 
quality.  The  personal  element,  the  man  behind 
the  gun,  while  of  vital  importance  in  war,  is  a 
factor  that  cannot  be  easily  estimated  in  naval 
maneuvers.  Much  more  attention  is  therefore 
given  to  strategical  maneuvers.  A  fleet  going 
out  for  maneuvers  is  divided  into  two  squad- 
rons, one  to  attack,  the  other  to  defend.  A 
passive  defense  is  not  contemplated.  While  the 
object  may  be  the  defense  of  a  harbor,  the  way 
to  accomplish  it  is  not  to  wait  in  port  for  the 
enemy,  but  to  go  out  to  seek  him  on  the  open 
sea.  Otherwise  the  advantage  of  one  of  the 
must  valuable  characteristics  of  ships,  their 
mobility,  would  be  lost.  A  common  form  of 
strategical  problem  is  to  assign  to  the  offense 
(.Red  squadron)  the  task  of  seizing  and  hold- 
ing some  harbor  within  a  specified  maritime 
district,  to  use  as  a  base  for  future  naval  opera- 
tions or  as  a  landing  place  for  accompanying 
troops.  The  object  of  the  defense  (Blue  squad- 
ron) is  to  prevent  this,  nothing  being  known  of 
the  enemy's  plans  except  that  the  harbor  chosen 
must  be  within  the  prescribed  limits.  It  may 
be  anywhere  along  several  hundred  miles  of 
coast.  Rules  for  the  maneuvers  are  prepared 
beforehand.  It  is  assumed  that  if  the  attacking 
squadron  can  enter  a  harbor,  unprotected  by 
fortifications,  and  remain  there  a  length  of  time 
specified  without  being  discovered,  it  has  suc- 
ceeded. This  will  allow  time  to  land  troops  and 
prepare  for  defense.  It  is  like  a  game  of  hide 
and  seek.  The  commander  of  the  Reds,  being 
well  out  to  sea,  decides  that  he  will  try  to  seize 
one  of  a  certain  number  of  harbors,  knowing  all 
those  that  would  answer  his  purpose.  He  has 
to  find  one  that  is  unguarded  and  unprotected. 
He  uses  his  fastest  vessels  as  scouts.  His 
success  depends  upon  the  rapidity  and  secrecy 
of  his  movements.  As  the  Blue  squadron  is 
supposed  to  be  much  the  superior  in  strength, 
the  Reds  are  assumed  to  have  failed  in  their 
object  unless  they  enter  the  harbor  selected 
undiscovered,  or  if  discovered,  unless  the  main 
force  of  the  Blues  is  at  such  a  distance  that  it 
cannot  arrive  and  attack  the  Reds  within  the 
time  allowed  them  to  establish  themselves.  The 
problem  for  the  Blue  commander  is  to  dis- 
cover the  enemy,  and  having  discovered  him,  to 
have  his  forces  so  disposed  that  he  can  con- 
centrate for  attack  a  force  superior  to  that  of 
the  Reds.  He  too  uses  his  fastest  vessels  as 
scouts.  Defending  a  friendly  coast,  all  aid 
possible  is  given  him  from  shore.  He  can  es- 
tablish there  as  many  lookout  stations  as  he 
pleases.  Every  lighthouse  is  a  watch-tower  for 
him.  He  keeps  in  communication  with  his  ships 
and  with  his  shore  stations.  If  he  discovers  the 
enemy  and  comes  within  range  of  him  with  a 
strong  force  within  the  time  fixed  he  wins  the 
day.  A  common  form  of  exercise  in  all  navies 
is  that  of  torpedo  boats  against  battle-ships  or 
cruisers.  The  torpedo  boats  go  out  to  sea  and 
come  in  at  night  for  attack,  taking  advantage  of 
every  means  of  concealment.  If  seen  in  time 
they  could  be  destroyed  at  once.  If  they  can 
come  without  discovery  within  torpedo  range, 
the  ship  attacked  is  supposed  to  be  destroyed. 
The  ships  are  on  the  lookout  and  try  to  pick 
them  up  with  their  search-lights.  When  picked 
up  a  rocket  is  sent  up  from  the  ship.  If  the 
torpedo  boat  comes  within  the  specified  distance 


and  no  rocket  has  been  sent  up  from  the  ship, 
she  sends  up  a  rocket.  The  vessel  first  sending 
up  a  rocket  is  the  victor. 

Combined  Army  and  Navy  Maneuvers. —  In 

Europe  combined  maneuvers  of  the  army  and 
navy  are  varied  in  character.  In  one  case  the 
scheme  may  comprise  the  embarkation  of  troops, 
their  conveyance  in  transports  under  convoy  of 
a  fleet  to  a  supposed  hostile  shore,  the  forcing 
of  a  landing  under  cover  of  the  fire  of  the  guns 
of  the  fleet,  and  subsequent  operations  on  shore. 
Such  a  scheme  assumes  the  absence  of  seacoast 
fortification  at  the  point  selected  for  landing. 
Another  case  may  be  where  a  powerful  fleet  of 
battle-ships,  cruisers,  and  torpedo  boats  is 
divided  into  two  opposing  fleets  to  act  in  con- 
junction with  corresponding  Red  and  Blue 
armies  on  shore,  the  combined  forces  of  each 
side  working  together  in  accordance  with  a 
common  plan.  This  scheme  may  involve  naval 
engagements  between  the  opposing  fleets,  at- 
tacks upon  shore  batteries  by  ships,  the  manning 
of  seacoast  forts,  the  throwing  into  them  of 
strong  detachments  of  infantry  to  act  as  sup- 
ports and  to  prevent  a  landing  by  the  enemy, 
the  landing  of  naval  brigades  composed  of  sail- 
ors and  marines  to  reinforce  troops  on  shore, 
and  many  other  incidents. 

In  the  United  States  combined  army  and  navy 
maneuvers  were  inaugurated  in  1902.  The  sea- 
coast is  permanently  divided  into  artillery  dis- 
tricts. One  or  more  of  these  districts  are  chosen 
as  the  zone  of  operations.  In  1902  the  zone 
included  the  coast  from  Buzzards  Bay  to  New 
London  and  the  forts  at  the  eastern  entrance 
of  Long  Island  Sound.  As  the  ordinary  gar- 
risons are  insufficient  for  war  conditions,  they 
are  reinforced  by  artillery  troops  from  stations 
without  the  zone  and  by  militia  artillery,  New 
York  and  Massachusetts  having  regiments  that 
have  been  trained  in  artillery  work.  War  con- 
ditions are  simulated  as  closely  as  possible.  The 
ships  to  form  the  hostile  fleet  are  designated. 
Their  number  and  character  are  known  to  the 
defense.  This  knowledge  can  be  assumed  be- 
cause particulars  of  the  navies  of  all  nations 
are  published  in  books  and  are  accessible  to 
all  the  world ;  witness  the  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  composition  of  the  Spanish  fleets  in  1898. 
The  defense  knows  also  the  date  of  sailing  of 
the  fleet  from  a  supposed  foreign  port  and  the 
probable  time  of  arrival  in  the  zone  of  opera- 
tions, but  knows  nothing  of  the  enemy's  plans. 
They  may  comprise  attacks  by  day  or  by  night 
and  attempts  to  run  by  the  forts.  The  fleet 
has,  of  course,  charts  of  the  waters  in  which 
the  maneuvres  are  to  take  place.  The  location 
of  the  forts,  their  character,  and  something  of 
their  armament  are  known.  Buoys  indicating 
channels  are  supposed  to  be  removed  and  lights 
in  lighthouses  extinguished.  If  hulks  are  sup- 
posed to  be  sunk  in  channels  as  obstructions, 
the  naval  commander  is  informed  of  them.  He 
must  count  on  the  presence  of  torpedoes.  An 
army  officer  as  umpire  and  a  navy  officer  as 
observer  are  detailed  for  each  fort,  and  a 
navy  officer  as  umpire  and  an  army  officer  as 
observer  for  each  ship.  A  board  of  arbitration 
to  consider  all  questions  and  render  decisions  is 
composed  of  two  army  officers,  two  navy  offi- 
cers, and  a  fifth  member  selected  by  the  other 
four.  When  ships  and  forts  are  exchanging 
fire  with  blank  cartridges  it  is  impossible  to 
estimate  results  at  the  time.    Accurate  accounts 


ARMY  TRANSPORT  SERVICE 


of  everything  done  are  therefore  kept  in  forts 
and  on  ships  and  detailed  reports  are  prepared 
for  the  board  of  arbitration.  On  these  the  board 
bases  its  decisions.  In  these  are  noted  arrival 
within  range,  whether  by  day  or  by  night,  the 
time  under  fire,  the  number  of  shots  fired  from 
each  gun,  the  targets  selected,  and  so  forth. 
Tables  are  prepared  beforehand  giving  the 
value,  in  points,  of  the  fire  from  each  kind  of 
gun.  These  are  based  on  data  obtained  from 
previous  target  practice  records.  As  ship's 
guns  are  fired  from  a  moving  platform  their 
fire  is  considered  less  accurate  than  that  of 
land  guns.  Night  firing  is  less  accurate  than 
day  firing.  The  rapidity  of  fire  ranges,  say, 
from  six  seconds  between  shots  for  the  smallest 
rapid-fire  to  two  minutes  between  shots  for 
the  1 2-inch  seacoast  guns,  the  largest  used. 
The  fire  of  the  smaller  calibre  guns  may  silence, 
but  not  destroy,  unless  used  in  conjunction 
with  those  of  larger  calibre.  The  rules  for  the 
maneuvers  are  formulated  with  a  view  to  meet 
the  circumstances  and  incidents  likely  to  arise 
in  an  attack  by  a  hostile  fleet  on  the  harbors  of 
the  United  States.  They  are  based  on  the  as- 
sumption that  the  primary  object  of  the 
maneuvers  is  to  investigate  certain  systems  and 
problems  of  attack  and  to  test  the  training  of 
the  personnel  and  the  efficiency  of  the  material. 
Much  work  preliminary  to  the  maneuvers  must 
be  done  by  the  defense.  Signal  stations  must  be 
selected.  All  the  works  of  the  defense  must 
be  put  in  telegraphic  or  telephonic  communica- 
tion with  each  other  and  with  the  signal  sta- 
tions. The  commander  must  be  constantly  in 
touch  with  all  parts  of  his  line.  Mines  must 
be  placed  in  position  and  tested.  As  a  ship  of 
the  navy  in  commission  is  always  on  a  war 
footing,  not  much  of  this  preliminary  work  is 
necessary.  Let  us  suppose  ourselves  on  shore 
and  the  hostile  fleet  sighted.  The  shore  com- 
mander is  at  his  post  in  communication  with 
his  subordinates.  He  selects  the  target  and 
prescribes  the  kind  of  fire.  The  men  are  at 
the  guns ;  the  range-finding,  ammunition-serv- 
ing, and  signal  details  are  at  their  posts.  The 
range-finder  details  send  in  the  range,  direction, 
and  course  of  the  hostile  ships.  Firing  is  be- 
gun with  the  heavy  guns  as  soon  as  they  come 
within  range.  Their  object  is  to  disable  the 
ships.  Efforts  are  made  to  fire  as  many  shots 
as  possible  while  the  ships  are  within  range. 
If  they  are  running  by,  the  time  is  short  and 
every  shot  counts.  Their  fire  is  so  accurate 
that  a  line  shot  can  always  be  counted  on.  The 
elevation  to  be  given  is  entirely  a  matter  of 
mathematical  calculation,  and  is  given  for  dif- 
ferent ranges  in  tables  ready  at  hand.  A  shot 
can  be  dropped  at  any  range  desired,  and  if 
the  range  is  correctly  given  the  percentage  of 
hits  is  large.  When  it  is  considered  that  a  12- 
inch  shot,  weighing  1,000  pounds,  will,  for  a 
range  of  six  miles,  go  up  about  half  a  mile  in 
the  air,  the  importance  of  correct  range-finding 
will  be  appreciated.  If  the  shot  drops  in  the 
right  spot  a  battle-ship  costing  millions  to  build 
and  taking  years  to  complete  may  be  disabled. 
If  not,  the  shot  is  wasted.  History  shows  that 
land  fortifications  suffer  but  little  from  the 
fire  of  ships.  If  the  ships  come  closer,  the 
rapid-fire  guns  come  into  play.  Their  objec- 
tives would  be  the  parts  of  a  ship  not  protected 
by   armor    and    the   crews.    The    mines,    which 


constitute  one  of  the  elements  of  defense,  con- 
tain only  dummj'  charges,  but  they  are  electric- 
ally connected  with  a  shore  station,  and  if  a 
ship  comes  in  contact  with  a  mine  the  circuit  is 
closed,  a  fuse  on  shore  is  blown,  and  the  ship 
is  considered  out  of  action.  At  night  the 
search-lights  are  kept  constantly  at  work  to  de- 
tect ships  if  they  approach  and  to  throw  beams 
of  light  upon  them  so  as  to  make  clearer  tar- 
gets. All  the  incidents  of  the  day  on  the  ships 
and  in  the  forts  are  summed  up  in  the  reports, 
and  on  these  reports  are  based  the  decisions  of 
the  board.  Throughout  the  maneuvers  the 
fleet  endeavors  to  accomplish  its  object,  seeking 
out  weak  points  in  the  defense  and  undefended 
lines  of  approach,  or  trying  to  run  past  in  a  fog 
or  under  cover  of  darkness.  As  the  forts  are 
stationary,  they  must  wait  until  the  enemy 
comes  within  range.  Night  and  day  the  utmost 
vigilance  must  be  exercised.  If  the  scheme  for 
the  maneuvers  should  give  a  torpedo  boat  flo- 
tilla as  an  adjunct  for  the  defense  or  if  it 
should  contemplate  the  landing  of  troops  from 
transports  convoyed  by  the  fleet,  to  seize  a 
position  on  shore  at  a  place  not  protected  by 
forts,  necessitating  on  the  part  of  the  defense 
an  additional  infantry  supporting  force  to  op- 
pose landing  parties,  the  plans  of  the  respective 
commanders  would  be  modified  accordingly. 
The  decision  as  to  whether  the  fleet  or  the 
land  forces  win  is  of  minor  importance.  The 
maneuvers  are  of  great  value  to  both  the  army 
and  navy.  For  the  former  they  give  instruction 
in  the  most  efficient  means  of  coast  defense,  in- 
cluding the  co-ordination  of  all  its  various  ele- 
ments ;  the  best  system  of  fire  control ;  the  best 
location  and  employment  of  search-lights  and 
range-finders ;  the  best  means  of  obtaining  and 
transmitting  information.  They  serve  to  point 
out  any  defects  in  the  location  and  plans  of 
the  fortifications,  and  whether  the  number, 
type,  and  mounting  of  guns  are  the  best  adapted 
for  the  purpose  at  any  particular  site.  For  the 
navy  they  afford  a  test  of  the  means  of  obtain- 
ing the  ranges  of  the  forts  and  batteries,  and 
of  conveying  the  information  to  the  officers  in 
charge  of  the  guns.  They  give  information 
as  to  the  effect  of  mines  and  obstructions  in 
impeding  the  movements  of  ships  and  the 
methods  to  be  used  in  forcing  such  a  passage 
or  in  removing  the  obstructions.  They  give  in- 
struction as  to  the  best  manner  of  approach  and 
of  maneuvering  under  fire,  the  formations  to  be 
used,  the  speed,  and  the  distance  between  ships; 
the  method  of  attacking  by  night  or  in  a  fog; 
the  use  of  the  search-light  for  lighting  the  tar- 
get or  blinding  the  eyes  of  the  enemy's  gunners 
or  range-finders.  The  maneuvers  rouse  the  in- 
terest and  stimulate  the  esprit  de  corps  of  the 
personnel  of  both  services  and  teach  it  to  make 
the  best  use  of  the  material  placed  in  their 
hands  under  conditions  as  nearly  as  possible 
like  those  of  actual  war. 

Col.  W.  A.  Simpson, 
Asst.  Adjt.-Gcn.  U.  S.  Army. 

Army  Transport  Service.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  war  with  Spain  the  water  trans- 
portation in  the  possession  of  the  United  States 
consisted  of  a  few  small  tugs,  ferry-boats,  and 
launches.  Suddenly  confronted  with  the  neces- 
sity of  despatching  armies  across  the  seas,  it  is 
not   surprising  that   some   confusion   and   delay 


ARMY  TRANSPORT  SERVICE 


were  encountered  in  selecting,  chartering,  and 
assembling  fleets  capable  of  transporting  troops, 
with  their  guns,  animals,  and  impedimenta,  to 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 
To  convert  the  vessels  composing  the  several 
fleets  from  ordinary  freight-ships  into  commodi- 
ous and  comfortable  troop-transports  required 
time  and  much  outlay.  The  arrangement  of 
sleeping  accommodations  for  the  men,  stalls  for 
the  animals,  increased  water-supply,  and  ventila- 
tion involved  a  practical  reconstruction  of  the 
interior  of  every  vessel.  It  was  particularly 
necessary  to  have  those  vessels  destined  for  the 
Philippines  made  safe  and  comfortable,  for  it 
was  anticipated  that  the  troops  might  pass  di- 
rect from  the  decks  to  the  battle-field.  Hos- 
pital ships  were  fitted  out  as  quickly  as  possible, 
and  served  a  useful  purpose  during  the  time  of 
greatest  need. 

It  was  apparent  at  the  outset  that  the  prob- 
lem of  water  transportation  required  careful 
and  continuous  study,  and  immediately  after  the 
surrender  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  a  division  of 
transportation  was  created  by  the  secretary  of 
war  and  charged  with  supervision  and  control 
of  all  rail  and  water  transportation;  with 
the  inspection  of  ships  with  reference  to 
charter  or  purchase  for  use  as  transports,  and 
with  the  arrangements  for  sending  troops  by 
rail  to  and  from  the  various  ports.  When  it 
became  apparent  that  vessels  would  be  required 
for  a  prolonged  period,  and  that  it  was  a  very 
expensive  proceeding  to  alter  chartered  vessels, 
the  department  began  to  purchase  such  ships 
as  seemed  best  adapted  to  use  as  transports. 
Aside  from  the  mere  act  of  affording  a  passage 
to  troops  across  the  seas,  the  question  of  fur- 
nishing them  supplies  after  landing  involved 
many  intricate  problems,  each  requiring  a  spe- 
cial solution.  American  troops  submit  cheer- 
fully to  any  amount  of  necessary  hardship,  but 
consider  themselves  entitled  to  the  best  of  every- 
thing, regardless  of  cost,  when  the  emergency 
has  passed.  For  supplying  their  needs,  it  was 
necessary  to  construct  refrigerator  compartments 
in  the  transports  to  carry  fresh  beef  and  other 
perishable  stores  to  the  most  remote  and  hitherto 
little  known  islands  of  our  new  possessions. 

During  the  first  few  months  of  the  heavy 
demands  for  transportation,  the  quartermaster's 
department  was  much  hampered  because  vessels 
of  foreign  register  could  not  be  employed  for 
the  service,  and  Congress  refused  to  grant  Amer- 
ican register  to  such  vessels.  Nevertheless,  by 
i  July  1898,  43  chartered  vessels  had  been  se- 
cured and  fitted  up  for  the  transportation  of 
troops,  animals,  and  supplies.  The  difficulties 
and  expense  attendant  upon  securing  efficient 
service  with  chartered  vessels  led  to  the  gradual 
substitution  of  transports  purchased  by  the  gov- 
ernment and  permanently  fitted  up  as  troop- 
ships. The  largest  and  best  transports  averaged 
nearly  6,000  tons  capacity ;  and  when,  after  some 
practical  experience,  a  general  plan  of  fitting  up 
had  been  adopted,  the  transport  service  became 
a  prominent  feature  of  army  administration,  and 
attracted  the  attention  and  admiration  of  the 
civilized  world.  The  urgency  of  the  situation 
on  the  Pacific  compelled  a  continuance  of  the 
charter  system:  but  a  fleet  of  government  trans- 
ports was  gradually  put  in  commission  on  the 
Atlantic,  and  as  soon  as  the  withdrawal  of  the 
volunteer  army  from  Cuba  permitted,  many  of 
the  transports  were  sent  to  Manila  by  way  of 


the  Suez  Canal  and  put  on  the  San  Francisco- 
Manila  route.  The  Grant,  Sherman,  and  Sher- 
idan were  the  first  vessels  fitted  out  for  this 
service,  and  their  sailing  from  New  York  for 
Manila  marked  a  new  era  in  the  occupation  of 
the  Philippines.  The  character  of  these  trans- 
ports may  be  comprehended  by  the  statement 
that  the  Grant  sailed  from  New  York  on  19 
Jan.  1899,  with  the  Fourth  U.  S.  infantry  and 
one  battalion  of  the  Seventeenth  U.  S.  infantry, 
with  a  total  strength  of  50  officers  and  1,703 
enlisted  men.  The  Sherman  sailed  on  2  Feb- 
ruary with  the  Third  U.  S.  infantry  and  one  bat- 
talion of  the  Seventeenth  U.  S.  infantry,  with  a 
passenger  list  of  1,812  persons,  followed  by  the 
Sheridan  on  19  February  with  the  Twelfth  U.  S. 
infantry  and  the  Third  battalion,  Seventeenth 
infantry,  with  a  total  passenger  list  of  2,017 
persons.  These  vessels  made  the  long  voyage  to 
Manila  with  such  success  and  comfort  that  the 
regiments  were  enabled  to  enter  immediately 
upon  active  service.  The  experience  of  these 
voyages  dictated  some  valuable  suggestions, 
which  were  availed  of  at  once  in  making  desira- 
ble changes  to  perfect  the  transport  service 
generally. 

The  large  number  of  troops  remaining  in 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  after  the  return  of  the 
main  body  of  regulars  and  volunteers  necessi- 
tated the  establishment  of  a  regular  line  with 
weekly  sailing  dates.  Advantage  was  taken  of 
the  regular  steamship  lines  as  far  as  possible 
for  the  larger  movement  of  returning  troops. 
The  transportation  to  Spain  of  the  Spanish 
prisoners  was  accomplished  under  contract,  in 
accordance  with  stipulations  under  which  the 
surrender  of  Santiago  took  place.  More  than 
22,000  Spanish  prisoners  were  thus  returned 
from  the  eastern  end  of  Cuba  to  Spain  within 
60  days  of  their  surrender,  in  an  economical 
and  apparently   satisfactory  manner. 

The  outbreak  of  the  insurrection  in  the  Phil- 
ippines made  it  necessary  to  hasten  relief  to  the 
volunteer  regiments  still  held  in  those  islands, 
and  the  presence  there  of  the  old  Spanish  gar- 
risons which,  under  the  terms  of  the  treaty  of 
peace,  were  entitled  to  repatriation,  made  it  de- 
sirable that  they  should  be  returned  to  Spain 
without  delay.  The  transport  service  was 
strained  to  the  utmost  limit,  but  fulfilled  its  part 
in  the  most  gratifying  manner.  During  its  first 
year  of  existence  a  total  of  202,587  passengers 
were  transported  across  the  seas  by  army  trans- 
ports without  responsibility  for  the  loss  of  a 
single  life. 

The  question  of  transportation  of  animals 
was  one  requiring  much  study  and  experiment, 
for  there  was  little  experience  available  to  guide 
the  department  in  a  solution  of  the  problem  of 
landing  cavalry  horses  in  fit  condition  for  ser- 
vice after  a  voyage  of  7,000  miles.  Some  dis- 
couraging losses  of  mules  occurred  at  a  critical 
moment  in  the  campaign  against  the  insurgents, 
but  gradually  the  system  was  perfected  and  the 
loss  of  animals  actually  reduced  below  the  per- 
centage of  loss  from  injury  and  disease  which 
should  be  expected  in  the  herds  on  shore. 
Nearly  20,000  animals  were  transported  during 
the  year  ending  30  June  1901. 

At  a  time  when  every  effort  was  being  put 
forth  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  military 
situation  Porto  Rico  was  devastated  by  a  hurri- 
cane, and  the  transport  service  was  called  upon 
to  distribute  relief  stores  to  the  unfortunate  in- 


ARMY  WAR  COLLEGE  — ARMY-WORM 


habitants  who,  just  released  from  the  worries 
of  war,  found  themselves  threatened  with  famine 
and  pestilence. 

As  conditions  in  the  Philippines  gradually 
settled  down  to  a  guerrilla  warfare,  the  troops 
were  distributed  at  about  400  stations,  necessitat- 
ing an  inter-island  transport  service.  Just  as 
everything  was  becoming  adjusted  to  the  new 
conditions  which  followed  the  dispersal  of  Agui- 
naldo's  army,  the  unfortunate  "Boxer"  outbreak 
took  place  in  China.  The  experience  already 
obtained  enabled  the  department  to  handle  the 
transportation  question  in  such  a  way  as  to  win 
the  admiration  of  all  the  foreign  contingent 
composing  the  Chinese  relief  expedition  which 
finally  entered  the  sacred  city  of  Pekin. 

As  the  insurrection  gradually  died  away,  and 
the  volunteers  who  enlisted  for  Philippine  service 
in  1899  were  brought  back  to  the  United  States, 
the  number  of  transports  was  reduced  by  dis- 
posing of  the  least  efficient  in  respect  of  economy 
as  well  as  of  carrying  capacity.  The  vessels  re- 
maining in  service  represent  the  finest  types  of 
transports  ever  in  the  service  of  any  nation. 
They  contain  all  the  improvement  that  several 
years  of  wide  experience  seemed  to  justify.  The 
record  of  the  army  transport  service  reflects 
credit  upon  the  War  Department.  The  re- 
markable freedom  from  accidents  and  loss  of  life 
indicates  a  high  degree  of  efficiency  and  discipline 
in  the  officers  and  crews  of  the  transport  fleet. 
The  records  show  that  considerably  more  than 
500,000  passengers  have  safely  crossed  the  seas 
in  the  army  transports.  The  movement  of  such 
a  vast  number  of  people,  many  of  them  over 
the  sea  from  7,000  to  11,000  miles,  without  the 
loss  of  a  passenger  chargeable  to  the  transport 
service,  is  a  record  which  compares  most  favor- 
ably with  those  of  all  the  great  commercial  lines 
which,  through  long  experience,  have  reduced 
the  transatlantic  passenger  traffic  to  an  exact 
science. 

The  army  transport  service  has  withdrawn  its 
fleet  from  the  Atlantic,  and  has  materially  re- 
duced the  number  of  vessels  in  commission  on 
the  Pacific.  The  success  of  the  service  having 
become  widely  known,  at  the  session  of  1902-3, 
an  act  was  passed  providing  that  it  should 
not  be  abandoned  without  the  consent  of  Con- 
gress. The  experience  of  these  recent  years 
justifies  the  belief  that,  if  our  government  shall 
be  again  confronted  with  the  direful  necessity 
of  organizing  and  transporting  armies  across 
the  seas,  there  will  be  no  repetition  of  the  scenes 
and  incidents  which  characterized  the  early  days 
of  the  war  with  Spain.  If  these  expectations 
materialize,  the  great  expense  and  labor  incident 
to  putting  in  commission  the  magnificent  fleet 
of  ships  under  the  army  transport  service  will 
not  have  been  in  vain. 

William  H.  Carter, 
Brigadier-General  General  Staff. 

Army  War  College,  a  department  of  the 
United  States  military  educational  establishment, 
authorized  by  Congress  in  1900.  Brig.-Gen. 
William  Ludlow  was  made  chief  of  the  board 
which  drafted  the  regulations.  Its  general  pur- 
pose is  the  unification  of  the  systems  of  instruc- 
tion at  the  four  existing  service  institutions;  the 
development  of  these  systems:  and  tin-  most  ad- 
vanced professional  study  of  military  problems. 
The  officers  of  the  college  exercise  a  general 
supervision    over   the   course    of   study    in   each 


of  the  present  service  schools.  This  supervi- 
sion extends  to  all  civil  institutions  to  which  the 
government  details  an  officer  for  military  in- 
struction. The  faculty  of  the  college  study  the 
military  organization  of  the  United  States  with 
an  eye  to  a  complete  understanding  of  its  prac- 
tical efficiency  of  operations,  and  constitute  an 
advisory  board  to  which  the  secretary  of  war 
can  turn  at  any  time  for  details  and  recom- 
mendations as  to  any  point  in  the  mechanism  of 
the  whole  military  service.  The  study  of  plans 
of  campaigns  by  the  college  and  the  accumula- 
tion of  military  information  make  the  inaugu- 
ration of  a  campaign,  in  case  of  war,  only  a 
matter  of  the  issuing  of  the  necessary  orders  by 
the  secretary,  as  all  the  requirements  will  have 
been  carefully  studied  out  beforehand. 

Army-worm,  the  caterpillar  of  the  moth 
hcucania  unipunctato.  The  adult  measures 
about  one  and  a  half  inches  across  the  expanded 
wings,  which  are  dull  brown,  the  anterior  pair 
bearing  near  the  centre  a  small  white  dot  which 
has  suggested  the  specific  name.  Like  most 
moths,  this  species  flies  at  night  and  in  seasons 
when  they  are  specially  abundant,  are  the  most 
commonly  captured  insects  at  lights  and  baits 
of  sugar  or  syrup,  of  which  they  are  very  fond. 
The  eggs  are  usually  concealed  on  herbage  in 
fields,  especially  where  vegetation  is  luxuriant, 
as  in  wheat  fields.  Unless  checked  by  enemies 
the  caterpillars  quickly  reach  maturity,  pupate 
a  short  time  under  ground,  emerge,  pair,  and  lay 
eggs  from  which  a  larger  brood  than  the  first 
is  hatched.  This  brood,  after  devouring  every 
green  thing  soft  enough  to  eat,  spread  destruc- 
tion as  they  march,  army-like,  from  the  place 
where  they  were  hatched  to  fresh  feeding 
grounds.  When  full  grown  these  larvae  pupate; 
some  for  only  a  short  time,  others  until  the 
following  spring.  The  former  lay  eggs  for  a 
third  brood  of  caterpillars  which  endeavor  to 
pass  the  winter  as  larvae,  so  that  larvae,  pupa?, 
and  adults  may  be  found  throughout  the  year. 
The  caterpillars  attain  a  length  of  about  two 
inches,  are  dark  gray,  striped  witli  light  yellow 
and  green.  Though  annually  common  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains  they  are  generally  so 
well  controlled  naturally  that  their  depreda- 
tions are  insignificant,  and  usually  when  they 
do  become  a  pest  their  enemies  so  quickly  mas- 
ter them  that  they  very  rarely  are  troublesome  in 
the  same  locality  two  years  in  succession.  The 
most  important  of  these  enemies  are  fungous 
diseases  and,  especially,  parasitic  insects.  Arti- 
ficial controls  are  almost  all  mechanical.  Occa- 
sionally the  larvae  of  the  first  brood  may  be 
noticed  in  time  to  apply  an  insecticide  (q.v.) 
such  as  Paris  green  mixed  with  soap-suds  in- 
stead of  water  to  make  it  more  adhesive  to  the 
grass;  but  usually  the  safest  plan  is  promptly 
to  bury  the  crop  by  plowing,  or  to  burn  it.  If 
migration  has  started,  a  strip  of  land  should  be 
plowed  across  the  line  of  march,  harrowed,  and 
rolled  constantly  to  crush  the  worms,  or  kero- 
sene emulsion,  diluted  only  five  times,  must  be 
sprayed  upon  the  advancing  worms  and  also 
upon  their  recent  feeding  ground.  The  name 
army-worm  is  given  to  other  species  of  cater- 
pillars, especially  to  Laphygna  frugiperda,  which 
is  better  known  as  grass-worm.  Consult  'Third 
Report*  United  States  Entomological  Commis- 
sion (Washington  1883);  'Bulletin  133'  Cornell 
Experiment   Station. 


ARNA  — ARNOLD 


Arna,  or  Arnee,  ar'ne,  a  large  animal  of 
the  ox  genus,  a  native  of  India  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago.     See  Buffalo. 

Arnauld,  ar-no',  an  ancient  noble  family, 
among  whose  most  distinguished  members  are 
the  family  of  Auvergne.  (l)  AngkLIQUE:  b. 
Paris  24  Nov.  1624;  d.  24  Jan.  1084.  She  was 
the  granddaughter  of  the  great  Arnauld  and 
was  abbess  of  the  famous  nunnery  of  Port  Royal 
from  1678.  See  Lives  by  Martin  (1876)  ;  Mon- 
laur  (1901).  (2)  Antoine:  b.  Paris  1560; 
d.  1619.  He  was  a  zealous  defender  of  the 
cause  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  distinguished  for 
several  political  pamphlets,  and  for  his  power- 
ful and  successful  defense  of  the  University  of 
Paris  against  the  Jesuits  in  1594.  He  drew  on 
himself  the  hatred  of  the  Jesuits,  but  was 
esteemed  the  greatest  lawyer  of  his  time.  His 
numerous  children  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  sect 
of  the  Jansenists  (see  Jansenius)  in  France. 
(3)  Antoine,  called  the  "Great  Arnauld,"  young- 
est child  of  the  lawer  Antoine  Arnauld :  b. 
Paris  6  Feb.  1612;  d.  Brussels  9  Aug.  1694. 
He  devoted  himself  to  theology,  and  was  re- 
ceived in  1641  among  the  doctors  of  the  Sor- 
bonne.  In  the  same  year  he  attacked  the 
Jesuits  in  two  works,  <De  la  frequent  e  Commu- 
nion' and  (La  Theologie  Morale  des  Jesuites,' 
the  first  of  which  occasioned  much  controversy, 
because  it  applied  the  principles  of  the  Jansen- 
ists to  the  receiving  of  the  sacrament.  After 
1650,  when  Jansenism  had  become  an  object  of 
public  odium  and  the  watchword  of  an  impor- 
tant party  in  the  state,  Arnauld  engaged  in  all 
the  quarrels  of  the  French  Jansenists  with  the 
Jesuits,  the  clergy,  and  the  government,  was 
their  chief  writer,  and  was  considered  their  head. 
The  intrigues  of  the  court  occasioned  his  ex- 
clusion from  the  Sorbonne  (1656),  and  the  per- 
secutions which  compelled  him  to  conceal  him- 
self. After  the  reconciliation  between  Pope 
Clement  IX.  and  the  Jansenists,  in  1668,  he  ap- 
peared in  public,  and  enjoyed  the  homage  which 
even  the  court  did  not  refuse  to  his  merits  and 
talents.  He  now  attacked  the  Calvinists  in 
many  controversial  tracts  ( 'Renversement  de  la 
Morale  de  Jesus  Christ  par  les  Calvinistes' ; 
'L'impiete  de  la  Morale  des  Calvinistes,'  etc., 
and  with  his  friend  Nicole  composed  the  great 
work, 'La  Perpetuite  de  la  Foi  de  l'Eglise  Catho- 
lique  touchant  l'Euchariste,'  in  opposition  to 
them.  On  account  of  the  new  persecutions  of 
the  court,  or  rather  of  the  Jesuits,  he  fled,  in 
1679,  to  the  Netherlands.  He  was  a  man  of  a 
vigorous  and  consistent  mind,  full  of  solid  knowl- 
edge and  great  thoughts ;  in  his  writings,  bold 
and  violent  to  bitterness,  undaunted  in  danger, 
and  of  irreproachable  morals.  His  works  were 
published  at  Lausanne  between  1775  and  1783, 
and  again  at  Paris  in  1843.  (4)  Jacqueline 
Marie,  sister  of  the  preceding,  a  French  nun 
better  known  as  Marie  Angelique  de  Sainte 
Madeleine.  She  was  famed  for  piety  and  was 
prominent  among  the  Jansenists.  She  was 
prioress  of  Port  Royal.  See  Life  by  Martin 
(1873). 

Arnauts,  iir'nats,  or  Albanians,  a  people  of 
mixed  origin,  who  have  spread  in  the  western 
part  of  European  Turkey,  along  the  coasts  of  the 
Adriatic  and  Ionian  Seas.  They  call  themselves 
Skipetars,  that  is,  inhabitants  of  the  mountains; 
by   the  Turks   they   are  called   Arnauts..    Their 


language  is  regarded  as  a  descendant  of  the  an- 
cient Illyrian  language,  and  contains  a  consid- 
erable admixture  of  Greek,  Roman,  German, 
Slavonic,  and  Turkish  words.  The  Arnauts 
in  the  coast  towns  generally  speak  Greek  as 
well  as  their  own  language.  They  are  di- 
vided into  several  tribes,  among  whom  the 
Suliotes  in  the  south  are  partly  of  Greek  origin. 
As  regards  religion  they  are  divided  between 
Christianity  and  Mohammedanism.  They  are 
frank  toward  friends  and  superiors,  but  indulge 
in  every  kind  of  artifice  and  perfidy  toward 
their  enemies.  The  Tosks  of  southern  Albania 
have  in  some  respects  not  so  good  a  reputation 
as  the  Gheggas  of  the  north,  but,  owing  to  their 
contact  with  Greece,  they  are  further  advanced 
in  civilization.  War  is  the  favorite  occupation 
of  the  Arnauts.  For  arts  and  trades  they  have 
no  inclination.  Agriculture  they  esteem  not  so 
honorable  an  occupation  as  arms.  They 
form  the  finest  body  of  troops  in  the  Turkish 
army. 

Arn'hem,  or  Arnheim,  a  town  in  Holland, 
in  the  province  of  Gcldcrland,  on  the  right  hank 
of  the  Rhine.  It  was  once  fortified,  but  the 
fortifications  have  been  converted  into  public 
walks.  The  environs  of  Arnhem  being  more 
agreeable  than  those  of  almost  any  other  town 
in  Holland,  it  is  much  frequented  by  summer 
visitors.  Among  the  chief  buildings  may  be 
mentioned  the  Grootc  Kerk,  or  high  church,  con- 
taining the  fine  monument  of  Charles,  Duke  of 
Egmont ;  the  Prinzenhof,  the  town-house,  and 
the  barracks.  Its  manufactures  consist  of  cabi- 
net wares,  mirrors,  carriages,  mathematical  and 
physical  instruments,  etc.,  and  there  are  nu- 
merous paper-mills  in  the  neighborhood.  Its 
trade,  partly  direct  in  grain,  and  partly  transit 
to  Amsterdam,  Rotterdam,  etc.,  is  important. 
In  1795  it  was  stormed  by  the  French,  who 
were  driven  from  it  in  1813.  Pop.  (1900) 
56,812. 

Ar'no  (anciently  Arnus),  one  of  the  largest 
rivers  of  Italy.  It  divides  Tuscany  into  two 
parts,  and  rises  in  the  Apennines,  on  the  east  of 
Florence,  on  the  border  of  Romagna,  15  miles 
west  of  the  sources  of  the  Tiber.  It  then  turns 
southward  toward  Arezzo,  after  which  it  runs 
westward  through  Florence,  and  enters  the  Med- 
iterranean four  miles  below  Pisa.  From  any 
hill  in  the  neighborhood  of  Florence  the  view 
into  the  valley  of  the  Arno  is  charming.  The 
entire  course  of  the  river  is  about  140 
miles. 

Arnold,  Abraham  Kerns,  an  American 
soldier:  b.  Bedford,  Pa.,  24  March  1837.  II' 
was  educated  at  West  Point,  and  commissioned 
1st  lieutenant,  Fifth  Cavalry,  17  July  1862.  Ik- 
was  brevetted  captain  for  gallant  and  meritorious 
service  in  the  battle  of  Gaines'  Mill,  Va.,  and 
major  for  similar  service  at  the  battle  of  Todd's 
Tavern,  Va.  He  received  a  Congressional  medal 
of  honor  for  gallantry  in  action  at  Davenport 
Bridge,  Va.,  18  May  1864.  He  commanded  the 
field  operations  in  southeastern  Arizona  against 
the  Apaches  in  1879,  and  against  the  Crows  in 
1887.  During  the  Spanish-American  war  he 
commanded  the  2d  Division  of  the  7th  Army 
Corps  in  Cuba.  He  has  written  'Notes  on 
Horses  for  Cavalry  Service'    (1869). 


ARNOLD 


Ar'nold,  Sir  Arthur,  an  English  statesman 
and  author :  b.  1833 ;  d.  1902.  He  acted  as 
assistant  commissioner  to  administer  the  Public 
Works  Acts  during  the  cotton  famine,  1863-6, 
and  afterward  wrote  'The  History  of  the  Cot- 
ton Famine.'  Other  literary  productions  have 
been:  "From  the  Levant'  (1868);  'Through 
Persia  by  Caravan'  ;  'Social  Politics'  ;  and 
'Free  Land.'  He  sat  in  Parliament  as  a  Lib- 
eral member  for  Salford,  1880-5.  Established 
and  was  president  of  the  Free  Land  League 
from  1885  to  1895 ;  was  chairman  London  Coun- 
ty Council,  1895  and  1896,  and  was  knighted  in 
June  1895.  He  was  a  brother  of  Sir  Edwin 
Arnold  (q.v.). 

Arnold,  Benedict,  a  colonial  governor  of 
Rhode  Island:  b.  England,  21  Dec.  1615  ;  d.  20 
June  1678.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  opposition  to 
Samuel  Gorton's  settlement  at  Pawtuxet,  1641. 
His  knowledge  of  Indian  languages  enabled  him 
to  effect  important  negotiations  with  the  In- 
dians in  1645.  In  May  1657  Arnold  succeeded 
Roger  Williams  as  president  of  the  colony,  and 
upon  the  granting  of  the  royal  charter  to  the 
colony  in  1663,  was  made  the  first  governor, 
being  re-elected  in  1664,  1669,  1677,  1678.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  reconciliation  and 
union  of  the  two  colonies  of  Rhode  Island  and 
the  Providence  plantations.  The  famous  wind- 
mill at  Newport,  whose  erection  was  long  as- 
cribed to  the  Northmen,  appears  to  have  been 
built  by  him. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  an  American  general, 
commonly  known  as  "The  Traitor" :  b.  Nor- 
wich, Conn.,  14  Jan.  1741  ;  d.  London,  Eng.,  14 
June  1801.  He  descended  from  a  leading  Rhode 
Island  family ;  was  fairly  educated.  He  was 
early  noted  for  athletic  prowess,  reckless  daring, 
and  resource,  and  as  a  man  displayed  a  proud, 
passionate,  uncontrolled  nature,  quickly  re- 
sponding to  affection  or  resentment.  He  became 
a  druggist  and  bookseller  in  New  Haven  at  21  ; 
prospered,  and  embarked  in  the  West  India 
trade.  At  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Lexington, 
he  armed  a  body  of  60  volunteers,  marched  to 
Cambridge,  and  proposed  the  capture  of  Ticon- 
deroga  and  Crown  Point.  The  Massachusetts 
Provincial  Congress  gave  him  supplies  therefor, 
a  commission  as  colonel,  and  authority  to  raise 
troops ;  but  finding  at  his  recruiting  ground  that 
an  expedition  had  already  started,  he  hastened 
after  it  and  claimed  command  under  his  com- 
mission. As  the  commander  was  Ethan  Allen, 
both  Allen  and  the  troops  declined  to  pay  any 
attention  to  it ;  and  Arnold  under  protest  ac- 
companied it  as  a  volunteer,  and  entered  Ti- 
conderoga  beside  Allen.  Four  days  later  he 
was  joined  by  a  band  of  his  own,  and  at  once 
sailed  down  Lake  Champlain  and  captured  St. 
John's. 

Refused  the  command  of  the  captured  forts, 
he  returned  to  Cambridge,  proposed  to  Wash- 
ington an  expedition  against  Quebec,  and  on 
II  September  left  for  the  Kennebec  with  1. 100 
men,  to  cross  the  divide  between  its  head- 
waters and  the  early  Chaudiere.  After  a  fearful 
march  through  sleet  storms,  frozen  lakes,  rapids, 
and  forests,  he  reached  Quebec  13  November, 
scaled  the  heights  to  the  Plains  of  Abraham, 
and  dared  the  garrison  of  thrice  his  numbers  to 
come  out  and  fight.  They  refused,  and  rein- 
forcements   from    Sir    Guy    Carleton    compelled 


him  to  fall  back.  On  the  arrival  of  Montgom- 
ery the  two  undertook  an  assault  (31  December) 
in  which  the  latter  was  killed  and  Arnold's  let; 
shattered,  but  he  still  blockaded  the  place  till 
relieved  by  Wooster  in  April.  Meantime  he  had 
been  commissioned  brigadier-general  and  given 
commend  of  Montreal.  On  the  expulsion  of  the 
United  States  troops  from  Canada,  the  British 
planned  an  invasion  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain, 
and  Arnold  went  to  Ticonderoga  and  spent  the 
summer  building  a  fleet  to  bar  their  way.  On 
11  October  he  fought  one  of  the  most  obstinate 
and  heroic  naval  battles  in  our  history,  near 
Valcour  Island  off  Plattsburg.  Hopelessly  out- 
numbered, he  nevertheless  escaped  with  the 
most  of  his  boats  and  all  of  his  men.  The 
British  retired  to  Montreal,  and  the  Americans 
sent  Washington  the  3,000  men  which  enabled 
the  battles  of  Trenton  and  Princeton  to  be 
fought. 

One  of  Allen's  men,  whose  promotion  had 
been  opposed  by  Arnold  on  the  ground  that  he 
had  plundered  officers'  baggage  in  Canada, 
brought  counter-charges  of  malfeasance  against 
him  in  December,  which  the  board  of  war  pro- 
nounced "cruel  and  groundless."  But  Congress 
in  making  five  new  major-generals,  19  Feb. 
I777»  passed  over  Arnold,  the  senior  brigadier, 
on  the  ground  that  Connecticut  had  two  already, 
and  appointed  Stirling,  Mifflin,  St.  Clair,  Stephen, 
and  Lincoln,  all  of  whom  together  had  not  a 
tithe  of  Arnold's  abilities  or  achievements.  He 
had  a  right  to  be  enraged :  but  he  contented 
himself  with  asking  to  be  made  ranking  officer 
as  before;  offered  to  serve  under  his  juniors 
for  the  present;  and  in  Tryon's  invasion  of 
Connecticut  in  April,  did  such  splendid  deeds 
that  Congress  for  very  shame  gave  him  the 
major-generalship,  but  still  left  him  at  the  foot. 
Meantime  he  was  in  pressing  need  of  having 
his  claims  against  Congress  settled.  Pay  and 
supplies  were  hard  to  extract  from  that  body, 
and  Arnold,  in  his  Canadian  expedition  and 
elsewhere,  had  used  his  own  money  freely  and 
pledged  his  credit  repeatedly  to  keep  the  move- 
ments from  utter  collapse  for  lack  of  them.  But 
the  claims  were  large,  Congress  was  suspicious 
and  dilatory,  Arnold's  business  was  half  ruined, 
and  he  needed  the  money.  He  was  at  Philadel- 
phia, seeking  restoration  of  his  rank,  and,  his 
patience  exhausted  at  the  refusal  of  Congress 
to  act  in  his  behalf,  had  asked  permission  to 
resign,  when  Burgoyne's  invasion  of  1777  loomed 
up  imminent,  and  Washington  wrote  urgent  and 
repeated  requests  to  Congress  to  send  Arnold 
north  to  oppose  him.  Soothed  by  this  flatter- 
ing request,  he  withdrew  his  resignation  and 
hastened  north.  In  this  crisis,  it  is  to  him  that 
the  country  owed  its  salvation.  By  a  decoy 
messenger  he  scattered  St.  Leger's  army  in  a 
panic,  its  Indian  allies  turning  against  it  and 
butchering  the  whites  as  they  retreated.  He 
then  foiled  Burgoyne's  flanking  attempt  at  Free- 
man's farm  19  September,  unsupported  by  Gates, 
and  in  the  final  battle  of  7  October,  took  com- 
mand without  official  right,  and  routed  Bur- 
goyne's army.  This  victory  gained  for  the 
United  States  the  French  alliance,  and  ulti- 
mately the  surrender  at  Yorktown.  During  the 
engagement  Arnold's  leg  was  shattered  and  he 
remained  in  Albany  disabled  till  spring.  On  20 
Jan.  1778,  Congress  restored  him  his  senior 
rank. 


ARNOLD 


In  June  he  was  given  command  of  Philadel- 
phia, where  lie  became  engaged  to  a  beautiful 
girl  of  a  loyalist  family,  Margaret  Shippen. 
The  testimony  is  conclusive  that  she  had  noth- 
ing to  do  with  his  fall ;  hut  her  family  and 
the  always  powerful  loyalist  society  of  Phila- 
delphia had  for  the  next  two  years  a  great  in- 
fluence over  him.  The  prospects  of  the  United 
States  grew  so  bad  that  even  Washington  well- 
nigh  lost  all  hope;  the  English  government 
offered  such  seductive  proposals  that  many  pa- 
triotic citizens  considered  it  wanton  wickedness 
to  prolong  bloodshed  and  misery,  when  all  that 
the  war  was  waged  to  obtain  was  offered  with 
fair  guarantees.  Congress  was  so  faction-rid- 
den and  incompetent  that  many  more  thought 
the  future  of  independence  most  calamitous 
even  if  it  could  be  obtained;  the  soldiers  were 
unpaid  and  unclothed,  deserting  fast,  and  near- 
ing  a  dangerous  mutiny  which  soon  broke  out. 
In  this  state  of  things,  every  influential  officer 
at  odds  with  Congress  was  besieged  with  ex- 
pressions of  loyalist  opinion,  and  Arnold  was  in 
the  thick  of  all  that  could  shake  his  resolution. 
As  always,  he  lived  beyond  his  means,  and  as 
always  he  was  in  bitter  feud  with  the  other 
powers.  He  had  determined  to  retire  and  settle 
on  a  New  York  land  grant,  when  he  was  as- 
sailed with  a  series  of  charges  by  the  State 
authorities,  headed  by  Joseph  Reed,  president  of 
the  executive  council.  Most  of  the  charges 
were  frivolous,  but  two, —  that  he  courted  the 
loyalists  at  the  expense  of  the  patriots,  and 
that  he  had  used  his  position  to  make  illegal 
purchases, —  were  serious.  A  committee  of 
Congress  acquitted  him  absolutely  except  on 
two  foolish  counts,  and  advised  ignoring  them. 
Arnold  was  satisfied  and  resigned  his  command. 
Reed  protested  on  the  ground  that  he  had  more 
evidence,  a  fresh  committee  referred  the  charges 
to  a  court-martial,  and  Arnold  spent  month 
after  month  urging  a  speedy  trial.  Reed  with 
equal  pertinacity  delayed  his  "evidence"  till 
more  than  a  year  after  the  first  indictment ;  the 
court-martial  returned  its  verdict  26  Jan.  1780. 
The  court  returned  the  same  verdict  as  the 
committee,  but  recommended  that  Arnold  be 
reprimanded  for  two  frivolous  counts,  and 
Washington  was  compelled  to  discharge  this 
odious  office.  He  did  it  in  the  mildest  of  terms, 
however,  and  offered  Arnold  the  post  of  honor 
in  the  next  campaign. 

But  it  was  too  late:  the  public  disgrace  im- 
posed on  Arnold  after  his  magnificent  services, 
wounds,  and  losses  filled  him  with  determina- 
tion for  revenge,  justified  to  himself  by  the 
reasons  above  stated.  Inviting  examples  were 
put  before  him :  chiefly  of  Monk,  who  had  re- 
stored Charles  II.  and  been  rewarded  by  honors 
and  gratitude;  more  pertinently,  of  Marlbor- 
ough's betrayal  of  James  II.  by  taking  his  whole 
army  over  to  William;  and  others.  He  really 
seems  to  have  argued  himself  into  believing  that 
he  should  be  playing  the  part  of  a  patriot  by 
ending  the  war  at  a  blow,  restoring  peace  and 
prosperity,  giving  the  colonies  a  much  better 
government  than  they  had  now  or  before  the 
war,  and  practically  secure  independence  under 
the  English  offers;  and  that  this  once  done,  all 
parties  would  thank  and  honor  him.  as  he  could 
control  negotiations  with  the  English  govern- 
ment. This  decisive  blow  would  he  the  putting 
of  the  English  in  control  of  the  Hudson,  gaining 


at  a  stroke  the  object  of  Burgoyne's  and  other 
campaigns, —  severing  the  New  England  colonies 
from  the  rest,  and  giving  the  enemy  New  York, 
the  central  colony.  For  this  end  be  asked  of 
Washington  the  command  of  West  Point,  the 
key  of  the  Hudson,  with  its  mass  of  military 
stores:  the  colonies  could  hardly  hold  out  after 
such  a  loss,  aside  from  the  strategic  gain.  He 
pleaded  ill  health  for  asking  this  instead  of  the 
proffered  command;  and  Washington  accorded 
it  to  him.  After  the  capture  of  Andre  he  es- 
caped to  the  Vulture,  and  issued  a  proclamation 
justifying  himself  and  asking  his  countrymen 
to  do  likewise,  making  glowing  offers  to  desert- 
ers. The  British  made  him  a  brigadier-general, 
and  on  20  December  he  sailed  for  the  James 
River,  where  he  burned  Richmond,  intrenched 
himself  for  the  winter  at  Portsmouth,  and  in 
June  1 781,  returned  to  New  York.  In  Septem- 
ber he  was  ordered  to  raid  New  London,  Conn., 
14  miles  from  his  birthplace.  He  burnt  a  quan- 
tity of  shipping  and  stores,  which  set  fire  to  and 
partially  destroyed  the  town ;  and  the  "massacre" 
of  Fort  Griswold  was  achieved  by  a  detachment 
on  the  other  side  of  the  river  Thames. 

Shortly  after  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis 
in  October,  he  was  sent  to  London  to  confer 
with  the  ministry  on  the  further  conduct  of  the 
war.  The  king  and  the  court  received  him 
well;  but  the  Liberals  denounced  him  as  bitterly 
as  the  Americans,  and  a  large  share  even  of  the 
Tories  distrusted  a  renegade  and  detested  a  be- 
trayer of  his  trust.  The  officers  in  the  British 
army  despised  a  colonial  as  heartily  as  in  Brad- 
dock's  days,  and  therefore  it  was  found  im- 
possible to  give  him  the  employment  in  the 
army  he  eagerly  coveted.  In  1787  he  removed 
to  New  Brunswick  and  engaged  in  the  West 
India  trade,  with  two  sons;  but  in  1791  he  re- 
turned to  London.  The  next  year  he  fought  a 
bloodless  duel  with  the  Earl  of  Lauderdale,  for 
a  stinging  insult  of  the  latter  in  debate  in  the 
House  of  Lords.  In  1794  he  went  to  the  West 
Indies  to  settle,  but  the  Anglo-French  wars  made 
it  impossible,  and  he  was  twice  extricated  from 
great  personal  danger  by  his  alert  resource.  He 
rendered  great  service  to  the  British  command- 
ers and  in  1705  was  thanked  by  the  committee  of 
West  India  planters,  with  the  wish  that  he 
might  remain  in  public  service.  He  also  formu- 
lated plans  for  the  British  capture  of  the  Spanish 
West  Indies;  and  in  1708  asked  for  military 
service,  but  his  request  was  not  granted,  even 
after  personal  solicitation.  The  refusal  helped 
greatly  to  break  him  down;  his  unthrifty  habits 
had  drained  his  purse,  and  he  had  intense 
pecuniary  embarrassments.  He  was  active  in 
fitting  out  privateers,  a  speculation  which  gave 
him  more  anxiety  than  profit;  and  he  died  at  60, 
a  worn-out,  harassed,  unhappy  man,  seeing  that 
his  crime  was  also  a  colossal  blunder.  But  that 
he  had  first  saved  the  country  he  tried  to  ruin, 
that  he  was  grossly  wronged  and  greatly  tempted 
on  his  best  as  well  as  on  his  worst  side,  and  that 
he  deserves  far  more  pity  than  hate,  cannot  be 
doubted  See  'Lives'  by  Sparks  (18.38);  I.  N. 
Arnold   (1880);  Todd  (1903). 

Ar'nold,  Sir  Edwin,  English  poet  and 
journalist:  b.  Gravesend,  10  June  1832;  d.  24 
March  1904.  He  graduated  from  Oxford  in  1854; 
taught  for  a  while  in  Birmingham;  and  became 
principal  of  the  Sanskrit  College  at  Poona,  near 
Bombay,     where     he     rendered     important    ser- 


ARNOLD 


vice  to  the  government  during  the  great  rebel- 
lion in  India.  Returning  to  London  in  1861,  he 
joined  the  editorial  staff  of  the  Daily  Telegraph. 
He  has  twice  visited  the  United  States  on  lecture 
tours.  Of  his  original  poetry,  inspired  by  Ori- 
ental themes  and  legends,  the  most  famous  work 
is  'The  Light  of  Asia,  a  Poetic  Presentation  of 
the  Life  and  Teaching  of  Gautama'  (1876); 
'Indian  Idylls'  (1883);  'Pearls  of  the  Faith'; 
'Sa'di  in  the  Garden'  ;  'The  Light  of  the 
World';  'Potiphar's  Wife  and  Other  Poems'; 
'India  Revisited'  ;  'Japonica'  ;  and  'The  Tenth 
Muse  and  Other  Poems'  ;  'East  and  West' 
(1896);  'The  Voyage  of  Ithobal'  (1901),  are 
among  his  many  works.  The  popularity  gained 
by  'The  Light  of  Asia'  has  not  been  sustained 
by  the  appearance  of  his  later  work. 

Ar'nold,  Edwin  Lester,  an  English  author, 
son  of  Sir  Edwin  Arnold.  He  has  written  'A 
Summer  Holiday  in  Scandinavia'  (1877)  ;  'On 
the  Indian  Hills,  or  Coffee  Planting  in  Southern 
India'  (1881)  ;  'Bird  Life  in  England'  (1887)  ; 
'England  as  She  Seems'  (1888)  ;  the  novels 
'Phra,  the  Phoenician'  (1890),  and  'The  Story 
of  Ulla'    (1895). 

Ar'nold,  George,  an  American  poet:  b. 
New  York  city,  24  June  1834 ;  d.  New  Jersey, 
3  Nov.  1865.  Adopting  literature  as  a  profes- 
sion he  contributed  prose  and  verse  to  'Vanity 
Fair,'  'The  Leader,'  and  other  periodicals  of 
his  day.  The  "Macarone"  papers  established 
his  reputation  as  a  humorist,  and  the  'Jolly  Old 
Pedagogue'  is  his  best  known  poem.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  did  military  duty  at  one  of  the 
forts  on  Staten  Island.  His  published  volumes 
are:  'Drift:  a  Seashore  Idyl'  (1866);  'Poems, 
Grave  and  Gay'  (1867);  'Poems';  ed.  with  a 
Biographical  Sketch  by  Wm.  Winter  (1870). 

Arnold,  ar'nolt,  Hans,  the  pseudonym  of 
Bertha  von  Bulow.    See  Bulow,  Bertha  von. 

Arnold,  Isaac  Newton,  an  American  law- 
yer and  author :  b.  Hartwick,  Otsego  County, 
N.  Y.,  30  Nov.  1815;  d.  Chicago,  24  April  1884. 
Admitted  to  the  bar  in  1835,  he  removed  in  1836 
to  Chicago,  where  he  resided  the  remainder  of 
his  life,  engaged  in  legal  practice  and  taking 
an  active  part  in  politics.  From  1861  to  1865 
he  was  a  member  of  Congress,  and  had  a  promi- 
nent share  in  measures  leading  to  the  abolition 
of  slavery.  His  ablest  speech  was  on  the  confis- 
cation bill,  2  May  1862.  Upon  his  retirement 
from  Congress  President  Johnson  appointed 
him  an  auditor  of  the  United  States  treasury. 
A  lifelong  friend  and  intimate  of  Lincoln,  he 
wrote  'History  of  Abraham  Lincoln  and  the 
Overthrow  of  Slavery'  (1867;  new  ed.  1885). 
His  'Life  of  Benedict  Arnold:  His  Patriotism 
and  His  Treason'  (1879),  is  in  the  nature  of 
an  apologia.  'Recollections  of  the  Early  Chica- 
go and  Illinois  Bar'   appeared  in  1C80. 

Arnold,  ar'nolt,  Johann  Georg  Daniel,  an 
Alsatian  dialect  poet  and  jurist:  b.  Strassburg, 
18  Feb.  1780:  d.  there,  18  Feb.  1829.  His  lyrics 
(in  High  German)  are  meritorious,  but  he  is  at 
his  best  in  'Pentecost  Monday'  (1816),  a  com- 
edy in  Strassburg  dialect  and  rhymed  Alexan- 
drine verse,  pronounced  by  Goethe  "an  incom- 
parable monument  of  ancient  Strassburg  custom 
and  language,  a  work  which  in  clearness  and 
completeness  of  intuition  and  ingenious  delinea- 
tion of  detail  can  scarcely  be  equaled."  He  was 
a  professor  in   the   College  of   Strassburg  and 


wrote  a  notable  legal  work  entitled  'Elementa 
Juris  Civilis  Justinianei  cum  Codice  Napoleoneo 
et  Religuis  Legum  Codicibus  Collata'    (1812). 

Arnold,  ar'nold,  Lewis  G.,  an  American 
soldier:  b.  New  Jersey,  1815;  d.  1871.  Educated 
at  West  Point  he  served  as  second  lieutenant 
in  the  second  Seminole  war  (1837-8)  and  was 
in  active  service  during  the  war  with  Mexico. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  Federal  army 
during  the  Civil  War,  retiring  from  the  ser- 
vice with  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  of  regu- 
lars in  1864. 

Ar'nold,  Matthew,  an  English  poet  and 
critic:  b.  Laleham,  24  Dec.  1822;  d.  Liverpool, 
15  April  1888.  A  son  of  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold, 
the  historian  of  Rome  and  famous  head-master 
of  Rugby,  he  was  educated  at  Winchester,  Rug- 
by, and  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  where  he  gained 
the  Newdigate  prize  for  his  poem  'Cromwell' 
(1843),  and  in  1845  was  elected  Fellow  of  Oriel 
College.  For  a  short  time  he  taught  the  classics 
at  Rugby,  then  became  private  secretary  to  the 
Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  1847-51,  who  appointed 
him  an  inspector  of  schools,  a  post  he  held  until 
1883,  when  Gladstone  conferred  on  him  a  civil 
list  pension  of  .£250,  which  enaoled  him  to  retire. 
While  the  routine  and  details  connected  with 
this  work  were  ever  distasteful  to  him,  he  per- 
formed them  thoroughly  and  conscientiously, 
and  his  suggestions  were  not  without  influence 
on  English  secondary  education.  Three  times 
he  visited  the  Continent,  commissioned  officially 
to  study  school  discipline  and  educational  meth- 
ods there,  and  his  results  were  summed  up  in 
the  three  books:  'Popular  Education  in  France' 
(1861);  <A  French  Eton'  (1864),  and  'Schools 
and  Universities  on  the  Continent'  (1868). 
His  official  reports  from  1852-82  were  published 
by  Sir  F.  Sandford  and  are  of  considerable 
educational  interest  and  value.  From  1857  to 
1867  he  delivered  the  lectures  connected  with 
the  Professorship  of  Poetry  at  Oxford.  In 
1883-4  and  in  1886  he  visited  the  United  States, 
lecturing  in  the  principal  cities.  In  1873  he  took 
up  his  residence  at  Cobham  where  he  remained 
till  his  death,  which  occurred  suddenly  from 
heart  disease.  In  general  his  domestic  life  was 
most  happy,  but  sadly  clouded  by  the  successive 
deaths  of  three  promising  sons. 

It  is  as  poet  and  critic  that  Arnold  was  best 
known  in  his  own  day  and  his  poetry  and  criti- 
cism give  him  his  distinguished  position  in  Eng- 
lish literature,  a  position  which  is  bound  to  be 
regarded  more  highly  by  posterity  than  it  was 
by  his  contemporaries.  His  poetry  is  more 
classical  in  form  and  atmosphere  than  that  of 
any  other  English  poet  except  Milton.  But  he  is 
classical  in  a  general  sense  only  —  not  imitative 
nor  affected.  His  classicism  lies  in  his  serenity 
and  urbanity  of  mind  and  temperament :  in  his 
lucidity,  in  his  Virgilian  grace  and  dignity.  In 
thought  and  suggestion  he  was  frankly  con- 
temporary. If  his  poetry  has  a  predominant 
note,  it  is  that  of  pathos.  'Balder  Dead'  is  a 
masterpiece  of  noble  sadness  and  dignified  nar- 
rative. 'Sohrab  and  Rustum.'  with  its  perfect 
unity  of  action,  ends  in  a  situation  of  matchless 
pathos.  Portions  of  'Tristram  and  Iseult'  are 
among  the  finest  examples  of  descriptive  poetry, 
and  'Thyrsis'  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ele- 
giac poems  in  the  language.  Some  of  his  lyrics, 
too,  are  exquisite,  for  example.  'A  Summer 
Night,'   'The  Youth  of  Nature,'   'The  Youth  of 


ARNOLD 


Man,'  'Isolation,'  'Faded  Leaves,'  and  'A 
Southern  Night.'  The  'Forsaken  Merman'  has 
passages  of  delightful  fancy,  and  'The  Church 
of  Bron'  displays  imagination  of  a  high  order. 
I  lie  great  merit  of  his  verse  is  its  uniform  level 
of  fine  thought,  expressed  with  notable  grace, 
clearness,  and  restraint. 

As  a  critic  Arnold  has  no  superior  and  is 
without  a  rival  in  English  literature.  He  made 
far  less  errors  than  Johnson,  was  better  in- 
formed than  Dryden,  was  broader  and  more 
judicial  than  Pope.  His  judgments  upon  our 
pods  have  become  generally  accepted  and  are 
rarely  questioned.  His  view  of  what  criticism 
sin  mid  be  is  given  in  the  well-known  essay  on 
'The  Function  of  Criticism  at  the  Present 
Time'  ;  in  his  own  work  and  practice  he  seems 
to  have  conceived  its  duty  to  be  "to  lay  down  de- 
cisive  canons  of  cultured  judgment,  to  sift  the 
sound  from  the  vicious,  to  maintain  the  purity  of 
language  and  of  style."  He  greatly  modified  the 
accepted  form  of  the  English  critical  essay  and 
brought  it  more  into  line  with  the  French 
causerie  as  developed  by  Sainte-Beuve,  whose 
influence  on  Arnold  was  considerable.  His 
characterizations  of  Spinoza,  Marcus  Aurelius, 
and  Heine  are  masterly,  and  his  appreciations  of 
Wordsworth,  Byron,  and  Goethe  are  without 
equals.  The  essays  'On  Translating  Homer' 
are  now  classics.  Homer's  characteristics  are 
nowhere  else  set  forth  with  such  understanding, 
sympathy,  and  authority,  or  the  rules  of  transla- 
tion so  unanswerably  deduced  from  them.  His 
social,  theological,  and  political  criticism  forms 
a  distinct  part  of  his  work.  He  was  thoroughly 
discontented  with  English  indifference  to  ideas 
in  literature,  politics,  and  religion,  and  the  ab- 
sorption of  his  countrymen  in  material  pursuits, 
lie  made  it  his  duty  to  arouse  them  from  their 
intellectual  apathy,  and  urge  their  attention  to 
the  higher  things  of  life  and  the  spirit.  As  a 
consequence  he  was  greatly  misunderstood  and 
received  much  unmerited  criticism  and  contempt. 
But  his  ideas  had  a  marked  influence  on  his 
generation,  and  many  of  them  have  triumphantly 
prevailed.  The  books  in  which  he  carried  on  his 
crusade  against  British  "Philistinism"  were: 
'Culture  and  Anarchy'  (1869)  ;  'Saint  Paul 
and  Protestantism'  (1870);  'Friendship's  Gar- 
land' (1871);  'Literature  and  Dogma'  (1873); 
'God  and  the  Bible'  (1875)  ;  'Last  Essays  on 
Church  and  Religion'  (1877).  He  repeatedly 
evinced  a  happy  faculty  for  doing  the  right 
thing  at  the  right  moment.  The  storms  of  con- 
troversy and  attack  which  his  telling  and  keen 
criticism  of  manners  caused,  never  ruffled  him, 
or  led  him  to  retort  in  kind.  His  phrases  be- 
came current  coin,  his  cutting  "labels"  stuck  to 
the  things  he  satirized  and  have  passed  into 
permanent  use.  This  gift  of  sending  forth 
phrases  to  ring  through  and  be  accepted  by  a 
whole  generation  is  a  rare  power.  Forever  as- 
sociated with  him  in  the  sense  in  which  he 
used  them  are  the  now  proverbial  expressions, 
"Philistinism,"  "the  great  style,"  "the  young 
lions  of  the  press,"  "the  Zeit  Geist,"  "the  note 
of  provinciality,"  "sweet  reasonableness,"  "sweet- 
ness and  light,"  "the  stream  of  tendency,  not  our- 
selves that  makes  for  righteousness."  It  was  his 
expressed  wish  that  he  should  not  form  the 
subject  of  a  biography.  In  1895  his  letters  from 
1848  to  1888  were  gathered  and  edited  in  two 
volumes  by  G.  W.  E.  Russell.     These  were  writ- 


ten almost  entirely  to  members  of  his  family 
and  close  friends,  and  show  him  in  the  happiest 
light. 

Bibliography. — A  bibliography  of  Arnold's 
writings  was  published  by  Thos.  B.  Smart  in 
1893.  His  poetical  works  appeared  as  follows: 
'The  Strayed  Reveller,  and  Other  Poems' 
(1849);  'Empedocles  on  Etna'  (1852);  'Po- 
ems' (1853;  3d  ed.  1857);  'Poems,'  second 
series  (1855);  'New  Poems'  (1867);  and  a 
complete  edition  in  three  volumes  1885.  His 
critical  works,  beside  those  mentioned  above, 
were:  'On  Translating  Homer'  (1861-2);  'Celt- 
ic Literature'  (1867)  ;  'Essays  in  Criticism.' 
first  series  (1865);  'Mixed  Essays'  (1879); 
Irish  Essays'  (1882);  'Discourses  in  America* 
(1885);  'Essays  in  Criticism,'  second  series 
(1888).  Contemporary  literature  is  filled  with 
criticism  of  the  various  aspects  of  Arnold's 
work.  A  few  of  the  more  important  studies  are: 
Fitch,  'Thomas  and  M.  Arnold'  (1897);  Rob- 
ertson, 'Modern  Humanists'  (1891)  ;  F.  Harri- 
son, 'Tennyson,  Ruskin,  and  Mill,  and  Other 
Literary  Estimates'  (1900),  an  excellent  appre- 
ciation; Brownell,  'Victorian  Prose  Masters' 
(1902)  ;  Walker,  'The  Greater  Victorian  Poets' 
(1895)  ;  A.  Gabon,  'Two  Essays  Upon  Matthew 
Arnold'  (1897).  Prof.  Saintsbury's  volume  on 
Arnold  is  too  hostile  and  unsympathetic  to  be 
of  any  critical  value;  and  Mr.  Herbert  Paul's 
book  in  'The  New  Englishmen  of  Letters'  series 
is  hopelessly  futile  and  inadequate. 

Ar'nold,  Richard,  an  American  soldier:  b. 
Providence,  R.  I.,  1828 ;  d.  1882.  He  was  grad- 
uated from  West  Point  and  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Federal  army  during  the  Civil 
War,  being  brevetted  major-general  of  volun- 
teers in   1865. 

Ar'nold,  Samuel,  an  English  composer: 
b.  London,  1740 ;  d.  1802.  In  1760  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  composer  at  the  Covent  Garden 
Theatre,  and  set  to  music  the  'Maid  of  the 
Mill.'  He  also  produced  the  oratorios  of  the 
'Prodigal  Son,'  the  'Resurrection,'  and  others. 
He  was  made  a  doctor  of  music  in  1773,  and  in 
1783  was  appointed  organist  of  the  chapel  royal. 
He  edited  the  works  of  Handel,  in  36  volumes 
folio.  In  1794  he  was  made  organist  at  West- 
minster Abbey.  In  1708  he  composed  his  ora- 
torio of  'Elijah.'  Various  as  were  his  com- 
positions, his  inventive  talent  was  but  limited. 
His  'Cathedral  Music'   was  published  in  1790. 

Ar'nold,  Samuel  Greene,  an  American  his- 
torian:  b.  Providence,  R.  I.,  12  April  1821  ;  d. 
there,  12  Feb.  1880.  He  was  graduated  from 
Brown  University  in  1841,  and  traveled  exten- 
sively in  Europe,  South  America,  and  the  East. 
He  was  lieutenant-governor  of  Rhode  Island 
1852,  1861-2,  and  sat  for  part  of  a  term  in  the 
United  States  Senate  1862-3.  He  wrote  a  val- 
uable 'History  of  Rhode  Island  and  Providence 
Plantations'  (2  vols,  i860),  and  was  for  many 
years  president  of  the  Rhode  Island  Historical 
Society. 

Ar'nold,  Thomas,  an  English  scholar, 
head-master  of  Rugby  School,  and  professor  of 
modern  history  in  the  University  of  Oxford- 
b.  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  13  June  1795;  d.  12 
June  1842.  He  received  the  elements  of  his 
education  at  Warminster,  and  at  the  age  of  12 
was  removed  to  the  public  school  at  Winchester. 
Having     obtained     a     scholarship     in     Corpus 


ARNOLD  —  ARNPRIOR 


Christi  College,  Oxford,  he  entered  that  college 
in  his  16th  year,  and  though  naturally  of  a 
shy  disposition  soon  became  remarked  for  the 
boldness  and  independence  of  his  views,  and  the 
ability,  firmness,  and  zeal  with  which  he  main- 
tained them.  In  1815  he  was  elected  Fellow  of 
Oriel  College,  and  both  in  that  year  and  1817 
obtained  the  chancellor's  prize  for  Latin  and 
English  essays.  His  views  had  been  early 
directed  to  the  Church,  but  some  scruples  as  to 
signing  the  articles  made  him  hesitate  for  a 
time.  At  length  these  scruples  gave  way  before 
a  more  careful  examination,  and  he  took  dea- 
con's orders  in  1818.  In  1819  he  settled  at 
Laleham,  near  Staines,  where  he  employed  him- 
self in  preparing  young  men  for  the  universities, 
and  in  1820  married  the  sister  of  one  of  his 
earliest  school  and  college  friends,  Trevenen 
Penrose.  About  this  time  a  remarkable  change 
appears  to  have  come  over  him ;  his  religious 
views  became  finally  settled,  and  his  whole  mind 
appears  to  have  been  wound  up  to  a  determina- 
tion to  use  life  diligently  and  earnestly  for  the 
best  and  holiest  purposes.  At  Laleham  he  had 
much  leisure,  which  he  employed  partly  in  the 
cultivation  of  general  literature,  and  partly  in 
writing  articles  on  Roman  history  for  the  En- 
cyclopaedia Metropolitana,  and  collecting  ma- 
terials for  an  edition  of  Thucydides,  whose  writ- 
ings, as  well  as  those  of  Aristotle,  had  long  been 
his  favorites.  In  1828,  by  the  unanimous  vote 
of  the  trustees,  who  were  told  on  high  authority 
that  "he  would  change  the  face  of  education  all 
through  the  public  schools  of  England,"  he  was 
appointed  head-master  of  Rugby  School,  and 
devoted  himself  to  his  new  duties  with  the  great- 
est ardor.  While  giving  due  prominence  to  the 
classics,  he  deprived  them  of  their  exclusiveness 
by  introducing  various  other  branches  into  his 
course,  and  was  particularly  careful  that  the 
education  which  he  furnished  should  be  in  the 
highest  sense  moral  and  Christian.  His  success 
was  remarkable.  Not  only  did  Rugby  School 
become  crowded  beyond  any  former  precedent, 
but  its  pupils  on  removing  to  the  universities 
carried  off  a  very  large  proportion  of  prizes, 
and  the  superiority  of  Dr.  Arnold's  system  be- 
came so  generally  recognized  that  it  may  be 
justly  said  to  have  done  much  for  the  general 
improvement  of  the  public  schools  of  England. 
In  his  position  as  a  director  of  the  London  Uni- 
versity he  zealously  endeavored  to  extend  the 
benefits  of  a  literary  and  scientific  education  to 
all  classes  and  creeds  without  excluding  reli- 
gion ;  but  failing  in  his  efforts  to  make  examina- 
tion in  the  Scriptures  requisite  to  obtain  a  degree, 
resigned  his  office.  In  1841  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  modern  history  at  Oxford,  and  de- 
livered his  introductory  course  of  lectures  with 
great  success.  The  works  by  which  Dr.  Arnold 
will  continue  to  be  best  known  are  his  edition 
of  Thucydides,  his  'Roman  History.'  unhappily 
left  unfinished,  and  his  'Sermons,'  most  of  them 
prepared  for  his  own  chapel  at  Rugby,  and  so 
admirably  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
youths  who  formed  the  greater  part  of  his  audi- 
ence, that,  though  written  hastily  and  at  broken 
intervals  snatched  from  other  labors,  they  are 
justly  held  to  be  models  in  their  kind.  See 
Stanley,  'Life  and  Correspondence  of  Thos.  Ar- 
nold' (i860)  ;  Worboise,  'Life  of  Dr.  Thos. 
Arnold'  (1*59)  ;  Fitch,  'Thomas  and  Matthew 
Arnold'    (1897). 


Arnold,  Thomas,  an  English  writer  on 
literature,  and  editor  of  old  texts,  son  of  Dr. 
Arnold,  of  Rugby,  and  brother  of  Matthew  Ar- 
nold :  b.  in  Laleham,  30  Nov.  1823 ;  d.  1900.  He 
became  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  spent  a  number 
of  years  in  New  Zealand  and  Tasmania.  Among 
his  works  are  'A  Manual  of  English  Litera- 
ture';  'Select  English  Works  of  WycliP  (3 
vols.,  1869);  'Selections  from  the  Spectator'; 
'Beowulf  (text,  translation,  and  notes)  ;  'Hen- 
ry of  Huntingdon'  ;  'Symeon  of  Durham'  ;  and 
'Chronicles  of  the  Abbey  of  Bury  St.  Ed- 
munds' ;  'Passages  in  a  Wandering  Life' 
(1900).  His  daughter  is  the  novelist,  Mrs. 
Humphry  Ward. 

Ar'nold,  Thomas  Kerchever,  an  English 
educator:  b.  Stamford,  1800;  d.  1853.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge  University,  became  an 
Anglican  clergyman  ;  and  published  a  large  num- 
ber of  text-books  for  schools,  including  manuals 
for  the  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  German  lan- 
guages. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  ar'nold  of  bresh'a 
(Anialdo  da  Brescia),  an  Italian  religious  and 
political  reformer  and  agitator:  b.  about  1100; 
d.  1 155.  He  was  one  of  the  disciples  of  Abelard. 
and  on  returning  from  Paris  began  to  preach  in 
his  native  city.  In  this  way  he  stirred  up  the 
people  against  the  clergy ;  and  in  France,  whither 
he  was  forced  to  flee  in  1139,  he  also  found  nu- 
merous adherents,  for  the  immorality  and  arro- 
gance of  the  clergy  excited  much  discontent. 
The  flame  which  he  had  kindled  could  not  be  ex- 
tinguished by  the  excommunication  pronounced 
against  him  and  his  adherents  by  Innocent  II. 
He  preached  his  doctrines  in  safety  at  Zurich  in 
Switzerland  till  about  1 144,  when  he  appeared  at 
Rome,  where  his  eloquence  occasioned  among 
the  people  great  disorder.  The  furious  multi- 
tude, whom  he  himsel*  could  no  longer  restrain, 
revered  him  as  their  father,  and  even  the  Senate 
protected  him  till  Adrian  IV.,  in  1 155.  laid  an 
interdict  upon  the  city.  This  subdued  the  Ro- 
mans, and  Arnold  was  obliged  to  flee.  He  was 
taken  in  Campania,  and  executed  at  Rome  and 
his  body  burned ;  his  ashes  were  thrown  into 
the  Tiber,  and  his  party  was  suppressed.  His 
followers  were  known  as  Arnoldists. 

Ar'nold  of  Winkelried,  wing'kel-red,  a 
Swiss  hero,  who,  at  the  battle  of  Sempach.  in 
1386,  sacrificed  himself  to  insure  victory  to  his 
countrymen.  The  Austrian  knights,  dismounted, 
had  formed  themselves  into  a  phalanx,  which  the 
Swiss  vainly  strove  to  pierce,  when  Arnold, 
rushing  on  the  spear  points  of  the  enemy,  and 
burying  several  in  his  breast,  thus  opened  a  gap 
in  the  fence  of  steel.  The  Swiss  rushed  in 
through  the  opening,  and  routed  the  Austrians 
with  great  slaughter. 

Ar'noldists.    See  Arnold  of  Brescia. 

Arnprior,  town  of  Renfrew  County,  Ontario, 
Canada ;  38  m.  by  railway  W.  of  Ottawa,  on 
Canada  Atlantic  and  Canadian  Pacific  Railways; 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Madawaska  River  with 
the  Ottawa.  It  is  an  important  lumbering 
centre,  and  has  other  milling  and  manufacturing 
interests.  The  country  round  about  is  heavily 
wooded,  and  the  abundance  of  water-ways 
especially  favors  the  handling  of  timber.  Pop. 
(  [901  )  4.IS2- 


AROK-SZALLAS— AROMATIC  COMPOUNDS 


Arok-Szallas,  ar'ok-sal'ash,  or  Jasz-Arok- 

Szallas,  a  privileged  market-town  in  Hungary, 
II  miles  northeast  of  Budapest.  Pop.  (1900) 
11,190. 

Arolsen,  a'rol-sen,  a  German  town,  capi- 
tal of  the  principality  of  Waldeck,  on  the  river 
Aar.  Ranch  the  sculptor  was  born  here.  Pop. 
(1900)  2,734. 

Aro'ma,  a  Greek  term  denoting  perfume. 
Many  plants  yield  a  more  or  less  delightful  odor, 
often  due  to  volatile  oils  called  essences,  which 
can  be  separated  from  them  by  suitable  pro- 
cesses. Sometimes  odor  proceeds  from  a  sub- 
stance which  cannot  be  seized,  and  to  which  the 
name  of  aroma  is  more  particularly  applied.  It 
appears  that  substances  altogether,  or  almost 
altogether,  inodorous  may  be  made  to  diffuse  a 
strong  odor  by  the  mixture  of  different  sub- 
stances which  facilitate  their  volatilization. 
Thus,  when  musk  is  dried,  ammonia  is  separated 
from  it,  and  seems  to  be  the  vehicle  of  the  odor, 
since  the  residuum  becomes  inodorous,  and  yet 
may  again  be  made  as  odoriferous  as  it  was  at 
first  by  impregnating  it  with  a  quantity  of  the 
substance  which  had  been  carried  off.  Tobacco, 
in  like  manner,  owes  part  of  its  odor  to  am- 
moniacal  salts  mixed  witli  it  in  the  process  of 
manufacture.  One  singular  fact  is  that  many 
plants  of  tolerably  strong  odor  yield  an  inodor- 
ous liquid  when  dissolved  in  water  and  yet  com- 
municate odor  to  the  oils  with  which  they  are 
macerated.     See  Perfumery. 

Aromatic  Compounds,  a  numerous  and 
exceedingly  important  class  of  substances,  fun- 
damentally differing  from  the  fatty  compounds 
in  constitution,  and  named  from  the  fact  that 
the  earliest  known  representatives  of  the  class 
were  resins,  oils,  and  balsams,  distinguished  by 
a  marked  aromatic  odor.  The  name  is  now  ap- 
plied to  all  substances  containing  a  "benzene 
nucleus1'  (presently  to  be  described).  Benzene 
itself  is  the  simplest  example  of  an  aromatic 
body.  Its  formula,  expressed  in  the  simplest 
way,  is  G>H6,  but  when  the  attempt  was  made 
to  represent  the  composition  of  benzene  by  a 
"structural  formula,"  numerous  difficulties  were 
encountered.  For  example,  benzene  behaves  like 
a  saturated  compound  in  most  respects,  yet  it 
contains  eight  atoms  less  of  hydrogen  than  the 
saturated  paraffin  "hexane"  (CoH„)  containing 
the  same  number  of  carbon  atoms.  Again,  any 
or  all  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  benzene  can 
be  replaced  by  other  monovalent  elements  (or 
radicals)  ;  and  the  persistence  of  the  group  Co 
in  the  derivations  of  benzene,  even  when  all  the 

original     hydrogen 
H  atoms    have    been 

replaced    by    other 
elements    or    radi- 
cals, indicates  that 
CH       the    carbon    atoms 
in    that    body    are 
intimately     related 
to  one  another,  in 
some    manner. 
CH        Furthermore,        it 
has     been     proved 
by  experiment 
j}  that   the   hydrogen 

atoms    in    benzene 
are        "of        equal 
value,"  so  that  it  makes  no  difference,  in  form- 
ing  a    substitution    compound,    which    atom   of 


HC 


HC 


HC 


HC 


hydrogen  is  replaced,  and  this  fact  indicates  that 
the  hydrogen  atoms  should  occur  in  the  struc- 
tural formula  symmetrically.  To  reconcile 
these  considerations  (and  many  others)  Kckule, 
in  1865,  proposed  for  benzene  the  structural  for- 
mula  preceding. 

The  symmetry  of  the  body  with  respect  to  hy- 
drogen is  here  evident,  and  the  persistence  of 
the  group  Co  is  explained  by  assuming  the  six 
carbon  atoms  to  be  united  to  one  another  in  the 
form  of  a  closed  chain,  supposed  to  possess 
sufficient  chemical  strength  to  maintain  its  own 
integrity,  save  under  exceptional  circumstances. 
The  closed  ring  of  six  carbon  atoms  is  the 
"benzene  nucleus,"  referred  to  above,  which  con- 
stitutes the  distinctive  feature  of  the  aromatic 
compounds  as  a  class.  It  will  be  observed  that 
in  Kekule's  structural  formula  the  carbon  atoms 
are  all  tetravalcnt,  just  as  the  carbon  is  in  carbon 
dioxid  (CO;),  and  that  three  of  the  four  valen- 
cies of  each  carbon  atom  are  satisfied  by  the  va- 
lencies of  other  carbon  atoms,  while  the  fourth 
is  satisfied,  in  each  case,  by  a  hydrogen  atom. 
Von  Baeyer  has  proposed  a  slightly  different 
structural  formula  for  benzene,  even  more  sym- 
metrical in  appearance  than  Kekule's,  but  which 
raises  certain  questions  that  are  not  yet  an- 
swered. His  formula  is  as  shown  herewith. 
The  closed  carbon 
chain  is  present  here 
also,  but  only  three 
of  the  valencies  of 
each  carbon  atom  are 
definitely  pro  v  i  d  e  d 
for,  and  it  is  as- 
sumed that  the  six 
remaining  valencies 
(one  to  each  carbon 
atom)  are  satisfied 
by  a  sort  of  "central 
linkage,"  whose  pre- 
cise nature  is  no' 
determined  or  de- 
fined. It  is  customary,  at  the  present  time 
to  express  the  structural  formula  of  benzene  it 
the  simple  form  with- 
out attempting  any 
explanation  of  the 
fact  that  the  carbon 
atoms  are  here  ap- 
parently trivalent. 
Much  thought  has 
been  expended  upon 
this  matter,  and  the 
constitution  of  ben- 
zene is  one  of  the 
most  interesting  prob- 
lems in  the  realm  of 
organic  chemistry. 
The  structural  formu- 
las presented  above  are  not  to  be  taken  in  any 
sense  as  pictorial  representations  of  the  actual 
geometrical  configuration  of  the  benzene  mole- 
cule. We  know  nothing  at  all  about  the  shape 
of  a  molecule,  nor  sbout  the  way  in  which  its 
parts  are  associated  with  one  another,  in  space. 
The  structural  formulas  employed  in  chemistry 
are  mere  empirical  diagrams,  for  representing, 
to  the  eye,  the  chemical  properties  and  relations 
that  have  been  observed  in  the  laboratory. 

Compounds  have  been  prepared  which  con- 
tain closed  rings  of  three,  four,  and  five  atoms  of 
carbon,  respectively,  but  these  are  not  classed 
as  aromatic  compounds.     They  are  intermediate. 


CH 


CH 


C 
H 


CH 


AROMATIC  COMPOUNDS 


H 


»C 


HC 


CH 


CH 


N 


in  general  properties,  between  the  aromatic  se- 
ries and  the  fatty  series,  but  resemble  the  latter 
more  closely.  Compounds  are  also  known  in 
which  the  chain  is  closed  by  an  atom  of  Oxygen, 
or  of  sulphur,  or  of  nitrogen.  Thus  the  struc- 
tural formula  of  pyridine  is  as  shown  herewith. 
Such  substances  could 
be  classed  as  "aro- 
matic compounds"  by 
an  extension  of  the 
definition  of  the  aro- 
matic group,  but  are 
usually  regarded  as 
outside  of  the  limits 
of  that  group.  The 
aromatic  compounds 
are  so  numerous, 
and  include  so  many 
substances  of  tech- 
nical importance,  that 
only  the  merest  outline  of  their  general 
character  can  be  given  in  this  place.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  they  are  derived 
from  benzene  by  replacing  one  or  more  of  its 
typical  hydrogen  atoms  by  an  equal  number  of 
monovalent  radicals  (either  simple  or  com- 
pound). The  essential  features  of  these  substi- 
tutions may  be  illustrated  by  considering  the 
chlorobenzenes.  By  the  action  of  chlorine  upon 
cold  benzene,  several  substitution  products  are 
formed,  having  the  formulas  GHsCl,  CeHj.Cl2, 
GJT.Ch,  etc.,  according  to  the  number  of  atoms 
of  hydrogen  that  are  replaced  by  the  chlorine. 
The  first  of  these  substitution  products,  CoHs.0, 
is  called  simply  "chlorobenzene,"  and  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  since  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  the  orig- 
inal benzene  are  all  "of  equal  value"  (that  is, 
all  involved  symmetrically),  it  makes  no  differ- 
ence which  hydrogen  atom  is  replaced  by  the 
chlorine ;  hence  only  one  chlorobenzene  having 
the  formula  CeHr.Cl  is  possible.  But  when  a 
second  atom  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  chlorine, 
the  resulting  compound,  CeHt.CU  (known  as  di- 
chlorobenzene),  can  exist  in  no  less  than  three 
distinct  isomeric  forms,  according  to  the  rela- 
tive positions  of  the  chlorine  atoms  in  the  ben- 
zene ring.  For  let  the  structural  formula  of 
chlorobenzene  (GHs.Cl)  be  represented  by 
the  skeletonized  scheme  the  numbers  represent- 
ing the  several  groups 
of  CH,  in  one  of 
which  the  hydrogen 
is  to  be  replaced  by 
a  further  substitution 
of  chlorine.  It  is 
evident  that  the  next 
chlorine  atom  may 
replace  a  hydrogen 
atom  at  any  one  of 
the  five  vertices  to 
which  numbers  have 
been  attached;  but  it 
3  is   also   evident    from 

symmetry  that  the 
two  positions  numbered  "i"  must  be  considered 
as  essentially  identical,  so  far  as  the  product  re- 
sulting from  a  substitution  is  concerned,  and  the 
same  is  also  true  of  the  two  positions  marked 
a2."  Only  three  essentially  different  ways  of 
substituting  the  second  chlorine  atom  need  there- 
fore be  considered.  When  the  second  chlorine 
atom  is  situated  at  an  angle  adjacent  to  the  first, 
the  product  is  known  as  orf/io-dichlorobenzcne; 


when  the  second  chlorine  atom  is  separated  from 
the  first  by  one  vortex  which  still  retains  its 
hydrogen,  the  product  is  known  as  meta-dichlo- 
robenzene;  and,  finally,  when  the  two  substituted 
atoms  of  chlorine  are  opposite  one  another,  the 
product  is  known  as  />ara-dichlorobenzene.  The 
three  different  dichlorobenzenes  thus  shown  by 
the  structural  formula  to  be  possible,  are  actual- 
ly known.  All  aromatic  compounds  having  the 
general  formula  CoH4Y2  (where  Y  is  a  monova- 
lent radical)  occur  in  three  isomeric  series,  just 
as  the  chlorobenzenes  do,  and  the  separate  com- 
pounds are  distinguished,  as  already  explained 
in  the  case  of  dichlorobenzene,  by  the  prefixes 
ortho-,  meta-,  and  para-.  These  prefixes  are 
frequently  abbreviated  to  single  letters,  in  works 
on  chemistry.  Thus  p-  dihydroxybenzene  is  of- 
ten written  in  the  place  of  the  full  name,  "para- 
dihydroxybenzene."  This  particular  substance 
(used  in  photography  and  commonly  known  as 
"hydroquinone"),  as  its  name  implies,  is  formed 
by  the  substitution  of  two  molecules  of  hydroxyl 
(HO)  for  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  in  the  ben- 
zene ring,  the  hydroxyl  molecules  being  opposite 
each  other  (as  indicated  by  the  prefix  para-). 
Its  structural  formula,  therefore,  is  as  below. 
The  ortho-  compound 
having  the  same  com- 
position (except  that 
its  two  hydroxyl 
molecules  are  in  the 
"ortho"  positions),  is 
a  different  substance, 
known  more  familiar- 
ly as  catechol,  or 
pyrocatechin,  and  the 
meta-  compound 
(where  the  two  mole- 
cules of  hydroxyl  are 
in  the  "meta"  positions)  is  quite  different  from 
either  of  the  others,  and  is  known  as  resorcinol. 
The  substitutions  of  monovalent  radicals  for 
the  hydrogen  atoms  in  benzene  are  by  no  means 
limited  to  two,  nor  need  the  radicals  that  are 
substituted  be  alike.  Thus  the  pyrogallic  acid 
so  extensively  used  as  a  developer  in  photogra- 
phy is  obtained  from  benzene  by  the  substitu- 
tion of  three  molecules  of  hydroxyl  for  three 
molecules  of  the  benzene  hydrogen  :  and  it  there- 
fore has  the  formula  CoH.,.(OH)j.  Vanillin, 
now  largely  used  in  the  place  of  extract  of 
vanilla  for  flavoring  confectionery  and  ices,  is 
benzene  in  which  three  atoms  of  the  original 
hydrogen  have  been  replaced,  respectively,  by  the 
groups  (CHO),  (OCH,),  and  (OH).  On  ac- 
count of  the  typographical  difficulties  involved 
in  printing  the  structural  formulas  of  the  aro- 
matic compounds,  chemists  often  specify  the 
constitution  of  these  compounds  by  numbering 
the  original  hydrogen  atoms  of  the  benzene  from 
1  to  6,  and  then  specifying  by  number,  which 
hydrogen  atom  has  been  replaced  by  each  of 
the  substituted  radicals.  Thus  vanillin  (re- 
ferred to  in  the  previous  paragraph)  consists  of 
benzene  in  which  CHO  has  been  substituted  for 
the  first  hydrogen  atom,  OCH,  for  the  third, 
and  OH  for  the  fourth;  and  with  this  conven- 
tion the  constitution  of  vanillin  may  be  ex 
pressed  thus:   CHO  :  OCH.  :OH  =  i':.;  :  4. 

The  existence  of  tertiary  (and  higher)  sub- 
stitution products  of  benzene  makes  it  possible 
to  identify  the  ortho-,  meta-,  and  para-  di-substi- 


C.OH 


AROMATIC  COMPOUNDS 


tution  compounds,  so  that  the  proper  designation 
can  he  attached  to  each  of  them.  The  di-bromo- 
benzenes   afford   a  good   example   oi   the   way 

in  which  tins  is  accomplished.  The  three  essen- 
tially different  compounds  obtained  by  substitut- 
ing bromine  for  two  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in 
benzene  are  (according  to  the  notation  just 
given)  Br  :  Br  =  i  :  2,  Br  :  Br=  I  :  3,  and  Br  : 
Br  =  1  :  4,  these  being  ortho-dibromobenzene, 
uicta-dibromobenzene  and  para-dibromobcnzene, 
respectively.  Now  if  an  atom  of  hydrogen  in 
the  first  of  these  be  replaced  by  another  atom 
of  bromine,  it  is  evident  that  the  new  bromine 
atom  may  have  the  position  3,  4,  5,  or  6;  hut  the 
compounds  in  which  the  bromine  occupies  the 
positions  1:2:3  ar>d  1:2:6  must  be  regarded 
as  identical,  as  will  be  seen  by  constructing  the 
diagram ;  and,  similarly,  those  in  which  it  occu- 
pies the  positions  1:2:4  and  1:2:5  must  be 
considered  identical.  Hence  the  further  intro- 
duction of  bromine  into  ortho-dibromobenzene 
can  give  rise  only  to  the  two  distinct  tri-bromo- 
benzenes  1:2:3  and  1:2:4.  If  the  remaining 
dibromobenzenes  be  examined  in  the  same  way, 
it  will  be  found  that  meta-dibromobenzene  can 
yield  (upon  further  bromination)  the  three  dis- 
tinct tri-bromobenzenes  1:2:3,  1  : 3  '•  4,  and 
1:3:5.  Finally,  it  will  be  found  that  para-di- 
bromobenzene can  yield  only  one  tri-bromo- 
benzene;  namely,  1  :  2  :  4.  The  identification 
of  a  di-substitution  bromobenzene  as  ortho-, 
meta-,  or  para-  is  therefore  seen  to  be  equivalent 
to  determining  how  many  different  tri-bromo- 
benzenes the  given  di-bromobenzcne  can  yield. 
This  problem  has  been  fully  worked  out  in  the 
case  here  taken  as  an  illustration,  and  it  has 
been  shown  that  of  the  three  known  di-bromo- 
benzenes,  the  ortho-  compound  is  the  one  boiling 
at  4350  F.,  the  meta-  compound  is  the  one  boil- 
ing at  427°F.,  and  the  para-  compound  is  the 
one  melting  at  1800  F.  The  mode  of  identifica- 
tion here  discussed  in  detail  for  bromine  sub- 
stitution products  can  be  applied  in  other  cases 
also,  but  the  labor  involved  in  the  operation  is 
so  great  that  it  is  usually  easier  to  ascertain  the 
proper  prefix  for  a  new  di-substitution  com- 
pound by  noting  which  of  the  bromo-substitu- 
tion  products  must  be  used  as  a  starting  point, 
in  the  synthesis  of  the  proposed  compound. 
There  is  usually  but  little  difference  in  the 
boiling  points  of  ortho-,  meta-,  and  para-  com- 
pounds, but  the  para-  compounds  have  the 
highest  melting  points.  The  benzene  ring  of 
ortho-  compounds  is  liable  to  be  broken  up  by 
oxidation,  while  in  the  other  two  classes  the 
ring  usually  persists.  The  following  general 
law  appears  to  hold  true  of  di-substitution  aro- 
matic compounds:  When  a  radical  is  introduced 
into  a  benzene  ring  in  which  one  hydrogen 
atom  has  already  been  replaced  by  a  radical,  the 
second  radical  will  take  a  position  "meta8  to 
the  first  one,  provided  the  first  was  COOH, 
SO.H.  NO,,  or  (probably)  CN,  CHO,  or 
CO.CH3.  In  most  other  cases  the  second  radical 
will  mainly  take  the  "para"  position,  though 
some  of  the  "ortho"  compound  is  almost  in- 
variably produced  at  the  same  time.  The  aro- 
matic bodies  include  many  acids,  the  simpler  of 
which  may  be  conveniently  classified  according 
to  the  number  of  molecules  of  carboxyl 
(COOH)  that  they  contain,  and  according  to 
the  number  of  hydrogen  atoms  that  have  been 
displaced    in    the    original    benzene    ring.     The 


simpler  and  more  familiar  aromatic  acids  mostly 
contain  one  carboxyl  group,  and  are  therefore 
said  to  be  "mono-carhoxylic."  In  the  inono- 
carboxylic  group,  benzoic  acid,  CI  I  .('()( >1 1, 
is  "mono-hydric" ;  salicylic  acid,  CJI..OH. 
COOH,  is  "di-hydric";  proto-catechuic  acid, 
C,IIa.(OII)2.COOH,  is  "tri-bydric";  and  gallic 
acid,  C.H.,  (OH), .COOH,  is  "tetra-hydric." 
Numerous  substances  classed  by  the  chemist  as 
alcohols  also  occur  in  the  aromatic  group.  The 
simplest  of  these  (and  the  only  one  containing 
only  six  atoms  of  carbon)  is  phenyl  alcohol, 
which  is  also  known  as  phenol,  and  as  carbolic 
acid.  This  substance  is  formed  when  benzene 
is  oxidized  by  peroxid  of  hydrogen,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  equation. 

C.H,   +    H.O,     =      CJIr,.OII       +     H.O. 
Benzene.  Hydrogen        Phenyl  al-  Water 

peroxid.  cohol. 

Phenol  is  called  an  alcohol  on  account  of  its 
chemical  structure  (see  Alcohol),  but  it  differs 
widely  from  the  alcohols  of  the  fatty  series, 
since  it  does  not  yield  an  aldehyde,  an  acid  nor 
a  ketone,  and  it  is  not  easily  oxidized.  Other 
aromatic  alcohols  may  be  prepared  by  replac- 
ing a  hydrogen  atom  in  benzene  by  one  of 
the  alcohol  radicals  (  CnH;,n  +  1  )  of  the  fatty 
series,  and  then  substituting  an  OH  group  for 
one  of  the  hydrogen  atoms  in  the  compound  so 
formed.  The  resulting  substance  has  widely 
different  properties,  according  to  the  position 
of  the  OH  group  so  introduced.  If  the  OH 
replaces  a  hydrogen  atom  in  the  alcohol  radical, 
the  final  compound  is  called  an  alcohol;  but  if 
it  replaces  a  hydrogen  atom  in  the  original 
benzene  ring,  the  final  compound  is  more  ac- 
curately classed  as  a  phenol.  For  example, 
if  CHj  be  substituted  for  an  atom  of  hydrogen 
in  benzene,  toluene  (CoHs.CHa)  is  formed.  If, 
now,  OH  is  substituted  for  a  hydrogen  atom  in 
the  CHS,  the  resulting  substance,  CjHj.CHiOH, 
is  known  as  benzyl  alcohol;  while  if  the  OH  is 
substituted  for  an  H  in  the  original  ring,  we 
have  C«H(. (OH).CH«,  a  substance  known  as 
cresol,  and  more  properly  described  as  a  phenol 
than  as  an  alcohol.  One  of  the  most  important 
members  of  the  aromatic  group  is  amido-ben- 
zene,  or  aniline   (q.v.). 

A.  D.  Risteen,  Ph.D., 
Editorial  Staff,  'Encyclopedia  Americana.'' 
Ar'omat'ics,  plants  (sometimes  animal  and 
other  substances)  which  have  a  spicy  odor  and 
pungent  taste  and  are  used  in  medicine,  cookery, 
and  perfumery.  They  are  largely  employed  to 
disguise  the  taste  of  drugs,  are  usually  reputed 
stimulant,  antispasmodic,  and.  if  bitter,  tonic  and 
vermifuge;  externally  they  are  applied  as  anti- 
septics, local  anaesthetics  and  counter-irritants. 
Their  active  principles  are  volatile  oils  obtained 
by  distillation ;  but  some  contain  camphor-like 
substances,  such  as  turpentine ;  others  are  bitter 
like  tansy;  still  others  contain  an  odorous  resin, 
for  example,  myrrh  and  benzoin ;  and  lastly 
there  are  those  with  a  musky  odor,  such  as  the 
musk  plant  (q.v.).  Among  aromatics  and 
the  families  to  which  they  belong  are  :  peppermint, 
thyme,  lavender,  of  the  Labiata —  the  whole 
plant,  especially  the  leaves;  caraway,  dill,  anise, 
of  the  Umbelliferce —  the  seeds  or  seed  capsules; 
ginger,  Zlnglbcraccw — the  root-stocks;  cinnamon, 
cassia,  of  the  Lauracca:  Myrtacete —  the  bark; 
cloves,  Myrtacea —  the  flower  buds;  and  va- 
nilla, of  the  Orchidacca:  —  the  fruits. 


AROMATIC  VINEGAR  — ARRACK 


Ar'omat'ic  Vinegar,  a  liquid  consisting  of 
strong  acetic  acid,  and  obtained  by  distilling 
crystallized  diacetate  of  copper.  Its  aroma  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  acetone,  but  it  is  also 
usually  highly  flavored  with  preparations,  such 
as  cloves,  calamus,  etc.  It  has  a  pleasant  per- 
fume, and  its  vapor,  when  inhaled,  has  a  power- 
ful effect  on  the  nostrils,  and  acts  as  a  strong 
excitant  on  the  whole  system.  The  liquid  is 
highly  corrosive. 

Arona,  a-ro'na,  Italy,  an  ancient  town  near 
the  southern  extremity  of  Lago  Maggiore.  In 
the  vicinity  is  the  colossal  statue  of  San  Carlo 
Borromeo,  70  feet  high,  exclusive  of  the  pedes- 
tal, 42  feet  high.  There  are  silk,  cotton,  and 
metal  works  here.     Pop.  (1901)  4,700. 

Aroo.     See  Arru  Islands. 

Aroostook,  a-roos'tiik,  a  river  in  Maine. 
It  rises  in  Piscataquis  County,  Me. ;  flows  more 
than  120  miles  in  a  circuitous  course,  and  enters 
the  St.  John  River  in  New  Brunswick.  It  was 
an  important  factor  in  the  settlement  of  the 
long-pending  dispute  concerning  the  boundary 
between  the  United  States  and  British  America. 

Aroostook,  Lady  of  The,  the  title  of 
a  book  written  by  W.  D.  Howells  in  1879  —  one 
of  the  author's  early  works.  The  Aroostook  is 
a  trading  vessel,  and  the  lady  of  the  story  is  the 
sole  woman  passenger  in  a  voyage  across  the 
Atlantic.  The  story  is  strong  and  interesting, 
and  contributed  greatly  to  the  early  reputation 
of  Mr.  Howells. 

Arouet,  a'roo-a'.     See  Voltaire. 

Around    the    World    in    Eighty    Days,    a 

noted  romance  by  Jules  Verne.  Phineas  Fogg, 
an  English  gentleman,  wagers  that  a  man  can 
travel  around  the  world  in  80  days.  He  wins 
his  wager,  after  a  series  of  exciting  adventures. 

Around-the-World  Records.  Many  years 
have  elapsed  since  Mr.  Phineas  Fogg,  M.  Jules 
Verne's  mythical  hero,  accomplished  the  sup- 
posedly impossible  task  of  circumnavigating  the 
globe  in  80  days,  a  feat  which  won  for  him  a 
wager  of  $100,000,  and  incidentally,  a  wife. 
Since  that  time,  however,  so  many  improvements 
have  been  made  in  methods  of  transportation, 
sn  many  new  routes  —  like  that  of  the  Trans- 
Siberian  Railway  (q.v.) — have  been  completed 
that  Mr.  Fogg's  once  remarkable  trip  now  ap- 
pears in  the  light  of  an  extremely  commonplace 
achievement.  In  fact  the  person  who,  to-day, 
could  not  travel  around  the  world  in  less  than 
80  days  would  be  regarded  as  a  very  inex- 
perienced globe-trotter.  The  first  serious  at- 
tempt to  lower  Jules  Verne's  imaginary  record 
was  made  in  1800,  when  Miss  Nellie  Bly,  who 
represented  the  New  York  World,  made  the  trip 
around  the  world  against  time.  She  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  late  George  Francis  Train,  and 
both  succeeded  in  accomplishing  the  tour  in  less 
than  70  days.  Ten  years  later  Mr.  Genrge  Grif- 
fith, of  Chiswick,  England,  established  a  new 
record  at  64^2  days,  but  this  record  stood  for 
less  than  a  year,  it  having  been  reduced,  in  1001, 
to  60  days  and  \y/2  hours,  by  Charles  CV  Fitz- 
morris,  who  made  the  trip  at  the  request  of 
Hearst's  Chicago  American.  The  success  of 
Fitzmorris  was  the  means  of  inspiring  many 
persons  to  participate  in  this  unique  form  of 
record  breaking,  among  the  contestants  there 
being  several  journalists,  the  representatives  of 

Vol.  1— 48 


European  and  Canadian  papers.  All  attempts 
to  lower  this  last  record  were  unsuccessful,  how- 
ever, until  December  1903,  when  Mr.  James 
Willis  Sayre  of  Seattle,  Wash.,  earned  the  hon- 
ors for  record  breaking  by  girdling  the  globe  in 
54  days,  9  hours  and  42  minutes,  an  achievement 
that  lowered  the  Fitzmorris  record  by  more  than 
6  days  and  3  hours.  Mr.  Sayre's  itinerary  was 
as  follows :  From  Seattle  to  Yokohama,  Japan  ; 
thence  by  rail  to  Kobe,  Moji,  and  Nagasaki, 
Japan ;  then  by  steamer  to  Dalny,  Manchuria, 
and  so  on  to  Liverpool  by  what  was  practically 
an  all-rail  journey  of  7,600  miles.  At  Liverpool 
he  boarded  a  steamer  for  New  York,  and,  two 
hours  after  his  arrival  in  America,  he  was  on  a 
train  hound  west,  for  Seattle.  This  feat  of 
lowering  the  world's  record  for  globe-girdling 
was  accomplished  without  the  use  of  special 
trains^  or  boats,  or  any  other  method  of  travel 
beyond  the  means  of  the  ordinary  tourist. 

Arpad,  iir'pad,  the  conqueror  of  Hungary, 
and  founder  of  the  Arpad  dynasty,  which 
reigned  till  1301.  He  was  born  in  the  second 
half  of  the  9th  century;  died  in  907.  He  was 
the  son  of  Almus,  whom  the  seven  Magyar  clans 
dwelling  in  the  steppes  northeast  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  had  elected  their  hereditary  chief  about  889. 
Thus  united  into  one  nation,  the  Magyars,  mus- 
tering about  25,000  warriors,  crossed  the  Car- 
pathians and  conquered  Hungary,  when  Arpad 
was  elected  their  prince. 

Arpeggio,  ar-pej'o  (Italian,  from  Arpa,  a 
harp),  in  music,  the  playing  of  a  chord  on  a 
keyed  or  stringed  instrument  by  sounding  the 
notes,  not  together,  but  in  rapid  succession. 

Arpino,  ar-pe'no  (ancient  Arpinum),  a 
town  of  southern  Italy,  celebrated  as  the  birth- 
place of  Caius  Marius  and  Cicero.  It  is  situated 
on  a  rising  ground  near  the  river  Garigliano, 
was  originally  founded  by  the  Volsci,  and  be- 
came a  municipal  town  under  the  Romans.  It  is 
still  a  place  of  some  importance,  possesses  a 
royal  college  and  several  churches,  and  manu- 
factures woolens.     Pop.  (1900)  10,607. 

Arquebus,  iir'kwe-bus,  an  ancient  species 
of  firearm  resembling  a  musket.  It  was  fired 
from  a  forked  rest,  and  sometimes  cocked  by 
a  wheel,  and  carried  a  ball  that  weighed  nearly 
two  ounces.  A  larger  kind  used  in  fortresses 
carried  a  heavier  shot.     See  Ordnance. 

Arracacha,  ar'ra-ka'cha,  or  Aracacha,  a 
genus  of  umbelliferous  plants  of  Southern  and 
Central  America.  The  root  of  A.  esculcnta  is 
divided  into  several  lobes,  each  of  which  is 
about  the  size  of  a  large  carrot.  These  are 
boiled  like  potatoes  and  largely  eaten  in  South 
America. 

Ar'rack,  or  Rack,  a  name  applied  by 
Orientals  to  a  strong  spirituous  liquor  distilled 
from  rice,  from  the  juice  of  the  cocoanut,  date, 
and  other  palms,  or  from  molasses.  The  arrack 
of  Goa  and  Colombo  in  Ceylon  is  distilled  from 
palm-juice  alone,  after  being  allowed  to  fer- 
ment; that  of  1 '.ataxia  and  Jamaica  from  rice  and 
molasses.  The  rice  is  turned  into  malt  by  being 
soaked  in  water  and  allowed  to  sprout,  after 
which  the  arrack  is  distilled  from  it  on  fermen- 
tation taking  place  in  the  same  way  as  whiskey 
from  barley-malt.  The  rice  is  also  often  used 
without  being  malted.  The  distillation  of  the 
fermented  liquor  affords  the  third  or  worst  sort 
of  arrack;    this   mixed    with   a    little    water   anil 


ARRAGONITE  — ARREST   OF  JUDGMENT 


again  distilled  gives  the  second  best  sort ;  a  third 
distillation  produces  the  best  sort,  which  is  sel- 
dom exported.  The  arrack  sold  in  Europe  is 
-i  Idom  genuine.  Pure  arrack  is  clear  and  trans- 
parent, with  a  yellowish  or  straw  color,  and  a  pe- 
culiar but  agreeable  taste  and  smell ;  it  contains 
at  least  52  to  54  per  cent  of  alcohol.  Not  much 
of  it  is  imported  into  England,  but  it  is  largely 
drunk  in  India  and  the  East  generally,  the  In- 
dian and  Pacific  Islands,  Africa,  and  South 
America.  The  arrack  of  Japan  is  known  as  saki. 
Arragonite,  a  common  but  erroneous 
spelling  for  the  mineral  Aragonite  (q.v.). 

Ar  rah,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  Bengal. 
The  surrounding  country  is  fertile  and  well  cul- 
tivated, and  near  the  town  is  a  large  .  1  beau- 
tiful lake.  It  was  rendered  famous  du  ng  the 
mutiny  of  1857  by  the  heroic  resistance  o  a  body 
of  20  civilians  and  50  Sikhs,  cooped  up  within 
a  detached  house,  to  a  force  of  3,000  sepo;  who 
were  ultimately  routed  and  overthrown  v  the 
arrival  of  a  small  European  reinforcement.  Pop. 
47,000. 

Arrah  Na  Pogue,  eir-ra  na  pog,  a  pla  by 
Dion  Boucicault.   (q.v.). 

Arraignment,  in  the  practice  of  criminal 
law  the  calling  of  a  prisoner  by  his  name  to  the 
bar  of  the  court  to  answer  the  matter  charged 
upon  him  in  the  indictment.  His  innocence  be- 
ing presumed,  it  is  the  law,  and  is  so  laid  down 
in  the  most  ancient  books,  that,  though  charged 
upon  an  indictment  of  the  gravest  nature,  he  is 
entitled  to  stand  at  the  bar  in  the  character  of 
a  free  man,  without  irons  or  any  manner  of 
shackles  or  bonds,  unless  there  be  evident  danger 
of  his  escape,  or  of  violence  at  his  hands. 

Arran,  ar'an,  an  island  of  Scotland,  in  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  20  miles  long,  and  10  miles  wide, 
with  an  area  of  165  square  miles.  The  island 
attains  its  loftiest  summit  in  Goatfell,  which  is 
2,900  feet  high.  The  southern  portion  is  rather 
hilly  than  mountainous,  and  contains  several 
arable  tracts  of  considerable  extent  and  toler- 
able fertility.  The  geology  of  Arran  has  at- 
tracted much  attention,  as  furnishing  within  a 
comparatively  narrow  space  distinct  sections  of 
the  great  geological  formations.  The  botany 
possesses  almost  equal  interest,  both  in  the 
variety  and  the  rarity  of  many  of  its  plants. 
Among  objects  of  historical  interest  are  the  cave 
of  Drumidoon,  relics  of  Danish  forts,  and 
Druidical  stones.  Pop.  (.1900)  °.°°°-  Consult 
<A  May  Week  in  Arran'    (.1882). 

Arras,  ar'ras',  a  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  in  the  middle 
of  an  extensive  and  fertile  plain,  on  the  Scarpe, 
which  here  becomes  navigable.  It  is  a  well- 
built  town,  and  has  several  handsome  squares 
and  a  citadel,  but  is  no  longer  fortified.  The 
chief  public  buildings  are  the  modern  cathedral, 
the  extensive  buildings  of  the  former  abbey  of 
St.  Vaast,  now  accommodating  a  museum  and 
the  public  library  of  50,000  volumes;  the  Hotel 
de  Ville,  one  of  the  handsomest  in  the  north  of 
France,  with  a  fine  Gothic  facade ;  the  theatre, 
Hotel  de  la  Prefecture,  barracks,  etc.  Its  in- 
dustries are  varied  and  important.  In  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  it  was  famous  for  the  manufacture  of 
tapestry,  to  which  the  English  applied  the  name 
of  the  town  itself.  The  corn-market  of  Arras 
is  the  most   important   in  the  north  of   France. 


It   was    the    birth-place    of    Robespierre.      Pop. 
( 1900)    26,000. 

Arrate  y  Acosta,  ar-ra'ta  e  a-kos'ta,  a 
Cuban  historian:  b.  Havana,  1697;  d.  1766. 
His  history  of  Cuba  entitled  'Llave  del  Nucoo 
Mundo  y  ante  mural  de  las  India  Occidentals' 
remained  in  manuscript  until  1830. 

Arrawak,  ar'ra-wak.     See  ARAWAK. 

Arrebo,  ar're-bo,  Anders  Christensen,  a 
Danish  poet:  b.  Arooskjobing,  1587;  d.  1637. 
He  was  made  Bishop  of  Drontheim,  Nor- 
way, when  only  31,  but  deposed  in  1622,  owing 
to  his  objectionable  life;  he  was  afterward  re- 
habilitated as  preacher  in  Vordingborg.  As  the 
pioneer  of  the  Renaissance  movement,  he  is  con- 
sidered the  father  of  modern  poetry  in  Denmark. 
His  rhymed  translation  of  the  'Psalms  of 
David'  (1623),  but  especially  his  'Hexameron' 
(1641),  an  imitation  of  a  once  famous  poem  of 
the  French  poet  Du  Bartas  on  the  •Creation,' 
are  highly  esteemed. 

Arrest',  the  seizure  of  a  suspected  criminal 
or  delinquent  that  security  may  be  taken  for  his 
appearance  at  the  proper  time  before  a  court 
to  answer  to  a  charge.  Ordinarily,  a  person  can 
be  arrested  only  by  a  warrant  from  a  justice  of 
the  peace;  but  there  are  exceptional  cases  in 
which  he  can  be  apprehended  by  an  officer  with- 
out a  warrant,  by  a  private  person  also  without 
a  warrant,  or  by  what  is  technically  called  a 
"hue  and  cry." 

Any  peace  officer,  as  a  justice  of  the  peace, 
sheriff,  coroner,  or  watchman  may,  without  a 
warrant,  arrest  any  one  committing  a  felony  in 
his  presence,  3  Hawkins  PI.  Cr.  164;  Tiner 
v.  State,  44  Tex.  128;  Reg.  v.  Chapman,  12  Cox. 
C.  C.  4,  or  committing  a  breach  of  the  peace, 
during  its  continuance,  3  Wend.  N.  Y.  384,  or 
even  to  prevent  the  commission  of  a  breach  of 
the  peace.  Rex.  v.  Herns,  7  C.  &  P.  312,  32  E.  C. 
L.  522,  and  such  officer  may  arrest  anyone  whom 
he  reasonably  suspects  of  having  committed  a 
felony,  whether  a  felony  has  actually  been  com- 
mitted or  not.  40  N.  Y.  463 ;  25  Abb.  N.  C.  298 ; 
3  Park.  Cr.  N.  Y.  249;    99  Pa.  St.  63. 

A  private  person  who  is  present  when  a 
felony  is  committed,  3  Wend.  N.  Y.  353 :  1  Mood. 
93 ;  or  during  the  commission  of  a  breach  of  the 
peace,  10  CI.  &  Fin.  Hon.  L.  28;  25  Vt.  261, 
may  and  should  arrest  the  felon,  and  may  upon 
reasonable  suspicion  that  the  person  arrested  is 
the  felon,  if  a  felony  has  been  committed.  3 
Wend.  N.  Y.  353;  6  Term  315. 

An  arrest  is  made  by  touching  the  body  of 
the  person  accused.  The  object  of  arrest  being 
to  make  sure  that  he  answers  to  a  charge  about 
to  be  brought  against  him,  it  does  not  follow 
that  after  being  seized  he  is  incarcerated:  if  bail 
for  his  appearance  at  the  proper  time  be  given, 
and  the  case  be  not  too  aggravated  a  one  for 
such  security  to  be  accepted,  he  will  be  released 
till  the  day  of  trial. 

Arrest  of  Judgment,  in  law,  is  the  act  or 
process  of  preventing  a  judgment  or  verdict 
from  being  carried  out  till  it  shall  be  ascertained 
whether  it  is  faulty  or  legally  correct.  Judg- 
ment may  be  arrested  (1)  when  the  declaration 
made  varies  from  the  original  writ:  (2)  where 
the  verdict  materially  differs  from  the  pleadings 
and  issue  thereon:  and  (3")  where  the  case  laid 
in  the  declaration  is  not  sufficient  in  law  to  ad- 
mit of  an  action  being  founded  upon  it.     A  mo- 


ARRHENATHERUM  —  ARROW-ROOT 


tion  for  arrest  of  judgment  must  be  grounded 
on  some  objection  arising  on  the  face  of  the  rec- 
ord itself.  People  v.  Thompson,  41  N.  Y.  1  ; 
People  v.  Kelley,  94  N.  Y.  526.  If  the  judgment 
is  arrested  all  the  proceedings  are  set  aside,  and 
judgment  of  acquittal  is  given,  but  this  will  be 
no  bar  to  a  new  indictment. 

Ar'rhenathe'rum,  a  genus  of  three  species 
of  tall  perennial  grasses  closely  allied  to  the  oat 
(q.v.).  .1.  elatius  or  avenaceum  (also  known  as 
.-Izi'na  elatius  and  Holcus  avenaccus),  which,  as 
these  names  imply,  bears  a  resemblance  to  oats, 
and  sometimes  called  oat  grass  and  French  rye 
grass,  is  widely  cultivated  for  fodder  in  France. 
True  rye  grass  (Lolium)  is,  however,  not  a 
close  relative. 

Arrhenius,  ar-ra'ni-us,  Svante,  a  noted 
Swedish  chemist :  b.  in  Upsala  in  1850.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Upsala  and 
after  making  many  original  investigations  be- 
came professor  in  the  University  of  Stockholm 
in  1891.  His  researches  have  been  of  the  highest 
importance,  the  establishment  of  the  theory  of 
electrolytic  dissociation  being  due  to  him.  This 
theory  supplies  a  reasonable  explanation  of 
many  chemical  phenomena  otherwise  insoluble 
and  correlates  various  facts  between  which  no 
connection  has  been  previously  discovered.  He 
has  published  'Sur  la  conductibilite  galvanique 
des  electrolytes'  (1884),  and  a  treatise  in  Ger- 
man on  electro-chemistry   (1902). 

Ar'ria,  a  celebrated  Roman  matron,  wife 
of  Csecinna  Paetus,  consul  during  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  about  41  a.d.  Paetus  having  raised  an 
unsuccessful  revolt  against  Claudius,  in  Illyria, 
was  condemned  to  die,  but  was  allowed  the 
option  of  ending  his  life  by  suicide,  which  the 
Romans  did  not  deem  a  crime.  PaHus  hesitated ; 
Arria  seized  the  dagger,  plunged  it  into  her 
bosom,  and  then  presenting  it  to  her  husband, 
said,  "It  is  not  painful,   Paetus." 

Arriaga,  ar're-a'ga,  Pablo  Jose  d\  a  Span- 
ish Jesuit:  b.  1562;  d.  1622.  He  was  the  first 
rector  of  the  Jesuit  College  in  Lima  and  wrote 
a  valuable  history  entitled  'Estirpacion  de  la 
Idolatria  de  los  Indos  del  Peni.' 

Ar'ria'nus,  a  celebrated  Greek  historian,  a 
native  of  Nicomedia,  in  Bithynia.  who  flourished 
in  the  2d  century  under  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
and  the  Antonines.  He  was  a  disciple  of  Epicte- 
tus,  whose  lectures  he  edited.  While  residing  in 
Greece  he  gained  the  friendship  of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian,  who  bestowed  upon  him  the  citizen- 
ship of  Rome  (124  a.d.),  and  subsequently  ap- 
pointed him  prefect  of  Cappadocia.  In  this  ca- 
pacity he  distinguished  himself  in  the  war 
against  the  Massagetar.  He  was  afterward  ad- 
vanced to  the  senatorial  and  even  consular  dig- 
nities. L'ke  Xenophon.  whom  he  imitated  in 
style,  he  united  the  literary  with  the  military 
character.  His  writings  were  numerous,  but 
many  of  them  have  perished.  His  'Anabasis'  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  still  extant,  narrates  the 
Asiatic  expedition  of  Alexander,  and  being  based 
on  the  memoirs  of  Ptolemy  Lagus  and  Aris- 
tobulus.  whe  both  served  under  that  king,  is 
proportionably  valuable.  To  this  is  added  a  book 
on  the  affairs  of  India,  which  pursues  the  history 
of  Alexander,  but  is  not  deemed  of  equal  author- 
ity. An  epistle  from  Arrianus  to  Hadrian  is 
also  extant,  entitled  'Periplus  Ponti  Euxinp  1  \ 
Voyage  around  the  Euxine  or  Black  Sea). 
There    are    also   ascribed    to   him    'Treatise    "" 


Tactics';  and  a  'Periplus  of  the  Sea  of  Azof 
and  of  the  Red  Sea,  of  which  the  authority  is 
doubttul.  We  possess  also  his  'Enchiridion/  a 
moral  treatise  containing  an  abstract  of  the  prac- 
tical philosophy  of  Epictetus.  There  have  been 
various  editions  of  the  'Enchiridion'  and  the 
'Anabasis.'  His  philosophical  works  have  been 
translated  by  T.  W.  Higginson  <  Boston  1891) 
and  the  'Anabasis'  by  Chinnock   (1893). 

Arrondissement,  a'rou-des-mah,  a  name 
given  in  France  to  the  subdivision  of  a  depart- 
ment, or  of  the  quarters  of  some  of  tin-  larger 
cities,  as  in  Paris.  The  arrondissement  is  under 
the  government  of  a  Sub- Prefect. 

Arroo.     See  Arru. 

Ar'row,   a   missile   weapon,   straight,    slen 
der,  pointed,  and  barbed,  to  be  shot  with  a  bow. 
See  Archery. 

Arrowhead,  Sagittaria,  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Alismacece,  distinguished  by 
unisexual  flowers,  having  three  herbaceous  se- 
pals and  three  colored  petals,  numerous  stamens, 
and  numerous  carpels,  which  are  compressed, 
one-seeded,  and  on  a  globose  receptacle.  They 
are  aquatic  plants,  natives  of  very  different 
climates,  from  the  tropics  to  the  cold  regions  of 
the  world.  The  common  arrowhead  (S.  sagit- 
tifolia)  is  a  beautiful  plant,  a  native  of  Eng- 
land, with  arrow-shaped  leaves  which  rise  above 
the  surface  of  the  water.  It  is  one  of  those 
plants  which  have  enjoyed  an  undeserved  reputa- 
tion as  cures  for  hydrophobia.  The  corms  (or 
solid  bulbs),  dried  and  powdered,  have  some- 
times been  used  for  food,  but  have  an  acrid  un- 
pleasant taste.  The  Chinese  arrowhead  ( S. 
sinensis)  is  a  native  of  China,  and  has  long  been 
cultivated  in  that  country  and  Japan  for  its  eat- 
able corms,  which,  in  a  fresh  state,  are  some- 
what acrid,  but  abound  in  starch.  It  has  arrow- 
shaped  acute  leaves,  and  a  branched  polygonal 
scape  (leafless  stem).  It  is  grown  in  ditches 
and  ponds.  It  is  one  of  the  plants  sometimes 
cultivated  in  tanks  in  hothouses. 

Ar'row  Lake,  the  name  given  to  an  ex- 
pansion of  the  Columbia  River,  in  British  Co- 
lumbia, about  95  miles  long  from  north  to 
south.  It  is  often  regarded  as  forming  two 
lakes  —  the  Upper  and  Lower  Arrow. 

Ar'row-root,  a  fine  grained  starch  es- 
teemed for  making  desserts  and  invalid  foods. 
It  is  extracted  from  the  underground  parts  of 
various  tropical  plants,  especially  of  the  genus 
Maranta  of  the  natural  order  Marantaceee.  The 
popular  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 
practice  of  the  South  American  Indians  who 
used  the  freshly  dug  rootstocks  as  an  antidote 
for  poisoned  arrow-wounds.  Probably,  bow- 
ever,  the  derivation  is  from  the  Indian  word  ara. 
The  principal  species  is  ^taranta  arundinacea. 
indigenous  to  tropical  America  and  cultivated  in 
the  West  Indies,  India  and  other  warm  coun- 
tries. It  is  a  perennial  plant  about  ?wo  feet 
high,  has  small  white  flowers  and  fruits  about 
the  size  and  form  of  currants.  The  rootstocks. 
which  often  exceed  a  foot  in  length  and  three 
quarters^  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  are  yellowish 
white,  jointed  and  covered  with  loose  scales 
which  must  be  carefully  removed  before  the  ex- 
traction of  the  starch,  because  they  impart  their 
disagreeable  flavor  if  allowed  to  remain.  The 
process  of  extraction,  which  is  simple  hut  usu- 
ally crudely  practised,  is  as  follows  :   The  root- 


ARROWSMITH  —  ARSENAL 


stocks  arc  dug  when  a  year  old,  well  washed, 
peeled,  beaten  to  a  milky  pulp  in  deep  wooden 
mortars,  and  well  washed  to  remove  the  fibrous 
parts,  which  are  thrown  away.  The  crude  starch 
is  next  passed  through  a  sieve  or  a  coarse  cloth 
and  allowed  to  stand  until  the  starch  has  set- 
tled, when  the  water  is  drawn  and  the  white 
residue  again  washed.  After  again  settling,  the 
water  is  drawn  off  and  the  pulp  when  dried  in 
the  sun  is  reduced  to  powder.  On  a  large  scale 
arrow-root  is  manufactured  with  the  aid  of  spe- 
cially constructed  machinery,  but  the  process  is 
essentially  as  described.  Bennudian  arrow-root 
is  considered  the  best  in  the  market,  and  next 
to  it  is  that  of  Jamaica.  The  East  Indian  pro- 
duct is  believed  to  be  inferior,  perhaps  because 
of  adulteration  with  or  substitution  of  other 
starches,  practices  induced  by  the  great  demand 
and  the  high  prices  paid  for  the  genuine.  Some 
of  these  other  starches  are  obtained  from  closely 
related  plants,  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
certain  species  of  the  genera  Canna  (q.v.),  Cur- 
cuma (see  Turmeric),  Manioc  (see  Cassava), 
Tacca  (q.v.)  and  Arum.  Potato,  corn,  rice  and 
wheat  starch  and  fine  sago  are  also  sold  for  ar- 
row-root, but  may  be  identified  by  miscroscopical 
examination ;  the  form  and  markings  of  the 
starch  grains  differ  from  those  of  the  arrow- 
root granules.  When  dry,  arrow-root  is  odor- 
less, but  when  damp  has  a  slight  smell.  Like 
other  carbohydrate  foods,  it  is  a  source  of  energy, 
but  since  it  is  deficient  in  nitrogen  compounds 
it  should  be  mixed  with  eggs,  milk,  or  other  sub- 
stances rich  in  nitrogenous  materials,  to  form  a 
well-balanced  diet. 

The  amount  of  fecula  or  starch  present  in 
the  roots  of  the  Maranta  varies  according  to 
age,  and  runs  from  8  per  cent,  in  those  of  the 
young  plants,  to  26  per  cent  when  full  grown. 
The  latter  stage  is  reached  when  the  plant  is 
10  to  12  months  old;  and  the  roots  then  present 
the  following  composition  in  100  parts. 

Starch,   fecula,  or  arrow-root 26 

Woody  fibre 6 

Albumen    I  Yi 

Gummy  extract,  volatile  oil,  and  salts 1 

Water    65VS 

Arrow-root  is  exported  in  tin  cases,  barrels, 
or  boxes,  carefully  closed  up.  It  is  a  light,  opaque, 
white  powder,  which,  when  rubbed  between 
the  fingers,  produces  a  slight  crackling  noise, 
like  that  heard  when  newly  fallen  snow  is  being 
made  into  a  snowball.  Through  the  micro- 
scope, the  particles  are  seen  to  be  convex,  more 
or  less  elliptical,  sometimes  obscurely  triangular, 
and  not  very  different  in  size.  The  dry  farina 
is  quite  inodorous,  but  when  dissolved  in  boiling 
water  it  has  a  slight  peculiar  smell,  and  swells 
up  into  a  very  perfect  jelly.  Potato  starch,  with 
which  it  is  often  adulterated,  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  greater  size  of  its  particles,  their 
coarser  and  more  distinct  rings,  and  their  more 
glistening  appearance.  Refined  sago-flour  is  used 
for  adulteration,  many  of  the  particles  of  which 
have  a  truncated  extremity,  and  their  surface 
is  irregular  or  tuberculated.  Arrow-root  is  also 
sometimes  adulterated  with  rice-starch  and  with 
the  common  starch  of  wheat-flour. 

The  starch  of  the  cassava,  manihot  or  manioc 
is  sometimes  imported  into  Europe  under  the 
name  of  Brazilian  arrow-root.  Potato-starch, 
carefully  prepared,  is  sometimes  sold  as  English 
arrow-root ;  and  the  farina  obtained  from  the 
roots  of  the  Arum  mac-latum.  as  Portland  ar- 


row-root. Otaheite  arrow-root  is  the  starch  of 
Tacca  pinnaiiiida.  All  these,  as  well  as  Oswego 
and  Chicago  corn-flour  —  the  starch  of  maize 
or  Indian  corn  —  are  so  nearly  allied  to  true 
arrow-root  as  not  to  be  certainly  distinguishable 
by  chemical  test ;  but  the  forms  of  the  granules 
differ,  so  that  they  can  be  distinguished  by  the 
microscope. 

Ar'rowsmith,  Aaron,  an  English  cartog- 
rapher: b.  Winston,  1750;  d.  1823.  He  raised 
the  execution  of  maps  to  a  perfection  it  bad 
never  before  attained.  His  nephew,  John,  b. 
1-90,  d.  1873,  was  no  less  distinguished  in 
the  same  field;  his  'London  Atlas  of  Univer- 
sal Geography'  may  be  especially  mentioned. 

Arroyo,  ar-ro'yS,  the  name  of  two  towns 
of  Spain,  in  Estremadura,  Arroyo  del  l'uerco, 
about  10  miles  west  of  Caceres,  has  a  palace  of 
the  old  dukes  of  Benevcnte,  and  a  parish  church 
adorned  with  some  paintings  by  Morales.  Arro- 
yo Molines  de  Montanches,  about  27  miles  south- 
east of  Caceres,  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  the 
defeat  of  the  French,  28  Oct.  181 1,  by  the  British 
under  Lord  Hill. 

Arru  (a-roo')  Islands,  a  group  belonging 
to  the  Dutch,  situated  to  the  south  of  western 
New  Guinea,  and  extending  from  north  to 
south  about  127  miles.  They  consist  of  one 
large  island  and  a  number  of  smaller.  They  are 
all  low  and  swampy,  but  well  wooded  and  toler- 
ably fertile.  The  natives  belong  to  the  Papuan 
race,  and  many  of  them  have  been  converted  tc 
Christianity  by  Dutch  missionaries.  The  chief 
exports  are  trepang,  tortoise-shell,  pearls,  moth- 
er-of-pearl, and  edible  birds'-nests,  which  they 
exchange  for  European  goods.  Agriculture  is 
in  a  primitive  state,  but  maize,  sugar-cane,  beans, 
bananas,  etc.,  are  cultivated.  Sago  is  the  chief 
diet,  little  animal  food  being  eaten.  Pop.  about 
15,000. 

Arsaces,  ar-sa-sez,  founder  of  a  dynasty 
of  Parthian  kings,  who,  taking  their  name  from 
him,  are  called  Arsacidse. 

Arsamas,  iir'sa-mas,  a  manufacturing 
town  in  the  Russian  government  of  Nijni- Nov- 
gorod, situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiesha, 
250  miles  east  of  Moscow.  It  contains  34 
churches,  several  convents  and  schools,  19  tan- 
neries, several  soap-works,  linen  factories,  etc., 
and  has  a  considerable  trade.  Pop.  (1901) 
12,380. 

Ar'senal,  a  magazine,  or  place  appointed 
for  the  making,  repairing,  keeping,  and  issuing 
of  ordnance  and  other  appliances  required  in 
warfare,  whether  in  the  army  or  navy.  Some- 
times the  name  is  applied  to  an  establishment 
where  such  articles  are  kept  in  store  only,  but 
the  chief  arsenals  also  embrace  large  factories 
or  workshops.  The  principal  arsenals  of  the 
United  States  are  those  in  Allegheny,  Pa.; 
Augusta,  Ga. ;  Benecia,  Cal. ;  Columbia,  Tenti. ; 
Fort  Monroe,  Va. ;  Frankford,  Pa.;  Indianapo- 
lis, Ind. ;  Kennebec,  Me. ;  New  York,  N.  Y. ; 
Rock  Island,  111.;  San  Antonio,  Tex.;  Water- 
town,  Mass. ;  and  Watervliet,  N.  Y.  There  are 
also  powder  depots  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  Dover, 
N.  J. ;  a  noted  armory  at  Springfield,  Mass.,  an 
ordnance  proving  ground  at  Sandy  Hook,  N.  J. 
The  Royal  Arsenal,  Woolwich,  England,  which 
manufactures  warlike  implements  and  stores  for 
the  army  and  navy,  was  formed  about  1720.  In 
France,  each  territorial  military  district  (19  in 
all,  including  Algeria)  has  its  own  special  arse- 


ARSENIC 


nal  or  its  own  depot  of  war  material.  There  are 
naval  arsenals  at  the  great  government  dock- 
yards, namely  Cherbourg,  Brest,  Lorient,  Roche- 
fort,  and  Toulon.  The  chief  arsenals  of  Ger- 
many are  situated  at  Spandau,  Cologne,  and 
Dantzig,  that  at  the  first-mentioned  place  being 
the  great  centre  of  the  military  manufactories. 
The  chief  Austrian  arsenal  is  the  immense  estab- 
lishment at  Vienna,  which  includes  gun-factory, 
laboratory,  small-arms  and  carriage  factories, 
etc.  Austria  also  purchases  quantities  of  her 
military  stores  from  private  manufacturers. 
Russia  has  her  principal  arsenal  at  St.  Peters- 
burg with  supplementary  arsenals  elsewhere. 
In  Italy,  Turin  is  the  centre  of  the  military  fac- 
tories. 

Ar'senic,  an  elementary  substance,  resem- 
bling the  metals  in  its  physical  properties,  and 
formerly  classed  with  them.  In  its  chemical 
relations,  however,  it  is  decidedly  non-metallic, 
and  at  present  the  books  mostly  place  it  among 
the  non-metals,  though  it  is  still  customary  to 
speak  of  the  element  itself  as  "metallic  arsenic," 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  "white  arsenic"  of 
commerce,  which  is,  properly  speaking,  an  oxide 
of  arsenic.  Compounds  of  this  element  have 
been  known  for  many  centuries,  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  their  poisonous  character.  The  yellow 
sulphide  of  arsenic,  otherwise  called  "orpiment,* 
was  known  to  Dioscorides,  who  called  it  arscni- 
kon,  probably  on  account  of  its  powerful  prop- 
erties ;  the  Greek  word  arsen,  from  which  it  is 
derived,  signifying  "male."  Arsenic  occurs  in 
the  metallic  form  in  nature,  usually  with  ores 
of  iron,  silver,  cobalt,  nickel,  and  antimony. 
Large  masses  of  it  are  found  at  Zimeoff,  in 
Siberia,  and  it  occurs  also  in  Saxony,  Alsace, 
Bohemia,  Transylvania,  in  the  Harz,  in  Chile, 
in  Japan,  at  Kongsberg  in  Norway  and  in 
parts  of  the  United  States.  Combined  with 
other  substances,  it  is  one  of  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  the  elements,  although  the  total 
amount  of  it  in  the  world  does  not  appear  to 
be  large.  It  occurs  in  various  kinds  of  pyrites, 
and  is  therefore  a  common  impurity  in  sulphuric 
acid  (much  of  which  is  made  from  pyrites), 
and  in  substances  in  the  manufacture  of  which 
this  acid  is  used.  The  minerals  known  as 
kupfernickel  (niccolite),  realgar,  orpiment,  mis- 
pickel  (arsenopyrite),  and  nickelglance  (gers- 
dorffite)  contain  it,  as  well  as  many  others. 
The  appearance  of  metallic  arsenic  varies  greatly 
with  the  source  from  which  it  is  obtained,  and 
the  method  adopted  for  preparing  it.  That 
obtained  from  pyrites  is  usually  compact,  crys- 
talline, and  nearly  white,  while  that  obtained 
from  arsenious  acid  is  gray  and  pulverulent. 
The  element  is  usually  described  as  a  "steel- 
gray  metalline  mass,"  which,  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, has  neither  odor  nor  taste.  One 
chemist  (Ludwig)  obtained  arsenic  with  "a 
perfectly  bright  surface,  resembling  freshly 
granulated  zinc";  but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  was 
the  pure  element,  since  in  preparing  it  he  mixed 
with  it  a  small  quantity  of  iodine.  For  com- 
mercial purposes,  metallic  arsenic  is  obtained  by 
refining  the  element  as  it  occurs  in  nature,  or 
by  extracting  it  from  arsenopyrite.  The  pro- 
cess of  extraction  from  arsenopyrite  consist--  in 
heating  that  mineral  in  earthenware  retorts  or 
tubes,  arranged  horizontally  in  a  long  furnace, 
and  each  having  a  piece  of  thin  sheet-iron 
rolled    up    and    inserted    into    its    mouth.    On 


distilling,  most  of  the  arsenic  condenses  on  the 
sheet-iron,  from  which,  after  cooling,  it  may 
be  detached.  The  product  so  obtained  is  further 
purified  by  mixing  it  with  pulverized  charcoal 
and  re-distilling.  The  earthenware  retorts  that 
are  used  in  the  process  are  made  with  great 
care.  They  are  composed  of  one  part  of  fresh 
clay  and  two  parts  of  pulverized  bricks  or  old 
retorts,  and  are  coated  with  a  mixture  of  blood, 
loam,  forge  scales,  and  alum,  which  produces 
a  glaze  through  which  the  poisonous  vapors  of 
the  arsenic  cannot  penetrate.  They  are  then 
fired.  Arsenic  is  brittle  and  crystalline,  and  its 
hardness,  on  the  mineralogical  scale,  is  about 
3.5.  Its  specific  gravity  ranges  from  5.2  to  5.7, 
although  a  certain  variety  of  it  (according  to 
Bettendorff)  has  a  specific  gravity  as  low  as 
4.71.  It  has  several  allotropic  forms,  one  of 
which  is  crystalline,  and  the  other  black  and 
amorphous.  The  specific  heat  of  the  crystalline 
variety  is  O.083,  and  that  of  the  amorphous 
variety  is  0.076.  Arsenic  conducts  electricity 
better  than  mercury'  does ;  for  if  the  specific 
resistance  of  mercury  at  32°  F.  be  taken  as 
unity,  the  specific  resistance  of  arsenic  is  0.373 
at  32°  F.,  and  O.534  at  212°  F.  The  chemical 
symbol  of  arsenic  is  As,  and  its  atomic  weight 
is  about  74.44  (Clarke).  Its  co-efficient  of  ex- 
pansion is  .000  00311  per  degree  F.  Arsenic 
oxidizes  slowly  when  exposed  to  the  air,  forming 
a  gray  powder  which  is  sometimes  sold  under 
the  name  of  "fly-powder."  It  is  not  affected 
by  pure  water.  When  heated  in  the  air  it  burns 
with  a  blue  flame,  giving  off  a  characteristic, 
highly  disagreeable,  garlic-like  odor.  When  pro- 
tected from  the  air,  metallic  arsenic  volatilizes 
at  a  red  heat,  without  melting:  its  vapor  being 
a  light  citron  yellow,  and  phosphorescent.  When 
heated  under  heavy  pressure,  arsenic  melts  at 
about  9000   F. 

Metallic  arsenic  forms  alloys  with  many  met- 
als, some  of  which  are  produced  by  pulverizing 
and  intimately  mixing  the  constituents,  and 
subjecting  them  to  a  pressure  of  6.000  or  7.000 
atmospheres.  If  much  arsenic  be  present,  the 
alloys  are  usually  brittle.  Arsenic  is  an  un- 
desirable impurity  in  iron,  in  general,  but  it 
is  sometimes  added  to  iron  and  steel  for  the 
manufacture  of  small  chains  and  ornaments, 
because  it  makes  the  metal  susceptible  of  a  very 
brilliant  polish.  When  alloyed  with  copper, 
arsenic  gives  a  brittle  gray  metal,  having  a 
brilliant,  silvery  appearance,  which  is  used  some- 
what for  making  buttons.  The  chief  use  of 
metallic  arsenic,  however,  is  in  the  manufacture 
of  small  s.hot.  Pure  melted  had.  when  dropped 
from  a  height,  tends  to  form  tailed  drops ;  but 
if  arsenic  be  added  in  small  quantities  this 
tendency  disappeats.  and  the  drops  are  much 
rounder.  With  hydrogen,  arsenic  forms  a  very 
important  gaseous  compound  known  as  arseniu- 
retted  hydrogen,  or  arsine,  and  having  the 
formula  AsHj.  This  compound  is  best  obtained 
by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  an  alloy 
of  arsenic  and  zinc.  It  is  colorless,  and  so 
poisonous  that  Gehlen,  its  discoverer,  was  killed 
by  inhaling  a  single  bubble  of  it.  Arseniuretted 
hydrogen  burns  with  a  bluish  flame,  and  metallic 
arsenic  is  deposited  upon  a  cold  body  that  is 
held  in  the  flame.  Marsh's  test  for  arsenic 
depends  upon  this  fact.  In  executing  this  test, 
zinc  and  sulphuric  acid  are  added  to  the  solu- 
tion  to   be   tested,    and   the    hydrogen    evolved 


ARSENICAL  POISONING 


is  allowed  to  issue  from  a  small  jet,  where  it 
is  lighted.  A  piece  of  cold  white  porcelain  is 
then  held  in  the  flame,  and  if  arsenic  be  present, 
the  characteristic  dark,  metallic,  mirror-like  de- 
posil  will  be  produced,  owing  to  the  arseniuret- 
ted  hydrogen  that  is  evolved,  simultaneously 
with  the  hydrogen.  Antimony  gives  the  same 
kind  of  a  deposit,  so  that  it  is  important  to 
examine  the  deposit  (or  "arsenical  mirror," 
as  it  is  technically  called,)  to  nuke  sure  that 
it  is  not  composed  of  antimony.  Marsh's  test 
is  extremely  delicate,  and  will  demonstrate  the 
presence  of  incredibly  small  traces  of  arsenic, 
if  proper  precautions  are  taken  to  ensure  abso- 
lute purity  in  the  zinc  and  sulphuric  acid  that 
are  used.  Scheele's  green  (known  chemically 
as  "arsenite  of  copper")  is  a  compound  of 
copper,  arsenic,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  of  a 
light  green  color.  It  was  formerly  much  used 
in  calico  printing  and  for  wall  paper.  Schwein- 
furth  green  is  a  different  compound  of  the  same 
elements,  and  is  used  for  similar  purposes.  A 
great  diversity  of  opinion  has  prevailed  among 
chemists  as  to  the  danger  of  using  arsenical 
colors,  especially  in  connection  with  wall  papers. 
Some  maintain  that  "there  is  no  possibility  of 
any  arsenical  exhalation  arising  from  the  walls, 
as  has  been  alleged";  while  others  claim  that 
certain  microscopic  fungi  and  other  low  forms 
of  vegetable  life  act  upon  these  coloring  matters, 
and  cause  the  elimination  of  arseniuretted  hy- 
drogen, which  can  actually  be  detected  in  the 
air  of  rooms  hung  with  arsenical  papers. 
Schweinfurth  green  is  better  known  in  the 
United  States  by  the  name  "paris  green,"  and 
is  much  used  for  preventing  the  destruction  of 
crops   by   insects. 

I  lie  most  familiar  compound  of  arsenic  (with 
the  possible  exception  of  paris  green)  is  un- 
doubtedly arsenious  oxide,  As4Oo  (often  written 
AsaO«),  or  "white  arsenic,"  known  to  the  general 
public  simply  as  "arsenic."  This  is  used  exten- 
sively in  the  arts,  in  the  manufacture  of  indigo 
blue  and  anilin ;  in  glass-making,  to  _  remove 
the  color  due  to  the  lower  oxides  of  iron ;  in 
fly  and  rat  poisons;  in  taxidermy;  and  for 
many  other  purposes.  It  is  very  poisonous,  and 
in  the  l6th  and  17th  centuries  was  commonly 
used  for  removing  persons  who  were  conceived 
(by  their  enemies)  to  have  outlived  their  use- 
fulness. Nearly  all  the  great  poisoners  of  that 
period  were  women.  In  1659  a  secret  society 
of  young  wives  was  discovered  in  Rome,  whose 
chief  object  was  to  make  away  with  the  hus- 
bands of  the  members  by  the  use  of  arsenical 
preparations.  Hieronyma  Spara,  the  woman  who 
provided  the  members  with  the  poison  and 
instructed  them  in  its  use,  was  eventually  exe- 
cuted, together  with  12  others.  An  even  more 
notorious  case  was  that  of  the  woman  Tophania, 
who  lived  at  Palermo  and  at  Naples,  and 
prepared,  for  wives  who  desired  to  be  freed 
from  their  husbands,  a  poison  known  as  aqua 
tophania.  This  "aqua"  purported  to  be  an 
oil  that  oozed  from  the  tomb  of  St.  Nicholas 
uf  Karri;  lint  as  a  matter  of  fact  was  an  arsen- 
ical solution.  "White  arsenic"  is  not  very  solu- 
ble in  water,  and  as  four  drops  of  Tophania's 
.  preparation  were  reputed  to  constitute  a  fatal 
dose,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  it  consisted  essen- 
tially of  potassium  arsenite.  KsAs03,  a  substance 
which  is  formed  when  "white  arsenic"  is  dis- 
solved in  a  solution  of  potash.     Tophania  plied 


her  nefarious  business  from  girlhood  to  the 
age  of  70,  but  her  crimes  were  ultimately 
brought  home  l"  her,  and  she  was  tortured  and 
put  to  death.  Detection  almost  certainly  awaits 
the  poisoner  of  to-day  who  uses  arsenic,  and  a 
career  such  as  Tophania's  is  absolutely  impos- 
sible. 

Ar'sen'ical  Poisoning.  Arsenic  is  now 
used  in  so  many  ways  that  accidental  poisoning 
occurs  very  often.  As  a  poison  employed  in 
committing  suicide,  and  for  slow  poisoning  with 
homicidal  intent,  its  popularity  is  on  the  wane. 
The  forms  of  poisoning  mostly  seen  are  of  the 
chronic  type.  These  occur  from  the  use  of 
paints  containing  large  quantities  of  Scheel's 
green  or  Paris  green  ;  from  the  use  of  spraying 
solutions,  now  so  widely  employed  as  a  means 
of  protection  from  insect  and  fungus  pests,  and 
from  the  addition  of  arsenic  to  food  stuffs,  as  a 
preservative.  Acute  forms  of  poisoning  are 
more  often  the  result  of  attempts  to  commit 
suicide.  In  acute  arsenical  poisoning  the  early 
symptoms  are  those  of  an  acute  inflammation  of 
the  stomach  and  intestines,  coining  on  about 
half  an  hour  after  taking  the  poison.  There  are 
violent  cramp-like  pains,  with  nausea,  vomiting, 
and  diarrhoea,  closely  following  the  premonitory 
symptoms  of  distress,  difficulty  in  swallowing, 
and  constriction  in  the  throat.  The  severe  symp- 
toms multiply,  the  diarrhoea  becomes  watery, 
"rice  water"  and  blood  may  appear  in  the  vomit. 
A  cold,  damp  skin,  weak  and  feeble  heart-action, 
collapse  and  sighing  respiration  may  precede 
death,  attended  at  times  with  convulsions. 
Death  may  occur  within  24  hours,  but  it  is  apt 
to  be  delayed  from  two  to  four  days,  the 
patient  usually  dying  of  the  secondary  degenera- 
tions in  the  organs  and  of  exhaustion.  Death 
by  arsenic  is  very  painful.  It  is,  moreover,  an 
extremely  uncertain  poison,  because  of  its  insol- 
ubility, and  of  the  vomiting  reaction  it  induces. 
Many  acute  cases  pass  over  into  the  chronic 
stage  of  poisoning. 

Chronic  arsenical  poisoning  may  result  from 
a  single  large  dose,  but  more  often  results 
from  the  long-continued  use  of  small  quantities 
of  the  poison.  In  a  recent  outbreak  of  chronic 
arsenical  poisoning  in  Manchester,  hundreds  of 
people  were  affected.  The  source  of  the  poison- 
ing was  from  arsenic  in  iron  pyrites  employed 
in  making  sulphuric  acid  ;  this  certain  sulphuric 
acid  had  been  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of 
glucose.  Several  firms  had  purchased  this  glu- 
cose for  the  manufacture  of  beer,  and  many 
hundreds  of  the  consumers  of  this  beer  suffered 
from  various  forms  of  arsenical  poisoning. 
Chronic  arsenical  poisoning  may  result  from  the 
use  of  wall-papers  and  hangings  colored  by 
arsenical  dyes,  although  such  modes  of  poison- 
ing may  be  considered  extremely  rare.  The 
symptoms  of  this  type  of  poisoning  are  of  grad- 
ual onset :  the  patient  is  languid,  weak,  and  loses 
his  appetite.  There  is  discomfort  in  his  intes- 
tines and  diarrhoea  or  constipation  may  result. 
A  sub-acute  inflammation  of  the  mucous  mem- 
brane of  the  nose  and  gums  then  develops,  with 
sore  gums,  puffiness  under  the  eyes,  and  run- 
ning from  the  nose.  Sneezing,  coughing,  and 
hoarseness  may  occur,  various  skin  eruptions  are 
not  uncommon,  and  a  curious  pigmentation  of 
the  skin  is  nearly  always  observed.  The  patients 
progress  until  poisoning  of  the  ends  of  the 
nerves   begins,    with    disturbances    in    sensation. 


ARSENIOUS  ACID  — ART 


anaesthesia,  paresthesia,  and  pain.  There  may 
then  develop  paralysis  of  the  extremity,  fre- 
quently the  toe,  (drop-toe)  ;  or  the  wrist,  (drop- 
wrist).  Paralysis  of  sensation  may  also  occur. 
The  course  of  a  chronic  poisoning  may  not  be 
over  three  or  four  days,  but  it  usually  requires 
three  or  four  weeks,  sometimes  longer.  Some 
individuals  use  arsenic  throughout  their  lives 
and  are  never  poisoned.  The  treatment  of  acute 
poisoning  consists  in  the  thorough  and  prolonged 
washing  out  of  the  stomach  and  the  use  of  large 
quantities  of  magnesia.  Supportive  treatment  is 
needed  in  the  stage  of  collapse.  Heat,  alcohol, 
and  coffee  are  indicated.  In  chronic  poisoning 
electricity  and  tonic  treatment  are  required. 

Arse'nious  Acid,  the  arsenical  compound 
familiarly  known  and  popularly  called  arsenic. 
It  is  obtained  principally  during  the  roasting  of 
the  arsenican  nickel  ores  in  Germany  in  furnaces 
communicating  with  flues.  The  ordinary  arse- 
nious  (which  is  what  is  popularly  known  as 
arsenic)  is  a  white  crystalline  powder,  decidedly 
gritty,  like  fine  sand,  and  with  no  well-marked 
taste.  It  is  very  heavy,  so  much  so  as  at  once 
to  be  noticeable  when  a  paper  or  bottle  contain- 
ing it  is  lifted  by  the  hand.  It  is  soluble  in 
water,  to  the  extent  of  I  part  of  acid  in  about 
ioo  parts  of  cold  water,  and  I  part  of  acid  in 
about  10  parts  of  boiling  water.  When  placed 
in  a  spoon  or  other  vessel  and  heated,  it  vola- 
tilizes and  condenses  in  crystals  on  any  cool 
vessel  held  above.  By  this  means  it  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  ordinary  flour,  which,  when  heat- 
ed, chars  and  leaves  a  coal  behind ;  and  from 
chalk,  stucco,  baking-soda,  tooth-powder,  and 
other  white  substances,  that  when  heated,  re- 
main in  the  vessel  as  a  non-volatile  white  resi- 
due. In  some  countries,  as  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Austria,  Styria,  and  the  Tyrol,  arsenic 
is  eaten  habitually,  beginning  with  small  doses 
and  gradually  increasing  them.  It  is  said  to 
favor  nutrition,  and  to  improve  the  respiration 
in  ascending  heights.  Some  of  the  "arsenico- 
phages"  can  take  great  quantities  with  impunity. 

Arsen'olite,  a  native  trioxideof  arsenic, 
having  the  formula  As^Oj  (often  written  Ass03), 
and  crystallizing  in  the  isometric  system, —  usu- 
ally in  octahedrons.  It  is  commonly  white,  with 
a  vitreous  lustre.  Its  hardness  is  1.5,  and  its 
specific  gravity  about  3.71.  It  occurs  in  con- 
nection with  ores  of  silver  and  lead,  and  with 
those  of  other  metals  when  arsenic  is  associated 
with  them.  In  the  United  States  it  has  been 
found  in  Nevada  and  California.  Arsenolite 
and  senarmontite  (an  antimonial  mineral  of 
analogous  composition  and  similar  crystalline 
form)  are  collectively  known  by  mineralogists 
as   the   "arsenolite   group." 

Arsenopy'rite,  ar-sen-o-pi'rit  ("arsenical 
pyrites"),  a  tin-white,  opaque  mineral,  with  a 
metallic  lustre,  crystallizing  in  the  orthorhombic 
system.  It  contains  arsenic,  iron,  and  sulphur, 
and  has  the  formula  FeAsS.  Its  hardness 
varies  from  5.5  to  6.0,  and  its  specific  gravity 
from  5.9  to  6.2.  Arsenopyrite  is  largely  used  as 
a  source  of  "white  arsenic,"  or  arsenic  trioxide. 
It  occurs  chiefly  in  the  crystalline  rocks  with 
gold  and  ores  of  silver,  lead  and  tin.  It  abounds 
in  Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States. 

Arsinoe,  Sr-sTn'o-e,  the  name  of  several 
celebrated  women  of  antiquity,  the  most  noted  of 
whom  is  the  daughter  of   Ptolemy  I.  of  Egypt 


and  Berenice:  b.  about  316  B.C.;  she  married  Ly- 
simachus,  king  of  Thrace,  in  300  B.C.  Desirous 
of  securing  the  crown  for  her  own  children.  Ar- 
sinoe prevailed  upon  Lysimachus  to  put  Agatho- 
cles,  the  son  of  his  former  wife,  to  death.  This 
crime  proved  fatal  to  the  Thracian  king;  for 
Lysandra,  the  wife  of  the  murdered  prince,  fled 
with  her  children  to  the  court  of  Seleucus  Nica- 
tor  of  Syria,  who  took  up  arms  in  her  favor.  In 
the  course  of  the  war  Lysimachus  was  slain  and 
his  kingdom  taken  possession  of  by  the  con- 
queror. Arsinoe  now  fled  into  Macedonia,  which 
was  soon  overrun  by  the  Syrian  army.  In  less 
than  a  year  afterward,  however,  Seleucus  was 
assassinated  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  half  brother 
of  Arsinoe.  This  queen,  who  held  the  city  of 
Cassandria  in  Macedonia,  was  induced,  under 
promise  of  marriage,  to  admit  Ptolemy  within 
its  walls;  but  no  sooner  had  he  entered  than  her 
two  children  were  butchered  before  her  eyes. 
She  succeeded  in  making  her  escape  to  Egypt, 
where  she  became  the  wife  of  Ptolemy  II.,  Phila- 
delphus,  her  own  brother  (279  B.C.),  thus  afford- 
ing a  precedent  to  these  unnatural  unions  which 
afterward  became  common  among  the  Greek 
rulers  of  Egypt.  She  bore  no  children  to  her 
brother,  who,  however,  seems  to  have  had  a 
strong  affection  for  her,  as  he  called  one  of  the 
districts  of  Egypt  by  her  name  and  employed  the 
architect  Dinochares  to  build  a  temple  in  her 
honor. 

Arsin'oe,  a  city  of  ancient  Egypt,  on  Lake 
Mceris,  said  to  have  been  founded  about  2300 
B.C.,  but  renamed  after  Arsinoe,  wife  and  sister 
of  Ptolemy  II.,  of  Egypt.  The  site  of  Arsinoe  is 
now  occupied  by  the  town  of  Medinet-el-Faium. 
The  sacred  crocodiles  were  kept  here. 

Ar'son,  the  malicious  and  wilful  burning 
of  a  dwelling-house  or  out-house  belonging  to 
another  person  by  directly  setting  fire  to  it,  or 
even  by  igniting  some  edifice  of  one's  own  in  its 
immediate  vicinity.  If  a  person,  by  maliciously 
setting  fire  to  an  inhabited  house,  cause  the  death 
of  one  or  more  of  the  inmates,  the  deed  is  mur- 
der, and  capital  punishment  may  be  inflicted. 
When  no  one  is  fatally  injured  the  crime  is  not 
capital,  but  is  still  heavily  punishable ;  it  is  a 
penal  offense  also  to  attempt  to  set  a  house  on 
fire,  even  if  the  endeavor  does  not  succeed.  The 
New  York  Penal  Code  provides  that  a  person 
who  wilfully  burns,  or  sets  on  fire  in  the  night- 
time, either  (1)  a  dwelling-house  in  which  there 
is,  at  the  time,  a  human  being;  or  (2)  a  car,  ves- 
sel, or  other  vehicle,  or  a  structure  or  building 
other  than  a  dwelling-house,  wherein,  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  offender,  there  is,  at  the  time,  a 
human  being,  is  guilty  of  arson  in  the  first  de- 
gree. 

Many  statutory  changes  have  been  made  in 
the  common  law  upon  this  subject.  There  are 
three  degrees  of  arson  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
Arson  in  the  first  degree  is  punishable  by  im- 
prisonment for  any  term  not  exceeding  40 
years;  in  the  second  degree  by  imprisonment 
for  a  term  not  exceeding  25  years;  in  the  third 
degree  for  a  term  not  exceeding  15  years.  Be- 
fore the  crime  of  arson  is  complete,  the  house, 
or  some  portion  of  it,  however  small,  must  be 
burned,  or  consumed  by  fire. 

Art,  in  its  most  extended  sense,  as  distin- 
guished from  nature  on  the  one  hand  and  from 
science  on  the  other,  has  been  defined  as  every 


ART 


regulated  operation  or  dexterity  by  which  organ- 
ized beings  pursue  ends  which  they  know  be- 
forehand, together  with  the  rules  and  the  result 
of   every   such  operation   or  dexterity. 

In   aesthetics,   art    as   distinguished    from    sci- 
ence,   consists   of   the   truths   disclosed    by    that 
species  of  knowledge  disposed  in  the  most  con- 
venient  order   for   practice,   instead   of   the  best 
order  for  thought.    Art  proposes  to  itself  a  given 
end,  and.  after  defining   it.   hands   it   over  to  sci- 
ence.      Science,    alter    investigating    the    causes 
and   conditions   of   this    end.    returns   it   to  art, 
with  a  theorem  of  the  combination  of  circum- 
stances under  which  the  desired  end  may  be  ef- 
fected.      After    receiving    them,    art    inquires 
whether  any  or  all  of  those  scientific  combina- 
tions are  within  the  compass  of  human   power 
and   human   means,  and   pronounces   the   cud   in- 
quired   after   attainable   or   not.      It   will    be   ob- 
served   here,    that    art    supplies  only   the   major 
premise,  or  the  assertion  thai  the  given  aim  is 
the  one  to  be   desired.      l'lie   grounds   of  every 
rule  of  art   are  to   be   found   in   the  theorems  of 
science.     An   art  can  then  consist   only  of  rules, 
together  with  as  much  of  the  speculative  propo- 
sitions  as   comprises   the    justification   of   those 
rules.     Though  art  must  assume  the  same  gen- 
eral  laws  as   science  does,  yet   it   follows  them 
onlv  into  such  of  their  detailed  consequences  as 
have  led  to  certain  practical  rules,  and  pries  into 
every   secret   corner,   as   well   as   into  the  open 
stores  of  the  household  of  science,  bent  on  find- 
ing out  the  necessities  of  which  she  is  in  search, 
and    which    the    exigencies    of   human    life    de- 
mand.    Hence,   as   Edmund   Burke   remarks,   m 
his    'Treatise    on   the    Sublime   and    Beautiful,' 
"Art  can  never  give  the  rules  that  make  an  art." 
It  must  always  owe  them  to  science.     Whatever 
speaks  in  precepts  or  rules,  as  contrasted  with 
assertions  regarding  facts,  is  art;  and  hence  it 
always    adopts    the    imperative    mood,    whereas, 
science  almost   invariably  adopts  the  indicative. 
Science   is    wholly    occupied    with    declarations; 
art    is    wholly    engaged    with    injunctions    that 
something  should  be  done.     Thus,  the  builder's 
art   desires   to   have   houses,   the   architect's   art 
desires  to  have  them  beautiful ;  and  the  medical 
art  desires  to  cure  diseases  of  the  human  body. 
In  a  special  sense  art  is  the  practical  carry- 
ing out  of  the  principles  of  science;  a  series  of 
rules  designed  to  aid  one  in  acquiring  practical 
skill   or  dexterity   in  performing  some  specified 
kind  of  work,  manual  or  mental.     The  several 
arts    may    be    arranged    in    two    groups — (a) 
the  mechanical,  and,   (b)  the  liberal  or  fine  arts. 
The   mechanical   arts  are   those   which   may   be 
successfully  followed  by  one  who  does  not  pos- 
sess   genius,    but    has    acquired    the    facility    of 
working    with    his    hands    which    long    practice 
imparts.      Such   are   the    arts   of   the   carpenter, 
the  blacksmith,  the  watchmaker,  etc.     They  are 
often  called  trades.     The  liberal  or  fine  arts  are 
such  as  give  scope  not  merely  to  manual   dex- 
terity, but  to  genius ;  as  music,  painting,  sculp- 
ture, architecture,  etc. 

In  mediaeval  education,  the  arts  signified  the 
whole  circle  of  subjects  studied  by  those  who 
sought  a  liberal  education.  This  included  sci- 
ence as  well  as  art.  The  seven  liberal  arts, 
which,  in  the  palmy  days  of  Rome,  plebeians 
were  not  allowed  to  study,  were  thus  divided : 
(i)  the  Trivium  —  namely,  grammar,  rhetoric, 
and  logic;   (2)  the  Quadrivium  —  namely,  arith- 


metic, music,  geometry,  and  astronomy.  It  is  a 
remnant  of  this  classification,  which  was  in  VOgue 
as  early  as  the  5th  century,  that  we  still  speak  of 
as  the  curriculum  of  arts  at  a  university,  and 
that  graduates  become  bachelors  or  masters  of 
arts.       See    ARCHITECTURE  J     MUSIC;     PAINTING; 

Sculpture,  etc. 

Art,  American'.  The  art  history  of  Amer- 
ica presents  interesting  conditions  of  receptivity, 
as  well  as  original  productivity;  indeed,  artistic 
taste,  it  may  be  claimed,  was  primarily  trans- 
planted or  transfused  into  the  budding  art  of 
"fhe  Fair  New  World."  True  to  the  traditions 
of    historical    repetition,    the    ideals    of    ancient 

Greece  inspired  an  Italian  renaissance;  French, 
German,  and  English  art  respectively,  being 
viewed  moreover  at  their  best  periods,  give  evj 
deuce  of  having  been  begotten  through  aesthetic 
assimilation  and  fruitful  appreciation  of  the  mas- 
terpieces of  Angelo,  Titian,  Tintoretto,  Rem- 
brandt. Rubens.  Veronese,  ami  Velasquez.    The 

early  American  school  licit  only  emulated  these 
treasured  qualities  of  the  old  masters,  as  far  as 
accessible  in  painting  and  sculpture  of  originals 
or  in  replicas,  but  experienced  a  healthful  art 
evolution,  normally  stimulated  by  the  contem- 
porary works  of  Gainsborough,  Reynolds,  Law- 
rence, and  others,  at  the  close  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. It  appears  in  accord  with  the  artistic  spirit 
of  international  reciprocity,  that  America  pro- 
vided the  British  Royal  Academy  with  its  sec- 
ond president  in  the  personality  of  Benjamin 
West. 

Although  it  would  be  intensely  interesting 
to  explore  the  field  of  Pan-American  art,  re- 
vealing Aztec  and  other  aboriginal  archaeological 
relics,  we  are  limited  to  the  consideration  of 
the  subject  co-incidental  with  modern  art  and 
civilization.  The  works  of  Washington  Alls- 
ton,  Gilbert,  Stuart,  West,  Copley,  Trumbull, 
Vanderlyn,  Jarvis,  Peelc,  Cole,  Harding;  and.  at 
a  later  period,  of  Morse,  Eliot,  Mount,  and  many 
others,  afford  invaluable  examples  of  rare  in- 
trinsic value,  with  chronological  evidences  of 
the  early  development,  impeded  by  all  sorts  of 
obstacles,  of  inborn  genius  and  unmistakable 
tendencies  of  the  American  progressive  element 
even  in  the  province  of  fine  art.  A  representa- 
tive collection  of  the  famous  works  by  the 
American  painters  mentioned,  had  it  been  se- 
cured, would  certainly  to-day  constitute  a  rare 
gallery  of  aesthetic  "Americana"  that  well  might 
be  preserved  for  all  time  —  'con  amorcn  —  "pro 
patria  et  gloria";  enkindling  American  art  patri- 
otism in  line  with  that  shown  for  the  army  and 
navy,  agriculture  and  commercialism.  It  is  too 
late,  however,  to  secure  the  marvelous  master- 
piece by  Allston,  'The  Legend  of  the  Bloody 
Hand,'  it  having  unfortunately  been  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  many  other  gems  of  renown  are 
now  lost  sight  of,  through  lack  of  proper  preser- 
vation and  of  popular  appreciation.  Vanderlyn's 
'Ariadne,'  however,  has  fared  better  in  company 
with  invaluable  portraits,  painted  by  these  gift- 
ed men  and  now  in  possession  of  the  New  York 
Historical  Society.  'Marius  Sitting  Among  the 
Ruins  of  Carthage,'  a  work  that  secured  Vander- 
lyn. in  reward  for  its  merits,  a  first-class  gold 
medal  at  the  Paris  Exposition,  was  a  product  of 
this  period.  The  most  important  epochs  of 
American  history  have  been  represented  by 
native  artistic  talent.  The  sailing  and  landing 
of  Columbus,  the  exploits  of  De  Soto,  the  subju- 


ART 


gation  of  savage  life  to  that  of  civilization, 
Colonial  and  Indian  warfare,  the  declaration  of 
national  independence,  Revolutionary  battles, 
Washington  crossing  the  Delaware,  and  like 
famous  subjects  for  painting  and  sculpture,  that 
manifestly  should  be  preserved  by  governmental 
direction.  Although  so  long  and  disastrously 
belated,  these  facts  and  conditions  logically  sug- 
gest the  formation  of  a  national  gallery  of  Amer- 
ican art.  The  landscapes  of  Thomas  Cole  up- 
held, as  did  those  of  Turner,  the  traditions  of 
Claude  Lorraine;  still  in  the  spirit  of  a  pioneer 
he  proclaimed  the  grandeur  of  the  primeval 
American  forest  in  paintings  direct  from  nature. 
His  'The  Course  of  Empire,*  now  in  possession 
of  the  New  York  Historical  Society,  a  work 
that  has  never,  we  believe,  been  reproduced  in 
any  form,  presents  in  four  grand  paintings  the 
sway  of  civilization  from  savage  life  to  an  Ar- 
cadian period ;  then  onward  to  the  consumma- 
tion of  earthly  power  and  magnificence ;  fol- 
lowed by  the  decadence  occasioned  by  war  of  the 
elements,  and  that  instigated  by  "man's  in- 
humanity to  man" ;  finally,  the  literal  scene  of 
monumental  destruction  and  sublimely  solemn 
desolation.  Before  dismissing  attention  called 
to  this  early  period  influenced,  as  stated,  by  for- 
eign methods  of  technical  expression,  native 
American  genius  found  little  public  apprecia- 
tion ;  still  it  faithfully  progressed.  Again  about 
this  time  matter-of-fact  utilitarianism  appeared 
to  dispel  the  ideal  artist's  poetic  hopes,  while 
every  encouragement  followed  the  success  of 
practical  scientific  talent.  Washington  Irving 
essayed  to  be  a  painter,  but  concluded  to  devote 
his  life  to  literature  and  the  power  of  the  pen. 
Robert  Fulton,  who  began  his  career  as  a  skilful 
landscape  and  portrait  painter,  attracting  the 
friendship  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  encour- 
aged his  studies  abroad,  and  gave  .him  letters  to 
Benjamin  West  and  others,  returned  to  his 
native  land  to  find  that  scientific  conditions  were 
required  rather  than  a  demand  for  the  creden- 
tials of  culture  in  works  of  fine  art.  The  result 
was  steamboat  navigation.  Another  triumph  for 
science  may  be  recorded.  Franklin  himself  had 
captured  lightning  from  the  skies ;  still  it  re- 
mained for  the  imagination  and  artistic  skill  of 
the  professional  painter,  Samuel  Finlay  Breese 
Morse,  the  first  president  of  the  National  Acad- 
emy of  Design,  to  subjugate  the  marvelous  elec- 
tric element  that  joins  as  neighbors  all  mankind. 
Nevertheless,  the  fine  arts  flourished ;  even 
modern  travelers'  tales  of  the  wonderful  scen- 
ery of  two  great  continents  stimulated  artists 
and  the  lovers  of  art.  "The  Heart  of  the  An- 
des," "Niagara,8  "The  Arctic  Region,"  "The 
Rocky  Mountains,"  "The  Catskills,"  "Lake 
Champlain,"  "Lake  George,"  and  the  "Hudson 
River,"  all  were  delineated.  Along  with  this  de- 
mand for  great  subjects,  often  commensurate  in 
quantity  as  to  size  of  canvas  with  Ruskin's  math- 
ematical maxim :  that  the  greatest  work  of  art  is 
the  one  presenting  the  greatest  number  of  great 
ideas ;  there  still  prevailed  in  marked  instances 
the  glorious  traditions  of  full-habited  oil-paint- 
ing to  be  found  in  the  aesthetics  of  familiar  en- 
vironment of  earth,  air,  and  water,  as  embodied 
in  artistic  values  and  soulful  qualities  —  crea- 
tions in  harmony  with  Michel,  Ruysael,  Con- 
stable, and  the  masters  of  Barbazon  and 
Fontainebleau.  Again,  while  scientific  influences 
appear  in  the  works  of  Durand,  Church,  Casalear, 


and  Kensett,  they  asserted  a  truly  American 
artistic  individuality;  they  copied  directly  from 
nature.  They  thought  of  no  school  nor  tech- 
nique, but  carefully  imitated  what  they  saw.  All 
these  men  with  one  exception  had  been  prac- 
tical engravers,  laying  down  the  burin  and  the 
needle-point  to  take  up  the  pencil  and  the  brush. 
Their  respective  biographical  and  sesthetical 
records  in  American  art  will  be  enduring; 
yet  there  comes  the  reflection  that  had  their 
professional  training  been  more  liberal  and 
adequate  they  would  have  attained  to  higher 
things.  The  importance  of  masterly  academic 
training  cannot  be  overestimated ;  as  a  means  to 
an  end,  however  great,  education  is  the  only 
acknowledged  guide  for  the  individual  artist  and 
for  the  community  even  in  matters  of  taste. 
Nothing  is  more  creditable  to  a  civilized  people 
than  its  credentials  of  culture.  The  formation 
of  a  fine  art  association  in  its  chief  city  was  at 
the  beginning  of  the  past  century  an  occasion 
of  vast  importance  to  our  commonwealth.  The 
first  action  was  taken  in  1802  by  a  few  promi- 
nent citizens,  and  six  years  later  a  charter  was 
obtained  with  the  name  of  The  American  Acad- 
emy of  Arts.  The  first  officers  under  this  char- 
ter were  Robert  Livingston,  president ;  John 
Trumbull,  vice-president ;  DeWitt  Clinton,  Dr. 
David  Hosack,  John  R.  Murray,  William  Cut- 
ting, and  Charles  Wilkes,  directors.  A  school 
was  equipped  with  casts  brought  from  Paris  by 
Mr.  Livingston,  and  exhibitions  of  paintings  and 
statuary  were  held  for  a  time  in  an  unused  rid- 
ing school  in  Greenwich  Street  near  the  Battery. 
Public  interest  in  this  movement  was  soon  trans- 
ferred to  grand  panorama  schemes  conducted  by 
Vanderlyn  at  the  "Rotunda,"  and  by  others  with 
similar  enterprises.  It  was  not  until  the  year 
1826  that  the  artists  themselves,  with  Morse  as 
president,  founded  the  National  Academy  of  De- 
sign in  the  earnest  interests  of  American  art, 
with  educational  purposes  and  exhibitional  fa- 
cilities ;  its  influence  increasing  until  the  pres- 
ent day.  Its  membership  consists  of  one  hun- 
dred academicians  and  an  equal  number  of 
associate  members,  including  the  most  distin- 
guished painters  and  sculptors  of  America.  Its 
list  of  fellowship  for  life  likewise  includes  the 
most  prominent  public-spirited  patrons  of  Amer- 
ican art. 

Established  for  many  years  in  the  Academy 
building,  tastefully  modeled  after  the  Palais 
Ducal  of  Venice  and  forming  an  attractive  ur- 
ban landmark,  lack  of  accommodations  for  its 
growing  schools,  and  crowding  commercial  sur- 
roundings, required  a  move  to  more  suitable 
quarters.  Unlike  the  Royal  Academy  of  London, 
with  its  plethoric  treasury,  and  similar  institu- 
tions situated  in  other  European  art  centres, 
the  academy  is  without  governmental  endow- 
ment, and  may  well  enlist  American  art  patriot- 
ism in  the  cause  of  aesthetic  culture  in  fostering 
the  fine  arts  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  archi- 
tecture. Other  societies  of  American  artists, 
water  color  societies,  and  architectural  leagues 
make  annual  exhibitions  in  New  York ;  while 
art  institutes  throughout  the  United  States, 
in  various  cities  attest  the  extent  and  impor- 
tance of  American  art.  We,  as  Americans,  are 
an  artistic  people,  cosmopolitan,  and  composite, 
uniting  the  genius  of  all  nations.  The  aesthetic 
field  of  general  American  artistic  taste  and  in- 
dustry  has   been   strenuously   productive.     The 


ART 


ornamental,  orderly,  and  decorative  work  in 
clay,  on  china,  glass,  wood,  and  stone  as  a 
tasteful  and  profitable  divertisenient.  begins  with 
the  training  of  the  kindergarten.  Black  and 
white  illustration  and  etching  has  been  awarded 
first-class  medals  at  home  and  abroad.  The 
beautiful  and  refined  exemplified  in  aguarelle 
and  oil-painting,  in  portraiture,  genre,  and  pas- 
toral ;  in  sculpture  and  architecture:  and  finally 
the  grand  and  sublime  of  high  art,  all  confirm 
the  achievements  of  American  art  and  artists 

In  advancing  these  three  divisions, —  tile  or- 
namental, the  beautiful,  and  the  sublime, —  as  a 
guide,  we  approach  the  philosophical  considera- 
tion of  the  subject  of  fine  art.  What  is,  and 
what  is  not,  fine  art?  Shakespeare's  injunc- 
tion "to  hold,  as  it  were,  the  mirror  up  to  na- 
ture" is  the  best  artistic  advice  ever  given.  Ba- 
con in  his  essay  is  not  so  direct.  He  asks 
which  is  the  greater  tritler,  one  who  would 
make  a  personage  by  geometrical  proportions 
(perhaps  by  the  fabled  Greek  cabala)  or  an- 
other who  would  select  the  best  parts  of  divers 
faces  to  make  one  excellent  (a  veritable  com- 
posite picture)  ?  He  concludes  at  last  that :  a 
painter  may  make  a  better  face  than  ever  was, 
but  he  must  do  it  by  a  kind  of  felicity,  as  a 
musician  who  makes  an  excellent  air  in  music, 
not  by  rule.  If  ever  there  was  an  artist  he  was 
Shakespeare — if  ever  there  lived  a  scientist, 
Lord  Bacon  was,  perhaps,  the  most  eminent, 
and  in  their  respective  views  and  definitions  we 
find  the  differentiation  between  science  and  art. 
In  any  given  work  in  so  far  as  it  may  be  me- 
chanically constructed  is  presented  a  scientific 
product ;  and  in  so  far  as  reproductive  processes 
may  exhaustively  duplicate  it,  it  falls  short  of  the 
possibilities  of  fine  art.  An  etching  by  a  master 
may  be  an  autographic  art  creation;  but  when  it 
is  possible  through  photography,  photo-gravure 
or  chromo-Iithography  to  so  perfectly  duplicate 
a  painting,  that  the  reproduction  presents  all 
the  merits  of  the  original,  it  may  be  realized 
to  science  rather  than  be  accepted  as  genuine 
fine  art.  True  consummate  mechanism  must 
ever  go  hand  in  hand  with  fine  art ;  still  a 
great  work  of  art  presents  the  maximum  of 
art  to  the  minimum  of  mechanism.  A  paint- 
ing portraying  living  objects  with  a  sharp  con- 
tour, such  as  may  delight  the  photographer, 
without  the  suggestive  quality  of  stereoscopic 
relief,  does  not  hold  the  mirror  up  to  nature, 
and  the  work  may  be  classed  with  scientific 
achievements  even  if  accredited  to  the  consum- 
mate mechanism  of  a  Messonnier.  Indeed  re- 
productive processes  have  served  a  great  pur- 
pose in  defining  the  line  of  demarcation  between 
science  and  art.  Affectations  have  been  swept 
away  by  a  revelation  of  their  superficiality; 
while  the  possibilities  of  inimitable  fine  oil- 
painting,  a  medium  and  technique  that,  of  all 
ever  employed,  has  the  fewest  possible  limita- 
tions, have  been  enhanced  as  seen  in  the  works 
of  the  American  artists  already  mentioned ;  and 
in  those  of  a  growing  group  of  American  ideal- 
ists, colorists,  and  tonalists.  Various  have  been 
the  fashions  or  "isms"  that  have  dominated 
American  art  at  different  periods  of  its  history. 
Preraphaelitism  as  advocated  by  Ruskin  was 
one  of  the  earliest  imported.  Being  appointed 
the  legal  executor  of  his  hero-client,  as  well  as 
being  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  his  work,  Rus- 
kin  claimed   for   Turner   not   only  the   grander 


qualities,  but  a  command  of  detail  that  rivaled 
the  ancients,  although  the  artist,  we  are  told, 
frankly  declined  the  compliment  Turner  was 
unquestionably  the  greatest  modern  master  of 
decorative  and  scenic  effect  in  pictorial  com 
binations  representing  earth,  air,  and  water,  be- 
ing, _  indeed,  entitled  to  the  apotheosis  of  syn- 
thesis; still  diligent  search  in  the  archives  of 
the  Royal  Academy  and  National  Gallery  fails 
to  reveal  the  qualities  attributed  to  him  by  the 
author  mentioned.  Ruskin's  enthusiasm  proved 
contagious  throughout  the  art  circles  of  Eng- 
land and  America;  solicitous  friends  as  well  as 
the  most  influential  art  writers  pleaded  with  the 
tyro  to  emulate  not  the  work  of  Michael  An- 
gelo,  Titian,  or  Raphael  himself,  but  to  follow 
in  the  footsteps  of  Perugino  and  Raphael's 
father  or  grandfather.  This  verily  seemed  like 
unto  the  dotage  of  imbecility  in  the  light  of 
Raphael's  glorious  art  that  had  evolved  the  im- 
maculate Sistine  Madonna.  He  was  brave, 
indeed,  in  the  field  of  American  art  of  that  day. 
who  could  resist  the  popular  and  professional 
pressure  of  this  pseudo-ssthctic  movement.  No 
vestige  of  it  remains,  and  no  wonder  it  was  fol- 
lowed by  impressionism  —  as  a  free  and  joyous 
transition  from  mechanical  restrictions  in  art. 
This  was  the  artistic  attempt  to  present  the 
maximum  of  soul  fulness  conveyed  to  the  world 
by  finest  art ;  employing  the  minimum  of  ma- 
teriality and  mechanism  as  seen  in  the  rendu  ion 
through  mental  vision  of  the  fleeting  sunset  or 
twilight  —  such  as  may  only  be  materialized  on 
the  morrow ;  the  epitomization  perhaps  of  a 
day's  outing  under  the  open  skies  or  flying 
clouds,  or  in  the  sublime  thunder-storm;  in  fact. 
the  entire  realm  of  imagination  is  unfolded  In- 
artistic impression.  Such  was  the  accepted 
province  of  genuine  impressionism  originally  as 
associated  with  the  artistic  convictions  and  poetic 
spirit  of  Corot,  Monet,  Monticelli,  William  I  hint, 
William  Page,  George  Fuller,  and  many  others. 
Impressionism  naturally  evolves  symbolism  and 
idealism,  but  in  too  many  instances  has  deterio- 
rated into  affectation  and  mysticism.  Premedi- 
tated and  assumed  mysticism  is  the  dernier-res- 
sort  of  mediocre  painters  and  sculptors,  as  well 
as  of  the  minor  poets.  It  may  not  be  mistaken 
for  sublime  spirituality.  Dante,  Shakespeare, 
and  Milton,  treating  even  divine  themes,  never 
nebulized  their  ideas  in  mysticism;  the  same 
may  be  said  of  Bryant  and  Longfellow;  while 
Poe,  temperamentally,  a  mystic  solitudinarian, 
in  the  field  of  poetic  art  presented  the  apotheo- 
sis of   spirituality. 

The  crowning  glory  in  the  art  of  any  civil- 
ized country  is  that  of  naturalism.  In  the  truest 
sense  it  utilizes  even  scientific  "disjecta  mem- 
bra," as  enumerated,  and  subjugates  the  same  to 
the  entirety  of  art.  The  comprehensive  struc- 
tural organic  presentation  of  material  nature, 
suggesting  the  qualities  of  size,  form,  weight, 
color,  and  perspective  values ;  chiaroscuro,  and, 
above  all,  the  ultimatum  of  expression  and  tone. 
These  enduring  qualities  characterize  the  art 
of  Innis.  Martin,  Wyant.  Hunt,  and  Page,  and 
the  growing  group  of  American  tonalists  of  the 
naturalistic  school.  A  great  advantage  exists 
in  American  art  from  its  cosmopolitan  resources. 
In  Paris  one  sees  nothing  but  French  art;  in 
Munich,  the  German  school ;  in  London,  Eng- 
lish art,  while  the  art  institutions  of  America 
contain    specimens   of   masterpieces   from    every 


ART  EDUCATION  — ART  OF  POETRY 


source,  notably  the  collection  of  the  Metropoli- 
tan Museum  of  Art,  and  art  institutes  of  Brook- 
lyn, Boston,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and  Pitts- 
burg, as  well  as  collections  in  all  our  large  cities. 
While  every  art  centre  of  Christendom  seems 
to  be  provided  with  an  American  colony  of 
artists  and  students,  expatriation  is  no  longer  a 
necessity  in  order  to  obtain  an  education  in  fine 
art.  The  Academy  and  various  art  student 
leagues  are  conducted  by  eminent  instructors 
distinguished  with  every  honor  obtainable  at 
home  or  abroad.  The  prospects  of  a  greater 
appreciation  of  American  art  open  with  the  new 
century,  as  interest  in  the  pursuits  of  peace 
should  naturally  follow  national  expansion.  Ad- 
vocacy of  our  chief  art  educational  institutions 
is  a  feature  of  metropolitan  aggrandizement ; 
millions  have  been  given  to  libraries  and  vari- 
ous institutions  of  learning;  and  fine  art  should 
be  included  with  erudition,  as  the  essential  cre- 
dential of  culture.  Timely  attention  may  be 
called  to  the  requirements  of  the  pioneer  Ameri- 
can art  institution,  founded  by  the  immortal 
Morse  and  his  co-workers  eminent  in  art  in- 
struction, and  being  associated  with  the  career 
of  America's  greatest  masters  in  painting,  sculp- 
ture, and  architecture.  In  accord  with  urban 
expansion  it  has  departed  from  its  classical  land- 
mark, a  diminutive  "Palais  Ducal,"  to  a  most 
accessible  and  beautiful  site,  upon  the  acropolis 
of  the  metropolis,  facing  Cathedral  Driveway, 
Morningside  Park,  New  York  city.  As  the 
leading  exponent  of  American  art  instruction, 
through  schools  and  exhibitions,  it  is  planned  to 
erect  an  edifice  that  shall  do  justice  to  the  artis- 
tic taste  of  the  New  World's  metropolis,  and 
to  the  original   National  Academy  of  Design. 

The  Department  of  Commerce  just  estab- 
lished by  the  general  government  is  a  step  in 
the  right  direction  of  national  affairs,  and  may 
make  clear  the  way  for  the  proposed  Depart- 
ment of  Art  and  Industries.  It  has  been  re- 
peatedly advocated  and  constant  evidences  of  its 
requirement  as  an  absolute  necessity  have  been 
presented  to  the  government  and  to  the  people ; 
still  it  is  being  detrimentally  delayed.  The  ap- 
propriations for  national  and  international  ex- 
positions have  repeatedly  been  used  in  a  manner 
giving  anything  but  satisfaction.  Commissions 
and  contracts  for  statuary,  monuments,  and 
architecture  that  should  receive  the  supervision 
of  expert  art  judgment  are  left  to  provisional 
committees  of  statesmen,  who  frankly  admit 
their  inability  to  judge  in  the  affairs  of  fine  art. 
The  disastrous  experiences  resulting  from  this 
careless  management  of  each  and  every  inter- 
national exposition,  including  the  Centennial, 
the  New  Orleans,  the  Chicago  Columbian,  and 
the  Buffalo  Pan-American,  certainly  teach  that 
no  similar  enterprise  should  be  thrust  upon  the 
community  for  co-operation  through  flattering 
prospectuses,  promises  of  profit,  etc.,  until  ma- 
tured and  definite  plans  and  specifications  shall 
have  been  officially  inspected,  approved  or  re- 
jected by  the  projected  national  department  of 
art  and  industries:  this  would  also  provide  a 
valuable  bureau  of  information  in  art  affairs, 
enabling  legislator  and  citizen  to  act  or  vote  in- 
telligently in  regard  to  any  appropriation,  com- 
mission or  tariff.  The  practical  utility  and  pub- 
lic good  to  be  derived  from  such  a  department 
may  be  demonstrated  in  many  instances.  A 
member  of  Congress  having  been  appointed  upon 
a     committee     assigned     the     duty     of     super- 


vising the  ground  immediately  surrounding  the 
House  of  Representatives  was  astonished  to  find 
that  millions  of  dollars  had  been  expended  upon 
the  same ;  each  new  committee  annually  ap- 
pointed having  exercised  its  taste  and  judgment 
on  the  important  matter.  It  was  concluded  that 
the  advice  of  an  expert  landscape  architect  be 
secured,  and  this  being  clone,  the  expenditure 
was  practically  ended.  Again  the  enormous  ex- 
pense of  indiscriminate  illustration  of  congres- 
sional and  department  literature  or  printed  mat- 
ter has,  to-day,  caused  anxiety  and  criticism. 
So  in  relation  to  all  official  cases  requiring 
expert  art  supervision,  eclectic  sense  and 
aesthetic  taste  should  be  at  the  service  of  the 
government.  The  plan  involves  no  untried  in- 
novation ;  the  French  nation  has  its  Minister 
des  Beaux  Arts,  who  is  a  member  of  the 
Cabinet  of  the  Republic  of  France,  leading 
the  world  in  art  affairs,  taste  and  fashion.  The 
establishment  of  Municipal  Art  Commissions  is 
a  step  in  the  right  direction.  The  task  of  cor- 
recting the  contour  of  metropolitan  architecture 
seems,  indeed,  herculean  :  individual  buildings  of 
great  beauty  are  adjoined  by  the  most  hetero- 
geneous structures ;  a  three-story  house  appears 
between  one  of  eight  and  a  sky-scraper  of 
twenty.  In  no  capital  of  Europe  would  such 
incongruities  be  permitted,  and  every  possible 
facility  should  be  afforded  our  Municipal  Art 
Commissions  to  correct  this  chaotic  condition. 
Victor  Hugo  said  "the  beautiful  is  as  useful 
as  the  useful,  more  so,  perhaps."  European 
municipal  politics  profit  by  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  this  fact;  great  cathedrals,  public 
statuary,  and  fountains,  picture  galleries  and 
museums  attract  multitudes  of  tourists,  thereby 
financially  as  well  as  aesthetically  benefiting  com- 
munities that  keep  in  the  vanguard  of  culture 
and  civilization. 

Bibliography. —  Allston,  'Lectures  on  Art  and 
Poems'  ;  Clara  Clement  and  Lawrence  Hutton, 
'Anecdotes  of  Painters,  Engravers,  Sculptors, 
and  Architects'  :  Cummings,  'Annals  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Design'  ;  De  Muldor,  'The 
Philosophy  of  Art  in  America'  ;  Dunlap.  'His- 
tory of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the  Arts  of 
Design  in  the  United  States'  (2  vols.)  :  Kohler, 
'American  Art'  ;  Sheldon,  'American  Painters  ' 
Chas.  H.  Miller,  N.  A. 
Municipal  Art  Society,  Arau  York. 

Art  Education.  See  Architecture,  Educa- 
tion in;  Painting,  Education  in;  Sen. puke. 
Teaching  of. 

Art,  History  of.      See  Fine  Arts. 

Art,  Metropolitan  Museum  of,  a  spacious 
edifice  in  Central  Park,  New  York,  erected  by 
the  city  for  the  purpose  to  which  it  i<  devoted. 
It  was  incorporated  in  1S70.  and  possesses  an 
art  collection  amounting  in  value  to  over 
$2,000,000,  including  the  Cesnola  collections. 
The  treasures  to  be  found  here  are  various  in 
character  and  of  most  profound  interest,  es- 
pecially the  ancient  sculptures  and  relics  from 
the  island  of  Cyprus.  These,  in  the  study  of 
antiquities,  are  of  much  value,  and  many  of  the 
other  departments  likewise  possess  rare  attrac- 
tions. 

Art    of    Poetry,    The    CArs    Poetica>),    a 

famous  work  by  Horace.  This  is  not  the  name 
given   it  by  its  author,  who  called  it  merely  a 


ART  UNIONS  — ARTEDI 


'Letter  to  the  Pisos.'  Horace  treats  of  the 
unity  that  is  essential  to  every  composition,  and 
the  harmonious  combination  of  the  several  parts, 
without  which  there  can  be  no  lasting  success. 
In  the  second  part,  the  poet  confines  himself  to 
the  form  of  the  drama,  the  principles  he  has 
already  established  being  so  general  that  they 
apply  to  every  class  of  composition. 

Art  Unions,  a  name  applied  to  associa- 
tions for  the  encouragement  of  the  fine  arts  by 
the  purchase  of  works  of  art  out  of  a  common 
fund  raised  by  small  subscriptions  or  shares, 
and  their  distribution  by  lot.  The  first  art  union 
was  started  in  France ;  but  the  Munich  art  union 
was  the  first  of  importance.  Berlin  and  other 
towns  of  Germany  soon  followed  the  example 
of  Munich,  and  the  first  art  union  was  founded 
in  Edinburgh  in  1834,  and  proved  a  complete 
success.  The  art  union  of  London  soon  followed 
that  of  Edinburgh. 

Arta,  ar'ta,  the  name  of  a  gulf,  town,  and 
river.  The  gulf  (ancient  Ambracius  Sinus),  an 
arm  of  the  Ionian  Sea,  between  Greece  and  Al- 
bania, is  about  20  miles  long  by  10  miles  broad. 
Near  its  entrance  the  battle  of  Aclium  was 
fought.  The  town,  called  also  Narda  (the  an- 
cient Ambracio),  about  six  miles  north  of  the 
gulf,  stands  on  the  river,  which  is  here  about 
200  yards  wide,  and  begins  to  be  navigable.  It 
carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine,  oranges, 
and  tobacco.     Pop.   (1896)  7,582. 

Ar'taba'nus  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Parthian 
monarchs,  who  217  a.d.,  escaping  with  great 
difficulty  from  a  perfidious  massacre  begun  by 
the  Romans  under  Caracalla,  mustered  an  army, 
and  engaged  his  foes  in  a  battle  which  lasted  for 
two  days.  Peace  was  then  concluded,  but  Ar- 
tabanus  afterward  incited  his  subjects  to  revolt, 
and  in  a  battle,  in  226,  was  taken  and  put  to 
death. 

Ar'taba'zus,  the  name  of  several  distin- 
guished Persians  under  the  dynasty  of  the 
Achsemenidae.  When  Xerxes  advanced  against 
Greece,  an  Artabazus  led  the  Parlhians  and 
Chorasmians.  Another  Artabazus  was  general 
under  the  Persian  king,  Artaxerxes  II.,  and  af- 
terward revolted  against  Artaxerxes  III.  He 
was  forgiven  through  (he  exertions  of  his 
brother-in-law,  Mentor,  a  favorite  and  staunch 
supporter  of  the  next  king,  I  larius.  whom  Artaba- 
zus faithfully  attended  after  the  battle  of  Arbela. 
Alexander  rewarded  his  fidelity  by  appointing 
him  satrap  of  Bactria. 

Artagnan  d',  diir'ta-nyan',  the  hero  of 
Dumas'  'Trois  Mousquetaires,'  Vingt  ans  aprcs, 
and  Le  Vicomte  de  Bragelonne.'  He  is  a  Gas- 
con adventurer,  very  popular  among  heroes  of 
romance.  There  was,  however,  a  Count  d'Artag- 
nan  (b.  about  1612;  d.  1673),  who  was  an  officer 
of  musketeers,  and  fell  in  the  siege  of  Maes- 
tricht. 

Artasires,  (ar'ta-vas'dez)  the  last  Arsacid 
monarch  of  Armenia.  He  was  placed  on  the 
throne  by  Bahrain  V.  of  Persia,  who  afterward 
deposed  him  and  annexed  his  dominions  to  Per- 
sia, under  the  name  of  Persarmenia,  248  B.C. 

Artavasdes  (iir'ta-vas'dez)  I.,  a  king  of  Ar- 
menia, who  succeeded  his  father  Tigranes.  He 
joined  the  Roman  forces  commanded  by  Crassus, 
but  deserting  to  the  enemy,  caused  the  defeat  of 
the  Romans,  and  the  death  of  Crassus.    He  simi- 


larly betrayed  Mark  Antony  when  engaged 
against  the  Medes;  but  afterward  falling  into 
Antony's  power,  was  taken  with  his  wife  and 
children  to  Alexandria,  where  they  were  dragged 
at  the  victor's  chariot  wheels  in  golden  chains. 
After  the  battle  of  Actium,  Cleopatra  caused  his 
head  to  be  struck  off  and  sent  to  the  King  of 
Media. 

Artax'ata,  the  name  of  the  ancient  capital 
of  Armenia,  the  refuge  of  Hannibal  when  for- 
saken by  Antiochus.  Its  ruins  are  now  known 
as  Ardashir. 

Artaxerxes,  ar'taks-erks'ez,  the  name  of 
several  Persian  kings:  (1)  ARTAXERXES  I.,  sur- 
named  Longimanis,  because  his  right  band  was 
longer  than  his  left,  the  second  son  of  Xerxes, 
escaped  from  Artabanus  and  the  other  conspira- 
tors who  had  murdered  his  father  and  elder 
brother  Darius,  and  in  465  B.C.  ascended  the 
throne.  He  conquered  the  rebellious  Egyptians, 
terminated  the  war  with  Athens  by  graining 
freedom  to  the  Greek  cities  of  Asia,  governed 
his  subjects  in  peace,  and  died  425  B.C.  (2)  Au- 
taxekxes  II.,  surnamed  Mnemon,  from  his 
strong  memory,  succeeded  his  father,  Darius  II., 
in  the  year  405  B.C.  After  vanquishing  his  broth- 
er Cyrus  he  made  war  on  the  Spartans,  and 
forced  them  to  abandon  the  Greek  cities  and 
islands  of  Asia  to  the  Persians.  He  favored  the 
Athenians,  and  endeavored  to  foment  dissen- 
sions among  the  Greeks.  His  last  days  were 
embittered  by  the  unnatural  conduct  of  his  son 
Ochus,  who,  to  secure  the  crown  to  himself, 
caused  the  destruction  of  two  of  his  brothers. 
On  the  death  of  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  359  B.C., 
Ochus  ascended  the  throne  under  the  name  of 
(3)  Artaxerxes  Ochus.  After  having  subdued 
the  Phoenicians  and  Egyptians,  and  displayed 
great  cruelty  in  both  Egypt  and  Phoenicia,  he 
was  poisoned  in  339  by  his  general,  Bagoas.  (4) 
Artaxerxes  Bebegan  was  the  first  king  of  Per- 
sia of  the  race  of  Sassanides.  He  was  a  shep- 
herd's son;  hut  his  grandfather,  by  the  moth- 
er's side,  being  governor  of  a  province,  he  was 
sent  to  the  court  of  King  Ardavan.  On  his 
grandfather's  death,  Artaxerxes,  exciting  the 
people  to  revolt,  defeated  and  slew  Ardavan  and 
his  son,  and  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Kings. 
He  made  vast  conquests,  and  wisely  adminis- 
tered the  affairs  of  his  kingdom. 

Artedi,  ar-ta'de,  Peter,  an  eminent  Swed- 
ish naturalist:  b.  Anund,  22  Feb.  1705;  d. 
Amsterdam,  Holland,  27  Sept.  1735.  He  went  in 
1724  to  Upsala,  and  turning  his  attention  to  nat- 
ural history,  soon  rose  to  considerable  emi- 
nence, particularly  in  the  department  of  ichthy- 
ology, the  classification  of  which  he  reformed 
upon  philosophical  principles.  This  arrangement 
added  greatly  to  his  reputation  as  a  nat- 
uralist at  the  time,  and  afterward  became  popu- 
lar over  Europe.  In  1728  his  celebrated  country- 
man, Linnaeus,  arrived  in  Upsala,  and  a  lasting 
friendship  was  formed  between  the  two  men. 
In  1732  both  left  Upsala  —  Artedi  for  England, 
in  pursuit  of  his  favorite  study ;  and  Linnaeus 
for  Lapland,  to  examine  its  natural  productions ; 
but  before  parting  they  reciprocally  bequeathed 
to  each  other  their  manuscripts  and  books  upon 
the  event  of  death.  According  to  agreement  his 
manuscripts  came  into  the  hands  of  Linnaeus, 
and  his  'Bibliotheca  Ichthyologica'  and  '  Phi- 
lcsophia  Ichthyologica,'   together  with  a  life  of 


ARTEMIA  —  ARTERIES 


the  author,  were  published  at  Leyden  in  the  year 
1738.  Linnaeus  named  a  genus  of  umbelliferous 
plants  Artedia,  in  memory  of  his  friend. 

Arte'mia.     See  Brine-Shrimp. 

Ar'temido'rus,  a  Greek  geographer:  b.  in 
Ephesus,  who  flourished  about  100  B.C.  His 
'Geographoumena'  in  clever  books  was  an  ex- 
haustive work  on  the  various  features,  geo- 
graphical, physical,  historical,  and  political,  of 
the  larger  part  of  the  then  known  world,  found- 
ed on  the  writer's  own  investigations  and  the 
works  of  preceding  writers.  Only  fragments  of 
his  work  are  extant. 

Ar'temis,  a  Greek  goddess,  identified  with 
the  Roman  Diana.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  (Jupiter)  and  Leto  or  Latona,  and  was 
the  twin  sister  of  Apollo,  born  in  the  island  of 
Delos.  She  is  variously  represented  as  a  hunt- 
ress, with  bow  and  arrows;  as  a  goddess  of 
the  nymphs,  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  four  stags ; 
and  as  the  moon  goddess,  with  the  crescent 
above  her  forehead.  She  was  a  maiden  divinity, 
demanding  the  strictest  chastity  from  her  wor- 
shippers, and  is  represented  as  having  changed 
Actseon  into  a  stag,  and  caused  him  to  be  torn 
in  pieces  by  his  own  dogs,  because  he  bad  se- 
cretly watched  her  as  she  was  bathing.  The 
Artemisia  was  a  festival  celebrated  in  her  honor 
at  Delphi.  The  famous  temple  of  Artemis  at 
Ephesus  was  considered  one  of  the  wonders  of 
the  world,  but  the  goddess  worshipped  there 
was  very  different  from  the  huntress  goddess  of 
Greece,  being  of  Eastern  origin,  and  regarded  as 
the  symbol  of  fruitful  nature. 

Artemisia  I.,  ar'te-mTzh'i-a,  or  mish-i-a,  a 
queen  of  Caria,  who  lived  in  the  5th  century  B.C., 
and  assisted  Xerxes  in  person  against  the  Greeks, 
and  behaved  with  such  valor  that  the  Athenians 
offered  a  reward  for  her  capture,  and  the  Spar- 
tans erected  a  statue  to  her. 

Artemisia  II.,  a  queen  of  Caria,  who 
flourished  about  350  b.c.  She  was  the  sister  and 
wife  of  Mausolus,  whose  death  she  lamented 
deeply,  and  to  whom  she  erected,  in  her  capital, 
Halicarnassus,  a  monument  reckoned  among  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  principal 
architects  of  Greece  labored  on  it.  Bryaxis, 
Scopas,  Leochares,  and  Timotheus  made  the 
decorations  on  the  four  sides  of  the  edifice ; 
Pythcs,  the  chariot  drawn  by  four  horses,  which 
adorned  the  conical  top.  Vitruvius  thought  that 
Praxiteles  was  also  employed  on  it.  After  the 
death  of  Artemisia  the  artists  finished  it  with- 
out compensation,  that  they  might  not  be  de- 
prived of  the  honor  of  their  labor.  It  was  an 
oblong  square,  411  feet  in  compass,  and  130  feet 
high.  The  principal  side  was  adorned  with  36 
columns,  and  24  steps  led  to  the  entrance. 

Artemisia,  a  genus  of  aromatic,  acrid,  and 
bitter  flavored  herbs  and  shrubs  of  the  natural 
order  Composites,  mostly  natives  of  the  northern 
hemisphere  and  especially  abundant  in  arid  re- 
gions. The  species  are  characterized  by  alter- 
nate often  deeply-lobed  or  divided  leaves,  and 
numerous  small  and  generally  inconspicuous 
heads  of  yellow  or  whitish  florets.  The  culti- 
vated species,  of  which  there  are  many,  are  read- 
ily propagated  by  division  and  succeed  even  on 
poor  dry  soils.  A.  dracunculus,  tarragon  or 
estragon,  is  a  Siberian  perennial,  long  and  widely 
cultivated  in  Europe,  but  little  in  America,  for 


its  leaves,  which  are  used  to  season  dressings, 
pickles,  and  other  culinary  preparations.  (See 
Tarragon.)  A.  absinthium,  wormwood,  a  na- 
tive of  Europe  and  Asia,  is  a  spreading  and 
branching  perennial  herb,  2  to  4  feet  tall, 
with  its  two-  or  three-parted  silky-downy  leaves, 
and  its  flower-heads  in  axillary  panicles.  It  is 
widely  grown  in  Europe  for  the  manufacture  of 
absinthe  (q.v.).  A.  abrotamim,  southernwood, 
old  man,  is  a  shrubby  species,  3  to  4  feet 
tall,  a  native  of  middle  Asia  and  southern  Eu- 
rope, and  is  often  grown  for  its  pleasant-smelling 
foliage,  which  is  used  among  clothing  as  a  moth 
repellant,  and  in  parts  of  Europe  in  the  manu- 
facture of  some  kinds  of  beer.  A.  pontica, 
Roman  wormwood,  another  European  species,  re- 
sembles A.  absinthium  in  properties  and  is  simi- 
larly used.  A.  vulgaris,  mugwort,  is  a  native  of 
Europe  and  northern  North  America,  grown  f<  >r 
its  pleasant-smelling  ornamental  foliage,  which 
in  some  varieties  is  golden  or  variegated.  Its 
young  shoots  and  leaves  are  used  in  German 
cookery,  and  like  A.  absinthium,  in  domestic 
medicine.  A.  stelleriana,  old  woman,  a  native  of 
northeastern  Asia  and  common  on  the  Massa- 
chusetts coast,  is  a  useful  border  plant  on  ac- 
count of  the  whiteness  of  its  foliage.  A.  arbus- 
cula,  a  species  seldom  more  than  one  foot  tall, 
and  A.  tridentata.  which  though  usually  low 
growing,  occasionally  reaches  a  height  of  twelve 
feet,  are  representative  of  the  many  species 
known  as  sage  brush  (q.v.)  in  the  arid  districts 
of  the  western  United  States,  where  they  fur- 
nish valuable  forage  for  cattle  and  especially 
sheep.  A.  mantima  and  several  other  species  are 
grown  for  their  flower  heads,  which  are  used  in 
medicine  as  a  vermifuge  and  sold  under  the 
name  of  worm  seed  or  as  santonine,  the  colorless 
crystalline  active  principle.  ./.  moxa,  .1.  chinen- 
sis,  and  other  species  furnish  moxa,  a  cottony 
material  obtained  from  the  leaves  which  are 
covered  with  down,  used  by  the  Chinese  for 
cauterizing.  Numerous  other  species  are  em- 
ployed in  the  manufacture  of  absinthe,  for  culi- 
nary, ornamental,  and  medicinal  purposes  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  world.  For  physical  action  and 
toxicology,  see  Absinthe. 

Artemisium,  ar-te-mlsh-T-um,  a  promon- 
tory in  Eubcea,  an  island  of  the  ^Egean,  near 
which  a  great  naval  battle  between  the  Greeks 
and  Persians  was  fought,  480  B.C.  It  was  named 
from  a  temple  to  Artemis  situated  here. 

Ar'temus  Ward.  See  Browne,  Chaki.es 
Farrar. 

Arte'rial  Pressure.    See  Blood  Pressure. 

Ar'teries,  the  vessels  in  the  human  body 
that  carry  arterial,  or  oxygenated  blood  away 
from  the  heart.  The  old  name,  signifying  car- 
riers of  air,  is  retained,  although  the  ancient  be- 
lief has  been  laid  aside.  The  arteries  spring  from 
the  heart,  as  the  aorta  (q.v.)  and  by  the  branch- 
ing and  division  of  the  main  branches  of  this 
large  arterial  trunk,  are  distributed  in  successive- 
ly finer  branches  to  all  parts  of  the  human  body. 
The  blood  supply  for  the  head  is  mainly  derived 
from  the  carotid  arteries,  the  superficial,  or  ex- 
ternal carotid,  supplying  the  outer  structures, 
and  the  deep  or  internal  carotid  that  gives  nour- 
ishment to  the  brain  and  deeper  lying  parts. 
'1  here  are  numerous  anastomoses  between  the 
branches  of  the  carotid  arteries.    The  main  sup- 


ARTERIES  —  ARTESIAN 


ply  of  the  arm  has  been  described  under  the 
head  aorta  (q.v.)i  as  well  as  the  branches  that 
supply  the  viscera  and  the  lower  limbs.  Arteries 
become  smaller  and  smaller  as  they  approach 
the  periphery  of  any  organ  and  arc  finally  con- 
verted into  capillaries  which  anastomose  with 
the  capillaries  of  the  veins;  these  carry  the  blood 
back  to  the  heart  and  thus  the  circle  is  complet- 
ed. The  minute  structure  of  the  arteries  is  well 
adapted  to  the  varying  functions  that  these  ves- 
sels perform.  In  every  large  and  medium-sized 
artery,  three  distinct  layers  or  coats  may  be  dis- 
tinguished under  the  miscroscope.  The  inner 
coat,  or  the  tunica  intima,  is  thin  and  smooth, 
and  consists  of  an  inner  layer  of  flat  plate-like 
endothelial  cells  that  are  continuous  throughout 
the  entire  system  of  blood  vessels.  This  endo- 
thelial layer  by  its  smoothness  reduces  friction 
of  the  flowing  blood  to  a  minimum.  Surround- 
ing it  are  two  layers  of  fibrous  elastic  tissues. 
The  middle  coat  of  the  arteries  is  the  tunica 
media  and  is  composed  mostly  of  smooth  muscle 
lil nes,  with  some  fibrous  tissue.  These  muscle 
fibres  are  arranged  in  a  circular  manner  about 
the  arteries.  The  outer  coat,  or  the  tunica  adven- 
titia,  is  made  up  of  white  fibrous  tissue.  Thus  the 
arteries  have  elastic  and  fibrous  tissues  in  each 
coat.  The  outer  layer  is  extremely  tough  and 
thus  strengthens  and  protects;  the  middle  layer 
by  means  of  its  elasticity  permits  the  artery  to 
return  to  its  average  diameter  after  it  has  been 
dilated  or  contracted  by  the  muscular  layer.  In 
the  larger  arteries  the  yellow  fibrous  tissue  pre- 
dominates, while  in  the  smaller  arteries  there  is  a 
relatively  larger  amount  of  muscle  fibre.  The 
large  arteries  are  thus  more  elastic  and  less  con- 
tractile, while  for  the  smaller  arteries  the  reverse 
is  true.  The  muscle  fibres  are  under  the  control 
of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  nerve  fibres. 
In  the  capillaries  the  artery  is  reduced  to  its 
single  endothelial  layer,  and  has  neither  elastic 
fibres  nor  muscle  fibres. 

Arteries,  Diseases  of.  The  arteries  are 
subject  to  a  number  of  diseases  which  may  be 
classed  as  (i)  due  to  infectious  micro-organ- 
isms, (2)  degenerations  with  increase  of  con- 
nective tissue,  (3)  aneurisms.  Of  the  acute 
infectious  diseases,  tuberculosis  and  syphilis,  par- 
ticularly the  latter,  are  important.  Syphilis  is 
one  of  the  most  important  causes  of  arterial  de- 
generation. Acute  arteritis  is  a  definite  disease, 
although  the  great  pathologist,  Virchow,  taught 
that  it  was  a  secondary  affection.  Recent  bac- 
teriological studies,  however,  have  shown  that 
bacterial  infection  of  the  arterial  walls  is  a  fun- 
damental and  important  process.  It  is  frequently 
the  cause  of  an  arterial  thrombus  and  often  de- 
velops into  a  true  arteriosclerosis.  Under  the 
general  head  arteriosclerosis  is  classed  a  dif- 
fuse or  circumscribed  thickening  of  the  arte- 
rial walls,  especially  of  the  tunica  intima,  sec- 
ondary to  inflammatory  or  degenerative  changes 
in  the  tunica  media.  When  occurring  in  the 
large  arteries,  the  term  atheroma  is  used.  Ar- 
teriosclerosis is  sometimes  found  in  the  young, 
but  is  usually  a  disease  of  later  life.  Among 
the  causes  favoring  its  development  are:  (1) 
changes  in  the  composition  of  the  blood,  such  as 
toxins  from  bacterial  infections  (syphilis,  rheu- 
matism), metallic  poisons,  alcohol,  and  the  dis- 
turbed metabolism  of  gout,  Bright's  disease,  etc., 
and  (2)  changes  in  the  tension  of  the  blood 
vessels.     These  occur  as  a  result  of  excessive 


and  prolonged  muscular  exertion  and  intense 
emotional  activity.  Arteriosclerosis  may  be  cir- 
cumscribed or  diffuse.  It  may  show  irregular 
plaques  of  a  transparent  or  gelatinous  character 
which  at  a  later  period  become  bard  and  firm,  or 
even  calcified  with  the  formation  of  brittle  or 
pipe  stem  arteries.  Sometimes  the  arteries  un- 
dergo a  fatty  degeneration.  There  is  a  prolifera- 
tion of  the  connective  tissue  and  a  degeneration 
of  the  elastic  tissue.  The  arteries  thus  become 
less  responsive  to  control  and  so  interfere  with 
the  nervous  impulses.  In  the  diffuse  form  the 
proliferation  and  degeneration  is  more  uniform. 
Arteriosclerosis  is  one  of  the  most  important  of 
all  diseases  since  by  its  interference  with  the 
proper  blood  supply  of  an  organ,  it  may  occa- 
sion disease  in  that  organ.  In  pronounced  e,1  n 
eralized  arteriosclerosis  all  of  the  organs  of  the 
body  suffer.  Arteriosclerosis  is  one  of  the  most 
important  elements  in  the  production  of  cerebral 
hemorrhage,  one  of  the  forms  of  apoplexy. 
Aneurisms  have  already  been  considered  under 
that   heading. 

Arte'riosclero'sis.    See  ARTERIES,  I IISEASESOF. 

Artesian  (ar-te'zhan)  Wells,  borings  of 
considerable  depth  which  tap  a  subterranean 
stream  or  sheet  of  water.  The  name  is  derived 
from  artois  (Latin  arlesium),  a  province  in 
France  where  the  first  deep  borings  in  Europe 
were  made.  Strictly  speaking  the  term  artesian 
is  applicable  only  to  such  wells  as  discbarge 
water  at  the  surface  under  natural  conditions 
(that  is,  self-flowing  wells),  but  in  America  the 
term  is  commonly  applied  to  any  wells  of  more 
than  ordinary  depth.  As  the  latter  type  of  wells 
does  not  possess  any  features  of  special  interest 
the  term  will  here  be  used  in  its  limited  sense. 
The  conditions  which  determine  the  presence  of 
artesian  water  in  a  region  relate  to  the  geologi- 
cal structure  of  the  underlying  strata.  It  is  es- 
sential in  the  first  place  that  a  pervious  stratum 
enclosed  above  and  below  by  impervious  layers 
be  present.  The  pervious  bed,  usually  sand- 
stone or  sand,  serves  as  a  reservoir  for  the  ac- 
cumulation of  water,  while  the  impervious  beds 
prevent  this  water  from  escaping  either  upward 
or  downward.  The  second  requisite  is  that  the 
strata  have  a  gentle  pitch  toward  the  site  of  the 
well  and  that  they  outcrop  at  some  place  above 
the  mouth.  The  distance  of  the  outcropping 
edges,  which  receive  the  water  supply  from  rains, 
is  sometimes  very  great,  and  is  immaterial  if  the 
enclosing  beds  are  perfectly  impervious,  except 
as  it  modifies  the  resistance  offered  to  the  pas- 
sage of  the  water.  Owing  to  this  friction  the 
water  column  of  the  well  never  reaches  the  level 
of  the  outcropping  source.  The  conditions  for 
artesian  water  are  particularly  favorable  when 
the  strata  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  geo- 
logical basin  dipping  in  all  directions  toward  the 
well,  as  there  then  is  no  opportunity  for  the 
water  to  escape  at  a  lower  level.  From  these 
considerations  it  is  evident  that  the  discharge 
from  an  artesian  well  depends  upon  the  rainfall 
of  the  region  and  upon  the  area  of  the  exposed 
porous  stratum.  At  first  the  discharge  is  usually 
very  abundant  owing  to  the  long  accumulation, 
and  unless  this  drain  is  constantly  supplied  the 
flow  will  gradually  decrease  until  a  balance  is 
established.  When  several  wells  are  bored  in  the 
same  vicinity,  the  flow  from  each  may  be  di- 
minished, but  the  total  discharge  will  increase 
until   the   limit   of   supply   is   reached.     This    is 


ARTEVELD  —  ARTHRITIS 


well  illustrated  in  the  wells  bored  in  the  Lon- 
don basin  which  in  1838  gave  a  total  daily  sup- 
ply of  6,000,000  gallons;  in  1851  with  a  larger 
number  of  borings  the  supply  was  about  doubled, 
while  the  force  had  diminished  very  markedly. 
Artesian  water  is  valuable  not  only  for  domestic 
use,  for  which  it  is  usually  adapted  by  its  purity, 
but  it  is  also  extensively  employed  in  the  irri- 
gation of  arid  regions.  Some  parts  of  the  Sa- 
hara Desert  have  been  reclaimed  by  making  use 
of  the  subterranean  stores  of  water,  and  recent 
investigations  have  shown  that  there  are  many 
areas  which  may  yet  be  brought  under  cultiva- 
tion. It  is,  however,  in  the  United  States  that 
irrigation  by  artesian  waters  has  reached  its 
greatest  development.  Special  surveys  of  the 
Great  Plains  region  have  been  undertaken  by 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey  for  the 
purpose  of  defining  the  areas  where  successful 
borings  may  be  made,  and  artesian  wells  are  now 
largely  employed  for  irrigation  in  Kansas,  Iowa, 
Colorado,  Montana,  and  Texas.  The  supply  is 
drawn  mostly  from  the  Cretaceous  sandstone, 
which  is  reached  at  a  depth  varying  from  less 
than  100  to  more  than  1,500  feet.  When  the 
flow  of  water  is  sufficiently  strong  it  may  be 
utilized  for  power  purposes  as  is  done  in  some 
parts  of  Europe.  In  Wiirtemberg  a  supply  of 
warm  water  is  applied  to  the  heating  of  build- 
ings. 

The  depth  at  which  artesian  water  may  be 
found  depends  entirely  upon  local  conditions. 
In  the  Paris  basin  the  water-bearing  stratum  is 
usually  encountered  at  a  depth  exceeding  1,500 
feet.  The  famous  well  at  Crenelle,  near  Paris, 
was  begun  in  1833,  and  operations  were  con- 
tinued until  1841  when  at  a  depth  of  1,797  feet 
the  water  poured  out  with  great  force  at  the  rate 
of  500,000  gallons  per  day.  Another  well  was 
sunk  near  by  at  Passy,  which  yielded  5,600,000 
gallons  daily,  the  water  rising  to  a  height  of 
54  feet  above  the  mouth.  This  well  was  1,923 
feet  deep  and  had  the  unusual  diameter  of  2 
feet  4  inches.  A  well  at  Kissingen,  Bavaria, 
furnishes  a  supply  of  saline  water  from  a  depth 
of  1,878  feet.  The  deepest  well  in  the  world  is 
at  Schladenbach,  near  Leipsic,  5,735  feet.  In  the 
United  States  there  are  many  notable  examples 
of  artesian  wells.  The  first  boring  of  great 
depth  was  made  at  St.  Louis  in  1S49-54;  a  flow 
of  75  gallons  per  minute  was  obtained  from  a 
depth  of  2,200  feet,  but  the  water  was  so 
heavily  charged  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen  and 
mineral  matter  as  to  be  unfit  for  domestic  use. 
Another  boring  was  subsequently  made  to  a 
depth  of  3,843  feet.  A  well  at  Louisville,  Ky., 
is  2,086  feet  deep  and  yields  330,000  gallons  per 
day.  Among  other  noteworthy  wells  are  the 
following:  Columbus,  O.  (2,775  feet)  ;  Galves- 
ton, Tex.  (3,071  feet)  ;  Charleston,  S.  C.  (1,250 
feet)  ;  Pittsburg,  Pa.  (4,625  feet)  ;  and  Chicago 
(710  feet).  A  great  many  wells  have  been  bored 
in  recent  years  within  the  Atlantic  Coastal  Plain, 
especially  in  New  Jersey,  and  many  cities  have 
thus  obtained  supplies  of  pure  water.  The  cost 
of  sinking  artesian  wells  varies  with  the  depth 
and  the  character  of  the  strata  encountered.  Up 
to  500  feet  the  cost  commonly  ranges  from  $1.50 
to  $3.00  per  foot,  but  below  this  limit  the  cost 
increases  in  proportion  to  the  depth.  The  ap- 
paratus used  in  boring  does  not  differ  from  that 
employed  in  sinking  for  petroleum.  The  first 
artesian    borings    were   probably    made    by    the 


Chinese.  In  the  upper  basin  of  the  Yang-tse- 
Kiang  there  are  wells  1,500  to  3,000  feet  in 
dtpth  from  which  brine  for  salt  manufacture  is 
obtained.  This  industry  has  been  carried  on 
since  a  very  early  period  and  is  an  illustration  of 
the  comparatively  advanced  state  of  progress  at- 
tained by  this  people  long  before  the  western 
nations  had  developed  the  mechanical  arts  be- 
yond the  crude  stage.  Deep  wells  have  been 
found  also  in  Egypt  which  are  thought  to  have 
been  the  work  of  the  ancient  Egyptians.  A  well 
bored  in  the  year  1126  at  Lillers,  department  of 
Pas-de-Calais,  France,  is  still  flowing. 

Arteveld,  ar'te-vel'de,  or  Artevelde,  the 
name  of  two  men  distinguished  in  the  history 
of  the  Netherlands.  (1)  Jacob  van,  a  brewer  of 
Ghent,  b.  about  1290;  d.  17  July  1345.  He 
was  selected  by  his  fellow  townsmen  to  lead 
them  in  their  struggles  against  Count  Louis  of 
Flanders.  In  1338  he  was  appointed  captain  of 
the  forces  of  Ghent,  and  for  several  years  exer- 
cised a  sort  of  sovereign  power.  A  proposal  to 
make  the  Black  Prince,  son  of  Edward  III.  of 
England,  governor  of  Flanders,  led  to  an  insur- 
rection, in  which  Arteveld  lost  his  life.  (2) 
Philip  van,  son  of  Jacob:  b.  1340;  d.  27 
Nov.  1382.  At  the  head  of  the  forces  of  Ghent 
he  gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Count  of 
Flanders,  Louis  II.,  and  for  a  time  assumed  the 
state  of  a  sovereign  prince.  His  reign  proved 
short-lived.  The  Count  of  Flanders  returned 
with  a  large  French  force,  fully  disciplined  and 
skilfully  commanded.  Arteveld  was  rash  enough 
to  meet  them  in  the  open  field  at  Roose- 
beke,  between  Courtrai  and  Ghent,  in  1382,  and 
fell  with  25,000  Flemings.  See  Ashley,  'James 
and  Philip  van  Artavelde*  (1883);  Hutton, 
'James  van  Artavelde'   (1882). 

Artevelde,  Philip  van,  the  title  of  a  trage- 
dy by  Sir  Henry  Taylor,  published  in  1834.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  of  modern  English  tragedies 
by  an  author  distinguished  for  his  protest,  in  the 
spirit  of  Wordsworth,  against  the  extreme  sen- 
timentalism  of  Byron.  In  this  play  with  admira- 
ble power  he  brings  back  the  stress  and  storm  of 
14th  century  life.  The  father  of  Philip,  the  great 
Jacob  van  Artevelde,  an  immensely  rich  brewer, 
eloquent  and  energetic,  had  played  a  great  part 
as  popular  leader  at  Ghent,  1335-45 ',  a"d  it  fell 
to  his  son  to  figure  similarly  in  1381,  but  to  be 
slain  in  a  great  defeat  of  the  forces  of  Ghent  the 
next  year.  Taylor's  tragedy  recalls  the  events  of 
these  two  years. 

Art'ful  Dodg'er,  The,  the  nickname  of 
John  Daukins,  a  young  pickpocket  in  Dickens' 
'Oliver  Twist.' 

Arthralgia  (Neo.-Lat.  from  Gr.  apdpov, 
joint,  +  a'Xyos,  pain),  pain  in  a  joint;  used 
more  specifically  of  neuralgia  in  a  joint.  It  is 
synonymous  with  arthrodynia. 

Arthri'tis,  an  acute  or  chronic  inflamma- 
tion of  the  joints,  usually  due  to  bacterial  in- 
fection. Such  infection  may  follow  a  wound,  a 
perforating  injury,  an  operative  incision,  or  the 
micro-organisms  may  come  to  the  joint  through 
the  blood  stream,  as  in  rheumatism,  gonorrhoea, 
typhoid,  or  pyemia.  In  some  cases  of  arthritis 
the  causes  seem  to  be  resident  in  defective  meta- 
bolism—  gout  is  an  illustration  of  this  type  of 
arthritis.  In  acute  cases  there  are  pain,  swelling, 
heat,  and  occasionally  suppuration.  In  the 
chronic  forms  the  main  symptoms  are  pain  and 


ARTHRITIS  DEFORMANS 


stiffness.  The  treatment  should  include  rest, 
counter-irritation,  and,  in  the  suppurative  cases, 
prompt  surgical  attention.  In  the  more  chronic 
cases  counter-irritation,  dry,  hot  air,  static  elec- 
tricity, and  potassium  iodid  are  of  service.  See 
Anthritis  Deformans;  Gout;  Joint;  Rheu- 
matism. 

Arthritis  Deformans  (rheumatoid  ar- 
thritis, or  osteo-arthritis),  a  chronic  progressive 
disease  of  the  joints,  chiefly  affecting  the  articu- 
lar cartilages,  hones,  and  synovial  membranes, 
and  producing  loss  of  function  and  great  defor- 
mity from  ossification  of  some  parts  of  the  joint 
and  atrophy  of  others.  Its  origin  is  not  definitely 
known.  Though  it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
rheumatic  gout,  it  is  believed  to  have  noth- 
ing in  common  with  rheumatism  or  gout,  but 
may  co-exist  with  either. 

It  is  very  rare  in  children,  occurs  occasionally 
in  old  age,  is  more  common  between  25  and  50, 
and  in  females  than  in  males.  It  most  often 
appears  after  the  menopause,  though  it  may  oc- 
cur earlier,  as  when  following  parturition.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  disease  is  hereditary,  al- 
though several  cases  may  occur  in  one  family. 
Exposure  to  inclement  weather,  dietetic  errors, 
injuries,  etc.,  have  less  causative  influence  than  in 
gout  or  rheumatism,  but  poor  food,  debility,  anae- 
mia, and  cold  and  damp  increase  the  severity  of 
the  disease.  Mental  strain  precedes  many  cases 
and  adds  very  much  to  the  severity  of  the  disease. 

There  are  two  theories  as  to  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  affection.  The  first,  the  nervous  or 
neuropathic  theory,  is  based  upon  the  symmet- 
rical distribution  of  the  joint-lesions,  the  trophic 
changes  in  the  skin,  nails,  etc.,  the  frequent  pre- 
existing mental  disturbances,  shock,  grief, 
worry,  and  the  like,  the  disproportionate  muscu- 
lar atrophy,  and  the  similarity  of  the  lesions  to 
those  of  locomotor  ataxia  and  other  affections 
of  the  spinal  cord.  The  second  or  infectious 
theory  is  derived  from  the  facts  that  micro- 
organisms have  been  found  in  the  fluids  and 
tissues  of  the  joints,  that  the  disease  sometimes 
begins  with  an  acute  onset,  as  do  many  of  the 
infectious  diseases,  and  that  enlargement  of  the 
spleen  and  lymph-glands  is  found  in  some  cases. 
It  is  difficult  to  say  which  tissue  is  primarily  at 
fault,  but  sooner  or  later  nearly  all  are  involved. 
The  synovial  membrane  inflames,  and  papillary 
outgrowths  and  cartilaginous  nodules  form  upon 
it.  These  last  may  undergo  fatty  degeneration, 
or  they  may  ossify.  They  may  slip  into  the 
joint-cavity.  If  serous  effusion  occurs  it  is  ab- 
sorbed early  in  the  disease.  The  cartilages  lose 
their  cells,  become  fibrillated  and  soft,  and  are 
removed  by  friction  and  absorption.  The  ends 
of  the  bones  (the  interarticular  cartilages  being 
absorbed  )  by  friction  become  smooth,  rounded, 
and  shiny,  like  polished  ivory  (eburnated).  The 
eburnated  surfaces,  by  attrition,  become  grooved, 
and  minute  perforations  of  the  Haversian  canals 
result.  Deposits  01  new  hone  form  around  the 
margins  of  the  joints,  and  may  be  often  felt  ex- 
ternally. The  muscles  atrophy  and  are  of  a 
brownish  color.  Fibrous  adhesions  and  bony 
anchylosis  occur.  Some  of  the  small  joints  of 
the  fingers,  for  example,  may  move  a  little, 
but  the  knees,  etc.,  may  be  interlocked,  by  reason 
of  the  rims  of  bony  material  deposited.  Dis- 
location or  subluxation  may  result.  The  perios- 
teum along  the  shafts  of  the  bones  may  thicken 
or  ossify  in  nodules. 


The  acute  form  of  the  general  or  multiple 
progressive  type  is  rare  after  40.  Smaller  joints 
become  simultaneously  painful,  tender,  and 
swollen,  but  not  red  as  in  rheumatism ;  there  is 
no  migration  from  joint  to  joint,  the  affected 
joints  are  inflamed,  while  others  are  becoming 
diseased.  Patients  are  anaemic,  mentally  de- 
pressed, and  complain  of  headache  and  malaise. 
Fever  seldom  goes  above  102°.  Temporary  im- 
provement occurs,  but  the  disease  advances. 
The  chronic  form  of  this  type  is  insidious  and 
more  common.  One  joint  (of  finger  or  toe)  is 
involved  ;  the  disease  affects  the  corresponding 
joint,  and  then  other  joints;  pain  may  be  mild 
or  very  severe;  there  are  delusive  intervals 
while  the  disease  marches  on.  After  months,  or 
it  may  be  years,  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  joints 
are  thickened,  rigid,  and  distorted.  The  hands 
are  bent  toward  the  ulnar  side,  fingers  strongly 
flexed,  nails  in  the  palms  of  the  hands.  The 
thumbs,  though  drawn  in,  may  be  used.  The 
knees  are  generally  crossed.  The  general  health 
through  it  all  may  be  fair,  as  visceral  lesions 
are  uncommon. 

In  the  monarticular  or  localized  type,  the 
disease  is  usually  confined  to  one  or  two  of  the 
larger  joints,  occurs  mostly  in  men,  and  after 
50.  The  knee,  shoulder,  elbow,  or  hip  is  gen- 
erally affected,  but  the  vertebrae  may  be,  the  en- 
tire spinal  column  becoming  rigid.  Motion  of 
affected  joints  often  produces  a  creaking  or 
grating  sound.  The  pathological  appearances 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  general  type  of  the 
disease,  but  joint-injuries  are  more  often  an  ex- 
citing cause.  The  joint  becomes  stiff,  sore,  and 
painful,  and  there  is  absorption  of  the  ends  of 
the  bones,  dislocation,  and  deformity. 

Heberden's  nodes  or  nodosities,  described  by 
him  in  1805,  are  small  exostoses  ("small  hard 
knobs"),  seldom  larger  than  peas,  which  form 
on  either  side  of  the  distal  joints  of  fingers. 
They  may  be  present  in  either  type  of  the  dis- 
ease, at  first  are  tender  and  swollen,  but  later 
on  apparently  cause  little  discomfort.  Some- 
times the  bone-enlargement  surrounds  the  joint. 

Arthritis  deformans  in  children,  although  not 
frequent,  is  more  acute,  and  is  more  influenced 
by  poor  food,  cold  and  damp,  etc.  There  is 
fever,  sometimes  a  chill.  The  swelling,  stiff- 
ness, and  tenderness  seem  to  be  more  in  the 
soft  parts  than  in  harder  tissues.  The  fingers 
are  flexed  and  overlapped,  the  feet  are  strongly 
extended,  and  the  joints  are  rigid. 

The  diagnosis  of  arthritis  deformans  must 
be  made  from  subacute  and  chronic  rheumatism; 
gonorrheal  rheumatism,  gout,  progressive  mus- 
cular atrophy,  Charcot's  disease,  etc.  Recovery 
is  impossible,  but  the  disease  is  not  directly 
dangerous  to  life.  Treatment  for  relief  is 
hygienic  and  dietetic,  a  warm,  dry,  equable 
climate,  dry.  healthful  quarters,  change  of 
scene,  freedom  from  anxiety,  shock,  etc., 
woolen  underclothes,  flannel  nightgowns  or 
pajamas,  and  ample  diet.  Malt  extracts,  iron,' 
and  cod-liver  oil  are  of  service.  Locally  there 
should  be  application  of  massage,  friction,  elec- 
tricity, douching,  hot  air  in  so-called  hot-box, 
guiacol  and  glycerine  in  equal  parts,  or  bella- 
donna ointment,  cotton,  and  oil-silk.  Residence 
at  one  of  the  spas,  with  appropriate  care  and  K 
treatment,  will  relieve  suffering  and  prolong  life. 
See  Arthritis;  Gout;  Joint;  Rheumatism. 


ARTHROCACE  —  ARTHROPODA 


Arthrocace  (Neo.-Lat.  from  Gk.  ipepov, 
joint  +  "a.K-/i,  evil  ),  a  disease  of  the  joints 
in  which  the  hone  is  disintegrated  and  carried 
away  piecemeal.     See  Caries. 

Arthro'dia.    See  Joint. 

Arthrodynia  (Xeo.-Lat.  from  Gk.  SpOpov, 
joint  -f-  65uv7),  pain),  pain  in  a  joint;  prac- 
tically synonymous  with  arthralgia. 

Arthrogastra  (Neo.-Lat.  from  Gk. 
UpSpov,  joint  +  ya.arijp,  abdomen),  a  divi- 
sion of  the  insect  class  Arachnida  (q.v.),  hav- 
ing the  abdomen  annulated,  and  including  the 
scorpions   (see  Scorpion),  etc. 

Arthromere  (Gk.  &p6pov,  joint  +  M<^°s. 
part),  one  of  the  series  of  segments  of  which 
arthropoda   (q.v.)   are  composed. 

Arthropathia  Tabidorum,  a  disease  of  the 
joints  in  connection  with  spinal  disease  {tabes 
dorsalis),  very  similar  to  arthritis  deformans 
(q.v.).  The  destruction  of  the  ends  of  the 
bones  in  the  joint  concerned  takes  place  with 
great  rapidity  and  painlessly ;  there  is  no  fever 
nor  appearance  of  inflammation,  even  when  the 
bones  are  fractured. 

Arthrophragm  ( Gk.  ipBpov,  joint  + 
(ppaypLa,  fence),  a  partition  between  certain 
articulations,  as,  for  example,  in  the  crayfish 
(q.v.). 

Arthropleure  (Neo.-Lat.  Arthropleura, 
from  Gk.  dpBpov,  joint  -f-  T\evpi,  side),  the 
lateral  portions  of  the  arthroderm,  or  crust,  of 
articulated  animals.     See  Articulata. 

Arthrop'oda,  a  phylum  comprising  those 
articulated  animals  which  have  jointed  append- 
ages, such  as  antennae,  jaws,  maxillae  (or  ac- 
cessory jaws),  palpi,  and  legs,  arranged  in  pairs, 
the  two  halves  of  the  body  thus  being  more 
markedly  symmetrical  than  in  the  lower  ani- 
mals. It  is  by  far  the  most  numerous  in  species 
of  any  in  the  animal  kingdom,  the  insects  alone 
probably  numbering  upward  of  a  million  spe- 
cies ;  other  representative  or  typical  forms  are 
the  trilobites,  king  crabs,  scorpions,  spiders,  and 
myriopods.  The  skin  is  usually  hardened  by  the 
deposition  of  salts  (carbonate  and  phosphate  of 
lime),  and  of  a  peculiar  organic  substance  called 
chitine.  The  segments  (somites  or  arthro- 
meres)  composing  the  body  are  usually  limited 
in  number,  20  (or  21)  in  the  crustaceans  and 
insects ;  while  each  arthromere  is  primarily  di- 
vided into  an  upper  (tergum), lower  (sternum), 
and  lateral  portion  (pleurum).  These  divisions, 
however,  cannot  be  traced  in  the  head  of  either 
the  crustaceans  or  the  insects.  Moreover,  the 
head  is  well  marked,  with  one  or  two  pairs  of 
feelers  or  antennae,  and  from  two  to  four  pairs 
of  biting  mouth-parts  or  jaws,  and  two  com- 
pound eyes ;  besides  the  compound  eyes  there 
are  simple  eyes  in  the  insects.  The  germ  is 
three-layered,  and  there  is  usually  in  the  more 
specialized  forms  a  well-marked  metamorphosis. 
The  Arthropoda  are  most  nearly  related  to  the 
worms,  certain  annelides,  with  their  soft-jointed 
appendages  (tentacles  as  well  as  lateral  cirri) 
and  more  or  less  definite  head,  anticipating  or 
foreshadowing  the  arthropods.  On  the  other 
hand,  certain  low  parasitic  arthropods,  as  lingua- 
tula,  have  been  mistaken  for  genuine  parasitic 
worms. 

Segmentation  of  the  Pody. —  The  segments 
(somites,  metameres)  ire  merely  thickenings  of 
Vol.  1 — 49 


the  skin  connected  by  a  thin  intersegmental 
membrane,  so  that  the  segments  can  telescope 
into  each  other,  or  extend,  thus  lending  the 
greatest  freedom  of  motion  to  the  trunk  as  well 
as  to  the  appendages ;  otherwise  a  rigid  chitinous 
skin  would  not  permit  of  any  movement.  As  in 
the  annelid  worms,  this  segmentation  of  the  in- 
tegument is  correlated  with  the  serial  repetition 
of  the  ganglia  of  the  nervous  system,  of  the 
ostia  of  trie  dorsal  vessel,  the  primitive  dispo- 
sition of  the  segmental  and  reproductive  or- 
gans, of  the  soft,  muscular  dissepiments  which 
correspond  to  the  suture  between  the  segments, 
and  with  the  metameric  arrangement  of  the 
muscles  controlling  the  movements  of  the  seg- 
ments on  each  other ;  and  this  internal  segmenta- 
tion or  metamerism  is  indicated  very  early  in 
embryonic  life  by  the  mescblastic  somites. 

While  we  look  upon  the  dermal  tube  of 
worms  as  a  single  but  flexible  lever,  the  body 
of  the  arthropods,  as  Graber  states,  is  a  linear 
system  of  stiff  levers.  We  have  here  a  series  of 
stiff,  solid  rings,  or  hoops,  united  by  the  inter- 
segmental membrane  into  a  whole.  When  the 
muscles  extending  from  one  ring  to  the  next 
behind  contract,  and  so  on  through  the  entire 
series,  the  rings  approximate  each  other. 

The  origin  of  the  joints  or  segments  in  the 
limbs  of  arthropods  was  probably  due  to  the 
mechanical  strains  to  which  what  were  at  first 
soft  fleshy  outgrowths  along  the  sides  of  the 
body  became  subjected.  Indeed,  certain  anne- 
lid worms  of  the  family  Syllida  have  segment- 
ed tentacles  and  parapodia,  as  in  Dujardinia. 
We  do  not  know  enough  about  the  habits  of 
these  worms  to  understand  how  this  metamer- 
ism may  have  arisen,  but  it  is  possibly  due  to 
the  act  of  pushing  or  repeated  efforts  to  sup- 
port the  body  while  creeping  over  the  bottom 
among  broken  shells,  over  coarse  gravel,  or 
among  sea-weeds.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that 
the  jointed  structure  of  the  limbs  of  arthropods, 
if  we  are  to  attempt  any  explanation  at  all.  was 
primarily  due  mainly  to  lateral  strains  and  im- 
pacts resulting  from  the  primitive  endeavors  of 
the  ancestral  arthropods  to  raise  and  to  support 
the  body  while  thus  raised,  and  then  to  push 
or  drag  it  forward  by  means  of  the  soft,  par- 
tially jointed,  lateral  limbs  which  were  armed 
with  bristles,  hooks,  or  finally  claws.  By  adap- 
tation, or  as  the  result  of  parasitism  and  con- 
sequent lack  of  active  motion,  the  original 
number  of  segments  may  by  disuse  be  dimin- 
ished. Thus  in  adult  wasps  and  bees,  the  ln-t 
three  or  four  abdominal  segments  may  be 
nearly  lost,  though  the  larval  number  is  ten. 
During  metamorphosis  the  body  is  made  over, 
and  the  number,  shape,  and  structure  of  the  seg- 
ments are  greatly  modified. 

History  and  Present  Classification. —  The 
group  or  sub-kingdom  (phylum)  of  Arthropoda 
was  founded  _  in  1S4S  by  Siebold.  It  has  been 
supposed  until  recently  to  be  a  natural  group. 
In  1893  Kingsley,  and  also  Kennel,  first  sug- 
gested doubts  as  to  the  homogeneity  of  the 
group,  and  in  the  same  year  Packard  published 
the  view  that  there  are  f^ur  independent  lines 
of  development  in  the  Arthropoda,  and  in  1894 
Kingsley  divided  the  group  into  three  subphyla, 
Laurie  and  Pocock  also  considering  that  the 
group  is  polyphyletic.  In  iSoS  Packard  stated : 
"It  is  becoming  evident,  however,  that  there  was 
no  common  ancestor  of  the  Arthropoda  as  a 
whole,  and  that  the  group  is  a  polyphyletic  one. 


ARTHROSTRACA  —  ARTHUR 


Hence,  though  a  convenient  group,  it  is  a  some- 
what artificial  one,  and  may  eventually  be  dis- 
membered  into  at  least  three  or  four  phyla  or 
branches." 

The  four  phyla  as  afterward  proposed  by 
Packard  are,  beginning  with  the  most  primitive: 
(  i  )PaUsostraca,  embracing  the  classes  of  ird- 
obtta;  (_')  Merostomata  {Limulus) ,  and  Arach- 
nida;  (3)  Pancarida  {Crustacea);  (.4^  Prosogo- 
neata,  including  three  classes:  Pauropoda,  Dip- 
lopoda,  and  Lymphyla  (Scolopendrella)  ;  and 
(5)  Entomoplera,  comprising  the  Chilopoda  and 
Insecta;  the  great  majority  of  the  group  being 
winged  insects.  Each  of  these  phyla  represent 
independent  lines  of  development,  judging  by 
their  structure  and  what  we  know  of  their  de- 
velopment,  and  have  no  genetic  connection  be- 
yond the  theory  that  I  hey  each  have  descended 
from  one  or  more  annelid  worms. 

A.   S.   Packard, 
Laic  Prof.  Zoology,  Brown  I  'niversiiy. 

Arthrostraca,  crustacea  of  the  sub-class 
Malacostraca  in  which  the  first,  sometimes  the 
second  thoracic  segment  is  fused  with  the  head 
and  bears  maxillipedes ;  the  remaining  seven 
bring  free  and  bearing  legs.  The  eyes  are  usual- 
ly sessile.  The  group  is  divided  into  the  Am- 
phipoda  (q.v.)  and  Isopoda  (q.v.).  Common 
examples  are  pill-bug,  wood-louse,  etc. 

Ar'thur,  king  of  the  Silures  in  the  6th 
century,  an  ancient  British  hero,  whose  story 
has  been  the  theme  of  much  romantic  fiction. 
lie  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  Uthyr, 
chief  commander  of  the  Britons,  and  to  have 
been  born  about  501.  In  516  he  succeeded  his 
father  in  the  office  of  general,  and  performed 
th'ise  heroic  deeds  against  the  Saxons,  Scots, 
and  Picts  which  have  made  him  so  celebrated. 
He  married  the  celebrated  Guinevere  belonging 
to  the  family  of  the  dukes  of  Cornwall ;  estab- 
lished the  famous  order  of  the  Round  Table; 
and  reigned,  surrounded  by  a  splendid  court, 
12  years  in  peace.  After  this,  he  is  reported  to 
have  conquered  Denmark,  Norway,  and  France, 
.slain  the  giants  of  Spain,  and  journeyed  to  Rome. 
From  thence  he  is  said  to  have  hastened  home 
en  account  of  the  faithlessness  of  his  wife, 
and  Modred,  his  nephew,  who  carried  on  an 
adulterous  intercourse,  and  stirred  up  his  sub- 
jects to  rebellion;  to  have  subdued  the  rebels, 
but  to  have  died  in  consequence  of  his  wounds, 
in  542,  on  the  island  of  Avalon,  where  it  is 
pretended  that  his  grave  was  found  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.  The  story  of  Arthur  is 
supposed  to  have  some  foundation  in  fact,  and 
it  is  generally  believed  that  he  was  one  of  the 
last  great  Celtic  chiefs  who  led  his  country- 
men from  the  west  to  resist  the  settlement  of 
the  Saxons  in  southern  Britain.  But  many  au- 
thorities regard  him  as  a  leader  of  the  Cymry 
of  Cumbria  and  Strath-Clyde  against  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  invaders  of  the  east  coast  and  the  Picts 
and  Scots  north  of  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde.  In 
our  own  day  the  interest  of  the  old  legends  has 
been  revived  by  the  works  of  Lytton  and  espe- 
cially Tennyson.  See  Skene,  "Four  Ancient 
Books  of  Wales1  (1868)  ;  Stuart-Glennie,  'Jour- 
ney through  Arthurian  Scotland1  (1867);  and 
•Arthurian  Localities'  (1869)  ;  Rhys,  'Studies  in 
the  Arthurian  Legend'  (1891)  ;  Sommer,  '  Morte 
d'Arthur'  (3  vols.  1880-01)  ;  Brown.  'Twain: 
A  Stiuly  in  the  Origin  of  Arthurian  Romance' 
(1902).     See  Arthurian  Legends. 


Ar'thur,  Prince.  See  Duke  of  Connaught. 

Ar'thur,  duke  of  Brittany,  the  grandson 
of  King  Henry  II.  of  England:  b.  1187;  d.  120.5. 
On  the  death  in  1199  of  his  uncle,  Richard  I., 
who  had  declared  the  boy  his  heir,  Arthur  was 
proclaimed  king  of  England  by  the  nobles  of 
Anjon,  Touraine,  and  Maine,  while  the  English 
lords  decided  in  John's  favor.  King  Philip  of 
France  supported  the  claims  of  Arthur,  but  a 
peace  being  presently  concluded  between  John 
and  Philip,  Arthur  came  later  into  the  hands 
of  his  uncle,  King  John,  and  soon  mysteriously 
disappeared.  According  to  general  belief  Ar- 
thur was  murdered  by  command  of  his  uncle. 
The  story  of  Arthur  forms  a  portion  of  Shake- 
speare's  'King  John.'     See  John. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  the  21st  President 
of  the  United  States:  b.  Fairfield,  Yt.,  5  Oct. 
1830;  d.  New  York,  18  Nov.  1886.  He  gradu- 
ated from  Union  College  at  18,  was  principal 
of  an  academy  at  North  Pownal,  Yt.,  and  in 
1853  began  the  practice  of  law  in  New  York, 
where  he  argued  several  important  legal  cases 
in  behalf  of  the  colored  people.  Through  these 
and  other  cases  he  became  noted  in  his  profes- 
sion, and  he  was  also  prominent  as  a  Republican 
politician.  In  April  1861  Gov.  E.  D.  Morgan 
made  him  acting  quartermaster-general,  and  la- 
ter he  was  made  full  quartermaster-general.  For 
the  next  decade  he  was  a  successful  and  widely 
known  practising  lawyer,  anil  a  leading  Repub- 
lican politician  of  New  York,  chairman  of  the 
Grant  Club  in  1868,  and  of  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  Republican  State  committee  in 
1869.  He  was  appointed  by  President  Grant, 
20  Nov.  1871  to  the  highest  office  in  the  State 
patronage,  the  collectorship  of  the  port  of  New 
York,  which  he  held  till  11  July  1878.  His 
business  conduct  of  the  office  was  not  impeached, 
and  he  was  retained  by  President  Hayes  for  over 
a  year  after  his  accession;  but  he  was  first  of  all 
a  political  manager,  in  open  hostility  to  civil 
service  reform.  As  a  matter  of  actual  practice 
and  not  theory,  however,  Mr.  Arthur  produced 
figures  to  show  that  the  annual  percentage  of 
removals  under  him  for  all  causes  had  been  only 
2>)4  per  cent,  as  against  an  annual  average  of 
24  per  cent  since  1857.  In  1S80  he  was  nomi- 
nated for  the  vice-presidency,  chiefly  to  concili- 
ate the  Grant  section  of  the  Republicans,  sore  at 
the  defeat  of  the  third-term  project,  and  was 
elected  with  Garfield.  In  place  of  the  custom- 
ary dignified  nullity  of  his  office,  he  remained 
an  active  party  leader  in  the  patronage  contest 
of  his  State,  between  the  "Stalwarts"  or  Grant 
section  led  by  Roscoe  Conkling  (q.v.),  and  of 
which  Mr.  Arthur  was  chief  lieutenant,  and  the 
"Half-Breeds"  or  more  independent  wing  which 
Garfield  was  trying  to  build  up.  Conkling  soon 
resigned  his  seat  in  the  Senate,  declaring  that 
Garfield  had  broken  his  promises  to  him,  and  the 
Garfield  party  for  the  time  was  triumphant ;  but 
the  assassination  of  Garfield,  shortly  after,  re- 
versed the  situation.  The  open  lamentations  of 
the  press  at  the  prospect  of  the  accession  of  so 
convinced  a  spoilsman  as  himself  deeply  hurt 
Mr.  Arthur,  who  felt  that  he  was  misjudged, 
and  determined  on  the  most  admirable  revenge, 
that  of  disappointing  their  prophecies  of  evil, 
lie  did  so;  not  only  was  his  term  of  office  mea- 
surably free  from  the  dominance  of  patronage, 
hut  he  extended  the  civil  service  rules  and 
kept  faith  with  them.     In  other  respects  his  ad- 


CHESTER    ALAN    ARTHUR. 

21>l     PRESIDEN1    OF    1  HE    UNITED    STATES. 


ARTHUR  — ARTHURIAN  LEGENDS 


ministration  was  so  excellent  that  the  leading 
Independents  had  announced  their  intention  of 
supporting  him  for  President  if  nominated  in 
1884.  Its  most  notable  incident  was  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  commission  to  revise  the  tariff, 
which,  though  composed  of  strong  Protection- 
ists, reported  that  the  tariff  should  be  reduced 
20  per  cent  all  around,  a  recommendation  un- 
heeded by  Congress.  Several  commercial  trea- 
ties were  passed,  however.  He  vetoed  a  Chinese 
immigration  bill  as  inconsistent  with  treaty  obli- 
gations ;  favored  the  stringent  laws  passed 
against  polygamy,  appointing  a  Utah  commis- 
sion to  supervise  their  enforcement ;  managed 
Indian  affairs  wisely,  promoting  Indian  educa- 
tion and  the  breaking  up  of  the  tribal  system; 
extended  postal  facilities ;  took  measures  to  in- 
creas  t  the  navy,  improve  its  discipline  and  effi- 
ciency and  provide  for  coast  defense ;  supported 
the  improvement  of  Mississippi  River  navigation, 
etc.  The  attempts  at  remonetizing  silver,  and  at 
forcibly  abrogating  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  to 
build  a  Nicaragua  canal,  were  in  accordance  with 
general  party  feeling  at  the  time.  The  lingering 
scandal  of  the  Star  Route  frauds,  however,  in- 
jured the  party  somewhat,  and  its  policy  and 
methods  were  gravely  disapproved  of  by  the 
Independents ;  but  this  was  much  more  than 
counterbalanced  by  distrust  of  the  Democratic 
party  for  its  alliance  with  the  Greenback  ele- 
ment. Mr.  Arthur's  defeat  for  the  nomination 
was  not  caused  by  any  demerits  of  his  own, 
still  less  by  desire  to  conciliate  the  Independ- 
ents, but  by  the  personal  ambitions  of  Repub- 
lican leaders,  which,  justly  or  unjustly,  had 
aroused  and  exasperated  the  Republicans  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  causing  the  defeat  of  C.  J. 
Folger  for  Governor,  and  resulting  in  the  nomi- 
nation of  Blaine  in  1884.  Arthur,  although  a 
close   adherent   of   Conkling,   supported   Blaine. 

Ar'thur,  Joseph  Charles,  an  American  bot- 
anist: b.  Lowville,  N.  Y.,  11  Jan.  1850.  lie  was 
graduated  from  Iowa  State  College  in  1872,  and 
subsequently  studied  at  the  universities  of  Johns 
Hopkins,  Harvard,  and  Bonn.  Germany.  He 
was  instructor  in  the  universities  of  Minnesota 
and  Wisconsin ;  botanist  at  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tion. Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and  is  now  professor  of 
vegetable  physiology  and  pathology,  Purdue 
University,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

Arthur,  Julia,  the  stage  name  of  Ida  Lewis, 
an  American  actress :  b.  Hamilton,  Out.,  3  May 
1869.  She  made  her  professional  debut  at  the 
age  of  14  as  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  'Richard 
III.'  Her  first  New  York  success  was  in  'The 
Black  Masque.'  She  made  her  London  debut 
February  1895  in  Henry  Irving's  cempany,  play- 
ing roles  next  to  Helen  Terry,  both  of  whom 
she  accompanied  to  Amenca  in  1896.  Since  then 
she  has  starred  chiefly  in  the  United  States.  She 
is  the  wife  of  B.  P.  Cheney.  See  Strang,  'Famous 
Actresses  of  the  Day  in  America'   (1899). 

Arthur,  P.  M.,  American  locomotive  engi- 
neer: b.  Scotland  1834;  d.  Winnipeg.  Manitoba, 
16  July  1903.  He  came  to  America  in  childhood 
and  as  a  young  man  was  at  first  a  blacksmith's 
helper  in  the  employ  of  the  New  York  and 
Harlem  Railroad  Company  and  later  an  engineer 
on  the  New  York  Central  railroad.  In  1873 
he  became  the  grand  chief  of  the  American 
Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers,  which 
post  he  filled  at  the  time  of  his  death. 


Ar'thur,     Timothy     Shay,     an     American 

author:  b.  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  1809;  d.  Philadel- 
phia, 6  March  1885.  In  1852  he  founded  'Ar- 
thur's Home  Magazine.'  He  was  a  voluminous 
writer  of  moral  and  domestic  tales.  His  works 
are  over  100  in  number,  and  have  had  a  large 
sale  in  England  as  well  as  in  the  United  States. 
His  most  popular  work  was  the  famous  'Ten 
Nights  in  a  Bar-Room.'  Among  his  other  pub- 
lications were  'Tales  for  Rich  and  Poor,'  'Tales 
of  Married  Life,'   and   'Lights  and  Shadows.' 

Arthu'rian  Leg'ends,  a  scries  of  Celtic 
romances,  which  for  nearly  a  thousand  years 
have  furnished  unlimited  literary  material,  not 
to  English  poets  alone,  but  to  the  poets  of  all 
Christendom.  These  Celtic  romances,  having 
their  birthplace  in  Brittany  or  in  Wales,  had 
been  growing  and  changing  for  some  centuries, 
before  the  fanciful  'Historia  Britonum'  of 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  flushed  them  with  color 
and  filled  them  with  new  life.  Through  his  ver- 
sion they  soon  became  a  vehicle  for  the  dis- 
semination of  Christian  doctrine.  By  the  year 
1200  they  were  the  common  property  of  Europe, 
influencing  profoundly  the  literature  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  becoming  the  source  of  a 
great  stream  of  poetry  that  has  flowed  without 
interruption  down  to  our  own  day.  Sixty  years 
after  the  'Historia  Britonum'  appeared,  and 
when  the  English  poet  Layamon  wrote  his 
'Brut'  (a.d.  1205),  a  translation  of  Wace,  as 
Wace  was  a  translation  of  Geoffrey,  the  theme 
was  engrossing  the  imagination  of  Europe.  It 
had  absorbed  into  itself  the  elements  of  other 
cycles  of  legend,  which  had  grown  up  independ- 
ently; some  of  these,  in  fact,  having  been  at  one 
time  of  much  greater  prominence.  Finally,  so 
vast  and  complicated  did  the  body  of  Arthurian 
legend  become,  that  summaries  of  the  essential 
features  were  attempted.  Such  a  summary  was 
made  in  French  about  1270,  by  the  Italian  Rusti- 
ghello  of  Pisa ;  in  German,  about  two  centuries 
later,  by  Ulrich  Fiiterer;  and  in  English  by  Sir 
Thomas  Malory  in  his  'Morte  d'Arthur,'  fin- 
ished 'the  ix.  yere  of  the  reygne  of  kyng  Ed- 
ward the  Fourth,"  and  one  of  the  first  books 
published  in  England  by  Caxton,  "emprynted 
and  fynysshed  in  th'  abbey  Westmestre  the 
last  day  of  July,  the  yere  of  our  Lord 
MCCCCLXXXV."  It  is  of  interest  to  note,  as 
an  indication  of  the  popularity  of  the  Arthurian 
legends,  that  Caxton  printed  the  '  Morte  dAr- 
thur'  eight  years  before  he  printed  any  portion 
of  the  English  Bible,  and  53  years  In-fore  the 
complete  English  Bible  was  in  print.  It  has 
been  said  that  the  original  legend  absorbed  into 
itself  the  elements  of  other  cycles  of  legend. 
The  most  important  of  these  was  'The  Holy 
Grail'  (q.v.).  At  once  a  new  spirit  breathes  in 
the  old  legend.  In  a  few  years  it  is  become  a 
mystical,  symbolical,  anagogical  tale,  inculcat- 
ing one  of  the  pro  roundest  dogmas  of  the  Holy 
Catholic  Church,  a  bearer  of  a  Christian  doctrine 
engrossing  the  thought  of  the  Christian  world. 
In  addition  to  the  mystical  and  religious  char- 
acter of  the  transformed  legend,  the  spirit  of 
the  chivalry  of  the  Middle  Agc^  embodied  in  it, 
furnishes  an  admirable  transcript  of  the  social 
ideal  of  the  times,  which  thus  moulded  the  older 
and  ruder  materials  into  a  more  gracious  form. 
The  knightly  ideals  of  loyalty,  obedience,  the  re- 
dressing of  wrongs  and  especially  the  veneration 
of     womanhood     are     distinctively     portrayed. 


ARTHUR'S  SEAT  — ARTICLE 


Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  «our  1ady,» 
the  Virgin  Mother,  who  embodied  and  repre- 
sented to  all  men  and  women,  from  prince  to 
peasant,  their  ideals  of  womanhood  and  lady- 
hood. And  it  was  the  transference  of  these 
Christian  ethics  into  the  practice  of  common 
daily,  worldly  life,  in  rude  times,  which  we  owe 
to  the  institution  of  chivalry,  nowhere  better 
reflected  than  in  the  Christianized  Arthurian 
legends.  From  about  1200,  innumerable  poets, 
wiih  diverse  tastes,  set  themselves  to  produce 
new  versions  of  the  legend,  engrafting  up' mi  tin- 
general  theme  many  diverse  stocks.  Dante  in 
the  'Divine  Comedy)  speaks  of  Arthur,  Guine- 
vere, Tristan,  and  Launcclot  by  name,  and  Boi- 
ardo,  Ariosto,  and  Tasso  in  Italy,  Hans  Sach  in 

many,  Spenser,  Shakespeare,  Milton,  and 
Drydcn  in  England,  all  made  use  of  the  same 
material. 

Of  the  poets  of  the  present  generation,  Ten- 
nyson has  treated  the  Arthurian  poetic  heritage 
as  a  whole.  Phases  of  the  Arthurian  theme 
have  been  presented  also  by  his  contemporaries 
and  successors  at  home  and  abroad  —  by  Wil- 
liam Wadsworth,  Lord  Lytton,  Robert  Stephen 
Hawker,  Matthew  Arnold,  William  Morris,  Al- 
gernon Charles  Swinburne,  in  England ;  Edgar 
Quinet  in  France ;  Wilhelm  Hertz,  L.  Schnee- 
gans,  F.  Roeber,  in  Germany;  Richard  Hovey  in 
America.  There  have  been  many  other  approved 
variations  on  Arthurian  themes,  such  as  James 
Russell  Lowell's  'Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,'  and 
Richard  Wagner's  operas,  'Lohengrin,*  'Tristan 
and  Isolde,*  and  'Parsifal.*  Of  still  later  ver- 
sions, we  may  mention  the  'King  Arthur'  of 
J.  Comyns  Carr,  which  has  been  presented  on  the 
stage  by  Sir  Henry  Irving;  and  'Under  King 
Constantine,'  by  Katrina  Trask,  whose  hero  is 
the  king  whom  tradition  names  as  the  successor 
of  the  heroic  Arthur  "Imperator  Dux  Bellorum." 

Ar'thur's  Seat,  a  hill  overlooking  Edin- 
burgh, Scotland,  said  to  have  been  so  called 
from  a  tradition  that  King  Arthur  surveyed  the 
country  from  its  summit  and  defeated  the  Sax- 
ons in  its  neighborhood.  It  is  a  steep,  and  in 
some  places  precipitous,  rock,  exhibiting  on  the 
south  side  a  range  of  perpendicular  basaltic  col- 
umns, called  Samson's  Ribs.  The  highest  point 
is  822  feet  above  sea-level.  From  hence  may  be 
seen  a  wide  expanse  of  sea,  the  course  of  the 
Forth,  the  distant  Grampians,  etc.,  and  a  large 
portion  of  the  most  populous  and  best  cultivated 
part  of  Scotland,  including  the  picturesque  city 
of  Edinburgh  and  its  castle.  On  the  north  side 
are  the  ruins  of  a  chapel  and  hermitage,  dedicat- 
ed to  St.  Anthony,  and  a  fine  spring  called  St 
Anton's  Well.  A  carriage  road  called  the 
Queen's  Drive  goes  round  its  base. 

Ar'tichoke,  two  species  of  the  natural 
order  Composite?.  The  true,  sometimes  called 
French,  artichoke  (Cynnara  Cardunculus  — 
scalymus  of  some  authors),  a  native  of  the  Med- 
iterranean region,  is  a  coarse,  stout,  perennial, 
thistle-like  herb,  3  to  5  feet  tall,  with  rather 
spiny  leaves,  the  lower  of  which  are  often  3  feet 
or  more  long,  and  large  terminal  heads  of  blue 
or  white  flowers.  It  is  cultivated  for  the  edible 
thickened  outer  scales  and  "bottoms8  (recep- 
tacles) of  the  flower  heads  which  sometimes 
exceed  4  inches  in  diameter  without  becoming 
loo  old  for  eating  raw  as  salad,  pickled,  or 
cooked  like  cauliflower.  Sometimes  the  young 
Stems  and  leaves  are  blanched  like  cardoon,  with 


which  some  botanists  consider  it  to  be  identical. 
lit  Europe  many  varieties  ore  popular;  in  Amer- 
ica tlir  ghihe  variety  is  planted  almost  to  the 
exclusion  of  others,  with  the  result  that  this 
variety  has  almost  become  united  tu  the  name 
in  popular  usage.  The  cultivation  of  this  spe- 
cies in  America  is  confined  mostly  to  the  south- 
ern States,  few  gardens  in  the  North  being  sup- 
plied with  it.  Since  the  plant  is  rather  tender, 
winter  protection  must  be  given  where  the 
ground  freezes.  If  planted  in  rich  soil  and  set 
four  feet  apart  the  plants  will  yield  two  or 
three  crops  before  a  new  plantation  should  be 
made;  if  allowed  to  stand  longer  the  yield 
gradually  diminishes.  New  plantations  are  made 
either  with  seedling  or  sucker  plants.  Most 
of  the  artichokes  offered  in  the  northern  mar- 
kets of  the  United  States  come  from  France  and 
Louisiana. 

The  Jerusalem  artichoke  (Hclianthus  tubcr- 
osus),  a  native  of  North  America,  is  a  perennial 
sunflower-like  herb,  5  to  12  feet  tall,  with  rough 
leaves  4  to  8  inches  long  and  many  yellow  ter- 
minal flower-heads  often  2  to  3  inches  in  diame- 
ter. The  edible  pear-shaped  purplish,  red,  white, 
or  yellow  tubers  for  which  the  plant  is  often  cul- 
tivated are  numerous,  seldom  more  than  3  inches 
in  diameter,  rather  watery  but  of  pleasant  flavor 
especially  when  prepared  like  cauliflower,  with 
a  white  sauce.  Perhaps  no  vegetable  is  of  eas- 
ier cultivation.  For  home  use  the  tubers  are 
generally  planted  in  well-drained  soil  in  some 
out  of  the  way  corner  of  the  garden  and  allowed 
to  take  care  of  themselves  from  year  to  year, 
the  few  tubers  and  pieces  of  root  left  after  dig- 
ging sufficing  to  re-stock  the  bed.  In  field  cul- 
ture the  methods  are  like  those  practised  with 
the  potato  except  that  the  tubers  may  be  left  in 
the  ground  over  winter  and  dug  when  needed. 
They  are  not  injured  by  frost  if  in  the  soil, 
but  if  frozen  after  being  dug  they  spoil  quickly. 
If  desired  they  may  be  dug  and  stored  in  pits 
like  turnips,  but  with  a  somewhat  lighter  cover- 
ing of  straw  and  earth.  The  usual  yield  is  from 
200  to  500  bushels  to  the  acre  but  1,000  bushels 
are  sometimes  obtained.  When  land  becomes 
infested,  as  it  sometimes  does,  with  the  plant, 
pigs,  for  which  the  tubers  make  valuable  food, 
may  be  turned  loose  upon  the  field.  The  tubers 
resemble  potatoes  in  composition  and  like  them 
are  used  largely  in  Europe  for  the  manufacture 
of  alcohol.  The  young  plants  are  sometimes 
used  as  cattle  food  and  the  dry  stalks  for  fuel. 
Consult  'Bur  or  Globe  Artichoke*  in  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Book, 
1899;  Circular  31  (1899);  Bailey,  'Cyclopaedia 
of  American  Horticulture*  (1900-02)  ;  Vilmorin, 
'The  Vegetable  Garden,'  translation  by  Robin- 
son    (1885). 

Ar'ticle,  in  grammar,  a  part  of  speech 
used  before  nouns  to  limit  or  define  their  ap- 
plication. In  the  English  language  a  or  an  is  the 
indefinite  article  (the  latter  form  being  used  be- 
fore a  vowel  sound)  and  the  the  definite  article. 
The  English  indefinite  article  is  really  a  modified 
form  of  the  numeral  adjective  one;  so  the  Ger- 
man cin  and  the  French  tin  stand  for  the  numeral 
and  the  article.  There  are  traces  in  various  lan- 
guages showing  that  the  definite  article  was 
originally  a  pronoun;  thus  the  English  the  is 
closely  akin  to  both  this  and  that.  The  Latin 
language  has  neither  the  definite  nor  the  in- 
definite article;   the  Greek  has  the  definite;  the 


ARTICLES 


Hebrew  and  Arabic  definite  article  was  prefixed 
to  its  noun,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the 
Syriac  and  Chaldaic  it  was  affixed  to  the  noun, 
as  it  is  in  the  Icelandic.  In  the  Scandinavian 
language  the  definite  article  is  appended  to  the 
end  of  the  word  as  lius-et,  the  house. 

Ar'ticles,  divisions  of  a  printed  or  written 
document  or  agreement.  A  specification  of  dis- 
tinct matters  agreed  upon  or  established  by 
authority  or  requiring  judicial  action.  In  chan- 
cery practice  articles  are  a  formal  written  state- 
ment of  objections  to  the  credibility  of  witnesses 
in  a  cause  in  chancery,  filed  by  a  party  to  the  pro- 
ceedings, after  the  depositions  have  been  taken 
and  published.  The  object  of  articles  is  to  en- 
able the  party  filing  them  to  introduce  evidence 
to  discredit  the  witnesses  to  whom  the  objections 
apply,  where  it  is  too  late  to  do  so  in  any  other 
manner  (2  Daniel  Chan.  Pr.  1158),  and  to  notify 
the  party  whose  witnesses  are  objected  to  of 
the  nature  of  the  objections,  that  he  may  be  pre- 
pared to  meet  them.  Upon  filing  the  articles  a 
special  order  is  obtained  to  take  evidence.  The 
interrogatories  must  be  so  shaped  as  not  to  call 
for  evidence  which  applies  directly  to  facts  in 
issue  in  the  case.  3  Johns.  Ch.  N.  Y.  558.  The 
objections  can  be  taken  only  to  the  credit  and 
not  to  the  competency  of  the  witnesses.  3 
Johns.  Ch.  N.  Y.  558;  3  Atk.  Ch.  643.  and  the 
court  are  to  hear  all  the  evidence  read  and  judge 
of  its  value.     2  Ves.  Ch.  219. 

Articles  of  Agreement. —  A  written  memoran- 
dum of  the  terms  of  an  agreement.  They  may 
relate  either  to  real  or  personal  estate,  or  both, 
and  if  in  proper  form  will  create  an  equitable 
estate  or  trust  such  that  a  specific  performance 
may  be  had  in  equity.  The  articles  of  agreement 
should  contain  a  clear  and  explicit  statement  of 
the  names  of  the  parties,  with  their  additions  for 
purposes  of  distinction,  as  well  as  a  designation 
as  parties  of  the  first,  second,  etc.,  part ;  the  sub- 
ject-matter of  the  contract,  including  the  time, 
place,  and  more  important  details  of  the  manner 
of  performance ;  the  covenants  to  be  performed 
by  each  party;  the  date,  which  should  be  truly 
stated.  It  should  be  signed  by  the  parties  or 
their  agents.  When  signed  by  an  agent  the 
proper  form  is,  A.  B.,  by  his  agent(  or  attorney), 
C.  D. 

Articles  of  Confederation. —  The  title  of  the 
compact  which  was  made  by  the  13  original 
Stales  of  the  United  States  of  America.  It  was 
adopted  and  carried  into  force  1  March  1781 
and  remained  as  the  supreme  law  until  the  first 
Wednesday  of  March  1789. 

Articles  of  Faith. —  Summarized  statements 
of  religious  views  relating  to  the  central  doc- 
trines of  a  theological  system.  Protestant  di- 
vines divide  these  into  fundamental  and  non- 
fundamental  articles.  Familiar  examples  of 
articles  of  faith  are  the  Nicene,  Apostles',  and 
Athanaisan  creeds,  the  Thirty-Nine  Articles,  the 
Westminster,  Augsburg,  and  Helvetic  Confes- 
sions.    See  Creed. 

Articles  of  Impeachment. —  A  written  articu- 
late allegation  of  the  causes  for  impeachment. 
Blackstone  calls  them  a  kind  of  bill  of  indict- 
ment, and  they  perform  the  same  office  which  an 
indictment  does  in  a  common  criminal  case. 
They  do  not  usually  pursue  the  strict  form  and 
accuracy  of  an  indictment,  but  are  sometimes 
quite  general  in  the  form  of  their  allegations. 
They    should,    however,    contain    so    much   cer- 


tainty as  to  enable  a  party  to  put  himself  on  the 
proper  defense,  and  in  case  of  an  acquittal  10 
avail  himself  of  it  as  a  bar  to  another  impeach- 
ment. Additional  articles  may  perhaps  be  ex- 
hibited at  any  stage  of  the  proceedings.  The 
answer  to  articles  of  impeachment  is  exempted 
from  observing  great  strictness  of  form,  and  it 
may  contain  arguments  as  well  as  fact-;.  A  full 
and  particular  answer  to  each  article  of  the  ac- 
cusation should  be  given. 

Articles  of  Partnership. —  A  written  agree- 
ment by  which  the  parties  enter  into  a  partner- 
ship upon  the  conditions  therein  mentioned. 
The  instrument  should  contain  the  names  of  the 
contracting  parties  severally  set  out ;  the  agree- 
ment that  the  parties  do  by  the  instrument  enter 
into  a  partnership,  expressed  in  such  terms  as 
to  distinguish  from  a  covenant  to  enter  into  a 
partnership  at  a  subsequent  time ;  the  date  and 
necessary  stipulations,  some  of  the  more  common 
of  which  follow.  The  commencement  of  the 
partnership  should  be  expressly  provided  for. 
The  date  of  the  articles  is  the  time,  when  no 
other  time  is  fixed  by  them.  The  duration  of  the 
partnership  should  be  expressly  stated.  It  may 
be  for  life,  for  a  limited  period  of  time,  or  for  a 
limited  number  of  adventures.  When  a  term  is 
fixed  it  is  presumed  to  endure  until  that  period 
has  elapsed,  and  when  no  term  is  fixed,  for  the 
life  of  the  parties,  unless  sooner  dissolved  by  the 
acts  of  one  of  them,  by  mutual  consent,  or  oper- 
ation of  law.  The  duration  will  not  be  pre- 
sumed to  be  beyond  the  life  of  all  the  partners, 
but  provision  may  be  made  in  the  articles  for  the 
succession  of  the  executors  or  administrators  or 
a  child  or  children  of  a  deceased  partner  to  his 
place  and  rights.  Where  provision  is  made  for  a 
succession  by  appointment  and  the  partner  dies 
without  appointing,  his  executor  or  administra- 
tors may  continue  the  partnership  or  not  at  their 
option.  A  continuance  of  the  partnership  be- 
yond the  period  fixed  for  its  termination,  in  the 
absence  of  circumstances  showing  intent,  will 
be  implied  to  be  upon  the  basis  of  the  old  arti- 
cles (15  Ves.  Ch.  218),  but  for  an  indefinite 
time.  The  nature  of  the  business  and  the  place 
of  carrying  it  on  should  be  carefully  stated.  An 
injunction  will  be  granted  by  a  court  of  equity 
when  one  or  more  of  the  partners  endeavors, 
against  the  wishes  of  one  or  more  of  them,  to 
extend  such  business  beyond  the  provision  con- 
tained in  the  articles.  The  name  of  the  firm 
should  be  ascertained.  The  members  of  the 
partnership  are  required  to  use  the  name  thus 
agreed  upon,  and  a  departure  from  it  will  make 
them  individually  liable  to  third  persons  or  to 
their  partners  in  individual  cases.  The  man- 
agement of  the  business,  or  of  some  particular 
branch  of  it,  is  frequently  entrusted  by  stipula- 
tion to  one  partner,  and  such  partner  will  be 
protected  in  his  rights  by  equity,  or  it  may 
be  to  a  majority  of  the  partners,  and  should  be 
where  they  are  numerous.  The  manner  of  fur- 
nishing capital  and  stock  should  be  provided  for. 
When  a  partner  agrees  to  furnish  his  propor- 
tion of  the  stock  at  stated  periods,  or  pay  by 
installments,  he  will,  where  there  are  no  stipula- 
tions to  the  contrary,  be  considered  a  debtor  to 
the  firm.  Sometimes  a  provision  is  inserted  that 
nal  estate  and  fixtures  belonging  to  the  firm 
shall  be  considered  as  between  the  partners,  not 
as  partnership,  but  as  individual  property.  In 
cases  of  bankruptcy,  this  property  will  be  treated 


ARTICLES  —  ARTICULATA 


as  the  separate  property  of  tlio  partners.  The 
apportionment  of  profits  and  losses  should  be 
provided  for.  The  law  distributes  these  equally, 
in  the  absence  of  controlling  circumstances,  with- 
out regard  to  the  capital  furnished  by  each. 
Periodical  accounts  of  the  property  of  the  part- 
nership may  be  stipulated  for.  These,  when  set- 
tled, are  at  least  prima  facie  evidence  of  the  facts 
they  contain.  The  expulsion  of  a  partner  for 
gross  misconduct,  bankruptcy,  or  other  specified 
causes  may  be  provided  for,  and  the  provision 
will  govern  when  the  case  occurs.  A  settlement 
of  the  affairs  of  the  partnership  should  always 
be  provided  for.  It  is  generally  accomplished  m 
one  of  the  three  following  ways:  First,  by  turn- 
ing all  of  the  assets  into  cash,  and  after  paying  a  11 
the  liabilities  of  the  partnership,  dividing  such 
money  in  proportion  to  the  several  interests  of 
the  parties ;  or,  second,  by  providing  that  one  or 
more  of  the  partners  shall  be  entitled  to  pur- 
chase the  shares  of  the  others  at  a  valuation;  or, 
third,  that  all  the  property  of  the  partnership 
shall  be  appraised,  and  that  after  paying  the 
partnership  debts  it  shall  be  divided  in  the 
proper  proportions.  The  first  of  these  modes  is 
adopted  by  courts  of  equity  in  the  absence  of  ex- 
press stipulations.  Submission  of  disputes  to  ar- 
bitration is  frequently  provided  for,  but  such  a 
clause  is  nugatory,  as  no  action  will  lie  for  a 
breach.  „ ,         ,       . 

Articles  of  IVar.—  A  code  of  laws  for  the  reg- 
ulation of  the  military  forces  of  a  country.  In 
the  United  States  the  articles  of  war  form  an 
elaborate  code,  thoroughly  revised  in  1880,  but 
subject  at  all  times  to  the  legislation  of  Congress. 
Those  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  were  issued 
prior  to  1879,  in  pursuance  of  the  annually  re- 
newed mutiny  act.  In  1879  the  army  discipline 
act  consolidated  the  provisions  of  the  mutiny  act 
with  the  articles  of  war.  This  act  was  amended 
in  1881,  and  now  the  complete  military  code  is 
contained  in  the  army  act  of  1881. 

Ar'ticles,  The  Six.  In  English  Church  his- 
tory these  were  articles  of  faith  imposed  by  the 
Act  31  Henry  VIII.  cap.  xiv.,  passed  by  Par- 
liament in  1539,  and  known  as  the  Six-stringed 
Whip  or  Bloody  Statute,  from  the  merciless  per- 
secutions to  which  it  gave  rise.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  composition  of  King 
Henry  himself,  and  they  had  no  formal  authority 
from  the  Church.  They  enforced  belief  in  tran- 
substantiation ;  declared  communion  in  both 
kinds  unnecessary;  the  marriage  of  priests  was 
unlawful;  that  vows  of  chastity  or  widowhood 
were  absolutely  binding;  and  that  private  masses 
and  auricular  confession  were  expedient  and  ne- 
cessary. The  severity  of  the  act  was  soon  miti- 
gated, and  it  was  finally  repealed  in  the  first  year 
of  Edward  VI. 

Ar'ticles,  The  Thirty-nine,  of  the  Church 
of  England,  a  term  applied  to  a  body  of  divinity, 
chiefly  founded  on  the  formulary  of  Forty-two 
Articles  compiled  by  Archbishop  Cranmer  in 
1551,  in  obedience  to  the  command  of  Edward 
VI.  'and  the  privy  council,  who  instructed  him 
to  "frame  a  book  of  articles  of  religion,  for  the 
preserving  and  maintaining  peace  and  unity  of 
doctrine  in  this  Church,  that,  being  finished,  they 
might  be  set  forth  by  public  authority."  Several 
of  these  articles  ( the  1st,  2d.  25th,  and  31st)  were 
drawn  directly  from  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
and  the  9th  and  16th  are  traceable  to  the  same 


source.  During  the  reign  of  Mary  the  Articles 
were  suppressed,  but  the  accession  of  Elizabeth 
offered  an  opportunity  of  drawing  up  a  fresh  for- 
mulary. In  1562-3  a  convocation  was  held,  in 
the  course  of  whose  sitting  King  Edward's  Ar- 
ticles were  carefully  considered  and  revised  As 
the  result  of  this  revision  (mainly  the  work  of 
Archbishop  Parker,  assisted  by  Bishops  Grindal, 
Horn,  and  Fox),  four  of  the  original  42  articles 
were  omitted,  namely,  the  10th,  null,  inth,  and 
41st,  and  articles  5th,  12th,  29th,  and  301I1  were 
newly  introduced;  17  other  articles  wire  more  or 
less  modified.  On  a  further  revision  articles 
YAh,  40th,  and  42d  were  struck  out,  and  some 
slight  changes  made  in  several  others.  These  39 
articles  were  drawn  up  and  ratified  in  Latin,  but 
when  printed  both  in  Latin  and  English  the  29th 
was  omitted  and  the  first  clause  of  the  20th 
struck  out.  The  39th  was,  however,  restored  on 
a  final  revision  by  Parker  in  1571,  and  then  im- 
posed on  the  clergy  for  subscription.  Tiny  were 
ratified  anew  in  1604  and  1628.  All  candidates 
for  ordination  must  subscribe  these  articles,  but 
subscription  is  no  longer  necessary  on  matriculat- 
ing or  taking  a  degree  at  Oxford  or  Cambridge. 
This  formulary  is  now  accepted  by  the  Episco- 
palian Churches  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  and 
America. 

The  first  five  articles  contain  a  profession  of 
faith  in  the  Trinity,  the  incarnation  of  Jesus 
Christ,  his  descent  to  hell,  and  his  resurrection, 
and  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  The  three 
following  relate  to  the  canon  of  the  Scripture;. 
The  8th  article  declares  a  belief  in  the  Apostles', 
Nicene,  and  Athanasian  creeds.  The  oth  and 
following  articles  contain  the  doctrine  of  original 
sin,  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  of  predes- 
tination, etc.  The  19th,  20th,  and  21st  declare 
the  Church  to  be  the  assembly  of  the  faithful, 
and  that  it  can  decide  nothing  except  by  the 
Scriptures.  The  22d  rejects  the  doctrine  of  pur- 
gatory, indulgences,  the  adoration  of  images,  and 
the  invocation  of  saints.  The  23d  decides  that 
only  those  lawfully  called  shall  preach  or  ad- 
minister the  sacraments.  The  24th  requires  the 
liturgy  to  be  in  English.  The  25th  and  26th  de- 
clare the  sacraments  effectual  signs  of  grace 
(though  administered  by  evil  men),  by  which 
God  excites  and  confirms  our  faith.  They  are 
two:  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  Baptism, 
according  to  the  27th  article,  is  a  sign  of  regener- 
ation, the  seal  of  our  adoption,  by  which  faith  is 
confirmed  and  grace  increased.  In  the  Lord's 
Supper,  according  to  article  28th,  the  bread  is 
the  communion  of  the  body  of  Christ,  the  wine 
the  communion  of  his  blood,  but  only  through 
faith  (article  29)  ;  and  the  communion  must  be 
administered  in  both  kinds  (article  30).  The 
28th  article  condemns  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  and  the  elevation  and  adoration  of 
the  Host;  the  31st  rejects  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass  as  blasphemous ;  the  32d  permits  the  mar- 
riage of  the  clergy;  the  33d  maintains  the  effi- 
cacy of  excommunication.  The  remaining  arti- 
cles relate  to  the  supremacy  of  the  king,  the  con- 
demnation of  Anabaptists,  etc. 

Artk'ula'ta,  a  name  given  by  Cuvier  to  a 
branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  embracing  the 
worms  (Annulata)  and  Arthropoda.  The  group 
is  not  now  considered  a  natural  one,  and 
has  been  subdivided  into  several  branches  or 
phyla. 


ARTICULATION  —  ARTIGAS 


Ar'ticula'tion.  See  Joint. 
Artificial  Camphor,  a  product  manufac- 
tured from  turpentine.  The  sap  of  the  pine  tree 
after  it  is  distilled  and  purified  is  the  turpentine 
of  commerce.  A  couple  of  thousand  pounds  of 
this  material  is  placed  in  great  steam  reaction 
tanks ;  these  are  covered  with  asbestos  to  retain 
the  heat.  A  quantity  of  oxalic  acid,  which  is 
rich  in  oxygen,  is  likewise  placed  in  the  reaction 
tanks,  together  with  the  turpentine,  and  when 
the  chemical  action  resulting  from  the  union 
has  been  completed  two  new  chemicals  are 
formed  and  are  known  as  pinol  oxalate  and  pinol 
formate,  respectively.  These  are  in  liquid  form 
and  are  conveyed  to  a  set  of  distilling  tanks  by 
means  of  a  force  pump ;  in  these  tanks  a  new 
element  is  introduced  in  the  form  of  an  alkali, 
and  when  mixed  with  the  liquid  live  steam  is 
turned  on.  After  distillation  camphor  results, 
together  with  some  of  the  essential  oils,  such  as 
oi!  of  lemon  and  others,  but  these  are  dissolved 
in  the  reaction  products,  which  also  contain  a 
kind  of  campl.ir  termed  borneol. 

Ar'tifi'cial  Flow'ers,  flowers  manufactured 
from  cloth  or  other  substances  in  close  imita- 
tion of  natural  flowers,  for  purposes  of  orna- 
ment. The  leaves  and  petals  are  generally  made 
of  silk  or  cambric  punched  out  to  proper  shapes 
and  sizes.  These  are  tinted  with  a  brush  and 
color,  and  if  necessary  glazed  with  gum  or 
sprinkled  with  fine  flock  to  imitate  the  glossy  or 
velvety  surface  of  natural  flowers.  The  ribs, 
where  present,  are  indented  with  a  warm  iron. 
The  stamens  and  pistils  are  formed  of  wire  cov- 
ered with  silk  and  dipped  in  gum-water  to  form 
the  anthers.  The  stalk  is  then  made  of  wire, 
coated  with  green  paper,  and  fixed  to  the 
stamens  and  pistil,  around  which  are  attached 
the  petals,  and  lastly  the  calyx.  Buds  are  made 
of  cotton  or  glass  balls  covered  with  cambric  of 
a  proper  color.  This  industry  has  been  success- 
fully carried  on  in  the  United  States,  where  a 
large  number  of  women  are  constantly  employed 
in  making  artificial  flowers.  The  coloring  mat- 
ter, however,  used  for  these  articles  is  often 
nothing  less  than  the  deadly  poison  arsenic. 
Hoffman  and  other  chemists  have  shown  that 
the  most  terrible  effects  may  spring  from  the 
use  of  these  arsenical  compounds. 

Ar'tifi'cial  Limbs,  substitutes  for  human 
arms  and  legs  and  parts  thereof,  the  manufac- 
ture of  which  has  received  the  attention  of  sur- 
geons and  mechanics  from  a  very  early  date, 
in  the  great  work  on  surgery  by  Ambrose  Pare, 
in  1579,  he  refers  to  and  gives  detailed  illustra- 
tions of  an  artificial  arm  and  leg,  and  although 
the  construction  was  of  a  rude  character  they 
showed  a  very  good  attempt  to  conceal  the  mu- 
tilation. In  1606  an  artificial  leg  was  invented 
by  Vcrduin,  a  Dutch  surgeon.  It  was  composed 
of  a  wooden  foot,  to  which  was  fastened  two 
strips  of  steel  extending  up  to  the  knee.  To 
these  strips  was  riveted  a  copper  socket  to  re- 
ceive the  stump:  a  leather  for  lacing  around  the 
thigh  was  connected  to  the  socket  by  tun  steel 
side-joints,  thus  dividing  the  points  of  support 
between  the  thigh  and  stump.  The  construction 
jnf  this  leg  was  improved  later  by  Prof.  Serre  of 
Montpelier.  Improvements  and  new  limbs  were 
more  recently  introduced  into  England  and 
France  by  Fred.  Martin.  M.  Charri-ere,  AIM. 
Mathieu  and  Bechard,  but  these  were  mostly 
unprotected  by  patents.    Thomas  Mann  secured 


patents  for  artificial  limbs  20  Jan.  1790,  and  1810. 
James  Potts  of  England  patented  a  new  leg  15 
Nov.  1800.  This  soon  became  celebrated  as  the 
"Anglesea  leg,"  because  it  was  so  long  worn  by 
the  Marquis  of  Anglesea.  An  improvement  on 
this  leg  was  patented  by  William  Selpho,  who 
was  the  first  manufacturer  of  note  in  New  York, 
where  he  established  himself  in  1839.  Other  in- 
ventors and  manufacturers  soon  took  a  great  in- 
terest in  the  business  —  so  many,  in  fact,  that  the 
American  patent  office  shows  a  record  of  about 
150  patents  on  artificial  legs,  or  more  than  double 
that  of  all  European  patents  on  limbs.  The  Civil 
War,  which  caused  the  mutilation  of  so  many 
soldiers  and  sailors,  and  the  liberality  of  the 
government  in  supplying  their  losses  with  arti- 
ficial limbs,  naturally  stimulated  the  efforts  of 
inventors  in  producing  such  substitutes  as  would 
be  accepted.  These  soldiers  and  sailors  are  sup- 
plied once  in  every  five  years,  and  to  this  de- 
mand is  added  that  of  those  who  have  lost  limbs 
from  disease  or  accident,  making  in  all  about 
100,000  in  the  United  States  who  have  to  be  sup- 
plied with  new  limbs  on  an  average  of  about 
once  in  every  five  to  eight  years.  The  perfection 
to  which  limbs  have  been  brought  is  wonderful 
and  very  interesting.  A  person  with  two  arti- 
ficial legs  can  walk  so  perfectly  as  to  avoid  de- 
tection, and  a  person  with  a  single  amputation 
can  almost  defy  detection.  Notable  improve- 
ments in  artificial  limbs,  and  more  particularly 
in  legs,  were  made  by  C.  A.  Frees  of  New  York. 
One  of  these  improvements,  and  one  of  the  most 
important,  consists  in  the  movements  of  the 
knee  and  ankle  joints,  by  which  the  whole  limb 
is  strengthened  and  made  more  durable.  An  im- 
portant feature  of  this  piece  of  mechanism  con- 
sists in  the  introduction  of  a  universal  motion  at 
the  ankle-joint,  imitating  the  astragalus  move- 
ment with  an  additional  joint,  and  thus  produc- 
ing a  most  perfect  artificial  substitute.  Another 
of  his  improvements  of  equal  importance,  is  in 
the  knee-joint  of  the  leg  for  thigh  amputation, 
which  is  so  arranged  that  when  in  a  sitting  posi- 
tion the  cord  and  spring  are  entirely  relaxed, 
relieving  all  strain  and  pressure;  and  when  ris- 
ing to  an  upright  position  the  cord  and  spring 
are  again  brought  into  proper  position  without 
strain  or  unnatural  movement,  no  extra  attach- 
ments being  required.  Artificial  arms  and  exten- 
sion apparatus  for  short  legs  are  also  wonderful 
examples  of  American  ingenuity. 

Ar'tifi'cial  Respira'tion.  See  Asphyxia; 
Drowning   (Treatment)  :  Respiration. 

Artificial  Stone,  a  combination  of  hydrau- 
lic cement,  broken  stone,  sand.  etc..  cemented 
together.  There  are  many  varieties,  some  of 
which  are  exceedingly  valuable  for  building 
purposes,  especially  in  localities  where  building- 
stone  is  not  readily  obtained.  Cements  thus 
made  increase  in  strength  and  solidity  for  an 
indefinite  period.  This  stone  is  in  constantly  in- 
creasing demand.  For  the  various  kinds  and 
uses  see  Ckment. 

Artigas,  ar-te'gas,  Fernando  Jose,  a  South 
American  soldier,  dictator  of  Uruguay:  b.  Mon- 
tevideo, 1755:  d.  in  1851.  '  In  [8ll  lie  joined  the 
revolt  of  Buenos  Ayres  against  Spain,  whose 
troops  he  repeatedly  defeated;  but  acting  for 
himself  was  outlawed  by  the  insurrectionary 
junta,  whoso  troops  in  turn  he  routed  and  com- 
pelled it  to  cede  Uruguay  to  him  in  1814.  Me 
then  assumed  the  dictatorship,  but  in   1820  was 


ARTILLERY 


defeated  and  fled  to   Paraguay,  where  the   dic- 
ta   ii     Francia    banished    him    to    Candelaria, 

Thereafter  he  devoted  himself  to  agriculture  and 
philanthropy. 

Artillery  (a  restricted  use  of  a  word 
properly  meaning  simply  "works  of  skill,"  "clev- 
er inventions")  :  (i)  All  firearms  too  heavy  to 
be  carried  in  the  hand  and  therefore  rested  on 
carriages  or  masonry  foundations;  (2)  the  divi- 
sion of  army  or  navy  which  uses  such  arms;  (3) 
the  science  treating  of  their  theory  and  practice. 
The  first  is  divided  into  horse  artillery, —  light 
guns  mainly  for  cavalry  use,  with  mounted  gun- 
ners, and  much  the  same  as  Hying  artillery,  for 
rapid  evolutions  in  the  field,  whose  gunners  are 
either  mounted  or  ride  on  the  gun-carriages  of 
ammunition  wagons  when  moving;  field  artillery, 
for  general  infantry  service, —  sometimes  used  to 
include  the  foregoing,  but  commonly  specialized 
to  mean  the  same  as  foot  artillery,  with  un- 
mounted gunners;  (light  artillery  includes  both 
these  classes,  as  distinguished  from  the  follow- 
ing) ;  and  heavy  artillery, —  all  that  is  not  mo- 
bile enough  for  field  evolutions, —  divided  into 
siege  or  garrison  artillery,  for  breaching  the  walls 
of  fortresses  or  defending  field  works,  and  coast 
artillery,  for  permanent  works,  with  carriages 
too  heavy  for  transport,  classed  as  siege,  case- 
mate, barbette,  and  mortar  carriages. 

A  park  of  artillery  is  a  complete  set  of  artil- 
lery equipment. — •  including  the  guns,  carriages, 
caissons  (see  Ammunition,  under  "ammunition 
wagons"),  repair  outfit,  harness,  field  forges,  etc., 
—  gathered  in  one  spot,  in  barracks  or  in  action; 
in  the  latter  case  the  reserve  equipment  is 
"parked*  out  of  range  of  the  enemy's  fire.  A 
train  of  artillery  is  a  certain  number  of  pieces 
mounted  on  carriages  and  with  all  their  furni- 
ture, ready  for  marching.  "Artillery  carriages" 
means  either  wagons  for  carrying  ammunition 
or  supplies,  as  above ;  or  gun-carriages,  to  draw 
the  guns  with  or  fire  them  from,  which  may  be 
cither  stationary  as  for  coast  service  and  per- 
manent works,  or  movable  as  in  field  service. 
The  part  which  rests  on  the  ground  in  firing  is 
called  the  trail;  the  detachable  pair  of  wheels 
by  which  it  is  drawn  about,  in  addition  to  the 
fixed  pair,  is  called  the  limber,  and  the  gun  is 
said  to  be  "unlimbered"  when  they  are  taken 
away  to  let  the  gun  be  served,  and  "limbered  up" 
when  they  are  attached. 

The  old  word  "cannon"  is  not  now  used  by 
professionals,  but  "gun"  instead.  The  volume  of 
a  gun's  service  is  defined  either  by  the  diameter 
of  its  bore,  as  6-inch,  12-inch,  etc.;  or  by  the 
weight  of  the  spherical  iron  solid  shot  it  holds, 
as  12-pounder,  18-pounder,  etc.  (often  abbre- 
viated to  12's,  18's,  etc.).  The  latter  character- 
ization has  long  been  used  to  denote  calibre  only, 
without  reference  to  the  actual  weight  of  the  pro- 
jectile it  fires:  thus,  a  12-pounder  may  fire  a 
30-pound  conical  shell.  This  is  necessarily  so 
since  the  entire  disuse  of  spherical  shot  (see 
Ammunition). 

The  relation  of  artillery  to  small-arms  was  es- 
sentially the  same  before  the  invention  of  gun- 
powder as  afterward :  hand-arms,  as  arrows, 
darts,  slings,  swords,  etc.,  corresponded  to  small- 
arms  and  the  bayonet;  while  the  artillery  con- 
sisted of  machinery  too  heavy  to  be  held  up,  for 
throwing  large  projectiles,  the  power  being 
springs,    levers,    or    weights.     Midway    between 


them,  however, —  as  the  matchlock  arquebuse, 
rested  on  the  ground  to  fire,  was  between  small- 
arms  and  artillery,  but  a  far  more  efficient 
weapon, —  was  the  crossbow  or  arbalist :  a  heavy 
bow  with  steel  or  horn  frame,  stretched  by  a 
winch  or  in  its  larger  sizes  by  a  windlass,  and 
shooting  a  notched  quarrel  (that  is,  a  quadrate 
or  square-headed  bolt),  or  sometimes  stones  or 
balls  of  lead.  It  could  be  carried  by  a  hunter, 
or  fixed  on  field  or  deck;  could  penetrate  armor, 
and  was  so  destructive  as  to  be  prohibited  by  the 
Church  except  in  war  against  the  Infidel  ;  and  in 
the  early  Middle  Ages  was  as  decisive  in  naval 
or  siege  warfare,  when  well  handled,  as  modern 
artillery,  winning  many  important  sea  fights  and 
others;  but  in  the  field  it  was  too  slow  for  the 
highest  efficiency,  as  it  could  be  fired  only  twice 
a  minute.  Its  larger  sizes  were  true  artillery  in 
the  modern  sense ;  and  like  it,  but  heavier,  were 
the  ballista,  springal,  and  onager,  which  threw 
stones  from  a  bucket  or  bag,  also  beams  and 
masses  of  inflammable  material,  at  or  over  walls 
of  besieged  places.  The  catapult,  mangonel,  and 
trebuchet  (the  latter  a  machine  of  surprising 
accuracy  and  power,  as  proved  by  an  experimen- 
tal model  made  by  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  in 
1850,  and  used  to  breach  walls)  threw  the  same 
missiles  by  means  of  a  spring  lever  balanced  by 
a  heavy  weight,  and  held  down  by  a  windlass. 

The  introduction  of  modern  gunpowder  ar- 
tillery is  clouded  by  unverifiable  legends  and 
confused  with  the  use  of  explosive  mixtures  to 
make  a  terrifying  noise,  and  with  the  throwing 
of  inflammable  materials  by  the  machines  above 
mentioned.  If  the  Chinese  invented  it,  as  al- 
leged, they  did  it  so  ineffectively  that  the  great 
progressive  military  genius  Timur  (1333-1405) 
did  not  think  it  wortli  using;  and  if  the  Spanish 
Saracens  used  it  in  Spanish  sieges  in  the  12th 
century,  they  did  not  employ  it  against  Northern 
foes,  nor  did  the  latter  borrow  it;  whereas  within 
a  few  years  of  the  first  verifiable  European  notice 
we  have  it, —  a  Florentine  order  of  1326  relat- 
ing to  the  manufacture  of  cannon  and  iron  balls, 
■ — it  had  gone  over  Europe  like  wild-fire.  The 
Germans  used  it  at  Cividale,  Italy,  in  1331 ;  Ed- 
ward III.  by  at  least  1338;  the  latter  formed  a 
regular  artillery  train  of  iron  and  brass  cannon  in 
1344  (in  which  year  also  Petrarch  speaks  of  it 
as  familiar  and  common),  and  employed  it  at 
Crecy  in  1346,  though  ineffectively.  Naturally 
cannon  came  before  small-arms  :  even  so,  the  first 
were  excessively  clumsy  in  size  and  construction, 
— bell-shaped  tubes  with  a  touchhole  for  a  train 
of  priming  powder  set  off  by  a  fuse  or  red-hot 
in  hi  above;  made  of  iron  bars  hooped  together, 
or  of  hand-hammered  and  bored  iron,  copper,  or 
brass  cylinders ;  and  supported  on  immense  plat- 
forms drawn  by  scores  or  even  hundreds  (as 
with  Mohammed  II. 's  cannon  at  the  siege  of  Con- 
stantinople in  1453)  of  draft  animals,  or  of  men. 
Sometimes  they  were  not  even  closed  tubes,  but 
open  at  breech  as  well  as  muzzle,  the  shot  being 
wedged  in ;  sometimes  they  had  no  carriages,  but 
were  rolled  into  position  and  wedged  or  blocked 
there.  They  were  mortars  rather  than  cannon  in 
the  modern  sense,  being  short  and  wide-mouthed, 
and  sending  off  their  halls  or  stones  at  a  great 
elevation,  and  were  known  as  bombards  or  vases. 
They  were  of  use  mainly  in  siege  work  :  and  it 
was  not  till  toward  1500  that  field  artillery  in  its 
modern  sense  came  into  much  use,  Charles  VIII. 


ARTILLERY    DRILL — THE   FORMATION   OF   THE   HOLLOW   SQUARE. 


ARTILLERY    DRILL. 


ARTILLERY    DRILL — PREPARING   TO    MOVE   GUNS. 


AS  III  I  IKY    DRI1  I.. 


ARTILLERY 


of  France  utilizing  it  in  his  Italian  campaigns 
from  1488  onward. 

There  was  no  permanent  artillery  organiza- 
tion :  the  gunners  were  detailed  from  garrisons, 
and  disbanded  and  sent  back  there  as  soon  as  the 
campaign  was  over;  and  in  England  the  com- 
mand in  the  field  was  by  the  Master  of  the  Ord- 
nance, an  artillery  commissary-general  in  effect. 
The  transport  cattle  were  hired  or  impressed, 
and  the  drivers  of  gun-carriages  were  ordinary 
teamsters  hired  by  contract  or  secured  for  the 
occasion.  Curiously,  these  last  did  not  form  a 
part  of  the  military  body  till  Napoleon's  time. 

The  16th  century  developed  this  arm  greatly 
in  volume,  but  not  so  much  in  science:  projectile 
mathematics  were  rudimentary,  and  the  imperfect 
mobility  of  the  guns  crippled  their  usefulness  in 
battle  —  once  they  had  fired  a  few  rounds  in  ad- 
vance of  the  troops  to  clear  a  path  and  cow  the 
enemy,  their  service  was  nearly  at  an  end,  as  they 
could  not  fire  when  their  own  troops  were  in 
front  of  them  nor  move  in  front  or  flank  to 
avoid  them  (the  battle  of  Pavia  was  lost  by 
this)  ;  and  were  regularly  captured  and  retaken 
as  either  side  gained  ground.  Francis  I.,  how- 
ever (1515-47),  lightened  their  make  and  took 
care  to  secure  the  best  draft  horses,  and  won 
Marignano  (1515)  with  them;  Louis  XII.  (1498- 
1515J  owed  much  of  his  success  in  the  Italian 
wars  to  this  arm:  and  Charles  V.  (1519-55) 
shared  in  its  development,  his  Netherland  sub- 
jects being  so  forward  in  it  that  Henry  VIII. 
employed  Dutch  gunners  to  instruct  his  men. 
The  use  of  cast  bronze,  giving  surer  bore  and 
calculability,  as  well  as  lightness  for  a  given 
power,  became  common ;  the  bell-shaped  mortars 
gave  place  to  18-pound  culverins  for  siege  work, 
and  to  2's,  4's,  6H's,  and  8's  (called  falcons, 
falconets,  and  sakers)  in  the  field.  The  great 
difficulty  of  carriages  also, — ■  to  find  one  easily 
drawn  yet  stable  enough  to  fire  from, —  was  par- 
tially surmounted ;  and  in  Holland  the  miscel- 
laneous calibres  and  classes  of  cannon  were  re- 
duced to  four  —  6's,  12's.  24's.  and  48's.  The 
Dutch  and  Huguenot  religious  wars  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  century  developed  the  rudiments  of 
a  genuine  system  of  artillery  tactics,  the  use  of 
the  arm  in  connection  with  other  arms  as  part 
of  a  tactical  whole. 

The  first  half  of  the  17th  century  is  the 
first  great  landmark  in  the  history  of  artillery. 
Henry  IV.  of  France  in  his  later  years  (d. 
1610)  occupied  himself  greatly  with  it;  his 
minister  Sully  was  master-general  of  artillery, 
and  turned  out  over  400  pieces ;  and  Maurice  of 
Nassau  (1584-1625),  son  of  William  the  Silent, 
was  much  concerned  with  it.  But  its  re-creator 
was  Gustavus  Adolphus  (161 1-32),  who  made 
it  almost  the  centre  of  his  system  of  warfare. 
Seeing  that  weight  of  ball  was  of  minor  con- 
sequence with  the  human  body  as  a  target,  or 
length  of  range  at  close  quarters,  he  devoted  his 
whole  attention  to  securing  mobility  and  rapidity 
of  fire.  The  former  he  obtained  by  putting 
nothing  above  a  12-pounder  into  the  field,  and  by 
having  a  very  light  gun  constructed,  the  fact 
that  it  would  bear  but  a  small  charge  being 
immaterial :  it  was  made  of  a  "thin  cylinder  of 
beaten  copper,  screwed  into  a  brass  breech, 
strengthened  with  four  iron  bands."  the  whole 
covered  with  mastic,  cords,  plaster,  and  finally 
boiled  and  varnished  leather.  It  was  called  the 
kaltcr  or  the  "leather  gun,"  and  could  be  drawn 


about  by  the  two  gunners  who  served  it.  But 
the  light  charge  it  could  bear  made  its  range 
too  short  for  the  best  results,  and  later  it  was 
replaced  by  a  four-pound  iron  cannon,  drawn 
by  two  horses.  He  had  also  heavier  guns  to 
beat  down  defenses,  which  in  retreat  he  protected 
by  the  lighter  ones.  Rapid  fire  he  secured  by 
inventing  the  cartridge  instead  of  pouring  in 
powder,  and  his  cannon  could  be  fired  faster 
than  the  ordinary  musket.  The  kalter  guns  were 
first  introduced  during  his  Polish  wars;  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  war  his  success  was  greatly 
helped  by  his  improved  artillery  against  the  Im- 
perialists' clumsy  weapons  and  methods.  At 
Breitenfeld  (1631),  Tilly's  guns  were  mainly 
24-pounders  requiring  20  horses  each  and  12 
for  the  wagons,  could  hardly  be  moved  in  ac- 
tion, and  were  almost  at  once  silenced  by  the 
advance  of  their  own  troops;  at  the  Lech  (1632) 
Gustavus  converged  72  pieces  on  the  enemy  at 
the  river  bend  and  make  a  crossing  practicable ; 
at  Liitzen  (1632),  Wallenstein's  batteries  were 
practically  stationary,  Gustavus  had  heavy  ones 
on  his  wings  and  centre  and  moving  with  them. 
He  attached  two  guns  to  each  regiment,  under 
the  colonel's  orders  —  the  "battalion  system,"  but 
whose  defect  of  dispersion  of  guns  he  cor- 
rected by  also  massing  strong  batteries  to  con- 
centrate a  crushing  fire  where  needed ;  and  he 
raised  the  total  proportion  of  guns  to  6  per 
1.000  men,  fully  double  that  of  any  other  nation. 
He  also  first  saw  that  field  and  garrison  service 
were  essentially  distinct,  and  separated  the  two 
branches  of  artillery  not  only  in  material  but 
men.  In  England  during  this  century,  though 
the  leather  guns  were  used  by  the  Scotch  in 
1640  on  the  invasion  of  England,  and  the  Par- 
liamentary army  was  crushed  at  Roundway 
Down  (1643)  by  artillery,  it  remained  in  a 
comparatively  undeveloped  state,  owing  to  the 
lack  of  the  constant  wars  of  the  Continent ;  the 
complaint  was  made  that  there  were  no  expert 
gunners  in  England. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  the  perpet- 
ual wars  of  Louis  XIV.  led  to  a  still  further  de- 
velopment of  this  arm.  Even  in  the  first  part 
of  his  reign  it  was  in  a  very  primitive  condition. 
The  artillery  officers  had  no  functions  whatever 
in  time  of  peace,  their  nominal  offices  being  pure- 
ly titular ;  Vauban  protested  against  this,  but  it 
was  not  remedied  till  Valliere's  reforms  of  1732. 
In  1671,  however,  Louvois  first  established  a  per- 
manent organization  for  it,  creating  a  regiment 
of  artillerymen  consisting  of  gunners  and  work- 
men, and  establishing  schools  of  instruction.  The 
calibres  were  reduced  in  number  and  made  uni- 
form—  those  left  (4's.  6's,  8's,  12's,  18's,  24's, 
and  32's)  remain  in  use  still,  some  of  them 
rifled ;  bronze  and  iron  were  both  used ;  car- 
riages were  much  improved,  made  of  wrought 
iron  and  provided  with  limbers,  a  special  one 
invented  for  coast  artillery,  and  platform  wag- 
ons introduced.  The  development  under  him, 
however,  was  more  in  siege  than  field  artillery. 
The  Dutch  and  English  introduced  howitzers  (a 
gun  with  a  powder  chamber  smaller  than  the 
bore,  for  horizontal  shell-firing,  combining  some- 
thing of  cannon  accuracy  with  mortar  calibre), 
mortars,  and  explosive  shells,  both  hand  and 
gun :  and  used  canvas  cartridges  and  grape-shot 
(several  iron  balls  in  a  canvas  case).  The 
Woolwich  arsenal  was  established  in  1672.  In 
1682  the  gunners  were  for  the  first  time  put  un- 


ARTILLERY 


dcr  military  discipline,  their  function  being  pre- 
viously considered  that  of  civil  artisans,  and  in- 
deed the  master  gunners  were  carried  on  the 
civil  establishment  till  1783;  in  1794  it  was  still 
thought  needful  to  give  the  ordnance  officers 
express  authority  over  the  gunners,  by  com- 
mission. William  III.  (1(180-1702)  formed  the 
first  English  regimental  artillery  establishment! 
in  place  of  detailing  men  from  other  arms  as 
needed.  England,  however,  was  relatively  back- 
ward. 

The  first  half  of  the  18th  century  saw  great 
extension  of  the  specializing  in  this  arm,  and 
the  quality  of  its  items;  but  not  very  much 
invention.  In  France,  Valliere  the  elder,  a 
practical  artillery  general  of  immense  ability, 
made  great  improvements;  he  reduced  the  cal- 
ibres to  five ;  lengthened  the  pieces,  on  the 
ground  that  short  ones  had  less  range  and  less 
accuracy,  less  ricochet  and  greater  recoil,  took 
more  munitions  and  transport  for  equal  service, 
and  could  not  be  used  in  sieges ;  he  also  greatly 
extended  the  training  schools,  and  the  continued 
practice  of  the  arm  in  time  of  peace.  Less  use- 
fully, he  fought  with  success  against  separating 
the  field  artillery  from  the  engineers,  as  involv- 
ing two  artillery  trains  instead  of  one.  In  Eng- 
land. Marlborough  used  it  with  effect  as  it  was; 
the  "Royal  Regiment  of  Artillery"  was  formed 
in  1716  (the  present  body  in  1722),  and  in  1741 
the  Royal  Military  Academy  was  instituted  at 
Woolwich.  The  manufacture  and  service  were 
both  greatly  improved ;  the  English  artillery  was 
noted  "for  its  lightness,  elegance,  and  the  good 
quality  of  its  materials."  The  guns  in  use  at 
the  middle  of  the  century  were  24's.  12's,  6's,  and 
3's,  in  "brigades"  (batteries)  of  four,  five,  and 
six  guns,  divided  into  light  and  heavy  brigades; 
each  field  gun  drawn  by  four  horses,  the  two 
leaders  driven  by  artillerymen.  In  Frederick's 
wars,  the  English  artillery  won  great  distinction. 
Frederick  himself  hardly  valued  this  arm  at 
its  full  value  till  the  melting  away  of  his  trained 
soldiers  compelled  him  to  rely  upon  it  more  and 
more.  This  was  perhaps  rather  from  the  ex- 
tremely poor  state  in  which  his  father  left  it, 
than  from  lack  of  understanding;  that  he  real- 
ized at  least  a  part  of  its  defects  and  its  im- 
portance is  shown  by  the  fact  that  finding  the 
gunners  and  engineers  mostly  mechanics  of  in- 
ferior grade,  he  at  once  drafted  the  worst  of 
them  into  garrisons,  replacing  them  with  men  of 
competence  and  position ;  and  as  they  had  no 
commissions,  and  were  consequently  scorned  by 
the  other  arms  of  the  service,  he  gave  the  officers 
commissions  and  extra  pay,  and  ranked  them 
with  officers  of  the  guards.  But  his  father  had 
given  all  his  attention  to  the  drill  and  discipline 
and  physical  magnitude  of  his  soldiers,  to  the 
neglect  of  the  artillery,  which  at  his  death  con-i 
sisted  of  only  one  battalion  of  field  and  one  of 
garrison,  of  six  and  four  companies  respectively; 
and  Frederick  inherited  his  general  policy, 
though  with  a  larger  mind.  His  artillery  was 
vastly  nferior  to  the  Austrian,  raised  to  a  pre- 
eminent position  by  Prince  Lichtenstcin.  There 
were  two  pieces  to  a  battalion,  directed  by  a  cor- 
poral without  independent  authority,  and  the 
battalion  commander  had  enough  on  his  mind 
without  attending  to  artillery,  which  were  ex- 
pected always  to  keep  a  certain  distance  in  ad- 
vance of  the  troops,  thus  scanting  their  time 
to  fire  during  an  advance,  and  were  usually  cap- 


tured in  a  sudden  retreat  from  lack  of  time  to 
limber  up.  Still  they  did  good  service  at  Koss- 
bach,  Hochkirchen,  and  Leuthen;  and  Freder- 
ick raised  the  proportion  of  guns  to  men,  and 
in  1750  formed  the  first  battery  of  horse  artil- 
lery, of  6-pounders  and  7-pound  howitzers  — 
placing  great  reliance  on  howitzers,  making  much 
use  of  them  against  intrenchments,  and  after 
the  war  attaching  40  heavy  pieces  to  each  corps. 
With  only  2l/2  or  3  guns  per  1,000  at  the  outset, 
he  ended  with  5  or  6 ;  he  created  a  horse  artillery 
almost  as  rapid  as  cavalry ;  and  although  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Seven  Years'  war  he  had  made 
the  error  Gustavus  avoided,  of  using  too  heavy 
pieces  in  the  field,  he  grew  to  appreciate  mobility 
better,  and  gradually  replaced  them  by  lighter 
ones,  saving  the  others  for  siege  and  garrison 
guns.  His  wars  made  three  important  changes 
in  artillery  tactics;  the  distribution  of  small  bat- 
teries at  important  points  in  place  of  concen- 
trating large  ones  on  centre  and  flank;  the 
preparation  for  an  advance  and  the  protection  of 
deploying  columns  by  light  guns;  and  the  rapid 
change  in  position  of  batteries,  made  possible  by 
the  horse  artillery.  The  latter  was  employed 
by  the  Russians  also,  each  regiment  having 
three  howitzers  with  mounted  gunners. 

The  greatest  artillery  result  of  Frederick's 
wars,  however,  was  in  France.  This  country 
had  been  very  backward  in  that  arm  since  Louis 
XIV. 's  time,  ammunition  and  transport  being  es- 
pecially crude.  In  1765  Gen.  Gribeauval,  termed 
the  "father  of  the  modern  artillery  system,"  — 
who  had  held  an  artillery  command  under  Lich- 
tenstein  in  the  Seven  Years'  war,  and  admired 
the  efficiency  of  the  Austrian  system, —  under- 
took to  reconstruct  the  French  one  from  the  bot- 
tom;  for  many  years  the  fierce  resistance  he 
encountered  made  it  impossible,  though  he  suc- 
ceeded in  reorganizing  the  personnel ;  but  in 
1776  he  became  inspector-general  of  artillery,  and 
carried  through  the  rest  of  the  most  far-reaching 
reform  ever  effected  in  this  arm,  much  of  it  per- 
manent to  this  day.  He  divided  it  into  field* 
siege,  garrison,  and  coast  artillery,  with  a  sepa- 
rate class  of  material  and  separate  personnel  for 
each.  For  all  material  a  uniform  construction 
was  adopted,  tables  of  construction  drawn  up. 
and  all  possible  parts  made  interchangeable.  For 
lightness  and  consequent  mobility,  he  made  the 
pieces  perfectly  plain,  reduced  the  length  and 
weight  of  field  pieces,  which  he  restricted  to 
12's  and  under  (guns  in  embrasures  or  behind 
parapets,  of  course,  could  not  be  shortened  ).  re 
duced  the  charge,  and  therefore  the  necessary 
windage  (the  difference  between  the  diameter  cf 
the  projectile  and  that  of  the  gun-bore).  Field 
guns  were  limited  to  4's,  8's,  and  12's,  and  6-inch 
'howitzers.  In  ammunition  the  old  grape  and 
case  shot  were  replaced  by  sheet-iron  canisters 
\ holding  cast-iron  balls.  Accuracy  of  fire  was 
I  vastly  improved  by  elevating  screws  and  tangent 
scales,  the  latter  based  on  the  mathematical  dis- 
covery that  the  path  of  a  projectile  is  not  flat. 
For  siege  and  garrison  guns  he  adopted  at  first 
the  12's  and  16's,  8-inch  howitzer,  and  10-inch 
mortar;  in  1785  the  8-,  10-,  and  12-inch  "gomer9 
mortar  (with  conical  bore).  The  carriages  were 
strengthened,  lightened  irr  draft,  and  improved  in 
mechanism,  and  ammunition  chests  affixed;  trun- 
nion poles  and  the  prolonge  rope  (to  unite  limber 
with  trail,  for  firing  in  slow  retreat)  introduced, 
and  the  horses  harnessed  in  pairs  instead  of  tan- 


ARTILLERY 


dem  ;  and  the  bricole  devised  —  a  collar  with  rope 
and  hook  to  which  the  gunners  and  foot-soldiers 
harnessed  themselves.  A  new  ammunition 
wagon  carrying  fixed  ammunition  was  built. 
Siege  carriages  had  shafts  in  place  of  the  field 
carriages'  poles ;  garrison  carriages,  wheels  in 
front  and  a  truck  in  the  rear;  for  coast  service 
there  were  traversing  platforms,  with  bolt  in 
front  and  truck  in  rear  on  a  circular  racer.  The 
field  artillery  was  divided  into  regimental  guns 
and  corps  or  reserve  artillery ;  the  latter  was 
subdivided  into  divisions  of  eight  guns  of  the 
same  calibre,  and  a  company  of  artillery  as- 
signed to  each  brigade  of  four  battalions.  Eight 
pieces  were  also  attached  to  the  centre  and  to 
each  wing.  Horse  artillery  was  not  introduced 
till  1791,  and  horsemen  and  gunners  were  com- 
bined, each  learning  the  other's  work. 

In  the  wars  of  the  French  Republic,  in  1793, 
when  the  divisional  organization  was  adopted, 
guns  were  attached  to  the  divisions  as  well  as 
to  battalions;  in  1796  Napoleon  withdrew  them 
from  the  latter  and  abolished  the  old  "battalion 
system,"  to  the  great  advantage  of  both  arms, 
the  infantry  regiments  being  impeded  by  the 
guns  and  the  guns  ill  served  by  the  divided  com- 
mand. In  1800  he  took  the  last  step  in  profes- 
sionalizing the  arm,  by  establishing  a  driver 
corps  of  soldiers  in  place  of  outside  teamsters. 
His  only  change  in  guns  was  substituting  the 
6-pounder  of  the  8's  and  4's,  and  the  use 
of  a  24-pound  howitzer,  but  his  tactical  im- 
provements were  great.  He  employed  with  enor- 
mous effect  the  modern  system  of  massing  gun- 
fire on  selected  spots,  and  could  not  have  won 
his  prodigious  victories  without  it,  and  like 
Frederick,  as  his  soldiers  were  swept  away  he 
increased  his  artillery  force,  rising  from  2^2  to 
about  4  per  1,000.  His  tactics  are  still  part  of 
the  instruction  of  all  soldiers. 

The  British  began  their  long  struggle  against 
France  very  ill-equipped  in  all  military  points, 
and  in  none  more  so  than  artillery ;  guns,  am- 
munition, transport,  were  alike  crude  and  ill 
arranged,  the  whole  equipment  hardly  able  to 
move  faster  than  foot  pace.  The  field  artillery 
was  simply  garrison  artillery  drafted  into  the 
field.  Field  and  siege  guns  were  intermingled, 
in  batteries  of  12,  each  battalion  having  two; 
the  horses  were  in  tandem  of  three,  the  drivers 
carters  on  foot.  In  the  years  before  the  Penin- 
sular war  (1808-14),  however,  Major  Spear- 
man had  transformed  it.  Horse  artillery  was 
introduced  in  1793;  a  battery  consisting  of  two 
9's  and  three  6's  (later  of  9's  wholly),  and  a 
5^2-inch  howitzer.  A  driver  corps  was  formed 
in  1794,  consisting  of  a  few  subalterns,  non- 
commissioned officers,  artificers,  civilian  drivers 
and  horses  —  divided  into  "troops,"  one  added 
to  each  company  of  foot  artillery'-  Battalion 
guns  were  abolished  in  1802,  and  six-gun  field 
batteries  organized,  each  of  five  6  to  12-pound- 
ers  and  a  55^-inch  howitzer ;  the  drivers  were 
to  be  soldiers ;  the  horses  were  teamed  in  pairs, 
drivers  on  the  off  ones,  and  eight  gunners  car- 
ried on  the  limbers  and  wagons.  The  equipment 
was  lightened  and  simplified,  and  ammunition 
well  packed  instead  of  flung  into  rough  boxes. 
Excellent  additions  were  made  to  material  by 
the  invention  of  shrapnel  shell  by  Major  Shrap- 
nel in  1803.  and  by  the  development  of  the  an- 
tique rocket  from  a  mere  fire-signal  to  a  power- 
ful   engine    of    destruction,    by    Sir    William 


Congreve  in  1S06  —  the  latter  first  used  at  Cop- 
enhagen in  1807,  employed  with  great  efficiency 
at  Leipsic  in  1813,  in  the  Peninsular  war  at  the 
Adour,  and  in  the  War  of  1812  at  Bladensburg. 

Between  1815  and  the  Crimean  war,  the  most 
considerable  changes  in  material  were  the  in- 
vention of  a  powerful  12-pounder  howitzer 
weighing  only  220  pounds,  for  mountain  ser- 
vice, used  with  great  effectiveness  in  the  French 
campaigns  in  Algeria,  the  gun-carriage  and  am- 
munition going  on  muleback ;  the  introduction 
in  1852  by  Louis  Napoleon  —  a  hereditary  artil- 
lery student,  and  the  great  work  on  artillery 
under  his  auspices  is  still  a  standard  —  of  a  12- 
pounder  to  fire  either  solid  shot  or  shrapntl, 
known  as  the  "12-pounder  Napoleon,"  and  made 
the  sole  equipment  of  a  set  of  field  batteries, 
which  did  great  service  in  his  war  of  1859  with 
Austria;  and  the  application  of  rifling,  though 
not  efficiently  developed  till  later,  its  use  at 
Sebastopol  being  a  failure.  Carriages  and  am- 
munition wagons  were  also  improved  so  that  the 
gunners  could  ride  on  them,  much  increasing 
mobility;  the  trail  was  strengthened;  and  am- 
munition was  carried  in  boxes  on  the  limber. 
French  field  batteries,  from  1827,  consisted  of 
four  12's  and  two  6-inch  howitzers,  or  four  8's 
and  two  24-pound  howitzers.  In  England  in 
1820  the  horses  for  guns  and  wagons  were  in- 
creased from  six  and  four  to  eight  and  six  re- 
spectively. In  1822,  and  in  1829  in  France  the 
driver  corps  was  abolished,  men  being  enlisted 
as  "gunners  and  drivers.*'  and  distributed  among 
the  battalions;  naturally  it  worked  ill,  few  men 
being  adepts  in  gunnery  and  horse  management 
at  once.  In  1848  in  England,  the  horse  artillery 
was  raised  from  the  two  guns,  to  which  it  had 
been  skeletonized  after  181 5,  to  four,  and  in 
1852  to  six,  as  was  the  foot  artillery;  and  20 
batteries  were  formed,  several  more  being  added 
in  1855.  Even  so,  this  arm  was  badly  under- 
manned, and  deficient  in  both  number  and 
weight  of  guns,  in  the  Crimean  war.  where  it 
was  organized  in  position  batteries,  with  iS's 
and  8-inch  howitzers;  heavy  field,  with  12's  and 
32-pounder  howitzers ;  field,  with  9's  and  24- 
pounder  howitzers ;  horse,  with  6's  and  12- 
pounder  howitzers;  and  mountain,  with  3's  and 
4-inch  howitzers  —  each  field  and  horse  battery 
having  a  rocket  section.  The  French  organiza- 
tion was  horse  artillery,  with  mounted  gunners; 
line  or  field,  with  gunners  riding  on  the  ammu- 
nition chests;  and  siege  or  reserve,  with  gunners 
on  foot.  As  the  war  consisted  mainly  of  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol,  the  field  artillery  had  little 
scope,  though  used  with  notable  effect  at  the 
Alma  and  Inkerman,  and  mortar  fire  causing  p. 
frightful  destruction  in  the  Redan  at  the  end; 
and  the  relatively  great  increase  of  range  and 
accuracy  in  small  arms  over  that  of  artillery 
(not  then  effective  at  more  than  a  mile)  was 
making  the  heavier  arm  subordinate.  Later  in- 
ventions have  restored  the  balance. 

Breech-loading  and  rifling  now  come  into 
prominence.  The  earliest  cannon  were  breech- 
loaders, a  system  quicker  to  charge,  easier  to 
dean,  and  more  accurate  in  adjustment  of  mis- 
sile to  1.  .re,  and  thus  needing  less  windage  than 
muzzle-loading.  But  till  lately,  mechanical  sci- 
ence was  not  equal  to  its  requirements  of  nice 
adjustment,  and  muzzle-loading  superseded  it. 
The  defect  of  smooth-bores,  with  their  straight 
projectile  motion,  is  inaccuracy  at  long  ranges: 


ARTILLERY 


since,  as  a  projectile's  centre  of  gravity  rarely 
ides  with  its  longitudinal  axis,  the  farther  it 
goes  the  more  its  unevenness  of  mass  carrii  it 
out  of  the  initial  path.  A  whirling  motion  cor- 
rects  this  by  constantly  restoring  the  balance  and 
carrying  it  the  other  way;  and  this  is  provided 
by  spiral  grooving  of  the  gun  channel,  which 
was  invented  by  a  German  early  in  the  16th 
century,  but  like  the  other  system,  was  in  ad- 
vance of  mechanical  development.  In  1846  it 
was  for  the  first  time  practically  applied  to  ord- 
nance, and  rifled  siege  guns  were  used  against 
Sebastopol,  but  they  were  still  too  imperfect  for 
efficiency.  In  1858  rifled  12's  and  4's  were  adopt- 
ed by  France,  and  in  the  Franco-Austrian  war 
of  1859  were  used  with  great  effect,  increasing 
the  accurate  range  from  1,450  to  2,500  yards,  or 
nearly  double ;  while  the  Austrians,  for  genera- 
tions pre-eminent  not  only  for  handling  but 
material,  had  only  smooth-bore  6's  and  12's,  and 
32-pounder  howitzers,  with  the  lesser  range. 
The  nature  of  the  country  stinted  the  service  of 
artillery,  but  it  was  well  developed  at  Solferino 
and  brilliantly  handled  by  the  French  at  Medole. 
In  i860  the  introduction  of  the  Armstrong  rifled 
breech-loader,  first  used  in  the  Anglo-Chinese 
campaign  of  that  year,  led  to  a  transformation  of 
English  artillery  equipment :  7-inch  guns,  82 
hundredweight,  for  siege  and  garrison  service, 
40's  for  position  batteries,  20's  for  same  or  heavy 
field,  12's  of  8  hundredweight  for  light  field, 
q's  of  6  hundredweight  for  horse.  Field  car- 
riages were  provided  with  a  gun-metal  "saddle» 
worked  by  lever  and  hand  wheel,  with  elevating 
screw.  Ammunition  wagons  were  replaced  by 
separate  ammunition  columns. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Civil  War, 
the  United  States,  largely  owing  to  Lieut.  Rod- 
man of  the  Ordnance  Department, —  inventor  of 
the  Rodman  gun,  whose  casting  by  interior  cool- 
ing and  consequent  density  of  channel  metal, 
and  its  thickness  at  the  seat  of  charge,  enable  it 
to  bear  a  heavier  charge  without  bursting  than 
any  other, —  headed  the  world  in  artillery  ma- 
terial: both  quality  and  manufacture  were  un- 
surpassed. In  1861  it  cast  a  15-inch  Rodman, 
the  most  powerful  weapon  known ;  and  a  20- 
inch  smooth-bore  firing  a  1,080-pound  shot. 
Otherwise  its  equipment  was: — Field:  wrought- 
iron  rifled  3-inch,  range  2,800  yards ;  bronze  6's 
and  12's ;  «NapoleonM  12's,  range  1,500  yards, 
used  very  effectively  within  it  all  through  the 
war;  howitzers  —  12's,  24's,  and  32's,  and  moun- 
tain 12's.  Siege  and  garrison:  Cast-iron  rifled, 
4j4-inch ;  12's,  18's,  and  24's ;  howitzers,  24's 
and  8-inch  ;  mortars,  8-inch,  10-inch,  and  bronze 
Coehorn  (a  small  light  mortar  for  throwing 
grenades).  Coast  (most  of  it  at  once  turned 
into  field  batteries):  32's;  8-,  10-,  and  15-inch 
Columbiads  (for  both  shot  and  shell,  like  the 
Napoleons)  ;  10-inch  and  13-inch  mortars. 
There  were  18  calibres  altogether  — 7  of  "guns," 
3  of  Columbiads,  4  of  howitzers,  4  of  mortars. 
Eastern  armies  began  with  four  6-gun  batteries 
to  each  division,  about  half  of  them  being  used 
as  a  corps  reserve  wrhen  corps  were  formed ;  later 
the  batteries  were  reduced  to  four,  and  in  1863 
taken  from  the  divisions  as  formerly  from  the 
battalions,  being  formed  into  artillery  brigades 
of  4  to  12  batteries.  In  the  Western  armies  each 
infantry  brigade  had  a  battery  of  artillery  till 
1863,  when  as  in  the  East  a  massing  system  was 


begun.  In  the  Confederate  armies  each  division 
had  an  artillery  battalion  of  four  batteries,  and 
each  corps  two  battalions  as  a  reserve.  This 
ci  unbilled  system  has  been  substantially  adopted 
by  other  powers.  The  Civil  War  greatly  ad- 
vanced the  importance  of  artillery,  and  developed 
the  Napoleonic  massing  system. 

The  short  Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866  gave 
no  time  for  new  developments  in  military  sci- 
ence, and  in  artillery  service  the  victorious  Prus- 
sians were  as  usual  far  behind  the  Austrians, 
the  nigh  their  material  was  better.  They  used  for 
the  first  time  steel  breech-loading  rifled  guns, 
nominally  6's  and  4's,  but  using  15-pound  and 
9-pound  oblong  shells  with  percussion  fuse;  the 
Austrians  had  muzzle  loading  rilled  8's  and  4's, 
in  batteries  of  eight,  employing  the  brigade  sys- 
tem and  rocket  batteries  for  the  last  time.  Af- 
ter this  war  they  adopted  breech-loading  guns, 
and  armed  themselves  from  Krupp's  factories. 

By  the  time  of  the  Franco-Prussian  war  in 
1870  the  Prussians  had  made  great  advances  in 
artillery,  and  owed  a  part  of  their  success  to 
their  superiority  to  the  French,  lxith  in  numbers, 
power,  and  tactics  of  this  arm.  They  disused  re- 
serve artillery,  attaching  the  batteries  to  divi- 
sions and  corps  entirely;  each  cavalry  division 
had  two  batteries  of  horse  artillery;  they  pushed 
their  guns  well  in  advance,  preparing  the  way 
for  infantry  movements  by  concentrated  fire  on 
an  objective  point,  and  firing  with  deliberation  at 
ranges  from  650  to  3,300  yards ;  while  the  French 
wasted  their  fire  at  too  long  ranges,  held  it  too 
long  in  reserve,  and  used  it  in  small  batteries  in- 
stead of  masses.  Their  mitrailleuses,  first  em- 
ployed in  this  war,  were  a  disappointment, 
though  they  inflicted  great  losses  on  the  Prus- 
sians in  carrying  positions,  especially  when  suc- 
cessfully masked,  and  clearly  marked  out  the 
great  future  of  machine  guns ;  but  for  offensive 
work  against  field  artillery  they  were  not  fitted. 
The  Prussians  used  steel  breech-loading  g's  and 
4's>  3-7  guns  per  1,000;  the  French,  muzzle-load- 
ing 8's  and  4's,  with  some  "Napoleon"  12's,  3  to 
1,000. 

In  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1878  nothing 
new  of  any  sort  was  brought  forward.  The 
Turks  had  the  better  guns,  the  Russians  much 
the  greater  number;  the  former  used  Krupp's 
steel  breech-loaders  of  3.2  and  3.5  inches,  2.2 
per  1,000  men,  the  latter  bronze  breech-loading 
9's  and  6's,  3.9  per  1,000.  In  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can war  of  1898  there  was  little  use  for  artillery; 
and  the  only  novelty  was  the  furnishing  of 
smokeless  powder  after  Santiago,  when  it  was 
no  longer  needed.  A  3.2-inch  steel  breech-loader 
and  a  3.6-inch  field  mortar  were  used.  As  the 
siege  train  was  not  used,  its  composition  is  im- 
material. In  the  Philippines  and  China  3.2-inch 
field  and  mountain  guns  were  used.  In  the 
Boer  war,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  country 
and  the  operations,  artillery  played  but  a  small 
part,  and  developed  no  new  weapons ;  the  Boers, 
however,  had  for  years  laid  in  a  stock  of  much 
more  improved  material  than  the  English. 

See  Armament  of  the  World;  Army; 
Army  of  the  United  States:  Ordnance;  Pro- 
jectiles. For  ammunition  see  Ammunition'; 
Explosives;  Gunpowder.  For  the  relations 
of  the  artillery  arm  to  other  services  see 
Coast  Defense;  Fortification;  Siege  Works; 
Tactics. 


ARTILLERY  COMPANY—  ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES 


Artillery  Company,  The  Ancient  and 
Honorable,  a  military  organization  of  Boston, 
Mass.  It  was  copied  from  that  of  London,  was 
formed  in  1637,  and  was  the  first  regularly  or- 
ganized military  company  in  America. 

Artillery  Company,  The  Honorable,  the 
oldest  existing  body  of  volunteers  in  Great 
Britain.  It  was  instituted  in  1585,  and  com- 
prises six  companies  of  infantry,  besides  artil- 
lery, grenadiers,  light  infantry,  and  yagers.  It 
furnishes  a  guard  of  honor  to  the  sovereign 
when  visiting  London. 

Artillery  Corps,  the  official  name  of  the 
entire  artillery  service  of  the  United  States 
army. 

Artillery  Schools  are  institutions  estab- 
lished for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  special  train- 
ing to  the  officers,  and  in  some  cases  the  men 
belonging  to  the  artillery  service.  An  artillery 
school  at  Fort  Monroe,  Va.,  first  established  in 
1823,  discontinued,  and  re-established  in  1867, 
gives  instruction,  both  theoretical  and  practical. 
The  artillery  regiments  of  the  regular  army  have 
each  one  foot-battery  at  the  school.  The  course 
of  instruction  is  one  year,  beginning  1  Septem- 
ber, and  it  includes  such  subjects  as  ballistics, 
sea-coast  engineering,  electricity,  mines  and 
mechanisms,  artillery,  coast-defense,  chemistry, 
explosives,  etc.  In  Great  Britain  the  artillery 
schools  are  at  Woolwich  and  Shoeburyness. 
The  Department  of  Artillery  endeavors  at 
Woolwich  to  give  artillery  officers  the  means  of 
continuing  their  studies  after  completing  the 
usual  course  at  the  Royal  -Military  College,  and 
of  qualifying  for  appointments  requiring  excep- 
tional scientific  attainments.  The  school  of  gun- 
nery at  Shoeburyness  gives  instruction  in 
gunnery  to  officers  and  men  and  conducts  all 
experiments  connected  with  artillery  and  stores. 
See  Military  Schools. 

Artist's  Letters  from  Japan,  An,  a  work 
by  the  noted  American  artist,  John  La  Farge. 
The  drift  of  the  book  is  toward  a  purer  art ;  but 
it  contains  much  lively  matter  —  accounts  of  the 
butterfly  dance  in  the  temple  of  the  Green  Lotus, 
and  of  fishing  with  trained  cormorants.  A 
thread  runs  through  the  letters,  tracing  the 
character  and  progress  of  the  usurping  Toku- 
gawa  family,  from  the  cradle  of  their  fisherman 
ancestors  to  the  graves  of  the  great  shogun  and 
his  grandson  in  the  Holy  Mountain  of  Nikko. 

Ar'tocar'pus,  the  generic  name  of  the 
bread-fruit  tree   (q.v.). 

Artois,  ar'twa',  the  name  of  a  former 
province  of  France  anciently  one  of  the  17 
provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  It  was  bounded 
on  the  south  and  west  by  Picardy.  on  the  east 
by  Hainault,  and  on  the  north  by  Flanders.  It 
is  now  almost  completely  included  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Pas  de  Calais.  Artois  is  a  fertile  re- 
gion, producing  grain  and  hops.  Its  capital  was 
Arras. 

Ar'totype.     See  Photography. 

Arts,  the  designation  of  branches  of  study 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  originally  called  the  liberal 
arts  to  distinguish  them  from  the  servile  arts 
or  mechanical  occupations.  These  arts  were 
usually  classed  as  grammar,  dialectics,  rhetoric, 
music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy. 
Hence  originated  the  terms  "art  classes,"   "de- 


grees in  arts,"  "master  of  arts,"  still  in  common 
use  in  universities,  the  faculty  of  arts  being  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  divinity,  law,  medicine, 
or  science. 

Aru.     See  Arru  Islands. 

Aruba,  a-roo'ba,  an  island  belonging  to 
Holland,  off  the  north  coast  of  Venezuela.  It  is 
a  dependency  of  Caracao  and  is  about  30  miles 
long  by  7  broad.  The  climate  is  healthy.  Pop. 
about  7,700. 

Arum,  a  small  genus  of  tuberous  tropical 
and  subtropical  perennial  herbs  (commonly 
called  callas)  of  the  natural  order  Aracea,  with 
simple  leaves  and  diversely  colored  convolute 
spathes,  for  which  they  are  cultivated  either  un- 
der glass  or,  in  the  case  of  some  hardy  species, 
in  the  open  air,  as  ornamental  plants.  The 
naked  topped  spadices  bear  staminate  flowers 
just  above  the  pistillate  ones  at  the  bases.  The 
tender  species  are  managed  like  the  fancy-leaved 
caladium  (q.v.)  :  the  hardy  must  be  planted  in 
rich  soil  in  cool,  moist  situations  and  must  be 
well  mulched  during  the  winter.  A.  maculatum, 
lords-and-ladies,  cucoo-pint,  wake-robin,  from 
Europe,  is,  with  its  many  cultivated  varieties, 
perhaps  the  best  known  hardy  species  grown 
in  America.  The  leaves  and  corms  are  acrid ; 
but  the  latter  when  ripe  contain  starch  which 
may  be  extracted  and  used  as  a  food.  In  places 
where  it  abounds  it  has  long  been  converted  into 
a  kind  of  arrow-root  and  has  been  proposed  as  a 
substitute  for  the  potato,  but  the  corms  are  too 
small  for  profitable  culture.  Some  closely  re- 
lated native  American  plants  of  somewhat  simi- 
lar habit  are  skunk  cabbage  (q.v.),  water  calla 
(see  Calla),  Indian  turnip  (see  Jack-in-the- 
Pulpit).  Anthurium,  a  well-known  genus  of 
greenhouse  plants,  is  also  nearly  allied. 

Arundel,  ar'un-del,  Thomas,  an  English 
prelate,  third  son  of  Richard  Fitz-Alan,  Earl  of 
Arundel :  b.  in  1352 :  d.  Canterbury,  19  Feb. 
1413.  He  was  Chancellor  of  England  and  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  He  concerted  with  Boling- 
broke  to  deliver  the  nation  from  the  oppressions 
of  Richard  II.,  and  was  a  strenuous  opponent  of 
the  Lollards  and  followers  of  Wyclif. 

Arundel,  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of.     See 

ASUNDELIAN    MARBLES. 

Arundel,  a  small  town  in  Sussex.  England, 
famous  as  containing  Arundel  castle,  the  fam- 
ily seat  of  the  dukes  of  Norfolk.  It  is  on  the 
small  river  Arun  and  has  a  showy  Roman  Cath- 
olic cathedral  erected  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk. 
Pop.  (1001)  2,738. 

Arundel  Society,  a  society  instituted  in 
London  in  1848  for  promoting  the  knowledge 
of  art  by  the  publication  of  facsimiles  and  pho- 
tographs. It  was  named  for  the  collector  of  the 
Arundelian   Marbles. 

Ar'undelian  Marbles,  a  series  of  sculp- 
tured marbles  discovered  by  William  Petty,  who 
explored  the  ruins  of  Greece  for  Thomas  How- 
ard. Earl  of  Arundel,  in  the  reign  of  the  first 
Stuart  kings.  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  and  de- 
voted a  large  portion  of  his  fortune  to  the  col- 
lection of  monuments  illustrative  of  the  arts,  and 
of  the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome.  These  mar- 
bles arrived  in  England  in  the  year  1627,  with 
many  statues,  busts,  sarcophagi,  etc.  John  Sel- 
den  published  some  of  the  inscriptions  which  he 
thought    most    interesting,    under    the    title   of 


ARUSPICES  —  ARYAN  RACE 


'Marmora  Arundeliana'  (1628).  Henry  How- 
ard, Duke  of  Norfolk,  grandson  of  the  collector, 
presented  them  in  1007  to  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford, where  they  still  remain.  The  whole  col- 
lection of  inscriptions  was  published  by  Hum- 
phrey Prideaux  in  [676;  by  Michael  Maittaire  in 
1732;  by  Chandler  in  1703.  These  inscriptions 
are  records  of  treaties,  public  contracts,  thanks 
of  the  state  to  patriotic  individuals,  etc.,  and 
many  of  a  private  nature.  The  most  curious 
and  interesting  is  one  usually  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Parian  Chronicle,  from  having  been 
kept  in  the  island  of  Paros.  It  is  a  chronolog- 
ical account  of  the  principal  events  in  Grecian, 
and  particularly  in  Athenian  history,  during  a  pe- 
riod of  1318  years,  from  the  reign  of  Cecrops 
t  1450  B.C.)  to  the  archbishop  of  Diognctus  (264 
B.C.).  The  authenticity  of  this  chronicle  has 
been  called  in  question,  but  has  been  vindicated 
by  many  of  the  most  learned  men. 

Arus'pices,  Roman  priests  and  prophets, 
who  foretold  events  from  inspection  of  the  en- 
trails of  sacrificed  animals.  They  observed,  too, 
all  the  circumstances  which  accompanied  or  hap- 
pened during  the  sacrifice ;  for  example,  the 
flame,  the  mode  in  which  the  animal  behaved, 
the  smoke.  The  origin  is  to  be  sought  for  in 
Etruria.  They  were  introduced  into  Rome  by 
Romulus,  where  they  flourished  till  the  time  of 
the  emperor  Constantine  (337  a.d.),  who  pro- 
hibited all  soothsaying  on  pain  of  death. 

Arus'pices,  On  the  Reply  of  the,  an  ora- 
tion by  Cicero.  After  Cicero's  recall  from  exile 
different  prodigies  alarmed  the  people  of  Rome. 
The  aruspices  being  consulted,  answered  that  the 
public  ceremonies  had  been  neglected,  the  holy 
places  profaned,  and  frightful  calamities  decreed 
in  consequence.  Thereupon  Clodius  denounced 
Cicero  as  the  cause  of  the  misfortunes  that  men- 
aced the  city,  and  on  the  following  day  the  ora- 
tor replied  in  the  Senate  to  the  attack.  The 
speech  takes  rank  among  the  greatest  of  Cicero's 
orations,  though  he  had  little  time  for  prepara- 
tion, and  suffered  under  the  disadvantage  of  ad- 
dressing an  audience  at  first  openly  unfriendly. 

Aruwimi,  a'roo-we'me,  a  river  of  equato- 
rial Africa  having  its  source  in  the  hills  to  the 
west  of  Albert  Nyanza  and  tributary  to  the 
Congo.  Its  length  is  a  little  over  800  miles  and 
its  breadth  at  its  confluence  with  the  Congo  is 
about  a  mile.  It  is  navigable  up  to  Yambuya, 
but  beyond  that  place  there  are  many  rapids. 
In  its  upper  course  it  is  called  the  Ituri.  Stan- 
ley discovered  its  mouth  in  1877  and  traced  a 
considerable  part  of  its  course  in  his  search  for 
Emin  Pasha  in  1887. 

Arve,  iirv.  a  river  tributary  of  the  Rhone, 
which  it  enters  near  Geneva  after  a  course  of 
about  50  miles.  It  flows  through  the  valley  of 
Chamouni,  and  many  of  the  most  famous  re- 
sorts of  Switzerland  are  found  in  its  vicinity. 

Aryabhatta,  Hindu  astronomer  and  math- 
ematician of  the  5th  century :  b.  476  a.d.  His 
only    known    work,    the    'Aryabhattiya,'    is    a 

mathematical  treatise  in  verse:  frequent  refer- 
ence is  made  to  his  writings  by  later  Hindu 
scholars.  In  the  solution  of  quadratic  equations 
and  the  application  of  algebra  to  geometry  and 
astronomy,  he  anticipated  some  of  the  discov- 
eries of  modern  algebra.  He  also  announced 
the  correct  theory  of  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the 


earth,  and  the  correct  explanation  of  solar  and 
lunar  eclipses.     See  Algebra,  History  of. 

Aryan  (ar'yan,  or  ar'i-an)  Languages,  an 
important  language  family  frequently  styled  the 
Indo-European  or  Indo-Germanic  family  of 
tongues.  They  have  reached  a  higher  develop- 
ment than  those  of  the  second  great  family,  the 
Semitic,  and  are  far  in  advance  of  the  next 
one  —  that  comprising  the  Turanian  tongues. 
Like  the  Syro-Arabian  forms  of  speech  they  are 
inflectional ;  while  those  of  Turanian  origin  are 
only  agglutinate.  Max  Midler  separates  the 
Aryan  family  of  languages  primarily  into  a 
southern  and  a  northern  division.  The  former 
is  subdivided  into  two  classes:  (1)  The  Indie: 
and  (2)  the  Iranic ;  and  the  latter  into  six:  I  1  ) 
The  Celtic;  (2)  the  Italic;  (3)  the  Illyric ;  (4) 
the  Hellenic;  (5)  the  W'imlic :  and  (6)  the  Teu- 
tonic. It  is  often  said  that  Sanskrit,  spoken  by 
the  old  Brahmins,  is  the  root  of  all  these  classes 
of  tongues.  It  is  more  correct  to  consider  it  as 
the  first  branch  and  assume  the  existence  of  a 
root  not  now  accessible  to  direct  investigation. 
As  an  illustration  of  the  affinity  among  the 
Aryan  tongues  the  common  word  daughter  may 
be  instanced.  It  is  in  Swedish,  dottcr;  Danish, 
dattcr;  Dutch,  dochter;  German,  tochter;  Old 
Hebrew  German,  tohtar;  Gothic,  dauhtar;  Lith- 
uanian, duktcrc;  Greek,  thygater;  Armenian. 
dustr;  Sanskrit,  duhitri;  the  last-named  word 
signifying  primarily  "milkmaid,"  that  being  the 
function  in  the  early  Brahman  or  Aryan  house- 
hold which  the  daughter  discharged.  Not  only 
are  the  roots  of  very  many  words  akin  through- 
out the  several  Aryan  tongues,  but  (a  more  im- 
portant fact)  so  also  are  the  inflections.  Thus 
the  first  person  singular  of  a  well-known  verb 
is  in  Latin,  do;  Greek,  didomi;  Lithuanian, 
dumi;  Old  Slavonic,  damy ;  Zend,  dadhami; 
Sanskrit,  dadami;  and  the  third  person  singular, 
present  indicative  of  the  substantive  verb  is  in 
English,  is;  Gothic,  ist;  Latin,  est;  Greek,  esti ; 
Sanskrit,  asti. 

Ar'yan  Race,  a  name  sometimes  applied 
to  that  particular  ethnological  division  of  man- 
kind otherwise  called  Indo-European  or  Indo- 
Germanic,  but  more  properly  to  the  Indo-Iranian 
group  alone.  The  Indo-European  division  in- 
cludes two  branches,  the  western,  which  com- 
prises the  inhabitants  of  Europe,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Turks,  the  Magyars  of  Hungary, 
the  Basques  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Finns 
of  Lapland,  and  the  eastern,  which  comprehends 
those  of  Armenia,  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
northern  Hindustan.  From  a  multitude  of  de- 
tails it  has  been  established  that  the  original 
mother  tongue  of  all  these  peoples  was  the 
same.  It  is  supposed  that  the  Aryan  nations 
were  at  first  located  somewhere  in  central 
Asia,  probably  east  of  the  Caspian  and  north 
of  the  Hindu  Kush  and  Paropamisan  mountains. 
From  this  centre  successive  migrations  took 
place  toward  the  northwest.  The  first  swarm 
formed  the  Celts,  who  at  one  time  occupied  a 
great  part  of  Europe ;  at  a  considerably  later 
epoch  came  the  ancestors  of  the  Italians,  the 
Greeks,  and  the  Teutonic  people.  The  stream 
that  formed  the  Slavonic  nations  is  thought  to 
have  taken  the  route  by  the  north  of  the  Cas- 
pian. At  a  later  period  the  remnant  of  the 
primitive  stock  would  seem  to  have  broken  up. 
Part  passed  southward  and  became  the  dominant 


ARZACHEL  —  ASBEN 


race  in  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  while  the  rest 
settled  in  Persia  and  became  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians of  history.  It  is  from  these  eastern  mem- 
bers that  the  whole  family  takes  its  name.  In 
the  most  ancient  Sanskrit  writings  (the  Veda) 
the  Hindus  style  themselves  Aryas,  the  word 
signifying  "excellent,"  "honorable,"  originally 
"lord  of  the  soil." 

Ar'zachel,  a  Jewish  astronomer:  b.  in 
Spain  about  1050.  He  discovered  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic  and  compiled  certain  astronomical 
tables  known  as  the  "Toledo  Tables." 

Arzamas,  a  Russian  town,  the  capital  of 
a  district  of  the  same  name,  340  miles  east  of 
Moscow.  It  possesses  brickyards,  tanneries,  and 
tallow  factories,  and  in  the  earlier  half  of  the 
19th  century  was  distinguished  for  a  school  of 
painting  which  furnished  the  greater  part  of 
Russia  with  ikons  or  sacred  pictures. 

As,  a  word  which  the  Romans  employed 
in  three  different  ways:  to  denote  (1)  any  unit 
whatever  considered  as  divisible;  (2)  the  unit 
of  weight,  or  the  pound  (libra)  ;  (3)  a  coin. 
The  as,  whatever  unit  it  represented,  was  divid- 
ed into  12  parts,  or  ounces  (uncia).  Scholars 
are  not  agreed  on  the  weight  of  a  Roman  pound, 
but  it  was  not  far  from  237.5  grains  avoirdupois, 
or  327.1873  grammes,  French  measure.  In  the 
most  ancient  times  of  Rome  the  copper  coin 
which  was  called  as  actually  weighed  an  as,  or 
a  pound,  but  in  264  B.C.  was  reduced  to  2  ounces, 
in  217  to  1  ounce,  and  in  191  to  %  ounce.  In 
269  B.C.,  when  silver  money  was  first  struck  by 
the  Romans,  the  as  was  superseded  as  a  money 
of  account  by  the  sestertius  coined  from  the 
more  precious  metal. 

As  It  Was  Written,  the  title  of  a  romance 
by  Sidney  Luska  (Henry  Harland),  the  scene 
of  which  is  laid  in  modern  New  York.  Sombre 
and  tragic  though  it  is,  the  romance  shows  un- 
usual vigor  of  conception  and  execution  and 
extraordinary  intuitive  knowledge  of  the  psy- 
chology of  the  Jewish  race. 

As  You  Like  It,  the  title  of  one  of  Shake- 
speare's comedies.  Its  realism  lies  in  its  gay, 
riant  feeling,  the  fresh  woodland  sentiment,  the 
exhilaration  of  spirits  that  attend  an  escape  from 
the  artificialities  of  society.  The  characters  all 
meet  in  the  forest  of  Arden,  where  "as  you  like 
it"  is  the  order  of  the  day. 

A'sa,  the  third  king  of  Judah.  During  the 
first  10  years  of  his  reign  his  kingdom  enjoyed 
peace  and  prosperity,  but  in  the  nth  year  he 
was  attacked  by  the  Ethiopian  king  Zerah  at  the 
head  of  a  vast  army,  which  he  completely  routed. 
On  his  triumphant  return  Asa  was  met  by  the 
prophet  Azariah,  who  encouraged  him  to  per- 
severe in  the  extirpation  of  idolatry.  In  the 
36th  year  of  Asa's  reign  Baasha,  king  of  Israel, 
occupied  Ramah,  and  proceeded  to  fortify  it  as 
a  frontier  barrier.  Asa  called  in  the  aid  of 
Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  and  recovered  the  city, 
but  incurred  the  rebuke  of  the  prophet  Hanani 
for  seeking  help  elsewhere  than  from  the  Lord. 
The  incensed  king  threw  the  prophet  into  prison. 
He  died  after  a  prosperous  reign  of  41  years. 

Asaba,  a-sa'ba,  a  town  in  west  Africa,  on 
the  Niger  River,  150  miles  from  the  coast.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  supreme  court,  and  contains 
the  central  prison,  civil  and  military  hospitals, 
and  other  public  buildings.     It  is  a  place  of  large 


present  importance,  and  in  the  evolution  of  new 
English  interests  in  Africa  may  become  still 
more  conspicuous. 

As'afcet'ida  is  a  gum  resin  obtained  from 
the  root  of  Ferula  fwtida.  Although  the 
United  States  pharmacopoeia  limits  the  pro- 
ducing plant,  it  is  quite  probable  that  asafcetida 
is  obtained  from  two  or  even  three  or  four 
species  of  Ferula,  F.  narthex,  F.  fcctidissima, 
F.  jaschkeanum.  The  main  sources,  however, 
are  F.  fcctida  and  F.  narthex.  These  are  coarse 
herbs  of  the  Umbellifera  family  distributed 
throughout  the  eastern  Asiatic  provinces  from 
Persia,  Turkestan,  Afghanistan.  The  root  is 
cleaned  from  the  leaves  and  while  growing 
is  cut  off  close  to  the  ground.  This  is  then 
covered  with  leaves  and  in  five  or  six  weeks 
a  slice  is  cut  off,  and  from  the  cut  surfaces 
the  juice  exudes.  This  on  thickening  forms  the 
asafoetida  of  commerce.  The  chemical  composi- 
tion is  complex.  It  consists  of  resin,  gum. 
ethereal  oil.  vanillin,  .and  ferulic  acid.  Asafce- 
tida is  highly  prized  in  the  East  as  a  seasoning. 
In  medicine  it  is  stimulant  to  the  sympathetic 
nervous  system  and  is  an  excellent  carminative. 
and  stimulant  of  unstriped  muscle  fibre.  It  is 
particularly  valuable  in  expelling  flatus  from  the 
peristalsis  it  induces.  It  is  also  used  in  hysteria. 
Inn  in  an  empirical  fashion.  Its  further  study 
is  desirable. 

Asa'ma-Yama,  a-sa'ma-ya'ma,  an  active 
volcano  of  Japan  about  50  miles  northwest  of 
Tokyo,  8,280  feet  high.  Its  latest  destructive 
eruption  was  in  1783. 

A'saph,  the  Levite  and  psalmist  whom 
David  appointed  as  leading  chorister  in  the  tem- 
ple. It  is  supposed  that  his  office  became  heredi- 
tary in  his  family,  or  that  he  founded  a  school  of 
poets  and  musicians  called,  after  him,  "the  sons 
of  Asaph." 

As'arabac'ca,      a      European      herb.     See 

ASARUM. 

As'arum,  a  small  genus  of  herbs  of  the 
natural  order  Aristolochiacea,  widely  distributed 
in  rich,  shady  woods  throughout  the  northern 
hemisphere.  They  have  odd  chocolate  or  pur- 
plish, bell-shaped,  three-lobed  perianths  con- 
taining 12  horned  stamens.  The  flowers  which 
are  borne  close  to  or  upon  the  ground  are  hid- 
den by  the  kidney-shaped  or  heart-shaped  leaves. 
A.  canadense,  wild  ginger,  or  Canada  snake-root, 
is  warmly  aromatic  and  is  sometimes  used  as  a 
spice.  It  is  common  in  the  eastern  United 
States  and  is  often  cultivated  in  wild  gardens 
as  are  also  the  following  species:  A.  virgini- 
cutn,  A.  arifolium,  both  common  from  Virginia 
southward:  A.  caudatum,  a  Pacific  coast  species, 
A.  lemmoni  and  A.  hartwegii,  both  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  the  last  found  at  al- 
titudes of  4,000  to  7,000  feet  ./.  europaum  is 
also  cultivated.  It  was  formerly  used  as  an 
emetic,  a  role  now  played  by  ipecacuanha.  Its 
leaves  are  still  made  into  snuffs  and  are  deemed 
efficacious  as  counter-irritants. 

Asben,  as-ben',  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  in 
the  Sahara,  with  an  area  of  about  49.000  square 
miles.  It  consists  of  a  succession  of  mountain 
groups  and  valleys  and  attains  in  its  highest 
summits  a  height  of  over  6,000  feet.  The  val- 
leys, though  separated  by  complete  deserts,  are 
very     fertile.     The    climate     is    on    the     whole 


ASBESTOS 


healthy,  and  not  unsuitable  for  Europeans.  The 
principal  vegetable  productions  are  millet,  wine, 
dates,  senna,  indigo,  and  various  kinds  of  vege- 
tables. 

Asbestos,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
substances  found  in  nature.  It  is  a  peculiar  spe- 
cies of  the  hornblende  family  of  minerals.  Its 
composition  is  chiefly  silica,  magnesia,  alumina, 
and  ferrous  oxide,  and  consequently  uncon- 
sumable,  hence  its  name.  The  fibres  formed  by 
the  chemical  combination  above  given  are  per- 
fectly smooth,  and  in  this  respect  are  different 
from  all  other  known  fibres.  Paradoxically,  it 
is  the  link  which  completes  the  chain  between 
the  vegetable  and  mineral  kingdoms,  and  is  in 
fact  a  mineralogical  vegetable  possessing  the 
curious  properties  found  in  both,  for  it  is  at 
once  fibrous  and  crystalline,  elastic  and  brittle, 
heavy  as  a  rock  in  its  crude  state,  yet  as  light  as 
thistledown  when  treated  mechanically.  Added 
to  this,  its  fibres,  soft,  white,  and  delicate,  have, 
by  their  inherent  quality  of  indestructibility, 
withstood  the  action  of  the  elements  since  the 
world  began;  and  through  all  the  countless  ages, 
during  which  the  hardest  rocks  surrounding  it 
have  been  reduced,  this  mineralogical  mystery 
has  remained  intact,  having  successfully  resisted 
the  assaults  of  fire,  acids,  and  time.  Asbestos 
is  found  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
world,  although  the  principal  supply  of  crude 
asbestos  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  fire- 
proof cloths  and  curtains  comes  from  Canada, 
about  75  miles  from  Quebec.  The  Italian  min- 
eral has  a  fine,  silk-like  fibre,  but  is  lacking  in 
the  essential  characteristic  of  strength.  The 
product  obtained  from  South  Carolina  has  a  soft, 
woody,  yellowish  fibre,  which  quickly  powders 
under  pressure.  The  South  African  asbestos,  as 
one  might  naturally  infer,  is  of  a  dark  slate  or 
black  color,  with  exceptionally  long,  strong 
fibres,  but  owing  to  its  stiff  and  horny  texture, 
it  cannot  be  manufactured  into  a  fine  fabric, 
hence  the  superiority  of  the  Canadian  asbestos, 
and  its  large  consumption  in  the  United  States. 

The  mining  of  asbestos  differs  radically  from 
the  mining  of  other  minerals,  since  no  shafts 
are  sunk,  but  excavations  are  made  in  the  open, 
somewhat  after  the  manner  of  a  stone  quarry. 
Canadian  asbestos,  however,  is  found  in  narrow 
veins  or  seams  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
thickness,  and  embedded  in  rock  which  is  easily 
severed  from  it.  The  strata  of  asbestos,  which 
may  be  vertical  or  horizontal,  are  found  in  prac- 
tically detached  deposits,  and  are  as  elusive  as 
those  of  zinc-bearing  ore,  and  can  only  be  de- 
termined by  exploring  for  them.  The  rock  to 
which  the  mineral  is  attached  shows  on  fresh 
fracture  a  serpentine  mineral  of  a  green  shade 
containing  finely  divided  particles  of  chromic 
and  magnetic  iron.  The  asbestos  on  cleavage 
presents  a  brilliant,  dark-green  surface  by  re- 
flected light,  but  the  fibres  after  they  are  de- 
tached are  perfectly  white.  The  act  of  separat- 
ing the  mineral  from  its  matrix  of  rock  is 
termed  "hand  cobbing,"  and  after  this  process 
the  mineral  is  shipped  to  various  factories  in  the 
United  States. 

The  process  of  manufacture  begins  by  plac- 
ing the  asbestos  mineral  in  a  chaser  mill,  a 
machine  comprising  a  rotating  edge-wheel  re- 
volving at  the  end  of  a  radial  arm  in  a  trough, 
which  crushes  the  mineral,  dividing  the  fibres 
without  destroying  them.  The  result  is  a  snowy 
mass  of  mineral   wool  ready   for  winnowing,  a 


method  of  removing  the  minute  particles  of  rock 
still  clinging  to  the  fibres  very  much  like  the 
winnowing  of  grain;  this  is  dune  by  means  of  a 
blast  of  air,   which   separates  and   blows  away 
the   foreign   matter,   leaving  the   fibres   in   a   re- 
fined  state  and  in  proper  condition  for  the  third 
stage  of  manufacture.     This  is  termed  air  fibre 
raising,  and  as  the  name  implies,  the  fibres  are 
raised  by  a  current  of  air  produced  by  a  blower 
of  large  dimensions  through  a  vertical  pipe  in- 
clined at  a  small  angle.     The  object  of  this  pro- 
cedure  will  be  obvious,   when   it   is   stated   that 
the  air  blown  across  the  fibres  causes  those  of 
coarser  texture  to  be  deposited   in  a  compart- 
ment near  the  bottom  of  the  pipe.     The  medium 
fibres  will  be  projected  a  little  higher,  and  these 
will  fall  into  a  second  compartment.     The  finer 
fibres  will  he  blown  to  a  higher  point,  and  there 
collected,  while   the   dust   will   be  carried   to   the 
top  and   deposited.     The  fibres  are   in  this   way 
sorted  into  different  lots  according  to  their  tex- 
ture, and  are  ready  to  he  made  into  articles  for 
which   they  are   best  adapted.    The  fluffy  stuff 
now  goes  to  the  carding  room,  just  as  though 
it  were  genuine  wool  sheared  from  a  sheep  or 
pure  cotton   fresh   from   the  plant   on   which   it 
grows,   instead   of  a  mineral   substance  that  in 
its  original  state  was  mined  like  a  lump  of  an- 
thracite   coal.     A    carding    machine,    similar    to 
that  employed  in  preparing  wool,  cotton,  or  flax 
fibres  before  spinning,  has  been  adopted  by  the 
manufacturers.     The    problem    of    mechanically 
enmbing  these  fibres  was  no  small  one,  and  the 
carding  takes  place  in  a  machine  having  a  large 
central     rotating    cylinder     covered    with    card 
clothing,  that  is,  strips  of  leather  set  with  pro- 
jecting  wires   termed   teeth.     Around   the   main 
cylinder  there  are  a  number  of   smaller  cylin- 
ders,  also   provided    with    card   clothing,   which 
engages  the  teeth  of  the  central  cylinder  rotating 
in  the  reverse  direction.     This  machine  straight- 
ens out  the  fibres  and  lays  them  parallel;  after 
passing  through   the   first  breaker,  they  are   fed 
into  a  second  carding  engine  or  breaker,  which 
is  set  to  a  finer  gauge  than  the  preceding.     A 
third    and    last   carding   process    takes   place   in 
a  machine  called  a  finisher  or  condenser,  when 
all    the    irregularities    are    eliminated,    and    the 
fibres   are    stripped    from    the    final    cylinder    by 
means    of  a   fly-comb    and   are   converted    into 
unspun  threads,  when  they  are  delivered  on   a 
traveling  apron  or  endless  band,  and  are  gath- 
ered into   rows  by  reciprocating  scrapers ;  they 
are  then  condensed,  and  the  process  is  continued 
in   the  coiling  cans.     In   spinning  the  yarn,  the 
rovings  are  delivered  to  the  spindles  on  a  car- 
riage,  which  then   recedes,  when   the  fibres  are 
twisted,    and    returns    when    the    spun    asbestos 
yarn   is   wound  on   the  spindles.     The   spinning 
frames  do  not  draw  the  yarn,  and  no  strain  is 
placed    on    it    until    after    it    is    twisted.    This 
brings  the  manufacture  of  the  fireproof  material 
to  a  point  where  it  is  to  be  woven  into  cloth, 
packing,  or  other  forms ;  for  asbestos  is  used  for 
divers  other  purposes  than  those  appertaining  to 
theatres. 

While  adulterated  asbestos  may  be  used  in 
siime  of  the  mechanical  arts,  for  theatrical  hang- 
ings its  purity  should  be  ioo  per  cent ;  it  then 
forms  one  of  the  safest  barriers  against  the 
calamity  of  fire.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  much  of 
that  which  is  termed  commercially  pure  asbestos 
cloth  contains  from  5  to  20  per  cent  of  com- 
bustible    matter,     but     absolutely     pure     Amcr- 


ASBjSRNSEN  —  ASCENDANTS 


ican-made  cloth  may  be  obtained,  where  price 
is  not  a  primary  consideration.  Not  only  is 
purity  essential  in  asbestos  cloth  where  used  for 
protection  against  fire,  but  strength  as  well;  and 
after  asbestos  is  subjected  to  a  high  temperature, 
it  has  a  tendency  to  powder,  when,  owing  to  its 
weight,  it  may  break  through,  and  its  utility  be 
impaired. 

One  of  the  leading  manufacturers  has  made 
an  improvement  in  weaving  asbestos  cloth  for 
theatre  curtains ;  it  consists  of  two  strands  of 
asbestos  spun  around  a  strand  of  high-tempera- 
ture-melting  brass  wire,  so  that  the  wire  is 
completely  embedded  and  concealed.  These  as- 
bestos metallic  strands  form  the  warp,  so  that 
the  threads  run  the  long  way  of  the  cloth  when 
finished.  The  weft,  or  filling-in  cross  threads, 
is  made  of  plain,  pure  asbestos.  Such  a  curtain 
will  stand  well  under  a  severe  high-tempera- 
ture test  without  breaking.  Not  only  the- 
atre curtains,  but  set  scenery  of  all  kinds 
may  be  constructed  of  asbestos.  Scenic  artists 
find  it  more  difficult  to  paint,  but  the  finer 
textures  may  be  utilized  for  this  purpose ; 
and  although  asbestos  cloth  does  not  take  colors 
as  satisfactorily  as  cheese  cloth  and  burlap,  yet 
its  use  should  be  provided  for  wherever  audi- 
ences are  to  be  assembled.  Flooring  and  wood- 
work in  general  may  be  easily  replaced  by  com- 
pressed asbestos  fibre  board,  and  it  has  been 
shown  that  the  latter  may  be  stained,  polished, 
and  finished  to  as  high  a  degree  as  wood.  All 
the  upholstery  should  be  of  pure  asbestos  cloth, 
and  carpeting  is  also  made  to  take  the  place  of 
the  combustible  vegetable  a.nd  animal  fibres  now 
used  so  extensively.  One  of  the  peculiar  prop- 
erties of  asbestos  carpeting  is  that  the  longer  it 
is  in  service,  the  tougher  it  becomes. 

Asbestos  is  utilized  in  the  arts  in  many  other 
forms  than  cloth  ;  it  may  be  worked  into  a  pulp, 
and  a  fireproof  paper  is  obtained.  This  paper  is 
now  used  on  roofs,  between  walls,  flooring,  etc. 
Fireproof  rope  three  eighths  inch  in  diameter  for 
the  suspension  of  curtains  and  other  uses  is 
made,  having  a  tensile  strength  of  1,650  pounds 
per  foot.  High-grade  asbestos  plaster  is  fire- 
proof, soundproof,  and  hangs  together  with 
great  tenacity  when  subjected  to  water.  Asbes- 
tos mineral  with  rock  as  it  comes  from  the  mine 
costs  $200  per  ton,  but  after  it  is  stripped  the 
long  fibres  are  worth  $1,500  per  ton.  When 
these  are  made  into  cloth  it  sells  for  $3  per 
square  yard ;  when  made  into  curtains,  the  sew- 
ing is  done  with  asbestos  thread. 

Asbjornsen,  as-byern'sen,  Peter  Kristen, 
a  Norwegian  folklorist:  b.  in  Christiania,  15 
Jan.  1812;  d.  there,  6  Jan.  1885.  While  pursuing 
botanical  and  zoological  studies,  and  subse- 
quently during  various  travels  at  government 
expense,  he  collected  folk  tales  and  legends, 
aided  by  his  friend  Jorgen  Moe,  with  whom  he 
published  'Norwegian  Folk  Tales'  (1842-4)  ; 
and  'Norwegian  Gnome  Stories  and  Folk 
Legends'  (1845-8;  3d  ed.  1870),  pronounced  by 
Jacob  Grimm  the  best  fairy  tales  in  existence. 

Asboth,  osh'bot,  Sandor  (Alexander),  a 
Hungarian-American  soldier:  b.  in  1811;  d.  in 
1S68.  He  came  to  America  with  Kossuth  in 
1851,  and  became  a  United  States  citizen,  serv- 
ing in  the  Civil  War  in  the  Federal  army,  at- 
taining the  rank  of  a  brevet  major-general.  He 
was  United  States  minister  to  Argentina  at  the 
time  of  his  death. 

Vol.  I — 50 


Asbury,  az'bdr-i,  Francis,  the  first  bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in  the  United 
States.  He  was  born  in  Handsworth,  Stafford- 
shire, England,  in  August  1745 ;  d.  in  Spottsyl- 
vania,  Va.,  31  March  1816.  He  joined  the  local 
ministry  of  the  Methodists  at  the  age  of  16,  the 
itinerant  ministry  six  years  later,  and  was  sent 
by  John  Wesley  as  missionary  to  America  at 
the  age  of  25.  In  1772  he  was  appointed  by 
Wesley  general  superintendent  of  the  connec- 
tion in  America,  the  duties  of  which  office  he 
exercised  through  the  entire  period  of  the  Amer- 
ican Revolution.  Until  the  termination  of  the 
war,  the  Methodists  of  America  had  called  them- 
selves members  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
their  ministers  laymen.  They  now  considered 
the  political  changes  of  the  country  as  separating 
them  from  that  Church,  and  therefore  estab- 
lished an  organization  for  themselves.  Francis 
Asbury  was  constituted  the  first  bishop  of  the 
new  Church  (1784),  which  office  he  held  till  his 
death.  During  the  30  years  of  his  episcopal 
labors  he  traveled  annually  from  the  Andros- 
coggin to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Mississippi,  ordained  not  less 
than  3,000  preachers,  and  preached  about  17,000 
sermons.  Identified  with  the  religious  interests 
of  this  country  through  the  two  great  struggles 
which  have  so  greatly  modified  our  political  and 
social  character,  he  became  eminently  American 
in  his  sympathies  and  character,  and  left  the 
mark  of  his  native  enthusiasm  and  energy 
upon  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  United 
States. 

As'bury  Park,  N.  J.,  a  city  and  popular 
summer  resort  in  Monmouth  County,  on  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  six  miles  south  of  Long  Branch 
and  40  miles  south  of  New  York  city.  It  is  on 
the  line  of  the  Pennsylvania  R.R.  and  the  Cen- 
tral R.R.  of  New  Jersey.  It  adjoins  Ocean 
Grove  on  the  north,  being  separated  from  it 
by  Wesley  Lake.  It  was  founded  in  1869,  and 
given  a  city  charter  in  1897.  It  contains  many 
hotels  and  boarding-houses,  attractive  summer 
dwellings,  electric  lights  and  street  railways,  a 
national  bank,  etc.  It  has  a  property  valuation 
of  more  than  $3,000,000;  and  is  rapidly  becom- 
ing nearly  as  popular  a  winter  as  a  summer 
resort.  Asbury  Park  and  Ocean  Grove  were 
originally  laid  out  by  members  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  for  camp  meetings  and  other 
purposes.  Pop.  (1900)  4,148;  in  summer,  25,000 
and  upward. 

As'calon,  a  ruined  town  of  Palestine,  on 
the  sea-coast,  40  miles  west-southwest  of  Jeru- 
salem. It  was  noted  during  the  Crusades,  God- 
frey de  Bouillon  gaining  here  a  great  victory 
over  the  Egyptians  in  1090.  Its  site  is  now  a 
complete  scene  of  desolation. 

Asca'nius,  a  son  of  .Eneas  and  Creusa, 
who  accompanied  his  father  to  Italy.  He  sup- 
ported .Eneas  in  his  war  with  the  Latins,  and 
succeeded  him  in  the  government  of  Latium. 
His  descendants  ruled  over  Alba  for  420  years. 
He  is  known  also  as  lulus. 

As'caris.  See  Round-worms;  Thread- 
worms. 

Ascend'ants,  in  law,  the  opposites  to  de- 
scendants in  succession.  When  a  father  suc- 
ceeds his  son  or  an  uncle  his  nephew,  etc..  the 
inheritance  is  said  to  ascend  or  to  go  to  ascend- 
ants. 


ASCENSION  — ASCHAFFENBURG 


Ascen'sion,  an  isolated  volcanic  island, 
near  the  middle  of  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean, 
about  lat.  7°  55'  S. ;  Ion.  140  21'  W. ;  area  about 
34  square  miles.  It  belongs  to  Great  Britain ;  is 
the  sanatorium  for  the  British  West  African 
squadron.  There  are  about  400  inhabitants, 
mainly  government  employees  and  their  families. 
Ascension  is  celebrated  for  its  turtle,  which 
weigh  in  many  cases  from  500  to  800  pounds. 
This  island  was  discovered  on  Ascension  Day, 
1502,  by  the  Portuguese,  and  hence  its  name; 
but  it  was  never  formally  occupied  by  any  na- 
tion till  Great  Britain  took  possession  of  it  in 
1K15,  after  the  transportation  of  Napoleon  to 
St.  Helena. 

Ascen'sion,  Right,  a  term  employed  in  as- 
tronomy in  allusion  to  the  position  of  a  star  or 
other  heavenly  body.  Such  position  is  known 
when  we  know  the  right  ascension  and  declina- 
tion, these  terms  corresponding  respectively  to 
longitude  and  latitude  as  applied  to  the  position 
of  places  on  the  globe.  Right  ascension  is  mea- 
sured on  the  equinoctial  or  celestial  equator,  the 
first  point  of  Aries  being  taken  as  the  starting- 
point  ;  and  the  right  ascension  of  any  star  is  the 
distance  measured  eastward  along  the  celestial 
equator  from  the  first  point  of  Aries  to  the 
pi  lint  where  an  hour-circle,  passing  through  the 
star,  cuts  the  equator.  The  right  ascension  is 
easily  found  by  means  of  the  sidereal  clock, 
which,  when  the  first  point  of  Aries  passes  the 
meridian,  gives  the  time  as  o  hours,  o  minutes, 
o  seconds.  By  noting  on  the  clock  the  time  at 
which  the  body  is  on  the  meridian,  we  obtain  the 
right  ascension  in  time,  which  may  be  converted 
into  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  at  the  rate 
of  one  hour  to  150. 

Ascen'sion  Day,  a  religious  festival  of 
many  churches  in  commemoration  of  the  ascen- 
sion of  the  Saviour.  It  is  a  movable  feast, 
always  falling  on  the  Thursday  but  one  before 
Whitsuntide.  It  was  first  observed  about  the 
4th   century. 

Asceticism  is  the  exercise  of  the  faculties 
in  moral  and  religious  practices,  the  application 
of  St.  Paul's  comparison  between  an  athlete's 
and  a  Christian's  life  (1  Cor.  ix.  24,  27).  It 
is  negative,  when  the  object  of  this  exercise  is  to 
avoid  evil,  to  curb  vicious  tendencies,  moderate 
excessive  passion,  and  deny  the  soul  and  body 
any  indulgence  which  might  become  inordinate 
or  unlawful,  and  whenever  it  implies  active 
measures  against  such  disorders  as  gluttony, 
sloth,  anger,  pride,  and  lust,  by  abstinence,  fast- 
ing, watching,  self-restraint,  modesty,  and 
habits  conducive  to  continence.  It  is  positive, 
when  its  object  is  the  exercise  or  training  in  the 
virtues  which  perfect  life,  and  the  cultivation 
of  the  means  most  efficacious  for  this  end,  such 
as  devout  reading,  especially  of  the  scripture, 
meditation,  prayer,  examination  of  conscience, 
exertion,  and  sacrifice  for  the  good  of  others, 
zealous  promotion  of  good  enterprises ;  in  a 
word,  anything  that  can  help  one  to  do  what 
is  best,  constantly,  unhesitatingly,  and  with 
facility.  This  is  the  aim  of  all  true  asceticism, 
whether  based  on  the  principles  of  natural  or  of 
positive  and  revealed  law.  This  aim,  as  well  as 
many  of  the  means  above  numerated,  is  found 
to  some  extent  in  Pagan  and  Jewish,  as  well  as 
in  Christian  asceticism.  The  latter  employs 
additional  means  of  inculcating  and  developing 


the  habit  of  virtue,  >-nch  as  the  religious  life, 
divine  worship,  and  in  particular  the  sacramen- 
tal system  of  the  Church.  Asceticism  has  some 
part  in  every  rightly  regulated  life,  even  in  one 
based  on  purely  ethical  principles;  but  in  Chris- 
tian life  it  is  most  systematic  and  far-reaching. 
The  whole  Christian  economy  depends  on  self- 
denial  and  the  active  pursuit  of  virtue  accord- 
ing to  fixed  principles.  Every  sincere  Christian 
is.  accordingly,  an  ascetic,  some  are  professedly 
so,  men  and  women,  whether  in  the  conventual 
cloister  or  domestic  circle,  who  strive  to  acquire 
by  daily  practice  habits  of  virtue,  and  to  advance 
in  holiness.  Naturally  counsel  and  direction  are 
needed  in  a  matter  so  difficult,  and  it  is  for 
want  of  due  attention  to  these  that  asceticism  is 
often  misunderstood,  and  is  regarded  by  some 
as  grotesque,  a  shield  for  certain  excesses  and 
extravagances,  associated  often  with  the  external 
observances  of  communities  like  the  Essenes, 
with  the  singularities  of  some  hermits  and 
anchorites,  the  frenzy  of  fanatics  like  the  Flagel- 
lants, the  exclusivencss  of  the  Brahmins,  the 
ablutions  of  the  Mohammedan,  the  dream  of 
men  like  those  composing  the  Brook  Farm  Com- 
munity. To  appreciate  asceticism  in  its  normal 
exercise,  one  must  study  it  in  the  examples  of 
men  and  women  noted  for  its  exercise,  or  in 
the  books  whose  guidance  they  followed,  in 
works  of  the  great  ascetical  and  sermon  writers. 
but  chiefly  in  scripture,  and  in  the  life  of  Christ 
and  of  persons  distinguished  for  holiness.  See 
Kempis,  'Imitation  of  Christ'  ;  Rodriguez, 
'Christian  Perfection';  Scaramelli,  'Ascetical 
Directory.' 

Ascet'ics,  a  name  anciently  given  to  those 
Christians  who  devoted  themselves  to  severe  ex- 
ercises of  piety,  and  strove  to  distinguish  them- 
selves from  the  world  by  abstinence  from  sensual 
enjoyments  and  by  voluntary  penances.  Hence 
those  writings  which  teach  the  spiritual  exer- 
cises of  piety  are  termed  ascetic  writings.  Even 
before  Christ,  and  in  the  time  of  the  early 
Christian  Church,  there  were  similar  ascetics 
among  the  Jews,  such  as  the  Essenes,  also  among 
the  philosophers  of  Greece,  and  in  particular 
among  the  Platonics.  The  expression  is  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greek  word  askesis  (exercise), 
used  to  signify  the  spare  diet  of  the  athlcta?, 
who,  to  prepare  themselves  for  their  combats 
abstained  from  many  indulgences. 

Asch,  ash,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the 
extreme  northwest  corner  of  Bohemia.  It  con- 
tains a  large  Protestant  and  a  newly-erected 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  a  real-school,  schools 
of  design,  weaving,  etc.  The  inhabitants  are 
mainly  employed  in  cotton,  woolen,  and  silk 
manufacture,  bleachfields,  and  dye-works.  Pop. 
(1900)   18,700. 

Aschaffenburg,  a-sha'fen-burg,  a  town  of 
Bavaria,  26  miles  east-southeast  of  Frank- 
fort. The  chief  edifice  is  castle  of  Johannisberg, 
built  in  1605-14.  There  is  also  the  Pompeianum, 
an  edifice  built  by  King  Louis  of  Bavaria,  in 
imitation  of  the  Casa  del  questore  (commonly 
called  the  Castor  and  Pollux  House)  at  Pom- 
peii. The  principal  industries  are  the  manu- 
factures of  colored  paper,  tobacco,  and  liquors. 
There  are  also  large  breweries,  and  an  extensive 
trade  is  done  in  wine  and  timber.  Aschaffen- 
burg long  belonged  to  the  archbishops  of  Mainz. 
Pop.  (1900)   18,091. 


ASCH  AM  —  ASCIDIAN 


Ascham,  as'kam,  Roger,  an  English 
scholar:  b.  Kirby,  Wiske,  Yorkshire,  1515;  d. 
London,  30  Dec.  1568.  While  still  a  child,  he 
was  taken  into  the  family  of  Sir  Anthony  Wing- 
field  and  educated  with  the  latter's  children.  He 
made  rapid  progress  in  English  and  classical 
studies,  and  was  taught  archery  by  Sir  Anthony 
himself.  The  same  generous  patron  sent  him  in 
1530  to  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  where 
he  read  nearly  all  extant  Latin  literature,  ac- 
quiring an  elegant  Latin  style  that  proved  most 
useful  to  him  later,  and  developed  an  especial 
aptitude  for  Greek,  which  he  taught  to  students 
younger  than  himself.  Besides  this,  he  paid 
some  attention  to  mathematics,  became  an  ac- 
complished musician,  and  acquired  remarkable 
skill  in  penmanship.  He  received  his  B.A.  de- 
gree in  February  1533-4,  and  became  a  Fellow  of 
his  college.  His  reputation  for  Greek  learning 
soon  brought  him  many  pupils,  several  of  whom 
later  rose  to  distinction,  and  students  from  other 
colleges  attended  his  lectures.  In  five  years,  he 
afterward  said,  Sophocles  and  Euripides  had  be- 
come at  his  college  as  familiar  as  Plautus  had 
been  previously,  and  Demosthenes  was  as  much 
discussed  as  Cicero.  The  beauty  of  his  hand- 
writing and  the  purity  of  his  Latin  led  to  his 
being  employed  to  write  the  official  letters  of 
the  university.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the 
controversy  as  to  the  correct  mode  of  pro- 
nouncing Greek,  opposing  Sir  John  Cheke's  sys- 
tem, but  later  adopting  it.  In  1543-4  he  wrote 
his  famous  treatise  on  archery,  'Toxophilus,' 
and  in  person  presented  a  copy  of  it  to  Henry 
VTIL,  who  so  approved  of  the  work  that  he 
gave  the  author  an  annual  pension  of  iio,  which 
was  renewed  by  Edward  VI.,  whose  Latin  secre- 
tary Ascham  became.  In  1548  he  was  appoint- 
ed tutor  to  Princess  Elizabeth.  He  read  with 
her  all  'Cicero,'  the  greater  part  of  'Livy,'  the 
"New  Testament,'  in  Greek,  (Isocrates,'  'Soph- 
ocles,' and  portions  of  'Cyprian'  and  'Melanc- 
thon.'  Two  years  later  he  was  nominated  secre- 
tary to  Sir  Richard  Morysin,  ambassador  to  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.  Their  headquarters  were 
;ii  Augsburg,  but  Ascham  made  trips  to  Louvain, 
Halle,  Innspruck,  Venice,  and  Brussels,  visiting 
famous  teachers  and  scholars.  He  lived  on  ex- 
cellent terms  with  Sir  Richard,  reading  Greek 
with  him  five  days  in  the  week.  The  death  of 
Edward  caused  the  recall  of  the  embassy  in 
1553.  Ascham  became  Latin  secretary  to  Queen 
Mary  and  gave  proof  of  his  industry  by  writ- 
ing for  her  within  three  days  47  letters  to 
persons  of  high  rank,  of  whom  cardinals 
were  the  lowest  in  degree.  With  the  accession 
of  Elizabeth,  he  was  continued  in  bis  offices 
and  became  in  addition  private  tutor  to  the 
queen,  reading  several  hours  a  day  with  her  in 
the  learned  languages.  She  bestowed  on  him  the 
prebend  of  Wetwang  in  York  Cathedral  5  Oct. 
1559.  His  last  years  were  filled  with  anxiety 
and  care  due  to  domestic  afflictions  and  pe- 
cuniary embarrassment.  Between  1563  and  his 
death  he  found  relief  in  the  composition  of  his 
best  known  work,  'The  Scholemaster,'  of  which 
he  completed  two  books.  The  first  is  a  general 
discussion  of  education  with  arguments  in  favor 
of  inducing  a  child  to  study  by  gentleness  rather 
than  by  force.  The  second  is  an  exposition  of  his 
famous  method  of  teaching  Latin,  by  means  of 
"double  translation,"  etc..  a  method  which  has 
received  high  praise  from  all  subsequent  writers 


on  the  theory  and  methods  of  education.  When 
Queen  Elizabeth  heard  of  Ascham's  death,  she  is 
said  to  have  exclaimed  that  she  would  rather 
have  cast  £10,000  into  the  sea  than  to  have  lost 
her  tutor,  Ascham.  Scholars  in  England  and 
on  the  Continent  mourned  for  him,  and  ex- 
pressed their  grief  in  stately  Latin  verses.  In 
English  literature  Ascham  has  a  secure  place  on 
account  of  the  strength  and  vigor  of  his  English 
prose,  highly  Latinized  though  it  was  in  con- 
struction and  vocabulary.  In  an  age  when  seri- 
ous literary  composition  in  English  was  culti- 
vated but  little,  and  regarded  less,  the  famous 
words  in  his  dedication  of  'Toxophilus'  to 
Henry  VIII.  sounded  a  noble  and  patriotic  note. 
"Althoughe  to  have  written  this  boke  cither  in 
Latin  or  Greeke  .  .  .  had  been  more  easier 
and  fit  for  mi  trade  in  study,  yet  nevertheless,  I 
supposinge  it  no  point  of  honestie,  that  mi  com- 
rr.odite  should  stop  and  hinder  ani  parte  either 
of  the  pleasure  or  profite  of  manic,  have  writ- 
ten this  Englishe  matter  in  the  Englishe  tongue, 
for  Englishe  men."  His  style  is  without  the 
tricks  that  Lyby  introduced,  and  has  an  easy 
flow  and  straightforwardness. 

Bibliography. —  By  far  the  best  edition  of 
Ascham's  writings  is  'The  Whole  Works  of 
Roger  Ascham  .  .  .  with  a  Life  by  Dr.  J.  A. 
Giles'  (3  vols,  in  4  parts,  Lond.  1864-5).  This 
edition  includes  295  Latin  and  English  letters, 
many  printed  for  the  first  time.  'Toxophilus' 
was  first  published  in  1545  ;  other  editions  ap- 
peared in  1571,  1589,  1788,  1821,  1865  (by  J.  A. 
Giles),  1868  (by  E.  Arber).  'The  Schole- 
master' was  first  issued  1570,  and  was  followed 
by  editions  in  1571,  1572,  1573,  1579,  1583,  1589, 
1711,  1743.  Prof.  J.  E.  B.  Mayor  published  best 
modern  edition  in  1863,  and  E.  Arber  reprinted 
the  first  edition  in  1870.  The  best  exposition  of 
Ascham's  educational  system  is  in  R.  H.  Quick's 
'Essays  on  Educational  Reformers'  (1868). 
Cf.  also  article  by  Sidney  Lee  in  'Dictionary  of 
National  Biography.' 

Aschersleben,  a'sher-la'ben,  a  town  of 
Prussian  Saxony,  in  the  district  of  Magdeburg. 
It  is  walled  and  entered  by  five  gates,  and  con- 
tains several  churches,  a  synagogue,  and  a  real- 
school  of  the  first  class.  There  are  manufactures 
of  woolen  goods,  paper,  sugar,  artificial  manures, 
earthenware,  etc.  Among  several  interesting 
ruins  in  the  vicinity  is  the  old  castle  of  Askanien, 
the  cradle  of  the  house  of  Anhalt.  Pop.  ( 1900) 
27,245. 

Ascid'ian,  a  marine  animal,  so  called  from 
Ascidia,  a  genus  of  Tunicata.  Ascidians  were 
once  regarded  as  mollusks,  and  afterward  as 
worms,  but  when  their  embryology  and  early 
stages  were  studied  and  it  was  found  that  tiny 
passed  through  a  tadpole-like  stage,  in  which  the 
tail  is  supported  by  a  notochord,  and  that  in 
other  respects  they  approached  the  vertebrates, 
they  were  placed  with  the  vertebrates  in  the  group 
Chordata.  The  simple  ascidians  attain  to  a 
large  size,  A.  callosa  being  about  two  inches 
in  diameter,  quite  round,  and  in  shape  and  color 
much  like  a  potato.  The  "sea-peach"  {Cynthia 
pyriformis)  is  of  the  size  and  general  shape  of 
a  peach,  with  its  rich  bloom  and  reddish  tints. 
It  is  common  at  a  depth  of  10  to  50  fathoms  on 
both  sides  of  the  north  Atlantic.  While  other 
forms,  as  Boltenia,  are  stalked  and  fixed  to  the 
bottom,    certain    pelagic    forms,    as    Pyrosomo 


ASCLEPIADACE.K  —  ASELLIO 


and  Salpa  (q.v.),  are  free-swimming.  The 
compound  ascidians,  such  as  Amar&cium,  grow 
in  white  or  reddish  masses  on  sea-weed^,  rocks, 
shells,  etc.,  the  individual  animals  being  minute. 
The  interesting  form  Perophora  grows  in 
hunches  on  piles  and  wharves  on  the  southern 
coast   of    New    England;    it    is   perfectly    trar 

lit.  so  that  the  heart  and  circulation  of  the 
blood  can  readily  he  observed  under  the  micro- 
ti pe.  The  heart  is  a  straight  tube,  open  at 
each  end:  after  beating  for  a  number  "f  times. 
throwing  the  blood  with  its  corpuscles  in  one 
direction,  the  beatings  or  contractions  are  regu- 
larly  reversed,  and  the  blood  forced  in  an  oppo- 
site direction.  For  a  general  account  of  the 
anatomy,  development,  and  metamorphoses  of 
these  animals,  see  TuNICATA. 

Ascle'piada'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  more 
than  200  genera  and  2,000  species  of  dicotyledon- 
ou  herbs  and  shrubs,  most  of  them  with  milky 
juice  and  many  of  them  twining.  The  species 
are  widely  distributed  in  the  temperate  and 
tropical  zones  of  both  hemispheres  and  are  es- 
pecially abundant  in  Africa.  They  differ  greatly 
in  their  characteristics  and  uses;  some,  like 
Stephanotis  Aoribunda,  are  delightfully  fra- 
grant ;  others,  like  Stapelia  gigantca,  carrion 
flower,  are  repellantly  odoriferous.  Some  spe- 
cies yield  a  fibre  from  their  stems  or  their  pods  ; 
some  are  used  in  medicine  ;  others  are  planted 
for  ornament.  They  are  characterized  by  op- 
posite or  whorled,  seldom  scattered,  entire  leaves 
without  stipules;  umbels  of  symmetrical  flow- 
ers, without  calyx  and  with  a  five-parted  corolla 
wiili  often  rellexcd  lobes;  five  stamens  attached 
to  the  corolla  and  more  or  less  united  around 
the  stigma;  pollen  grains  more  or  less  coherent; 
1  In  ovary  composed  of  two  carpels;  style  short; 
stigma  discoid;  fruit  a  follicle  or  pod;  seed 
flattened,  with  long  silky  hairs,  which  buoy  it  up 
in  the  air  for  dispersal;  cotyledons  flat.  In  the 
United  States  Asclepias  (q.v.),  or  milkweed,  is 
the  principal  genus.  The  more  important  genera 
are  grouped  as  follows:  Tylophorek,  Mars- 
dinio,  Stephanotis,  Cereopcgia,  Stcphclia,  Hoya; 
Gonogi  "i1.  1  .  Gonoglobus;  pERlPL0CH.fi,  Periplo- 
cha,  Streptocaulon;  Asclepiad.e,  Asclepias,  Cy- 
nanchum,  Vincetoxicum. 

Asclepiades,  as'kle-pi'a-dez,  the  name  of 
several  ancient  Greek  writers  ■ —  poets,  gram- 
marians, etc. —  of  whom  little  is  known,  as  well 
as  of  several  physicians,  the  most  celebrated  of 
whom  was  Asclepiades,  of  Bithynia,  who  ac- 
cptired  considerable  repute  at  Rome  about  the 
beginning  of  the  1st  century  B.C. 

Ascle'pias,    milkweed,    silkweed,     swallow 

wi'ii.  the  type  genus  of  about  125  species  of 
the  natural  order  Ascle piadacea  (q.v.).  the  spe- 
cies of  which  are  mostly  North  American  erect 
perennial  weeds  with  thick,  deep  roots  common 
in  pastures  and  waste  places.  Some  furnish  a 
fibre  strong  enough  for  ropes,  and  the  silky 
down  attached  to  which  is  useless  for  spinning, 
is  often  used  for  stuffing  pillows,  etc.  The 
young  shoots  of  some  species  are  occasionally 
cooked  like  asparagus,  which  they  are  said  to  re- 
semble somewhat.  A.  tubcrosa,  butterfly-weed, 
pleurisy  runt,  common  in  dry  banks  and  fields 
from  Ohio  to  Georgia,  is  very  showy  and  seems 
to  deserve  a  place  in  the  flower-garden.  Other 
wi  11-known  American  species  are  A.  rubra,  A. 
purpurascens,  A.  syriaca,  etc.     The  few  species 


cultivated  fur  ornament  in  America  arc  mostly 
foreign.  The  genus  is  named  in  honor  "i  the 
Greek  god  Asclepine,  since  some  of  the  species 

arc  reputed  carminatives,  sudorifics,  and  expec- 
torants. Medicinally  the  milkweeds  are  of  sec- 
ondary value  only.  They  are  irritants,  and  cause 
nausea,  vomiting,  and  diarrhcea.  They  also 
cause  diuresis  and  diaphoresis,  but  their  exact 
action  is  in  need  of  investigation.  The  eclectic 
school  have  lx-en  the  chief  investigators. 

Ascoli,  as'ko-le,  or  Ascoli  Piceno,  as'ko-le 
pecha'no  (the  ancient  Asculum),  an  Italian 
town,  90  miles  northeast  of  Rome.  The  town, 
one  of  the  most  ancient  in  Italy,  is  well  built, 
and  contains  many  handsome  edifices  and  noble 
mansions,  and  the  remains  of  an  ancient  theatre, 
temples,  etc.  It  has  manufactories  of  woolen 
cloths,  leather,  hats,  cream  of  tartar,  china-ware, 
sealing-wax.  paper,  and  glass.  It  has  an  active 
trade,  and  its  port,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Tronto,  is  much  frequented  by  coasting  vessels. 
Pop.    (1901)   28,882. 

Ascoli  Satriano,  as'ko-le  sa'tre-ii'no  (anc. 
Asculum  .Ipi'iluiu).  a  town  of  southern  Italy,  20 
miles  south  of  Foggia.     Pop.   (1901)  8,550. 

As'comyce'tes,  a  large  and  important 
group  of  fungi,  so  called  from  their  spores  be- 
ing contained  in  asci  or  sacs.  This  group  in- 
cludes mildews,  rusts,  smuts,  the  truffle,  the 
morel,  and  (according  to  Schwendener  and  oth- 
er authorities)  the  lichens.  See  Engler  and 
Pranll,  'Die  Natiirlichcn  Pflanzenfamilien.'  Sec 
Fungi. 

Asco'nius  (QuiNTUS  A.  Pedianus),  a  Ro- 
man historian  of  the  1st  century  A.D.,  wdio  wrote 
a  life  of  Sallust,  a  reply  to  the  critics  of  Virgil, 
and  valuable  commentaries  to  Cicero's  orations, 
seme  of  which  are  extant. 

As'cot,  a  celebrated  English  race-course  near 
the  southwest  extremity  of  the  Windsor  park. 
The  annual  races,  which  lake  place  in  the  sec- 
ond week  in  June,  are  attended  by  the  fashion- 
able and  sporting  public.  From  the  accounts  of 
the  Master  of  Horse  for  the  year  1712,  it  would 
appear  that  they  were  instituted,  not  in  1727,  as 
is  commonly  supposed,  but  by  Queen  Anne  on  6 
Aug.  171 1. 

Ascutney,  as-kut'm,  an  isolated  granitic 
mountain  on  the  boundary  between  Windsor 
and  Weathersfield,  Vt.  Its  summit  is  3.320  feet 
above  tide- water;  and  from  it  is  presented  an  ex- 
tensive and  beautiful  prospect  of  the  valley  of 
the  Connecticut. 

As'dood,  or  Asdoud,  a  seaport  of  Pales- 
tine, on  the  Mediterranean,  35  miles  west  of 
Jerusalem.  It  was  the  Ashdod  of  scripture,  one 
of  the  five  confederate  cities  of  the  Philistines, 
and  one  of  the  seats  of  the  worship  of  Dagon 
(1  Sam.  v.  5).  It  occupied  a  commanding  posi- 
tion on  the  high  road  from  Palestine  to  Egypt, 
and  was  never  subdued  by  the  Israelites.  It 
sustained  against  Psammetichus  a  siege  of  29 
years;  was  destroyed  by  the  Maccabees,  and 
restored  by  the  Romans.  It  is  now  an  insignifi- 
cant village,  from  which  the  sea  is  constantly 
receding. 

Aselli,  a-sel'lee,  Gasparo,  a  famous  Ital- 
ian physician:  b.  Cremona  about  1580;  d. 
1626.  He  was  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery 
at  Padua,  and  in  1622  discovered  the  lacteal 
vessels,  which  he  seems,  however,  never  to  have 


ASELLUS  —  ASH 


understood  or  described  with  complete  accuracy. 
He  left  a  treatise,  <De  Lactibus'    (1627). 

Asel'lus,  a  fresh-water  isopod  crustacean, 
allied  to  the  wood-lice  (q.v.),  common  in  ponds 
and  standing  water,  under  sticks  and  stones,  and 
in  open  caves.  These  crustaceans  differ  from  the 
common  pill  bugs  of  the  land  in  having  a  pair 
of  rather  long  forked  two-jointed  caudal  ap- 
pendages and  antenna?  of  the  second  pair  reach- 
ing to  the  telson.  The  body  is  broad  and  flat, 
with  a  broad  shield-like  telson,  formed  by  the 
fusion  of  the  last  abdominal  segments.  There 
are  six  pairs  of  legs  arising  from  the  middle 
region  of  the  body  between  the  head  and  tel- 
son. The  female  carries  her  eggs  under  her 
breast,  behind  the  head.  Respiration  is  carried 
on  by  several  pairs  of  broad,  gill-like  sacks  ap- 
pended to  the  broad,  flat  abdominal  legs.  Blind 
individuals  occur  in  caves,  which  are  allied  to 
the  true  blind  Asellus  cacidotaa. 

Asen,  a'sen,  in  northern  mythology,  the 
most  powerful  of  the  gods.  They  included  12 
gods  and  the  same  number  of  goddesses,  among 
the  most  renowned  of  whom  were  Odin,  Thor, 
Baldur,  Freyr,  Frigga,  Freyja,  Idunna,  Eira, 
and  Saga.  Their  dwelling-place  was  Asgard. 
Though  this  worship  was  native  only  to  the 
tribes  of  Scandinavia,  its  influence  extended 
throughout  ancient  Germany,  and  may  still  be 
traced  in  many  German  proper  names.  Thus 
the  German  names  of  the  days  of  the  week, 
which  through  the  Saxons  became  incorporated 
into  the  English  language,  are  derived  from  this 
mythology.  (See  Asgard.)  Asen  was  also  the 
name  of  several  mediaeval  c-zars  of  Bulgaria. 

As'enath,  the  daughter  of  Potipherah, 
priest  of  On,  and  the  wife  of  Joseph  (Gen.  xli. 
45.  50). 

Asepsis.     See  Antiseptics. 

Asex'ual  Generation.  See  Parthenogene- 
sis. 

Asgard,  as'gard,  the  home  of  the  /Esir, 
or  Asen,  and  the  Olympus  of  northern  mythol- 
ogy. The  city  of  Asgard  is  fabled  to  have  been 
built  in  the  middle  of  Ida's  plain,  the  very  centre 
of  the  universe.  Here  the  ^Esir  erected  a  court 
for  themselves  with  seats  for  12  and  one  high 
seat  for  Odin,  the  All-father,  and  also  a  lofty 
abode  for  the  goddesses,  called  Vingolf.  They 
worked  diligently,  played  at  games,  were  rich 
in  gold  and  all  precious  things,  and  happy,  till 
three  maidens  from  Jotunheim,  the  giants' 
world,  crossed  Ida's  plain  and  entered  Asaheim, 
when  corruption  spread  among  its  inmates.  As- 
gard had  many  mansions,  the  largest  and  noblest 
of  which  was  Gladsheim  :  while  another,  not  so 
spacious,  but  the  fairest  of  all  and  brighter  than 
the  sun,  was  called  Gimli.  See  Scandinavian 
Mythology. 

Asgill,  as'gil,  John,  an  eccentric  English 
writer:  b.  Hanly  Castle.  1659;  d.  1738.  He 
was  bred  to  the  law,  and  gained  considerable 
reputation,  not  only  by  skill  in  his  profession, 
but  from  his  pamphlet  declaring  that  man  might 
pass  into  eternal  life  without  dying.  In  1703  he 
took  his  seat  in  the  Irish  Parliament,  but  was 
dismissed  after  four  days  on  account  of  his  so- 
called  blasphemous  pamphlet.  In  1705  he  sat  in 
the  English  Parliament  for  Bramber ;  but  in  1707 
he  was  expelled,  nominally  on  account  of  his  un- 
lucky  pamphlet,    but   really   perhaps   because  of 


his  debts.  The  remainder  of  his  life  he  spent  in 
the  Fleet  and  King's  Bench  prisons,  in  one  of 
which  he  died.  He  wrote  a  number  of  pam- 
phlets on  the  Pretender  and  on  the  Hanoverian 

succession. 

Ash  (Fra.rinus),  a  genus  of  about  50  spe- 
cies of  hardy,  ornamental  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Oleacca,  natives  mainly  of  North  America, 
Europe,  and  western  Asia.  The  species  are 
prized  for  street  and  park  planting  for  which 
their  usually  tall  pyramidal  or  broad-topped  hab- 
its and  light,  green  foliage,  which  turns  yellow 
or  purple  in  autumn  but  which  falls  early, 
makes  them  specially  attractive.  From  the  ele- 
gance of  their  forms  several  -pecie  .  imiably  the 
fi  r  -t  mentioned  below,  have  been  called  the 
Venus  of  the  forest;  the  oak  being  the  Her- 
cules. The  leaves  are  rather  large  opposite,  pin- 
nate, and  deciduous;  the  flowers  greenish  or 
whitish  in  panicles,  appearing  eithei  with, 

or  after  the  leaves:  the  fruits  are  rather  small 
samaras.  Since  grass  and  other  plant s  do  not 
grow  well  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  ash 
it  is  not  a  good  lawn  species.  The  common 
ash  (Fraxinus  excelsior),  a  native  of  Europe 
and  western  Asia,  found  in  its  perfection  upon 
loamy  soil,  often  attains  a  height  of  120  or  even 
150  feet.  It  also  thrives  in  exposed  and  elevated 
situations  better  than  many  other  trees.  Its 
naked  flowers  appear  long  before  the  leaves, 
which  drop  early  in  the  autumn,  but  during  the 
summer  are  very  ornamental.  Its  ballets  are  ses- 
sile and  serrated  toothed.  Its  tough,  hard,  white 
wood  makes  excellent  fuel  and  is  highly  valued 
for  turning  (for  carriage  wheels  especially) 
when  the  tree  has  grown  rapidly,  since  the 
toughness  is  then  very  great.  It  is  then  particu- 
larly valuable  for  carriage  shafts,  ladders, 
handles  of  agricultural  tools,  such  as  rakes, 
pitchforks,  and  hoes,  where  pliability,  toughness, 
and  lightness  are  essential.  F >r  such  uses  its 
only  important  rival  in  America  is  the  hickory. 
When  gnarled,  as  it  occasionally  is,  it  is  pre- 
pared like  "curly"  maple  for  cabinet  work  and 
furniture,  specially  tine-grained  specimens  being 
used  as  veneer.  The  bark  is  used  to  some  ex- 
tent in  leather  tanning.  A  large  number  of  cul- 
tivated varieties  have  been  produced,  among 
which  the  most  remarkable  are:  MonophyUa 
(erroneously  raised  by  some  botanists  to  the 
rank  of  a  species),  with  simple  instead  of  com- 
pound leaves  or  with  only  one  or  two  small  leaf- 
lets at  the  base  of  the  main  leaf-blade;  al 
marginata,  the  leaflets  of  which  are  bordered 
with  white;  albo-variegata,  with  mottled  white 
and  green  leaflets;  aurca.  yellow  branched; 
aurea-pendula,  drooping  yellow  branches:  pen- 
dula,  one  of  the  best  weeping  trees;  crispa,  with 
curled  and  twisted  very  dark  green  leaves.  The 
American  or  white  ash  ( F.  atnericana) .  a  very 
variable  species  common  from  Xew  Brunswick 
to    Florida    and    westward    to     M  and 

Texas,  but  rare  south  of  New  Jersey,  attains 
about  the  same  size  as  the  preceding  species,  but 
has  lighter  bark  and  leaves.  The  leaflets  have 
short  stalks  and  are  entire.  In  rich,  moist,  dense 
woods  the  trunks  often  attain  a  height  of  40 
feet  without  a  branch,  thus  furnishing  valuable 
timber,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purpose- 
that  of  the  preceding  species.  There  arc  many 
varieties  which  more  or  less  resemble  those  of 
the  common  ash.  The  black  or  water  ash  (  F. 
nigra),   common    in   swamps   and   upon    stream 


ASH 


banks  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Minnesota  and 
southward  to  Missouri  and  Virginia,  often  at- 
tains a  height  of  So  feet.  Its  wood  is  softer 
than  that  of  the  preceding,  lmt,  being  tough  and 

easily    separable    longitudinally    into    layers,    is 
largely   used   for   veneer,   baskets,   barrel    staves 
and  hoops.     The  name  /;.  sambucifolia,  by  which 
this    species    is    sometimes   called,    was   given    it 
because   the  bruised   leaves   smell   like  those  of 
elder.     The  red  ash   (F.  pubescens  or  F.  penn- 
syhanica)  is  common  in  low  ground  from  mari- 
time Canada  to   Florida,  being  especially  abun- 
dant  in  the  swamps  of  Pennsylvania,   Maryland, 
and  Virginia.     It  is  rare  west  of  Ohio,  though 
found  as  far  west  as  Dakota  and  Minnesota.     It 
resembles  the  American  ash  in  uses  and  in  gen- 
eral appearance.     The  interior  of  the  outer  hark 
of  the  branches  is  cinnamon  color  or  red  when 
fresh.     The  blue  ash    ( /•'.  quadrangulata) ,  com- 
mon in  rich,  dry,  or  moist  woods  from  Michigan 
and   Minnesota  to  Tennessee  and  Arkansas,  and 
especially  abundant  in   Ohio  and  Kentucky,   at- 
tains a  height  of  80  to  120  feet.     Its  branches 
are    more    or    less    four-angled,    hence    the    spe- 
cific name,   and   the  membranes  which   give  the 
smaller    branches    this    form    are    specially    no- 
ticeable on   the  young  shoots.     The  inner  bark 
yields  a  blue  color  when  steeped  in  water,  hence 
the  common  name.     The  green  ash  (F.  viridis), 
a   species   very   widely   distributed   over   Canada 
and  the  United  States  from  ocean  to  ocean,  is 
so  called  from  the  brilliant  green  of  its  young 
shoots.     It  is  extensively  planted  to  form  wind- 
breaks in  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas  on  account 
of  its  extreme  hardiness  and  because  it  is  easily 
propagated  by  seeds  and  also  because  it  grows 
very    rapidly.     It    is   less   valued    for    its    wood 
than  the  white  ash,  but  is  useful  for  fuel.     The 
Carolina  or  water  ash   (F.  caroliniana,  also  re- 
ferred variously  to  F.  platicarpa  and  F.  amcri- 
cana)    seldom  exceeds  40  feet  in  height,  but  is 
noted  for  its  very  large  leaflets.     It  is  distributed 
from  Virginia  to  Florida  and  westward  to  Ar- 
kansas   and    Texas,    being    most    plentiful     in 
swamps,  along  water  courses  and  in  damp,  rich 
woods.     Its  wood  is  used  like  that  of  the  white 
ash.     F.  cuspidata,  a  native  of  the  southwestern 
United  States  and  northern  Mexico,  is  a  shrub 
or  small  tree  wdiich   seldom  exceeds  20  feet   in 
height,  and  on  account  of  its  conspicuous  pani- 
cles of  fragrant  flowers  is  often  planted  in  tem- 
perate   climates    for    ornamental    purposes.     F. 
velutina,  also  sometimes  referred  to  F.  pistacitr- 
folia,   another   species   of  the  same   region,   sel- 
dom attains  a  height  of  SO  feet,  and  not  being 
hardy    is    confined    to    southern    planting.     The 
manna   or   flowering  ash    (F.   Ornus   or   Ornus 
curopaa),    a    native    of    southern    Europe    and 
western  Asia,  is  a  small  tree  25  feet  tall  which 
resembles  the  common  ash.     It  furnishes  manna 
(q.v.),   as  does  also   F.  rotundifolia,  which   by 
some    botanists    is    considered    a   variety    of   F. 
Ornus.     It  is  a  native  of  Greece.     Many  other 
species  are  of  botanical,  economic,  or  ornamen- 
tal interest,  but  probably  none  of  as  much  im- 
portance as  the  species  mentioned.     The  moun- 
tain ash  (q.v.),  a  member  of  the  natural  order 
Rosacea,   obtains    its    name    from    its    ash-like 
leaves. 

Consult:  Nicholson,  'Dictionary  of  Garden- 
ing' (1SS8)  :  Bailey  and  Miller,  'Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Horticulture'    (1900-2). 


Ash,  or  Ash'es,  the  fixed  residue  obtained 
by  burning  any  part  of  an  organized  substance 
in  air.  Ash  usually  contains  the  following,  or 
some  of  the  following,  metallic  and  non-metallic 
elements: 

Metals  Non-metals 


Pot    Bsium 
Sodium 
Calcium 
Barium 

1  run 

Manganese 

Aluminum 

Copper 

Zinc 


Chlorine 

lln. mine 

Iodine 

Phosphorus 

Sulphur 

Silicon 

Carbon 


These  substances  are  combined  in  various 
forms  in  the  living  body  of  the  plant  or  animal. 
They  are  derived  from  the  soil  in  the  case  of 
plants,  and  chiefly  from  plants  in  the  case  of 
animals.  Different  parts  of  the  animal  or  vege- 
table frame  are  characterized  by  differences  in 
the  ash  wdiich  they  leave  when  burned;  thus  ash 
of  bones  consists  largely  of  phosphate  of  cal- 
cium; the  animal  fluids  and  the  juices  of  plants 
contain  chlorid  of  sodium;  sea-plants  leave  an 
ash  rich  in  alkaline  carbonates  and  also  charac- 
terized by  the  presence  of  bromids  and  iodids  of 
the  alkalies.  (See  Barilla;  Kelp.)  Many 
grasses  contain  large  quantities  of  silica,  which 
appears  in  the  ash  of  these  plants.  An  examina- 
tion of  the  ash  of  plants  often  leads  to  impor- 
tant conclusions  as  to  the  most  suitable  manure 
to  employ  for  enriching  the  soil  in  which  the 
plants    are   to   be   grown. 

Ashes. —  The  non-volatile,  inorganic  portion 
of  an  animal  or  vegetable  substance  left  behind 
after  incineration.  Ashes  consist  of  the  most 
part  of  carbonates,  sulphates,  sulphids,  silicates 
and  phosphates  of  potassium,  sodium,  calcium, 
magnesium,  manganese,  and  iron,  with  occa- 
sional admixture  of  unusual  elements  such  as 
aluminum.  In  certain  seaweeds  iodin  is  a  prom- 
inent constituent  of  the  ash,  and  silica  occurs  in 
many  rushes.  The  solid  matters  taken  up  by 
plants  are  not  absorbed  in  anything  like  the 
proportions  in  which  they  occur  in  the  soil 
whence  they  are  derived.  This  is  well  illustrated 
by  analyses  of  the  ashes  of  different  plants, 
growing  side  by  side  in  the  same  soil.  Thus 
Kerncr  gives  four  such  analyses,  made  on  the 
ashes  of  (1)  the  water-soldier  (Slratitocs  clo- 
nics) ;  (2)  the  white  water-lily  (Nympltcca 
alba)  ;  (3)  a  stonewort  (Chara  fectida),  and 
(4)  a  reed  (Phragmitcs  communis).  The  re- 
sults, so  far  as  potash,  soda,  lime,  and  silica  are 
concerned,  are  as  follows: 

PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  ASH. 


Water 
soldier 

Water 
lily 

Stone- 
wort 

Reed 

30.8 
2.7 

■3 

H4 
29.7 
18.9 
05 

0.2 
0.1 
54-8 
0.3 

8.6 

Soda    

0.4 
5-9 

7i-5 

These  four  plants  grew  close  together  and  the 
soil  from  which  they  drew  their  supplies  was 
identical,  so  far  as  could  be  discovered.  The 
stonewort.  it  will  be  seen,  contained  a  very  large 
quantity  of  lime,  and  barely  a  trace  of  potash, 
soda,  or  silica;  while  nearly  three  quarters  of 
the  ash  of  the  reed  consisted  of  silica,  and  there 


\  3  1 1   (Fraxinus  excelsior). 


i.  2.  The  unfolding  of  the  bud,  3.  A  shoot  in  flower.  4.  5,6.  Andr<  gynous  flower,  from  dirTer- 
ent  sides.  7.  The  stamen,  exposed  with  two  anthers  on  their  filament.  S.  The  pistil.  9.  The  seed-pod, 
exhibiting  the  hanging  seeds.  10.  Section  of  the  seed-pod.  11.  Spray  of  hanging  fruit.  12.  Fruit  laid 
open,  exposing  seed.     13.  The  two  lobes  of  the  seed,  showing  inner  and  outer  side.     14.   Seedling  plant. 


ASH-FLY  —  ASHANTEE 


was  less  than  one  ninth  as  much  lime  as  was 
found  in  the  stonewort.  If  we  pass  from  the 
consideration  of  different  plants  growing  in  the 
same  soil  to  that  of  the  same  plant  growing  in 
different  soils,  the  results  are  equally  surprising. 
Thus  Kerner  gives  analyses  of  the  ash  obtained 
from  the  foliage  and  branches  of  the  yew  tree 
(Taxus  baccata),  the  specimens  analyzed  being 
taken  from  soils  rich  in  serpentine,  limestone, 
and  gneiss,  respectively.  The  results  are  pre- 
sented in  the  accompanying  table.  It  will  be 
seen  that  there  are  some  slight  differences 
in  composition,  but  when  the  wide  difference  in 
the  soils  is  taken  into  account  it  is  remarkable 
that  the  proportions  are  so  nearly  alike. 


Nature     of 

Soil 

Substance    Found 

Serpen- 

Lime- 

tine 

stone 

Silicic  Acid   

3-9 

3.6 

37 

i-9 

1.6 

1.9 

8-3 

5.5 

4-2 

2.1 

1-7 

Potash    

38.8 

28.6 

41.2 
21.8 

27.6 

14. i 

23-1 

24.4 

One  feature  that  was  prominent  in  the 
analyses  of  the  yew-tree  ash  has  been  purposely 
obscured  in  the  table  by  counting  the  lime  and 
magnesia  together.  It  appears  that  when  a 
plant  needs  a  certain  substance  for  its  growth 
it  will  sometimes  make  use  of  another  substance 
whose  chemical  properties  are  closely  similar, 
provided  the  more  desirable  one  cannot  be  had  in 
sufficient  quantities.  Thus  the  ash  of  the  yew- 
trees  growing  over  limestone  contained  36.1  per 
cent  of  lime  and  5.1  per  cent  of  magnesia;  and 
that  of  the  trees  growing  over  gneiss  contained 
30.6  per  cent  of  lime  and  5.7  per  cent  of  mag- 
nesia. The  serpentine  soil,  however,  was  much 
poorer  in  lime  than  either  of  the  others, —  ser- 
pentine being  composed  almost  entirely  of  mag- 
nesium, silicon,  and  oxygen, —  and  the  trees 
growing  upon  this  soil,  being  unable  to  obtain 
the  necessary  quantity  of  lime,  accepted,  in  the 
place  of  the  lime,  an  equal  weight  of  magnesia, 
which  strongly  resembles  lime  in  its  chemical 
properties ;  the  observed  quantity  of  lime  in 
these  trees  being  only  16.1  per  cent,  while  mag- 
nesia was  present  to  the  extent  of  22.7  per  cent. 
The  ashes  of  plants  show  that  in  certain  cases 
the  plants  from  which  they  are  obtained  possess 
a  wonderful  power  of  collecting  large  amounts 
of  some  particular  substance,  even  when  this 
substance  is  present  in  the  soil  or  water  in  which 
they  are  growing  in  such  minute  quantities  that 
it  can  barely  be  detected  by  the  most  delicate 
chemical  tests.  For  example,  the  sea-weeds  of 
the  North  Sea  are  so  rich  in  iodin  that  their 
ashes  formed  the  chief  supply  of  this  substance 
for  years, —  in  fact,  until  the  extensive  South 
American  deposits  of  sodium  iodid  were  dis- 
covered. It  would  naturally  be  inferred  that 
the  North  Sea  contains  considerable  quantities 
of  soluble  iodids ;  but  the  fact  is,  that  no  trace 
of  iodin  or  of  iodids  has  yet  been  detected  in 
it,  by  the  most  delicate  tests.  Wood  ashes  have 
long  been  used  as  a  source  of  potash,  this  sub- 
stance being  readily  obtained  from  them  by  mere 
leaching   with   water.     The   greater   part  of  the 


potash  of  commerce  is  now  obtained  from  other 
sources,  but  the  leaching  process  is  still  in  use 
in  country  places  where  wood  ashes  are  plentiful, 
the  potash  so  obtained  being  chiefly  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  soap.  Wood  ashes  are  also  valu- 
able for  fertilizing  purposes,  on  account  of  the 
potash   and   phosphorus   they   contain. 

Ash'-fly,  the  gall-fly  of  the  oak  (Cynips 
quercifolia) .     See  Galls;  Gall-fly. 

Ash'-leaved'  Ma'ple.        See  Box  Elder. 

Ash'- Wednesday,  the  first  day  of  Lent. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  ancient  custom 
of  putting  ashes  upon  the  head  as  a  symbol  of 
humble  repentance  for  sin.  In  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church  it  is  part  of  the  religious  service  on 
this  day  for  the  priest  to  put  ashes  on  the  fore- 
head of  each  worshipper  while  kneeling  at  the 
altar  rails.  In  the  English  Church  and  in  the 
American  Episcopal  Church  the  day  is  observed 
with  especial  solemnity  as  the  opening  of  the 
penitential  season,  and  also  in  the  Unitarian 
"King's  Chapel,"  in  Boston,  Mass. 

Ashantee,  a-shiin'te,  a  negro  kingdom  of 
western  Africa  and  practically  a  part  of  the 
British  colony  of  the  Gold  Coast.  Its  bounda- 
ries cannot  be  stated  with  any  definiteness,  but 
its  area  may  be  roughly  estimated  at  10,000 
sauare  miles.  It  is  in  general  hilly  and  is 
largely  covered  with  forests.  It  is  well  watered 
and  extremely  fertile,  but  the  climate  is  un- 
healthy. Among  the  trees  are  the  baobab,  palms, 
and  cotton  trees.  The  crops  are  chiefly  rice, 
corn,  sugar-cane,  and  yams,  the  last  forming  the 
staple  vegetable  food  of  the  natives.  The  domes- 
tic animals  are  cattle,  horses  of  small  size,  goats, 
and  a  species  of  hairy  sheep.  The  larger  wild 
animals  are  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  buffalo, 
lion,  hippopotamus,  etc.  Birds  are  numerous  and 
crocodiles  and  other  reptiles  abound.  Gold  is 
obtained,  being  found  either  in  the  form  of  dust 
or  in  nuggets.  The  Ashantees  long  made  them- 
selves well  known  as  being  warlike  and  fero- 
cious, with  a  love  of  shedding  human  blood 
amounting  to  a  passion.  Human  teeth  and  jaw- 
bones were  worn  as  personal  ornaments,  and 
human  sacrifices  used  to  be  frequent.  On  the 
death  of  a  king  or  chief  enormous  numbers  of 
victims  were  slaughtered  with  circumstances  of 
revolting  cruelty,  and  there  were  regularly  re- 
curring periods,  at  intervals  of  18  or  24  days, 
called  the  great  and  little  adai,  when  human 
sacrifices  were  made.  Notwithstanding  this 
there  exist  among  the  Ashantees  certain  of  the 
arts  of  civilization.  They  excel  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton  cloths  and  in  the  fabrication  of 
articles  in  gold;  they  make  good  earthenware, 
tan  leather,  and  make  sword-blades  of  superior 
workmanship.  The  native  government  is  a  mon- 
archy. The  chief  town  is  Coomassie  or  Kuniasi. 
The  British  first  came  in  contact  with  the  Ashan- 
tees in  1807,  when  a  treaty  was  concluded  by  the 
governor  of  Cape  Coast  with  the  king  of 
Ashantee,  acknowledging  the  sovereignty  of  the 
latter  by  right  of  conquest  over  the  coast,  includ- 
ing Cape  Coast  Castle.  In  1823  war  was  pro- 
claimed by  the  Ashantees  against  the  British, 
and  they  succeeded  in  the  following  year  in  de- 
feating a  small  body  of  troops  led  by  the  gov- 
ernor, who  perished  with  almost  all  his  officers; 
but  in  1826  the  Ashantees  were  completely  de- 
feated near  Accra.  At  the  close  of  another  war, 
in  1831,  the  river  Prah  was  fixed  as  the  bound- 


ASHBURNER  —  ASHEVILLE 


ary  between  the  Ashantec  kingdom  and  the 
protected  by  Great  Britain,  but  the  Ashan- 
te<  soon  began  to  interfere  beyond  the  boun- 
dary. Early  in  1873  the  Ashantees  again  in- 
vaded the  territory  protected  by  Great  Britain, 
and  Gen.  Wolseley  (subsequently  Viscount 
Wolseley)  was  now  sent  against  them.  I  he 
\  h: niter  general  Amanquantia  had  concentrated 
his  troops,  20,000  strong,  at  Amoaful,  20  miles 
from  Coomassie.  The  British  general  led  to  the 
attack  1.4X1  English  and  708  native  troops, 
whom  he  formed  into  a  square.  The  battle  be- 
gan on  31  January,  on  which  day  Amoaful  was 
taken.  The  British  continued  to  advance  fight- 
ing, the  enemy  at  the  same  time  attempting  to 
break  in  u|hmi  their  rear  by  attacking  the  troops 
left  at  Fommanah.  On  the  4th  Coomassie  was 
entered.  The  loss  of  the  British  in  killed  and 
wounded  was  300,  and  a  large  number  ultimately 
Succumbed  to  the  climate.  As  the  king  refused 
to  enter  Coomassie  to  sign  a  treaty,  the  British 
set  fire  to  the  town  and  began  their  return  march 
on  the  6th.  The  treaty  signed  soon  after  stipu- 
lated that  the  king  of  Ashantee  should  renounce 
his  claims  to  the  protectorate  over  the  allies  of 
Great  Britain  ;  that  free  trade  and  open  commu- 
nication should  be  established  with  the  coast, 
and  that  the  king  should  pay  an  indemnity  of 
50,000  ounces  of  gold.  The  last  condition  was 
not  faithfully  observed,  but  the  result  of  the 
war  was  greatly  to  weaken  the  power  of  the 
Ashantees.  The  conduct  of  King  Prcmpeh,  a 
successor  of  King  Koffee,  led  to  the  dispatch  of 
another  British  expedition,  which  in  1896  en- 
tered Coomassie  without  resistance,  and  received 
the  abject  submission  of  the  king,  who  was  taken 
and  sent  into  banishment.  A  British  resident 
has  since  been  stationed  in  the  country,  which 
is  now  a  British  protectorate,  subordinate  to  the 
governor  of  the  Gold  Coast,  and  will  no  longer 
be  the  scene  of  human  sacrifices  and  slave  trad- 
ing. In  June  1898  an  agreement  was  arrived  at 
between  Great  Britain  and  France  with  regard 
to  the  boundaries  between  their  respective  terri- 
i.mes  here.  The  population  of  Ashantec  is  es- 
timated at  from  1,000,000  to  3,000,000. 

Ash'burner,  Charles  Albert,  an  American 
geologist:  b.  Philadelphia,  9  Feb.  1X54;  d.  Pitts- 
burg, 24  Dec.  1889.  He  graduated  at  the  head 
of  his  class  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  was  appointed  assistant  State  geologist  in 
1875.  He  originated  a  method  of  surveying  and 
representing  the  geology  of  the  anthracite  coal 
fields  which  received  the  approbation  of  mining 
engineers  throughout  the  world.  He  was  also 
an  accepted  authority  on  the  natural-gas  fields. 
In  1X86  he  entered  private  practice  as  an  expert 
and  became  closely  associated  with  the  Westing- 
house  intere  1  lie  prepared  over  20  of  the 
Pennsylvania  State  geological  survey  reports, 
and  contributed  to  scientific  and  technical  jour- 
nals. 

Ash'burnham,  Sir  Cromer,  an  English 
military  officer:  b.  1X31.  He  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  the  Indian  Mutiny  campaign,  Afghan- 
istan campaign,  the  Boer  war  (1881),  the  Egyp- 
tian, and  eastern  Sudan  campaigns;  and  was 
subsequently  governor  of   Suakim. 

Ash'burton,  Alexander  Baring,  Lord,  an 
English  statesman  and  financier:  b.  London,  27 
Oct.  1774;  d.  13  May  1848.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Sir   Francis   Baring,   and   the  affairs  of 


the   famous  mercantile  house  established  by  his 
father    kept    him    employed    in    Canada    and    the 
United   States   for   many  years.     In    1X10   he   be 
came  the  head  of  the  house  of  Baring  Brothers, 
and  in  1812  sat  in  Parliament   for  Taunton,     lie 
was  created  Baron  Ashburton  in  1835.     1  lc  was 
appointed     special     ambassador     to    the     United 
States  in   1X42  to  settle  the  Northwestern  boun- 
dary question   and   other   matters   in   dispute   be 
tween  England  and  America.     A  street   in   Bos 
ton,  known  as  Ashburton   Place,  was  named  in 
his  honor. 

Ash'burton  River,  a  stream  in  western 
Australia  Sowing  400  miles  and  emptying  into 
the  Indian  Ocean,  lat.  22°  S. ;  Ion.  1 15°   \Y. 

Ash'burton  Trea'ty,  a  treaty  concluded  at 
Washington  in  August  1X42  by  Alexander  Bar- 
ing. Lord  Ashburton,  and  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  It  defined  the  boundaries  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Ash 'by.  Turner,  an  American  soldier:  b. 
1824;  d.  June  1862.  He  entered  the  Confed- 
erate army  in  1861  and  became  a  brigadier- 
general.  He  was  especially  distinguished  for 
his  gallantry.  He  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  at 
Harrisburg.  \'a. 

Ashby-Sterry,  Joseph,  a  well  known  Eng- 
lish writer  on  the  staff  of  the  Daily  Graphic. 
He  is  novelist  and  poet,  as  well  as  journalist, 
and  among  his  published  books  arc:  'Nutshell 
Novels'  (1890);  'The  Lazy  Minstrel,'  a  collec- 
tion of  brilliant  verse  (1892)  ;  'Naughty  Girl,  a 
Story  of  1893'  (1893)  ;  'A  Tale  of  the  Thames 
in  Verse'  (1896)  ;  (The  Bystander,  or  Leaves 
for  the  Lazy'    (1900). 

Ashby-de-la-Zouche,  ash'M-de-la-zooch',  a 
market  town  in  Leicestershire.  England,  on  the 
borders  of  Derbyshire.  17  miles  northwest  of 
Leicester.  It  has  wide,  well-paved  streets,  a.'d 
its  parish  church  of  Saint  Helen  is  a  handsome 
building  with  stained-glass  windows,  carvings, 
and  monuments.  The  Ivanhoe  baths  attract  vis- 
itors, the  waters  being  beneficial  for  some  ail- 
ments. The  ruins  of  Ashby  Castle,  well  known 
to  readers  of  'Ivanhoe,'  which  received  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  as  a  prisoner,  are  still  visible. 
Pop.  (1901)  4,700. 

Ash'dod.     See  Asdood. 

Ashe,  ash,  John,  an  American  soldier:  b. 
in  North  Carolina,  1720;  d.  24  Oct.  1781.  lb- 
was  a  member  of  the  first  Provincial  Congress 
and  served  in  the  American  Revolution  as  a 
brigadier-general  of  North  Carolina  troops. 
Asheville,  N.  C,  was  called  in  his  honor. 

Ash'er,  the  name  of  the  eighth  son  of 
Jacob.  He  founded  the  tribe  called  after  him, 
which  occupied  a  fertile  territory  in  Palestine 
along  the  coast  between  Carmel  and  Lebanon. 

Asheville,  ash'vil,  N.  C,  a  city  and  county- 
seat  of  Buncombe  County,  on  the  Southern  R.R., 
near  the  French  Broad  River;  ..75  miles  west  of 
Raleigh.  It  is  in  a  tobacco-growing  region;  has 
manufactories  of  cotton  goods,  shoes,  ice,  to- 
bacco, and  Hour;  and  is  widely  famed  as  a  win- 
ter and  summer  resort.  The  city  is  2,350  feet 
.il'"\c  the  level  of  the  sea  and  is  surrounded  by 
impressive  mountain  scenery.  It  has  the  Ashe- 
ville College  for  Young  Women,  Bingham  Mili- 
tary School,  Asheville  School  for  Boys,  Normal 
College     and     Collegiate     Institute     for     Young 


ASHEVILLE  COLLEGE  — ASHLEY 


Women,  Home  Industrial  School  for  Girls, 
Asheville  Farm  School  for  Boys,  Industrial 
School  for  Colored  Youth,  an  auditorium  cen- 
trally situated  seating  2,000,  and  free  to  conven- 
tions, weather  bureau,  three  national  banks,  and 
nearly  50  hotels  and  boarding-houses.  It  has 
modern  sewerage,  electric  light  and  gas  plants,  a 
water  supply  by  17  miles  of  pipe  line  from  trout 
streams  on  the  water  shed  of  Mt.  Mitchell,  and 
an  electric  street  car  system  with  a  trolley  road 
to  Sunset  Mountains.  In  the  suburbs  are  the 
grand  estate  of  -Biltmore,  established  by  George 
Vanderbilt  of  New  York  city ;  one  of  the  finest 
botanical  gardens  in  the  world ;  Pisgah  forest,  a 
hunting  preserve  of  84,000  acres ;  Riverside 
Parks;  and  Mount  Beaumont,  2,800  feet  high. 
Pop.  (1900)  14,694. 

Ashe'ville  College,  a  non-sectarian  edu- 
cational institution  for  women,  in  Asheville,  N. 
C.  It  was  organized  in  1842,  and  at  the  end  of 
1899  had  17  professors,  135  students,  and 
grounds  and  buildings  valued  at  $100,000. 

Ash'ford,  a  market-town  in  Kent,  Eng- 
land, pleasantly  situated  on  the  river  Stour. 
There  are  corn  and  cattle  markets,  and  the 
Southeastern  Railway  Company  have  their  prin- 
cipal locomotive  and  carriage  establishments 
here.     Pop.    (1901)    12,808. 

Ash'hurst,  John,  an  American  surgeon:  b. 
1839;  d.  1900.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania  in  1857 ;  served  as  an 
army  surgeon  in  the  Civil  War;  became  sur- 
geon of  several  Philadelphia  hospitals  after  his 
return ;  and  was  made  president  of  the  College 
of  Physicians  in  Philadelphia  in  1898.  He  held 
surgical  chairs  in  the  University  of  Pennsyl- 
vania ;  was  a  member  of  the  principal  medical 
and  surgical  associations  of  the  country ;  and 
besides  many  individual  publications  edited  the 
'International  Encyclopaedia  of  Surgery'  (1881- 
1886)  ;  and  (Lippincott's  New  Medical  Diction- 
ary.' He  was  the  author  of  'Injuries  of  the 
Spine'  (1867);  and  'Principles  and  Practice  of 
Surgery'    (1871). 

Ashikaga,  a'she-ka'ga,  a  town  in  Japan, 
17  miles  by  rail  from  Tokyo.  From  the  9th  to 
the  17th  century  it  was  of  much  importance  as 
a  seat  of  learning.  It  is  now  noted  for  its  trade 
in  silk  and  cotton.     Pop.   (1898)  21,348. 

Ash'kelon.     See  Ascalon. 

Ash'land,  Ky.,  a  city  of  Boyd  County,  sit- 
uated on  the  Ohio  River;  on  the  Chesapeake  & 
Ohio,  Norfolk  &  Western,  and  other  railroads. 
It  was  chartered  as  a  city  in  1870.  Its  manufac- 
tures include  cut  and  wire  nails,  steel  billets, 
sheet  steel,  leather  furniture,  etc.,  and  it  is  a 
shipping  point  for  iron  ore  and  coal.  Pop. 
(1900)  6,800. 

Ash'land,  Ky.,  an  estate  in  the  suburbs  of 
Lexington,  famous  as  the  home  of  Henry  Clay. 
It  consists  of  about  600  acres,  200  of  which  form 
a  park  similar  to  the  large  private  parks  of  Eng- 
land. The  house  in  which  Mr.  Clay  lived  was 
a  plain  structure,  two  stories  in  height.  After 
his  death  the  property  passed  by  public  sale 
into  the  hands  of  his  eldest  son,  James  B.  Clay, 
who  took  down  the  old  house  and  rebuilt  it. 

Ash'land.  Ohio,  a  town  and  county-seat  of 
Ashland  County;  on  the  Erie  R.R.,  65  miles 
southwest  of  Cleveland.  It  has  important  manu- 
factures, large  trade,  a  national  bank,  and  sev- 


eral newspapers,  and  is  the  seat  of  Ashland  Uni- 
versity, a  non-sectarian  institution,  founded  in 
1878.     Pop.   (1900)  4,087. 

Ashland,  Ore.,  city  and  county-seat  of  Jack- 
son County ;  situated  in  the  extreme  southern 
part  of  the  State,  on  the  Southern  Pacific  Rail- 
road, 341  miles  south  from  Portland,  and  431 
miles  northerly  from  San  Francisco.  Ashland 
is  the  seat  of  the  Southern  Oregon  State  Nor- 
mal School,  and  has  three  public  school  buildings 
and  eight  church  buildings.  The  city  has  an  ex- 
cellent municipal  organization  and  police  regula- 
tion. Ashland  owns  its  own  water  system.  There 
is  an  extensive  electric-light  and  power  plant, 
flour-mill,  ice  plant,  sash  and  door  factories,  box 
factory,  quartz-mill,  foundry  and  machine  shops, 
and  three  newspapers.  The  Southern  Oregon 
Chautauqua  Association  is  located  here.  There 
are  valuable  gold  mines  in  the  mountains  near 
by,  some  of  them  almost  within  the  city  limits. 
In  the  vicinity  are  found  great  varieties  of  other 
valuable  minerals,  such  as  cinnabar,  kaolin,  mar- 
ble, sandstone,  etc.  In  the  vicinity  are  many 
mineral  springs,  whose  waters  contain  much 
in  the  way  of  medicinal  properties.  Pop.  (1902) 
4,000. 

Ash'land,  Pa.,  a  borough  in  Schuylkill 
County,  in  the  valley  of  the  Mahanoy,  and  on 
several  railroads ;  12  miles  northwest  of  Potts- 
ville.  It  is  in  the  centre  of  the  great  anthracite 
coal  field,  has  extensive  mining  industries,  large 
machine  shops,  foundries,  and  factories,  and 
contains  the  State  Miners'  Hospital,  a  national 
bank,  public  hall,  and  several  churches.  Pop. 
(.1900)   6,538. 

Ash'land,  Va.,  a  town  of  Hanover  County, 
situated  on  the  Richmond,  F.  &  P.  R.R..  17 
miles  north  of  Richmond.  It  is  the  seat  of  Ran- 
dolph-Macon College.  It  was  the  scene  of  sev- 
eral battles  during  the  Civil  War.  Henry  Clay's 
birthplace  is  within  seven  miles  of  the  town. 
Pop.   (1900)   1,147. 

Ash'land,  Wis.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Ashland  County,  on  Chequamegon  Bay,  Lake 
Superior,  and  several  railroads ;  80  miles  east  of 
Duluth.  It  has  one  of  the  finest  harbors  on  the 
lake,  and  beside  its  general  lake  traffic  is  a  ship- 
ping port  for  the  hematite  ore  of  the  great 
Gogebic  Iron  Range.  To  accommodate  its  iron 
interests  it  has  a  number  of  enormous  ore  docks. 
Other  important  interests  are  lumber  and  brown 
stone.  It  has  very  large  charcoal  blast  furnaces, 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron,  and  since 
1885,  when  the  real  development  of  the  Gogebic 
iron  mines  began,  the  city  has  grown  rapidly. 
Near  by  is  the  group  of  Apostles'  Islands. 
The  institutions  include  the  North  Wisconsin 
Academy,  Sisters'  Hospital  (Roman  Catholic), 
and  Rhinehart  Hospital.    Pop.  (1900)   13,074. 

Ash'lar.      See  Masonry  and  Building. 

Ashley,  Anthony  Evelyn  Melbourne,  an 
English  statesman:  b.  1836.  He  is  the  fourth 
son  of  the  seventh  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  and  in 
1882  succeeded  Mr.  Courtney  as  under-secretary 
of  state  for  the  colonies. 

Ash'ley,  Lord.     See  Shaftesbury. 

Ash 'ley,  William  James,  an  Anglo-Ameri- 
can economist :  b.  London.  England.  25  Feb. 
i860.  He  was  graduated  from  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  in  1S81  :  \va<  Fellow  of  Lincoln  College, 
Oxford ;  lecturer  in  history  in  Lincoln  and  Cor- 


ASHMEAD-B  ARTLETT  —  ASHTAVAKRA 


pus  Christi,  1885-8,  and  professor  of  political 
economy  and  constitutional  history  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Toronto,  Canada,  1888-92.  He  has 
been  professor  of  economic  history  at  Harvard 
University  since  1892.  He  has  written  'James 
and  Philip  van  Artevclde'  (1883)  ;  'Introduction 
to  English  Economic  History  and  Theory'  (1888- 
93)  ;  'Surveys,  Historic  and  Economic'  (1900)  ; 
edited  'Economic  Classics'  ;  translated  Schmol- 
ler's  'Mercantile  System,'  and  has  contributed  a 
large  number  of  articles  to  English  and  Ameri- 
can economic  journals. 

Ash'mead-Bart'lett,  Sir  Ellis,  an  English 
politician:  b.  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  1849;  d.  London, 
England.  19  Jan.  1902.  He  was  educated  at 
Christ  Church  College,  Oxford,  and  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1877.  He  was  examiner  of  the  educa- 
tion department,  1874-80 ;  Conservative  member 
of  Parliament  from  Suffolk,  1885,  and  from 
Sheffield,  1885-1902;  civil  lord  of  the  admiralty, 
1885,  1886;  and  was  knighted  in  1892.  His  pop- 
ularity with  political  audiences  in  the  early 
8o's  was  second  only  to  that  of  Lord  Randolph 
Churchill,  but  he  lost  much  of  this  influence  in 
later  years  owing  to  his  association  with  the 
Turks  and  Swazis  —  a  connection  which  sub- 
jected him  to  considerable  ridicule  in  the  House 
of  Commons  and  the  press.  His  chief  literary 
production  was  'The  Battlefields  ofThcssaly' 
(1897),  a  record  of  his  experiences  in  the  last 
war  between  Greece  and  Turkey. 

Ash'mole,  Elias,  a  celebrated  English  anti- 
quary: b.  Lichfield,  1617;  d.  1692.  He  prac- 
tised as  a  chancery  solicitor  till  the  breaking  out 
of  the  Civil  War,  when  he  retired  to  Oxford  and 
entered  himself  of  Brasenose  College,  and  en- 
gaged in  the  study  of  natural  philosophy,  math- 
ematics, and  astronomy.  At  the  Restoration  he 
received  the  post  of  Windsor  herald  and  other 
appointments,  both  honorable  and  lucrative.  In 
1672  appeared  his  'History  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter.'  Other  works  of  his  are:  'The  Anti- 
quities of  Berkshire'  (1719)  and  his  'Diary' 
(1717).  He  presented  to  the  University  of 
Oxford  his  collection  of  rarities,  to  which  he 
afterward  added  his  books  and  MSS.,  thereby 
commencing  the  Ashmolean  Museum. 

Ashmolean  Museum,  a  museum  at  Oxford 
University,  founded  by  Elias  Ashmole  (q.v.)  in 
1679.  The  building  was  erected  by  Sir  Christo- 
pher Wren  in  1682. 

Ash'mun,  George,  an  American  lawyer:  b. 
Blanford,  Mass.,  1804;  d.  1870.  He  served  for 
several  years  in  the  legislature  of  his  native 
State  and  was  prominent  in  Congress  in  1845- 
50.  He  presided  over  the  Chicago  Conven- 
tion which  in  i860  nominated  Lincoln  for  the 
presidency. 

Ashmun,  Jehudi,  an  American  mission- 
ary: b.  Champlain,  N.  Y.,  April  1794;  d.  Boston, 
Mass.,  25  Aug.  1828.  He  prepared  for  the  Con- 
gregational ministry,  and  became  professor  in 
Bangor  Theological  Seminary.  Later  he  joined 
the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  and  edited  one 
of  its  periodicals,  'The  Theological  Repertory.' 
He  discovered  his  true  vocation  when  he  became 
an  agent  of  the  American  Colonization  Society 
and  took  charge  of  a  reinforcement  for  the 
colony  of  Liberia  in  1822.  He  found  the  colony 
utterly  disorganized,  but  in  six  years  his  energy 
and  ability  had  thoroughly  reorganized  it  and  he 
left  it  in  a  prosperous  and  orderly  condition.    He 


died  soon  after  his  return  to  the  United  States. 
He  wrote  'Memoirs  of  Samud   Bacon'    (1822), 

and  his  own  life  was  written  by  R.  R.   Gurley 
(1839). 

Ashochimi,  ash-6-che-me,  or  lVuft>o.  A 
tribe  of  North  American  Indians  who  formerly 
ranged  in  California  from  the  geysers  to  Cal- 
istoga  hot  springs  and  in  Knight's  Valley. 

Ashraf,  a-schraf,  a  town  in  Persia,  near 
the  southern  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  56  miles 
west  of  Astrabad.  It  was  a  favorite  residence 
of  Shah  Abbas  the  Great,  and  was  adorned  by 
him  with  splendid  buildings,  of  which  only  a  few 
miserable  ruins  now  remain. 

Ashtabu'la,  Ohio,  city  in  Ashtabula  County, 
on  Lake  Erie,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ashtabula 
River;  S4  miles  east  of  Cleveland;  on  the  New 
York,  C.  &  St.  L,  the  Pittsburg,  Y.  &  A.,  and 
the  Lake  Shore  &  M.  S.  R.R.'s.  It  is  the  centre 
of  an  extensive  agricultural  and  dairying  re- 
gion, and  has  large  manufactories  of  leather, 
woolen  goods,  and  farm  implements.  It  has  a 
Carnegie  public  library,  three  national  banks, 
city  hospital,  and  numerous  large  buildings.  Its 
extensive  railroad  and  lake  commerce  makes 
it  an  important  transfer  shipping  point,  espe- 
cially for  iron  and  coal.  The  city  was  first  set- 
tled in  1801,  was  organized  as  a  township  in 
1805,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1892.  On  29 
Dec.  1876,  a  railroad  accident  here  at  a  high 
bridge  over  the  river  resulted  in  the  loss  of 
over  100  lives.  The  city  is  governed  by  a  mayor 
and  city  council  elected  biennially.  Pop.  (1890) 
8,338;   (1900)    12,949. 

Ash'taroth,  a  goddess  anciently  wor- 
shipped by  the  Jews.  Ashtaroth  is  the  Astarte 
of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  is  identified  by 
ancient  writers  with  the  goddess  Venus  (Aphro- 
dite). She  is  probably  the  same  as  the  Isis  of 
the  Egyptians.  In  Scripture  she  is  almost  al- 
ways joined  with  Baal,  and  is  called  god,  Scrip- 
ture having  no  particular  word  for  expressing 
goddess.  She  was  the  goddess  of  the  moon ;  her 
temples  generally  accompanied  those  of  the  sun, 
and  while  bloody  sacrifices  or  human  victims 
were  offered  to  Baal,  bread,  liquors,  and  per- 
fumes were  presented  to  Astarte. 

Ashtavakra,  ash-ta-va'kra.  In  Hindu  leg- 
end, the  hero  of  a  story  in  the  Mahabharata. 
His  father,  Kahoda,  devoted  to  study,  neglected 
his  wife.  Ashtavakra,  though  still  unborn,  re- 
buked him,  and  the  angry  father  condemned  the 
son  to  be  crooked  (hence  the  name,  from  Ash- 
tan,  eight,  and  vakra,  crooked).  At  the  court 
of  Janaka,  king  of  Mithila,  Kahoda  was  defeated 
in  argument  by  a  Buddhist  sage  and  was 
drowned  in  accordance  with  the  conditions.  In 
his  1 2th  year  Ashtavakra  set  out  to  avenge  his 
father,  and  worsted  the  sage,  who  declared  him- 
self to  be  a  son  of  Varuna  sent  to  obtain  Brah- 
mins to  officiate  at  a  sacrifice.  Kahoda  was  re- 
stored to  life,  and  commanded  his  son  to  bathe 
in  the  Samanga  River,  whence  the  boy  becomes 
perfectly  straight.  In  the  Vishnu  Purana  some 
celestial  nymphs  see  Ashtavakra  performing  pen- 
ance in  the  water  and  worship  him.  He  prom- 
ises them  a  boon  and  they  ask  the  best  of 
husbands.  When  he  offers  himself  they  laugh 
in  derision  at  his  crookedness.  He  cannot  re- 
call his  blessing,  but  condemns  them  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  thieves. 


ASHTON  — ASIA 


Ash'ton,  John,  an  English  antiquarian:  b. 
London,  22  Sept.  1834.  He  has  published  a 
long  list  of  works  on  history,  chap-books,  leg- 
ends, ballads,  manners,  and  customs,  caricature 
and  satire,  among  which  are  'Social  Life  in  the 
Reign  of  Queen  Anne'  (1882)  ;  'History  of  the 
Chap-books  of  the  18th  Century'  (1882);  'So- 
cial England  under  the  Regency'  (1890)  ; 
'When  William  IV.  was  King'  (1896);  'Gam- 
bling in  England'  (1898)  ;  'Florizel's  Folly' 
(1899). 

Ashton,  Lucy,  the  heroine  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  novel,  'The  Bride  of  Lammermoor.' 
Engaged  to  a  man  she  loves,  she  is  forced  to 
marry  another,  and  dies  a  maniac  on  her  wed- 
ding day. 

Ashton'-in-Mak'erfield,   a    town    of   Lanca 
shire,  England,   15  miles   from  Manchester,  and 
noted    for    its    potteries,    collieries,    and   cotton- 
mills.     Pop.    (1901)    18,700. 

Ash'ton-Un'der-Lyne,  a  market-town  of 
Lancashire,  England,  6  miles  east  of  Manchester, 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Tame.  It  was 
an  ancient  Saxon  town ;  the  most  interesting 
building  is  the  parish  church  built  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  V.  Since  1769  it  has  grown  rapidly 
through  the  extension  of  the  cotton  manufacture, 
both  the  spinning  of  cotton  yarn  and  the  weaving 
of  calicoes  being  carried  on  in  the  town  to  a 
great  extent.  Upward  of  20,000  work  people 
are  employed  in  factories.  There  are  also  col- 
lieries and  iron-works  in  the  neighborhood 
which  employ  a  great  many  persons.  Pop.  (1901) 
43.900. 

Ashura'da,  a  small  island  in  the  south- 
east corner  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  occupied 
by  Russia  as  a  naval  and  trading  station. 

Asia,  the  largest  of  the  five  continental 
divisions  of  the  earth,  lying  eastward  of  the  Eu- 
ropean and  African  continents,  and  separated 
from  the  American  continent  by  Bering  Strait 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  bounded  north,  east, 
and  south,  respectively,  by  the  Arctic,  Pacific, 
and  Indian  Oceans,  with  their  various  branches 
and  inlets  ;  it  is  divided  from  Africa  on  the  south- 
west by  the  narrow  isthmian  Suez  Canal ;  and  is 
connected  with  Europe  on  the  northwest  across 
the  whole  breadth  of  that  continent.  The  nat- 
ural western  boundaries  are  the  Ural  Mountains, 
the  Caspian  Sea,  Caucasus  Mountains,  the  Black 
Sea,  /Egean  Sea,  the  Mediterranean  and  Red 
Seas.  The  sinuosities  of  the  Asiatic  coast  are 
very  extensive ;  on  the  south  the  chief  ocean  in- 
lets are  the  Gulf  of  Aden ;  the  Arabian  Sea  with 
its  inlets,  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  the  Gulfs  of  Cutch,  Cambay,  and  Manar ; 
and  the  Bay  of  Bengal  containing  the  Gulf  of 
Martaban.  On  the  eastern  or  Pacific  coast  pro- 
ceeding northward  the  principal  indentations  are 
the  China  Sea  with  the  Gulfs  of  Siam  and  of 
Tonkin ;  the  Tung-hai  or  Eastern  Sea ;  the 
Hwang-hai  or  Yellow  Sea  with  the  Gulf  of 
Pechili  and  Korea  Bay;  the  Sea  of  Japan  with 
the  Gulf  of  Tartary;  "the  Sea  of  Okhotsk;  and 
Bering  Sea  with  the  Gulf  of  Anadyr.  On  the 
north  or  Arctic  coast  are  the  Nordenskjold  Sea 
and  the  Kara  Sea  with  the  Gulf  of  Obi.  The 
coast  line  is  about  35,000  miles,  giving  a  pro- 
portion of  one  mile  of  coast  line  to  496  square 
miles  of  surface.  From  the  extreme  southwestern 
point  of  Arabia,  at  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Man. leb 


to  the  extreme  northeastern  point  of  Cape 
Deshnef  or  East  Cape,  the  length  of  Asia  is 
about  6,900  miles,  its  breadth  from  Cape  Chel- 
yuskin or  Northeast  Cape  in  Siberia  to  Cape 
Romania,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  is  about  5,300  miles.  The  total  area 
is  estimated  at  17,296,000  square  miles.  The 
most  prominent  features  of  the  southern  coast 
are  the  three  great  peninsulas  of  Arabia,  India, 
and  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula.  The  east  coast 
is  also  flanked  with  insular  and  peninsular  pro- 
jections, 'forming  a  series  of  sheltered  seas  and 
bays.  A  series  of  large  islands  extends  to  the 
southeast  of  the  continent,  forming  a  connection 
with  Australia;  while  a  multitude  of  smaller  is- 
lands are  scattered  over  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
Oceans.  The  principal  peninsulas  on  the  east 
are  Kamchatka  and  Korea.  The  larger  islands, 
proceeding  from  the  northeast  coast,  are  Sagha- 
lien,  the  Japanese  Islands,  the  Philippine  Is- 
lands, Borneo,  Sumatra,  Java,  Celebes,  the  Mo- 
luccas, Papua  or  New  Guinea,  which,  however, 
is  Australasian  rather  than  Asiatic,  and  lastly 
Ceylon  at  the  southeastern  extremity  of  the  In- 
dian Peninsula.  The  Kurile  Islands,  between 
Kamchatka  and  Japan,  the  islands  of  Loo  Choo, 
Formosa,  and  Hainan  on  the  Chinese  coast,  and 
the  Andaman  and  Nicobar  islands  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  may  also  be  noticed.  On  the  west  or 
Mediterranean  coast  the  principal  islands  be- 
longing to  Asia  are  Cyprus  and  Rhodes.  The 
northern  coast,  from  East  Cape  or  Deshnef, 
in  Bering  Strait,  and  on  the  Arctic  Circle,  to 
the  Yalmal  Peninsula,  in  the  extreme  northwest, 
is  almost  entirely  contained  within  that  circle. 
The  highest  point,  Cape  Chelyuskin,  is  about 
780  N.  The  largest  group  of  islands  on  the 
north  coast  is  the  Liakhov  Islands  (New  Si- 
beria) ;  the  largest  indentation  is  the  Gulf  of 
Obi,  which  reaches  below  the  Arctic  Circle,  and 
receives  the  river  Obi  about  that  latitude. 

Mountains. —  The  mountain  systems  of  Asia 
are  of  great  extent,  and  their  culminating 
points  are  the  highest  in  the  world.  There  are 
also  vast  plateaus  and  elevated  valley  regions, 
but  large  portions  of  the  continent  are  low  and 
flat.  Such  are  the  greater  portions  of  Siberia, 
from  the  Ural  Mountains  across  the  north  of  the 
continent,  and  the  western  central  region  of 
the  continent,  where  an  area  of  great  depression 
culminates  in  the  Caspian.  The  greatest  moun- 
tain system  in  Asia,  and  so  far  at  least  as  alti- 
tude is  concerned,  of  the  world,  is  the  Hima- 
layan system,  the  principal  mass  of  which  lirs 
between  Ion.  65°  and  1 10°  E.  and  lat.  28°  and 
37°  N.  It  thus  occupies  a  position  nol  vi  ry  far 
from  the  centre  of  the  continent,  though  nearer 
the  southern  edge  than  the  northern.  It  ex- 
tends, roughly  speaking,  from  northwest  to 
southeast,  its  total  length  being  about  2,000 
miles,  while  its  breadth  varies  from  100  to  500 
or  600.  Different  names  have  been  given  to  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  system,  such  as  Hindu 
Kush  (the  northwestern  extremity),  Karako- 
ram,  and  Kuen-Lun,  while  Himalaya  is  more 
especially  confined  to  the  portion  forming  the 
northern  barrier  of  Hindustan;  but  all  these 
are  really  portions  of  the  same  connected  moun- 
tain mass.  The  Kuen-Lun  simply  forms  the 
northern  flank  of  the  mass,  and  is  not,  as  it 
has  been  represented,  a  distinct  chain :  while 
the  Karakoram  Mountains  have  so  little  to  dis- 
tinguish them  from  the  rest  of  the  elevated  mass 


ASIA 


to  which  they  belong  that  they  may  be  crossed 
without  the  traveler  being  aware  of  it.  The 
broadest  part  of  the  system,  the  elevated  table- 
land of  Tibet,  lies  between  the  Himalaya  proper 
and  the  Kuen-Lun.  The  Tibetan  Mountains  are 
connected  on  the  east  with  the  mountains  of 
China  and  with  those  that  spread  to  the  south- 
east over  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula.  The 
I  hian-Shan  is  another  .ureal  mountain  system  of 
Central  Asia  connected  with  the  Himalayan 
system  by  the  important  Pamir  Plateau  or 
"roof  of  the  world"  in  Ion.  70°-8o° '  east  ;  kit. 
37°-40°  north.  The  point  of  junction  forms 
"a  huge  boss  or  knot,"  from  which  the  Thian- 
Shan  runs  northwestward  for  a  distance  of 
some  1,200  miles.  Between  these  two  systems, 
which  curve  round  it  on  the  west,  lies  eastern 
Turkestan,  right  in  the  centre  of  Asia.  The 
greatest  elevations  of  the  Himalayan  system  are 
to  be  found  among  the  Himalayas  proper, 
where  is  Mount  Everest,  J0.002  feet  high,  Kun- 
chinjinga,  28,156,  etc.  The  principal  passes  here, 
which  rise  to  the  height  of  18,000  to  20,000  feet, 
are  the  highest  in  the  world.  The  Kuen-Lun 
summits  reach  a  height  of  22,000  feet.  The 
Himalayas  descend  by  successive  slopes  to  the 
plain  of  northern  India,  which  has  an  elevation 
of  about  1. 000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  Vindhyas  cross  the  peninsula,  dividing 
northern  from  southern  India;  the  latter 
is  further  bounded  by  the  eastern  and  the 
western  Chats,  which  run  along  the  coasts; 
while  the  interior  consists  of  elevated  table- 
lands rising  toward  the  south,  where  they 
attain  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Nilgiri 
Mills  an  elevation  of  7,000  feet.  The  Him- 
alayas are  not  only  connected  with  the  moun- 
tains in  the  interior  of  India,  and  with 
ramifications  into  China  and  the  Indo-Chinese 
peninsula,  but  on  the  west  with  the  mountains 
of  Baluchistan  and  Afghanistan.  The  Suliman 
and  Hala  ranges  bound  India  on  the  west,  and 
unite  with  the  mountains  of  Baluchistan;  while 
the  Hindu  Kush,  passing  westward  through  the 
north  of  Afghanistan,  has  continuations  more  or 
less  distinct  through  Persia  to  the  Elburz  range 
south  of  the  Caspian,  and  so  onward  to  Mount 
Ararat.  From  this  point  again  it  forms  connec- 
tions with  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  with  the 
Caucasus,  with  the  Taurus  range  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  with  the  mountains  which  run  to  the  south 
of  Persia.  The  mountains  belonging  to  this 
series  form  the  boundaries  of  an  elevated 
plateau  extending  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
Indus.  On  the  north  they  are  frequently  of 
great  elevation.  Mount  Dcmavend  in  the  El- 
burz range  reaching  the  height  of  18,460  feet, 
while  Ararat  is  nearly  17,000.  The  Thian-Shan 
system  is  continued  to  the  northeast  by  the 
Altai  and  Sajansk  ranges,  the  whole  separating 
the  Chinese  Empire  from  Russian  Turkestan  and 
Siberia.  Tengri-Khan  in  the  Thian-Shan  Moun- 
tains is  estimated  to  have  a  height  of  21,320 
A  line  of  moderate  elevation  extends 
from  the  Altai  westward  to  the  Ural  Mountains. 
To  the  east  of  the  Sajansk  range  the  Yablonoi 
.Mountains  run  northeast  toward  the  coast,  along 
which  they  arc  continued  northward  under  the 
name  of  Stanovoi  to  Bering  Strait. 

Table-lands,  Plains,  and  Deserts. —  Tibet 
forms  the  most  elevated  table-land  in  Asia,  its 
mean  height  being  estimated  at  15.000  feet.  Its 
surface   is  very    rugged,   being  intersected  by   a 


number  of  mountain  ranges  running  generally 
in  an  easterly  and  westerly  direction.  On  the 
east  it  is  bounded  by  lofty  mountains  which 
separate  it  from  China.  Some  of  the  largest 
rivers  of  southern  and  southeastern  Asia  have 
their  origin  in  Tibet,  including  the  Indus,  the 
Brahmaputra,  the  Yang-tse,  and  the  Hoang  Ho, 
In  this  region,  a  numerous  series  of  lakes  run 
in  a  chain  parallel  to  the  Himalayas.  Another 
great  plateau,  much  lower,  however,  than  that 
of  Tibet,  is  the  plateau  of  Iran,  occupying  a 
large  portion  of  western  Asia,  extending  from 
the  Indus  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  the 
Persian  Gulf  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  comprises 
the  countries  known  as  Afghanistan,  Baluchi 
stau,  Persia,  Armenia,  and  Asia  Minor.  It  lies  at 
altitudes  varying  from  2,000  to  8,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  The  eastern  half  of  it  consists  to  a 
large  extent  of  unproductive  wastes.  Of  great 
political  and  strategical  importance  at  the  junc- 
tion of  Turkestan,  Afghanistan,  and  India,  is 
the  Pamir  Plateau,  already  alluded  to,  called  by 
the  natives  "the  roof  of  the  world."  Its  valleys 
are  at  an  elevation  of  from  11,000  to  13,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  Another  table-land  of  smaller 
extent  and  elevation  is  the  Deccan  Plateau,  In- 
dia, south  of  the  parallel  of  lat.  25°  N.  1  lie 
principal  plain  of  Asia,  as  already  mentioned,  is 
that  of  Siberia,  which  extends  along  the  north  of 
the  continent  and  forms  a  vast  alluvial  tract 
sloping  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  traversed  by 
large  rivers,  such  as  the  Obi,  the  Yenisei,  and 
the  Lena,  that  convey  its  drainage  to  that  ocean. 
Vast  swamps  of  peat-mosses  called  tundras 
cover  large  portions  of  this  region.  Southwest 
of  Siberia,  and  stretching  eastward  from  the 
Caspian  to  the  Thian-Shan  .Mountains,  is  a 
low-lying  tract,  consisting  to  a  great  extent 
of  steppes  and  deserts,  and  including  in  its 
area  the  Sea  of  Aral,  Bokhara,  Khiva,  and 
other  districts.  This  is  a  region  of  internal 
drainage,  the  rivers,  among  which  arc  the 
Amu  Daria  and  the  Syr  Daria,  either  falling 
into  the  Sea  of  Aral  or  into  other  smaller  sheets 
of  water.  In  the  east  of  China  there  is  an  al- 
luvial plain  of  some  200,000  square  miles  in  ex- 
tent, most  of  it  productive  and  highly  cultivated  ; 
in  Hindustan  there  are  plains  extending  for 
2,000  miles  along  the  south  slope  of  the  Hima- 
layas: and  between  Arabia  and  Persia,  watered 
by  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  is  the  plain  of 
Mesopotamia  or  Assyria,  one  of  the  richest  in 
the  world.  Of  the  deserts  of  Asia  the  largest 
is  that  of  Gobi,  which  is  hounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Yablonoi  and  Thian-Shan  Mountains, 
on  the  south  by  Tibet,  on  the  east  by  the  Khiu- 
gan  Mountains  1,11  the  borders  of  China:  while 
in  the  west  it  extends  into  eastern  Turkestan. 
Large  portions  of  it  are  covered  with  nothing 
but  sand  or  display  a  surface  of  bare  rock.  This 
desert  forms  a  large  part  of  the  country  known 
as  Mongolia,  the  whole  of  which  forms  an  area 
of  internal  drainage,  deficient  in  rainfall.  There 
are  also  extensive  desert  tracts  in  Persia,  Ara- 
bia, and  Hindustan.  An  almost  continuous  des- 
ert region  may  be  traced  from  the  African  desert 
through  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Baluchistan  to  the 
Indus. 

Rivers  and  Lakes.—  Asia  contains  some  of 
the  largest  rivers  in  the  world.  It  is  remarkable 
among  the  continents  for  the  number  of  its 
rivers,  some  of  them  of  large  size,  that  never 
find  their  way  to  the  ocean,  their  waters  cither 


5ss2aijffi:":- 


ASIA 


being  lost  in  the  sand  or  falling  into  lakes  that 
have  no  outlet.  The  chief  rivers  in  western 
Asia  are  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  that  rise  in 
the  Armenian  plateau  and  fall  into  the  Persian 
Gulf;  the  Indus,  from  the  Tibetan  plateau, 
flows  through  northwestern  Hindustan  and 
falls  into  the  Arabian  Sea;  the  Ganges,  which 
rises    in    the    Himalayas    and    flov  ward 

through  northern  Hindu-tan.  and  the  Brahma- 
putra, which  rises  in  Tibet  and  flows  through 
Assam  and  Bengal,  both  enter  the  Bay  of 
Bengal :  the  Irrawaddy  and  the  Salwen,  rising  in 
the  mountains  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula, 
and  both  flowing  through  Burma,  likewise  en- 
ter the  Bay  of  Bengal ;  the  Mekong  or  Cam- 
bodia, the  largest  river  of  this  peninsula,  has 
its  sources  in  the  same  mountains,  and  flowing 
southeastward  enters  the  South  China  Sea ;  the 
Yang-tse  and  the  Hoang-Ho,  the  two  great 
rivers  of  China,  rise  in  the  Tibetan  plateau ;  and 
enter  the  ocean  after  a  winding  easterly  course ; 
the  Amur,  the  only  other  great  river  of  eastern 
Asia,  ri>es  in  Mongolia,  and  after  a  circuitous 
course  niters  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk;  the  great 
rivers  of  northern  Asia,  the  Lena,  Yenisei,  and 
Obi,  have  already  been  mentioned.  The  Yenisei 
is  believed  to  have  a  length  of  3,400  miles,  the 
Yang-tse  of  at  least  3,000,  the  Lena  of  2.770,  the 
Hoang-Ho  of  2,600.  The  basin  of  the  Obi, 
including  of  course  those  of  its  tributaries,  the 
Tobol  and  the  Irtish,  is  believed  to  be  the  largest 
of  any  river  in  the  world,  except  the  Amazon 
and  the  Mississippi,  being  considerably  over 
1,000,000  square  miles  in  area. 

The  largest  lake  of  Asia  is  the  Caspian  Sea, 
which,  however,  is  partly  in  Europe,  its  largest 
tributary  being  the  Yolga.  The  chief  Asiatic 
rivers  falling  into  this  sea  are  the  Kur  from 
the  Caucasus,  the  Aras  from  Armenia,  and  the 
Atrek  from  northern  Persia  —  the  river  Ural 
being  partly  European,  partly  Asiatic.  The  Cas- 
pian lies  in  the  centre  of  a  great  depression, 
being  83  feet  below  the  level  of  the  Sea  of 
Azof.  East  from  the  Caspian,  as  already  men- 
tioned, is  the  Sea  of  Aral,  which,  like  the  Cas- 
pian, has  no  outlet,  and  is  fed  by  the  rivers 
Amu  Daria  and  Syr  Daria.  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  27,000  square  miles.  Still  farther  east, 
to  the  north  of  the  Thian-Shan  Mountains,  and 
fed  by  the  Hi  and  other  streams  from  this  sys- 
tem, is  Lake  Balkash,  a  somewhat  crescent- 
shaped  sheet  of  water,  with  an  area  of  8,400 
square  miles.  The  lake  has  no  outlet:  its  water 
is  clear  but  very  salt  and  disagreeable.  There 
are  also  several  other  smaller  lakes  in  this  re- 
gion,  such  as  Issik-Kul,  Kara-Kul.  Ala-Kul, 
Baratala,  etc.  In  the  south  of  Siberia,  between 
Ion.  104°  and  110°  E.,  is  Lake  Baikal,  a  moun- 
tain lake  from  which  the  Yenisei  draws  a  por- 
tion of  its  waters;  its  area  is  estimated  at 
about  12,500  square  miles.  In  the  very  centre 
of  the  continent  is  the  Lob  Lake,  or  Lob  Nor, 
to  which  all  the  drainage  of  eastern  Turkestan 
converges,  being  conveyed  to  it  by  the  Yarkand, 
Kashgar,  and  other  streams.  These  unite  to 
form  the  Tarim  River,  which,  from  the  source 
of  the  Yarkand,  has  a  total  length  of  over  1,200 
miles.  Loh  seems  to  he  rather  a  swampy  tract 
than  a  lake  proper.  On  the  borders  of  Afghan- 
i-tan, Persia,  and  Baluchistan,  is  a  similar 
swampy  lake  that  receives  the  Ilelmund  and 
other  streams  from  Afghanistan.  Of  the  nu- 
merous   lakes    in    Tibet    Dangra-yum    Nor    and 


Tengri  Nor  seem  to  be  the  largest ;  the  former  is 
45  miles  long  and  25  broad. 

—  Though  in  population  and  history 
the  most  ancient  continent,  geologically  speaking 
Asia  is  considered,  as  regards  its  present  aspect, 
to  be  one  of  the  newest.  The  principal  moun- 
tain chains  are  composed  largely  of  granitic 
rocks.  The  Himalayan  range  of  mountains  bears 
a  striking  resemblance  in  geological  structure 
to  the  Alps ;  they  are  composed  of  granite 
gneiss  and  mica-schist,  with  syenite  and  am- 
phibolites  or  trap-rocks,  particularly  primitive 
greenstone;  the  Altai  Mountains  contain  granite 
in  layers  without  alternation  of  gneiss,  argilla- 
ceous schist  in  contact  with  greenstone,  and 
containing  augite,  jasper,  calcareous  rocks,  ar- 
gentiferous lead  ore,  and  copper.  The  ramifica- 
tions of  the  Altai  into  Russian  Asia  contain  also 
coal-grit,  schists,  quartz,  and  greenstone,  rich 
with  lead,  silver,  and  auriferous  sand.  The 
lower  ranges  are  covered  with  transported  layers 
of  rolled  stones  of  granite,  gneiss,  and  porphyry, 
in  which  are  found  agates,  carnelians,  and 
chalcedonies.  In  the  Kuen-Lun  group  are  found 
rubies,  lapis-lazuli,  and  turquoises.  In  thi 
ern  part  of  the  Urals  the  granite,  of  which  the 
chain  is  composed,  along  with  gneiss  and  other 
rocks,  is  extremely  rich  in  iron  and  copper. 
1  he  Caucasus  contains  granite,  argillaceous 
schist,  and  basaltic  porphyry.  The  great  plains 
of  northern  India,  Mesopotamia,  central  Asia, 
and  Siberia  are  regarded  as  of  very  recent  geo- 
logical origin.  From  various  indications  many 
geologists  are  of  opinion  that  the  greater  part 
of  western  Asia  was  occupied  at  no  very  distant 
period  by  an  ocean,  of  which  the  Caspian  and 
Aral  Seas  are  the  remains.  It  is  also  conjec- 
tured that  a  continental  area  extending  across 
the  Indian  Ocean  united  Asia  during  the  Per- 
mian period  to  Africa  and  Australia.  Siberia  is 
supposed  to  have  been  twice  submerged  during 
the  Palaeozoic  and  the  later  Tertiary  period.  A 
line  of  volcanic  action  extends  on  the  eastern 
coast  from  Kamchatka  through  the  Philippines 
and  the  Malay  Archipelago  to  Araean  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal.  In  Kamchatka  there  are  eight 
or  nine  active  volcanoes :  in  the  interior  of  the 
continent  there  appear  to  be  none  at  present 
active. 

Climate,  Soil.  etc. —  The  size  of  Asia,  the 
gnat  altitudes  and  depressions  of  the  continent, 
along  with  the  variations  of  latitude  and  the  dis- 
position  of  sea  and  land,  etc..  afford  an  inex- 
haustible source  of  complexity  in  the  variety  and 
distribution  of  climate.  In  Tibet,  with  a  mean 
elevation  of  about  15,000  feet,  the  climate  is 
us,    combining    gi  I    with    drought; 

vegetation  is  scanty,  trees  almost  absent,  and 
the  population  mostly  nomadic;  except  in  the 
lower  valley-,  where  there  is  an  agricultural 
population,  it  is  very  sparse.  The  climate  of 
central  Asia  generally  presents  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold,  and  great  deficiency  of  rain.  It  has 
accordingly  a  deficient  d  a  scanty 

nomadic  population.  The  great  region  of  Si- 
beria, which,  as  already  mentioned,  is  a  level 
or  slightly  undulating  plain,  lying  wholly  within 
the  temperate  and  frigid  zones,  has  a  climate 
which  generally  resembles  that  of  similar  lati- 
tudes in  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  greater 
heat  and  drought  in  summer  and  greater  cold 
in  winter.  The  rainfall  is  very  moderate,  but  the 
drainage  is  deficient  and  the  soil  often  becomes 


ASIA 


swampy.  The  vegetation  is  scanty,  consisting 
mostly  of  grasses  ;ind  shrubs  in  the  plains  and 
pine  fen  sis  on  the  mountains.  There  is  very 
little  land  under  cultivation  and  the  population 
is  very  thin.  The  northern  part  of  China  to  the 
cast  of  central  Asia  has  a  temperate  climate 
with  a  warm  summer,  and  in  the  extreme  north 
a  severe  winter.  It  is  well  watered  and  wooded, 
possesses  a  fertile  and  well-cultivated  soil  yield- 
ing the  usual  products  of  temperate  regions,  and 
is  thickly  peopled.  The  district  lying  to  the 
smith  of  the  central  region,  comprising  the  two 
Indian  peninsulas,  southern  China,  and  the  ad- 
jacent islands,  presents  the  characteristic  climate 
and  vegetation  of  the  southern  temperate  and 
tropical  regions.  Here,  however,  the  modifying 
effects  of  altitude  come  most  largely  into  play, 
and  every  variety  of  climate  and  form  of  vege- 
tation is  to  be  found  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  the  mountains  and  plains  of 
southern  India  and  of  the  eastern  peninsula. 
The  part  of  Asia  south  of  the  Himalayas,  though 
not  all  lying  within  the  tropics,  is  all  subject  to 
tropical  influences.  Among  the  principal  of 
these  may  be  reckoned  the  effects  of  the  tropical 
heat  upon  the  air-currents.  To  this  cause  are 
due  the  trade-winds,  which,  carrying  the  mois- 
ture of  the  southern  seas  to  the  continents  to  be 
condensed  by  the  mountain  masses  against 
which  they  strike,  by  determining  the  rainfall 
of  the  various  continental  districts,  and  affecting 
the  size  and  course  of  the  rivers,  produce  so 
many  climatic  effects.  More  local  in  their  ef- 
fects as  well  as  arbitrary  in  their  occurrence, 
and  consequently  fatal  in  their  violence,  are  the 
cyclones,  or  circular  storms,  common  in  the  Bay 
of  Bengal  and  the  China  Sea.  The  normal  di- 
rections of  the  monsoons  are  northeast  and 
southwest ;  the  northeast  monsoon  begins  in 
April  and  the  southwest  in  October;  but  the 
direction,  duration,  and  intensity  of  these  winds 
are  greatly  modified,  especially  on  land,  by  lo- 
cal circumstances.  The  soil  of  the  southern 
regions  is  usually  good,  and  where  moisture  is 
sufficient  vegetation  is  rich  and  even  exuberant. 
The  soil  of  India  is  so  finely  comminuted  that 
it  has  been  said  it  is  possible  to  go  from  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  to  the  Indus  and  return  again 
to  the  sea  without  finding  a  single  pebble.  The 
rainfall  in  those  regions  is  extremely  irregular. 
There  are  belts  where  hardly  any  rain  falls  at 
all,  others  of  moderate,  and  others  of  very  heavy 
rainfall.  On  the  Khasia  Hills,  to  the  northeast 
of  the  delta  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra, 
the  heaviest  rainfall  in  the  world  takes  place,  the 
average  fall  observed  being  550  inches  a  year. 
The  principal  period  of  rain  is  during  the  south- 
west monsoon.  On  the  mountains  which  direct- 
ly face  the  winds,  charged  with  vapor  as  they 
come  from  the  sea,  the  rain  will  fall  in  abun- 
dance, while  they  pass  over  intermediate  plains 
without  parting  with  their  moisture.  The  rain- 
fall, the  course  of  the  rivers,  and  the  irrigation 
and  fertility  of  the  plains  of  India  is  accordingly 
determined  by  the  position  of  the  Himalayas, 
the  Ghats,  and  other  mountain  ranges.  The 
high  plateau  which  extends  from  Asia  Minor  to 
the  Indus  has  a  temperate  climate,  with  some 
extremity  of  heat  in  summer  and  cold  in  winter. 
Rain  falls  chiefly  in  winter  and  spring.  The 
eastern  part  of  this  plateau  is  deficient  in  rain, 
and  the  soil  is  poor  and  unproductive,  the  west- 
ern portion,  consisting  of  Asia  Minor,  is  more 


favored  of  nature.  The  desert  character  of 
large  parts  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Baluchistan 
has  already  been  alluded  to.  Some  parts  of  the 
coast  of  Arabia,  as  Yemen  and  Oman,  are  fertile, 
but  the  greater  part,  especially  on  the  Red  Sea, 
is  barren  and  desolate.  A  desert  belt  surrounds 
an  interior  plateau  of  1,000  to  3,000  feet  in 
height,  and  of  moderate  fertility.  Syria  is  divid- 
ed between  hilly  and  fertile  and  low  desert 
tracts.  The  Japanese  Islands,  which  are  tra- 
versed by  mountains  of  considerable  elevation, 
and  extend  over  about  150  of  latitude,  experi- 
ence a  great  variety  of  climates.  In  the  north 
the  climate  is  rigorous,  owing  to  the  Siberian 
winds;  in  the  south  it  is  mild.  The  eastern 
coast  is  milder  than  the  west,  being  sheltered  by 
the  mountain  ranges  from  the  cold  winds  of  the 
continent.  The  country  generally  is  fertile  and 
populous.  The  character  and  productions  of  the 
other  islands  are  mostly  tropical. 

A  greater  extreme  of  cold  is  reached  in 
North  America  than  in  northern  Asia,  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  east  coast  of  Siberia  being 
above  the  zero  of  Fahrenheit ;  and  the  heat  of 
southern  Asia  is  less  than  that  of  Africa,  which 
has  more  land  lying  within  the  tropics.  In  Si- 
beria the  extremes  of  temperature  are  great,  ex- 
ceeding 100°  between  the  mean  of  the  hottest 
and  coldest  month  on  the  coast,  and  being 
commonly  over  6o°  throughout  the  country.  As 
the  equator  is  approached  the  extremes  of  tem- 
perature diminish  till  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  continent  they  approach  within  5°.  The 
highest  temperature  attained  in  southern  Asia 
is  about  1120,  the  highest  mean  about  82°.  The 
summers  of  the  northern  latitudes,  though  short- 
er, attain  a  maximum  of  heat  not  much  short 
of  the  tropics,  the  greater  length  of  the  day 
compensating  for  the  less  intensity  of  the  mid- 
day heat.  On  the  Persian  plateau  the  summer 
heat  is  increased  by  the  want  of  rain,  and  the 
severity  of  the  winter  by  the  elevation. 

Vegetation. —  The  plants  and  animals  of 
northern  Asia  generally  resemble  those  of  sim- 
ilar latitudes  in  Europe,  though  the  extremes 
of  climate  are  greater.  The  plateau  extending 
from  Asia  Minor  to  the  Himalayas  resembles 
southern  Europe  in  its  productions,  and  the 
desert  belt  of  Asia  has  an  affinity  to  the  African 
desert.  The  characteristic  types  of  Siberia  are 
continued  to  the  high  regions  of  central  Asia. 
The  community  of  type  with  European  forms 
also  extends  to  North  China,  where  is  developed 
besides  a  relation  with  the  types  of  North  Amer- 
ica. The  whole  of  northern  Asia  differs  from 
Europe  more  in  species  than  in  genera  of  veg- 
etable productions.  Oaks  and  heaths  are  absent 
in  Siberia.  The  principal  mountain  trees  are 
the  pine,  larch,  and  birch ;  the  willow,  alder,  and 
poplar  are  found  in  lower  grounds.  The  culti- 
vated plants  of  Asia  Minor  and  Persia  resemble 
those  of  southern  Europe.  In  the  central  region 
European  species  reach  as  far  as  the  western 
and  central  Himalayas,  but  are  rare  in  the  east- 
ern. They  are  here  met  by  Chinese  and 
Japanese  forms.  The  lower  slopes  of  the  Hima- 
layas are  clothed  almost  exclusively  with  trop- 
ical forms ;  higher  up,  between  4,000  and  10.000 
feet,  is  the  region  of  forests  and  cultivation, 
producing  all  the  types  of  trees  and  plants  that 
belong  to  the  temperate  zone,  and  having  ex- 
tensive forests  of  conifers ;  in  the  east  forest 
trees  are  met   with  at  a  height  of  13,000  feet 


ASIA 


Rhododendrons  extend  to  14,000  feet,  and  pha- 
nerogamous plants  are  found  at  the  height  of 
111,500  feet.  The  southeastern  region,  including 
India,  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  and  China,  with 
the  islands,  contains  a  vast  variety  of  indigenous 
species,  varying  with  the  humidity  of  the  climate 
and  the  elevation,  the  forms  of  higher  latitudes 
being  represented  on  the  mountains.  In  this 
region  we  find  growing  wild  a  number  of  plants 
that  have  become  of  the  utmost  importance  to 
man,  such  as  the  sugar-cane,  rice,  cotton  and 
indigo,  pepper,  cinnamon,  cassia,  clove,  nutmeg, 
and  cardamons,  banana,  cocoanut,  areca  and 
sago  palms ;  the  mango  and  many  other  fruits, 
with  plants  producing  a  vast  number  of  drugs, 
caoutchouc  and  gutta-percha.  The  forests  of 
India  contain  the  oak,  teak,  sal,  deodar,  and 
other  timber  woods,  besides  bamboos,  palms, 
sandal-wood,  laurels,  fig-trees,  etc.  The  Malay 
Peninsula  contains  dense  forests  of  similar 
kinds.  The  cultivated  plants  of  India  include 
wheat,  barley,  rice,  maize,  millet,  sorghum,  tea, 
indigo,  jute,  opium,  etc.  North  of  the  tropic 
wheat  is  sown  in  November,  and  reaped  early 
in  April,  and  a  crop  of  rice  or  other  tropical 
cereal  is  sown  in  June  and  July,  and  reaped  in 
September  and  October.  Wheat  and  barley  do 
not  grow  in  southern  India,  the  winter  not  be- 
ing sufficiently  severe  to  prepare  the  ground  for 
them.  Cotton,  indigo,  sugar,  tea,  tobacco,  coffee, 
pepper,  plantains,  mangoes,  etc.,  are  cultivated 
in  China.  Of  the  Chinese  flora  the  larger  por- 
tion resembles  the  Indian,  while  much  is  local. 
In  North  China,  the  country  between  it  and  the 
Amur  (Manchuria),  and  the  Japanese  Islands, 
large  numbers  of  deciduous  trees  occur,  such 
as  oaks,  maples,  limes,  walnuts,  poplars,  and 
willows,  the  genera  being  European  but  the  indi- 
vidual species- Asiatic.  Among  cultivated  plants 
are  wheat,  and  in  favorable  situations  rice,  cot- 
ton, the  vine,  etc.  Japan  and  the  northern  parts 
of  this  region  are  rich  in  species  of  the  pine 
tribe.  According  to  elevation  the  islands  of  the 
Asiatic  Archipelago  display  an  equal  diversity 
with  the  mainland,  the  more  tropical  types  being 
represented  on  the  lower  elevations,  the  more 
northern  on  the  higher.  Coffee,  rice,  maize,  etc., 
are  extensively  grown  in  some  of  the  islands.  A 
line  of  demarkation  called  Wallace's  line  has 
been  drawn  at  the  Strait  of  Macassar,  at  which 
the  flora  and  fauna  of  Australia  begin  to  appear, 
and  gradually  become  more  pronounced  as  the 
distance  from  Asia  and  the  proximity  to  Austra- 
lia increases.  The  variety  of  plants  of  the  desert 
region  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Baluchistan  is 
comparatively  small.  The  predominance  of  a 
few  species  gives  character  to  the  whole  region. 
Vegetation  is  most  abundant  in  spring,  when 
herbaceous  and  bulbous  plants,  which  extend 
through  this  region  from  Syria  to  the  Hima- 
layas, are  abundant.  In  Arabia  Felix,  and  the 
warmer  valleys  of  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
Baluchistan,  where  the  hills  are  high  enough  to 
afford  a  sufficient  rainfall,  aromatic  shrubs  are 
abundant.  Wheat,  barley,  cotton,  and  indigo 
are  cultivated  in  Arabia,  and  the  date-palm 
flourishes  in  the  desert.  On  the  mountain  slopes 
of  western  Arabia  (Arabia  Felix")  the  coffee- 
plant,  which  has  probably  been  derived  from 
Africa,  is  cultivated.  Gum-producing  acacias 
are,  with  the  date-palm,  the  commonest  trees  in 
Arabia:  the  latter  also  extends  through  Persia, 
and    even    reaches    the    shore    of    the    Caspian. 


Fleshy  plants  are  characteristic  of  the  most  arid 
portions.  In  the  higher  parts  of  Persia  and 
Afghanistan  numerous  forms  of  L'mbellifera  of 
great  size,  as  well  as  thistles  and  the  borage 
tribe,  are  abundant.  African  forms  are  found 
not  only  extending  from  the  African  desert 
along  the  desert  region  of  Asia,  but  from  south 
Africa  to  Ceylon.  The  Caspian  lowlands  is  the 
tract  where  the  saline  vegetation  that  is  spread 
over  the  whole  region  of  steppes  and  deserts 
has  its  greatest  development.  This  region  is 
regarded  as  the  native  country  of  the  melon. 

Zoology. —  There  is  a  still  closer  resemblance 
in  the  fauna  than  in  the  flora  of  northern  Asia 
to  that  of  Europe.  Asia  south  to  the  Hima- 
layas, together  with  Europe  and  North  Africa, 
forms  a  continuous  region,  which  Dr.  Sclater 
has  designated  as  the  Pakearctic;  southeastern 
Asia,  with  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  and  the  Phil- 
ippines, he  calls  the  Indian  region;  Africa  south 
of  the  Atlas,  with  Arabia,  Palestine,  South  Per- 
sia, the  dry  part  of  Baluchistan  and  Sind.  form 
the  Ethiopian  region ;  Celebes  and  the  other  is- 
lands beyond  Wallace's  line,  with  Australasia, 
the  Australian  region.  Nearly  all  the  mammals 
of  Europe  occur  in  northern  Asia,  with  numer- 
ous additions  to  the  species.  Quadrumana  are 
rare,  Carnivora  numerous,  especially  bears, 
wolves,  and  weasels.  Moles,  shrews,  and  hedge- 
hogs are  common  among  Inscctivora.  Rodents 
are  represented  by  marmots,  the  pika,  jerboas, 
rats,  mice,  etc.  There  are  numerous  species  of 
wild  sheep,  antelopes,  and  deer.  Of  the  last, 
the  musk  and  many  others  are  characteristic. 
In  the  Indian  region  there  are  several  peculiar 
genera  of  the  Quadriunana  or  monkey  tribe. 
Among  the  distinctive  forms  of  this  region  is 
the  elephant,  the  Asiatic  species  being  distinct 
from  the  African.  The  lion,  tiger,  leopard, 
which  are  considered  as  Ethiopian  forms,  the 
bear,  civets,  ichneumons,  and  other  carnivorous 
animals  are  found.  The  lion  inhabits  Arabia, 
Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Baluchistan,  etc.,  and  ex- 
tends as  far  east  as  India,  being  now,  however, 
confined  to  Guzerat.  The  tiger  is  the  most 
characteristic  of  the  larger  Asiatic  Carnivora. 
It  extends  from  Armenia  across  the  entire  con- 
tinent, being  absent,  however,  from  the  greater 
portion  of  Siberia  and  from  the  tableland  of 
Tibet ;  it  extends  also  into  Sumatra,  Java,  and 
Bali.  The  horse,  ass,  and  camel  have  their  true 
home  in  Asia.  In  the  Indian  region  we  also 
find  the  rhinoceros,  buffalo,  ox,  deer,  squirrels, 
porcupines,  as  well  as  various  species  of  Eden- 
tata. The  ornithology  of  Europe  and  northern 
Asia  are  identified  to  a  still  greater  extent.  A 
large  number  of  European  species  extend  over 
northern  Asia  as  far  as  Japan.  In  the  Malay 
Archipelago  marsupial  animals  first  occur  in  the 
Moluccas  and  Celebes,  while  various  mammals 
common  in  the  western  part  of  the  archipelago 
are  absent.  A  similar  transition  toward  the 
Australian  type  takes  place  in  the  species  of 
birds.  Of  marine  mammals  the  dugong  is  pecu- 
liar to  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  in  the  Ganges  is  found 
a  peculiar  species  of  dolphin.  In  birds,  nearly 
every  order  except  ostriches  is  represented 
Among  the  most  interesting  forms  are  the  horn- 
bills,  the  peacock,  the  Impey  pheasant,  the  trago- 
pans,  and  other  gallinaceous  birds,  the  pheasant 
family  being  very  characteristic  of  the  region. 
The  pheasant  proper  in  the  wild  state  is  peculiar 


ASIA 


.o  northern  Asia,  the  golden  pheasant  and  sev- 
eral other  species  of  pheasants  to  the  northeast. 
The  genera  and  species  of  passerine  birds  are 
very   numerous.    The   desert    region,   extending 

from  Arabia  to  Sind,  is  chiefly  distinguished  by 
the  absence  of  many  Indian  forms  and  the  pres- 
ence of  some  African  ones,  which,  however,  are 
not  widely  spread,  most  of  them  being  limited  to 
Arabia  and  Syria.  The  chief  haunts  of  the  Rep- 
tilia  of  Asia  are  the  northern  portion  of  Hindu- 
stan, the  southeastern  peninsula,  China,  and  the 
islands  of  Ceylon,  Sumatra,  and  Java.  At  the 
head  of  the  reptiles  stands  the  Gangetic  croco- 
dile, frequenting  the  Ganges  and  other  large 
rivers;  the  helmeted  crocodile  and  the  double- 
crested  crocodile  are  numerous  in  various  quar- 
ters, both  insular  and  continental.  Among  the 
serpents  are  the  cobra  da  capello  and  the  Ceylon- 
ese  tic-palonga,  both  among  the  most  deadly 
snakes  in  existence;  there  are  also  very  large 
pythons,  besides  sea  and  fresh-water  snakes. 
There  are  also  a  number  of  species  of  frogs  and 
toads  and  of  fresh-water  tortoises,  as  well  as 
many  terrestrial  and  aquatic  lizards.  The  seas 
and  rivers  of  Asia  produce  a  great  variety  of 
fish.  The  Salmonida  are  found  in  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Arctic  and  North  Pacific  oceans,  but 
not  in  southern  Asia.  Large  numbers  are 
caught.  Trout  are  found  in  the  feeders  of  the 
Indus  and  the  Caspian.  Sturgeons  abound  in 
the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian.  Two  rather 
remarkable  kinds  of  fishes  are  the  climbing 
perch  and  the  eriapthalmus.  The  well-known 
gold-fish  is  a  native  of  China. 

Asiatic  Races. —  The  Mongolian  race  is  the 
most  numerous  in  Asia.  It  occupies  the  Chi- 
nese empire,  Tartary,  and  probably  Japan,  with 
part  of  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula.  It  is  part- 
ly settled,  as  in  China,  Japan,  and  the  peninsula ; 
partly  nomadic,  as  in  Tartary  and  Mongolia. 
The  Aryan  is  the  next  in  numbers,  and  the  most 
civilized  of  the  Asiatic  races.  It  was  until  the 
Mohammed  conquest  the  dominant,  as  it  is  still 
the  most  numerous,  race  in  India.  It  also  pre- 
vails in  Persia  and  in  the  middle  region  from 
Afghanistan  to  Asia  Minor.  The  Semitic  race 
is  widely  spread  in  southwestern  Asia,  and  for- 
merly at  least  extended  to  Africa.  The  Dravid- 
ian  race  in  South  India,  the  Malays  in  the 
eastern  peninsula,  and  other  races  locally  dis- 
tributed, have  no  well-defined  relation  with  the 
larger  races.  The  Dravidians  are  variously 
associated  with  the  Mongols  and  the  Australians. 
The  latter  theory  is  connected  with  the  hy- 
pothesis of  a  southern  continent,  which  also  con- 
nects these  races  with  Africa.     See  Ethnology. 

Political  Divisions. —  A  large  portion  of  Asia 
is  under  the  dominion  of  European  powers. 
Russia  possesses  the  whole  of  northern  Asia 
(Siberia)  and  a  considerable  portion  of  cen- 
tral Asia,  together  with  a  great  part  of  ancient 
Armenia,  on  the  south  of  the  Caucasus;  Tur- 
key holds  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  part 
of  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  etc. ;  Great  Britain 
rules  over  India,  Ceylon,  a  part  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  Peninsula  (Upper  and  Lower  Burma), 
and  one  or  two  other  possessions ;  France  has 
acquired  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  Peninsula  (Cochin-China,  Anam,  Ton- 
kin, Cambodia),  and  has  one  or  two  small 
settlements  besides,  while  to  Holland  belong 
Java,  Sumatra,  and  other  islands  or  parts  of  is- 
lands in  the  Asiatic  or  Malay  Archipelago.    The 


chief  independent  states  are  the  Chinese  empire, 
much  the  most  populous  of  all;  Japan,  Korea, 
Siam,  Afghanistan,  Persia,  and  the  Arabian 
states.  The  total  population  of  the  continent 
is  estimated  at  905,000,000. 

Religions. —  Asia  lias  been  the  birthplace  of 
religions;  the  Jewish,  Buddhist,  Christian,  and 
Mohammedan  having  their  origin  in  Asia, 
where  they  grew  up  under  the  influence  of  still 
older  religions,  the  Babylonian  and  that  of 
Zoroaster,  both  also  of  Asiatic  origin.  At 
present  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  belong  chiefly  to 
the  Buddhist  religion,  which  has  530,000,000  to 
560,000,000  of  followers,  that  is,  marly  one  third 
of  mankind.  The  old  faith  of  Hinduism  has 
187,000,000  of  followers  in  India.  Must  of  the 
inhabitants  of  western  Asia,  as  also  of  part  of 
central  Asia,  follow  the  religion  of  Islam; 
they  may  number  about  90,000.000.  The  Chris 
tians  number  about  20,000,000  in  Armenia,  Cau- 
casus, Siberia,  and  Turkestan.  Jews  are  scat- 
tered mostly  in  western  and  central  Asia.  A 
few  fire-worshippers,  Guebers  or  Parsi  of  India 
and  Persia,  are  the  sole  remnant  of  the  religion 
of  Zoroaster ;  while  vestiges  of  Sabaeism  are 
found  amidst  the  Gesides  and  Sabians  on  the 
Tigris. 

Civilisation. —  There  are  to  be  found  in  Asia 
all  varieties  of  civilization,  the  primitive  tribes 
of  northeastern  Siberia,  the  confederations  of 
nomadic  shepherds,  and  great  nations  in  pos- 
session of  a  common  stock  of  national  customs, 
beliefs,  and  literature,  like  China ;  the  tribal 
stage;  the  compound  family,  forming  the  real 
basis  of  China's  social  organization;  the  rural 
community,  both  of  the  Indian  and  Mussulman 
type;  the  loose  aggregations  of  Tchuktchis,  hav- 
ing no  rulers  and  no  religion  beyond  the  wor- 
ship of  forces  of  nature,  but  professing  with  re- 
gard to  one  another  principles  of  morality  and 
mutual  support  often  forgotten  in  higher  stages 
of  civilization;  and  despotic  monarchies  with 
a  powerful  clergy.  So  also  in  economic  life. 
While  the  tribes  of  the  northeast  find  their 
means  of  subsistence  exclusively  in  fishing  and 
bunting,  carried  on  with  the  simplest  imple- 
ments, among  which  stone  weapons  have  not 
yet  quite  disappeared,  and  the  tribes  of  central 
Asia  carry  on  primitive  cattle-breeding  and  lead 
a  half-nomadic  life,  others  are  agriculturists, 
and  have  brought  irrigation  (in  Turkestan)  to 
a  degree  of  perfection  hardly  known  in  Europe. 

Internal  Communication. —  Caravans  of  cam- 
els are  the  chief  means  of  transport  for  goods  and 
travelers  in  the  interior ;  donkeys,  yaks,  and  even 
goats  and  sheep  are  employed  in  crossing  the 
high  passages  of  the  Himalayas ;  horses  are  the 
usual  means  of  transport  in  most  parts  of  China 
and  Siberia,  and  in  the  barren  tracts  of  the  north 
the  reindeer  and,  still  farther  north,  the  dog,  are 
made  use  of.  Fortunately  the  great  rivers  of 
Asia  provide  water  communication  over  immense 
distances.  The  deep  and  broad  streams  of  China, 
allowing  heavy  boats  to  penetrate  far  into  the 
interior  of  the  country,  connect  it  with  the  sea ; 
a  brisk  traffic  is  carried  on  along  these  arteries. 
In  Siberia  the  bifurcated  rivers  supply  a  water- 
way, not  only  north  and  south  along  the  course 
of  the  chief  rivers  running  toward  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  but  also  west  and  east ;  thus  a  great 
line  of  water  communication  crosses  Siberia, 
and  is,  with  but  a  few  interruptions,  continued 
in  the   east  by   the  Amur,  navigable   for  more 


ASIATIC   ART. 


i.  Dancing  Staff  from  Sumatra. 

2.  R*etich  from  Nias. 

3.  Aino  Shuttle. 


4.  Bashkir  Ornament. 

5.  Bronze  Buddha. 

6.  Helmet. 


7.  Gauntlet, 

8.  Japanese  Kettle,  Silver  and  Bronze. 

tlese  Work. 


ASIA 


than  2,000  miles.  In  the  winter  the  rivers  and 
plains  of  Siberia  become  excellent  roads  for 
sledges,  on  which  goods  are  still  chiefly  trans- 
ported. 

Rail-ways. —  In  1900  the  lines  in  existence 
had  a  total  length  of  about  30,000  miles,  of 
which  two  thirds  belonged  to  British  India. 
The  portions  of  the  trans-Caspian  and  trans- 
Siberian  railways  already  constructed  had  a 
length  of  3,200  miles.  A  number  of  European 
syndicates  held  concessions  for  3,600  miles  of 
railroads  in  China,  which  will  traverse  regions 
rich  in  minerals  and  agriculture ;  many  of  these 
lines  were  then  in  process  of  construction.  The 
Chinese  government  owned  about  300  miles  of 
railway.  The  lines  are  very  remunerative,  espe- 
cially that  from  Peking  to  Tien-Tsin.  Japan  is 
well  provided  with  railroads ;  the  length  being 
3.200  miles.  French  Indo-China  had  only  120 
miles,  but  the  French  possessions  in  Cochin- 
China,  Anam,  and  Tonkin  are  expected  soon 
to  have  2.400  miles,  which  will  greatly  help  to 
develop  their  mineral  and  agricultural  resources. 
The  Dutch  Indies  are  well  supplied.  Java  alone 
has  1,000  miles.  There  are  as  yet  no  railroads  in 
Persia  of  any  consequence ;  but  Turkey  oper- 
ates 1,500  miles  in  Asia,  and  600  miles  more 
are  in  construction  or  projected. 

Telegraph  communications  are  in  a  much 
more  advanced  state  than  the  roads.  St.  Peters- 
burg is  connected  by  telegraph  with  the  mouth 
of  the  Amur  and  Vladivostock  (on  the  frontier 
of  Korea)  ;  while  another  branch,  crossing 
Turkestan  and  Mongolia,  runs  on  to  Tashkend, 
Peking,  and  Shanghai ;  Constantinople  is  con- 
nected with  Bombay,  Madras,  Singapore, 
Saigon,  Hong-Kong,  and  Nagasaki  in  Japan ; 
and  Singapore  stands  in  telegraphic  communi- 
cation with  Java,  and  Port  Darwin  in  Australia. 
Finally,  Odessa  is  connected  by  wire  with  Tiflis 
in  Caucasus,  Teheran,  and  Bombay. 

Trade. —  Notwithstanding  the  difficulties  of 
communication  a  brisk  trade  is  carried  on  be- 
tween the  different  parts  of  Asia,  but  there  is 
no  possibility  of  arriving  at  even  an  approxi- 
mate estimate  of  its  aggregate  value.  The  mari- 
time exports  to  Europe,  the  United  States,  and 
overland  to  Russia,  have  an  annual  value  of 
about  $900,000,000,  and  the  imports  of  about 
$750,000,000.  Asia  deals  chiefly  in  raw  mate- 
rials, gold,  silver,  petroleum,  teak,  and  a  variety 
of  timber-wood,  furs,  raw  cotton,  silk,  wool, 
tallow  and  so  on ;  the  products  of  her  tea, 
coffee,  and  spice  plantations;  and  a  yearly  in- 
creasing amount  of  wheat  and  other  grain. 
Steam  industry  is  only  now  making  its  ap- 
pearance in  Asia,  and,  although  but  a  very  few 
years  old,  threatens  to  become  a  rival  to  Euro- 
pean manufacture.  Indian  cottons  of  European 
patterns  and  jute-stuffs  already  compete  with  the 
looms  of  her  European  sister  countries.  Several 
of  the  petty  trades  carried  on  in  India,  China, 
Japan,  Asia  Minor,  and  some  parts  of  Persia, 
have  been  brought  to  so  high  a  perfection  that 
the  silks,  printed  cottons,  carpets,  jewelry,  and 
•-utlery  of  particular  districts  far  surpass  in  their 
artistic  taste  many  like  productions  of  Europe. 
The  export  of  these  articles  is  steadily  increas- 
ing, and  Japan  supplies  Europe  with  thousands 
of  small  articles  —  applications  of  Japanese  art 
and  taste  to  objects  of  European  household 
furniture. 

History  —  The  origin  of  the  name  Asia  is  in- 

Vol.  I— si 


volved  in  obscurity,  and  it  is  not  certainly 
known  whether  it  arose  among  the  Greeks  or 
was  borrowed  by  them  from  some  Asiatic  peo- 
ple. The  Greeks  seem  to  have  applied  it  origi- 
nally only  to  Lydia,  the  part  of  the  continent 
with  which  they  first  became  acquainted.  Mod- 
ern scholars  are  inclined  to  believe  that  the 
name  Asia  is  connected  with  the  Sanskrit 
ushas,  the  dawn,  as  Europe  may  be  connected 
with  the  Hebrew  ereb,  the  west  or  the  sun- 
setting. 

The  oldest  historical  documents  are  of  Asiatic 
origin,  and  next  to  the  immediately  contiguous 
kingdom  of  Egypt  Asia  possesses  the  oldest  his- 
torical  monuments  in  the  world. 

The  oldest  historical  monuments  in  Asia  are 
those  of  Assyria  (see  Assyria),  and  with  them 
are  associated  traditions  which  carry  us  back 
to  a  remote  and  indefinite  antiquity.  A  similar 
vague  antiquity  belongs  to  the  historical  tradi- 
tions of  India  and  China.  Criticism,  however, 
reduces  all  these  claims  to  moderate  dimensions, 
and  assigns  to  the  oldest  ascertained  facts  a 
period  not  more  remote  than  some  4,000  years 
from  the  present. 

The  earliest  facts  in  the  history  of  Asia,  apart 
from  documents  and  monuments,  consist  in  the 
migrations  of  races,  the  evidence  of  which  is  de- 
rived from  tradition,  from  language,  from  cus- 
toms, and  from  religion.  The  earliest  known 
seat  of  the  Aryan  race  was  on  the  banks  of 
the  Oxus.  Hence  probably  from  the  pressure 
of  the  Mongolian  tribes  to  the  north  they  spread 
themselves  to  the  southeast  and  southwest, 
pressing  upon  the  Dravidian  inhabitants  of  In- 
dia and  the  Semitic  races  of  southwestern  Asia. 
Finally  they  drove  the  Dravidians  to  the  south 
of  India  and  occupied  Persia  and  other  parts 
of  western  Asia,  spreading  into  Europe.  It  is 
a  remarkable  circumstance  that  in  this  invasion 
the  Aryans  appear  to  have  acquired  the  use  of 
letters  from  the  peoples  with  whom  they  came 
in  contact,  the  Dravidian  letters  being  borrowed 
in  India  and  the  Semitic  in  Persia  as  the  origi- 
nal basis  of  the  Sanskrit  and  Zendic  alphabets. 
At  a  later  period  the  Greeks  likewise  adopted 
a  Semitic  alphabet  from  the  Phoenicians.  The 
Semites  have  spread  within  historical  times  into 
northern  Africa,  and  their  migrations  had  prob- 
ably taken  a  similar  course  before  they  were  re- 
corded in  history.  A  large  portion  of  the  Mon- 
gols are  still,  as  they  have  always  been,  a 
nomadic  race,  and  their  migrations,  carrying 
everywhere  the  terror  of  predatory  arms,  have 
spread  from  the  settled  part  of  their  own  race 
in  China  along  the  north  of  Asia  into  northern 
Europe. 

The  early  religion  of  the  Aryan  race, —  a 
nation  of  shepherds, —  divided  itself  after  their 
separation  into  two  related  but  widely  different 
developments,  Brahmanism  and  Zoroastrianism. 
(See  India  (Religion);  Zend-Avesta.)  The 
former  became  rich  in  mythological,  theologi- 
cal, and  philosophical  literature ;  but  historical 
literature  properly  so  called  is  wanting,  and 
consequently  there  is  a  great  absence  of  cer- 
tainty with  regard  to  the  dates  of  early  events. 
The  war  which  the  Mahabharata  (see  San- 
skrit Language  and  Literature)  professes  to 
narrate  is  believed  to  be  the  earliest  event  in 
Indian  history  that  can  be  regarded  as  historical, 
and  probably  took  place  about  1200-1400  B.C. 
In   China  authentic  history   extends   back  prob- 


ASIA 


ably  to  about  noo  B.C.,  with  a  long  preceding 
period  of  which  the  names  of  dynasties  are  pre- 
served without  chronological  arrangement.  The 
kingdoms    of    Assyria,     Babylonia,     Media,    and 

Persia,  alternately  predominated  in  southwest- 
ern Asia.  The  arms  of  the  Pharaohs  also  ex- 
tended into  Asia,  but  their  conquests  there  were 
short-lived.  From  Cyrus  ( n.c.  559),  who  ex- 
tended the  empire  of  Persia  from  the  Indus  to 
the  Mediterranean,  while  his  son,  Cambyses, 
added  Egypt  and  Libya  to  it,  to  the  conquest  of 
Alexander  (b.c.  330),  Persia  was  the  dominant 
pi.wer  in  Asia.  The  administration  01  Persia 
was  not  without  vigor  and  policy,  yet  the  Mace- 
donian conquest  was  an  event  of  great  impor- 
tance  to  Asia,  bringing  it,  along  with  northern 
Africa,  into  closer  relation  with  the  more  ad- 
vanced  and  progressive  continent  of  Europe. 
The  division  of  Alexander's  empire  led  to  the 
protracted  struggle  between  the  Greek  dynasties 
of  Egypt  and  Syria,  which  ended  in  the  absorp- 
tion of  both  kingdoms  in  the  Roman  empire. 
After  the  unfortunate  issue  of  the  second  Punic 
war  Hannibal  took  refuge  with  Antiochus  the 
Great  of  Syria,  who,  in  the  course  of  his  con- 
quests, had  come  in  contact  with  the  Romans, 
and  was  at  length  incited  to  try  his  strength 
with  them.  In  the  course  of  the  war  with  An- 
tiochus L.  Scipio,  together  with  his  brother,  the 
conqueror  of  Carthage,  passed  into  Asia.  The 
kingdom  of  Antiochus  was  spared  after  his 
overthrow ;  but  in  B.C.  65  Syria  became  a  Roman 
province.  The  Roman  empire  ultimately  ex- 
tended  to  the  Tigris. 

The  knowledge  of  Asia  possessed  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  was  at  its  widest  extent 
very  limited.  The  countries  with  which  they 
were  best  acquainted  were  naturally  in  the  west. 
China  they  knew  as  the  country  of  the  Seres  or 
Sin.-e.  and  the  northern  portions  of  the  con- 
tinent, inhabited  by  predatory  Mongol  tribes, 
were  vaguely  designated  as  Scythia.  Of  India 
the  northwestern  and  western  parts  were  known, 
and  Ceylon  likewise,  under  the  name  of  Tapro- 
bane.  The  country  traversed  by  the  Hindu 
Rush,  and  the  sources  of  the  Oxus.  was  known 
as  Bactria  ;  that  between  the  Oxus  and  the  Jax- 
artes  as  Sogdiana ;  a  large  and  vaguely  defined 
central  district,  including  Persia,  was  known  as 
Ariana.  Ptolemy  had  some  acquaintance  with 
the  Indian  Peninsula,  with  the  table-land  of 
cental  Asia,  with  the  Himalayas  (Imaus)  and 
China.  The  better  known  countries  of  the 
southwest  comprised  Asia  Minor.  Armenia, 
Arabia.  Persia.  Media,  Parthia,  Mesopotamia, 
Babylonia,   Assyria,   Syria. 

Soon  after  the  most  civilized  portions  of  the 
three  continents  had  been  reduced  under  one 
empire  the  great  event  took  place  which  forms 
the  dividing  line  of  history.  Christianity  spread 
rapidly  in  the  Roman  empire:  but  Armenia  was 
the  first  country  which  received  it  as  a  national 
religion.  In  A.n.  226  the  Parthian  monarchy 
which  had  arisen  in  eastern  Persia  about  b.c. 
250.  and  had  disputed  the  empire  of  Asia  with 
the  Romans,  was  overthrown  by  the  revived 
Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sassanidx.  The  empire 
of  Asia  was  now  disputed  with  the  Romans  by 
the  Persians.  In  the  revived  Persian  empire 
the  Magian  religion  was  restored,  and  after  the 
establishment  of  Christianity  in  the  Roman  em- 
pire religious  jealousy  embittered  the  feud  be- 
tween the  two  powers.     The  possession  of  Ar- 


menia was  the  subject  of  a  protracted  struggle 
between  them;  but   its   religion  inclined  it  to  the 

Roman  alliance     The   Tigris   formed  the  most 
permanent  boundary  between  t lie  two  empires, 

neither  being  able  long  to  maintain  any  con- 
quests beyond  it.  Christianity  was  persecuted 
in  the  Persian  empire,  and  could  not  extend 
itself  freely  beyond  the  Roman  limits.  After 
the  division  of  the  Roman  empire  (A.n.  364)  the 
struggle  continued  between  the  eastern  and  the 
Persian  empires  until  the  rise  of  a  new  power 
destined  to  absorb  them  both.  While  the  East- 
ern empire  was  struggling  more  and  more  feebly 
with  the  Persians  the  Mongols,  and  the  bar 
barians  of  Europe,  a  new  religion  arose  in  Ara- 
bia (a.d.  622),  which  gathered  around  it  a  band 
of  enthusiasts,  small  at  first,  but  inspired  with 
the  most  ardent  zeal  of  prosilytism.  The  cen- 
tral tenet  of  the  unity  of  God  gave-  them  the 
sympathy  of  the  Monophysite  sect,  which,  per- 
secuted in  the  empire,  was  powerful  in  Egypt, 
Syria.  Mesopotamia,  and  Armenia.  Arabia,  the 
country  of  the  Prophet,  soon  gave  its  adherence 
to  the  new  faith.  The  sword  was  consecrated 
as  the  instrument  of  its  propagation.  Persia 
was  the  first  great  conquest  of  the  Arabians. 
Syria  and  Egypt  soon  fell  before  their  arms, 
powerfully  aided  by  the  defection  of  the  heretics 
of  the  empire,  and  within  40  years  of  the  cele 
brated  tlight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca,  which 
constitutes  the  era  of  his  followers,  the  sixth 
of  the  Caliphs,  or  successors  of  the  Prophet, 
was  the  most  powerful  sovereign  of  Asia.  He- 
raclius,  one  of  the  most  warlike,  and  in  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  one  of  the  most  success- 
ful of  the  eastern  emperors,  had  succumbed  to 
this  torrent  of  conquest,  and  his  successors 
trembled  at  the  names  of  their  rivals.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Mohammed  were  at  first  austere  and 
simple  in  their  manners,  and  narrow  and  zealous 
in  their  religious  faith  ;  but  from  the  accession 
of  Moawiyah  (a.d.  661),  the  time  when  the  seat 
of  empire  was  transferred  first  to  Damascus  and 
subsequently  to  Bagdad,  the  throne  of  the  Ca- 
liphs was  as  splendid  as  it  was  powerful.  The 
generous  blood  of  Arabia,  nourished  by  more 
genial  climes,  showed  an  aptitude  for  all  that 
is  great,  not  only  in  military  achievement,  but  in 
learning,  science,  literature,  and  art.  The  em- 
pire was  soon  divided,  but  wherever  the  Arab 
sway  prevailed  a  liberal  patronage  of  learning 
and  toleration  even  of  speculative  inquiry  dis- 
tinguished it.  The  career  of  conquest  was  not 
soon  ended.  It  spread  with  astonishing  rapidity 
over  Africa  and  Europe,  and  was  finally  cheeked 
only  by  the  fatal  divisions  which  originated  in 
the  disputes  between  the  descendants  of  the 
Prophet  and  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommiades,  de- 
scended from  his  mortal  foe  and  tardy  convert, 
Abu  Sophian. 

Among  the  alternate  protectors  and  op- 
pressors of  the  eastern  Roman  empire  were  the 
various  Mongol'  tribes,  whose  predatory  course 
led  them  to  the  west.  In  these  also  the  Arab 
rulers  found  dangerous  converts,  who  first  sup- 
plied the  place  of  their  own  troops,  grown  ef- 
feminate with  luxury,  and  then  supplanted  them- 
selves in  the  throne  of  which  they  had 
superseded  the  natural  defenders.  While  the 
Caliphs  of  Bagdad  still  held  a  nominal  sway, 
subject  to  the  dictation  of  their  Turkish  guards, 
Mahmud,  the  Mongolian  Mohammedan  ruler  of 
Ghazni,    asserted   his   independence    (999),  con- 


ASIATIC   AK 


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ii.  Hc.nl  Covering  I  roi 

12.    1! 

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22.  Japanese  Wai 


ASIA;     ASIA  MINOR 


qucrcd  India,  and  established  the  Mogul  dy- 
nasty. Another  revolt  from  the  empire  of  Mah- 
mud  founded  the  Scljuk  dynasty,  which  estab- 
lished itself  in  Aleppo,  Damascus,  Iconium,  and 
Kharism,  and  which  was  distinguished  for  its 
struggles  with  the  Crusaders.  Othman,  an  amir 
of  the  Scljuk  sultan  of  Iconium,  established 
the  Ottoman  empire  in  1300.  About  1220  Gen- 
ghis Khan,  an  independent  Mongol  chief,  made 
himself  master  of  central  Asia,  conquered  north- 
ern China,  overran  Turkestan,  Afghanistan,  and 
Persia;  his  successors  took  Bagdad  and  extin- 
guished the  remains  of  the  Caliphate.  In  Asia 
Minor  they  overthrew  the  Seljuk  dynasty.  His 
grandson,  Kublai  Khan,  conquered  China  in 
1260.  The  successors  of  Genghis  Khan  also  in- 
vaded  Russia,  and  the  Christian  empire  estab- 
lished by  Vladimir  was  overthrown  by  the  Gold- 
en Horde,  led  by  his  grandson  Batu  (1240). 
Timur  or  Tamerlane,  who  professed  to  he  a  de- 
scendant of  Genghis,  carried  fire  and  sword  over 
northern  India  and  western  Asia,  defeated  and 
took  prisoner  Bajazet,  the  descendant  of  Oth- 
man (1402),  and  received  tribute  from  the 
Greek  emperor.  The  Ottoman  empire  soon  re- 
covered from  this  blow,  and  Constantinople  was 
taken  and  the  Eastern  empire  overthrown  by 
the  Sultan  Mohammed  II.  in  1453.  China  re- 
covered its  independence  about  1368  and  was 
again  subjected  by  the  Manchu  Tartars  (1618- 
45),  soon  after  which  it  began  to  extend  its  em- 
pire over  central  Asia.  Siberia  was  conquered 
by  the  Cossacks  on  behalf  of  Russia  (1580-4). 
The  same  country  effected  a  settlement  in  the 
Caucasus  about  T786,  and  has  since  continued 
to  make  steady  advances  into  central  Asia.  The 
discovery  by  the  Portuguese  of  the  passage  to 
India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  led  to  their 
establishment  on  the  coast  of  the  peninsula 
(1498).  They  were  speedily  followed  by  the 
Spanish,  Dutch,  French,  and  British.  The 
struggle  between  the  two  last  powers  for  the 
supremacy  of  India  was  completed  by  the  de- 
struction of  the  French  settlements  (1760-65), 
and  from  that  time  the  conquest  of  India  by  the 
British  progressed  with  uninterrupted  success. 
In  1858  India  came  directly  under  the  British 
crown.  The  extension  of  the  influence  and  pos- 
sessions of  European  powers,  especially  Russia, 
Great  Britain,  and  France,  has  latterly  been  a 
most  striking  fact  in  Asiatic  history.  For  par- 
ticular phases  of  the  modern  history  of  Asia 
see  China;  Korea;  Japan;  Manchuria;  Rus- 
sia and  Turkey.  Also  Boxers  and  Triple 
Alliance. 

A'sia,  Central,  a  designation  loosely  applied 
to  '  Asiatic  territory  east  of  the  Caspian,  also 
called  Turkestan,  and  formerly  Tartary.  The 
eastern  portion  belongs  t < •  China,  the  western 
now  to  Russia.  Russian  central  Asia  comprises 
the  Kirghiz  Steppe  (Uralsk,  Turgai.  Akmolinsk, 
Semipalatinsk,  etc.),  and  what  is  now  the 
government-general  of  Turkestan,  besides  the 
territory  of  the  Turkomans,  or  Tanscaspia  and 
Merv.  The  entire  area  is  about  1,350,000  square 
miles.  See  Bouvalot,  'Through  the  Heart  of 
Asia'   (1889);  Phibbs,  'Central  Asia'    (1899). 

Asia  Minor  (Asia  the  Less)  is  the  extreme 
western  peninsular  projection  of  Asia,  forming 
part  of  Turkey  in  Asia.  The  name  is  not  very 
ancient ;    originally    the    Greeks    seem    by    Asia 


to  have  meant  only  the  western  part  of  Asia 
Minor,  but  with  their  geographical  knowledge 
the  scope  of  the  name  Asia  gradually  widened. 
The  late  Greek  name  for  Asia  Minor  is  Ana- 
tolia—  Anatoli,  "the  East,8  whence  is  formed 
the  Turkish  Anadoli.  Asia  Minor  includes  the 
peninsula ;  the  eastern  boundary,  somewhat  ar- 
tificial, being  a  line  from  the  Gulf  of  Skan- 
deroon  to  the  upper  Euphrates,  and  thence  to 
a  point  east  of  Trebizond.  The  area  of  the 
peninsula  exceeds  220,000  square  miles.  It  con- 
stitutes the  western  prolongation  of  the  high 
table-land  of  Armenia,  with  its  border  mountain 
ranges.  The  interior  consists  of  a  great  plateau, 
or  rather  series  of  plateaus,  rising  in  gradua- 
tion from  3,500  to  4,000  feet,  with  bare  steppes, 
salt  plains,  marshes,  and  lakes ;  the  structure 
is  volcanic,  and  there  are  several  conical  moun- 
tains, one  of  which,  the  Ergish-dagh  (Argxus), 
with  two  craters,  attains  a  height  of  11.830  feet, 
towering  above  the  plain  of  Kaisarieh,  which 
has  itself  an  elevation  of  between  2,000  and 
3,000  feet.  The  plateau  is  bordered  on  the 
north  by  a  long  train  of  parallel  mountains, 
4.000  to  6,000  feet  high,  and  cut  up  into  groups 
by  cross  valleys.  These  mountains  sink  abrupt- 
ly down  on  the  northern  side  to  a  narrow  strip 
of  coast;  their  slopes  toward  the  interior  are 
gentler  and  bare  of  wood.  Similar  is  the  char- 
acter of  the  border  ranges  on  the  south,  the  an- 
cient Taurus,  only  that  they  are  more  con- 
tinuous and  higher,  being,  to  the  north  of  the 
Bay  of  Skanderoon,  10,000  to  12.000  feet,  and 
farther  to  the  west,  8.000  to  9,000  feet.  The 
western  border  is  intersected  by  numerous  val- 
veys  opening  upon  the  archipelago,  to  the  north- 
ern part  of  which  Mounts  Ida  and  Olympus  be- 
long. Between  the  highlands  and  the  sea  lie 
the  fertile  coast-lands  of  the  Levant.  Of  the 
rivers  the  largest  is  the  Kizil  Irmak  (Halys), 
which,  like  the  Yeshil  Irmak  (Iris),  and  the 
Sakaria  (Sangarius)  flows  into  the  Black  Sea; 
the  Sarabat  (Hermus)  and  Meinder  (Maean- 
der)   flow  into  the  ^Egean. 

The  climate  has,  on  the  whole,  a  southern 
European  character;  but  a  distinction  must  be 
made  of  four  regions.  The  central  plateau, 
nearly  destitute  of  wood  and  water,  has  a  hot 
climate  in  summer,  and  a  cold  one  in  winter ;  the 
southern  coast  has  mild  winters  and  scorching 
summers;  while  on  the  coast  of  the  /Egean 
there  is  the  mildest  of  climates  and  a  magnifi- 
cent vegetation.  On  the  northern  side  the  cli- 
mate is  not  so  mild,  but  the  vegetation  is  most 
luxuriant. 

In  point  of  natural  history,  Asia  Minor 
forms  the  transition  from  the  continental  char- 
acter of  the  Fast  to  the  maritime  character  of 
the  West.  The  forest-trees  and  cultivated 
plants  of  Europe  are  seen  mingled  with  the 
forms  characteristic  of  Persia  and  Svria.  The 
central  plateau,  which  is  barren,  has  the  charac- 
ter of  an  Asiatic  steppe,  more  adapted  for  the 
flocks  and  herds  of  nomadic  tribes  than  for 
agriculture;  while  the  coasts,  rich  in  all  Euro- 
pean products,  fine  fruits,  olives,  wine,  and  silk, 
have  quite  the  character  of  the  south  of  Europe, 
which  on  the  warmer  and  drier  southern  coast 
shades  into  that  of  Africa. 

The  inhabitants,  some  7,000.000  in  number, 
consist  of  the  most  various  races.  The  dom- 
inant race  are  the  Osmanli  Turks,  who  number 
about  i,200/ooo,  and  are  spread  over  the  whole 


ASIARCH  — ASKEW 


country;  allied  to  these  are  the  Turkomans  and 
Yuruks,  speaking  a  dialect  of  the  same  language. 
I  he  latter  are  found  chiefly  on  the  table-land, 
leading  a  nomadic  life;  there  are  also  hordes  of 
nomadic  Kinds.  Among  the  mountains  east  of 
Trcbi/ond  are  the  robber  tribes  of  the  Lazes. 

The  Greeks  and  Armenians  are  the  most 
progressive  elements  in  the  population,  and  have 
most  of  the  trade.  While  the  Greeks  monopo- 
lize the  professions,  the  ownership  of  the  land 
is  largely  passing  into  the  hands  of  Greeks, 
Armenians,  and  Jews.  Administratively  the 
country  falls  into  eight  vilayets  or  governments, 
with  their  capitals  in  Brusa,  Smyrna,  EConieh 
(Iconium),  Adana,  Sivas,  Angora,  Trebizond, 
and  Kastamuni  respectively.  In  ancient  times 
the  divisions  were  Pontus,  Paphlagonia,  Bi- 
thynia,  in  the  north;  Mysia.  Lydia,  Caria,  in  the 
west  ;  Pisidia  with  Pamphylia,  and  Cappadocia, 
in  the  south ;  and  Galatia  with  Lycaonia  and 
Phrygia.  in  the  centre.  The  Turkish  islands  of 
the  archipelago  belong,  most  of  them,  to  Asia 
Minor. 

I  hre,  especially  in  Ionia,  was  the  early  seat 
■  if  Grecian  civilization,  and  here  were  the  coun- 
ters of  Phrygia,  Lycia.  Caria,  Paphlagonia, 
Bithynia,  Lydia,  Pamphylia,  Isauria.  Cilicia,  Ga- 
latia. Cappadocia,  etc.,  with  Troy,  Ephesus, 
Smyrna,  and  many  other  great  and  famous 
cities.  Here,  from  the  obscure  era  of  Semira- 
mis  (about  2000  B.C.)  to  the  time  of  Osman 
(about  1300  a.d.),  the  greatest  conquerors  of 
the  world  contended  for  supremacy;  and  here 
took  place  the  wars  of  the  Medes  and  Persians 
with  the  Scythians;  of  the  Greeks  with  the  Per- 
sians; of  the  Romans  with  Mithridates  and  the 
Parthians;  of  the  Arabs,  Seljuks,  Mongols,  and 
Osmanli  Turks  with  the  weak  Byzantine  empire. 
Here  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Romans  suc- 
cessfully contended  for  the  mastery  of  the  civil- 
ized world.  But  notwithstanding  all  these  wars 
the  country  still  continued  to  enjoy  some  mea- 
sure of  prosperity  till  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Turks,  under  whose  military  despotism  its 
ancient  civilization  has  been  sadly  brought  to 
ruin.  Recently,  considerable  portions  of  Arme- 
nia have  been  absorbed  by  Russia.  In  1878 
Great  Britain  made  a  secret  engagement  to 
guarantee  against  Russian  aggression  the  Asi- 
atic dominions  of  the  Porte. 

In  Asia  Minor  an  extensive  system  of  rail- 
roads has  long  been  under  consideration.  The 
first  survey  for  this  proposed  trunk  line  was 
made  as  far  back  as  1874,  and  was  from  An- 
gora to  Bagdad.  The  financial  crisis  of  1875 
resulted,  however,  in  the  abandonment  of  the 
scheme,  but  it  was  again  considered  in  1888  by 
foreigners  interested  in  railroad  enterprise  in 
Asia.  The  Suitari-to-Angora  line  was  conceded 
in  October  of  that  year  to  the  Bank  of  Berlin, 
and  on  27  Nov.  1892  the  first  train  was  run.  A 
branch  line  was  shortly  after  built  between  Eski- 
Schehir  and  Konia  and  connected  with  the  line 
to  Smyrna.  The  success  of  this  undertaking 
influenced  the  Sultan's  desire  to  have  the  line 
extended  to  Bagdad  across  Mesopotamia,  and 
the  German  syndicate  was  instructed  accord- 
ingly. The  survey  was  made  in  the  winter  of 
1899-1900  by  a  commission  under  the  presidency 
of  the  German  consul-general  at  Constantinople. 
Matters  were  hastened  by  the  request  of  the 
Emperor  William  that  the  work  be  pushed  for- 
ward as  rapidly  as  possible. 


Asiarch,  a'shi-ark,  a  Roman  officer  ap- 
pointed as  director-general  of  religious  ccre- 
monies  in  the  province  of  Asia.  Th<  >  epi  sion 
occurs  in  the  Greek  Testament,  Tines  </.■  kai  tOn 
Asiarcluni,  "And  certain  also  of  the  Asiarchs" 
(Acts  xix.  31).  Properly  speaking  there  was 
but  one  Asiarch  residing  at  Ephesus;  the  others 
referred  to  were  his  subordinates. 

A'siat'ic  Broth'ers,  the  designation  of  a 
secret  society  organized  in  Germany  about  1780. 
See  Rosicrucians. 

A'siat'ic  Societies,  learned  associations 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  dis- 
seminating valuable  information  respecting  the 
different  countries  of  Asia.  The  Royal  Asiatic 
Society  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  was  es- 
tablished 19  March  1823.  With  it  in  [828  was 
connected  a  very  active  translation  committee, 
which  publishes  English,  French,  and  Latin 
translations  of  Oriental  works,  occasionally  ac- 
companied with  the  originals.  Similar  socn 
have  Ken  formed  in  Asia  itself,  such  as  tin- 
Asiatic  Society  of  Bengal  at  Calcutta,  founded 
in  1784  by  Sir  William  Jones.  Since  1846  the 
Bibliotheca  Indica, —  a  series  of  Oriental  works 
in  text  and  translation, —  has  been  published 
under  the  supervision  of  this  society  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Anglo-Indian  government.  There 
are  similar  societies  on  the  Continent  and  in 
America,  such  as  the  Societe  Asiatique  at  Paris, 
founded  in  1822,  the  Oriental  Society  of  Ger- 
many (Deutsche  Morgenlandische  Gesellschaft), 
founded  in  1845,  and  the  American  Oriental  So- 
ciety. 

Asimina,  a-sim'I-na,  or  as'im-i-na,  Papaw, 
a  genus  of  nine  species  of  shrubs  or  small  trees 
of  the  natural  order  Anonacee,  eight  of  which  are 
natives  of  eastern  North  America,  the  West  In- 
dies, and  Mexico,  with  attractive  foliage  and 
large  purple  or  whitish  axillary  flowers  appear- 
ing in  early  spring,  and  large  edible  berries. 
Two  species  are  cultivated  for  ornament  and  de- 
serve more  attention  at  the  hands  of  horticul- 
turists. One  of  these,  A.  triloba,  which  has  pro- 
duced some  varieties,  is  the  only  arborescent 
species  of  the  genus.  It  is  hardy  as  far  north  at 
Massachusetts  and  produces  very  large  seeded 
fruits,  often  more  than  three  inches  long  and 
too  highly  aromatic  to  suit  all  palates.  The 
other  species,  A.  grandiflora,  is  found  in  Georgia 
and  Florida,  and  is  said  to  produce  delicious 
fruits. 

A'siphona'ta,  an  order  of  lamellibranchi- 
ate,  bivalve  mollusks,  destitute  of  the  siphon  or 
tube  through  which,  in  the  Siphonata,  the  u 
that  enters  the  gills  is  passed  outward.  It  in- 
cludes the  oysters,  the  scallop  shells,  the  pearl 
oyster,  the  mussels,  and  in  general  the  most  use- 
ful and  valuable  mollusks. 

Ask,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the 
name  of  the  first  man  created.  According  to 
the  legend,  the  gods,  Odim.  Haener,  and  Loder, 
found  two  trees  by  the  seaside,  an  ash  and  an 
elm.  From  these  they  created  the  first  man 
and  first  woman.  Ask  and  Embla,  and  gave  them 
the  earth  as  their  dwelling  place. 

Askew,  as'kfi,  Anne,  an  English  martyr: 
b.  1521  ;  d.  16  July  154ft.  She  is  described 
as  a  lady  of  great  beauty  and  learning,  married, 
much  against  her  inclinations,  to  Thomas  Kyme, 
who  was  as  attached  to  the  old  religion  as  she 
was  to  the  new.     She   was  arrested  for  heresy 


ASKHABAD  —  ASPARAGIN 


and  led  before  Bonner,  Bishop  of  London,  who 
induced  her  to  sign  a  recantation.  She  was 
again  arrested,  however,  committed  to  Newgate, 
and  condemned  to  death  as  a  heretic.  Some 
days  later  she  was  suddenly  removed  to  the 
Tower,  and  the  rack  was  applied  in  the  presence, 
and  it  is  said  even  by  the  hands,  of  Wriothes- 
ley,  the  chancellor,  who  hoped  to  extort  confes- 
sion concerning  those  ladies  of  the  court  with 
whom  she  corresponded.  Before  her  frame  had 
time  to  recover  from  the  effects  of  the  rack  she 
was  carried  in  a  chair  to  Smithfield,  chained  to 
a  stake,  and  along  with  four  others  was  burned 
to  death. 

Askhabad,  as'kha-bad',  the  thriving  ad- 
ministrative centre  of  the  Russian  province  of 
Transcaspia,  situated  in  the  Akhal  Tekke  oasis, 
and  occupied  by  Skobeleff  in  January  1881,  after 
the  sack  of  Geok  Tepe.  Its  distance  from  Merv 
is  232  miles,  from  Herat  388  miles.  Pop.  (1897) 
about  20,000. 

Askja,  ask'ya,  a  volcano  in  the  centre  of 
Iceland,  first  brought  into  notice  by  an  eruption 
in  1875.  Its  crater  is  17  miles  in  circumference, 
surrounded  by  a  mountain-ring  from  500  to 
1,000  feet  high,  the  height  of  the  mountain  itself 
being  between  4,000  and  5,000  feet. 

Aslauga's  (a-slow'gaz)  Knight,  the  title 
of  a  romantic  tale  of  mediaeval  chivalry,  by 
Fredrich,  Baron  de  la  Motte,  Fouque.  It  was 
published  in  1814.  The  story  is  told  with  sim- 
plicity and  grace,  and  with  it  may  be  com- 
pared 'The  Fostering  of  Aslang'  in  Wm.  Mor- 
ris' 'Earthly  Paradise.' 

Asmai,  as'mi,  or  Asmayi,  an  Arabic 
writer,  the  instructor  of  Harun-al-Raschid :  b. 
about  740:  d.  830.  His  history  of  the  kings  of 
Arabia  and  Persia,  prior  to  Islam,  is  of  great 
value,  while  his  romance  of  'Antar'  has  been 
called  "the  iliad  of  the  desert." 

As'manite,  a  variety  of  silica,  occurring  in 
small  grains  in  certain  meteoric  irons,  and  now 
believed  to  be  identical  with  tridymite  (q.v.). 

Asmannshausen,  as'mans-how'zen,  a  Prus- 
sian village  on  the  Rhine,  in  the  district  of 
Wiesbaden,  below  Rudesheim,  celebrated  for  its 
wine,  which  is  produced  on  a  soil  formed  of 
blue  slate.  The  red  kind,  the  production  of  a 
small  red  Burgundy  vine,  is  the  more  valuable, 
but  retains  its  value  only  three  or  four  years. 
After  this  time  it  grows  worse  every  year,  and 
precipitates  the  whole  of  its  red  coloring-matter. 
It  is  distinguished  by  color  and  taste  from  all 
other  Rhenish  wines. 

As'mode'us,  or  Asmo'dai,  in  Hebrew 
mythology,  an  evil  spirit  which  slew  seven  hus- 
bands of  Sara,  daughter  of  Raguel,  at  Rages. 
By  the  direction  of  the  angel  Raphael  the  young 
Tobias  exorcised  Asmodeus  with  the  smell  of  a 
fish's  liver  burned  on  the  coals,  into  the  utter- 
most parts  of  Egypt,  where  the  angel  bound  him. 

As'mode'us,  The  Lame  Devil  (<Le  Diable 
Boiteux'  ).  A  novel  by  Alain  Rene  Le  Sage, 
first  published  in  1707,  and  re-published  by  the 
author,  with  many  changes  and  additions,  in 
172s-  It  is  sometimes  known  in  English  as  'As- 
modeus,' and  sometimes  as  'The  Devil  on  Two 
Sticks,'  under  which  title  the  first  English  trans- 
lation appeared,  and  was  dramatized  by  Henry 
Fielding  in  1768. 


As'monae'ans,  a  family  of  high-priests  and 
princes  who  ruled  over  the  Jews  for  about  130 
years,  from  153  B.  c.     See  Maccauf.es. 

Asmus,  as'miis,  Georg,  a  German-Ameri- 
can poet:  b.  Giessen.  27  Nov.  1830;  d.  Bonn, 
31  May  1892.  He  came  to  the  United  States 
to  conduct  some  mining  operations  in  the 
copper  region  of  Lake  Superior ;  then  lived  in 
New  York  until  1884,  when  he  returned  to  Eu- 
rope. Among  the  German  population  of  the 
United  States  he  had  an  enormous  success  with 
his  'American  Sketch-Booklet'  (1875),  an  epis- 
tle in  verse,  written  in  Upper  Hessian  dialect 
and  overflowing  with  delicious  humor.  It  was 
followed  by  'New  American  Sketch-Booklet' 
(1876).  He  also  wrote  'Camp  Paradise' 
O877),  a  story,  and  a  collection  of  miscellaneous 
poems    (1891). 

Asnieres,  as-nyar,  a  northern  suburb  of 
Paris,  a  favorite  boating  resort  with  the  Pari- 
sians.    Pop.   (1897)   24,317. 

Asnyk,  as'nek,  Adam,  a  Polish  patriot  and 
poet:  b.  Kalish,  11  Sept.  1838;  d.  Cracow, 
2  Aug.  1897.  He  participated  in  the  insurrec- 
tion of  1863,  for  which  he  had  to  spend  some 
years  in  exile  in  Germany.  He  was  author  of 
'Poezye,'  (1872-80),  and  several  successful 
dramas. 

Asoka,  a-so'ka,  an  Indian  sovereign,  who 
reigned  255-223  B.C.  over  the  whole  of  northern 
Hindustan.  He  embraced  Buddhism,  and  forced 
his  subjects  also  to  become  converts.  Many 
temples  and  topes  still  remaining  are  attributed 
to  him. 

Aso'ka  (Jonesia  asoca),  an  Indian  tree,  of 
the  natural  order  Leguminosa,  sub-order  Casal- 
pinca,  with  a  flower,  showing  orange,  scarlet, 
and  bright-yellow  tints.  It  is  sacred  to  the  god 
Siva,  and  often  mentioned  in  Indian  literature. 

As'olan'do:  Facts  and  Fancies,  the  latest 

volume  of  poems  written  by  Robert  Browning 
and  published  on  the  day  of  his  death,  12  Dec. 
1889. 

Aso'pus,  the  name  of  several  rivers  in 
Greece.  The  most  celebrated  of  this  name  are 
those  in  Achaia  and  Bceotia. 

Asp,  a  venomous  snake.  The  name  as 
applied  in  the  Bible  probably  refers  to  the  hood- 
ed, or  African  cobra  {Naja  liaje),  common  in 
Egypt,  and  often  represented  in  hieroglyphics. 
The  naja  haje  is  from  three  to  five  feet  long, 
and  the  loose  skin  on  its  neck  can  be  dilated 
into  a  hood,  like  that  of  the  Indian  cobra,  but 
its  markings  differ.  (See  Cobra.)  The  asp  em- 
ployed for  suicide  by  Cleopatra  was  probably  the 
small-horned  viper  (Aspis  hasselquistii) .  The 
asp  of  southern  Europe  is  Vipcra  aspis,  found 
from  France  to  the  Tyrol  and  in  Italy.  (See 
Viper.) 

Asparagin,  Asparagine,  a  nitrogenous  sub- 
stance having  the  formula  C,H*N;03,  or  CONH;. 
CH-CH  (NH.).COOH,  occurring  in  the  juice 
of  most  plants,  and  notably  in  the  growing  buds 
of  asparagus.  It  is  readily  obtained  by  filtering 
the  plant  juice,  and  evaporating  it  to  a  syrupy 
consistency.  The  asparagin  then  separates  in  the 
fcrm  of  trimetric  prismatic  crystals,  which  are 
soluble  in  water  and  in  acids  and  alkalis,  but 
insoluble  in  alcohol  or  ether.  Asparagin  un- 
doubtedly plays  a  very  important    (though  yet 


ASPARAGUS 


unknown)  part  in  the  chemistry  of  plants,  since 
it  occurs  in  large  amounts  in  germinating  seeds, 
and  wherever  growth  is  actively  proceeding. 

Aspar'agus,  a  genus  of  about  ISO  species 
of  mostly  tulicrous-rooted,  climbing,  drooping, 
trailing,  or  erect  perennial  herbs  or  shrubs  wide- 
ly distributed  in  tropical  and  warm  temperate 
countries,  especially  in  southern  Europe  and 
southern  Africa,  but  more  or  less  cultivated  for 
food  or  ornament  in  all  civilized  countries. 
Some  species  rival  and  even  excel  the  most  deli- 
cate ferns  in  beauty  of  habit  and  foliage,  which 
botanically  considered,  consists  not  of  leaves 
but  leaf-like  stems.  The  ornamental  species 
with  the  exception  of  A.  verticellatus  (see  be- 
low), must  all  be  grown  in  green-houses,  except 
in  southern  Florida  and  southern  California, 
where  they  may  be  planted  with  safety  out  of 
doors.  They  are  readily  and  usually  propagated 
by  seeds,  but  often  also  by  cuttings  and  by  divi- 
sion. Among  the  best-known  ornamental  spe- 
cies cultivated  in  America  arc  the  following: 
A.  medeoloides,  also  known  as  Myrsiphyllum 
asparagoides,  the  smilax  of  the  florist,  is  widely 
grown  for  decorative  purposes,  for  which  its 
glossy  green  leaves  specially  commend  it.  (For 
culture,  see  Smilax).  A.  sprengeri,  a  species 
recently  introduced  from  Natal,  with  long  droop- 
ing branches,  glossy  light-green  leaves  (white 
in  one  variety)  ;  small  white  fragrant  flowers  in 
small  racemes  and  little  red  berries.  It  is  very 
popular,  especially  for  planting  in  hanging 
baskets.  .-(.  plumosus,  a  tall  climbing  species 
from  South  Africa  with  horizontal  branches  of 
beautiful  form,  texture  and  color,  which  quali- 
ties are  retained  for  weeks  or  even  months  after 
cutting.  Deservedly  one  of  the  most  popular  of 
decorative  plants.  It  has  developed  several  va- 
rieties, some  of  which,  especially  the  variety 
tenuissimus,  are  even  more  popular  than  the 
original  species.  A.  verticellatus,  a  hardy  species 
with  tufts  of  hair-like  leaves  and  small  red 
berries,  is  a  native  of  Persia  and  Siberia,  and 
climbs  to  a  height  of  12  to  15  feet  from  a 
woody  root  stock.  The  stout  young  shoots  are 
said  to  be  edible,  but  they  quickly  become  woody 
and  spiny,  and  are  then  unfit  for  the  table.  Sev- 
eral other  species  arc  cultivated  for  ornament 
in  America. 

Best  and  most  widely  known,  however,  is  A. 
officinalis,  esculent  asparagus,  which  is  also  used 
to  some  extent  as  an  ornamental  plant.  It  is  a 
perennial  herb,  native  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
commonly  found  growing  in  sandy  loam  or  sea 
shores,  river  banks,  and  among  shrubby  under- 
growth. In  a  wild  state  it  rarely  exceeds  a  foot 
in  height  and  a  stem  diameter  of  more  than 
one  third  of  an  inch  ;  but  in  gardens  sprouts  are 
sometimes  obtained  as  thick  as  a  man's  wrist, 
and  the  plants  often  grow  more  than  four  feet 
tall.  For  more  than  2,000  years  it  has  been 
cultivated  for  its  succulent  young  shoots,  pro- 
duced from  the  thick  root  stocks  in  spring.  An 
excellent  method  of  growing  the  plant  may  be 
epitomized    as    follows: 

The  land  chosen  for  the  bed  should  be  a  rich, 
friable  and  warm  loam,  preferably  exposed  to 
the  south  or  east.  Manure  should  be  applied 
without  stint  before  the  plants  are  set,  and  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  should  be  deep  and 
thorough.  The  plants  may  be  home-grown  or 
purchased.     One-year-old   plants,   if   sturdy,  are 


preferable  to  older  ones.  For  home  growing  a 
Separate  nursery  bed  should  be  prepared,  and  the 
seed  previously  soaked  24  hours  in  order  to 
hasten  germination,  when  sown  in  early  spring, 
about  two  inches  apart  and  one  inch  deep,  at 
which  rate  an  ounce  should  he  enough  for  200 
or  more  feet  of  drill.  Some  radish  seed  of  a 
small  early  maturing  variety  should  be  sown 
in  the  same  drill,  so  that  the  young  radish 
plants,  which  quickly  appear,  may  mark  the 
position  of  the  rows  of  the  slower-appearing  and 
less-conspicuous  asparagus  plants.  As  soon  as 
the  radishes  arc  of  edible  size,  or  even  before, 
if  necessary,  they  should  be  pulled  and  the  as- 
paragus plants,  then  an  inch  or  two  tall,  left  in 
possession  of  the  ground.  Beyond  keeping  down 
weeds,  destroying  pests,  and  thinning  the  plants 
to  four  inches  asunder,  no  further  attention  is 
necessary  during  the  first  year.  In  the  spring 
of  the  second  year,  if  properly  managed  during 
the  first,  the  plants  should  be  large  enough  to 
be  transplanted  to  the  permanent  bed.  If  too 
small  they  should  l>e  transplanted  at  least  eight 
inches  asunder,  and  grown  a  second  year  in  a 
nursery  bed.  In  the  permanent  bed  the  plants 
should  stand  at  least  two  feet  asunder  in  rows 
not  less  than  four  feet  apart.  Five  or  even  six 
feet  for  the  larger  growing  varieties  is  much 
better.  Staminate  plants  are  more  productive 
of  shoots  than  pistillate,  hut  are  difficult  to 
recognize  until  the  plants  flower.  The  furrows 
are  plowed  six  inches  deep  or  deeper,  the  plants 
set  in  the  bottom,  but  at  first  covered  with  only 
about  two  inches  of  earth.  After  growtli  starts 
the  trench  is  gradually  filled  by  cultivation 
which  must  lie  thorough,  both  among  the  plants 
and  between  the  rows.  Not  before  the  second 
spring  after  planting  in  permanent  quarters 
should  any  shoots  be  gathered.  At  the  time  of 
planting  a  liberal  dressing  of  some  slowly  de- 
composing fertilizer,  such  as  ground  bone,  should 
be  given  in  the  drill,  and  in  the  spring  of  each 
year  complete  fertilizers  should  be  applied  lib- 
erally. (See  Fertilizers.)  In  addition  to 
such  applications  many  growers  spread  stable 
manure  upon  the  bed  in  the  autumn  after 
the  tops  have  been  removed,  a  necessary  prac- 
tice to  prevent  the  scattering  of  the  seeds 
upon  the  bed.  In  the  spring  as  soon  as  the 
soil  can  be  worked  the  land  is  either  plowed  shal- 
low or  cultivated  deeply  to  bury  the  manure. 
Since  the  plants  are  gross  feeders  there  need  be 
little  fear  of  fertilizing  too  heavily.  Methods  of 
gathering  depend  somewhat  upon  whether  the 
stalks  are  to  be  blanched  or  left  green.  Blanching 
is  done  by  ridging  the  soil  13  inches  deep  above 
the  crowns.  Stalks  so  produced  are  gathered  as 
soon  as  the  tips  appear  above  the  soil ;  green 
stalks  are  cut  when  about  nine  inches  long,  in- 
cluding the  base  of  two  or  more  inches  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  each  case  the 
stalk  may  be  cut  with  an  asparagus  knife  or 
preferably  snapped  near  the  crown,  or  at  least 
at  the  proper  depth,  if  blanched,  by  plunging  the 
hand  down  in  the  loose  soil  beside  the  stalk  and 
severing  it  with  the  fingers.  By  the  latter  meth- 
od there  is  less  danger  of  injuring  other  shoots. 
All  cutting  should  cease  when  green  peas,  grown 
in  the  same  locality,  are  ready  for  the  table, 
because  the  plants  must  be  given  opportunity  to 
store  up  food  for  the  following  year.  The 
stems  are  usually  sold  in  hunches  of  various 
sizes,  the  grade  depending  upon  the  length  and 


ASPARAGUS-STONE;     ASPASIA 


number  of  stalks  in  the  bunch.  The  hunch  com- 
monly sold  is  eight  and  one  half  inches  long, 
weighs  about  two  pounds,  and  contains  30  spears. 
As  a  rule,  the  thicker  the  spear  the  better.  First 
class  spears  are  three  quarters  of  an  inch  thick 
or  thicker.  Every  care  must  be  taken  in  hand- 
ling to  prevent  bruising',  since  a  gummy  juice 
collects  in  the  broken  cells,  and  the  injured 
stalks  spoil  by  heating.  After  washing,  the 
stalks  should  be  dried  and  kept  cool.  If  to  be 
shipped  long  distances,  their  butts  should  rest 
in  damp  sphagnum  moss  or  similar  material. 
In  the  home  garden,  where  horse  cultivation  is 
not  practicable,  the  plants  may  be  set  even  as 
close  as  18  inches  by  two  feet,  but  the  manur- 
ing, cultivation  and  other  care  must  be  in- 
creased in  order  to  obtain  choice  shoots.  Each 
spring  the  very  liberal  dressing  of  manure  ap- 
plied the  previous  autumn  should  be  forked,  not 
dug,  in,  and  a  lavish  amount  of  commercial  fer- 
tilizer, rich  in  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  ni- 
tiogen,  applied.  Soap  suds  may  be  emptied  upon 
the  bed ;  they  have  more  or  less  potash  in  them. 
Asparagus  sometimes  is  forced  in  hot  beds,  un- 
der greenhouse  benches,  in  cellars,  etc.,  by  set- 
ting mature  crowns  (plants)  close  together  and 
supplying  heat  and  moisture.  A  large  amount 
o"f  light  is  not  essential.  It  is  also  forced  in  the 
field  by  covering  the  beds  with  cloth  and  ap- 
plying heat  by  means  of  portable  steam  pipes, 
either  in  or  upon  the  ground.  In  the  former 
case  the  roots  are  ruined  by  the  process ;  in 
the  latter,  they  are  not,  but  should  be  given 
one  or  more  years  to  fully  recuperate.  (See 
reports  and  bulletins  of  Cornell  Experiment 
Station  and  of  Missouri  Experiment  Station). 
Several  other  species  furnish  edible  shoots ;  for 
example,  A.  acutifolius,  A.  albus  and  A.  tennui- 
folius,  all  European  species.  The  tubers  of  A. 
lucidus  are  eaten  in  China  and  Japan,  where 
the  species  is  indigenous.  The  shoots  of  A. 
scaber,  which  resemble  those  of  A.  oihcialis,  are 
inedible  because  bitter. 

Enemies. —  Asparagus  has  only  two  impor- 
tant enemies,  and  when  compared  with  other 
general  crops,  long  cultivated,  only  a  few  less 
serious  ones.  Asparagus  rust  (Puccinia  as- 
paragi)  has  been  known  for  about  100  years, 
but  only  during  the  last  decade  of  the  19th 
century  did  it  do  serious  damage.  In  a  badly 
infested  field  the  plants  as  a  whole  seem  to  be 
maturing  very  early,  their  deep  green  having 
been  replaced  by  a  tawny  brown.  The  stems 
examined  closely,  show  a  blistered  and  ruptured 
skin,  beneath  which  are  brown  masses  of  spores 
or  in  late  autumn,  almost  black  winter  spores. 
In  the  spring  the  "cluster  cup"  is  the  form  ob- 
served. The  most  effective  control  is  the  resin- 
Bordeaux  mixture,  made  by  adding  to  each  48 
gallons  of  standard  Bordeaux  mixture  two  gal- 
lons of  resin  stock  solution,  made  as  follows : 
Heat  five  pounds  of  resin  and  one  pint  of  fish- 
oil  in  a  kettle  until  the  resin  is  dissolved.  If 
very  hot,  allow  to  cool  somewhat.  Then  slowly 
stir  in  one  pound  of  potash  lye  and  heat  again 
till  the  mixture  becomes  the  color  of  amber, 
when  five  gallons  of  water  must  be  added.  If 
the  potash  be  added  while  the  resin  is  too  hot, 
the  mixture  may  ignite.  This  solution  increases 
the  adhesiveness  of  Bordeaux  mixture.  (See 
Fungicide.)  With  the  mixture  50  per  cent 
greater  yield  has  been  obtained  in  unfavorable 
seasons,  and  70  per  cent  in  favorable.     Growers 


cutting  800  bunches  or  more  per  acre  find  that 
thorough  spraying  each  week  for  four,  five  or 
even  more  weeks  pays  well.  For  detailed  ac- 
count of  this  disease  and  specific  methods  of 
control,  see  New  York  Experiment  Station 
Report  (1901).  The  asparagus  beetle  (Cn'o- 
ccris  asparagi),  a  European  insect  introduced 
about  1856,  the  only  seriously  injurious  insect 
pest,  is  about  one  quarter  of  an  inch  long  with 
black  and  yellow  or  red  wing-covers.  It  be- 
longs to  the  Chrysomclidw.  It  appears  as  the 
adult  in  spring,  and  lays  eggs  on  the  shoots.  In 
a  few  days  grayish-green  grubs  appear  and 
gnaw  the  green  parts  of  the  plants.  When  full 
grown  they  burrow  in  the  ground  to  pupate  for 
a  short  time.  The  broods  succeed  each  other  at 
intervals  of  about  a  month,  if  the  weather  be  fa- 
vorable. Their  natural  enemies  are  lady-bird 
beetles  and  soldier  beetles.  The  popular  reme- 
dies are  the  corralling  of  chickens,  ducks,  and 
turkeys  in  the  plantation ;  cutting  all  volunteer 
plants  in  waste  places ;  cutting  new  shoots  daily ; 
allowing  spindling  shoots  to  remain  in  alternate 
rows  for  the  insects  to  deposit  their  eggs  upon 
and  burning  the  shoots  not  less  often  than  once 
a  week ;  dusting  with  air-slaked  lime  or  road 
dust  while  the  dew  is  on ;  brushing  the  grubs  to 
the  hot  ground  from  the  full  grown  plants,  the 
middle  of  the  day  being  chosen  for  this  opera- 
tion;  spraying  with  arsenitcs,  hellebore  or  other 
stomach  poisons;  etc.  A  case  of  fight  early  and 
fight  late !  The  12-spotted  asparagus  beetle 
(Crioccris  12-pnnctatus) ,  about  the  same  size 
as  its  relative  just  described,  but  orange  red  with 
black  dots,  has  a  similar  life  history,  and  may 
be  controlled  in  the  same  way  but  is  not  yet 
seriously  troublesome,  except  in  a  few  localities. 
Several  plant  bugs,  moth  larvae,  beetles  and  ap- 
hids  also  feed  upon  asparagus,  but  have  not  be- 
come serious  pests.  Consult:  Year-book  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  ( Washington, 
1896),  and  Bulletin  No.  10  (1898).  See  In- 
secticides. 

For  fuller  details  of  asparagus  culture  con- 
sult:  Hexamer,  'Asparagus  Culture*  (1901); 
Bailey  and  Miller,  'Cyclopedia  of  American  Hor- 
ticulture' (1900-02).  In  the  latter  will  also 
be  found  specific  instruction  for  the  cultivation 
of  ornamental  asparagus. 

Asparagus-stone,  a  variety  of  apatite, 
found  in  Murcia,  Spain,  in  the  form  of  small, 
transparent,    yellowish-green    crystals. 

Aspasia,  as-pa'shf-a,  a  celebrated  woman 
of  ancient  Greece :  b.  in  Miletus  in  Ionia,  but 
spending  a  great  part  of  her  life  in  Athens.  Her 
house  was  the  general  resort  of  the  most  virtu- 
ous, learned,  and  distinguished  men  in  Greece. 
She  inspired  the  strongest  and  most  enduring  af- 
fection in  the  heart  of  Pericles,  who  had  separat- 
ed from  his  own  wife  and  united  himself  to  As- 
pasia as  closely  as  was  permitted  by  the  Athenian 
law,  which  declared  marriage  with  a  foreign 
woman  illegal.  When  the  Athenians  were  dis- 
satisfied with  Pericles,  instead  of  attacking  him 
they  persecuted  the  objects  of  his  particular 
favor,  and  accused  Aspasia  of  contempt  of  the 
gods.  Pericles  defended  her  in  the  Areopagus, 
but  it  required  all  his  influence  to  procure  her 
acquittal.  After  his  death  (B.C.  429)  Aspasia  is 
said  to  have  attached  herself  to  a  wealthy  but 
obscure  cattle-dealer,  of  the  name  of  Lysicles, 
whom   she   soon   made,   however,   an    influential 


ASPECT  -ASPHALT 


citizen  in  Athens.  She  had  a  son  by  Pericles, 
who  was  legitimated  by  a  special  decree  of  the 
people. 

As'pect,  a  term  in  astronomy  and  astrol- 
ogy, denoting  the  situation  of  the  planets  and 
stars  with  respect  to  each  other.  There  are  five 
principal  aspects:  (i)  sextile  aspect,  when  the 
planets  or  stars  are  6o°  distant,  and  marked 
thus,  *:  (2)  the  quartile  or  quadrate,  when 
they  arc  900  distant,  marked  D  ;  (3)  trine, 
when  120°  distant,  marked  A;  (4)  opposition, 
when  1800  distant,  marked  §  ;  and  (5)  con- 
junction, when  both  are  in  the  same  degree, 
marked  d-  Kepler  added  eight  more.  It  is  to 
I"  observed  that  these  aspects,  being  first  intro- 
duced by  astrologers,  were  distinguished  into 
benign,  malignant,  and  indifferent;  and  Kepler's 
definition  of  aspect,  in  consequence,  is  "Aspect 
is  the  angle  formed  by  the  rays  of  two  stars 
meeting  on  the  earth,  whereby  their  good  or  bad 
influence  is  measured."  The  aspects  now  in  use 
are  conjunction,  opposition,  and  quadrature. 

As'pen,  Col.,  a  city  and  county-seat  of 
Pitkin  County,  on  the  Roaring  Fork  of  Grand 
River,  and  the  Colorado  Midland,  and  the  Den- 
ver &  R.  G.  R.R.'s ;  30  miles  west  of  Lead- 
villc.  It  was  incorporated  in  1883;  and  has 
since  become  the  centre  of  one  of  the  rich- 
est mining  sections  in  the  country.  In  the 
city  and  vicinity  are  more  than  jo  mines,  for 
which  there  are  a  number  of  silver,  zinc,  and 
lead  ore  mills.  While  the  smelting  and  con- 
centrating of  ores  is  the  distinctive  industry, 
the  city  has  several  minor  factories,  and  it 
is  also  the  principal  mining  trade  centre  of  the 
Roaring   Fork  Valley.     Pop.   (1900)   3.303. 

As'pen,  tremulous  poplar,  a  tree  of  the 
order  Salicacea  and  genus  Populus,  native 
of  the  cooler  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
succeeding  best  upon  moist,  gravelly  soils.  It 
grows  quickly ;  usually  attains  a  height  of  50 
to  60  feet,  sometimes  even  100  feet;  has  light, 
small,  thin-toothed  leaf-blades  upon  long,  slen- 
der, flattened  petioles  which  permit  the  blade  to 
flutter  with  the  least  breeze,  hence  the  specific 
name  P.  tremula,  tremulous.  The  wood  being 
white,  light,  soft,  and  porous,  is  not  a  valuable 
fuel,  but  is  useful  for  making  charcoal  for  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder,  and  for  turning, 
often  being  employed  for  making  bowls,  trays, 
troughs,  and  pails.  The  wood  may  be  made 
harder  and  thus  rendered  useful  for  interior 
work  in  houses  by  peeling  off  the  bark  and  al- 
lowing the  stem  to  dry  before  felling  it.  In  places 
where  this  tree  abounds,  and  other  timber  is 
scarce  or  expensive,  this  method  of  hardening 
is  very  useful.  The  bark  is  rich  in  a  glucoside 
called  salicin  and  used  in  leather  tanning.  In 
the  United  States  the  tree  is  best  known  as  an 
ornamental  one,  its  variety,  pendula,  with  grace- 
ful drooping  sprays,  being  perhaps  the  best 
weeping  poplar.  The  male  plants  are  preferred 
because  of  the  abundance  of  their  catkins 
which  appear  in  early  spring  before  the  catkins 
of  American  species  blossom.  The  American 
aspen  (Populus  tremuloides) ,  very  generally 
distributed  from  Alaska  to  Labrador  and  south- 
ward to  Pennsylvania  and  California,  and.  in 
the  mountains  to  Mexico,  so  closely  resembles 
the  preceding  species  that  many  botanists 
consider    it    merely    a    variety.      Its    light-gray 


branches  render  it  conspicuous  in  clearings 
where  it  is  one  of  the  first  trees  to  appear.  It  is 
said  to  attain  a  height  of  100  feet  when  grown 
in  the  forest.  This  tree,  like  the  following,  is 
widely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wood  pulp. 
The  large-toothed  aspen  (Populus  grandtden- 
tala)  is  a  large  American  species  found  from 
Nova  Scotia  to  Minnesota  and  southward  to 
Tennessee.  It  is  a  tall  tree,  often  reaching  75 
feet,  and  has  bluish  or  rusty-white  leaves  thicker 
and  larger  and  with  more  spreading  teeth  than 
the  former  two  species.  Except  its  drooping 
varieties,  it  is  rarely  used  as  an  ornamental  tree. 
See  Poplar. 

Aspern,  as-pern,  anil  Esslingen,  two  vil- 
lages a  few  miles  east  of  Vienna,  on  the  oppo- 
site bank  of  the  Danube,  celebrated  for  the  bat- 
tle fought  21  and  22  May  1809,  between  the 
Archduke  Charles  and  Napoleon  I.  After  the 
fall  of  the  capital  the  Austrian  general  re- 
solved to  suffer  a  part  of  the  enemy's  forces  to 
pass  the  Danube,  and  then  to  surround  them 
with  his  own  army  and  drive  them  if  possible 
into  the  river.  Everything  depended  on  the 
possession  of  these  two  villages :  Aspern  was  at 
first  taken  by  the  Austrians,  again  lost  and  re- 
taken, till  they  at  length  remained  masters  of 
it:  from  Esslingen  they  were  continually  re- 
pulsed. The  battle  was  renewed  on  the  22d ; 
the  French  army  being  now  increased  so  as  at 
least  to  equal  the  Austrians  in  number.  Thou- 
sands of  lives  were  sacrificed  in  vain  attempts 
to  capture  the  villages.  Aspern  continued  to  be 
the  stronghold  of  the  Austrians  and  Esslingen 
of  the  French.  When  the  army  of  Napoleon 
gave  up  all  hopes  of  gaining  the  victory  by  for- 
cing the  centre  of  the  Austrians,  Esslingen 
served  to  secure  their  retreat  to  the  island  of 
Lobau.  The  loss  of  the  Austrians  in  killed, 
wounded,  etc.,  was  estimated  at  less  than  a  third 
of  the  whole  army;  that  of  the  French  at  half. 
The  latter  lost  on  this  occasion  Marshal  Lannes. 
The  Austrians  had  4,000  men  killed  and  16,000 
wounded,  the  French  8,000,  30,000  wounded.  By 
the  French  the  engagement  is  known  as  the  bat- 
tle of  Essling  or  Esslingen,  but  the  Austrians 
style  it  the  battle  of  Aspern. 

Asphalt.  The  general  term  asphalt  is 
applied  to  the  several  varieties  of  hydrocarbons 
of  an  asphaltic  base  which  exist  in  all  condi- 
tions from  the  liquid  to  the  solid  state.  It  is 
more  specifically  employed  to  include  the  purer 
forms  of  hard  and  soft  bitumen,  such  as  elater- 
ite,  albertite,  gilsonite,  nigrite,  wurtzilite,  brea, 
etc.  The  term  bituminous  rock  includes  sand- 
stones and  limestones  impregnated  with  bitu- 
men or  asphalt.  This  rock,  usually  shipped 
without  previous  refining,  is  used  principally  for 
street  pavements  and  is  mixed  with  other  in- 
gredients at  the  place  of  use. 

The  importation  of  asphalt  into  the  United 
States  is  chiefly  from  the  Island  of  Trinidad, 
off  the  coast  of  Venezuela.  Other  imports  are 
made  from  Bermudez  and  Venezuela.  Bitu- 
minous limestones  are  imported  from  Neuchatel 
and  Val  de  Travers,  in  Switzerland,  from  Seys- 
sel  in  France,  and  in  small  quantities  from 
Germany.  Italy,  Russia,  Austria-Hungary.  Spain, 
Turkey  in  Asia.  Great  Britain,  the  United  States 
of  Colombia,  Canada,  the  Netherlands,  Cuba, 
and  Mexico.  The  total  imports  from  Trinidad 
and  Venezuela  in  1000  amounted  to  134,189  long 
tons,  and  at  the  present  time  the  value  of  our 


ASPHALT 


domestic  product  is  about  equal  to  that  of  the 
imported  asphalt,  at  the  point  of  shipment.  The 
Island  of  Trinidad,  one  of  the  British  West 
Indian  possessions,  is,  next  to  France,  the  largest 
producer  of  asphalt  in  the  world.  The  deposits 
are  operated  by  an  American  corpoiation  under 
a  concession  from  the  British  government,  and, 
also,  independently,  from  land  not  belonging 
to  the  crown,  acquired  by  purchase.  The  chief 
source  of  supply  is  a  lake  of  pitch  filling  the 
crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  This  lake  lies  138 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
1 14  acres.  The  supply  is  partly  renewed  by  a 
constant  flow  of  soft  pitch  into  the  centre  of  the 
lake  from  subterranean  sources.  The  shipments 
of  this  lake  pitch  average  over  80,000  tons  per 
year,  and  the  flow  into  the  lake  is  at  the  rate  of 
about  20,000  tons  per  year.  The  depth  of  this 
lake  is  about  135  feet  at  the  centre.  Distinct 
from  the  lake  pitch  is  what  is  known  as  "land 
pitch,"  the  overflow  in  past  times  of  pitch  from 
the  lake,  and  deposits  of  similar  nature.  During 
recent  years  strenuous  efforts  have  been  made  to 
discredit  all  asphalt  mined  from  properties  lo- 
cated outside  of  Pitch  Lake.  These  efforts  seem 
to  have  failed,  however.  Careful  analyses  of 
samples  of  asphalt  taken  from  different  parts  of 
Pitch  Lake,  from  deposits  outside  the  lake  and 
from  the  district  of  La  Brea  show  that  these 
asphalts  are  so  similar  in  composition  that  for 
practical  purposes  they  may  be  considered  as 
identical  in  quality.  The  samples  have  a  com- 
mon origin,  for  the  presence  of  mineral  matter 
in  these  asphalts  cannot  be  regarded  as  ad- 
ventitious, since  it  is  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  bitumen  in  the  same  proportion  and  has 
the  same  percentage  of  composition,  as  regards 
the  relative  proportions  of  matter  soluble  in 
water,  in  acids  and  insoluble  substances.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  the  pitch  found  in  the  deposits 
outside  the  lake  has  been  divided  from  the  lake 
itself  by  the  subterranean  flow  of  pitch  to  the 
viscous  condition,  a  condition  rarely  assumed 
under  the  combined  influence  of  heat  and  pres- 
sure. It  is  true  there  is  a  difference  in  the  crude 
materials  in  these  asphalts ;  one  is  softer  than 
the  other,  because  of  containing  more  volatile 
oils.  Nature  simply  began  on  the  asphalt  out- 
side the  lake  ;  it  being  more  exposed  to  the  rays 
of  the  tropical  sun,  the  process  of  refining  it 
drove  those  volatile  oils  off,  a  necessary  accom- 
plishment to  make  the  material  fit  for  paving 
purposes.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  a 
part  of  the  labor  of  refining  has  been  done  on 
the  land  or  overflow  asphalt  which  remains  to  be 
done  with  the  lake  asphalt. 

In  1875  the  asphalt  paving  industry  was  in  its 
infancy  in  the  United  States.  In  1903  there 
were  about  42,000,000  square  yards  of  asphalt, 
sheet  and  block,  which  has  been  laid  at  a  cost 
of  about  $110,000,000.  These  pavements  are  fre- 
quently called  bituminous  pavements,  inasmuch 
as  bitumen  is  the  largest  constituent  of  the 
asphalt,  frequently  running  as  high  as  9  per 
cent.  Asphalt  is  manufactured  into  a  cement  by 
mixing  it  with  other  forms  of  bitumen,  and  this 
cement  is  in  turn  used  to  bind  together  particles 
of  sand  and  limestone  in  the  asphalt  pavement. 
No  two  asphalts  are  alike.  The  life  of  the 
pavement  depends  upon  the  crude  bitumen  used, 
the  skill  in  its  manufacture  into  bituminous 
cement,  the  proper  proportioning  and  mixing  of 
the  cement  with  the  sand  and  dust  and  in  the 
selection  of  the  mineral  aggregate. 


In  1870,  Prof.  E.  J.  Smedt,  a  Belgian  chem- 
ist, laid  the  first  sheet  asphalt  pavement  in  this 
country,  in  Newark,  N.  J.  Prior  to  this  date, 
coal  tar  had  been  used  as  the  cementing  mate- 
rial, but  with  little  satisfaction.  In  1876  Con- 
gress appointed  a  commission,  consisting  of 
Gens.  Horatio  G.  Wright  and  Quincey  A.  Gil- 
more,  of  the  corps  of  engineers,  and  Edward 
Clark,  architect  of  the  capitol,  to  select  the  best 
pavement  for  Pennsylvania  Avenue  in  Wash- 
ington. Forty-one  proposals,  for  stone,  macad- 
am, tar  and  asphalt  pavements,  were  received. 
The  commission  selected  two,  and  decided  to 
use  Neuchatel  rock  asphalt,  and  De  Smedt's 
artificial  Trinidad  mixture,  in  the  proportion  of 
two  to  three.  The  artificial  Trinidad  mixture 
has  been  most  satisfactory.  When  it  was  de- 
cided, in  1889,  to  repave  Pennsylvania  Avenue 
in  Washington,  the  entire  avenue  was  relaid 
with  it,  and  the  Neuchatel  was  discarded. 

Trinidad  Pitch  Lake  has  furnished  over  85 
per  cent  of  the  asphalt  used  in  the  United 
States.  The  liquid  asphalt  passing  through  clay 
saturates  it  or  carries  it  in  suspension  and  be- 
comes a  brown,  earthy,  non-viscous  substance, 
chemically  composed  as  follows: 

Bitumen      47  per  cent 

Infusorial    earth     28  per  cent 

Water     25  per  cent 

The  water  is  evaporated  in  refining  and  the 
residue  (approximately  one  third  clay  and 
two  thirds  hard  asphalt)  regains  some  of  its 
viscosity  and  requires  the  admixture  of  some 
flux  or  softening  agent  to  give  it  the  proper 
consistency  for  paving  operations.  Samples 
taken  at  100  and  150  feet  deep  at  the  centre  of 
Pitch  Lake  do  not  differ  in  composition  from 
those  taken  on  the  surface  near  the  shore,  show- 
ing the  homogeneousness  of  the  entire  mass. 
The  surface  is  in  constant  motion,  and  gradually 
lowers  as  the  asphalt  is  removed.  Refined  as- 
phalt is  shipped  from  Trinidad  to  Mexico.  South 
America  and  other  foreign  countries :  but,  owing 
to  the  very  high  duty  on  refined  asphalt  coming 
into  the  United  States,  it  is  cheaper  to  refine 
here. 

In  1892,  the  New  York  and  Bermudez  Com- 
pany began  the  importation  of  a  very  pure  and 
hard  asphalt  from  a  deposit  in  the  State  of  Ber- 
mudez, Venezuela,  and  up  to  the  present  time 
about  3,000,000  square  yards  of  pavement  have 
been  laid  with  this  material.  The  Bermudez 
Asphalt  Lake,  covering  an  area  of  about  1,000 
acres,  lies  about  20  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
Paria,  in  a  straight  line.  There  are  many 
springs  of  soft  asphalt  or  maltha,  the  largest 
being  about  7  acres  in  area.  Outside  of  the 
springs,  where  new  material  is  constantly  exud- 
ing, the  surface  of  the  lake  is  covered  with  veg- 
etation and  trees,  which  must  first  be  cut  off  to 
reach  the  asphalt.  The  quality  of  the  asphalt 
varies  from  maltha  or  liquid  asphalt  exuding 
from  the  springs,  to  a  hard  glance  pitch.  The 
crude  Bermudez  asphalt  contains  on  an  average 
about  31  per  cent  of  water,  which  is  present  as 
a  mixture  and  not  as  an  emulsion,  and  about  66 
per  cent  of  bitumen.  This  asphalt  is  softer  and 
more  brittle  than  Trinidad,  but  possesses  all  es- 
sential cementitious  qualities. 

As  early  as  1879  asphalt  found  in  Southern 
California  was  laid  at  an  intersection  on  Market 
Stnet,  San  Francisco,  which  is  the  heaviest 
traveled  street  in  that  city.  In  1884  the  late 
Jesse    Warren    reported    on     these    California 


ASPHALT   PAINTING  —  ASPIDIUM 


asphalts,  the  only  indications  of  which  were 
slight  surface  exudations  of  liquid  asphalt  and 
large  hanks  of  bituminous  sandstone  (.sand  sat- 
urated with  asphalt).  In  1895,  the  Alcatraz 
Company  successfully  laid  two  streets  in  New 
York  city  and  acquired  a  high  standing  for  the 
California  product  which  was  subsequently  con- 
trolled by  the  Asphalt  Company  of  America.  It 
has  been  laid  in  many  Eastern  cities,  under  the 
trade  name  of  "Alcatraz,"  "Standard,"  "Ven- 
tura," etc.,  and  has  been  uniformly  successful 
when  refined,  mixed  and  laid  intelligently,  by 
men  experienced  in  handling  asphalt  in  all  its 
stages.  Shortly  after  the  organization  of  the 
Asphalt  Company  of  America,  beds  of  very  pure, 
high  grade,  liquid  asphalt  were  discovered  in 
Southern  California.  This  bring  a  nearly  pure, 
viscous  bitumen,  it  does  not  require  a  softening 
agent  or  flux,  nor  the  admixture  of  other  bitumi- 
nous material,  to  make  it  of  the  proper  con- 
sistency  for  paving. 

Asphalt  Painting.  Asphalt  was  once 
largely  used  in  painting,  especially  in  the  old 
Dutch  school.  It  was  dissolved  in  spirits  of 
wine  to  ensure  greater  permanence.  Because  of 
its  unreliability  it  ceased  to  be  used. 

Asphalt  Process,  a  photographic  process 
devised  about  I014  by  J.  N.  Niepce  (q.v.).  He 
coated  a  plate  of  polished  metal  with  asphalt 
varnish,  and  then  placed  it  with  a  drawing  in  a 
camera  obscura  for  from  4  to  6  hours.  The 
parts  of  the  asphalt  which  had  been  acted  upon 
by  the  light  became  insoluble.  The  parts  of  the 
asphalt  film  that  had  been  protected  were  dis- 
solved by  essential  oils,  and  thus  a  copy  of  the 
drawing  was  brought  out.  The  "heliographs" 
thus  made  were  not  particularly  successful. 
This  method  has  been  modified  in  the  asphalt 
process  of  photo-mechanical  printing.  See 
Photo-Engraving. 

Asphaltic  Coal,  coal-like  substances  which 
though  they  have  sometimes  been  classi- 
fied as  coals,  differ  from  all  the  true  coals  in 
respect  to  both  their  geological  position  and 
their  composition.  They  do  not  occur  in  strata, 
uut  occupy  cavities  and  fissures,  into  which 
they  appear  to  have  flowed  when  plastic.  They 
have  been  found  in  Devonian,  Carboniferous, 
and  Tertiary  rock.  The  regions  in  which  they 
are  principally  mined  are  Albert  County,  New 
Brunswick  (albertite),  the  Uinta  Mountains, 
Utah  (gibsonite  and  uintahite),  and  Colorado, 
West  Virginia,  Texas,  and  Mexico  (grahamite). 
Wurtzilite  is  found  also  in  Utah.  Their  chief 
u~.es  are  as  a  basis  for  varnishes,  and  as  insu- 
lators. Consult:  Rlake,  "Uintahite.  Albertite, 
etc.'  ;  'Transactions'  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Mining  Engineers,  Vol.  XVIII.    (1890). 

As'phodel,  a  •small  genus,  Asphodelus,  of 
hardy  annual  and  perennial  fleshy-rooted  herbs, 
natives  of  the  Mediterranean  region,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Liliacea,  but  by  some  bot- 
anists made  the  type  genus  of  the  natural  order 
Asphodelte,  A.  luteus,  Intra,  king's  spear,  or 
yellow  asphodel,  the  true  asphodel  of  the  an- 
cients, attains  a  height  of  two  to  four  feet,  has 
numerous  long  (3  to  12  inches)  narrow  rough- 
margined  leaves  which  embrace  the  stem,  and  in 
early  summer  yellow  flowers  in  long  racemes 
(6  to  18  inches),  and  large  persistent  membra- 
nous bracts,  ./.  albus,  branching  or  white  aspho- 
del,  which    has    radical    leaves,   blossoms    about 


the  same  time  as  the  preceding  species,  and  pro- 
duces its  white  funnel-shaped  blossoms  in 
branched  clusters.  Both  species  arc  readily 
propagated  by  division  and  arc  of  easy  cultiva- 
tion in  any  soil.  They  thrive  fairly  well  in 
partial  shade,  but  do  better  when  more  or  less 
exposed  to  the  sun.  A.  ramosus,  a  species 
which  by  some  botanists  is  made  to  include  ./. 
albus  and  many  other  species,  is  cultivated  in 
Algeria  and  some  other  countries  for  its  starchy 
roots  which  are  used  to  make  alcohol.  The 
refuse  from  this  manufacture,  together  with  the 
leaves  and  stems,  is  employed  in  paper  and 
cardboard-making.  Several  other  related  plants 
are  often  called  asphodel,  among  which  are 
Narthecium  ossifragum,  bog  asphodel,  common 
on  European  moors;  A',  amcricaitum,  by  some 
botanists  considered  a  form  of  the  preceding, 
and  A.  califomicum,  similarly  called  in  America. 
False  asphodel  is  a  name  given  to  several  spe- 
cies of  Tolfiedia.  The  asphodel  of  the  poets  is 
Narcissus  pseudo-narcissus. 

Asphyxia,  ctymologically,  pulselessness, 
but  literally  a  condition  of  partial  or  complete 
loss  of  consciousness  because  id'  defective  oxida- 
tion of  the  blood.  The  symptoms  may  be  de- 
veloped rapidly  or  slowly.  In  sudden  occlusion 
of  the  air  passages,  such  as  caused  by  a  foreign 
body  in  the  larynx,  or  compression  of  the  throat 
as  in  hanging,  there  is  usually  a  quiet  period  of 
from  20  to  30  seconds  after  which  respiratory 
movements,  both  of  inspiration  and  of  expira- 
tion, follow.  These  gradually  increase  in  fre- 
quency and  depth  until  in  about  a  minute  pow 
erful  expiratory  convulsions  occur;  convulsive 
movements  of  inspiration  are  also  produced,  hut 
these  arc  usually  milder  in  character.  A  period 
of  exhaustion  sets  in,  the  respiratory  movements 
become  slower  and  more  irregular,  and  grad- 
ually cease.  During  this  period  the  face  has  be- 
come pallid,  and  then  deeply  cyanosed  and 
flushed,  the  lips  blue  to  purple,  and  the  body 
temperature,  at  first  increased,  gradually  dimin- 
ishes. The  blood  pressure  is  at  first  increased, 
and  then  falls  gradually  to  zero.  Unconscious- 
ness develops  about  a  minute  after  the  occlusion, 
although  there  is  great  individual  variation,  the 
sphincters  relax  and  the  urine  and  fajces  are 
passed.  There  is  a  loss  of  muscle-tone,  and  the 
reflexes  arc  abolished.  In  asphyxia  both  lack  of 
oxygen  and  increase  of  carbonic-acid  gas  in  the 
blood  are  important  factors.  Asphyxia  may  re- 
sult from  an  excess  of  carbonic-acid  gas  with 
a  normal  amount  of  oxygen,  and  may  be  pro- 
duced, if  the  amount  of  oxygen  is  diminished 
one  half,  with  no  variation  of  the  carbon  diox- 
ide.   For  treatment,  see  Drowning. 

As'pic,  a  dish  consisting  of  a  clear,  savorv 
meat  jelly,  containing  fowl,  game,  fish,  etc. 

Aspid'ium,  a  widely  distributed  genus  of 
ferns,  numbering  upward  of  500  species,  of 
which  more  than  a  dozen  are  found  in  the 
United  States,  including  the  male  and  shield 
ferns.  Their  only  economic  use  is  in  medicine. 
The  active  principles  in  this  and  allied  species 
are  filicic  acid,  aspidin  and  other  phloroglucin- 
like  bodies.  The  action  is  largely  on  the  tape- 
worm, for  which  parasite  this  drug  is  given. 
Poisonous  symptoms  sometimes  are  produced. 
These  are  pain,  muscular  weakness,  purging, 
collapse,  and  even  death.  Temporary  blindness 
has  been  produced  by  male  fern. 


ASPINWALL  — ASS 


As'pinwall,  William,  an  American  physi- 
cian: h.  Brookline,  Mass.,  23  May  1743:  d. 
16  April  1823.  He  studied  medicine  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  practised  in  his  native  town.  He 
served  as  surgeon  with  the  Revolutionary  army, 
and  later  became  interested  in  the  subject  of 
vaccination  and  established  that  preventive  in 
American   practice. 

As'pinwall,  William  H.,  an  American  con- 
structor of  railroads :  b.  New  York  city  16  Dec. 
1807 ;  d.  18  Jan.  1875.  He  was  for  many  years 
a  partner  in  a  large  shipping  firm  in  New  York, 
but  retiring  from  it  in  1850,  turned  his  attention 
to  building  the  Panama  Railroad,  whose  eastern 
terminus  of  Aspinwall  is  named  in  his  honor. 
He  was  likewise  prominent  in  forming  the 
Pacific   Mail   Steamship   Company. 

Aspiroz,  as-pe'roth,  Manuel  de,  Mexican 
soldier,  statesman,  and  diplomat :  b.  Puebla  9 
June  1836;  d.  Washington,  D.  C,  24  March 
1905.  He  graduated  from  the  University  of 
Mexico  in  1855,  was  licensed  to  practise  law  in 
1863,  but  upon  the  French  invasion  entered  the 
army.  In  the  Juarez  insurrection  of  1863 
against  Maximilian,  he  served  in  the  insurgent 
army  with  great  distinction,  rising  from  2d 
lieutenant  to  colonel.  After  the  fall  of  Quere- 
taro  he  was  appointed  judge-advocate  of  the 
military  court  which  sentenced  the  emperor  to 
death,  thereby  incurring  the  lasting  hatred  of 
the  imperial  house  of  Austria,  of  which  Maxi- 
milian was  a  member.  In  1867  Aspiroz  became 
assistant  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs 
in  the  new  republic ;  in  1872  did  much  to  settle 
amicably  the  claims  between  the  United  States 
and  Mexico,  which  dated  from  the  Mexican 
war  in  1845 :  in  1873-5  was  consul  at  San  Fran- 
cisco ;  and  in  1875  was  elected  senator  from  his 
native  province  to  the  Mexican  national  con- 
gress. In  1881  he  left  the  senate  to  become  a 
member  of  the  commission  appointed  to  make 
treaties  with  the  powers  of  the  world ;  was  law 
professor  in  the  College  of  Puebla  from  1883  to 
1890,  when  he  was  again  appointed  by  President 
Diaz  assistant  secretary  of  state,  serving  in  that 
capacity  until  appointed,  in  1899,  first  Mexican 
ambassador  to  the  United  States,  a  position  he 
held  till  his  death.  In  1900  he  was  the  Mexican 
representative  at  the  Hague  tribunal ;  was  a 
member  of  several  scientific  organizations,  a 
knight  commander  of  the  military  Order  of  Our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  of  Portugal,  and  had  been 
presented  by  the  Shah  of  Persia  with  the  dec- 
oration of  the  Order  of  the  Lion  and  Rising 
Sun,  and  by  the  dowager  empress  of  China  with 
the  insignia  of  the  Order  of  the  Dragon,  in 
both  cases  in  appreciation  of  his  services  in 
negotiating  treaties  between  their  respective 
countries.  He  published:  (C6digo  de  extran- 
jeria  de  los  Estados  Unidos  Mexicanos*  (1876)  ; 
and  (La  libertad  civil  como  base  del  derecho 
internacional  privado'    (1896). 

Asple'nium,  a  genus  of  about  200  species 
of  small  ferns  of  world-wide  distribution,  be- 
longing to  the  sub-order  Polypodiacete,  char- 
acterized by  free  veins  and  elongated  sori 
covered  by  an  indusium.  Many  of  the  species 
are  very  beautiful  and  are  consequently  favorites 
with  cultivators  whose  space  is  limited.  .-/. 
viride,  A.  adiantum-nigrum,  A.  trichomanes,  and 
other  species  are  commonly  called  spleemvort 
from  their  formerly  supposed  efficacy  in  internal 


medicine.  The  two  last-mentioned  species  also 
bear  the  name  of  maiden-hair,  but  are  not  the 
true  maiden-hair  fern  (Adiantum).  In  the 
eastern  United  States  a  dozen  or  more  species 
are  to  be  found  growing  wild,  among  which  the 
more  common  are  A.  thelypteroides,  A.  angusti- 
foliutn  and  A.  felixfamia,  which  reach  a  height 
of  from  one  to  four  feet.  In  cultivation,  slight 
shade  is  almost  essential,  as  is  also  abundant 
water  at  the  roots,  but  the  air  must  not  be  very 
moist  else  the  leaves  will  turn  brown.  The 
plants  thrive  in  peaty  soil.     See  Ferns. 

As'quith,  Herbert  Henry,  an  English 
statesman:  b.  Morley,  Yorkshire,  12  Sept.  1852, 
and  educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He 
studied  law  and  was  admitted  in  the  bar  of 
Lincoln's  Inn  in  1852.  He  entered  Parliament 
in  1886  as  member  for  East  Fife,  and  was  re- 
elected in  1892  and  in  1895,  and  was  home  sec- 
retary in  Gladstone's  last  cabinet.  He  was  con- 
spicuous as  a  debater  during  the  Home  Rule 
discussions,  and  in  1894  drew  up  the  Welsh 
Church  Disestablishment  Bill.  In  December  1905 
he  was  appointed  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
in  the  Liberal  cabinet  of  Sir  Henry  Campbell- 
Bannerman. 

Ass  (As.  assa,  Goth,  asilus,  Rus.  osclu, 
Lat.  minus,  probably  of  Eastern  origin  ;  cf.  Heb. 
atlion,  she-ass)  or,  when  domesticated.  Don- 
key. A  member  of  the  family  Equida  and 
usually  placed  in  the  genus  Equus,  with  the 
horse,  though  sometimes  made  the  type  of  a 
separate  genus  Asinus.  There  are  at  least  three 
species,  one  Asiatic,  and  the  others  African. 
From  the  North  African  species  the  domesti- 
cated ass  or  donkey  has  probably  descended, 
although  many  of  its  characteristics,  particularly 
its  spirit  and  bearing,  are  greatly  altered.  In 
size,  in  the  short  hair  and  terminal  tuft  of  the 
tail,  and  in  the  fact  that  only  the  fore-legs 
present  callosities,  the  ass  resembles  the  zebra 
rather  than  the  horse ;  and  although  not  striped 
like  the  zebra,  it  has  a  varying  tendency  to 
stripes  on  the  legs.  The  Asiatic  ass  (  Equus 
hemionus)  is  divided  into  three  local  varieties, 
of  which  the  one  found  in  Persia  and  Syria  must 
be  that  which  the  Old  Testament  writer-  used 
as  a  type  of  unhampered  wildness.  Of  the  oth- 
ers, the  kiang,  koulan,  or  dziggetai  of  Thibet,  is 
the  largest  and  most  strikingly  colored.  Its 
height  is  sometimes  four  feet  at  the  shoulders. 
Like  all  asses,  it  is  pale  underneath,  but  the  color 
above  is  a  dark  red  with  a  narrow  black  stripe 
along  the  mane  and  backbone  from  head  to  tail. 
The  third  variety,  the  onager  or  ghorkhar,  like 
the  first,  is  smaller  and  paler:  sometimes  it  is 
even  silvery,  and  its  dorsal  stripe  is  broader  in 
proportion  than  that  of  the  Thibetan  ass.  It  in- 
habits the  plains  of  northwestern  India,  Afghan- 
istan, and  Beluchistan.  Unlike  the  donkey,  these 
wild  asses  are  so  extremely  swift,  enduring,  and 
agile  that  on  the  plains  they  cannot  be  over- 
taken by  a  single  horseman.  In  the  mountains 
they  are  less  shy,  and  sometimes  voluntarily 
approach  travelers.  Wild  asses  are  hunted  for 
sport,  and  it  is  said  of  their  flesh,  that,  while 
resembling  venison,  it  has  an  even  finer  quality. 
The  asses  of  the  plains  migrate  to  the  hills  in 
summer  when  the  plains  are  dry.  See  Kiang; 
Onager. 

The  African  ass  (Equus  Africanus)  differs 
widely  from  the  Asiatic,  being  larger  and  hav- 
ing a  bluish  tint  rather  than  a  tendency  to  red. 


ASS  — ASSAM 


It  is  sometimes  as  much  as  14  hands  high,  and 
has  the  very  large  ears  which  characterize  the 
donkey.  The  dark  stripe  on  the  back  begins 
only  at  the  shoulder,  but  extends  from  the  tail 
down  the  withers;  the  hair  of  the  mane  and 
tail  is  short,  and  varies  little  from  that  of  the 
body  in  color.  It  is  found  in  all  the  open  re- 
gions of  northeastern  Africa,  and  westward 
through  the  Sahara  and  Sudan.  Like  the 
Asiatic  ass,  it  is  extremely  wild  and  fleet.  A 
second  species  of  African  wild  ass  (Equus  somul- 
icus)  was  found  in  Somaliland  a  few  years  ago 
I  e  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  of  London,  1884.  p.  540), 
which  is  distinguished  by  its  grayer  color,  and 
faintness  of  its  stripes;  it  also  has  smaller  ears 
and  a  more  flowing  mane.  Living  examples 
have  been  kept  in  London. 

The  leading  authorities  on  these  animals  are 
Blanford  and  Tegetmeier,  the  latter  the  author 
of   'Horses,  Asses,  and  Zebras'    (1895). 

The  donkey,  or  domestic  ass,  was  probably 
first  tamed  in  Egypt,  where  it  was  known  before 
the  horse,  and  has  always  been  much  used;  some 
of  the  Eastern  breeds  of  the  donkey  are  far 
larger  and  finer  than  those  commonly  seen  in 
Europe,  though  in  Spain  and  Italy,  where  they 
are  more  used,  they  are  superior  to  those  of 
other  European  countries.  In  England  they  are 
little  employed,  but  in  America  are  kept  by 
stock  raisers  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States 
for  the  breeding  of  mules  and  hinnies.  (See 
Mule.)  Their  milk  is  recommended  in  cases 
of  consumption  and  dyspepsia,  and  their  skins 
furnish  the  leather  called  shagreen,  besides  an 
excellent  shoe-leather  and  the  covering  of  drums. 

Ass,  Feast  of  the,  a  mock  ceremony  ob- 
served in  northern  France  in  the  Middle  Ages. 
It  was  originally  a  good-natured  parody  on  the 
church  service  without  intentional  irreverence, 
but  degenerated  into  an  indecent  performance. 
It  was  in  substance  a  brief  farce  in  which 
Balaam's  ass  appeared  before  the  church  altar  to 
prophesy  the  coming  of  Christ. 

Assab,  as-sab',  an  Italian  trading  station 
on  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  40  miles  from  the 
Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  The  neighboring  dis- 
trict with  an  area  of  243  square  miles,  was  sold 
in  1870  by  some  Danakil  chieftains  to  an  Italian 
steamship  company  for  a  coaling  station  on  the 
road  to  India.  In  1880  it  was  taken  over  by  the 
Italian  government,  which,  since  1884,  has  im- 
proved the  harbor  and  erected  a  lighthouse. 

Assai,  as-si',  a  food  made  from  the  fruit 
pulp  of  various  species  of  Brazilian  palms 
closely  allied  to  the  cabbage  palm  (q.v.)  and 
largely  used  in  the  lower  Amazon  region.  The 
principal  species  are  Euterpe  edulis  and  E.  Ca- 
tinga.  The  first  species  grows  in  tide-flooded 
swamps,  where  it  may  attain  a  height  of  90 
feet  with  a  diameter  of  only  four  or  five  inches. 
It  produces  upon  branched  spadices  an  abun- 
dance of  small  pea-like  purple  fruit  with  a  thin 
firm  pulp  and  a  hard  seed.  These  fruits  are 
kneaded  in  warm  water  to  produce  the  thick 
purplish  assai  which  is  generally  eaten  with 
starchy  foods.  The  terminal  bud  of  this  species 
is  eaten  like  that  of  its  close  relative,  E.  oleraeea, 
the  cabbage  palm,  and  its  stems  are  used  as 
rafters  and  poles.  The  other  species  grow  on 
dry,  sandy,  upland  soils,  its  smaller  quantity  of 
fruit  furnishing  a  sweeter  assai. 


Assai,  as-sal',  a  large  salt  lake  in  the  dis- 
trict of  Adal,  in  eastern  Africa,  near  the  i". 1-1  of 
the  Bay  of  Tajura.  It  is  nearly  (100  feel  below 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Abyssinian  caravans  resort 
to  Assai  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  off  the  salt, 
thickly  encrusted  on  its  shores. 

Assam',  a  chief-commissionership  of  Brit- 
ish  India,  situated  mainly  between  Upper  Bur- 
ma and  the  Himalayas,  with  an  area  of  52.078 
square  miles.  It  may  be  considered  as  a  Ion- 
series  of  fertile  valleys  watered  by  the  Brah- 
maputra and  its  tributaries.  The  valley  of  the 
Brahmaputra  consists  of  rich  alluvial  plains, 
either  but  little  elevated  above  the  flood-level 
of  the  Brahmaputra  and  its  feeders,  or  so  low 
that  large  extents  of  them  are  flooded  for  three 
or  four  days  once  or  twice  in  the  year.  The 
Surma  valley  is  even  more  subjected  to  inunda- 
tions than  the  plains  of  the  Brahmaputra,  but 
the  Surma  and  its  tributaries  having  more  per- 
manent banks,  the  shifting  is  trifling  compared 
with  the  banks  of  the  Brahmaputra.  In  Assam 
are  found  the  valuable  teak  and  sissoo  trees, 
date,  and  sago  palms,  the  arcca  palm  (the  betel- 
nut-tree),  the  Indian  fig  tree,  etc.  But  the  ar- 
ticle of  most  commercial  importance  grown  in 
Assam  is  tea.  The  plant  was  discovered  grow- 
ing in  this  region  in  1823,  but  not  till  1838  did 
the  first  shipment  reach  England.  The  plant 
producing  it,  though  not  regarded  as  specifically 
distinct  from  that  of  China,  is  much  larger  and 
more  vigorous.  There  are  now  about  300,000 
acres  under  tea;  the  yield  is  about  100,000,000 
pounds  annually.  Rice  covers  a  large  extent 
of  the  cultivated  soil,  occupying  about  1,500.000 
acres.  The  other  crops  include  maize,  pulse, 
oil  seeds,  sugar-cane,  hemp,  jute,  potatoes,  etc. 
In  the  jungles  and  forests  roam  herds  of  ele- 
phants, in  the  dense  and  swampy  parts  of  the 
forests  the  rhinoceros  is  met  with,  and  tigers  and 
wild  buffaloes  abound:  leopards,  bears,  and  wild 
hogs  are  numerous,  and  among  other  animals  are 
jackals  and  foxes,  goats,  deer,  and  the  veno- 
mous cobra.  Coal,  petroleum,  limestone,  and 
iron  are  found,  and  gold-dust  is  met  with  in 
many  of  the  rivers.  The  coal-beds  are  sup- 
posed to  be  co-extensive  with  the  main  valley, 
but  coal  is  only  worked  to  the  south  of  the 
Brahmaputra.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  en- 
gaged in  agriculture.  There  is  no  Assamese 
nation  proper,  various  ethnical  groups  being 
represented.  The  people  seem  to  be  contented, 
good-natured,  and  indolent,  and  have  few  wants 
beyond  what  can  be  easily  supplied  from  their 
fertile  fields,  for  which  they  pay  but  a  very 
small  rental.  Great  respect  is  paid  to  the 
aged ;  parents,  when  no  longer  able  to  work, 
are  supported  by  their  offspring;  they  are  ten- 
derly attached  to  their  children,  kind  to  their 
relatives,  and  hospitable  to  people  of  their  own 
caste.  Assam,  known  in  ancient  Indian  history 
as  Kamarupa,  formed  in  the  7th  century  a.d.  a 
powerful  independent  kingdom  under  a  Brah- 
man sovereign,  but  in  the  15th  century  it  broke 
up  into  12  separate  states,  which,  in  spite  of 
their  numerous  internal  struggles,  were  gener- 
ally able  to  resist  the  attacks  of  the  powerful 
Mogul  emperors.  Late  in  the  18th  century  its 
condition  encouraged  the  Burmese  to  make  the 
country  a  dependency  of  Ava,  but  the  Burmese 
encroachments  on  the  territory  of  the  East  In- 
dia Company  brought  about  war  with  the  British. 
In   1826  Assam  became  a  possession   of   Great 


ASSAS  — ASSAULT 


Britain  under  the  administration  of  the  lieuten- 
ant-governor of  Bengal,  and  in  1874  was  erected 
into  a  chief-commissionership.  There  are  no 
towns  properly  so-called,  but  some  large  vil- 
lages. The  seat  of  administration  is  Shillong. 
Pop.    (1901)    6,122,201. 

Assas,  as'sa,  Nicolas,  Chevalier  d',  a 
French  officer,  celebrated  for  an  act  of  patriot- 
ism which  cost  him  his  life.  He  was  captain 
in  the  regiment  of  Auvergne  when  the  French 
army  was  stationed  near  Gueldres,  in  1760,  and 
on  15  October,  while  engaged  in  reconnoitering, 
was  taken  prisoner  by  a  division  of  the  enemy 
advancing  to  surprise  the  French  camp,  and 
threatened  with  death  if  a  word  escaped  him. 
He  shouted,  "A  moi,  Auvergne,  voila  les  cnne- 
mis!"  and  was  instantly  struck  down.  An  an- 
nual pension  was  allowed  to  his  descendants. 

Assas'sina'tion,  a  term  denoting  the  mur- 
der of  any  one  by  surprise  or  treachery.  It  is 
commonly  applied  to  the  murder  of  a  public  per- 
sonage by  one  who  aims  solely  at  the  death  of 
his  victim.  In  ancient  times,  assassination  was 
often  even  applauded,  as  in  the  Scriptural  in- 
stances of  Ehud  and  Jael,  and  in  the  murder  of 
Hipparchus  by  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton ;  but 
assassination  by  enthusiasts  and  men  devoted  to 
an  idea  first  became  prominent  in  the  religious 
struggles  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  To 
this  class  belong  the  plots  against  the  life  of 
Queen  Elizabeth ;  while  the  succession  of  assas- 
sinations of  Roman  emperors  is  but  a  series  of 
murders  prompted  by  self-interest  or  revenge. 
Omitting  these  last,  the  following  list  includes 
the  most  important  assassinations,  arranged  in 
chronological  order.  Fuller  accounts  of  the  per- 
sons mentioned  will  be  found  under  their  par- 
ticular headings : 

Philip  of  Macedon B.C.     366 

Julius    Ca-sar    Mar.    15  B.C.       44 

Thomas  Becket  Dec.  29,  A.D.   1 1 70 

Alhert  I.  Emperor  of  Germany May        I,   1308 

James  I.  of  Scotland Feb.      21,   1437 

Alessandro  de  Medici Jan.         5,   1537 

Cardinal  Beaton May      29,   1 546 

David  Riccio Mar.        9,   1566 

Lord  Da'rnley Feb.      10,   1567 

James,  Earl  of  Murray,  Regent Jan.       23,   1570 

William  of  Orange July      10,   1584 

Henry  III.  of  France Aug.    1-2,   1589 

Henry  IV.    of  France May      14,    1610 

Yilliers,  Duke  of  Buckingham Aug.      23,   1628 

U'allenstein Feb.      25,   1634 

Archbishop  Sharp May         3,   1 679 

C-ustavus  III.   of  Sweden.  Mar.  16;  d Mar.      29,   1792 

Marat,  by  Charlotte  Corday July      13,   1793 

Gen.  Kleber  at  Cairo June     14,   1800 

Paul,  Czar  of  Russia Mar.     24,   1891 

Spencer  Perceval,  premier May      it,   1812 

Kotzebue,  the  dramatist Mar.     23,   1819 

DucdeBerri Feb.      13,   1820 

Charles  III.,  Duke  of  Parma,  Mar.  26;  d... Mar.  27,  1854 
President  Abraham  Lincoln,  April  14;  d. .  .April     15,   1865 

Michael,  Prince  of  Servia June     10,  1868 

Marshal  Prim.  Dec.  28;  d Dec.      30,   1870 

Georges  Darboy,  Archbishop  of  Paris May     24,   1 87 1 

F.arl  of  Mayo,  governor-general  of  India.  ..  Feb.       8,   1872 

Sultan  Abdul-Aziz June      4,   1876 

Alexander  II.,  Czar  of  Russia Mar.      13,   1881 

President  James  A.  Garfield,  July  2;  d.  Sept.  19,  1881 
Lord  Frederick  Cavendish  and  T.  H.  Burke. 

in  Phtrnix  Row,  Dublin May        6,   1882 

President  Sadi  Carnot.  France June      24,  1894 

Ex-Premier  Stefan   Stambuloff,   Bulgaria, 

July  15;  d July      18,  1895 

Premier  Canovas  del  Castillo,  Spain April    22,  1897 

President  Juan  Idiarte.  Uruguay Aug.      25,   1897 

Empress  Elizabeth  of  Austria,  in  Geneva.  .Sept.      10,    1898 
President  Ulisses  Heureaux,  Santo  Domin- 
go  July      26,    1899 

King  Humbert  of  Italy July      29,    1900 

President    McKinley.    Sept.    6;    d Sept.      14,  1901 

Alexander  of  Servia   June     11,   1903 


Many  attempts  at  assassination  have  been 
unsuccessful.  Among  those  within  the  last  cen- 
tury may  be  named :  Against  Alexander  III.  of 
Russia,  repeatedly;  Alfonso  XII.  of  Spain,  1878 
and  1879 ;  Amadeus  of  Spain,  1872 ;  Due  d'Au- 
male,  1841 ;  Prince  Bismarck,  1866  and  1874; 
Francis  Joseph  of  Austria,  1853 ;  George  III.  of 
England,  1786  and  1800;  George  IV.  (when  Re- 
gent), 1817;  Humbert  I.  of  Italy,  1878  and  1897; 
Isabella  II.  of  Spain,  1847,  1852,  and  1856;  Louis 
Philippe,  six  attempts,  from  1835  to  1846;  Lord 
Lytton,  viceroy  of  India,  1878;  Napoleon  I., 
by  infernal  machine,  1800;  Napoleon  III.,  twice 
in  1855,  and  Orsini's  attempt  in  1858 ;  Queen 
Victoria,  10  June  1840,  30  May  1842,  3  July  1842, 
19  May  1849,  and  2  March  1882;  William  I.  of 
Germany,  1861,  1875,  and  twice  in  1878;  Presi- 
dent Diaz  of  Mexico  and  President  Morales  of 
Brazil,  both  in  1897;  and  the  Prince  of  Wales  in 
1900. 

Assas'sins,  a  term  applied  to  a  secret 
order  of  religious  fanatics  who  flourished  in  the 
nth  and  12th  centuries.  They  derived  their 
name  of  assassins  originally  from  their  immod- 
erate use  of  hasheesh,  which  produces  an  in- 
tense cerebral  excitement,  often  amounting  to 
fury.  Their  founder  and  lawgiver  was  Has- 
san-ben-Sabah.  to  whom  the  Orientals  gave  the 
name  of  Sheikh-el- Jobelz,  but  who  was  better 
known  in  Europe  as  the  "Old  Man  of  the  Moun- 
tain." Their  principal  article  of  belief  was  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  was  embodied  in  their  chief,  and 
that  his  orders  proceeded  from  the  Deity.  They 
believed  assassination  to  be  meritorious  when 
sanctioned  by  his  command,  and  courted  danger 
and  death  in  the  execution  of  his  orders.  They 
were  frequently  styled  Ismaili.  A  feeble  residue 
of  the  sect,  from  whom  proceeded  the  Druses, 
about  a.d.  1020,  has  survived  in  Persia  and  Sy- 
ria. The  Syrian  Ismaili  dwell  around  Mesiode, 
and  on  Lebanon.  They  are  under  Turkish  do- 
minion, with  a  sheik  of  their  own,  and  formerly 
enjoyed  a  productive  and  flourishing  agriculture 
and  commerce.  Since  the  war  with  the  Nas- 
sarians,  1809-10,  they  have  dragged  out  a  miser- 
able existence,  but  are  commended  by  modern 
travelers  for  their  hospitality,  frugality,  gentle- 
ness, and  piety. 

Assault'.  In  law,  an  assault  is  a  move- 
ment virtually  implying  a  threat  to  strike,  as 
when  a  person  raises  his  hand  or  his  cane  in  a 
menacing  manner,  or  strikes  at  another  but 
misses  him.  It  is  not  needful  to  touch  one  to 
constitute  an  assault.  When  a  blow  actually 
takes  effect,  the  crime  is  not  simple  assault,  but 
assault  and  battery.  Assault,  however,  is  usual- 
ly coupled  with  battery,  and  for  the  reason  that 
they  generally  go  together;  but  the  assault  is 
rather  the  initiation  or  offer  to  commit  the  act 
of  which  the  battery  is  the  consummation.  An 
assault  is  included  in  every  battery.  An  aggra- 
vated assault  is  one  performed  with  the  inten- 
tion of  committing  some  additional  crime,  such 
as  an  assault  with  intent  to  commit  rape,  assault 
with  intent  to  murder,  an  assault  with  a  deadly 
weapon,  an  indecent  assault.  The  defenses  usu- 
ally interposed  in  cases  of  assault  are  self-de- 
fense, recapture  of  property,  ejectment  of  tres- 
passers, defense  of  property,  defense  of  family, 
accident,  etc.  A  person  assaulting  another  may 
be  prosecuted  by  him  for  the  civil  injury,  and 
also  be  punished  by  the  criminal  law  for  the  in- 
jury done  to  the  public. 


ASSAYE;     ASSAYING 


In  military  language  an  assault  is  a  furious 
effort  to  carry  a  fortified  post,  camp,  or  fortress, 
where  the  assailants  do  not  screen  themselves 
by  any  works.  It  is  the  appropriate  termination 
of  a  siege  which  has  not  led  to  the  capitulation 
of  the  garrison.  To  give  an  assault :  To  attack 
any  post.  To  repulse  an  assault :  To  cause  the 
assailants  to  retreat ;  to  beat  them  back.  To 
carry  by  assault :  To  gain  a  post  by  storm.  In 
fencing,  an  assault  of  arms  is  an  attack  on  each 
other  (not  in  earnest),  made  by  two  fencers  to 
exhibit  or  increase  their  skill.  (Sometimes  it 
is  used  in  a  wider  sense  for  other  military  exer- 
cises.) 

Assaye,  as-si',  a  village  in  southern  India, 
where  Wellington  gained  a  famous  victory  in 
[803.  With  only  4.500  troops  at  his  disposal  he 
completely  mined  the  Mahratta  force  of  50,000 
men  and  100  guns.  The  victory,  however  cost 
him  the  loss  of  more  than  a  third  of  his  men. 

Assaying,  the  art  of  testing  ores  or  al- 
loys, for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  amount 
of  some  particular  metal  that  is  present  in  the 
material  analyzed.  Assays  may  be  made  by 
"wet"  or  "dry"  methods,  and  will  vary  greatly  in 
detail,  according  to  the  metal  to  be  determined. 
The  present  article  will  be  chiefly  devoted  to  the 
usual  process  of  estimating  gold  and  silver  in 
the  "dry"  way.  The  mode  of  procedure  is  sub- 
stantially the  same,  whether  the  assay  is  made 
upon  ore  or  upon  bullion,  except  as  to  the 
method  of  obtaining  the  sample  to  be  examined. 
If  the  material  proposed  for  the  assay  is  bul- 
lion, or  any  metallic  alloy,  the  sample  for  exam- 
ination is  obtained  by  drilling  into  the  specimen 
in  different  places,  and  mixing  the  borings.  In 
the  case  of  an  ore,  the  usual  method  of  obtaining 
a  sample  for  assaying  is  by  "quartering."  If 
this  is  done  by  hand,  every  tenth  shovelful  of 
the  ore  to  be  examined  is  thrown  upon  the 
floor,  until  a  conical  heap  containing  perhaps 
tni  tons  has  been  accumulated.  This  heap  is 
next  flattened  somewhat,  and  divided  into  four 
quarters,  as  nearly  equal  as  possible.  Two  of 
the  diagonally  opposite  quarters  are  thrown  back 
into  the  main  body  of  ore,  and  the  remaining 
two  quarters  are  thoroughly  mixed,  spread  out 
into  a  second  pile,  and  "quartered"  again  in  the 
same  manner.  The  process  is  continued  (the  ore 
being  crushed  in  the  meantime  as  often  as  ap- 
pears necessary )    until  the  original   sample  has 

1m  1  11  reduced  to  from  one  to  three  pounds,  after 
which  it  is  ground  line,  and  the  specimens  desired 
for  examination  are  made  up  by  random  selec- 
tions from  the  final  pulverized  product.  More 
commonly,  ores  are  sampled  by  mechanical  or 
semi-mechanical  methods,  and  the  sampling  is 
not  done  by  the  miner,  but  by  a  "campling  mill," 
which  acts  as  the  agent  both  of  the  miner  and 
of  the  smelling  works.  In  such  cases  the  ore 
is  first  shipped  to  the  sampling  mill,  where  it 
is  unloaded,  weighed,  crushed,  and  passed 
through  a  chute,  in  which  one  quarter  is  mechan- 
ically selected  and  passed  into  a  separate  bin. 
The  quarter  thus  mechanically  reserved  is  next 
thoroughly  mixed,  after  which  the  "cutting 
down"  is  commenced.  This  consists  in  remov- 
ing the  ore  from  the  floor  by  means  of  a  spe- 
cially-constructed sampling  shovel  which  catches 
about  half  of  it,  and  lets  the  remainder  fall  into 
a  barrow.  The  ore  retained  by  the  shovel  is 
thrown  into  three  buckets,  in  rotation,  and  the 
contents  of  the  buckets  are  then  coned  up  in  one 


pile,  and  divided  again  in  the  same  manner. 
The  ore  is  then  further  crushed,  and  the  process 
is  continued  until,  finally,  three  samples,  weigh- 
ing about  ten  pounds  each,  are  obtained.  Tart 
of  each  of  these  is  sent  separately  to  the  as- 
saycr,  who  assays  all  three.  If  the  results  are 
not  adjudged  to  be  sufficiently  accordant,  the 
sampler  concludes  that  the  mixing  was  not  well 
done,  and  the  operations  described  arc  repeated. 
But  if  the  three  samples  agree  fairly  well,  their 
average  is  taken  as  representing  the  value  of  the 
ore;  and  on  this  basis  the  sampler  settles  witli 
the  miner,  and  afterward  with  the  smelter,  thus 
acting  as  a  middle-man  in  the  sale  of  the  ore. 

The  specimen  of  ore  received  by  the  as- 
sayer  is  ground  fine  enough  to  pass  through  a 
oo-mesh  or  a  loo-mesh  screen,  any  "mctallics'' 
(or  particles  of  metal  that  will  not  pass  through 
the  screen  being  carefully  collected  and  reserved 
for  a  separate  assay.  If  the  ore  is  new  to  the 
assayer,  his  next  step  is  to  examine  it  micro- 
scopically, and  to  apply  various  preliminary 
tests,  so  that  the  general  nature  of  the  ore 
may  be  known  before  the  quantitative  work 
begins.  If  assays  of  the  same  material  have 
been  made  before,  and  the  only  object  is  to  as- 
certain the  richness  of  this  particular  lot  of 
ore,  he  may  proceed  directly  to  the  process  of 
"scoriticatioii,"  by  which  the  gold  and  silver 
present  in  the  ore  are  obtained  in  the  form  of 
a  metallic  button.  The  scorification  process  de- 
pends for  its  success  upon  the  fact  that  when 
an  ore  of  gold  and  silver  is  strongly  heated  with 
metallic  lead  in  the  presence  of  air,  the  baser 
metals  that  are  present  will  oxidize,  and  the 
lead  oxid  that  is  also  formed  will  dissolve  the 
silica  (or  quartz)  that  is  present;  while  the 
gold  and  silver  will  not  oxidize,  but  will  be 
left  in  the  metallic  state,  alloyed  with  that  por- 
tion of  the  lead  which  remains  unoxidized.  To 
apply  this  principle,  50  grains  or  so  of  the 
ore  arc  mixed  with  some  500  grains  of  granu- 
lated lead,  and  placed  in  a  sort  of  crucible,  called 
a  "  scorifier."  Another  charge  of  500  grains  of 
lead  is  spread  evenly  over  the  mass,  and  a 
few  grains  of  borax  are  sprinkled  upon  the 
top.  The  crucible  and  its  contents  are  next 
heated  for  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour  in  a 
muffle  to  which  a  small  amount  of  air  is  ad- 
mitted, after  which  the  melted  mass  in  the  cru- 
cible is  poured  into  a  mold  to  "set,"  or  cool. 
When  the  mold  is  cold,  it  will  be  found  to 
contain  a  button  of  metallic  lead  (in  which 
the  gold  and  silver  originally  in  the  ore  are 
concentrated),  and  also  a  considerable  amount 
of  slag,  consisting  of  oxid  of  lead,  oxids  of  the 
base  metals  that  arc  present  in  the  ore,  and 
silicates  of  lead,  derived  from  the  combina- 
tion of  the  melted  lead  oxid  with  the  quartz  of 
the  ore.  The  slag  is  readily  detached  from  the 
metallic  button  by  taps   with  a   hammer. 

The  next  step  is  to  "cupel"  the  button,  so 
as  to  obtain  the  gold  and  silver  in  a  pure  state. 
Cupellation  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  when 
an  alloy  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  base  metals 
is  heated  in  a  current  of  air,  the  lead  and  the 
other  base  metals  will  oxidize,  and  the  melted 
lead  oxid  ("litharge")  will  retain  the  other 
oxids  in  solution.  Moreover,  if  the  crucible  in 
which  the  operation  is  carried  out  is  porous, 
the  melted  lead  oxid  will  soak  into  it,  carry- 
ing the  base  oxids  with  it,  and  leaving  a  button 
of  pure  gold  and  silver  behind. 


1  Humid  Assay  for  Silver.        J  Muffle  Fur-nice*  for  Fire  As^av.        B  Weighine  Room.        *  Pressing  the  Assay  Sample 
6  Melting  Gold  Bullion.        6  Extracting  the  Silver  with  boiling  Acid. 

ASSAYING  GOLD  AND  SILVER  BULLION  AT  THE  NEW  YORK  ASSAY  OFFICE. 


ASSAY  OFFICES  — ASSEMBLAGES 


The  "cupel*  in  which  this  is  performed  is 
made  of  bone-ash,  and  after  the  button  left 
from  the  scorification  process  has  been  heated 
in  the  cupel  for  a  short  time,  the  process  indi- 
cated above  takes  place,  its  completion  being 
indicated,  to  the  practised  eye,  by  a  play  of  ir- 
idescent colors  on  the  cupelled  button.  The 
button  is  finally  allowed  to  cool,  and  after  it 
has  been  taken  from  the  cupel,  any  small  parti- 
cles of  bone-ash  that  remain  adhering  to  it  are 
removed  by  a  brush. 

If  the  original  ore  contained  no  silver,  the 
assay  is  now  completed,  and  it  only  remains  to 
weigh  the  gold  button,  and  compare  its  weight 
with  that  of  the  sample  of  ore  used  in  the 
assay.  But  if  silver  is  present,  one  other  process, 
known  as  "parting,"  must  be  carried  out,  in 
order  to  separate  the  gold  from  the  silver. 
Parting  depends  upon  the  fact  that  nitric  acid 
will  dissolve  the  silver  out  of  an  alloy  of  silver 
and  gold,  provided  the  weight  of  silver  present 
is  at  least  2.5  times  as  great  as  the  weight  of  the 
gold.  In  order  to  ensure  the  fulfillment  of  this 
necessary  condition,  the  button,  as  it  comes  from 
the  cupel,  is  melted  with  2.5  or  3  times  its  own 
weight  of  silver  that  is  known  to  be  free  from 
gold,  and  the  alloy  so  formed  is  flattened  out 
into  a  thin  plate  or  ribbon,  which  is  then  rolled 
up  into  a  little  spiral,  or  "cornet,"  and  boiled  in 
nitric  acid.  The  cornet  is  next  washed  in  dis- 
tilled water,  and  boiled  again  in  nitric  acid,  to 
remove  the  last  traces  of  silver;  after  which  it 
is  thrown  into  a  crucible  and  melted  into  a  but- 
ton, for  weighing.  The  button  obtained  by  this 
final  process  consists  of  pure  gold. 

Assay  Offices  in  the  United  States  are  gov- 
ernment establishments  in  which  citizens  may  de- 
posit gold  and  silver  bullion,  receiving  in  re- 
turn its  value,  less  charges.  The  offices  are  in 
New  York  city  ;  Boise  City,  Ida. ;  Helena,  Mont. ; 
Denver,  Col. ;  Seattle,  Wash. ;  San  Francisco, 
Cal. ;  Charlotte,  N.  C. ;  and  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

The  assay  office  in  New  York  was  estab- 
lished by  law  in  1853,  and  was  opened  in  the 
autumn  of  1854.  The  first  assayer  of  the  New 
York  assay  office  was  Dr.  John  Torrey  of  Co- 
lumbia College,  who  was  appointed  in  1854  and 
held  his  position  till  1873.  On  his  death  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  son,  Herbert  Gray  Torrey,  who 
has  been  in  the  office  for  40  years.  The  su- 
perintendent of  the  assay  office  is  Andrew 
Mason,  who  was  appointed  to  his  present  posi- 
tion in  1883,  having  previously  been  assistant 
assayer  and  melter  and  refiner.  While  holding 
the  latter  office  he  substituted  the  use  of  sul- 
phuric for  nitric  acid  in  the  refining  process, 
thus  saving  this  one  assay  office  $100,000  per 
annum. 

The  United  States  assay  office  is  in  a  build- 
ing located  beside  the  more  imposing  sub- 
treasury  building,  at  the  intersection  of  Wall 
and  Broad  streets,  which  marks  one  of  the 
most  historic  spots  in  the  country,  namely,  the 
site  of  the  old  Federal  Hall,  where  Washington 
took  the  oath  as  first  President  of  the  United 
States.  Although  the  building  is  small,  yet  it 
only  masks  a  really  large,  inner  building  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  office  buildings  and  the 
sub-treasury.  The  assay  offices,  and  particu- 
larly this  one,  have  an  important  position  in 
the  world  of  finance,  for  here  the  precious  met- 
als—  gold  and  silver  —  in  all  forms  and  con- 
ditions of  fineness  are  assayed  and  refined.     In 


brief,  the  work  of  this  office  consists  in  assay- 
ing or  determining  the  value  of  gold  and  silver, 
in  whatever  form  presented,  as  coin,  jewelry,  or 
in  any  other  shape.  Any  one  wishing  to  have 
gold  or  silver  assayed  in  quantity  or  wishing 
to  sell  to  the  government,  may  present  his 
property  at  the  assay  office,  where  he  may  have 
the  metal  reduced  and  made  into  bars,  or  if 
he  prefers,  he  may  sell  his  bullion  to  the  gov- 
ernment. The  charge  for  doing  the  work  is 
merely  nominal,  and  based  on  the  actual  cost. 
Millions  of  dollars  are  stored  at  all  times  in 
the  vaults.  When  the  metal  is  received,  the  first 
step  consists  in  weighing  the  coin,  bars,  jewelry, 
or  tableware.  This  is  done  with  great  exact- 
ness and  a  receipt  is  given.  Each  person's  hold- 
ings are  placed  in  a  box  and  are  taken  to  the 
melting-room,  where  they  are  placed  in  cruci- 
bles with  a  flux  and  smelted  and  cast  in  ingot 
molds,  the  pouring  being  a  highly  picturesque 
operation.  A  small  chip  is  taken  from  the  bar 
for  assay.      See  Coinage. 

If  the  depositor  wishes  to  part  with  his 
bullion,  the  government  pays  for  it  at  the  pre- 
vailing price  and  proceeds  to  separate  or  part 
the  gold  from  the  silver.  The  price  of  gold 
never  varies,  costing  $20.67  a  fine  ounce.  Sil- 
ver  fluctuates   with    the   market. 

The  importance  of  the  assay  office  in  its  rela- 
tion to  the  financial  world,  the  treasury,  and  the 
mint  cannot  be  overestimated.  During  the  fis- 
cal year  ending  30  June  1900,  the  fineness  of 
11,802  melts  of  gold  and  silver  deposits,  993 
melts  of  fine  gold  and  silver,  also  1.050  melts  of 
mixed  metal,  about  500  special  deposits,  350 
barrels  of  sweeps,  83,178  gold  and  silver  bars 
were  estimated,  and  about  60,000  cupels  and 
the  necessary  "proof"  gold  and  silver  were  made. 

Assay  Offices.     See  Assaying. 

Assegai,  as'se-ga,  a  short  spear  employed 
as  a  weapon  among  the  Kaffirs  of  South  Africa. 
It  is  made  of  hard  wood  tipped  with  iron,  and 
used   for   throwing   or   thrusting. 

Assemani,  as'se-ma'ne,  (1)  Joseph  Si- 
mon, a  famous  Orientalist:  b.  of  a  Maronite 
family  in  Tripoli,  Syria,  1687;  d.  Rome,  14 
Jan.  1768.  He  traveled  on  the  Pope's  com- 
mission through  Egypt  and  Syria,  collecting 
many  Oriental  manuscripts  and  coins  for  the 
Vatican  library,  of  which  he  was  appointed 
keeper.  Of  his  numerous  learned  works,  the 
most  important  is  "Bibliothcca  Orientalis,'  is- 
sued by  order  of  Clement  XI.  and  containing 
(in  manuscript  form)  the  Vatican  codices  in 
Syriac,  Arabic.  Persian,  Turkish,  Hebrew,  Sa- 
maritan, Armenian,  Ethiopian,  Greek.  Egyptian, 
Iberian,  and  Malabaric.  (2)  Stephen  Epho- 
nii  s  (1707-82),  also  a  learned  author  of  books 
on  Oriental  learning.  He  was  titular  archbishop 
"t"  Apomaca,  Syria.  Yet  another  nephew  and 
Orientalist  was  (3)  Joseph  Aloysius  (1710-82), 
professor  at  Rome.  (4)  Simon',  a  relative  of  the 
preceding,  b.  in  Tripoli  1752;  d.  Padua  8  April 
1821.  He  filled  the  chair  of  Oriental  languages 
at  Padua.  He  wrote  an  important  work  on 
ancient  coins.  'Museo  Cufico  Naniano  Illus- 
trato'    (1787-8). 

Assemblages,  General  Theory  of.  The 
doctrine  variously  entitled  Mengenlehre  and 
Mannigfaltigkeitslehre  by  the  Germans.  Theorie 
des  ensembles  by  the  French,  and  sometimes  re- 
ferred to  in  English  as  the  theory  or  doctrine  of 


ASSEMBLAGES 


manifolds  or  aggregates  or  by  other  analogous 
n. itnms  Main  of  its  ideas  an-  at  least 
as  ancient  as  historical  thought  and  have  ligurcd 
in  important  ways  in  logic,  philosophy  and 
mathematics  steadily  from  the  earliest  times. 
On  the  other  hand,  many  of  the  chief  concepts 
involved  in  it.  its  characteristic  notions,  and 
their  organization  into  a  distinct  and  self- 
supporting  body  of  coherent  doctrine,  may  he 
said  to  constitute  the  latest  great  mathemati- 
cal creation.  Indeed  the  majority  of  the 
founders  and  builders  of  the  doctrine,  including 
Georg  Cantor  as  easily  the  primate  of  them  all, 
are  .nil  among  the  living  As  mathematics  is 
the  most  fundamental  of  the  sciences,  tin-  thei  >ry 

semblages  seems  destined  to  be  regarded, 

if  it  In-  nut  already  regarded,  as  the  most  fun- 
damental branch  of  mathematics.  Viewed  in 
retrospect,  it  appears  as  an  inevitable  product 
of  the  modern  critical  spirit.  Already  it  is  seen 
to  underlie  and  interpenetrate  both  geometry 
and  analysis.  Its  connection  with  mathemati- 
cal logic  is  most  intimate,  often  approximating 
identity  with  the  latter;  and  even  philosophy 
is  surely,  if  but  slowly,  beginning  to  recognize 
in  the  theory  of  manifolds  her  own  most  inviting 
and  promising  field. 

The  Notions,  Assemblage  and  Element. — 
Roughly  speaking,  any  collection  of  objects  or 
things  of  whatever  kind  or  kinds  is  an  assem- 
blage. Each  object  in  the  collection  is  called 
an  element  of  the  assemblage.  An  assemblage, 
to  be  mathematically  available,  must  be  de- 
fined,  or,  as  usage  has  it.  well-defined  (wohlde- 
finirt,  bien  defim).  An  assemblage  is  defined 
when,  by  the  logical  principle  of  excluded 
middle,  it  can  be  n  -aided  as  intrinsically  deter- 
mined whether  an  arbitrarily  given  object  is 
or  is  not  an  element  of  it.  Means  may  or  may 
not  be  known  for  making  the  determination 
actual  or  extrinsic.  Thus  if  the  elements  of  the 
assemblage  be  completely  tabulated,  the  deter- 
mination can  lie  actually  effected  by  comparing 
the  given  object  with  the  elements  of  the  table. 
Again,  if  an  assemb'age,  such  as  that  of  the 
endless  sequence  i,  2,  3,  .  .  .  of  integers,  be  given 
i  definite  law  of  formation  of  its  elements, 
the  law  will  generally  enable  one  to  determine 
actuallv  whether  any  given  object,  as  5  or  J 
or  an  apple  or  a  sunset,  is  an  element  of  the 
assemblage  or  not.  But  the  possession  of  such 
means  is  not  essential  to  the  notion  of  defined 
assemblage  A  real  *  number  is  called  algebraic 
or  transcendental  according  as  it  is  or  is  not  a 

1    of   an    equation  of  the  form,  a„.v»  +a,.v»-1 

+  1J..1-™-5  +  .  .  .  +an-iX  +  an  =0,  Inning  integral 
icients.  Any  real  number,  no  matter  what 
its  origin  or  definition,  is  cither  algebraic  or 
transcendental;  it  cannot  be  both  and  it  cannot 
be  neither.  Hence  the  real  algebraic  numbers 
constitute  a  defined  assemblage,  and  so,  too, 
the  transcendentals  Nevertheless  no  means 
is  known  for  ascertaining  in  every  case  whether 
a  given  number  is  algebraic  or  not.  It  was 
reallv  a  great  achievement  when  the  transcen- 
dental character  of  the  long  familiar  classical 
numbers  e  and  -  was  proved,  for  e  by  Hermite 
in  1.S7  1  and  for  -  nine  years  later  by  Lindemann. 
Even    the   existence   of   non-algebraic  numbers 


*  The  exigencies   of  the  present  undertaking  demand  the 
!iia  drawn  from  the  Theory  of  tin-  Real 
Variable  (which  see)a    1  other  theories, although  these  are 
themselves  branches  of  assemblage  theory. 


was  unknown  till  it  was  proved  by  I.iouville 
in    1  S  5  1 . 

Depiction  and  Correspondence       \     eml 

will  be  denoted  by  large  and  elements  by  small 
letters.  If,  in  any  way,  each  element  a  oi  1 
is  associated  with  an  element  /'  of  /;,  .1  is  said 
to   be  depicted  on    /;        The-   />'s   so   used    are   the 

pictures  of  the  o's.  If  all  the  b's  are  thus  made 
pictures,  B  is  also  depicted  on  .1   and    the  ,j's 

aie  pictures  of  the  /''s  If  an  a  is  a  picture  of 
a  b  and  reciprocally,  and  if  this  relation  1 
for  all  the  .is  and  /''s,  so  that  there  is  a  one- 
to-one  correspondence  between  them,  the  de- 
piction is  called  similar.  Obviously  an  assem- 
blage can  be  depicted  either  similarly  or  dis- 
similarly on  itself,  generally  in  more  than  one 
wav,  often  in  an  endless  variety  of  ways. 

The  Concept  I  'hain.  —  If  the  elements  of  .1  are 
elements  of  H .  .1  is  part  of  H.  If  in  this  case 
not  all  i>'s  are  u's.  A  is  proper  pari  of  /;  Any 
assemblage  is  part,  but  not  proper  part,  of 
itself.  One  of  the  most  important  ideas  con- 
nected with  that  of  the  depiction  of  an  assem- 
blage on  itseli  is  the  notion  of  chain:  if  .1  be 
depicted  on  itself  in  any  definite  way,  then  any 
part  of  .1  that  is  thereby  depicted  on  itself  is  a 
chain.  In  case  of  a  giver  depiction  of  an  A 
"ti  itself,  the  must  important  of  the  chains  so 

arising  is  that  one  that  is  composed  of  the  1  |i 
ments,  each  taken  but  once,  of  all  the  chains 
having  in  common  a  previously  chosen  part 
of  .1.  There  is  always  one  such  special  chain 
for  a  given  part  and  given  mode  of  depiction, 
but  it  changes  with  the  part  anil  with  the  mode 
independently.  The  theory  of  chains,  due  to 
Dedekind,  has  fundamental  bearings  in  logic 
(see  Induction,  Mathematical). 

The  Concept  oj  Equivalence  and  Sameness  0} 
Power. — If  .1  and  B  are  such  that  each  may  be 
similarly  depict  ed  mi  the  other,  i.e.,  if  a  one-to- 
one  correspondence  can  be  established  between 
the  elements  of  .-1  and  those  of  /.'.  .1  and  B  arc 
said  to  be  cijuiixiloit  or  to  have  the  same  po  •  1 
(Mdchtigkeit),  a  relation  symbolically  expressed 
by  writing  .  1  — B  or  B--~A.  Thus  if  .1  denote 
the  assemblage  of  positive  integers  and  B  denote, 
say,  the  even  positive  integers.  .  1  —  //,  I  ir  plainly 
one  may  pair  1  with  2,  2  with  4,  3  with  6, 
and  so  on.  Other  ways  of  pairing  .1  and  B  in 
this  case  will  readily  occur  to  the  reader. 

Distinction  0)  Finite  and  Infinite. — An  assem- 
blage is  finite  or  infinite  according  as  it  has  not 
or  has  the  same  power  as  some  proper  part  of  it- 
self. Thus  A  of  the  last  example  is  infinite.  So, 
too,  is  B,  for  it  is  easily  seen  that  if  A--—B  and 
if  either  .  1  or  B  is  infinite,  so  is  the  othei  Also, 
if  A—*B  and  if  .1  or  B  is  finite,  so  is  the  Other. 
The  foregoing  definition  of  infinite  is  one  of  the 
most  fruitful  of  modern  concepts.  It  is  due 
independently  to  Dedekind  and  Georg  Cantor. 
Sometimes  an  infinite  assemblage  is  defined  to 
be  one  that  cannot  be  exhausted  or  emptied 
by  removing  from  it  one  element  at  a  time. 
It  has  been  proved  that  the  two  definitions  are 
logically  equivalent.  But  for  the  purposes  of 
investigation,  the  former  is  found  to  be  by  far 
the  better  instrument.  An  infinite  assemblage 
is  often   described   as  tr.in-  finite. 

Denumer ability.  —  Let  A  denote  the  assem- 
blage of  positive  integers.  Any  assemblage  li 
such  that  B-—A  is  said  to  be  dtwumerable  or  to 
have  the  power  of  the  denumerahle  asseml  I: 
As  .1  — .1,  .1  is  itself  denumerable,  and  it  serves 
conveniently  as  the  type  of  denun  erable  assem- 


ASSEMBLAGES 


blages.  The  domain  of  such  assemblages  is 
exceedingly  rich  and  is  replete  with  surprises. 
For  example,  though  the  rational  fractions,  that 
is,  fractions  having  integral  terms,  are  so  numer- 
ous that  between  any  two  of  them,  however 
near  to  each  other  in  value,  there  is  an  infinity 
of  others,  nevertheless  the  assemblage  of  rational 
fractions  including  the  integers  is  denumerable. 
Of  this  the  reader  can  quickly  convince  himself 
by  reflecting  that  there  is  but  a  finite  number 
of  such  fractions  of  which  each  has  a  specified 
integer  n  for  sum  of  its  terms.  Thus,  if  11=2, 
one  has  1  or  {;  if  w  =  3 ,  one  has  \  and  f;  if 
»=4,  i,  1.  *■'  and  so  on.  Some  are  repeated; 
repetitions  may  be  kept  or  rejected.  Keeping 
them,  the  required  equivalence  is  seen  in  the 
pairing:  (1,  1);  (2,  «,  (3,  f ) ;  (4,  }),  (5,  f), 
(6,  ");...  .  In  ordinary  speech  one  is  justified 
in  saying  that  rational  numbers  are  neither 
more  nor  less  numerous  than  the  integers  or 
than  the  odd  or  the  even  integers.  It  is  plain 
that  the  classic  axiom,  the  whole  is  greater 
than  any  of  its  parts,  is  not  valid  for  infinite 
assemblages.  For  finite  assemblages  it  Is  valid 
absolutely,  but  for  none  other.  For  another 
example,  consider  the  algebraic  numbers,  before 
mentioned.  These  include  the  rationals  and 
infinitely  many  besides.  Nevertheless  the  as- 
semblage of  all  algebraic  numbers  is  denumer- 
able. The  proof  is  too  long  to  insert  here.  Yet 
more  astonishing  is  the  theorem  that  an  assem- 
blage composed  of  all  the  elements  of  a  denu- 
merable infinity  of  denumerably  infinite  as- 
semblages is  denumerable. 

The  Power  of  the  Continuum. — At  this  stage 
the  query  is  natural:  is  every  possible  assem- 
blage denumerable?  The  answer  is  negative. 
The  assemblage  of  all  real  numbers,  i.e.,  of 
all  rationals  and  irrationals,  is  said  to  con- 
stitute a  continuum.  So,  too,  the  assemblage 
of  points  of  a  straight  line  is  a  continuum,  in 
particular  a  linear  continuum.  The  last  two 
assemblages  are  in  fact  of  the  same  power,  but 
neither  is  denumerable.  This  is  demonstrated 
by  letting  ax,  a2,  .  .  .  ,  a„.  .  .  .  represent  any 
demimerable  assemblage  of  real  numbers  and 
then  proving  that  between  any  two  arbitrarily 
assumed  numbers  a  and  ,9  there  is  one  number 
and  therefore  an  infinity  of  numbers  not  in 
the  given  sequence.  From  this  proposition  of 
Cantor's  the  existence  of  transcendental  num- 
bers, which  had  been  otherwise  previously  proved 
by  Liouville,  follows  as  a  corollary.  Any 
assemblage  equivalent  to  that  of  the  real  num- 
bers or  to  that  of  the  points  of  a  straight  line 
is  said  to  have  the  power  of  the  continuum.  The 
assemblage  of  points  of  any  line-segment  how- 
ever short  or,  what  is  tantamount,  the  assem- 
blage of  numbers  between  any  two  numbers 
however  nearly  equal,  has  the  power  of  the  con- 
tinuum. Indeed,  either  of  these  assemblages  is 
a  continuum.  But  an  assemblage  may  have 
the  power  of  the  continuum  without  being  a 
continuum.  For  example,  the  assemblage  of 
transcendental  numbers,  though  it  is  not  a 
continuum,  has  the  power  of  a  continuum. 
In  fact,  the  assemblage  left  on  suppressing  from 
a  continuum  any  denumerable  assemblage  of 
elements  is  equivalent  to  the  original  assem- 
blage. This  hist  is  a  special  case  of  the  proposi- 
tion:  ii  .4  be  infinite,  and  if  the  remainder  A' 
on  suppressing  a  denumerable  part  of  A  be 
infinite,  then  A'^.l.  As  above  seen  the  power 
of  the  continuum  is  higher  than  that  of  the 
Vol.   1 — 52 


denumerable  assemblage,  but  whether  it  is  the 
next  higher  is  an  outstanding  question.  There 
are  higher  powers  than  that  of  any  given  power 
(unless  this  last  be  that  of  the  assemblage  of  all 
things,  a  concept  whose  admissibility  is  ques- 
tioned), but  no  assemblage  of  points  has  a  power 
higher  than  that  of  a  continuum.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  is  one  of  the  most  marvelous  of  known 
facts  that  the  assemblage  of  points  on  a  line- 
segment  however  short  is  equivalent  to  the 
assemblage  of  all  the  points  of  space,  nay,  is 
equivalent  to  all  the  points  of  a  space  having 
not  merely,  like  our  own,  three  dimensions,  but 
a  denumerable  infinity  of  dimensions. 

Limit- points.  Dense  and  Derived  Assemblages. 
— The  neighborhood  or  vicinity  of  a  point  p  is  a 
region  5111a//  at  will  taken  about  p.      If  p  be  in 
space,  the  neighborhood  may  be  a  sphere  having 
p  as  center;    if  p  be  in    a  plane  or  in  a  line,  the 
neighboihood    will    naturally    be    a    circle    or    a 
line-segment.     The    following    discussion,    con- 
ducted for  assemblages  of  points  of  a  straight 
line,  is  readily  extensible  to  other  point  assem- 
blages.     Denote  by  P  any  given  assemblage  of 
points  of  a  line.      If  there  be    a  point  p,  m  P 
or   not,    such    that    in    the     neighborhood    of    p 
there   is   one  point    (and  hence    an   infinity   of 
points)  of  P,  then  p  is  a   limit- point  of  1>~_      If 
p  be  in  P  but  not  a  limit-point,  p  is  an   isolated 
point  of  /'.      The  assemblage  of  all   the  limit- 
points    of  P    is    the    first    derived    assemblage 
P<»   of   P.       The   first   derived    of  P<»   is    the 
second  derived    of  P.  namely,  P<2>;    and  so  en. 
If  P  be  finite,  its  P(»  contains  no  points,  it    is 
empty.      If  P  be  infinite  and  in  a  segment,  /'"> 
contains   at   least   one  point — a  proposition    1  f 
exceeding   importance   in  function    theory.      Ii 
the  nth  derivative  /''">  be  empty  and  the  pre- 
ceding derivative  contains  one  or  more  points, 
P  is  said  to  be  of  first  genus  and   nth    speeies. 
If  Pln>  contain  points  for  every  positive  intecral 
value  of  n,   P  is  said    to  be  of  second   crenus. 
Every  point  of  a  given  derivative  of  P  is  appoint 
of  each  preceding  derivative,  but  P  may  contain 
points  not  in  any  of  its  derivatives.      If  some 
or  all   of  the   points   of  P   are     in   an   interval 
(a  .  .  .  /?)  and  if  every  sub-interval  of  the  given 
one  contains  a  point  or  points  of   P,  P  is  said 
to  be  dense  throughout  the  given  interval.      For 
example,  the  assemblage  of  points  whose  dis- 
tances from  a  fixed  point  of  the  line  are  rational 
numbers    is  dense    throughout   every   interval. 
If  P  be  dense  throughout  a  given  interval,  so 
is  every  derivative;    in  fact,  each  derivative  in 
such   case   contains   all    points   of   the    interval. 
and  conversely.      Hence  one  might  define:    P  is 
dense   throughout   an   interval   when    and   only 
when  P'l>  contains  every  point  of  the  interval. 
Obviously,  if  P  is  dense  throughout  an  interval, 
P  is  of  second  genus,  and  so,  too,  are  its  deriva- 
tives.     It  follows  that  if  P  or  one  of  its  deriva- 
tives be  of  first  genus.  P  is   rtot  dense  in   any 
interval.      But   it  is  not   true  that    every   P  of 
second  genus  is  dense  throughout  some  interval. 
Greatest  1  'ommon  Divisor,  Least  Common  Mul- 
tiple.— The  equation  P  =  (J  will  signifv  that   the 
point  assemblages  /'  and  Q  are  identical       Two 
assemblages  having  no  element  in  common  are 
said  to  be  without  connection       If  P  contains  all 
and    only    the    points    of   the   assemblages   /' 

P, every  two  of  the  latter  being  without 

connection,    the    fact    is   expressed    by    writing 
Ps(Pi,  I\,  .  .  .).      A  part  of /Ms  called  a  div 
of  it,  and  P  is  a  multiple  of  each  of  its  divisors. 


ASSEMBLAGES 


The  symbol,  D(P,,  P»,  .  .  .).  is  rc:l<1  greati  I 
common  divisor  of  Pi,  P2,  .  .  .  and  is  the-  assem- 
blage of  their  common  points.  M(PX,  l\,  .  .  .) 
is  read  least  common  multiple  of  Pi,  P2,  .  .  . 
and  is  the  assemblage  of  all  the  different  points 
of  the  P's,  it  being  understood  that  the  latter 
have  no  common  point.  To  express  that  P 
is  empty,  one  may  write  P  =  o.  If  and  only  if 
P  and  Q  arc  without  connection,  P(l',  (J)  =  o. 
Bach  derivative  of  P  is  a  divisor  of  every  pre- 
ceding derivative.  If  P  is  of  second  genus,  then 
P"»  =  ((J,  R).  where  (J  is  the  assemblage  of  those 
points    of   j"("    that    are    not    common    to   P"\ 

P<» and    K   is    the    assemblage   of   those 

that  are  common. 

Transfinite  Derivatives. — R  is  therefore  de- 
fined by  the  equation  R=D(P<1\  P">.  .  .  .)  or 
by  RsD(P«l,  P<3),...),  or  by  R=D(P<-n'), 
P^"2*  ,...),  where  Hi,  n2,  .  .  .  are  a  denumerably 
infinite  assemblage  of  increasing  positive  in- 
tegers. R  is  obviously  a  derivative  of  P,  but 
the  order  of  the  derivative  is  not  expressible  by 
a  number  of  the  sequence  1,2,3,...;  these 
numbers  are  finite,  the  order  of  the  derivative 
is  transfinite,  is  denoted  by  w,  and  one  may 
write  RsPM.  The  first  'derivative  of  I'('"' 
is  denoted  by  P<<"+'>,  and  the  ullt  by  /'<«•+»>. 
If  P(w)  have  a  derivative  of  transfinite  order  id, 
it  is  denoted  by  P<2l">.  Continuation  of  the 
process      yields      PM,     PW)  =  D(P<"> ,     P  (•"■), 

P("<3),  .  .  .),  pta"'"),  and  so  on  endlessly.  For 
any  assemblage  /'  of  first  genus,  P(a,)=o,  an 
equation  serving  to  characterize  assemblages  of 
first  genus.  Assemblages  of  second  genus  are 
definable  for  which  the  derivative  of  any  given 
transfinite  order  shall  consist  of  a  single  speci- 
fied point. 

If  1)(P.  P(")=o,  P  is  an  assemblage  of 
isolated  points.  From  any  assemblage  /'.  an 
assemblage  Q  of  isolated  points  is  obtainable 
by  suppressing  from  P  the  assemblage  /'(/',  Pu>), 
and  one  may  write  Q  =P  -I  i(P.  '/'">).  It  is 
known  that  if  P  be  an  assemblage  of  isolated 
points,  it  is  denumerable,  though,  as  above 
noted,  the  converse  is  not  true.  Also,  if  Pu> 
is  denumerable,  so  is  P;  but  not  conversely, 
for,  for  example,  the  assemblage  of  rational 
fractions  is  denumerable,  while  its  first  deriva- 
tive is  a  continuum,  namely,  the  assemblage 
of  real  numbers.  Again,  if  P  be  of  second 
genus,  and  if  /''*'',  «  being  finite  or  transfinite, 
be  denumerable,  so,  too,  is  P  denumerable.  A 
very  remarkable  theorem  is  the  following:  if 
P  lie  in  any  given  interval  and  if  P">  be  de- 
numerable, the  points  of  P  can  be  enclosed  in 
a  finite  number  of  sub-intervals  having  a  sum 
less  than  any  prescribed  length. 

Perfect  Assemblages. — If  P  and  P(1>  coincide, 
P  is  called  a  perfect  assemblage;  in  the  contrary 
case,  imperfect.  For  example,  if  P  is  the  assem- 
blage of  points  of  the  interval  from  p,  to  p2, 
including  p,  and  p2,  P  is  perfect;  but  if  P  in- 
cludes only  the  points  between  p,  and  p2,  P  is 
imperfect,  for  clearly  P"*  includes  p,  and  p2. 
The  definition  just  given  is  Cantor's.  Another 
current  definition  is  that  by  Jordan :  P  is  perfect 
if  it  includes  P(,).  It  has  been  proposed  to 
distinguish  the  two  by  describing  an  assem- 
blage, if  perfect  in  Cantor's  sense,  as  absolutely 
perfect,  and,  if  perfect  in  Jordan's  but  not  in 
Cantor's  sense,  as  relatively  perfect.  It  has  been 
proved  that  if  P  be  relatively  perfect,  the  assem- 
blage R  which   results  on  suppressing  P(1)  from 


/'  is  denumerable.  Rut  it  is  not  true  that  every 
absolutely  perfect  assemblage  is  decomposable 
into  a  relatively  perfect  assemblage  and  a 
denumerable  assemblage.  The  theory  of  per- 
fect   assemblages,    though    exceedingly   subtle,    is 

far  simpler  than  that  of  imperfect  assemblages. 

Every  derivative  of  P  is  relatively  pel  feet  . 
There  are  absolutely  perfect  assemblages  not 
dense   in    any   interval. 

Measure    and    Measurable    Assemblages. — An 

assemblage  /'  of  all  the  points  [n  a  denumerable 

infinity   of  intervals   that    do   not   overlap   and 

win  ise  total  length  is  v  is  saiil  to  have  the  measure 
s.  If  P  and  /"  be  without  connection  and  have 
measures  .9  and  .•>',  the  measure  of  Mil'.  I") 
is  s  +  s'.  If  S  and  s'  be  the  measures  of  /'  and 
/",   and   if  J"   be  a  divisor  of   /',    the  measure  of 

P  —  I"  is  s  -s'.  The  measure  <>f  an  assemblage 
is  always  eero  or  positive.     The  measure  of  any 

denumerable  assemblage  is  zero,  but  zero  may 
be  the  measure  of  a  non-denunicrable  assem- 
blage, and  an  assemblage  is  non-denumerable 
if  its  measure  be  not  zero.  An  assemblage  is 
said  to  be  measurable  only  in  case  the  foregoing 
definitions  associate  with  it  the  notion  of  meas- 
ure A  restri,  ted  or  limited  assemblage  is  1  me  such 
that  the  distance  between  every  pair  of  its  points 
is  less  than  a  prescribed  number.  It  has  been 
proved     that    every    restricted    assemblage    that 

is  perfect  relatively  or  absolutely  is  measurable. 
The  doctrine  of  the  measurabihty  and  content 
of  assemblages  is  of  great  importance,  but  it 
cannot  be  further  entered  into  here. 

Improper  Infinite  and  Proper  Infinite,  or  Trans- 
finite.    The    ordinary  notion    of    mathematical 

infinity  is  that  of  a  finite  variable,  such  as 
tan  a,  which  can  lake  a  finite  value  greater  than 

any  previously  specified  finite  value;  ami  such 
an  equation   as   tan   qo°  =  oo    is   underst I    by 

mathematicians  to  be  a  kind  of  short  hand  for 
saving  that,  by  taking  «  near  enough  to  go°, 
tan  (i  can  be  made  to  exceed  any  preassigned 
finite  number,  and  it  does  not  mean  that  s.  is 
a  value  that  tan  a  may  assume.  Similar  illus- 
trations abound.  Such  a  variable  as  thus 
remains  always  finite  but  may  be  made  large 
at  will  is  sometimes  described  as  an  Infinite 
(variable)  in  analogy  with  the  reciprocal  notion 
of  Infinitesimal,  a  variable  that  remains  always 

finite  but  may  be  made  small  at  will.  Such 
infinites  are  described  by  Cantor  as  improper 
infinites.  On  the  other  hand  both  geometry 
and  analysis  have  long  recognized  another  sort 
of  infinite,  viz.,  one  that  is  not  variable  but  is 
,.')islant.  Such  an  infinite,  for  example,  is  the 
distance  from  any  finite  point  of  a  range  (see 
Projective  Geometry)  to  the  point  common 
to  the  range  and  any  parallel  range.  Another 
example  is  the  distance  from  any  finite  point  of 
the  complex  plane  and  the  "infinite  point* 
of  the  plane  (see  Complex  Variable).  Such 
infinites  are  styled  by  Cantor  proper  infinites, 
or  transfinites.  The  examples  just  given  of 
transfinites  are  transfinites  just  beyond  the 
border  of  the  finite.  Cantor  has  generalized 
the  generalization,  and  by  one  of  the  boldest. 
procedures  in  the  annals  of  mathetic  genius  he 
has  created  higher  and  higher  classes  of  trans- 
finite assemblages  and  numbers  and  subjected 
them  to  a  logically  consistent  system  of  laws 
of  operation.  Of  tfiat  procedure  and  of  its 
results  a  brief  account  will  now  be  given. 

Principles  of  Number  Generation,  or  of  Defini- 
tion   of   Classes. — These   principles   are   three  in 


ASSEMBLAGES 


number:  (r)  adding  unity,  or  i,  to  a  number 
already  formed;  (2)  in  case  0}  any  given  endless 
succession  of  integers  having  among  them  no 
greatest,  positing  a  new  integer  thai  shall  be  the 
first  greater  than  each  integer  of  the  succession; 
(3)  the  imposition  on  numbers  gcnerablc  by  (1)  and 
(2)  of  the  condition  that  the  succession  of  numbers  pre- 
1  eding  any  given  number  so  generated  shall  have  the 
power  of  a  class  ofnumoers  already  defined.  The 
last  is  known  as  the  principle  of  arrest  or  limita- 
tion. Cantor  names  the  principles  "the  three  log- 
ical moments"  ,  an  ideally  improper  designation, 
for  the  applications  of  the  principles  are  precisely 
Hie  points  in  his  procedure  where  it  transcends 
logic  and  rises  to  the  level  of  the  creative  or 
generalizing  will.  Generalization  is  neither 
logical  nor  illogical,  it  is  always  superlogical, 
an  act  of  will  directed  by  immediate  perception 

The  first  class  (I)  of  integers  is  the  denumer- 
ably  infinite  assemblage  of  finite  integers  1,  2, 
3,  ...  v,  ...  ;  generated  or  generable  by  (1). 
(I)  contains  no  greatest  and  no  last.  By  (2) 
the  number  to  is  given  to  be  the  first  integer 
greater  than  every  number  of  (I).  Combina- 
tion of  (1)  and  (2)  yields  w  +  i,  10  +  2,  ...  , 
2<u,  2<0  +  i,  ...  ,  v0aiij,  +  VitO/i—,  +  .  .  .  +  v/i—ico  +  vp, 
.  .  .  ,  <u'°,  .  .  .  ,  (0"",  .  .  .  ,  a in  endless  suc- 
cession. Herewith,  however,  is  not  defined  a  class 
of  numbers  that  can  be  transcended  by  (1)  and  (2). 
The  second  class  (II)  of  integers  is  defined  by 
aid  of  (3)  thus:  it  consists  of  those  numbers 
that  are  generable  by  (1)  and  (2),  that  are 
ordcrable  as  in  the  preceding  sequence,  and  that 
are  such  that  all  those  which  come  before  any 
specified  one  of  them,  say  re,  shall  have  the 
power  of  class  (I).  It  has  been  proved  that  (II) 
has  a  power  different  from,  indeed  next  higher 
than,  that  of  (I).  Combination  of  the  three 
principles  suffices  to  define  distinct  classes  of 
higher  and  higher  power,  there  being  no  re- 
striction on  the  sublime  crescendo  except  such 
as  may  inhere  in  the  constitution  of  mind. 

Transfinite  Cardinal  Numbers  and  their  Laws. 
— The  reader  will  naturally  ask:  Are  the  trans- 
finite  integers  subject  to  law?  They  are,  a  fact 
best  seen  on  approaching  the  matter  from 
another  but  closely  related  point  of  view,  as 
follows:  Denote  by  .4  any  assemblage  of  ele- 
ments a;  symbolically,  A  =  \a\ .  On  disre- 
garding both  the  character  of  the  a's  and  any 
and  every  order  of  their  arrangement,  a  new 
assemblage,  an  orderless  assemblage  of  charai  ter- 
less  elements  (units),  arises,  called  the  power 
or  cardinal   number  of  A    and  denoted  by  the 

symbol  A.  Herewith  the  term  power  (Mack- 
ttgkeii)  is  itself  defined;  sameness  of  power  was 
defined  above.  Plainly  every  assemblage  has 
a  definite  power,  or  cardinal  number.  Note 
that  the  cardinal  number  of  an  assemblage'  is 
by  definition  a  definite  assemblage:  that  which 
results  on  abstracting  (the  attention")  from  the 
order  and  kind  of  its  elements.      The  equation 

A  —B  means  that  A  and  B  have  the  same  or 
equal  powers  or  cardinal  numbers.      It  is  easily 

seen  that,  when  and  only  when  A — B,  A  =B. 
If  I,  /.'.  ('....  have  no  common  clement,  the 
assemblage  of  all  the  elements  involved  will 
be  denoted  by  (.1.  B,  C,  .  .  .).  If  also  .1',  />", 
C,  .  .  .  have  110  common  clement,  and  if  A-— A', 

/-,'-/>",    t'— C then        1.    /;.(',..  .)—(.!', 

B',  C,  .  .  ,),and  the  cardinal  numbers  of  these 
composite  assemblages  are  equal,  or  the  same. 


Notion  of  Greater  and  Less  Powers  or  Cardi- 
nals.—  If  A  and  B  arc  such  that  .1  has  no  part 
equivalent  to  B  and  that  B  has  a  part  equiva- 
lent to  A,  the  cardinal  number  of  A  is  said,  to 
be  less  than   that  of  B,  that  of  B    greater  than 

that  of  A ;  symbolically,  A<B,  or  B>  A. 
If  re,  (i,  r  are  cardinal  numbers,  and  ii  «</?, 
and  /?<r,  then  a  <  r.  Any  one  of  the  relations 
«  =  /?,  «</?,  re>/?,  excludes  the  other  two.  But 
it  does  not  follow  that  every  pair  of  cardinals 
re  and  fi  must  satisfy  one  of  the  three  relations, 
though  they  in  fact  do.  This  last  proposition 
belongs  to  the  theory  of  well-ordered  assemblages, 
a  term  explained  at  a  later  stage  of  this  writing. 

Addition  of  Powers  or  Cardinals. — If  re  and  fi 
be  the  cardinal  numbers  of  .4  and  B,  A  and  B 
having  no  common  element,  and  if  j  be  the 
power  of  (-4,  B) ;  then  a +/?=?-.  Such  is  the 
definition  of  addition.  As  a  power  is  an  order- 
less  assemblage,  a+fi  =  f)  +  a,  and,  in  case  of 
any  three  powers,  a  +  (fi  +  r)  =(a  +  fi)  +  r:  that 
is,  addition  of  powers  is  commutative  and  asso- 
ciative. 

Multiplication. — Let  A  =  \a\  and  B  =  \b\. 
Associate  each  a  with  each  b.  Consider  each 
pair  (a,  b)  as  an  element.  The  assemblage  of 
these  is  denoted  by  (A-B).  Hence  (A  ■  B)  = 
I  (a,  b)\.  The  power  ;-  of  this  last  obviously  de- 
pends only  on  the  powers  re  and  fi  of  .4  and  B. 
Hence  the  definition  of  product:  a- f3  =  r.  As 
the  power,  or  cardinal  number,  of  an  assemblage 
is  orderless.  it  is  readily  seen  that  re-/3=/?-re, 
and  that,  for  any  three  powers.  «•(/?■  7-)  =  (a-p)-r. 
a-(8  +  r)  =a-f}+  a-r;  that  is.  multiplication  of 
powers  is  commutative,  associative,  and  distribu- 
tive. 

Involution. — If  with  each  a  ot  .4  a  b  of  B  be 
associated,  any  a  and  the  associate  b  will  be  a 
pair.  The  same  b  may  enter  two  or  more  pairs. 
The  assemblage  of  all  the  pairs  resulting  from 
any  such  definite  association  is  called  a  covering 
of  .1  with  B,  and  is  denoted  by  /(.4).  A  different 
covering  results  if  with  any  a  there  be  associated 
a  b  not  associated  with  it  before.  The  assem- 
blage of  all  possible  coverings  of  A  with  B  is 
denoted  by  (B|.4);  then  (B\A)  =  \}(A)\ .  The 
power  r  of  (B|.4)  depends  only  on  the  powers 
a  and  fi  ot  A  and  B;  hence  the  definition: 
aP  =  r.  It  is  readily  seen  that,  if  a,  fi,  r  denote 
any  three  powers,  a° •  aT  =  aP+r,   aT-fir  =  (a-fi)r< 

and  (aV  =  «"-r. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  by  means  of  the 
foregoing  definitions  of  power,  and  addition, 
multiplication,  and  involution  of  powers,  the 
definition  and  the  fundamental  properties  of 
the  ordinary  (finite)  cardinals  1,  2,  3,  .  .  .  , 
v    .  .  .  can  be  rigorously  deduced. 

The  Smallest  Transfinite  Cardinal. — The  car- 
dinal number  of  the  assemblage  \v\  of  finite  car- 
dinals is  denoted  by  N„,  alef-nuH.  Symboli- 
cally, N0  =  |v|.  The  transfinite  number  N,  has 
the  properties:  Nn  +  i=N„;  N„>  /<,  where  /<  is 
any  finite  cardinal;  N(1<a,  where  re  is  any 
transfinite  cardinal  different  from  Sn;  N0  +  N„  = 
N0;  i/-N„=N0-v  =  N0.  where  v  is  anv  finite  cardi- 
nal; N„-N0=N„;  »V=S„;  etc.  It  is  one  of 
the  wondrous  facts  met  with  in  the  doctrine  of 
transfinite  assemblages  that  the  cardinal  num- 
ber of  the  points  of  space  or  other  continuum 
is  precisely  2N0. 

Simply  Ordered  Assemblages.  Order-types. — .4 
is  simply  ordered  when  and  only  when  its  ele- 


ASSEMBLAGES 


merits    a   are   so   disposed    that    of   every    pair 

Oi,    <i,   of   them,    one,    as  a,,  precedes,   i.e.,   has 

•    rank   and   the  other,   as  a2,   comes  after, 

i  e. .  has  higher  rank,  and  of  every  triplet  ai,  a2,  a,, 

ii,  is  lower  than  Os,  if  a,  is  lower  than  n2  and  a2 
is  lower  than  a3.  To  say  symbolically  that  a\ 
is  lower  in  rank  than  a2  and  that  a2  is  higher 
than  ii,,  we  write  either  .ii  |  i72  or  a2  \  a,.  A 
simply  ordered  assemblage  that  is  further  so 
arranged  that  it  has  an  element  of  lowest  rank, 

a  first  element,  anil  that  every  part  of  it  has 
a  first  element,  is  said  to  be  well-ordered.  For 
example,  the  assemblage  of  rational  fraction 
greater  than  zero  and  less  than  one,  if  arranged 
in  natural  order,  so  that  the  larger  the  fraction 
the  higher  its  rank,  is  simply  ordered  but  not 
well-ordered.  The  same  assemblage  can,  how- 
ever,  be   well-ordered,  thus:    J,  J,  \,  §,  J,   J,  J, 

3,  .  .  .  ,  where  the  scheme  is  that  —  shall  have 

p 
lower  rank  than  —  when  />i  4- 1/1  is  less  than  p2+q2, 

and  if  px  +ql  =  />,  +  </,,  then  the  fraction  having 
the  smaller  number  for  sum  of  its  terms  shall 
have  the  lower  rank.  It  has  been  very  recently 
proved  that  every  assemblage  can  be  well- 
ordered.  Immediate  important  consequences 
are:  (i)  every  translinite  assemblage  can  be  so 
ordered  that  after  each  element  there  shall 
be  a  next;  (2)  every  assemblage  can  be  so 
arranged   that  every  sequence  at,  a2,  a3,  .  .  .  of 

its     elements,     for    which     ii,  |  ii_,,     <;„  |  a., 

shall  have  an  end;  (3)  every  pair  of  assem- 
blages are  comparable  in  respect  to  their  car- 
dinal numbers. 

If  .1  be  a  simply  ordered  assemblage,  the  new- 
assemblage  obtained  by  abstracting  from  the 
character  of  the  elements  of  .1  is  called  the 
order-type  of  .1  and  is  denoted  by  A.  Ob- 
viously, .1  is  simply  ordered.  If  .1  and  B  are 
simply  ordered,  and  if  their  elements  can  be 
paired  in  one-to-one  fashion  so  that  the  rank 
relation  of  every  two  elements  a,  and  a2  of  A 
shall  be  the  same  as  the  rank  relation  of  their 
correspondents  />,  and  b2  in  B.  then  .1  and  B 
are  said  to  be  similar,  and  to  be  depictable  on 
one  another.  This  definition  of  similar  and 
depictable,  it  is  noteworthy,  are  more  re- 
stricted than  that  above  given.  The  simi- 
larity of  two  similar  simply  ordered  as- 
semblages .1  and  /)'  is  expressed  by  writing 
A—B.  If  A  is  simply  ordered,  A^iA ,  and  if 
B  and  C  are  simply  ordered,  and  if  A^sC 
and  B^C,  then  .1^/j'.  It  is  plain,  too,  that 
either  of  the  relations,  .-1  =B,  A—Ii,  implies  the 
other. 

To  every  order-type,  or  ordinal  number, 
corresponds     a     power,     or     cardinal     number. 

Thus  to  A  corresponds  .4.  The  distinction  of 
ordinal  and  cardinal  is  of  no  importance  for 
finite  assemblages,  but  is  absolutely  indis- 
pensable in  the  doctrine  of  transfinites.  All 
order-types  corresponding  to  a  finite  cardinal 
a  are  similar,  but  those  corresponding  to  a 
translinite  cardinal  present  a  countless  variety 
and  are  said  to  constitute  a  type-class  [a].  To 
every  translinite  cardinal  corresponds  such  a 
type-class.  Any  type-class  is  itself  an  assem- 
blage, namely,  of  order-types,  and  as  such  has 
its  own  cardinal  number,  which  may  be  shown 
to  be  greater  than  that  of  each  of  the  order- 
types  involved. 


Addition  and  Multiplication  of  Order-types. — 
If  A  and  B  are  simply  ordered,  it  will  be'um In- 
stood  that  in  their  union  (.1,  B)  the  elements  of 
A  have  the  same  rank  relation  as  in  .1,  that  the 
like  is  true  of  B,  and  that  every  a  is  of  lower 
rank  than  every  b.  Hence  (.1,  B)  is  simply 
ordered.  If  A'  and  B'  are  simply  ordered  and 
if  .L-^.l'  and  /■;-/>",  then  (.-1,  B)~(A',  B'). 
Hence  the  order-type  of  (A,B)  depends  only 
on  a=A  and  p=B.  Hence  the  definition  of 
addition:  a  +  /?  =  (.4,  B).  Here  a  is  the  an 
and  j3  the  addend.  If  a,  {1,  r  be  any  three 
types,  a  4-(i?4-r)  =  («+/?)  4-r;  i-c,  addition  oi 
ordinals  is  associative;  but,  unlike  cardinals, 
ordinals  do  not  in  general  obey  the  committal!. \- 
law.      For  example,   if   to=E,  wheie  R  denotes 

<■,,    c2 iv,  .  .  .  ,  1',.  I  (V+i,    and    if  /   be   any 

new  element,  then  1  +  to  does  not  equal  to  +  1 , 
fur  (j.E)  and  {li,})  are  not  similar,  the  latter 
having  a  last  clement,  while  the  former  has  not. 

Next  from  the  simply  ordered  assemblages  .1 
and  B,  form  the  assemblage  S  by  replacing 
each  b  by  an  assemblage  .1(^.-1.  It  is  easily 
seen  that  the  order-type  of  5  depends  only  on 
a=.l  and  (1  =  H.  _Hence  the  definition  of  mul- 
tiplication: «-/?=S.  Here  «  is  multiplicand  ami 
ft  is  multiplier.  It  is  readily  proved,  in  respect 
to  three  types  a,  /?,  r,  that  (a-,9)  -r  =  a-(p-r) 
and  that  a-(/?4-r)  =a-ji  +  a-y.  That  is,  multi- 
plication of  ordinals  like  that  of  cardinals  is  a 
.  iative  and  distributive.  But  in  general  ordinals 
do  not  obey,  while  cardinals  always  obey,  the 
commutative  law.  The  reader  can  easily  1 
vince  himself  that,  for  example,  to-  2  ?±  2  •  to. 

Order-type  of  Rationals. — Denote  by  R  the 
rational  numbers  greater  than  1  and  less  than 
zero,  taken  in  natural  order.  Let  tj=R.  Ob- 
viously r;  belongs  to  the  type-class  [K0],  for  we 
have  seen  that  R  is  denumerable.  Moreover, 
R  is  dense  and  has  no  element  of  lowest  rank 
and  none  of  highest.  By  these  three  properties, 
R  is  completely  characterized;  that  means  that 
if  .1  is  simply  ordered,  dense,  denumerable, 
and  has  neither  lowest  nor  highest  element, 
A  and  R  are  similar,  and  ij=A.  It  follows 
that  r)  +  t)=i),  i)-r)  =  i),  (1  4-  r))i)  =  t),  (7  4- 1)1)  =7, 
(1  4-  .,  4-  i)r)  =  jj,  but  ri  4- 1  ^  1  4-  j),  and,  though 
9  4- 1  4-1}  =  7),   Jj-+-w  +  ij?^ij.if  v>  1. 

Order-type  of  Linear  Continuum. — Denote  by 
0  the  order-type  of  the  linear  continuum  X  =  \x\ , 

where  o<*<i,   and   where    X    is    disposed    in 

natural  order,  i.e.,  so  that  if  *  and  ,v'  be  any 
two  elements  of  A",  »  I  v',  when  and  only  when 
x<x'.  Xmv  X  is  dense  and  perfect.  It  also 
contains  R  in  such  way  that  in  respect  to  rank 
there  are  elements  of  R  between  every  pair 
of  .r's.  So  is  suggested  the  following  funda- 
mental theorem,  which  serves  to  characterize 
the  tvpe  of  the  linear  continuum  completely 
//  a  simply  ordered  assemblage  A  is  perfect  and 
if  it  contains  a  denumerable  assemblage  1'  such 
that  in  respect  to  rank  P  has  elements  between 
every  two  elements  of  .1,  then  0=.\. 

For  detailed  elaboration  of  the  foregoing 
notions  and  for  extensions  of  the  doctrine,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the 

Bibliography.  —  Bolzano,  'Paradoxien  des 
Unendlichen'  (1850);  du  Bois-Reymond,  'Die 
Allgemeine  Funktionlehre1  (1882);  G.  Cantor, 
•Grundlagen  einer  allgemeine  Mannigfaltig- 
keitslehre'    (18S3),    and    many   other   contribu- 


ASSEMBLY,  CONSTITUENT—  ASSESSMENT 


tfons  by  Cantor  in  'Mathematische  Annalen*  and 
in  vol.  II.  of  "Acta  Mathematica'  ;  Bettazzi, 
(Teoria  dclle  grandezze'  (1891)  ;  Veronese, 
'Fondamenti  di  geometria*  (1891,  also  in  Ger- 
man) ;  Borel,  'Lecons  sur  la  theorie  des  fonc- 
tions'  (1898);  Vivanti  gives  resume  of  chief 
ideas  and  results  in  'Bibliotheca  mathematica, 
neue  Folge  6'  (1892)  ;  Schonflies  gives  a  more 
comprehensive  digest,  vol  I.  of  'Encyklopadie 
der  Mathematischen  Wissenschaften'  (1899)  ; 
Zermelo  has  an  important  contribution  in  vol. 
59,  'Mathematische  Annalen*    (1904). 

Cassius  J.  Keyser, 
Adrian     Professor    of    Mathematics,    Columbia 
University. 

Assembly,  Constituent.        See     Assembly, 

National.  » 

Assembly  of  Divines,  a  celebrated  assem- 
bly appointed  by  the  Long  Parliament,  and  held 
at  Westminster  to  determine  upon  the  doctrine 
and  liturgy  of  the  English  Church.  By  an  ordi- 
nance passed  12  June  1643,  121  clergymen,  with 
10  Lords  and  20  Commoners  as  lay  asses- 
sors, were  nominated  as  constituents  of  the  as- 
sembly. The  assembly  began  its  sittings  in 
July  1643,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but  in  the 
meantime  a  royal  proclamation  had  been  issued 
forbidding  the  assembly  to  meet,  which  had  the 
effect  of  inducing  the  greater  part  of  the  Episco- 
pal members  to  absent  themselves.  The  ma- 
jority of  those  who  remained  were  Presbyte- 
rians, but  there  was  a  strong  minority  of  inde- 
pendents. A  deputation  was  now  sent  along 
with  commissioners  from  the  English  Parlia- 
ment to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Scottish 
Church  and  the  Scottish  Convention  of  Estates, 
soliciting  their  co-operation  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  and  in  Septem- 
ber four  Scottish  clergymen,  with  two  laymen, 
were  admitted  to  seats  and  votes.  The  assem- 
bly continued  to  hold  its  sittings  till  February 
1649.  Among  the  results  of  its  deliberations 
were  the  Directory  of  Public  Worship,  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  and  the  Larger  and  Shorter 
Catechisms,  which  remain  practically  the  stand- 
ards of  the  Presbyterians  to  the  present  day. 
At  the  Restoration  the  whole  proceedings  of  the 
Westminster  Assembly  were  annulled  as  invalid. 
See  Hethorington,  'History  of  the  Westminster 
Assemblv'  (1843)  ;  Masson,  'Life  of  Milton* 
(1858-79). 

Assem'bly,  General,  the  name  applied  to 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  of  the  Estab- 
lished Church  of  Scotland.  It  consists  of  dele- 
gates from  every  presbytery,  university,  and 
royal  burgh  in  Scotland,  holds  meetings  annu- 
ally, in  the  month  of  May.  and  usually  continues 
to  sit  for  12  days.  In  its  judicial  capacity  and 
as  the  court  of  last  resort,  the  General  Assembly 
has  a  right  to  determine  finally  every  question 
brought  from  the  inferior  courts,  by  reference, 
complaint,  or  appeal.  The  laws  enacted  by  the 
assembly,  after  receiving  the  sanction  of  a 
majority  of  presbyteries,  are  the  established  and 
permanent  statutes  of  the  Church,  by  which 
everything  belonging  to  the  ecclesiastical  state, 
or  to  the  Church  courts,  is  authoritatively  reg- 
ulated. The  United  Free  Church  of  Scotland 
has  a  General  Assembly  similar  in  its  constitu- 
tion and  functions  to  that  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Presby 
terian  churches   (q.v.)   of  Ireland  and  America. 


Assem'bly,  National,  a  body  established  in 
France  in  1789.  Upon  the  convocation  of  the 
states-general  by  Louis  XVI.,  the  privileged 
nobles  and  clergy  refused  to  deliberate  in  the 
same  chamber  with  the  commons,  or  tiers-hat 
(third  estate).  The  latter,  therefore,  on  the 
proposition  of  the  Abbe  Sieyes,  constituted 
themselves  an  Assemble  Nationale,  with  legis- 
lative powers,  17  June  1789.  They  bound  them- 
selves by  oath  not  to  separate  until  they  had 
furnished  France  with  a  constitution,  and  the 
court  was  compelled  to  give  its  assent.  In  the 
3,250  decrees  passed  by  the  assembly  were  laid 
the  foundations  of  a  new  epoch,  and  having  ac- 
complished this  task,  it  dissolved  itself  30  Sept. 
1 791.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  joint  melt- 
ing of  the  Senate  and  Corps  Legislatif,  for  the 
purpose  of  electing  a  chief  magistrate  or  the 
transaction  of  other  extraordinary  business.  See 
Stephens,  'History  of  the  French  Revolution' 
(1886-91)  ;  Doniol,  'La  Revolution  et  la  Feoda- 
lite'    (1874). 

As'sen,  a'sen,  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Drenthe,  Holland.  Near  it  are  the  Giants' 
Caves,  to  which  Tacitus  makes  allusion.  Pop. 
11,191. 

Assent',  in  law,  an  undertaking  to  do 
something  in  compliance  with  a  request.  Ap- 
proval of  something  done.  Express  assent  is 
that  which  is  openly  declared.  Implied  assent 
is  that  which  is  presumed  by  law.  Assent  must 
be  to  the  same  thing  in  the  same  sense.  It  must 
embrace  the  whole  of  the  proposition,  must  be 
exactly  equal  to  its  extent  and  provisions,  and 
must  not  qualify  them  by  any  new  matter.  Un- 
less express  dissent  is  shown,  acceptance  of 
what  it  is  for  a  person's  benefit  to  take,  is  pre- 
sumed, as  in  the  case  of  a  conveyance  of  land 

The  Royal  Assent  is  the  approbation 
given  by  the  sovereign  in  Parliament  to  a  bill 
which  has  passed  both  houses,  after  which  it  be- 
comes a  law.  It  may  be  given  in  person,  when 
the  sovereign  comes  to  the  House  of  Peers 
and  the  assent  (in  Norman  French)  is  declared 
by  the  clerk  of  Parliament ;  or  may  be  declared 
by  letters-patent  under  the  great  seal,  signed  by 
the  sovereign. 

Assess'ment  is  the  determining  of  the 
value  of  a  man's  property  or  occupation  for 
the  purpose  of  levying  a  tax.  Determining  the 
share  of  a  tax  to  be  paid  by  each  individual. 
Laying  a  tax.  Adjusting  the  shares  of  a  con- 
tribution by  several  toward  a  common  beneficial 
object  according  to  the  benefit  received.  As- 
sessment of  damages  includes  fixing  the  amount 
of  damages  to  which  the  prevailing  party  in 
a  suit  is  entitled.  It  may  be  done  by  the  court 
through  its  proper  officer,  the  clerk  or  protho- 
notary,  where  the  assessment  is  a  mere  matter 
of  calculation,  but  must  be  done  by  a  jury 
in  other  cases.  Insurance  assessment  is  an 
apportionment  made  in  general  average  upon 
the  various  articles  and  interests  at  risk,  accord- 
ing to  their  value  at  the  time  and  place  of  be- 
ing in  safety  for  contribution  for  damage  and 
sacrifices  purposely  made,  and  expenses  incurred 
for  escape  from  impending  common  peril.  An 
assessment  is  also  made  upon  premium-notes 
given  by  the  members  of  mutual  fire  insurance 
companies,  constituting  their  capital,  and  being 
a  substitute  for  the  investment  of  the  paid-up 
stock  of  a  stock  company,  the  liability  to  such 


ASSETEAGUE  —  ASSINIBOIN 


assessments  being  regulated  1  iy  the  charter  and 
bj  laws,  [2  N.  V.  477;  14  Hart.  N.  Y.  374. 

Asseteague  (as'se-teg*)  Island,  a  small 
islaiul  uff  the  coast  of  Virginia  in  Northampton 
County.  Upon  it  is  a  lighthouse  150  feet  in 
height. 

Assiento,  asyan'to  (Spanish,  orient 0,  seat, 
contract,  treaty),  a  term  especially  applied  to 
an  agreement  between  the  Spanish  government 
and  a  foreign  nation  to  import  negro  slaves  from 
Africa  into  the  Spanish  colonies  in  America,  for 
a  limited  time,  on  payment  of  certain  duties. 
The  English  were  the  sole  possessors  of  this 
assiento  till  1701.  In  1713  the  celebrated  as- 
siento treaty  with  Britain  for  30  years  was 
concluded  at  Utrecht.  By  this  contract  the  Eng- 
lish, among  other  privileges,  obtained  the  right 
of  sending  a  permission  or  assiento  ship,  so 
called,  of  500  tons  every  year,  with  all  sorts  of 
merchandise,  to  the  Spanish  colonies.  By  the 
treaty  of  Madrid,  5  Oct.  1750,  the  contract  was 
annulled. 

As'signa'tion.    See  Assignment. 

Assignats,  a-se-nya,  or  as-Ig-nats,  a  term 
applied  to  the  paper  money  issued  during  the 
French  Revolution.  The  French  National  As- 
sembly after  appropriating  to  national  purposes 
the  land  belonging  to  the  Church,  instead  of  sell- 
ing it  at  a  time  when  its  value  was  greatly  de- 
preciated, because  of  the  unsettled  state  of  af- 
fairs, issued  bonds  on  the  security  of  it,  which 
were  called  assignats,  as  representing  land  as- 
signed to  the  holder.  This  paper  currency  con- 
sisted chiefly  of  notes  for  one  hundred  francs 
each,  though  many  of  them  were  for  lower 
sums.  The  first  issue  in  1700  amounted  to  400,- 
000,000  francs.  The  government  was  relieved 
by  this  plan,  for  the  time  being  the  assignats 
saved  the  Revolution.  This  arrangement  for 
relieving  the  necessities  of  the  government 
seemed  so  easy  that  recourse  was  repeatedly  had 
to  it,  as  the  property  of  wealthy  emigres,  until 
the  amount  arose  to  the  vast  sum  of  46,000,000,- 
000  francs,  besides  many  forged  notes.  The  con- 
sequence was  that  the  value  of  assignats  sank  to 
almost  nothing.  In  March  1796,  a  louis  d'or 
(24  francs)  bought  7,200  francs  in  assignats. 
They  were  withdrawn  from  the  currency  after 
this,  and  redeemed  at  a  thirtieth  of  their  nominal 
value,  by  "territorial  mandates,*  a  new  kind  of 
paper  currency,  which  empowered  the  holder  at 
once  to  take  possession  of  public  lands  at  the 
estimated  value,  while  assignats  could  only  be 
offered  at  a  sale.  These  territorial  mandates 
afterward  became  almost  worthless  and  were 
returned  to  the  government  in  payment  of  taxes 
or  of  land.  Early  in  1707  the  system  came  sud- 
denly to  an  end. 

Assign'ment,  a  term  denoting  a  transfer 
by  deed  of  any  property,  or  right,  title,  or  in- 
terest in  property,  real  or  personal.  Assign- 
ments are  usually  given  for  leases,  mortgages, 
and  funded  property.  In  the  United  States,  as- 
signment is  of  broader  signification  and  applies 
also  to  the  transfer  of  real  property  by  certain 
conveyance.  In  general,  every  right  of  property, 
real  or  personal,  and  every  demand  connected 
with  a  right  of  property,  real  or  personal ;  and 
all  choses  in  action,  as  bonds,  notes,  judgments, 
mortgages,  debts,  contracts,  agreements,  relating 
both    to    real    and    personal    property,    are    as- 


signable, and  the  assignment  thereof  will  pass 
to  the  assignee  a  right  of  action  in  the  name 
of  such  assignee  against  all  parties  liable 
to  an  action.  Assignment  carries  with  it  all 
collateral  securities  held  by  the  assignor  for  the 
collection  of  a  debt  or  the  fulfillment  of  a  con- 
tract, and  is  subject  to  all  the  equities  and 
charges  which  attached  in  the  hands  of  the  as- 
signor. A  personal  trust,  as  the  right  of  a 
master  in  his  indentured  apprentice,  or  the  du- 
ties of  a  testamentary  guardian,  or  the  office  of 
executor,  trustee,  etc.,  is  not  assignable.  The 
validity  of  an  assignment  must  he  determined 
by  the  law  of  the  State  in  which  it  was  made, 
provided  the  thing  assigned  is  subject  of  muni 
cipal  or  State  law ;  but  copyrights,  patents,  and 
government  claims  are  governed  by  acts  of 
Congress.  In  general,  assignments  should  be 
recorded  in  the  office  prescribed  by  law,  or  are 
void  as  against  those  claiming  under  subsequent 
assignments.     See  Bankruptcy  Laws. 

Assimilation,  a  term  denoting  the  trans- 
formation of  foods  into  living  substance.  The 
animal  body  is  constantly  changing.  New  com- 
pounds are  being  made  from  others ;  old  prod- 
ucts are  cast  off.  There  is  a  constant  inter- 
change of  materials,  some  building  up,  others 
breaking  down.  The  chief  factors  in  the 
assimilative  process  are  the  foods  and  the  oxy- 
gen in  the  air.  For  a  discussion  of  the  former, 
see  Digestion  ;  Nutrition  ;  for  the  latter,  see 
Respiratiok.    See  also  Metabolism. 

Assiniboia,  as-sin'i-boi'a,  a  district  in 
northwestern  Canada,  west  of  Manitoba,  having 
the  district  of  Saskatchewan  on  the  north  and 
Alberta  on  the  west,  and  contains  an  area  of 
34.000,000  acres.  It  has  a  length  of  about  450 
miles  east  and  west  by  205  miles  north  and 
south.  Eastern  Assiniboia,  for  a  distance  of 
some  120  miles  west  from  its  eastern  boundary, 
is  practically  a  continuation  of  the  grain-grow- 
ing area  of  Manitoba,  and  the  soil  is  productive, 
producing  excellent  crops  of  wheat,  coarse  grain 
and  vegetables.  The  main  line  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  (q.v.)  extends  east  to  west 
almost  through  the  centre  of  Assiniboia,  and 
branch  lines  extend  from  Moose  Jaw  to  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  district,  and  from  Re- 
gina  to  the  north  through  the  central  portion. 
The  Manitoba  and  Northwestern  Railway  ex- 
tends into  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  dis- 
trict from  Manitoba,  giving  good  facilities  in 
the  way  of  transportation.  Other  branches  are 
being  projected  into  southern  Assiniboia.  The 
district  is  well  watered  by  the  South  Saskatche- 
wan, the  Qu'Appelle.  Assiniboine,  and  other 
rivers,  and  the  valleys  along  the  rivers  and 
creeks  are  very  fertile  and  generally  adapted  to 
mixed  farming.  Similar  conditions  prevail  in 
western  Assiniboia.  A  marked  development  is 
taking  place  along  the  "Soo8  line,  and  the  land, 
which  is  very  fertile,  has  been  largely  taken  up 
by  settlers  from  the  United  States.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Regina,  the  capital,  Halhrite, 
Weyburn,  Yellow  Grass,  Milestone,  Rouleau, 
Moosomin,  Grcnfell,  Wolseley,  Indian  Head, 
Qu'Appelle,  Saltcoats,  Yorkton,  and  Medicine 
Hat.  Pop.  (1904)  about  70,000.  On  1  Sept. 
1905  Assiniboia  was  united  with  the  province 
of  Saskatchewan  and  the  eastern  portion  of 
Athabasca  to  form  the  new  province  of 
Saskatchewan. 


ASSINIBOINE—  ASSOCIATION  OF  IDEAS 


Assin'iboine,  a  river  of  Canada,  which 
flows  through  Manitoba  and  joins  the  Red 
River  at  Winnipeg,  about  40  miles  above  the 
entrance  of  the  latter  into  Lake  Winnipeg.  It 
has  a  somewhat  circuitous  course  of  about  500 
miles  and  steamers  ply  on  it  for  over  300  miles. 

Assist,  as-se'se,  a  hill  town  in  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Umbria,  20  miles  from  Spoleto. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop  and  is  famous  as  the 
birthplace  of  Saint  Francis,  founder  of  the 
Franciscan  Order,  and  of  Saint  Clara,  foundress 
of  a  religious  community  for  women.  The 
splendid  church  built  over  the  chapel  where 
Saint  Francis  received  his  first  impulse  to  de- 
votion is  one  of  the  finest  remains  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  Middle  Ages.  Pop.  (1901) 
17,378.  See  "Assisi"  in  'Mediaeval  Towns 
Series'   (1901). 

Assize'  of  Jerusalem,  a  code  of  laws  in 
force  in  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Jerusalem 
and  Cyprus.  It  consisted  of  two  parts,  the  as- 
size of  the  high  court  with  jurisdiction  over  the 
nobles,  and  the  assize  of  the  court  of  burgesses, 
or  code  of  the  common  people.  It  was  sup- 
posed for  some  time  that  the  laws  were  framed 
by  Godfrey  de  Bouillon;  but  this  is  now  known 
to  be  incorrect.  The  assize  of  the  high  court 
was  first  framed  as  a  code  about  1255,  the  as- 
size of  the  court  of  Burgesses,  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  12th  century,  but  the  exact  date  is 
uncertain. 

Assiz'es,  ap  English  legal  term  signifying 
the  sessions  of  the  courts  held  at  intervals  in 
every  country  by  the  judges.  The  whole  coun- 
try is  divided  into  circuits,  and  three  times  in 
the  year  two  judges,  who  are  members  of  the 
highest  courts  in  England,  hold  assizes  in  all 
the  counties  of  their  respective  circuit.  In  Lon- 
don and  Middlesex,  instead  of  circuits,  what  are 
known  as  courts  of  nisi  prius  are  held.  At  the 
assizes  all  the  justices  of  the  peace  of  the  county 
are  bound  to  attend,  or  else  are  liable  to  a 
fine :  and  also  all  the  persons  who  have  been 
summoned  as  grand  jurymen  or  petit  jurymen 
by  the  sheriff.  At  these  assizes  the  judges  sit 
under  five  separate  commissions,  some  of  which 
relate  to  civil  and  some  to  criminal  causes  or 
business.  In  this  manner,  and  by  these  means, 
the  jails  are  in  general  cleared,  and  offenders 
tried  and  convicted  or  acquitted  at  least  every 
half  year.  In  America  there  are  no  courts  or 
sessions  of  courts  technically  called  assizes.  The 
judges,  however,  perform  the  same  duties  in 
the  counties,  within  their  respective  circuits  and 
jurisdictions,  as  the  English  judges,  and  gener- 
ally in  the  same  manner,  that  is  to  say,  accord- 
ing to  the  course  of  the  common  law.  Since 
1808  there  have  been  assize  courts  in  the  judi- 
cial system  in  France.  With  the  English  insti- 
tutions, however,  they  have  scarcely  anything 
in  common  but  the  name.  In  the  law  of  Scot- 
land assize  is  the  technical  term  applied  in  cases 
tried  in  the  court  of  justiciary  to  the  jury  of 
15  sworn  men,  selected  by  ballot  from  a  greater 
number  not  exceeding  45. 

Asso'ciated  Press.  See  Press  Associa- 
tions. 

Association  Areas.  Tn  the  brain  of  many 
lower  animals  as  well  as  in  that  of  man  there 
are  definite  areas  associated  with  other  areas 
by   sets   of   fibres,   known   as   association    fibres. 


These  different  areas  act  together  in  performing 
many  of  the  complicated  acts  of  human  life. 
Thus,  the  general  sensory  area  in  the  brain, 
that  feels  the  skin  sensations  and  determines 
their  character,  is  in  close  association  with  the 
motor  area  determining  the  movements  of  the 
body  in  correspondence  with  the  knowledge 
given  by  the  sensory  areas.  Under  the  head- 
ing Aphasia  several  of  these  association  areas 
are  discussed.  The  studies  of  psychology  and 
of  mental  diseases  are  largely  concerned  with 
the  relations  and  connections  of  the  association 
areas  in  the  brain. 

Bibliography. —  Flechsig,  'Die  Gehirn  und 
Seele'  (1896);  Barker,  'Journal  of  Nervous 
and  Mental  Disease,'    1897,  pp.  326-356. 

Association  Fibres,  a  term  applied  to 
those  fibres  that  connect  different  parts  of  the 
brain,  particularly  those  that  unite  different 
areas  in  the  same  hemisphere,  distinguishing 
them  from  the  commissural  fibres  that  connect 
areas  in  different  hemispheres,  or  projection 
fibres  that  bind  the  cerebrum  with  the  lower 
cerebellar  or  spinal  systems.  These  'association 
fibres  form  late  in  childhood  and  on  their  de- 
velopment depends  much  of  the  increased  intel- 
lectual growth  of  the  individual. 

Association  of  Ideas,  a  phrase  current  in 
philosophy  and  psychology  since  the  days  of  John 
Locke.  The  term  "association"  has  had,  in  this 
connection,  many  different  meanings.  In  pop- 
ular psychology,  it  indicates  the  way  the  mind 
passes  from  idea  to  idea ;  or  the  way  one  idea 
suggests  or  "reproduces"  another.  Thus,  in 
passing  from  the  thought  of  gold  to  the  recol- 
lection of  a  recent  visit  to  a  mining  camp 
and  then  to  the  plot  of  a  novel  laid  in  a 
mountainous  region,  one  may  be  said  to  "as- 
sociate" the  story  with  the  idea  of  the  min- 
ing camp,  and  this,  in  turn,  with  the  idea  of 
gold.  (See  Memory.)  It  is  but  a  step  from 
this  popular  conception  of  association  —  asso- 
ciation as  "reproduction" — to  the  notion  that 
association  is  an  explanation  of  reproduction. 
Association  then  becomes  (to  change  the  figure) 
not  the  actual  passage  from  idea  to  idea,  but 
the  intangible  bond  which  holds  ideas  together 
and  which  enables  one  idea  (that  is,  the  "gold" 
idea)  to  drag  after  it  another  (the  "camp"  idea). 
This  second  interpretation  of  the  term  is  in  dis- 
repute among  psychologists  because  no  evidence 
of  such  a  bond  as  the  interpretation  implies 
is  to  be  found  in  consciousness.  It  may  be 
urged,  however,  that  even  if  association  in  this 
causal  sense  be  undiscoverable  by  introspection 
it  may,  nevertheless,  be  regarded  as  a  general 
principle  of  mental  activity;  —  as  the  means  by 
which  the  mind  creates  knowledge.  When, 
however,  association  is  thus  interpreted  to  mean 
a  principle  underlying  and  conditioning  the 
process  of  knowing  it  passes  from  psychology 
to  epistemology.  (See  Psychology.)  The  doc- 
trine of  Associationism.  which  is  connected. with 
the  names  of.  David  Hume,  James  Mill,  Alex- 
ander Bain  and  other  "associationists,"  rests 
upon  this  epistemological  meaning  of  the 
term. 

Returning  to  the  psychological  use  of  the 
word  "association,"  we  may  note  that  the  popular 
conception  stands  in  need  of  modification  and 
precision.  (1)  To  say  that  mind  "associates'" 
idea  with  idea  implies  that  ideas  are  by  nature 


ASSOCIATION  FOR  PROTECTION   ADIRONDACKS  — ASSOS 


separate  and  distinct  and  require  some  "gentle 
force"  (as  Hume  puts  it)  to  bring  them  together. 
This  is  not  true.  Ideas  arc  interwoven ;  they 
arc  organically  connected;  they  are  not  held 
together  as  in  a  bundle.  (2)  In  the  second  place, 
the  popular  use  of  the  term  is  too  narrow ;  a 
chain  of  actions,  or  of  emotions,  or  of  feelings, 
may  be  associated  as  well  as  a  chain  of  ideas. 
In  habitual  performances,  for  example, —  such  as 
dressing  —  one  act  calls  forth  the  next,  this 
in  turn  the  next,  and  so  on;  or  emotion  may  be 
linked  with  emotion,  as  anger  following  fear; 
or,  finally,  associations  may  set  out  from  a  per- 
ception, as  the  thought  of  home  from  the  sight 
of  a  letter.  (3)  Again,  association  does  not 
necessarily  imply  a  sequence  of  associated  ele- 
ments. It  may  be  simultaneous,  as  well  as  suc- 
cessive; for  example,  I  see  the  table  before  me 
and,  at  the  same  time,  I  apprehend  it  as  a  hard 
resisting  substance,  or  I  hear  the  rumble  of  a 
carriage  behind  me  and  I  see,  in  my  "mind's 
eye,"  its  form  and  color.  (See  Perception.) 
(4)  Finally,  association  in  the  popular  sense 
simply  states  that  idea  follows  idea ;  it  tells  us 
nothing  of  the  nature  of  the  associated  conscious- 
ness ;  of  how,  that  is,  an  association  differs  from 
a  perception.  Now  association,  in  its  strict  tech- 
nical sense,  means  the  associated  elements  of 
consciousness;  to  illustrate,  it  means  the  mass 
of  constantly  shifting  processes  which  make  up 
mind  while  one  is  thinking  gold  —  mining- 
camp  —  novel.  Just  as  there  exist  typical  groups 
of  mental  processes  which  underlie  the  percep- 
tion of  a  landscape,  a  swinging  pendulum  or  a 
musical  composition,  there  exist  other  typical 
groups  —  such  as  those  already  mentioned  — 
which   are  known   as  associations. 

Psychological  work  upon  association  has  been 
directed,  for  the  most  part,  upon  the  conditions 
under  which  associative  groups  arise.  These 
conditions  have,  since  the  days  of  Aristotle, 
been  set  down  under  the  heading  of  "principles® 
or  "laws"  of  association.  Thus  a  is  said  to  call 
up  or  reproduce  b  when  a  and  b  have,  at  some 
previous  time,  stood  together  in  consciousness 
(law  of  contiguity),  or  when  a  has  been  the 
cause  of  b  (law  of  causality),  or  when  a  re- 
sembles b  (law  of  similarity),  etc.  At  the  pres- 
ent time,  these  "laws"  of  association  are  usually 
reduced  to  two ;  the  law  of  contiguity  and  the 
law  of  similarity.  But  even  these  are  by  no 
means  final  or  adequate  statements  of  the  condi- 
tions under  which  associations  arise;  for  —  to 
point  to  only  two  or  three  of  their  imperfections 
— "similarity"  is  an  extremely  ambiguous  term ; 
it  may  mean  simple  likeness,  or  partial  identity, 
or  likeness  of  relationship;  and  "contiguity"  is 
indefinite  —  it  does  not  determine  how  near 
processes  must  lie  in  consciousness  in  order  for 
one  to  reproduce  the  other.  Moreover,  it  should 
be  said  that  there  are  thousands  of  contiguity 
and  similarity  connections  that  are  never  realized 
in  association ;  this  follows  from  the  fact  that 
almost  everything  is,  to  some  extent,  similar  to 
everything  else,  and  that  the  elementary  pro- 
cesses of  mind  have  appeared  "contiguously1 
in  almost  every  conceivable  form  of  combination. 
Both  terms  are.  then,  too  broad  to  have  much 
significance.  If  we  set  them  down  as  "laws," 
we  have  still  to  determine  under  what  particular 
conditions  a  given  association  is  formed.  Many 
of  these  particular  and  more  important  condi- 
tions have  been  determined ;  they  include  re- 
cency,  frequency,  vividness    (the  more  recently 


or  frequently  or  vividly  a  process  or  group  of 
processes  has  stood  in  consciousness  the  greater 
the  liability  of  its  appearing  in  an  associative 
connection),  the  general  interests  of  the  indi- 
vidual mind  (for  example,  botanical  ideas  crop 
up  in  the  botanist's  mind,  geological  ideas  in  the 
mind  of  the  geologist),  the  presence  or  absence 
of  inhibitory  associations  (if  a  has  already  stood 
associated  with  b  and  c,  its  chances  for  associat- 
ing with  d  will  be  lessened),  mood  (unpleasant 
subjects  crowd  into  mind  when  one  is  de- 
pressed), etc.  The  actual  liability  of  a  given 
association  being  formed  is  thus  seen  to  rest  upon 
a  great  number  of  possible  conditions.  So  far 
as  there  is  any  truth  in  a  general  all-inclusive 
"law"  of  association  it  is  best  expressed  as  a  law 
of  neural  habit.  This  law  is  formulated  by 
W.  James  as  follows:  "when  two  elementary 
brain-processes  have  been  active  together  or  in 
immediate  succession,  one  of  them,  on  reoc- 
curring,  tends  to  propagate  its  excitement  into 
the  other."  The  relation  of  this  law  to  the  law 
of  contiguity  is  obvious. 

Consult:  James,  'Principles  of  Psychology' 
(1890),  ch.  xiv. ;  Titchener,  'Experimental 
Psychology,'  pt.  II.  (1901),  402;  Kuelpe,  'Out- 
lines of  Psychology'  (trans.  1895),  177ft ; 
Calkins,  'Introduction  to  Psychology'  (1901), 
I57ff-  I.    M.   Bentley, 

Assistant     Professor    of    Psychology,     Cornell 
University. 

Associa'tion  for  the  Protection  of  the 
Adirondacks,  a  society  organized  in  1902 
and  incorporated  the  same  year  for  the  purpose 
of  preserving  the  forests,  waters,  game,  and 
fish,  and  to  maintain  healthful  conditions  in  the 
Adirondack  region. 

Assollant,  as'so'lan',  Alfred,  a  French 
novelist  and  political  writer;  b.  Aubusson,  20 
March  1827;  d.  Paris.  March  1880.  Having 
traveled  extensively  over  the  United  States,  he 
published,  on  his  return,  'Scenes  from  Life  in 
the  United  States'  (1858),  a  series  of  tales 
which  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention. 
Among  his  numerous  novels  arc  'Two  Friends 
in  1792'  (1859),  a  story  of  the  Reign  of  Terror; 
'Brancas'  (1859),  a  picture  of  the  corruption 
under  Louis  Philippe;  'Gabrielle  de  Cbenevert' 
(1865),  portraying  the  provincial  nobility  be- 
fore the  Revolution;  'Pendragon'  (1881),  and 
'Plantagenet'    (1885). 

Assommoir,  L\  Ia'so'mwar',  a  novel  by 
Emile  Zola,  entitled  'Gervaise'  in  the  English 
translation,  published  in  1877.  It  forms  one  of 
the  scries  dealing  with  the  fortunes  of  the 
Rougon-Macquart  family,  and  is  a  series  of  re- 
pulsive pictures  unrelieved  by  one  gleam  of  a 
nobler  humanity,  but  only  "realistic"  as  scraps: 
the  life  as  a  possible  whole  is  as  purely  imagi- 
native as  if  it  were  lovely  instead  of  loathsome. 

As'sonance,  in  poetry,  a  term  used  when 
the  lines  end  with  the  same  vowel-sound,  but 
make  no  proper  rhyme.  Such  verses  having 
what  we  should  consider  false  rhymes  are  reg- 
ularly employed  in  Spanish  poetry ;  as  in  ligera, 
cubierta,  tierra,  mesa. 

Assos,  as'6s,  an  ancient  Hellenic  port  on 
the  Gulf  of  Edremid,  from  whose  still  imposing 
remains  the  successful  excavations,  in  1881-3, 
of  the  American  Institute  of  Archaeology  have 
brought  to  light  the  agora,  with  senate  house 
and  colonnade,  a  bath,  theatre,  gymnasium,  stat- 
ues of  heroes,  and  seven  Christian  churches. 


ASSOUAN 


Assouan,  a-swan',  or  Assuan,  also  called 
Eswan  (Arabic  al  suaau,  "the  opening,"  that  is, 
of  the  Nile ;  the  ancient  Syene,  whence  the  red 
granite  of  the  vicinity  —  from  whose  famous 
quarries  were  cut  under  the  earliest  dynasties  so 
many  of  the  huge  obelisks  and  colossal  statues 
that  adorned  the  temples  and  palaces  of  Egypt 
—  is  called  syenite),  the  southernmost  city  of 
Egypt  proper,  near  Nubia,  on  the  right  or  eastern 
bank  of  the  Nile,  and  beside  the  first  or  lowest 
cataract.  Near  it  are  the  islands  of  Philse  and 
Elephantine,  the  ruined  monuments  of  the  for- 
mer of  which  are  of  such  fascination  to  tourists ; 
on  the  left  bank  are  many  rock  tombs  of  the 
ancient  dynasties.  It  is  a  garrison  town,  the 
central  depot  for  the  Sudan  caravan  trade,  and 
the  terminus  of  a  railway  to  Alexandria  which 
enhances  its  prosperity.  Of  still  greater  im- 
portance is  the  new  dam  which  will  add  sev- 
eral hundred  square  miles  outright  to  the  arable 
soil  of  Egypt,  besides  steadying  the  fertility  of 
the  older  lands,  and  which  is  described  in  ex- 
tenso  below.  Pop.  about  10,000,  including  the 
suburbs. 

The  monumental  dam  at  Assouan,  by  far  the 
greatest  achievement  of  the  kind  in  ancient  or 
modern  times,  forms  a  reservoir  in  the  Nile  val- 
ley capable  of  storing  1,000,000,000  tons  of  water. 
It  will  not  only  produce  a  revolution  in  the 
primitive  and  laborious  methods  of  irrigation  in 
Egypt,  but  will  reclaim  vast  areas  of  land  that 
have  hitherto  been  accounted  as  arid  and  worth- 
less. The  old  system  of  irrigation  was  lit- 
tle more  than  a  high  Nile  flooding  of  differ- 
ent areas  of  land  or  basins  surrounded  by 
embankments.  Less  than  a  hundred  years  ago, 
the  introduction  of  perennial  irrigation  was  first 
attempted  by  cutting  deep  canals  to  convey  the 
water  to  the  lands  when  the  Nile  was  at  its  low 
summer  level.  When  the  Nile  rose,  these  ca- 
nals had  to  be  blocked  by  temporary  earthen 
dams,  or  the  current  would  have  wrought  de- 
struction. As  a  result,  they  silted  up,  and  had  to 
be  cleared  of  many  millions  of  tons  of  mud  each 
year  by  enforced  labor,  much  misery  and  extor- 
tion resulting  therefrom.  About  half  a  century 
ago  the  first  serious  attempt  to  improve  mat- 
ters was  made  by  the  construction  of  the  cele- 
brated Barrage  at  the  apex  of  the  delta.  This 
work  consists,  in  effect,  of  two  brick-arched  via- 
ducts crossing  the  Rosetta  and  Damietta,  branch- 
es of  the  Nile,  having  together  132  arches  of 
16  feet  4  inches  span,  which  were  entirely  closed 
by  iron  sluices  during  the  summer  months,  thus 
heading  up  the  water  some  15  feet  and  throwing 
it  at  a  high  level  into  the  six  main  irrigation 
canals  below  Cairo.  In  the  summer  months  the 
whole  flow  of  the  Nile  is  arrested  and  thrown 
into  the  aforesaid  canals.  The  old  Barrage  was 
constructed  under  great  difficulties  by  French  en- 
gineers, subject  to  the  passing  whims  of  their 
Oriental  chiefs.  About  15  years  elapsed  between 
the  commencement  of  the  work  and  the  closing 
of  all  the  sluices,  and  another  20  years  before 
the  structure  was  sufficiently  strengthened  by 
British  engineers  to  fulfil  the  duties  for  which  it 
was  originally  designed.  Forced  labor  was  large- 
ly employed  in  its  construction,  and  at  one  time 
12,000  soldiers.  3.000  marines.  2.000  laborers,  and 
1,000  masons  were  at  work  at  the  old  Barrage. 

In  connection  with  the  Nile  reservoir,  sub- 
sidiary weirs  were  constructed  below  the  old 
Barrage  to  reduce  the  stress  on  that  structure. 


The  system  adopted  was  a  novel  one,  devised  by 
Major  Brown,  inspector-general  of  irrigation  in 
lower  Egypt.  His  aim  was  to  dispense  almost 
entirely  with  plant  and  skilled  labor;  and  so, 
without  attempting  to  dry  the  bed  of  the  river,  he 
made  solid  masonry  blocks  under  water  by 
grouting  rubble  dropped  by  natives  into  a 
movable  timber  caisson.  Both  branches  of  the 
Nile  were  thus  dammed  in  three  seasons,  at  a 
cost,  including  navigation  locks,  of  about  $2,- 
500,000.  Many  other  subsidiary  works  have 
been  and  will  be  constructed,  including  regula- 
tors, such  as  that  on  the  Bahr  Yusuf  canal.  The 
most  important  of  the  works  is  the  Barrage 
across  the  Nile  at  Assiout,  about  250  miles  above 
Cairo,  which  was  commenced  by  Sir  John  Aird 
&  Co.  in  the  winter  of  1898  and  completed  in 
1902.  The  great  dam  at  Assouan,  850  miles 
above  Cairo,  is  not  a  solid  wall,  but  is  pierced 
with  sluice  openings  of  sufficient  area  for  the 
flood  discharge  of  the  river,  which  may  amount 
to  13,000  tons  of  water  per  second.  There  are 
180  such  openings,  mostly  23  feet  high  by  6 
feet  6  inches  wide;  and  where  subject  to  heavy 
pressure  when  being  moved  they  are  of  the  well- 
known  Stoney  roller  pattern.  The  total  length 
of  the  dam  is  about  1%  miles;  the  maximum 
height  from  foundation,  about  130  feet ;  the  dif- 
ference of  level  water  above  and  below,  67 
feet ;  and  the  total  weight  of  masonry  over 
1,000,000  tons.  Navigation  is  provided  for  by 
a  "ladder"  of  four  locks,  each  260  feet  long  by 
32  feet  wide.  As  was  the  case  at  Assiout,  the 
difficulties  in  dam  construction  are  not  in  de- 
sign, but  in  the  carrying  out  of  the  works. 
When  the  "rotten  rock"  in  the  bed  was  dis- 
covered, Sir  Benjamin  Baker  reported  to  Lord 
Cromer  frankly  that  he  could  not  say  what  the 
extra  cost  or  time  involved  by  this  and  other  un- 
foreseen conditions  would  be,  and  that  all  that 
could  be  said  was  that,  however  bad  the  condi- 
tions, the  job  could  be  done.  Lord  Cromer  re- 
plied that  the  dam  had  to  be  completed  whatever 
the  time  and  cost  involved.  The  contract  was  let 
to  Sir  John  Aird  &  Co.,  of  London,  with  Messrs. 
Ransomes  and  Rapier,  of  London,  as  sub-con- 
tractors for  the  steel  work,  in  February  1808.  Two 
months  after  signing  the  contract  the  permanent 
works  were  commenced,  and  before  the  end  of 
the  year  thousands  of  native  laborers  and  hun- 
dreds of  Italian  granite  masons  were  hard  at 
work.  On  12  Feb.  1899.  the  foundation  stone 
of  the  dam  was  laid  by  the  Duke  of  Connaught. 
Many  plans  were  considered  by  the  engineers 
and  contractors  for  putting  in  the  foundations 
of  the  dam  across  the  roaring  cataract  channels, 
and  it  was  finally  decided  to  form  temporary 
nibble  dams  across  three  of  the  channels  be- 
low the  site  of  the  great  dam,  so  as  to  break 
the  force  of  the  torrent  and  get  a  pond  of  com- 
paratively still  water  up  stream  to  work  in. 
Stones  of  from  I  ton  to  12  tons  in  weight  were 
tipped  into  the  cataract,  till  finally  a  rubble 
mound  appeared  above  the  surface.  The  first 
channel  was  successfully  closed  on  17  May  1899, 
the  depth  being  about  30  feet  and  the  vela 
of  current  nearly  15  miles  an  hour.  In  the  case 
of  another  channel  the  closing  had  to  be  helped 
by  tipping  in  railway  cars  themselves,  loaded 
with  heavy  stones  and  bound  together  with  wire 
ropes,  making  a  mass  of  about  50  tons,  the  great 
mass  being  necessary  to  resist  displacement  by 
the  torrent. 


ASSUMPSIT  —  ASSUMPTION 


These  rubble  dams  were  well  tested  when  the 
high  Nile  ran  over  them ;  and  on  work  being  re- 
sumed in  November,  after  the  fall  of  the  river, 
water-tight  sandbag  dams,  or  "sudds,"  were 
made  around  the  site  of  the  dam  foundation  in 
the  still  waters  above  the  rubble  dams,  and 
pumps  were  fixed  to  lay  dry  the  bed  of  the  river. 
This  was  the  most  exciting  time  in  this  stage 
of  the  operations,  for  no  one  could  predict 
whether  it  would  be  possible  to  dry  the  bed,  or 
whether  the  water  would  not  pour  through 
the  fissured  rock  in  overwhelming  volume. 
Twenty-four  12-inch  centrifugal  pumps  were 
provided  to  deal,  if  necessary,  with  one  small 
channel ;  but  happily  the  sandbags  and  gravel 
and  sand  embankments  stanched  the  fissures 
in  the  rock  and  interstices  between  the  great 
boulders  covering  the  bottom  of  this  channel, 
and  a  couple  of  12-inch  pumps  sufficed.  The 
masonry  of  the  dam  is  of  local  granite,  set  in 
British  Portland  cement  mortar.  The  interior 
is  of  rubble  set  by  hand,  with  about  40  per  cent 
of  the  bulk  in  cement  mortar,  four  of  sand  to 
one  of  cement.  All  the  face  work  is  of  coursed 
rock-faced  ashlar,  except  the  sluice  linings, 
which  are  finely  dressed.  This  was  steam  crane 
and  Italian  masons'  work.  There  was  a  great 
pressure  at  times  to  get  a  section  completed  be- 
fore the  inevitable  lise  of  the  Nile,  and  as  much 
as  3,600  tons  of  masonry  was  executed  per 
day,  chiefly  at  one  point  in  the  dam.  A  triple 
line  of  railway  and  numerous  cars  and  locomo- 
tives were  provided  to  convey  the  materials  from 
quarries  and  stores  to  every  part  of  the  work. 
The  maximum  number  of  men  employed  was 
11,000,  of  whom  1,000  were  European  masons 
and  other  skilled  men.  Mr.  Wilfred  Stokes, 
chief  engineer  and  managing  director  of  Messrs. 
Ransomes  and  Rapier,  was  responsible  for  the 
detailed  designing  and  manufacture  of  the 
sluices  and  lock  gates :  140  of  the  sluices  are  23 
feet  high  by  6  feet  6  inches  wide,  and  40  of 
them  half  that  height;  130  of  the  sluices  are  on 
the  "Stoney"  principle  with  rollers,  and  the  re- 
mainder move  on  sliding  surfaces.  The  larger 
of  the  Stoncy  sluices  weigh  14  tons,  and  are 
capable  of  being  moved  by  hand  under  a  head  of 
water  producing  a  pressure  of  450  tons  against 
the  sluice.  There  are  five  lock  gates,  32  feet 
wide,  and  varying  in  height  up  to  60  feet.  They 
are  of  an  entirely  different  type  from  ordinary 
folding  lock  gates,  being  hung  from  the  top  on 
rollers,  and  moving  like  a  sliding  coach-house 
door.  This  arrangement  was  adopted  for  safe- 
ty, as  1,000.000,000  tons  of  water  are  stored  up 
above  the  lock  gates,  and  each  of  the  two  upper 
gates  is  made  strong  enough  to  hold  up  the 
water,  assuming  that  the  four  other  gates  were 
destroyed.  When  the  river  is  rising  the  sluices 
will  all  be  open,  and  the  red  water  will  pass  free- 
ly through,  without  depositing  the  fertilizing 
silt.  After  the  flood  when  the  water  has  become 
clear,  and  the  discharge  of  the  Nile  has  fallen 
to  about  2,000  tons  per  second,  the  gates  without 
rollers  will  be  closed,  and  then  some  of  those 
with  rollers*  so  that  between  December  and 
March  the  reservoir  will  be  gradually  filled. 
The  reopening  of  the  sluices  will  take  place  be- 
tween May  and  July,  according  to  the  state  of 
the  Nile  and  the  requirements  of  the  crops.  Be- 
tween December  and  May,  when  the  reservoir  is 
full,  the  island  of  Philae  will  in  places  be  slightly 
flooded.    As  the  temples  are  founded  partly  on 


loose  silt  and  sand,  the  saturation  of  the  hith- 
erto dry  soil  would  cause  settlement,  and  no 
doubt  injury  to  the  ruins.  To  obviate  this  risk, 
all  the  important  parts,  including  the  well-known 
Kiosk,  or  "Pharaoh's  bed,"  have  been  cither 
carried  on  steel  girders  or  underpinned  down  to 
rock ;  or  failing  that,  to  the  present  saturation 
level.  It  need  hardly  lie  said  that  having  regard 
to  the  shattered  condition  of  the  columns  and 
entablatures,  the  friability  of  the  stone,  and  the 
running  sand  foundation,  the  process  of  under- 
pinning was  an  exceptionally  difficult  and  anx- 
ious task.  It  is  impossible  to  estimate  the  far- 
reaching  beneficial  influence  these  irrigation 
works  will  bestow  upon  Egypt;  but  the  recla- 
mation of  so  many  thousands  of  acres  of  desert 
for  agricultural  development  cannot  fail  to  im- 
prove the  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  land, 
and  assist  Egypt  to  regain  the  prosperity  it  en- 
joyed in  the  era  of  the  Pharaohs,  with  a  greater 
cultivable  area  than  it  had  even  then.  See 
Irrigation  ;  Nile. 

Assump'sit,  in  law,  an  action  to  recover  a 
compensation  in  damages  for  non-performance 
of  a  simple  contract;  that  is,  a  promise,  whether 
verbal  or  written,  not  contained  in  a  deed  under 
seal.  The  word  assumpsit  (Latin)  means,  he 
undertook,  and  was  taken  as  the  name  of  this 
action  from  its  occurrence  in  declarations,  that 
is,  formal  statements  of  the  plaintiff's  cause  of 
action,  when  these  were  in  Latin.  Assumpsits 
were  of  two  kinds,  express  and  implied;  the 
former  being  where  the  contracts  were  actually 
made  in  word  or  writing;  the  latter  being  such 
as  the  law  implies  from  the  justice  of  the  case; 
as,  for  instance,  if  one  is  employed  to  perform 
service  or  labor,  the  obvious  justice  of  paying 
him  a  reasonable  sum  therefor  when  completed 
raises  an  implication,  in  law,  of  a  promise  to 
make  such  payment. 

Assump'tion,  a  city  in  Paraguay.  See 
Asuncion. 

Assump'tion,  a  Church  festival  celebrating 
the  translation  into  heaven  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
kept  on  15  August.  The  legend  first  ap- 
peared in  the  3d  or  4th  century,  and  the  fes- 
tival was  instituted  some  three  centuries  later. 
The  story  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  num- 
ber of  paintings  by  the  most  celebrated  artists 
in  history.     The  following  are  the  best  known: 

(1)  Titian:  in  the  Accademia  in  Venica ;  repre- 
sents the  Virgin  being  carried  on  bright  clouds 
to  heaven,  surrounded  by  rejoicing  angels,  while 
the  apostles  look  up  from  earth  in  amazement ; 

(2)  Titian:  another  painting  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Verona;  (3)  Correggio:  frescoes  in  the  cupola 
of  the  cathedral  in  Parma,  Italy;  (4)  Rubens: 
painting  in  the  cathedral  at  Antwerp,  Belgium; 
representing  the  Virgin  being  carried  to  heaven, 
surrounded  by  angels,  while  several  apostles  and 
women  are  gathered  at  the  empty  tomb  below ; 
(5)  Perugino:  in  the  Accademia,  in  Florence; 
showing,  in  addition  to  the  Virgin,  four  saints 
in  the  foreground;  the  representation  of  the  Vir- 
gin is  considered  one  of  Perugino's  most  beau- 
tiful figures;  (6)  Guido  Rcni :  a  large  canvas  ill 
Bridgewater  House,  in  London;  (7)  Gaudenzio 
Ferrari :  fresco  in  the  Church  of  San  Cristo- 
foro,  in  Vercelli,  Italy;  showing  figures  of  the 
Father,  the  Virgin,  the  angels,  and  the  apostles; 
(8)  Murillo:  painting  in  the  Hermitage  Museum, 
St.  Petersburg;  representing  the  Virgin  floating 


ASSOUAN   DAM. 
Bird's-eye  View  of  the  Structure  and  Surrounding  Region. 


ASSURANCE  —  ASSYRIA 


upward  on  clouds,  with  bands  of  cherubs  above 
and  below  her;  (g)  Guercino:  a  painting,  also  in 
the  Hermitage  Museum;  showing  the  Virgin, 
with  uplifted  face,  being  borne  upward  on  a 
cloud,  with  angel  attendants,  and  the  apostles 
standing  about  her  empty  tomb.  'The  Assump- 
tion of  Moses'  is  the  title  of  an  apocryphal  book, 
giving  an  account  of  the  reception  of  Moses  in 
heaven,  written  probably  20  a.d. 

Assurance,  Sisters  of  the,  a  teaching  Order  of 
Sisters  in  the  Catholic  Church,  founded  by  Mon- 
signor  Afire  in  Paris  in  1839. 

Assu'rance.     See  Insurance. 

Assurbanipal,  as'soor-ba'ne-pal'.  See  As- 
syria; Nineveh;  Sardanapalus. 

As'sus.     See  Assos. 

Assynt,  as'int,  a  wild  and  rugged  district 
of  Scotland.  There  are  inexhaustible  quarries 
of  marble,  both  white  and  variegated.  Fresh- 
water lakes  are  numerous;  the  largest,  Loch 
Assynt,  is  about  seven  miles  in  length  and  one 
mile  in  breadth. 

Assyr'ia  (the  Asshur  of  the  Hebrews, 
Athura  of  the  ancient  Persians),  the  ancient 
name  of  a  portion  of  Mesopotamia,  lying  main- 
ly between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  the 
seat  of  the  earliest  recorded  monarchy.  In  the 
earliest  times  it  was  probably  limited  to  the  low- 
lying  tract  between  the  Jcbel  Makloub  and  the 
little  Zab  (Zab-Asfal),  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tigris ;  but  at  its  greatest  extent  Assyria  must 
have  been  nearly  500  miles  long,  with  an  area  of 
about  100,000  square  miles.  Toward  the  north 
Assyria  bordered  on  the  mountainous  country 
of  Armenia,  which  may  at  times  have  been  un- 
der Assyrian  dominion,  but  which  at  no  time 
was  considered  as  an  actual  part  of  the  country. 
On  the  east  dwelt  numerous  independent  and 
warlike  tribes,  sheltered  by  the  fastnesses  of  the 
Zagros  Mountains.  On  the  south  Susiana  or 
Elam  was  the  frontier  state  east  of  the  Tigris, 
while  Babylonia  occupied  the  same  position  be- 
tween the  rivers.  West  of  Assyria  lay  Arabia, 
and  higher  up  Syria  and  the  land  of  the  Hittites. 
The  chief  cities  of  Assyria  in  the  days  of  its 
greatest  prosperity  were  Ninevah,  whose  site  is 
marked  by  the  mounds  opposite  Mosul  (Nebi 
Yunus  and  Koyunjik),  Calah  or  Kalakh  (the 
modern  Nimrud),  Asshur  or  Al  Asur  (Kalah 
Sherghat),  Sargina,  Khorsabad),  Arhela  (Ar- 
bil),  etc.  The  surface  of  the  country  within  its 
widest  limits  was  of  a  diversified  character.  On 
the  north  and  east  the  lofty  mountain-ranges  of 
Armenia  and  Kurdistan  are  succeeded  by  low 
ranges  of  arid  limestone  hills,  occasionally  en- 
closing fertile  plains  and  valleys.  Immediately 
south  of  this  is  a  well-watered,  productive,  and 
undulating  belt  of  country,  into  which  run  lime- 
stone rocks  of  a  golden  color,  and  wooded  with 
dwarf-oak.  This  sinks  suddenly  down  upon  the 
great  Mesopotamian  plain  (the  modern  El  Jez- 
ireh),  about  250  miles  in  length,  interrupted  only 
by  a  single  limestone  range  rising  suddenly  out 
of  the  plain  and  branching  off  from  the  Zagros 
Mountains.  The  numerous  remains  of  ancient 
habitations  show  how  thickly  this  vast  Hat  must 
have  once  been  peopled ;  now,  for  the  most  part, 
it  is  a  mere  wilderness. 

History. —  Scripture  tells  us  that  the  early 
inhabitants  of  Assyria  went  from  Babylon,  and 


the  traditions  of  later  times,  as  well  as  inscrip- 
tions on  the  disinterred  Assyrian  monuments, 
and  the  character  of  those  remains,  go  to  show 
that  the  power  and  civilization  of  Babylon  were 
earlier  than  those  of  Assyria.  In  Genesis  x.  11  it 
is  mentioned  that  Nineveh  was  founded  by  As- 
shur, but  for  long  the  country  was  subject  to 
governors  appointed  by  the  kings  of  Babylon. 
We  learn  from  monumental  inscriptions  that 
about  1820  b.c,  when  Asshur  was  the  capital 
of  the  country,  Samsi-vul  founded  temples  there 
to  Asshur,  the  great  national  deity,  and  to  Ann 
and  Vul,  besides  a  temple  to  the  goddess  of 
Nineveh  in  the  city  of  that  name.  The  Assyrian 
rulers  gradually  began  to  treat  with  their  south- 
ern neighbors  on  equal  terms,  the  boundaries  "i 
the  two  countries  were  for  a  time  clearly  marked 
out,  and  intermarriages  among  the  reigning  fam- 
ilies occasionally  took  place.  About  the  latter 
end  of  the  14th  century  Shalmaneser  acquired 
the  whole  of  Naharain  (the  country  round  the 
sources  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris)  by  con- 
quest, and  planted  Assyrian  colonies  there ;  he 
also  founded  the  city  of  Kalakh  or  Calah,  and 
restored  the  great  temple  at  Nineveh.  About 
1300  B.C.  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  '1  iglath- 
ninip,  who  conquered  the  whole  of  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates,  and  built  or  restored  the  palace 
at  Asshur.  The  five  following  reigns  were 
occupied  with  wars,  more  or  less  successful, 
with  the  Babylonians.  About  the  year  1120  B.C. 
Tiglath-Pileser  I.,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
the  sovereigns  of  the  first  Assyrian  monarchy, 
ascended  the  throne,  beginning  his  reign  by  the 
conquest  of  the  Syrians  and  Hittites  in  the  west. 
He  then  carried  his  arms  far  and  wide,  subjugat- 
ing the  Moschians,  Commagenians.  (Jrumians, 
and  other  tribes  in  the  north  ;  on  the  south  he 
shattered  the  Babylonian  power,  and  captured 
their  capital.  But  this  empire,  acquired  and 
ruled  by  the  energy  and  genius  of  one  man,  be- 
gan to  fall  to  pieces  at  his  death  (1100).  The 
period  of  decline  lasted  over  200  years,  during 
which  time  little  is  known  of  Assyrian  history. 
Under  Assur-nazir-pal,  who  reigned  from  884  to 
859  B.C.,  Assyria  once  more  advanced  to  the 
position  of  the  leading  power  in  the  world.  The 
extent  of  his  kingdom  was  greater  than  that  of 
Tiglath-Pileser,  and  the  magnificent  palaces, 
temples,  and  other  buildings  erected  during  his 
reign,  with  their  elaborate  sculptures  and  paint- 
ings, prove  that  wealth,  art,  and  luxury  must 
have  reached  a  high  stage  of  development. 
When  he  ascended  the  throne  Nineveh  was  the 
capital  of  the  kingdom,  but  he  restored  and 
beautified  Calah,  which  had  suffered  during  the 
troubled  and  declining  years  of  the  country,  made 
it  his  favorite  residence,  and  raised  it  to  the  dig- 
nity of  the  chief  city  of  the  state.  Among  the 
first  acts  of  his  reign  was  the  suppression  of  a 
revolt  by  the  Assyrian  colonists  of  Naharain 
(883).  This  was  followed  by  the  victorious 
campaigns  in  Zamua  on  the  eastern  frontier 
(882-881),  against  several  rebellious  provinces  in 
the  northwest  (880),  and  against  the  Shukhi  or 
Shuhites,  who  then  occupied  a  tract  of  country 
between  Babylon  and  Assyria  (879).  In  another 
expedition  he  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  ad- 
vanced to  the  Mediterranean,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Orontes.  In  859  Assur-nazir-pal  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son  Shalmaneser  II.,  whose  career 
of  conquest  was  equally  successful.  The  clos- 
ing years  of  his  reign  were  troubled  by  tire  re- 


ASSYRIA 


bcllion  of  his  eldest  son,  Assur-dain-pal,  who  had 
gained  over  to  his  side  the  cities  of  Nineveh, 
Assur,  Arbela,  and  other  important  towns.  Af- 
ter much  fighting  the  rebellion  was  put  down  by 
Shalmaneser's  second  son  Samsi-vul  (Samas- 
Kimmon),  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  824. 
The  old  dynasty  came  to  an  end  in  the  person  of 
Assurnirai  II.,  who  was  driven  from  the  throne 
by  a  usurper,  Tiglath-Pileser,  in  745,  after  a 
struggle  of  some  years.  No  sooner  was  this  able 
ruler  firmly  seated  on  the  throne  than  he  made 
an  expedition  into  Babylonia,  followed  by  an- 
Other  to  the  east  in  744.  In  the  following  year 
an  alliance  was  formed  against  Assyria  between 
Sarduri,  king  of  Armenia,  and  several  neigh- 
boring princes,  and  the  Syrians  came  to  their 
assistance  at  Arpad,  on  the  Euphrates.  Here 
they  were  defeated  with  great  slaughter  by  Tig- 
lath-Pileser, and  the  Armenian  king  was  chased 
in  the  gates  of  his  capital,  Turuspa.  The  con- 
queror  now  advanced  against  Syria,  overthrew 
the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Damascus  and  I  la- 
mat  h,  and  placed  his  vassal  Hosea  on  the  throne 
lit'  Samaria.  A  protracted  campaign  in  Media 
(737-735),  another  in  Armenia,  and  the  mem- 
orable expedition  into  Syria  mentioned  in  2 
Kings  xvi.,  are  among  the  most  important  events 
of  the  latter  years  of  his  reign.  Tiglath-Pileser 
was  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Assyrians;  he 
carried  the  Assyrian  arms  from  Lake  Van  on 
the  north  to  the.  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south,  and 
from  the  confines  of  India  on  the  east  to  the 
Nile  on  the  west.  Yet  he  was  not  able  to  keep 
his  seat  on  the  throne,  being  driven  from  it  by 
another  claimant  named  Shalmaneser  (727). 
Little  is  known  of  the  five  years'  reign  of  this 
prince.  He  blockaded  Tyre  for  five  years,  and 
on  the  revolt  of  Hosea,  king  of  Israel,  in  league 
with  Sabako,  king  of  Egypt,  he  invaded  Israel 
and  besieged  Samaria,  but  died  before  the  city 
was  reduced.  His  successor  Sargon  (722-705) 
claimed  descent  from  the  ancient  Assyrian 
kings.  At  the  very  opening  of  his  reign,  after 
taking  Samaria  and  leading  over  18,000  people 
captive,  he  overthrew  the  combined  forces  of 
Elam  (Susiana)  and  Babylon.  In  719  Sargon 
turned  his  arms  against  the  revolted  Armenians, 
and  in  717  he  besieged  and  took  the  rich  trading 
city  of  Carchemesh,  which  had  also  risen  against 
his  authority ;  here  an  immense  spoil  fell  into 
his  hands.  In  716  the  Armenians  and  several 
tributary  princes  in  the  north  again  took  up 
arms  for  independence,  but  the  Assyrians  having 
again  triumphed  the  Armenian  king  committed 
suicide  and  the  other  princes  submitted.  The 
attitude  of  Babylonia  now  began  to  look  ex- 
tremely dangerous.  Merodach-Baladan,  a  Chal- 
dsean  leader,  taking  advantage  of  the  troubles 
which  closed  the  reign  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  had 
possessed  himself  of  Babylonia,  and  held  it  for 
12  years,  strengthening  himself  by  alliances 
with  Egypt  and  the  various  rulers  of  Palestine. 
In  710  Merodach-Baladan  was  driven  out  of 
Babylonia ;  in  a  single  campaign  the  allies  were 
crushed,  Judah  was  overrun,  and  Ashdod  level- 
ed to  the  ground.  Sargon  spent  the  latter 
years  of  his  reign  in  internal  reforms,  and  in 
founding  or  beautifying  several  cities  of  his 
kingdom.  A  new  city,  called  Dur-Sargina,  was 
founded  to  the  north  of  Nineveh,  the  library 
of  Calah  was  restored  and  enlarged,  and  spe- 
cial attention  was  devoted  to  law  reform.  In 
the  midst  of  these  labors  Sargon  was  murdered, 


and   was  succeeded  by  Sennacherib,  one  of  his 
younger  sons,  in  705. 

No  sooner  was  Sennacherib  seated  on  the 
throne  than  he  was  compelled  to  take  up  arms 
against  Merodach-Baladan,  who  had  again  ob- 
tained possession  of  Babylon.  In  701  fresh 
outbreaks  in  Syria  led  him  in  that  direction. 
He  first  swept  down  on  Zidon,  drove  the  king 
into  Cyprus,  and  seated  Tubal  on  his  empty 
throne.  Next  he  deposed  Zidqa  of  Askelon,  and 
advanced  against  Ekron  and  Judah.  The  peo- 
ple of  Ekron  had  dethroned  Padi  their  king, 
and  gave  him  into  the  hands  of  Hezekiah,  king 
of  Judah.  The  Egyptian  and  Ethiopian  forces 
advanced  to  the  assistance  of  their  Judean  allies, 
but  Sennacherib  totally  routed  the  confederates 
at  Allaqa  in  Judah,  which  he  rapidly  overran, 
taking  46  of  its  fortified  cities.  Hezekiah  now 
submitted,  agreeing  to  pay  the  conqueror  a  sum 
of  30  talents  of  gold  and  800  talents  of  silver. 
Padi  was  given  up  and  restored  to  Ekron,  and 
after  Sennacherib  had  chastised  the  rebels  he 
returned  to  Assyria.  The  threatening  aspect  of 
affairs  in  Babylonia  and  Elam  again  called  his 
attention  to  the  south  in  700,  and  in  699  he  ad- 
vanced to  the  northern  boundaries  of  his  king- 
dom to  quell  the  insurrections  which  had  broken 
out  among  the  hill  tribes.  His  second  expedi- 
tion into  Syria  is  one  of  the  most  memorable 
in  the  history  of  Assyria,  and  is  briefly  recorded 
in  2  Kings  xix.  But  his  career  of  conquest 
was  stopped  by  an  appalling  catastrophe:  his 
army  lay  before  Libna,  when  in  one  night  "the 
angel  of  Jehovah  went  out  and  smote  in  the 
camp  of  the  Assyrians  185,000  men"  (2  Kings 
xix.  35).  Sennacherib  himself  returned  to  As- 
syria, and  occupied  the  last  years  of  his  reign 
in  repressing  the  outbreaks  of  the  Babylonians 
and  Elamites,  in  constructing  canals  and  aque- 
ducts, and  in  entirely  rebuilding  Nineveh.  In 
681  he  was  murdered  by  his  two  sons,  Adram- 
melech  and  Sharezer,  but  they  soon  found  them- 
selves confronted  by  a  veteran  army  under  Esar- 
haddon,  their  father's  younger  and  favorite  son, 
who  defeated  them  in  a  battle  at  Kanirabbat, 
and  assumed  the  crown   (680). 

Esar-haddon  fixed  his  residence  at  Babylon, 
where  he  governed  in  person  during  the  whole 
of  his  reign.  The  most  important  event  of  this 
reign  was  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  which  left  As- 
syria the  mistress  of  the  world.  In  672  Esar- 
haddon  led  his  forces  into  Egypt,  drove  out 
Tirhakah,  its  Ethiopian  ruler,  and  divided  the 
land  into  20  separate  kingdoms,  the  rulers  of 
which  were  his  vassals.  Feeling  unable  to  cope 
in  person  with  his  rebellious  tributaries,  Esar- 
haddon  associated  his  son  Assurbani-pal  with 
him  in  the  government  of  the  kingdom  (669), 
dying  two  years  later.  But  constant  wars  were 
beginning  to  exhaust  the  men  and  treasure  of 
the  empire ;  and  luxury,  which  had  flowed  sud- 
denly in  like  a  flood,  was  enervating  the  people. 
The  king  now  no  longer  appeared  at  the  head  of 
his  army,  but  intrusted  it  to  generals,  and  aban- 
doned himself  to  indolence  and  sensuality.  As- 
surbani-pal was  a  zealous  patron  of  the  arts ; 
learned  men  fom  all  countries  were  welcomed  to 
his  court;  literary  works  were  collected  from  all 
sources ;  the  library  of  Nineveh  was  greatly  aug- 
mented ;  the  study  of  the  dead  language  of  Accad 
was  encouraged,  and  dictionaries  and  grammars 
were  compiled.  The  buildings  were  unrivalled 
for  magnificence,  his  palace  glittering  with  gold 


ASSYRIA 


and  silver,  and  adorned  with  the  rarest  sculp- 
tures. Unfortunately  the  king's  character  was 
marked  by  cruelty  and  sensuality,  and  his  exam- 
ple descended  through  the  court  to  the  people. 
He  died  in  625,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Assurebilili-kain,  under  whom  Babylon  definite- 
ly threw  off  the  Assyrian  yoke.  The  country 
continued  rapidly  to  decline,  fighting  hard  for 
mere  existence  until,  under  its  last  king  Sarcus, 
Nineveh  was  captured  and  burned  by  the  allied 
forces  of  the  Medes  and  Babylonians  in  606  B.& 
Ethnology,  Language,  Religion,  etc. —  The 
original  inhabitants  of  Assyria  and  Babylonia 
belonged  to  that  race  variously  called  Turanian, 
Ural-Altaic,  Scythian,  or  Tatar,  and  which  ap- 
pears at  one  time  to  have  occupied  the  entire  re- 
gion from  the  Caucasus  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  delta  of  the 
Ganges.  The  ancient  Assyrians,  therefore,  were 
of  the  same  stock  as  that  from  which  the  Finns, 
Turks,  and  Magyars  have  descended ;  and  their 
language,  which  has  been  preserved  to  us  in 
inscriptions,  and  is  known  by  the  name  of  Ac- 
cadian,  is  allied  to  the  Ugro-Bulgaric  division 
of  the  Finnic  group  of  languages.  The  Akkadai 
or  Accad  race  descended  from  the  mountainous 
region  of  Elam  on  the  east,  and  the  origin  of 
Chaldaean  civilization  and  writing  was  due  to 
them.  In  course  of  time,  however,  a  Semitic 
race  of  people  spread  themselves  over  the  coun- 
try, and  mingled  with  or  supplanted  the  original 
inhabitants,  while  their  language  took  the  place 
of  the  Accadian,  the  latter  becoming  a  dead  lan- 
guage. Belonging  to  the  Semitic  family,  these 
later  Assyrians  were  thus  members  of  the  same 
great  division  of  the  human  race  as  the  Hebrews, 
Syrians,  Phcenicians,  and  modern  Arabians. 
The  language  differed  little  from  the  Babylonian, 
which  was  characterized  by  a  preference  for  the 
softer  sounds  and  a  fuller  use  of  the  vowels. 
Both  languages  retained  traces  of  the  influence 
of  the  earlier  Accadian.  Assyrian  is  closely  al- 
lied to  Hebrew  and  Phoenician;  it  has  their  pecu- 
liarities of  phonology,  vocabulary,  and  grammar, 
and  some  obscure  points  in  Hebrew  etymology 
have  been  cleared  up  by  its  aid.  The  language 
changed  little  throughout  the  1,500  years  during 
which  we  can  trace  its  career  in  the  recently  de- 
ciphered inscriptions.  It  continued  to  be  writ- 
ten with  the  cuneiform  character  down  to  the 
3d  century  B.C.  Assyria  could  boast  of  but  little 
native  literature;  it  was  a  land  of  warriors,  and 
the  peaceful  arts  had  their  home  in  Babylonia. 
It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Assur-bani-pal  that 
any  attempt  was  made  to  rival  Babylon  in  learn- 
ing. Their  original  works  were  for  the  first  time 
composed,  and  treaties  were  composed  even,  in 
the  dead  Accad  language.  The  greater  part  of 
the  literature  was  stamped  in  minute  characters 
on  baked  bricks,  but  papyrus  was  also  used,  al- 
though no  books  in  this  form  have  come  down 
to  us.  The  subjects  of  the  Assyrian  literature 
comprise  hymns  to  the  gods,  mythological  and 
epic  poems,  and  works  on  history,  chronology, 
astrology,  law,  etc.  (See  Babylonian  Litera- 
ture.) The  Assyrian  religion,  like  the  language 
and  arts,  was  in  most  essential  points  derived 
from  Babylonia.  There  were  the  same  gods, 
the  same  ceremonials  and  prayers,  and  even  the 
temples  had  the  same  names.  There  is,  however, 
in  one  point  a  notable  difference.  In  addition 
to  the  worship  of  the  Babvlonian  deities  the  As- 
syrians adored  their  national  deity  Assur,  plac- 


ing him  at  the  head  of  the  Pantheon.  He  was 
called  king  of  all  the  chief  gods,  the  god  who 
created  himself,  it  being  supposed  that  he  was 
self-existent  and  the  creator  of  all  things.  After 
Assur  come  the  12  chief  deities,  Anu,  god  of 
heaven,  ruler  of  angels  and  spirits ;  Bel,  the 
father  of  the  gods ;  Hea,  king  of  the  sea ;  Sin.  or 
the  .Moon,  lord  of  crowns ;  Shamas,  or  the  Sun, 
judge  of  heaven  and  earth;  Ninip,  god  of  hunt- 
ing; Nergal,  god  of  war;  Xusku,  bestow 
sceptres;  Beltis,  mother  of  the  gods;  Ishtar, 
leader  of  heaven  and  earth ;  and  Bel,  or  Mero- 
dach,  lord  of  Babylon.  Most  of  those  divinities 
had  consorts,  who  were  not,  however,  admitted 
to  the  first  rank  of  the  gods.  Below  tin-  first 
rank  were  a  number  of  spirits,  good  and  evil, 
who  presided  over  the  minor  operations  of  na- 
ture. There  were  set  forms  regulating  the 
worship  of  all  the  gods  and  spirits,  and  prayers 
to  each  were  inscribed  on  clay  tablets  with  blanks 
for  the  names  of  the  persons  using  them. 

Art  and  Science,  etc.— Although  in  art,  as  in 
other  things,  Assyria  was  the  pupil  of  Babylon, 
there  was  yet  a  notable  difference  between  its 
development  in  the  two  countries,  due  partly  to 
two  causes.  The  alabaster  quarries  scattered 
over  the  country  supplied  the  Assyrians  with 
a  material  unknown  to  their  southern  neighbors, 
on  which  they  could  represent,  far  better  than 
the  Babylonians  on  their  enamelled  bricks,  the 
scenes  which  interested  them.  Sculpture  was 
naturally  developed  by  the  one,  just  as  painting 
was  by  the  other,  and  the  ornamentation  which 
could  be  lavished  on  the  exterior  of  buildings 
in  Assyria  had  to  be  confined  to  the  interior  in 
Babylonia.  The  Assyrian  artists,  faithful  and 
indefatigable,  acquired  a  considerable  power  in 
representing  the  forms  of  men  and  animals, 
and  produced  vivid  and  striking  scenes  of  the 
chief  occupations  of  human  life.  If  they  did 
not  strive  greatly  after  the  ideal,  and  never  in 
this  direction  reached  a  very  exalted  rank,  yet 
even  here  their  emblematic  figures  of  the  gods 
have  a  dignity  and  grandeur  which  implies  the 
possession  of  some  elevated  feelings.  But  their 
grand  merit  is  in  the  representation  of  the  real. 
Their  scenes  of  war  and  of  the  chase,  and  even 
sometimes  of  the  more  peaceful  incidents  of  life, 
have  a  fidelity,  boldness,  and  lifelike  appearance 
which  place  them  high  among  the  realistic 
schools.  Unlike  that  of  the  Egyptians,  which 
remained  comparatively  stationary  from  the  ear- 
liest to  the  latest  ages,  the  art  of  the  Assyrians 
is  plainly  progressive,  becoming  gradually  more 
natural  and  less  uncouth,  more  lifelike  and  less 
stiff,  more  varied  and  less  conventional.  It  may 
be  said  to  have  reached  its  highest  stage  of  de- 
velopment in  the  reign  of  Assur-bani-pal,  when 
it  was  characterised  by  great  chasteness  and 
softness,  delicacy  and  finish.  The  beginning  of 
Greek  art  coincides  with  the  decadence  of  the 
Assyrian,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
Hellenic  artists  owe  much  to  their  Assyrian  pre- 
>rs.  The  advanced  condition  of  the  As- 
syrians in  various  other  respects  is  sufficiently 
evidenced  by  the  representations  on  the  sculp- 
tures, and  by  the  remains  discovered  among  their 
ruined  buildings.  We  now  know  that  they  un- 
derstood and  applied  the  arch ;  that  they  con- 
structed tunnels,  aqueducts,  and  drains;  that 
they  used  the  lever  and  the  roller;  that  they 
engraved  gems  in  a  highly  artistic  way:  that  they 
understood  the  arts  of  inlaying,  enamelling,  and 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


overlaying  with  metals:  that  they  manufactured 

porcelain,  and  transparent  and  colored  glass,  and 
were  acquainted  with  the  lens;  that  they  pos- 
sessed  vases,  jars,  and  oilier  dishes,  bronze  and 
ivory  ornaments,  bells,  gold  earrings  and  brace- 
lets of  excellent  design  and  workmanship.  Their 
household  furniture  also  gives  us  a  high  idea  of 
their  skill,  taste,  minuteness,  and  accuracy.  The 
cities  of  Nineveh,  Assur,  and  Arbela  had  each 
their  royal  observatories,  superintended  by  as- 
tronomers-royal, who  had  to  send  in  their  re- 
ports to  the  king  twice  a  month.  At  an  early 
date  the  stars  were  numbered  and  named :  a 
calendar  was  formed,  in  which  the  year  was  di- 
vided into  12  months  (of  30  days  each)  called 
after  the  zodiacal  signs,  but  as  this  division  was 
found  to  be  inaccurate  an  intercalary  month  was 
added  every  six  years.  The  week  was  divided 
into  seven  days,  the  seventh  being  a  day  of  rest  : 
the  day  was  divided  into  12  easbu  of  two  hours 
each,  each  casbu  being  subdivided  into  60  min- 
utes, and  these  again  into  60  seconds.  Eclipses 
were  recorded  from  a  very  remote  epoch,  and 
their  recurrence  roughly  determined.  The  prin- 
cipal astronomical  work,  called  the  Illumination 
of  Bel,  was  compiled  for  the  library  of  Sargon 
of  Agane :  it  was  inscribed  on  70  tablets,  and 
went  through  numerous  editions,  one  of  the  lat- 
est being  in  the  British  Museum.  It  treats, 
among  other  things,  on  observations  of  comets, 
the  polar  star,  the  conjunction  of  the  sun  and 
moon,  and  motions  of  Venus  and  Mars.  The 
study  of  mathematics  was  fairly  advanced,  and 
the  people  who  were  acquainted  with  the  sun- 
dial, the  clepsydra,  the  pulley,  and  the  lever 
must  have  had  considerable  knowledge  of  me- 
chanics.    See  ASSYRIOLOGY. 

Government. — Like  all  the  ancient  monar- 
chies which  attained  to  any  considerable  extent, 
Assyria  was  composed  of  a  number  of  separate 
kingdoms.  In  the  East  conquest  has  very  sel- 
dom led  to  amalgamation,  and  in  the  primitive 
empires  there  was  not  even  any  attempt  at  that 
governmental  centralization  which  we  find  at  a 
later  peril  11I  iii  the  satrapial  system  of  Persia. 
The  Assyrian  monarchs  reigned  over  a  number 
of  petty  kings,  the  native  rulers  of  the  several 
countries,  over  the  whole  extent  of  their  domin- 
ions. These  native  princes  were  feudatories  of 
the  Great  Monarch,  holding  their  crowns  from 
him  by  the  double  tenure  of  homage  and  tribute. 
This  system  naturally  led  to  the  frequent  out- 
break of  troubles.  See  Cuneiform  Writing; 
Nineveh  ;  Nippur. 

Bibliography. — Botta  and  Flandin,  'Monu- 
ments de  Ninive'  (1847-50):  Layard.  'Nineveh 
and  its  Remains'  (1849);  Oppert,  'Histnire  des 
Empires  de  Chaldee  et  d'Assyrie'  (1866)  ;  Raw- 
linson,  'Five  Great  Monarchies  of  the  Ancient 
World'  (second  edition,  1871)  :  Lenormant,  'Let- 
tres  Assyriologiques'  (1871-3);  George  Smith. 
'Assyrian  Discoveries':  'Assyria.'  and  'The 
Assyrian  Eponym'  (1875)  ;  Duncker's  'History 
of  Antiquity'  (1882)  ;  Sayce,  'Ancient  Empires 
of  the  East'  (18,84):  his  'Assyria:  its  Princes, 
Priests,  and  People'  (1885),  and  his  'Fresh 
Light  from  the  Ancient  Monuments'  (1886)  ; 
Jastrow,  'Religion  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria' 
(1898);  Maspero,  'The  Dawn  of  Civilization' 
(1894). 

Assyriology.  Assyriology  may  be  defined 
as  that  department  of  study  and  investigation 
which  embraces  within  its  realm  the  country,  peo- 


ple, languages,  literature,  and  history  of  ancient 
Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  and  so  much  of  adjoin- 
ing countries  as  shared  in  the  life  of  the  Semitic 
valley-peoples  prior  to  538  B.c.  The  term  is 
often  popularly  employed  to  cover  a  study  of 
those  languages  written  in  the  cuneiform  script. 
or  its  immediate  antecedents,  the  linear  and 
picture  methods  of  writing,  current  in  primaeval 
times  in  this  great  river  valley.  Such  a  delim- 
itation of  our  theme  would  include  a  study  of 
early  Babylonia,  Assyria,  somewhat  of  F.lam, 
and  a  mention  of  later  Persia.  Assyriology, 
therefore,  deals  with  an  antiquity  which  was 
centred  in  the  great  Babylonian  valley,  and  em- 
bodied in  the  cuneiform  langu.i 

Age. — This  is  a  comparatively  new  depart- 
ment of  research.  It  has  been  built  up  upon 
the  basis  of  the  discoveries  of  antiquities  wdiich 
have  been  made  during  the  last  three  quarters 
of  a  century  in  the  countries  tributary  to  the 
Persian  Gulf.  The  tentacles  of  this  department 
reach  out  into  every  phase  of  ancient  Oriental 
life  and  knowledge,  and  require  of  the  modern 
investigator  a  comparatively  comprehensive 
understanding  of  the  complexities  of  that  prim- 
itive life.  This  department  includes  in  its 
sphere  some  of  the  most  important  of  all 
branches  of  ancient  lore.  Among  these  we  note 
especially  Semitic  philology,  general  archaeology, 
architecture,  sculpture,  history,  legend,  so-called 
science,  and  religion.  Assyriology  has  already 
taken  its  place  as  one  of  the  great  departments 
of  human  knowledge  and  research.  The  results 
of  its  investigations  must  now  he  reckoned  with 
in  any  estimate  of  early  Semitic  legends,  tradi- 
tions, or  history.  Its  importance  to  the  student 
of  the  Old  Testament  is  assuming  greater  pro- 
portions with  each  old  site  overturned  by  the 
spade  of  the  excavator.  The  great  museums  .,f 
Europe  and  America  count  among  their  chief 
treasures  the  magnificent  colossi,  bas-reliefs, 
slabs,  statues,  and  tablets  that  belong  to  the 
department  of  Assyriology. 

Names. — The  oldest  of  the  governments  rep- 
resented in  Assyriology  is  thai  centred  in  the 
Babylonian  valley.  Its  earliest  known  mention 
at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  was  that 
found  in  Genesis  x.  10,  where  the  beginning  of 
the  kingdom  of  Nimrod  is  said  to  have  been 
Babel  (  Hebrew.  733  ).  probably  the  city  of  Baby- 
lon, "in  the  land  of  Shinar"  (Hebrew  "IJ»IS>),  a 
name  for  lower  Babylonia.  In  post-exilic  times 
the  country  was  designated  Chaldea,  or  "land  of 
the  Chaldeans"  ( Hebrew, 0n\BO  pK),Ezelc  i.  3. 
Classical  writers  named  this  country  after  Baby- 
lon, that  metropolitan  city  of  their  day,  Baby- 
lonia, and  this  name  is  attached  to  it  to  the 
present  time. 

The  next  great  country  covered  by  Assyri- 
ology is  Assyria.  The  Hebrews  called  it  (Gen. 
x.  11)  A'sshur  (llt?K),  either  the  name  of  a  per- 
sonage or  of  a  country,  probably  the  latter.  The 
translators  of  the  Scptuagint  called  it  aaoovp  and 
aaavpiot,  while  Joscphus,  a  couple  of  centuries 
later,  refers  to  it  as  Avavpla.  The  Aramaeans 
named  it  Atlnir,  or  Athuriya. 

Boundaries. — The  territory  covered  by  an- 
cient Babylonia  was  delimited  on  the  west  by 
the  Arabian  Desert,  on  the  south  by  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  Arabian  Desert,  on  the  east  by  Elamite 
territory  backed  up  by  the  Zagros  Mountains, 
and  on  the  north  by  the  uplands  of  Assyria. 
Assyria  proper,  in  its  early  unexpansive  period, 
was  delimited  on  the  east  by  the  mountains  of 


RELIEFS  ON  THE  BLACK  OBELISK  OF  SHALMANESER  II.     (860-825  b.   c.) 

(FOUND    BY    LAYARD    AT    NIMROUD,    NOW     IN    THE    BRITISH     MUSEUM) 
SECOND    TIER    REPRESENTS    JEHU,     KING    OF    ISRAEL,    RENDERING    SUBMISSION    TO    SHALMANESER    II.     (ABOUT    843    B.    C.) 


EXCAVATIONS  BY  THE  FRENCH  AT  TELLOH 

THE    FOUNDATIONS    or     IHK    PALACE    OF    klNr,    UR-NINA 
'  l»>    SOUTHEAST    FACADE 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


Kurdistan,  on  the  north  by  those  of  Armenia, 
on  the  soutli  by  Babylonia,  with  an  ever-shifting 
boundary  line,  and  on  the  west  by  the  western 
limits  of  the  Tigris  valley  and  plain.  In  a  word, 
Assyria  was  anciently  seated  in  the  upper  Tigris 
valley,  in  possession  of  several  great  city-centres. 

These  two  important  countries  were  thus 
largely  guarded  by  nature  from  foes  on  the 
south  and  southwest,  but  were  always  open  to 
the  intrigues  of  invaders  from  the  east,  north, 
or  northwest.  The  historical  records  of  these 
lands  confirm  this  statement. 

Description. — The  great  valley  of  Babylonia 
derives  its  marvelous  fertility  from  its  two 
notable  rivers,  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  Both 
have  their  rise  in  the  mountains  of  Armenia, 
and  both  have  their  debouchement  in  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  The  Tigris,  from  its  source,  flows 
directly  in  a  southeasterly  and  southerly  course, 
cutting  through  the  uplands  of  Assyria,  and 
along  the  eastern  side  of  the  Babylonian  valley, 
until,  mingling  with  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates, 
it  falls  into  the  Gulf.  The  Euphrates,  from  its 
source,  flows  toward  the  southwest  and  bends 
southward  within  ioo  miles  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  and  thence  in  general  toward  the 
southeast  and  south  until,  in  union  with  the 
Tigris,  it  pours  into  the  Gulf.  These  two 
arterial  streams  are  the  life  of  this  great  lower 
valley.  By  irrigation  they  were  made  to  fertilize 
all  their  adjacent  lands,  and  thus  placed  these 
among  the  richest  countries  on  earth.  In  addi- 
tion to  water  these  streams  bring  annually  from 
the  mountains  of  Armenia  great  quantities  of 
alluvia  and  deposit  it  in  the  lower  valley.  Geol- 
ogists estimate  that  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  have  been  pushed  southward,  by  deposits 
of  this  alluvia,  fully  125  miles  since  the  earliest 
periods  of  Babylonian  history.  In  other  words, 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers  that  now  enter 
the  Gulf  as  one  stream  forming  a  vast  morass, 
formerly  had  separate  mouths,  about  125  miles 
north  of  their  present  outlet.  If  this  estimation 
be  correct,  the  ancient  Ur  of  the  Chaldees 
(modern  Mugheir~)  was  practically  a  seaport  city. 
The  Tigris,  being  the  shorter  river,  has  a  very 
swift  current,  and  is  less  valuable  for  navigation 
than  the  Euphrates.  Upon  this  latter  stream 
vessels  of  profitable  draft  may  ride  to  a  distance 
of  800  miles  above  its  mouth.  The  territorj  of 
Mesopotamia  proper  is  watered  by  the  Balikh  and 
Khabur,  two  rivers  that  flow  southward,  empty- 
ing into  the  Euphrates.  The  region  of  Baby- 
lonia proper,  though  a  waste  to-day,  shows 
marks  of  having  supported  a  dense  population 
in  antiquity. 

References  to  Ancient  Peoples. — Present  day 
students  and  scholars  inferred  from  frequent 
references  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in  the 
compiled  works  of  Berosus,  Manetho,  Joscphus, 
and  others  that  this  valley  had  been  the  head- 
quarter's  of  mighty  nations.  Classical  writers 
carry  echoes  of  an  ancient  glory  won  by  great 
armies  and  powerful  monarchs  from  the  Ea^t. 
whose  records  were  otherwise  unknown,  and 
whose  mighty  deeds  seemed  as  unreal  as  fiction. 
The  rise,  conquest,  and  reign  of  these  giant 
figures  aroused  the  enthusiasm  of  every  student 
of  ancient  history.  The  far-reaching  influence 
and  power  over  neighboring  kings  of  these  mon- 
archs, dimly  outlined  in  the  vague  second-hand 
records,  set  scholars  to  work.  It  drove  them  to 
search  far  and  wide  for  other  traces  of  peoples 
who  had  completely  perished   from  the   face  of 


the  earth,  and  who  had,  so  far  as  they  could  see, 
left  no  story  of  their  achievements.  The  reports 
of  travelers  who  had  passed  through  and  spent 
some  time  in  those  countries  attracted  their 
attention. 

Ancient  Remains. — The  entire  territory 
drained  by  the  two  great  rivers,  Tigris  and  Eu- 
phrates, was  found  to  be  dotted  by  extensive 
mounds,  ruins  of  ancient  walls,  piles  of  disin- 
tegrating towers,  beds  of  ancient  irrigating 
canals,  and  other  marks  of  a  once  elaborate 
civilization.  Travelers  had  often  picked  up  near 
these  mounds  little  bits  of  antiquities,  bricks, 
tablets,  and  cylinder  seals,  that  carried  on  their 
surfaces  many  curious  wedge-shaped  characters, 
which  they  regarded  either  as  writing  or  orna- 
mentation. These  miscellaneous  curios  were 
thought  to  represent  the  civilizations  of  an  un- 
known past,  of  peoples  who  occupied  this  terri- 
tory in  the  days  when  prosperous  cities  and 
fruitful  fields  filled  this  great  valley. 

Earliest  Excavations. — The  first  persons  to 
take  an  active  interest  in  the  ruins  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria  were  Englishmen  resident  in  some 
one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  country.  C.  J. 
Rich,  a  resident  at  Bagdad  (1808-21),  carefully 
examined  and  described  several  mounds,  and 
some  inscriptions,  in  small  works  published 
during  his  residence.  The  first  systematic  ex- 
cavations within  this  valley  were  undertaken  by 
P.  E.  Botta,  French  consul  at  the  time  in  Mosul, 
a  modern  city  of  some  commercial  and  polit- 
ical importance  on  the  upper  Tigris  River, 
in  1S42-5.  He  began  work  on  the  colossal 
mounds  opposite  Mosul  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Tigris  River;  but  he  had  little  success  until  he 
transferred  his  force  to  the  mound  Khorsabad, 
about  14  miles  north-northeast  of  the  first  site. 
Khorsabad  proved  to  be  an  immense  treasure- 
house  of  antiquities.  Here  he  uncovered  the 
stupendous  royal  palace  of  Sargon  II.  (722-705 
B.C.),  with  a  mass  of  inscriptions  and  antiquities 
of  various  kinds.  This  splendid  find  was  greeted 
with  enthusiasm  by  the  scholarly  world,  and  set 
minds  to  thinking  and  wills  to  acting  to  uncover 
other  antiquities  representing  such  a  marvelous 
past.  In  1845-7,  A.  H.  Layard,  an  Englishman, 
began  to  dig  at  Nimroud,  the  ancient  Calah, 
a  mound  about  20  miles  south  of  Mosul,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Tigris.  Persevering  through 
almost  indescribable  difficulties,  Layard  finally 
succeeded  in  bringing  to  light  the  palaces  of 
Assurnatsirpal  (884-860  b.c),  Shalmaneser 
II.  (860-825  b.c),  and  Esarhaddon  (681-668 
B.C.).  In  1849-51  this  same  intrepid  excavator 
burrowed  into  the  mound  Kouyunjik,  one  of  the 
mounds  of  ancient  Nineveh,  and  lay  bare  two 
more  great  palaces,  that  of  Sennacherib  (705- 
681  b.c),  and  that  of  Assurbanipa]  (668 
B.C.).  Botta's  finds,  so  far  as  transportable, 
were  taken  to  Paris  and  deposited  in  the  Mu- 
seum of  the  Louvre :  those  of  Layard  to  the 
British  Museum  in  London. 

In  this  same  period.  Rassam.  trained  under 
Layard,  made  some  valuable  discoveries  (1851-4) 
at  Kouyunjik  for  the  English:  and  Place  at 
Khorsabad  and  Fresnel  and  Oppert  at  Hillah 
for  the  French.  In  most  of  the  work  under- 
taken by  the  English,  Henry  C.  Rawlinson  was  a 
close  adviser  and  an  enthusiastic  promoter. 

Later  Excavations. — The  next  20  years 
(  1S54-73)  were  a  period  of  cessation  of  exca- 
vations of  any  note.  An  occasional  traveler  or 
explorer  found  a  lew  specimens  of  antiquities  and 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


di.l  a  little  desultory  work.  This  20  years,  how- 
ever, saw  the  publication  of  many  notable  works 
by  Botta,  Layard,  Place.  Oppert,  and  Rawlinson 

on  the  results  of  the  active  work  of  excavating 
and  of  inscriptions  previously  gathered  out  of 

the  mounds.     The  second  period  of  excavations 

began  in  1873,  when  George  Smith,  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum,  was  scut  by  the  London  Daily 
Telegraph  to  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh  to 
find  oilur  fragments  of  the  famous  deluge  tab- 
let. Smith's  phenomenal  success  in  finding 
Assurbanipal's  30,000-tablet-library  gave  new  life 
to  archaeological  research,  and  sent  him  alto- 
gether on  three  expeditions,  on  the  last  of  which 
he  succumbed  to  a  fever  at  Aleppo,  19  Aug. 
1875.  Smith's  genius  had  presented  to  the  world 
such  representations  of  the  important  discov- 
eiies  made  by  himself  and  others  that  the  con- 
tagion spread,  and  other  centres  of  scholarship 
t  nriied  their  eyes  toward  the  mounds  of  Baby- 
lonia and  Assyria.  Rassam  was  again  called 
into  requisition,  and  in  1877-8  gathered  rich 
spoils  on  the  site  of  old  Nineveh,  at  Nimroud, 
and  at  Balawat,  where  he  found  the  remains  of 
the  bronze  doors  of  Shalmaneser  II.  (860-825 
B.i  I.  In  1X78-0  and  1880-1  he  also  found  valu- 
able relics  on  Babylonian  ground. 

From  1878  to  the  present  day  the  French 
government  has  conducted  excavations  inter- 
mittently at  Telloh,  in  lower  Babylonia,  for 
more  than  20  years  under  the  superintendence 
of  F.  de  Sarzcc,  and  recently  under  Capt.  Cros- 
man.  This  mound  has  yielded  a  rich  store 
of  antiquities,  consisting  of  many  thousands  of 
tablets,  of  Several  beautiful  diorite  statues,  of 
friezes,  of  palace  plans,  and  of  cylinders,  many 
of  which  are  deposited  and  mounted  in  the  su- 
perb collection  in  the  Louvre  in  Paris.  The 
accompanying  illustration  presents  two  views  of 
a  part  of  the  mound  Telloh,  where  such  notable 
discoveries  have  been  made.  The  same  govern- 
ment inaugurated  and  carried  on  excavations 
at  Susa  under  M.  and  Mine.  Dieulafoy  (1884-6)  ; 
and  latterly  under  M.  J.  de  Morgan,  and  has 
thus  opened  up  new  volumes  on  the  history  of 
ancient  Elam,  and  its  relations  with  adjoining 
countries. 

A  few  broad-minded  gentlemen,  under  the 
leadership  of  E.  W.  Clark,  of  Philadelphia, 
provided  the  means  for  the  organization  and 
prosecution  of  an  expedition  to  Babylonia  under 
the  auspices  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 
This  expedition  was  duly  organized  and 
equipped,  and  prosecuted  work  under  the  direc- 
tion of  John  P.  Peters,  during  1888-90  at  the 
mound  Nififer,  about  30  miles  southeast  of 
Babylon,  Since  that  time  the  same  institution 
has  carried  on  work  intermittently  on  this  site, 
under  supervision  of  H.  V.  Hilprecht,  and,  for 
the  most  part,  under  the  field  directorship  of 
J.  II.  ITayiKs,  has  brought  to  light  thousands  of 
inscriptions  and  other  antiquities.  These  have 
made  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  the  richest 
Babylonian-Assyrian  museum  in  America. 

Within  the  last  decade  German  archaeologists 
have  joined  the  ranks  of  excavators,  and  have 
done  some  thorough  work  on  several  sites  in 
the  Babylonian  valley,  but  chiefly  at  Babylon. 
The  full  results  of  their  activity  are  still  un- 
known to  the  public,  as  little  has  been  published. 

In  1904,  the  Oriental  Exploration  Fund  of 
the  University  of  Chicago  was  organized,  and 
an   expedition    sent   out   under   the   direction   of 


Robert  Francis  Harper,  to  excavate  on  the  old 
site  Bismya,  in  lower  Babylonia.  The  first 
mi's  work  justifies  the  hope  that  this  may 
prove  to  be  a  fruitful  mound,  belonging  to  a 
high  antiquity. 

Outside  of  Babylonia  proper,  some  notable 
discoveries  of  cuneiform  inscriptions  have  been 
made  by  explorers.  A  stele  of  Sargon  II.  was 
found  in  the  island  of  Cyprus  in  1845.  There 
were  found  at  Tel-el-Amarna.  in  Egypt,  in  1887, 
more  than  300  cuneiform  tablets,  which  proved 
to  be  correspondence  between  the  kings  of 
Egypt  and  their  Asiatic  underlords  and  ruins 
in  the  15th  century  B.C.  Even  Palestine  has  pro- 
duced a  couple  of  tablets  in  its  excavated  cities. 
Luschan  found  at  Zinjirli,  Asia  Minor,  among 
a  host  of  Hittite  antiquities,  a  statue  and  inscrip- 
tion of  Esarhaddon  (681-668  B.C.). 

Decipherment  of  Inscriptions. — The  neat  lit- 
tle wedge-shaped  characters,  put  together  in  so 
many  combinations  to  form  individual  signs, 
very  early  attracted  the  genius  of  the  linguist 
As  early  as  1801,  Grotefend,  a  German,  discov- 
ered the  significance  of  some  of  the  old  Persian 
cuneiform  characters;  and  other  scholars,  fol- 
lowing in  his  wake,  likewise  made  some  advance 
in  identification  of  those  old  characters.  But 
the  long  and  sure  step  ahead  was  not  made 
until  Henry  C.  Rawlinson  took  up  the  problem. 
As  an  officer  in  the  Persian  army  about  1835,  he 
had  unusual  facilities  for  examining  ancient 
ruins  in  that  country.  He  observed  at  Behistun, 
in  the  Zagros  Mountains,  a  rock  stretching  up 
almost  1,700  feet  above  the  plain,  and  at  about 
350  feet  above  its  base  a  large  space  carefully 
smoothed  off.  L'pon  this  space  was  inscribed 
a  mass  of  writing,  distributed  in  several  col- 
umns of  varying  length.  After  years  of  toil 
at  intervals,  he  succeeded  in  copying  the  en- 
tire set.  In  a  study  of  them  he  soon  found 
that  they  contained  three  languages.  The  first, 
the  Old  Persian,  through  his  knowledge  of 
modern  Persian  and  other  related  tongues,  after 
years  of  study,  he  was  able  to  decipher,  and  sent 
his  translation  to  London,  where,  in  1847,  it 
was  published  in  the  'Journal  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society.'  Rawlinson's  success  was 
epochal,  for  it  broke  the  seal  into  the  hidden 
treasures  of  the  cuneiform  languages  of  Baby- 
lonia. His  decipherment  of  one  of  the  tri- 
lingual inscriptions  opened  the  door  into  the 
next,  the  Susian.  These  two  deciphered,  schol- 
ars were  soon  able  to  penetrate  the  mysteries  of 
the  third  language,  the  Babylonian-Assyrian. 

These  triumphs  extended,  roughly,  over  the 
years  1845-55.  In  1857  the  British  Museum 
made  a  test  of  scholars'  ability  to  decipher  the 
Assyrian  tongue.  Four  men,  H.  C.  Rawlinson, 
Edward  Hincks,  Jules  Oppert,  and  H.  F.  Tal- 
bot, were  given  a  fine  copy  of  a  long  historical 
inscription  of  Tiglathpileser  I.  (iuo-noo  B.C.), 
and  were  requested  to  make  each  an  independent 
translation  of  the  text  and  report  on  their  re- 
sults. At  a  given  time  these  scholars  reported: 
and  to  the  amazement,  one  should  say,  of  all 
concerned,  their  translations  were  in  substantial 
agreement  from  first  to  last.  This  was  the 
crowning  triumph  of  all  in  the  eyes  of  other 
departments  of  learning.  It  showed  that  the 
riddle  had  been  solved,  that  the  Babylonian 
valley  would  henceforth  speak  for  itself  through 
its   multitudes  of  ancient   records. 

Furthermore,  this  triumph  of  philology  sue- 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


reeded  in  placing  in  the  galaxy  of  ancient  na- 
tions some  of  the  most  powerful  of  peoples. 
Babylonia.  Assyria,  and  Elam  henceforth  became 
the  early  home  of  vigorous  nations,  well-organ- 
ized governments,  conquering  armies,  and  world- 
wide rulers.  The  ruin-covered  wastes  were 
suddenly  transformed  into  fertile  fields  and 
prosperous  cities,  occupied  by  peoples  whose 
influence  touched  the  horizon  of  civilization 
in  every  direction.  In  short,  this  triumph  of 
philology  opened  a  door  to  a  new  world  in 
southwestern  Asia,  prior  to,  and  contemporane- 
ous with,  the  times  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom. 

Language. — The  language  in  which  this  new- 
old  material  is  preserved  is  the  so-called  Baby- 
lonian-Assyrian wedge-writing.  Although  the 
Old  Persian  is  alphabetic,  the  Babylonian-As- 
syrian is  a  sign  and  syllable  tongue.  Each  sep- 
arate wedge  (  Y  ),  or  each  combination  of  wedges 
(e*f  )>  constitutes  a  sign.  This  language  was 
written  by  pressing  the  wedges  with  an 
instrument  into  clay  or  cutting  them  into 
stone  or  metal,  for  they  never  appear  in 
relief.  The  primitive  signs  were  probably 
rude  pictures,  which  gradually  grew  through 
use  into  the  form  of  curved  and  straight  lines ; 
these  lines  soon  took  on  the  artistic  form  of 
wedges.  This  evolution  is  seen  in  the  fact 
that  a  large  number  of  the  signs  possess  merely 
an  ideographic  value ;  for  example,  we  find  a 
sign  for  the  idea  "land"  (  & ),  Ksun»  (  «f  )■ 
"male"     (Y  ),   "female"    (  jL ),  «make,»    "fish,9 

"king,"  etc.  Some  of  these  signs  possess  a 
syllabic  value,  as  da,  ra,  la,  mat.  lak.  rid,  zun, 
pad,  etc.  Quite  a  number  possess  several  sylla- 
bic values,  the  context  being  the  reader's  only 
guide  as  to  which  should  be  used  in  any  given 
case.  The  reader's  trouble's  are  still  more 
aggravated  by  the  fact  that  the  same  sign  some- 
times has  both  ideographic  and  syllabic  values. 
In  this,  as  in  the  preceding  case,  the  reader's 
tact  must  find  in  the  context  the  reason  for  the 
reading  which  he  should  adopt. 

There  are  about  600  independent  and  entirely 
distinct  signs  formed  by  combination's  of  any- 
where from  2  to  30  wedges  set  together  at  dif- 
ferent angles,  or  paralleled,  or  inserted  within 
other  combinations.  But  the  great  difficulties 
arise  when  we  find  that  there  were  almost  num- 
berless combinations  of  anywhere  from  two  to 
six  different  ideographic  signs  to  express  other 
and  often  compound  ideas.  There  are  nearly 
20,000  such  combinations  known  to-day  to  As- 
syriologists. 

This  Babylonian-Assyrian  language  is  Se- 
mitic in  character,  though  its  soil  is  thought,  by 
a  large  group  of  English,  German,  and  French 
scholars,  to  be  a  non-Semitic  tongue,  the  so- 
called  Accadian  or  Sumerian.  This  question 
is  prominently  in  the  foreground  to-day, 
due  to  the  large  accession  of  new  material 
gathered  at  Telloh  and  Nippur,  written  in 
this  ideographic  tongue.  The  Babylonian-As- 
syrian tongue  is  a  half-sister  to  the  Hebrew 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  has  already  proved 
its  real   value  in  the  interpretation   of  that   lunik. 

'".V  People. — The  peoples  nest  known  to 
A;syriology  are  Semites.  The  primitive  inhab- 
itants of  Babylonia,  the  predecessors  of  the 
Semitic  population  of  Babylonia  and  Assyria, 
were  probably  a  mixture  of  various  nationalities, 

*..'.  I—  si 


with  Semites  in  the  lead.  The  group  of  schol- 
ars referred  to  in  the  preceding  paragraph  main- 
tain that  the  predecessors  of  the  Semites  were 
Sumerians  or  Accadians,  the  inventors  of  the 
ideographic  cuneiform  language  of  those  coun- 
tries. We  know,  at  least,  from  inscriptions 
found  at  Nippur,  that  the  Semitic  language  was 
in  use  in  Babylonia  as  early  as  the  fourth 
millennium  B.C.  The  population  of  Babylonia 
ami  Assyria  in  historic  times  was  Semitic.  Their 
location  made  them  warriors,  for  they  had  to  be 
perpetually  on  the  defense.  The  Babylonians 
cultivated  the  peaceful  arts  and  were  wide 
awake  to  the  best  things  of  life  in  their  time 
and  day.  The  Assyrians,  on  the  other  hand, 
built  up  an  engine  of  warfare,  a  tremendous 
military  machine,  that,  under  powerful  leaders, 
beat  down  and  overthrew  nations  on  everv  hand. 
Some  one  has  compared  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
to  Greece  and  Rome  respectively,  as  fostering 
and  furthering  different  elements  of  national 
life  and  character. 

The  Civilization. — One  of  the  marvels  of 
these  ancient  people's  was  their  advancement  in 
all  that  counts  for  civilization.  Their  govern- 
ments were  monarchical  and  well  organized, 
with  standing  armies  for  their  immediate  pro- 
tection. Their  civil  courts  were  provided  with 
ample  laws  for  the  regulation  of  society  and  of 
trade.  Their  cities  were  advantageously  built,  and 
surrounded  with  walls  of  a  magnitude  sufficient 
to  withstand  any  ordinary  attack.  Their  schools 
were  carefully  fostered  and  occupied  a  first 
place  in  their  peaceful  life.  They  cultivated  the 
arts  with  assiduity  and  attained  a  notable  degree 
of  perfection  in  some  lines.  Their  architecture 
and  'sculpture,  their  language  and  literature,  are 
marks  of  a  people  high  in  the  scale  of  Oriental 
civilization.  Of  religious  ritual  and  all  its  ac- 
companiments and  organization,  we  have  a  de- 
tailed description,  which  exhibits  this  as  a 
favorite  side  of  that  early  Semitic  life.  Their 
industry  and  trade  activities  were  such  as  to 
place  them  in  the  front  rank  of  commercial  peo- 
ples. Their  amusements  and  sports  were  of 
that  adventurous  and  daring  kind  that  bespeak 
the  virility  and  strength  of  character  found  only 
among  a  hardy  and  vigorous  people.  Their 
political  and  commercial  relations  with  their 
neighbors  were  such  as  mark  an  advanced  stage 
in  cordial  international  affairs.  Their  methods 
of  warfare,  and  their  treatment  of  their  subjects, 
while  often  cruel  and  inhuman,  were  distin- 
guished by  a  high  grade  of  intelligence,  and 
more  than  ordinary  genius. 

Natural  Resources. — The  wasteness  and  bar- 
renness of  modern  Babylonia  give  little  intima- 
tion of  its  early  resources.  Its  flora  was  quite 
varied  and  useful.  Its  plains  were  plentifully 
supplied  with  fruit  trees  of  various  kinds,  such 
as  fig-,  olive-,  date-palm-,  vine-,  and  various 
nut-trees.  On  the  mountain  sides  were  found 
the  oak,  plane,  and  pine  trees  of  different  vari- 
eties. By  cultivation  the  land  produced  wheat, 
barley,  sesame,  millet,  hemp,  and  other  cereals 
and  articles  of  commerce.  The  date-palm  was 
their  universal  utility  article,  for  from  it  they 
seem  to  have  manufactured  honey,  flour,  vinegar, 
wine,  and  raw  material  for  wickerwork.  The 
reed  that  grew  with  such  luxuriance  on  the 
hanks  of  the  rivers  and  canals  was  utilized  for 
a  number  of  purposes.  It  served  for  building 
huts,   weaving  mats,  and   for  boat-building,  and 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


for  layering  mortar  in  the  construction  of  walls. 
The  absence  of  stone  and  minerals  in  the 
basin  of  the  valley  was  partially  compensated 
for  by  their  proximity  to  the  mountains  on  the 
north  and  east,  though  clay  bricks,  sun-dried 
and  burnt,  were  always  their  chief  building  ma- 
terial. When  marble,  alabaster,  diorite,  or  any 
of  the  precious  metals  were  used  they  were 
brought  cither  from  their  mountain  borders  or 
from  distant  lands.  Stone  was  used  for  colossi, 
statues,  wall  decorations,  bas-reliefs,  and  some 
inscriptions.  The  precious  metals  were  em- 
ployed for  making  jewelry,  ornaments,  service- 
able utensils,  decorations  on  buildings  and  gates, 
and  for  tablets  upon  which  inscriptions  were 
engraved. 

The  list  of  the  fauna  of  the  country  is  made 
quite  complete  by  the  pictures  found  on  the 
walls  of  the  old  palaces  and  temples,  and  by  the 
catalogues  of  names  preserved  in  their  litera- 
ture. These  reveal  to  us  a  great  variety  of 
valuable  animals.  Among  them  we  find  the  lion, 
the  favorite  game  hunted  by  kings,  the  panther, 
the  wild  ox,  the  fox,  the  wild  boar,  wild  asses, 
and  camels  —  especially  in  later  periods  of  his- 
tory. There  were  also  several  kinds  of  gazelles 
and  antelopes  that  played  about  on  the  border 
hills  and  mountains.  Of  domestic  animals,  there 
were  the  horse  in  later  time's,  the  ass,  the  camel, 
the  cow,  sheep,  goat,  and  dog.  Of  wild  birds, 
the  inscriptions  mention  most  frequently  the 
eagle  and  the  owl ;  also  the  swallow,  dove, 
raven,  geese,  and  other  waterfowls. 

Cities. — There  is  no  more  notable  index  of  a 
great  people  than  the  number  and  magnitude 
of  its  great  cities.  Babylonia-Assyria,  through 
the  decipherment  of  the  monuments,  is  seen  to 
have  been  well  dotted  over  with  prosperous 
cities.  Beginning  in  the  south  and  proceeding 
northward,  we  find  in  that  ancient  day,  Eridu, 
Ur,  Erech,  Larsa,  Lagash,  Nisin,  Nippur,  Bor- 
sippa,  Babylon,  Cutha,  Sippar,  and  Agade  (  !)  — 
all  famous  cities  in  the  Babylonian  kingdoms  and 
empires  of  four  millenniums  ago.  The  earliest 
civilization  of  that  valley  was  centred  in  these 
cities,  most  of  which  seem  to  have  been  orig- 
inally capitals  of  districts.  There  are  other 
mounds  in  considerable  quantity  that  have  not 
been  identified,  but  which  doubtless  cover  still 
other  cities  that  played  an  important  role  in  the 
life  of  early  Babylonia. 

As  we  advance  into  the  territory  occupied 
bv  Assyria  great  cities  present  themselves  in  a 
formidable  array.  The  ancient  mother  city  of 
Assyria  was  Ashur,  located  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Tigris,  near  the  modern  Kalat  Sherkot, 
now  being  excavated  by  a  German  expedition. 
As  we  pass  up  the  Tigris  River  of  that  day  the 
next  city  of  importance  that  one  meets  is  Calah, 
or  Nimroud,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  just 
above  the  junction  with  the  Tigris  of  the  Upper 
Zab  River.  This  was  a  palatial  city,  first  un- 
earthed by  Layard,  and  then  by  Rassam,  contain- 
ing at  least  three  royal  palaces  already  men- 
tioned. Off  to  the  east  of  Calah,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Upper  Zab.  was  Arbela,  a  minor  city 
of  importance.  Nineveh,  whose  mounds  stand 
on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris  opposite  the 
modern  Mosul,  was  a  very  ancient  city.  The 
small  stream  or  river  Khosr,  passing  between 
the  two  great  mounds  Kouyunjik  and  Nebi 
Yunus,  that  represent  the  remains  of  Nineveh, 
empties    into   the   Tigris.     Sargon    II.    (722-705 


B.C.)  built  for  himself  at  Khorsabad,  north  of 
Nineveh,  a  veritable  royal  city,  the  most  mag- 
nificent building  of  which  was  his  palace,  un- 
covered by  Botta  and  Place.  Its  name,  l)ur- 
Sargina,  "the  wall  or  fortress  of  Sargon,9 
designates  sufficiently  its  significance  for  his 
reign.  To  the  southeast  of  Nineveh  we  find 
another  city  of  especial  significance  in  the  reign 
of  Shalmaneser  II.  (860-825  B.C.),  Imgur-Bel,  on 
the  site  of  the  modern  Balaivat. 

Adjacent  to  this  valley  were  such  mighty 
cities  and  fortresses  as  Susa  in  Elam,  Harran 
and  Reshini  in  upper  Mesopotamia,  and  Car- 
chemish,  with  other  cities  on  its  western  frontier 
—  all  evidence  of  the  thrift  and  permanency  of 
the  civilization  of  3.000  and  4.000  years  ago. 

Architecture. — The    buildings    of    Babylonia- 
Assyria  were  modified  architecturally,  no  doubt, 
by  the  character  of  the  material   accessible   for 
their  construction.     Throughout  this  entire  val- 
ley the  absence  of  stone  led  to  the  use  of  clay 
bricks,    sun-    and    kiln-dried,    for    building   ma- 
terial.    This,  of  course,  necessitated  a  plainness 
of  form  that  admitted  of  little  exterior  decora- 
tion.    The   walls   were    often    built    very    thick, 
of  sun-dried,  with  a  veneer  of  kiln-dried,  bricks. 
This  veneer  was  a  protection  against  the  ravages 
of  the   weather,   and   the   depredations   of   rob- 
bers,   who   could    readily    dig   through    a    thick 
wall  of  merely  sun-dried  bricks.     The   strength 
of   a    sun-dried    brick    wall    was    sometimes    in- 
creased   by    inserting    between    the    courses    of 
bricks  layers  of  reeds.     The  entire  structure  was 
built  on  an  artificially   raised  mound,  primarily 
to    lift    the   building   above   the    danger   of    the 
overflowings  of  the  rivers,  but  later  apparently 
because  of  the  age-long  custom  of  placing  it  on 
an  eminence.     The  entrances  to  the  palaces  and 
temples   were   usually   guarded   by   great   mono- 
lithic    colossi,    human-headed     bulls    or    lion's, 
standing    on    each    side    and    facing    outward. 
Within  were  courts  of  different  sizes  that  served 
the    royal    personages    or    their    attendants.     In 
immediate  connection  with  each  palace  or  group 
of    royal    buildings,    particularly    in    Babylonia, 
was  the  tower  or  temple.     It  was  a  structure  that 
towered   above  everything   else,  and  rose   from 
its   base   to    its   summit   in    a   series   of   stages, 
sometimes     seven,     or     steps,     by     which     one 
ascended.     On  the  top  of  this  massive  pile  one 
would  find  the  image  of  the  god  held  in  partic- 
ular reverence,  or  to  whom  the  tower  was  dedi- 
cated.    There     are     several     remains     of     these 
sacred    structures    found    in    Babylonia    to-day. 
Their  ability  to  withstand   the  ravages  of  time 
is    due   to    the    hard    burnt    bricks    with    which 
they    were    constructed.     The    remains    of    the 
tower    at    Mugheir,    the    ancient    <(Ur    of    the 
Chaldees,"    was   built,    according   to   its    present 
indication,    upon    a   platform   20   feet   above   the 
plain;   its  base  was  a  parallelogram   about  200 
feet  by  135  feet. 

One  of  the  niceties  of  these  constructions 
was  their  adaptation  to  the  necessities  and  com- 
forts of  the  people.  There  was  an  admirable 
system  of  drainage,  of  hydraulics  in  general, 
that  embodied  some  of  the  best  principles  of 
modern  sanitation.  The  arch  contributed  no 
little  to  the  construction  of  some  of  the  prim- 
itive royal  buildings  of  the  20th  century  B.C. 

Sculpture,  Engraving,  etc. — The  most  pre- 
cious contents  of  the  temples  and  palaces  were 
the  statues  of  ths  gods  and  kings,  respectively. 


BLACK.     DIORITE     STATUE     OF     6UDEA     FROM     TELL  OH  irate) 

(about  2800   B.C.) 
(now  in  the  louvre,   i 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


They  are  the  best  specimens  of  the  sculpture  of 
the  Babylonian-Assyrian  peoples.  These  works 
of  art  were  often  chiseled  out  of  diorite,  as  those 
found  by  the  French  at  Telloh,  out  of  alabaster, 
as  many  of  the  giant  colossi,  or  out  of  a  basaltic 
rock,  or  black  marble.  The  sculptors,  even  as 
far  back  as  3000  B.C.,  executed  some  wonderful 
work.  Even  more  striking  and  complicated 
were  their  bas-reliefs,  found  so  numerously  on 
the  walls  of  the  palaces  of  the  Assyrian  kings. 
In  this  species  of  art  there  is  often  superb 
genius  displayed  in  the  introduction  of  many 
figures,  of  warriors,  war-chariots,  cavalry 
charges,  battle  scenes,  sieges  and  captures  of 
cities,  and  divinities  of  various  grades.  But  in 
all  these  representations  the  modern  student 
must  not  be  disconcerted  because  of  the  lack 
of  perspective.  This  is  one  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  all  early  relief  work  and  painting, 
and  must  be  reckoned  with  in  our  study  of  those 
times. 

Besides  the  large  and  imposing  works  of  art, 
there  were  numerous  small  objects  that  occu- 
pied large  attention  and  revealed  some  real 
artistic  skill.  There  were  the  silver  vases  of 
the  time  of  Entimena  (about  3800  B.C.),  ivory 
objects  showing  exquisite  workmanship,  gold 
ornaments,  cylinder  seals  reaching  back  to  4000 
B.C.,  of  many  precious  stones  whose  intaglio 
work  would  be  a  credit  to  this  day.  The  method 
of  executing  such  fine  work  on  the  hardest  of 
precious  stones  is  still  a  puzzle  to  modern  en- 
gravers. The  decorations  of  Assyrian  and  Per- 
sian palaces  include  also  painting,  though  of  a 
kind  that  reveals  more  crudeness  than  the  speci- 
mens of  the  engraver's  art. 

Literature. — The  discoveries  of  the  last  three 
quarters  of  a  century  have  opened  for  us  the 
doors  to  a  new  library  of  ancient  Oriental 
literature.  These  clay  and  alabaster  volumes 
cover  a  large  range  of  subjects,  and  treat  them 
in  a  manner  entirely  unique.  The  first  that 
attracted  attention  was,  of  course,  the  immense 
amount  of  historical  matter,  found  mainly  in 
the  ruins  of  Assyria.  Another  large  element  in 
these  tablets,  particularly  in  Babylonia,  is  the 
poetry,  pure  Semitic  poetry,  or  interlineated  with 
so-called  Sumerian  poetry,  whose  character  is 
determined  by  the  presence  of  parallel  members. 
This  poetry  contains  hymns  to  the  gods,  peni- 
tential psalms,  incantations,  magical  formulae, 
and  even  epics  of  surprising  strength.  Exam- 
ples of  this  poetry  in  Assyria  were  copied  from 
Babylonian  originals,  as  Assyria  was  notably 
weak  in  its  literary  ability.  Then  there  are 
legends,  mythology,  and  popular  treatments  of 
technical  subjects.  We  find  also  treatises  that 
are  geographical,  biological,  geological ;  tablets 
that  are  commercial  in  character,  recording 
loans,  deeds,  rent's,  and  trades ;  long  lists  of 
matter  that  is  purely  linguistic,  for  it  deals  with 
signs  and  their  values ;  a  codified  system  of  laws 
that  touched  almost  every  complication  in  the 
complexities  of  Babylonian  life;  letters,  domestic 
and  international,  that  reveal  both  the  home  cus- 
toms of  the  nation  and  their  foreign  relation- 
ships and  authority. 

Myth  and  Legend. — The  poems  that  are  some- 
times called  epic,  in  the  literature  of  Babylonia, 
are  based  upon  events  that  are  usually  termed 
mythical.  The  epic  and  mythical  elements  are 
so  thoroughly  commingled  that  the  entire  narra- 
tive may   be   termed   mythological.     The   scenes 


depicted  are  those  between  gods  and  gods,  and 
between  gods  and  men,  and  other  creatures. 
The  most  famous  stones  classified  as  mythology 
are  the  so-called  creation  epic,  the  epic  of  Gil- 
gamesh,  of  which  the  eleventh  tablet  or  poem 
is  the  Babylonian  story  of  the  deluge.  There 
are  several  legends  and  fragments  of  legend? 
which  have  received  careful  study  in  recen* 
years,  whose  matter  is  arranged  on  the  custom- 
ary Babylonian  poetical  plan.  Some  of  these 
are,  the  descent  of  Ishtar  into  the  world  of  de- 
parted spirits,  the  Namtar  legend,  the  Adapa  and 
Etana  legends,  and  legends  of  various  god? 
Some  of  these  entertaining  literary  stories  take 
their  place  for  real  merit  and  interest  beside  the 
best  legendary  lore  of  ancient  Greece.  Their 
archaeological  value  is  often  considerable,  and 
their  relation  to  the  religious  life  of  Babylonia- 
Assyria  immeasurable. 

Religion. — The  primitive  religion  of  Baby- 
lonia was  doubtless  the  worship  of  the  different 
powers  of  nature.  These  became  personified 
and  everything  that  took  place  in  the  world  was 
simply  the  result  of  the  action  of  some  particular 
god,  who  stood  above  man  in  the  scale  of  being, 
and  executed  all  movements  in  the  especial 
sphere  where  he  was  supreme.  The  representa- 
tives of  these  divinities  on  the  monuments  are 
seen  sometimes  to  be  men,  and  at  other  times 
to  be  part  man  and  part  beast  and  bird.  Those 
in  the  form  of  men  possessed  attributes  like,  but 
far  superior  to,  man.  Since  they  represented 
different  powers  in  nature,  none  of  them  was  all- 
powerful.  Their  functions  lay  in  special  lines, 
and  for  these  they  were  worshipped.  In  Assyria, 
the  gods  as  a  whole  were  practically  bor- 
rowed from  Babylonia.  But  Asshur,  the  great 
divinity  of  Assyria,  stood  alone,  unique  in  all 
the  Mesopotamia!!  pantheon,  and  supreme  in 
Assyria.  The  chief  gods  of  Babylonia,  those 
that  were  supreme  in  its  pantheon,  were  three, 
Ami,  the  god  of  heaven,  Bel,  the  god  of  the 
earth,  and  Ea,  the  god  of  the  abyss  and  of  secret 
knowledge.  These  great  three  were  followed 
by  another  triad,  who  regulated  light  and  the 
weather,  namely,  Shamash,  the  sun-god,  Sin, 
the  moon-god,  and  Ramman,  the  weather-god. 
These  six  divinities  were  localized,  in  that  each 
was  the  patron  deity  of  some  city.  For  example, 
Anu  was  the  patron  deity  of  Erech,  Bel  of  Nip- 
pur, Ea  of  Eridu,  Shamash  of  Larsa  and  Sippar, 
and  Sin  of  Ur  (of  the  Chaldees).  There  is  a 
long  list  of  other  gods  and  goddesses,  who  were 
doubtless  related  to  the  two  chief  triads,  but  up 
to  the  present  time  this  relationship  in  all  cases 
cannot  be  determined.  Slightly  aside  from  the 
lists  already  named  we  find  the  great  goddess 
Ishtar,  one  of  whose  feats  is  described  in  the 
legend,  "Descent  of  Ishtar.' 

Worship. — The  cities  of  Babylonia-Assyria 
were  well  supplied  with  temples,  in  which  the 
gods  were  devotedly  and  assiduously  worshipped. 
Indeed,  this  worship  was  an  essential  element 
in  the  life  of  the  Babylonians,  to  a  greater  ex- 
tent than  among  the  Assyrians.  The  temples 
were  the  most  elaborate  buildings  of  Babylonia, 
and  were  under  the  immediate  direction  of  the 
priesthood,  the  most  powerful  class  of  men,  next 
to  the  king,  in  the  nation.  Babylonian  inscrip- 
tions, particularly,  enumerate  many  temples  in 
the  chief  cities  that  were  dedicated  to  the  patron 
deity  of  each  several  city.  Each  temple  had  an 
organization    of    official    priests,    whose    duties 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


•were  the  preservation  and  propagation  of  the 
worship  of  the  god  of  that  temple,  and  the  ritual 
and  traditions  thereof.  The  king  was  the  great 
overlord'  or  guardian  of  the  temple,  and  spared 
no  means  to  keep  it  in  a  thoroughly  good  state 
of  preservation,  and  to  increase  its  popularity 
among  his  subjects.  The  support  of  the  priest- 
hood was  provided  for  by  revenues  produced 
by  the  lands  attached  to  the  temple,  or  belonging 
thereto,  supplemented  by  regular  offerings. 
These  priests,  as  those  in  Egypt,  were  the  most 
influential  men  in  the  kingdom,  for  they  con- 
trolled the  religious  life  of  the  community,  and 
had  no  small  part  in  the  affairs  of  political  and 
civil  life.  They  were  probably  the  best  educated 
men  in  the  nation,  and  by  their  learning  tilled 
the  offices  that  required  a  somewhat  broad  train- 
ing, such  as  scribes,  historians,  and  librarians. 

The  regular  duties  of  the  priests  in  connec- 
tion with  the  temple  service  were  (i)  to  offi- 
ciate at  all  the  regularly  appointed  services  of 
the  temple,  including  the  monthly  and  annual 
set  feasts,  and  (2)  to  carry  out  the  worshipful 
desires  of  any  individual  worshipper.  The 
minutiae  of  conditions  regnant  in  temple  service 
are  voluminous,  and  touch  almost  every  condi- 
tion of  life.  Some  of  the  incantations  and 
psalms,  already  referred  to,  preserve  the  peti- 
tions that  must  be  recited  by  the  suppliant. 
Other  tablets  enumerate  the  great  variety  of 
offerings  that  must  be  presented  to  the  gods 
to  secure  their  good-will  and  blessings.  The 
multiplicity  of  such  requirements  easily  kept 
an  army  of  priests  busy  in  the  great  temples  of 
the  principal  cities  of   Babylonia-Assyria. 

Sources  of  Babylonian- Assyrian  History. — 
Before  the  excavations  of  the  last  75  years  in 
the  ruins  of  Babylonia-Assyria,  the  two  main 
sources  of  the  history  of  the  peoples  and  coun- 
try in  our  theme  were  (1)  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  (2)  the  second-hand  narratives 
of  Berosus,  Manetho,  and  Josephus,  with  a  few 
scattered  statements  and  some  questionable  nar- 
rative in  Greek  and  Roman  writers.  The  dis- 
coveries in  the  ruins  of  Mesopotamia  have  now 
given  us  first-hand  information  of  the  best 
kind,  narratives  just  as  they  were  written  down 
by  the  original  scribes,  and  not  copies  made 
from  age  to  age,  as  are  the  works  above  referred 
to.  These  clay,  stone,  and  metal  records  stretch 
not  continuously  as  yet,  but  with  breaks  here 
and  there,  from  at  least  4000  B.C.  down  through 
the  fall  of  Babylon  before  the  army  of  Cyrus  538 
B.C.  Of  course,  they  cannot  be  regarded  as  in- 
fallible, but  are  still  for  our  purpose  reasonably 
reliable.  They  give  us,  at  least,  a  new  pano- 
rama, of  the  most  vivid  kind,  of  the  great  na- 
tions that  moved  down  the  avenue  of  time  in 
Babylonia  for  nearly  4,000  years. 

Chronology. — The  chronology  of  Babylonia 
must  be  described  in  part  separately  frr>m  that 
of  Assyria.  The  early  Babylonians  reckoned 
events  from  some  great  calamity  or  occurrence, 
such  as  the  destruction  of  a  city,  the  dedication 
of  a  temple,  or  the  opening  of  a  new  irrigating 
canal.  Later  down  in  the  history  they  counted 
time  by  the  years  of  a  reigning  king.  The  "List 
of  Kings,"  a  list  of  the  kings  (not  complete)  of 
Babylon  from  about  2400  B.C.  to  625  B.C.,  by 
dynasties,  with  the  length  of  reign  of  each  king 
and  of  each  dynasty,  and  the  so-called  "Baby- 
lonian Chronicle,"  consisting  of  a  record  of 
events  in  Babylonia  and  Assyria  from  about  745 


B.C.,  early  in  the  reign  of  Nabonassar,  to  669  B.C., 
the  beginning  year  of  the  reign  of  Shamash- 
sbum-ukin  are  valuable  documents.  The  Ptol- 
emaic Canon,  which  has  some  reliable  fea- 
tures, also  begins  with  Nabonassar's  reign. 
Besides  these  guides  there  arc  references 
here  and  there  that  both  serve  as  checks  and 
give  us  fixed  points  from  which  and  toward 
which  we  may  figure.  One  of  the  most 
striking  is  that  mentioned  by  Nabonidus  ( 555— 
5,58  B.C.)  on  one  of  his  cylinder  inscriptions. 
He  there  states  that  an  inscription  of  Sargon 
which  he  found  in  the  corner-stone  of  a 
temple  had  been  deposited  in  its  hiding  place 
3,200  years  before  his  day,  or  about  3750 
B.C.  The  mere  we  find  of  ancient  Babylonian 
facts  the  more  probable  the  correctness  of  this 
date  seems  to  be.  Then  there  arc  chronological 
notes  and  hints,  such  as  the  statement  that 
Burna-buriash  lived  700  years  after  Ham- 
murabi, that  Marduk-nadin-akhe  defeated  Tig- 
lathpilcser  I.  418  years  before  Sennacherib 
conquered  Babylon.  Each  such  hint  furnishes 
a  valuable  check  on  the  whole  chronological 
scheme,  and  aids  the  scholar  in  his  construc- 
tion of  a  valid  and  reliable  list  of  rulers  and 
events,  even  though  for  the  present  there  are 
some  wide  and  embarrassing  gaps  in  the  period 
covered  by  Babylonian  history. 

Assyrian  chronology  follows  a  unique  plan. 
It  names  the  years  after  certain  officers,  termed 
eponyms,  whose  term  of  office  extended  over 
but  one  year.  Lists  of  these  eponyms  have 
been  found  stretching  from  893  B.C.,  during  the 
reign  of  Adad-nirari  II.  (gi  1-890  B.C.)  down 
to  Assurbanipal  (668-626  B.C.).  On  some  of 
these  lists  we  find  merely  the  name  of  the 
eponym,  on  others  there  is  found  the  name  of 
the  king  in  authority,  in  fact  he  usually  was  an 
eponym  at  some  time  during  his  reign,  and  some 
of  the  chief  events  of  each  year.  The  succes- 
sion of  events  between  the  limit  years  mentioned 
above  is  now  positively  known.  To  verify  our 
calculation  that  these  Assyrian  records  are  cor- 
rectly poised  in  time,  we  find  that  in  the  month 
of  Sivan,  year  of  eponymy  of  Pur-Shagalti, 
there  was  a  total  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  Nineveh. 
Astronomers  have  located  this  same  eclipse  on 
15  June  763  B.C.,  thus  giving  us  a  fixed  point 
for  our  calculations,  and  for  settling  specifically 
the  dates  of  the  entire  Assyrian  eponym  lists. 

Historical  Periods  —  Babylonia. — The  history 
of  Babylonia  may  be  roughly  divided  into  three 
periods:  (1)  That  stretch  of  time  reaching 
from  the  remotest  recorded  events  down  to  the 
time  of  the  consolidation  of  the  kingdoms  of 
Babylonia  under  Hammurabi  at  Babylon,  about 
2250  B.C. ;  (2)  the  time  included  between  Ham- 
murabi's supremacy  and  626  B.C.,  the  death  of 
Assurbanipal,  last  great  king  of  Assyria,  and 
the  rise  of  Nabopolassar.  first  king  of  the  new 
Babylonian  kingdom;  (3)  beginning  of  Nabo- 
polassar's  reign  (625  B.C.)  to  the  fall  of  Babylon 
before  Cyrus   (538  B.C.). 

First  Period  —  Babylonia. — The  beginnings 
of  this  period  are  enveloped  in  fog.  Scattered 
fragments  of  antiquities  and  archaic  inscriptions 
tell  a  broken  tale  of  a  very  remote  antiquity. 
Telloh,  Nippur,  Babylon,  and  Susa  have  yielded 
to  the  excavator  many  evidences  of  an  extreme 
antiquity,  and  have  put  into  our  hands  materia' 
for  beginning  to  estimate  some  of  the  elements 
of  such  early  civilizations.     Some  of  tie  earliest 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


kings  were  those  who  ruled  over  Erech  and 
Lagash,  which  occupied  territory  apparently  on 
the  north  and  south  side,  respectively,  of  the 
irrigating  canal,  Shatt-el-Hai,  connecting  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers.  Other  kingdoms 
in  this  early  period,  apparently  earlier  than  4000 
b.c,  were  Kish  and  Ur.  The  formal  name  of 
a  governor  in  this  earliest  age  was  patesi. 
Lugal-zag-gi-si,  however,  king  of  Erech,  appar- 
ently a  Semitic  name,  designates  himself  "king 
of  Erech,  king  of  the  world,"  but  calls  his 
father  Ukush,  "palest  of  Gishban."  Other  kings 
of  this  very  early  period  were  Ur-Nina,  the 
foundations  of  whose  palace  at  Telloh  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  first  illustration,  and  E-dingirrana- 
du.  E-dingirrana-du  was  a  patesi  of  Lagash 
and  a  victorious  ruler,  who  seized  and  main- 
tained authority,  among  others,  over  Gishban, 
Kish,  Erech,  Ur,  and  Larsa.  These  events 
must  have  occurred  about  4000  B.C. 

About  3750  B.C.,  according  to  the  reckoning 
of  Nabonidus,  already  mentioned,  we  find  Sar- 
gon  I.  in  power,  swaying  his  sceptre  to  the 
westward  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
iterranean Sea.  His  son,  Naram-Sin,  carried 
on  the  extensions  of  his  father's  kingdom 
until  he  included  in  his  realm  northern  Syria, 
northern  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Elam. 
He  designates  himself,  therefore,  "king  of  the 
four  quarters  of  the  world.8  There  is  a  break 
in  the  records  at  this  point.  The  next  ruler, 
rather  patesi,  of  Lagash  apparently  inaugurates 
a  new  reign,  that  enfolds  within  its  borders  the 
sway  of  all  southeastern  Babylonia,  including 
also  Elam.  This  patesi  was  Gudea,  one  of  the 
most  famous  rulers  of  this  valley,  at  about 
2800  B.C.  The  accompanying  cut  represents  one 
of  his  inscribed  statues  of  block  diorite  found 
at  Telloh,  around  which  we  find  366  lines  of 
writing  very  artistically  cut  into  this  hard  stone. 
On  the  lap  of  the  statue  there  is  a  plan  of  a 
building,  designed  in  exact  proportions,  reveal- 
ing the  measurements  current  in  Gudea's 
day.  His  numerous  inscriptions  tell  us  of 
his  world-wide  commercial  activity,  though  his 
political  power  may  not  have  included  more 
than  Elam  outside  of  Babylonian  territory.  The 
power  of  the  patesis  of  Lagash  stretched  over 
some  time,  and  was  a  distinct  force  in  the  civil- 
ization of  lower  Babylonia.  We  have  also  the 
names  of  several  kings  of  Ur,  of  Nisin,  of 
Erech,  of  Larsa,  and  of  some  smaller  cities, 
whose  exact  location  in  the  chain  of  history  is 
not  as  yet  fixed. 

Second  Period  —  Babylonia:  First  to  Third 
Dynasties.  Beginning  of  Assyria. — The  isolated 
kingdoms  of  Babylonia  had  already  existed  for 
centuries,  with  here  and  there  a  ruler  who 
had  been  able  to  gain  the  supremacy  o\  it 
one  or  more  of  his  neighbors  for  a  time. 
But  the  man  above  all  others  who  unified  these 
scattered  realms  under  his  own  sceptre,  with 
Babylon  as  a  centre,  was  Hammurabi,  whose 
long  reign  of  55  years  began  about  2285  B.C. 
He  greatly  improved  the  internal  condition  of 
his  own  country,  both  materially  and  politically, 
and  carried  his  conquests  to  Elam,  as  had  Sar- 
gon  I.,  his  predecessor  by  1500  years.  Ham- 
murabi's influence  and  power  for  the  welfare 
of  his  subjects  have  been  brought  out  anew  by 
the  discovery  at  Susa,  in  December  1901-Jan- 
uary  1902,  by  M.  J.  de  Morgan  at  the  head  of 
the  French  expedition,  of  a  code  of  laws  which 


had  been  compiled  under  his  direction  and  or- 
ders. This  remarkable  document  shows  that 
Hammurabi's  government  was  thoroughly  reg- 
ulated, for  it  provides  laws  now  intact  to  the 
number  of  243  to  govern  the  complexities 
of  commercial,  social,  and  official  life.  Succes- 
sive kings  of  this  first  dynasty,  founded  about 
2400  B.C.  by  Sumuabi,  are  known  as  yet  but 
slightly,  though  many  contract  tablets  belonging 
to  this  period  have  been  found. 

The  second  dynasty  in  the  "List  of  Kings'* 
consists  of  11  rulers,  about  whom  we  know 
nothing.  It  is  thought  that  during  their  reign 
the  Kassites  made  their  way  into  Babylonia 
from  the  countries  of  Media  and  Elam  and 
secured  a  hold  on  the  throne. 

The  third  dynasty  in  the  "List  of  Kings"  is 
made  up  of  36  kings,  but  only  a  few  names  at 
the  beginning  and  at  the  close  are  preserved. 
The  "Synchronous  History,"  however,  supple- 
ments this  lacuna  in  some  respects,  and  gives 
us  an  idea  of  the  relations  of  this  dynasty  to 
Assyria.  In  fact,  early  hi  this  dynasty  the 
former  little  colony  of  Assyria,  which  had  mi- 
grated from  Babylon  some  time  about  2500-2300 
B.C.,  rebelled  against  its  mother-country,  Baby- 
lon, and  secured  its  independence.  Its  first  king 
of  whom  we  know  the  name  was  Bel-Kapkapu, 
mentioned  by  Adad-nirari  III.  as  an  early  king 
on  the  Assyrian  throne.  Ashur-bel-nishishu  is 
the  first  king  about  whom  we  know  anything 
of  value.  He  ruled  about  1480  B.C.  and  was  on 
friendly  terms  with  Kara-indash,  a  king  of  the 
third  Babylonian  dynasty.  Several  successive 
Assyrian  kings  seem  to  have  perpetuated  this 
friendship,  but  jealousy  and  hostility  sprung  up 
and  there  were,  repeatedly,  clashes  of  arms,  in 
which,  on  the  whole,  the  young  and  vigorous 
Assyrian  kingdom  was  victorious.  One  of  the 
notable  Assyrian  kings  of  this  period  was  Shal- 
maneser  I.,  who  ruled  about  1330  B.C.  His 
great  campaigns  against  the  territory  northwest 
of  Assyria  are  celebrated  in  the  records  of 
Assurnatsirpal  (884-860  B.C.). 

Second  Period  —  Babylonia:  Fourth  (.'.V:'- 
enth  Dynasties.  Assyria,  X12O-I075. —  The  fourth 
Babylonian  dynasty  is  called  the  dynasty  of 
Pashe.  We  are  not  aware  of  the  name  of  its 
founder.  The  "List  of  Kings"  is,  unfortunately, 
mutilated  so  that  we  have  only  portions  of  the 
names  of  the  last  three  king';.  The  "Synchronous 
History"  fills  part  of  the  gap  by  giving  some 
of  the  relations  between  Babylonia  and  Assyria 
during  the  life  of  this  dynasty.  These  rela- 
tions were  hostile  in  some  of  its  earlier  years, 
when  Nebuchadrezzar  I.  was  on  the  throne,  and 
the  battle  went  against  the  Babylonians.  Then 
Marduk-nadin-akhe,  a  Babylonian  king,  wrested 
victory  from  the  Assyrians.  Tiglathpileser  I. 
(  [120  B.C.),  king  of  Assyria,  on  the  other  hand, 
completely  routed  the  same  Babylonian  king, 
captured  a  number  of  cities  in  North  Babylonia, 
and  even  Babylon  itself.  Succeeding  kings  of 
this  Babylonian  dynasty  and  of  Assyria  made 
treaties  of  peace,  and  for  the  time  being  ceased 
their  wasteful  warfare.  Of  all  the  Assyrian 
kings  wdio  reigned  in  the  time  of  this  Babylonian 
dynasty.  Tiglathpileser  I.  was  the  most  vigor- 
ous, aggressive,  and  successful.  His  example 
furnished  an  inspiration  for  all  succeeding  As- 
syrian rulers,  and  his  conquests,  related  in  full 
in  his  cylinder  inscription,  give  us  a  fine  speci- 
men of  early  Assyrian  historical  writing. 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


The  fifth  Babylonian  dynasty  (about  1050 
8.C.)  com  1  ted  of  three  kings  and  was  very  short. 
It  lias  been  called  the  "Sea-land"  dynasty,  be- 
cause it  is  thought  probable  that  the  Chaldeans 
about  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf  were  the 
occupants  of  the  throne.  At  least,  it  is  probable 
that  the  country  was  in  political  confusion  dur- 
ing the  life  of  this  dynasty. 

The  sixth  dynasty  (about  1025  B.C.)  was  that 
of  Bazi,  and,  like  its  predecessor,  had  just  three 
kings,  (if  whose  acts  very  little  is  known. 

A  gap  of  about  100  years  is  found  at  this 
place  in  our  sources,  a  part  of  which  is  attrib- 
uted to  the  unknown  seventh  dynasty  —  possibly 
an  Elamite,  which  is  said  to  have  ruled  six 
years. 

Assyrian  history  likewise  has  a  gap  of  more 
than  100  years  (1070-950  B.C.).  The  "Synchro- 
nous History"  leaves  us  in  the  dark  in  this 
period. 

Second  Period  —  Babylonia:  Eighth  Dy- 
nasty. Assyria  about  930-783  B.  C. — The  eighth 
dynasty  of  Babylon  is  supposed  to  have  been 
native  Babylonian,  and  occupied  the  throne 
from  about  1000  to  800  B.C.  The  kings  who 
ruled  in  Babylon  during  these  200  years  fought  a 
losing  battle  with  the  Assyrians,  for  in  al- 
most every  clash  the  Assyrian  was  victorious. 
Though  the  names  of  the  early  kings  of  this 
dynasty  are  lost,  we  know  those  of  the  kings 
who  waged  war  with  Assyria  during  the  larger 
portion  of  the  life  of  the  dynasty.  With  this 
dynasty  the  "Synchronous  History"  closes. 

The  Assyrian  records,  the  "Eponym  Canon," 
begin  in  this  period,  at  893  B.C.,  and  give  us 
a  continuous  annual  list  down  to  666  B.C. 
One  of  the  most  notable  Assyrian  kings  of 
this  period  who  have  left  us  their  records  was 
Assurnatsirpal  (8S4-860  B.C.).  This  king  was 
one  of  the  most  energetic  and  aggressive  mon- 
archs  of  Assyria.  He  established  Assyria's  au- 
thority in  every  direction,  even  to  the  coasts  of 
the  far-off  Mediterranean  Sea.  His  reign  was 
vigorous,  cruel,  and  even  barbaric.  Locally,  he 
built  a  great  palace  at  Calah,  and  one  at  Nin- 
eveh, and  restored  the  temple  of  Ishtar  at  the 
latter  place.  His  son,  Shalmaneser  II.  (860- 
S_s  B.C.),  still  further  extended  the  limits  of 
his  paternal  realm  by  including  lakes  Van  and 
Urumiyeh,  in  Armenia,  and  becoming  protector 
of  Babylon.  To  students  of  the  Old  Testament 
his  reign  assumes  more  than  ordinary  impor- 
tance, for  he  was  the  first  Assyrian  king  to 
come  into  contact  with  the  Hebrew  nation  of 
Palestine.  He  mentions  "Ahab  of  Israel"  and 
"Jehu,  son  of  Omri,"  both  of  whom  became  his 
subjects  in  the  Westland.  The  accompanying 
illustration  presents  four  of  the  five  reliefs  on 
one  of  the  four  sides  of  the  famous  Black  Obe- 
lisk of  Shalmaneser  II.  These  four  represent 
the  tribute  paid  by  four  foreign  countries  to  the 
Assyrian  king.  The  inscription  over  the  first 
relief  reads:  "Tribute  of  Sua  of  the  land  of 
Guzan,  silver,  gold" ;  over  the  second :  "Tribute 
of  Jehu,  son  of  Omri.  silver"  ;  over  the  third : 
"Tribute  of  the  land  of  Mutsri.  double-humped 
dromedaries" ;  over  the  fourth :  "Tribute  of 
Merodach-abil-utsur  of  the  land  of  the  Sukhites." 
These  four  reliefs  and  inscriptions  are  only  the 
first  of  four,  the  other  three  being  found  on 
the  other  three  sides  of  the  obelisk.  Shalman- 
eser's  son,  Shamshi-Adad  II.  (824-812  B.C.), 
succeeded  him   on   the  throne,  and   rescued   the 


kingdom  from  a  rebellion  which  had  been  stirred 
up  by  a  brother.  His  only  notable  conquest  was 
over  Babylon  under  command  of  King  Marduk- 
balatsu-ikbi. 

The  next  king  of  Assyria  was  Adad-nirari 
III.  (812-783  BC)»  son  and  successor  of  his 
father.  I  lis  was  a  prosperous  reign,  reaching 
to  Tyre,  Sidon,  Palestine,  and  Philistia.  Even 
Mari',  king  of  Damascus,  yielded  submission  to 
his  sway. 

As  in  Babylonia,  so  the  next  rulers  in  As- 
syria, three  in  number,  amounted  to  little. 

Assyrian  Supremacy:  Tiglathpileser  III. 
Babylonian  Subjection. — Assyria's  three  lethar- 
gic rulers  between  783  and  745  left  no  records 
that  deserve  mention.  But  their  great  suc- 
cessor, Tiglathpileser  III.  (745-727  B.C.),  re- 
deemed the  ancient  reputation  of  the  empire. 
This  new  king,  although  a  usurper,  revolution- 
ized the  policy  and  methods  of  the  Assyrian 
empire.  He  pushed  out  the  boundaries  of  As- 
syria farther  than  any  predecessor  on  the  throne. 
He  completely  subdued  Syria,  Palestine,  and 
Philistia.  According  to  his  own  records,  he, 
more  than  any  other  Assyrian  monarch,  came 
into  close  contact  with  the  Hebrews.  He  men- 
tions Menahem,  Pekah,  and  Hoshea,  kings  of 
the  northern  kingdom,  and  Uzziah  and  Ahaz, 
kings  of  the  southern  kingdom.  To  him  also 
is  to  be  attributed  the  policy  of  deportation  of 
captives  from  a  given  district,  and  importation 
into  that  same  district  of  peoples  from  distant 
districts,  in  order  thereby  to  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  uprisings  and  rebellion.  He  also  in- 
augurated a  kind  of  local  self-government,  or 
provincial  districts,  as  parts  of  his  adminis- 
trative policy,  thus  making  a  decided  advance 
over  the  reign  of  his  predecessors. 

The  next  Babylonian  king  of  whom  we  know 
anything  of  consequence  is  Nabonassar  (747 
B.C.),  mentioned  in  the  Canon  of  Ptolemy,  as 
well  as  in  the  "List  of  Kings"  and  the  "Baby- 
lonian Chronicle."  But  from  this  time  down 
to  the  rise  of  the  new  Babylonian  empire,  Baby- 
lon was  everywhere  practically  in  the  hands 
of  Assyria,  though  there  were  some  sanguinary 
struggles  for  the  supremacy. 

Sargon  II.  (722-705  B.  C). —  riglathpileser's 
successor  was  Shalmaneser  IV.  (727-722  B.C.). 
about  whom  we  know  little,  as  none  of  his  in- 
scriptions have  been  found.  His  one  act  of 
note  was  the  siege  of  Samaria  in  724  B.C.  His 
successor  was  Sargon  II.,  whose  first  act  was 
the  capture  of  Samaria  in  722  and  the  deporta- 
tion of  the  Jews  to  various  parts  of  his  empire. 
This  Sargon  was  a  master  ruler,  who  not  only 
subdued  and  held  in  subjection  the  peoples  on 
the  east  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  but 
also  with  indefatigable  skill  put  down  Mero- 
dach  Baladan  of  Babylon  and  his  attempted 
conspiracy  (cf.  Isa.  xxxix.).  Sargon's  great 
home  achievement  was  the  construction  of  that 
colossal  palace  at  Khorsabad,  just  north  of 
Nineveh,  that  was  first  discovered  by  Botta  in 
1842.  as  already  described. 

Sennacherib.  705-681  B.  C. — Sargon  II.  was 
assassinated  in  his  new  palace  at  Khorsabad  in 
705  B.C.  and  was  succeeded  by  Sennacherib,  his 
son.  This  vigorous  ruler  conducted  at  least 
three  successful  campaigns:  (1)  against  the 
Westland:  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine  (701 
B.C.),  when  he  overran  Judah,  carried  off  200,150 
captives,    threatened    Jerusalem,    making    Heze- 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


kiah  his  subject,  and  met  and,  according  to  his 
own  records,  defeated  an  Egyptian  army  at 
Elteku;  (2)  in  an  expedition  against  Elam 
(693  B.C.)  he  was  only  partially  successful,  not 
quite  reaching  the  capital,  Susa ;  (3)  in  689, 
he  sacked,  burnt,  and  practically  destroyed 
the  city  of  Babylon,  in  revenge  for  the 
rebellious  acts  of  its  former  ruler  and  inhab- 
itants. Sennacherib  removed  the  capital  from 
Calah  to  Nineveh,  and  erected  for  himself  a 
magnificent  palace  in  that  newly  made  capital 
of  the  unified  Assyrian-Babylonian  empire. 
Other  public  works  of  an  extensive  nature,  such 
as  arsenals  and  water  supply,  were  the  objects 
of  his  energy.  Sennacherib  was  murdered  by 
one  of  his  sons,  according  to  the  "Babylonian 
Chronicle,"  and  was  succeeded  by  Esarhaddon, 
his  son,  who  was  not  engaged  in  the  conspiracy. 

Esarhaddon,  681-668  B.  C;  Assurbanipal, 
668-626  B.  C. — Sennacherib's  son,  Esarhaddon, 
carried  on  a  successful  warfare  against  the 
mountaineers  to  the  north  and  northeast,  and 
was  the  first  Assyrian  ruler  to  carry  his  con- 
quests into  Egypt.  In  671  B.C.  he  crossed  the 
frontier  of  that  age-old  land,  took  Memphis, 
and  carried  his  arms  as  far  as  Thebes,  driving 
the  Ethiopian  monarch  of  Egypt,  Tirhakah, 
back  into  his  homeland.  He  was  the  first  king 
of  Assyria  who  could  add  to  his  title,  Egypt, 
Paturisi  (biblical,  "Pathros")  and  Kus  (biblical, 
"Cush,"  "Ethiopia").  In  his  list  of  22  tribute- 
paying  kings  of  the  Westland,  we  find  "Manas- 
seh  of  Judah."  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Assurbanipal  (the  "Sardanapalus"  of  the  Greeks, 
and  "Osnappar"  of  Ezra  iv.  10).  Egypt  had 
revolted  about  the  time  of  the  death  of  Esar- 
haddon, and  thus  necessitated  the  early  attention 
of  Assurbanipal  to  hold  it.  He  was  completely 
successful,  driving  back  the  rebel  Tirhakah,  and 
re-establishing  his  authority  over  the  whole 
land.  A  second  expedition  was  required  again 
in  663  B.C.,  when  the  land  was  completely  re- 
conquered and  Assyrian  authority  re-established. 
Very  soon,  however,  Psamtik  of  Egypt,  with  the 
help  of  foreign  troops,  threw  off  the  yoke  of 
Assyria.  Assurbanipal's  great  work  was  the 
conquest  of  Babylon  and  his  rebellious  brother 
Shamash-shum-ukin  in  647  B.C.;  and,  after  sev- 
eral terrific  battles,  the  crushing  of  the  power 
of  the  Elamites  in  640  B.C.,  by  the  capture  and 
destruction  of  their  great  capital,  Susa.  These 
colossal  military  achievements  marked  the  cul- 
mination of  Assyria's  career,  for  henceforth 
there  was  a  rapid  decline.  Assurbanipal's  nota- 
ble contribution  to  the  history  of  literature  was 
his  causing  to  be  collected  and  copied  for  his 
royal  library  at  Nineveh  many  of  the  most  fa- 
mous pieces  of  literature  found  in  the  libraries 
of  Babylon.  The  last  years  of  his  reign  are 
wrapped  in  obscurity. 

Third  Period  — Babylonia:  Rise  of  Baby- 
lon, 62$  B.  C.  Fall  of  Assyria,  606  B.  C. — Al- 
most simultaneously  with  the  death  of  Assur- 
banipal (626  B.C.)  we  find  one  of  his  former 
generals,  Nabopolassar,  a  Chaldean  by  de- 
scent, securing  the  throne  of  Babylon  for 
himself  (625-605  B.C.).  While  he  was  develop- 
ing and  extending  his  influence  and  grasp  over 
the  territory  that  was  naturally  tributary  to 
Babylon,  momentous  events  were  occurring  in 
the  north  country,  in  and  about  Assyria.  The 
growing  Median  power  threatened  its  very  life. 
Two  sons  of  Assurbanipal,  Assur-etil-ilani   and 


Sin-shar-ishkun,  occupied  the  Assyrian  throne, 
the  former  about  four  and  the  latter  about 
seven  years.  The  waves  of  the  Umman-Manda, 
peoples  to  the  north  and  northeast  of  Nineveh, 
were  rolling  over  the  mountains  of  eastern 
Armenia  and  northern  Media.  According  to 
an  inscription  of  Nabonidus,  written  about  553 
B.C.,  these  mountaineers  finally  succeeded  in 
overwhelming  Nineveh,  the  last  hiding-place  of 
the  Assyrian  tyrant  and  oppressor,  in  6c6  B.C. : 
this  was  done  probably  with  the  direct  or  indi- 
rect support  of  Nabopolassar  of  Babylon. 

Nebuchadrezzar  II.  604-561  B.  C. — Simul- 
taneously with  the  fall  of  Nineveh  we  find  an 
Egyptian  army  under  Necho  encamped  in  north- 
ern Syria,  in  full  possession  of  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  In  a  crushing 
defeat  Nebuchadrezzar  overthrew  and  pursued 
the  Egyptian  invaders,  and  secured  that  terri- 
tory for  the  new  Babylonian  empire.  Within 
the  44  years  of  his  reign,  Nebuchadrezzar  made 
Babylon  the  up-to-that-time  greatest  of  em- 
pires. His  authority  extended,  on  biblical  evi- 
dence, even  into  Egypt,  and  his  activities  were 
something  phenomenal.  In  fact,  the  larger  part 
of  his  inscriptions  already  found  are  devoted 
to  his  immense  building  projects,  including 
temples,  palaces,  streets,  embankments,  and  walls. 
Babylon  was  built  in  great  magnificence,  and  in 
every  important  aspect  did  credit  to  the  enter- 
prise and  genius  of  Babylonia's  greatest  monarch. 
His  own  records  thus  far  found  do  not  give  us 
any  account  of  his  dealings  with  the  Jews, 
either  at  Jerusalem  or  those  in  exile, —  de- 
scribed in  the  Old  Testament.  After  a  long 
and  prosperous  reign  he  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  by  his  son,  Evil-Merodach.  This  king 
was  assassinated  after  a  reign  of  two  years 
(561-560  B.C.),  by  Neriglissar,  his  brother-in- 
law.  This  usurper  ruled  four  years  (559-556 
B.C.),  and  spent  most  of  his  time,  according  to 
his  inscriptions,  in  building  operations.  At  his 
death,  his  son,  Labashi-Marduk,  not  yet  of  age, 
succeeded  him,  but  fell  under  the  assassin's 
knife  within  nine  months. 

Nabonidus,  555-538  B.  C. — By  some  mach- 
inations of  the  priesthood,  apparently,  the  new 
king,  Nabonidus,  was  a  native  Babylonian  and 
not  a  Chaldean  as  was  the  dynasty  of  Nabo- 
polassar. He  was  an  enthusiastic  religionist 
and  antiquarian.  He  built  and  rebuilt  many 
temples  in  the  principal  cities  of  his  kingdom. 
He  was  the  discoverer,  in  the  foundations  of  a 
temple,  as  already  stated,  of  an  inscription 
of  Sargon  I.,  which  had  been  placed  there 
3,200  years  before  his  day,  making  the  date 
of  said  Sargon  about  3750  B.C.  Nabonidus' 
enthusiasm  carried  him  too  far,  for  he 
attempted  to  centralize  in  Babylon  the  re- 
ligion of  the  kingdom.  In  doing  this  he 
alienated  the  priesthood,  and  even  aroused 
their  active  opposition.  For  throughout  the 
history  of  Babylonia  each  city  had  had  its  own 
patron  deity,  to  whom  its  temple  was  dedicated 
and  its  people  devoted.  The  images  and  shrines 
of  these  various  divinities  were  collected  in 
Babylon.  This  act,  with  others  of  similar  of- 
fense to  the  priests  paved  the  way  for  his  down- 
fall before  a  mightier  power. 

Cyrus,  538-520  B.  C. — Cyrus,  an  Elamite 
and  Persian  by  descent,  began  an  active  career 
as  a  conqueror  in  558  B.C.  He  conquered  suc- 
cessively the   Medes  under  Astyages    (550  B.C.), 


ASSYRIOLOGY 


Croesus  and  Asia  Minor  (547  u.r.),  and  then 
moved  against  Nabonidtis,  who  had  allied  him- 
self against  this  new  conqueror.    The  Babylonian 

army  was  probnbly  under  the  command  of  Na- 
bonidus'  sun,  Bclshazzar.  Suffering  a  defeat  at 
Opis,  the  army  of  Babylon  later  scarcely  offered 
resistance.  Cyrus  marched,  almost  without  fur- 
ther opposition,  to  the  gates  of  the  capital  city. 
The  outraged  priesthood  and  citizens,  in  open 
defiance  of  their  own  kins,  flung  open  the  gates 
and  welcomed  the  new  and  liberal  conqueror  to 
authority  over  them.  Cyrus  restored  the  gods 
In  their  cities  and  shrines,  and  permitted  en- 
forced exiles  to  return  to  their  native  places 
and  lands.  Besides,  he  became  one  of  the 
ardent  worshippers  of  the  gods  of  the  land, 
and  established  himself  as  a  liberty-loving,  peo- 
ple-serving pi  itentate. 

The  fall  of  Babylon  before  the  advance  of 
Cyrus  meant  the  fail  of  Semitic  sway  in  Baby- 
lonia, and  the  rise  of  Aryan  power.  The  cunei- 
form tongue  served  the  purpose  of  a  language 
in  Babylonia  for  long  years  after  this  revolu- 
tion. In  fact,  throughout  the  Persian  and 
Greek  periods,  this  same  language  was  used  in 
Babylonia,  particularly  in  writing  contract  tab- 
lets. There  are  some  inscriptions  dating  from 
the  Parthian  era,  due  doubtless  to  the  enthusi- 
astic support  of  the  priesthood  of  those  times. 
Thus  for  nearly  or  quite  4,000  years  the  cunei- 
form language  was  the  vehicle  of  expression 
for  the  peoples  of  Babylonia. 

Bibliography. — The  literature  on  Babylonia- 
Assyria  has  already  become  voluminous.  Con- 
sequently, in  a  limited  bibliography,  only  selec- 
tions will  be  given.  These  will  cover  the 
following  departments  of  study: 

(1)  Explorations  and  Discoveries. — These 
include  the  early  works  of  C.  J.  Rich,  J.  E. 
Taylor,  A.  H.  Layard,  P.  E.  Botta,  Felix  Jones, 
W.  K.  Loftus,  and  J.  Oppert.  Since  1870  the 
most  important  works  are  those  of  Geo.  Smith, 
H.  Rassam,  E.  de  Sarzec,  John  P.  Peters,  H.  V. 
Hilprecht,  and  M.  J.  de  Morgan,  freely  cited 
in  all  works  on  discoveries  in  those  lands. 

(2)  Inscriptions  and  Texts. — Cuneiform 
texts  began  very  early  to  be  published.  The 
first  notable  publication  was  Rawlinson's  text 
and  translation  of  the  Bchistun  Inscription  in 
the  'Journal  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society' 
(Vol.  X„  1847).  Botta,  Layard,  and  Oppert  also 
published  inscriptions  as  a  result  of  their  explor- 
ations and  excavations.  H.  C.  Rawdinson  edited 
(1861-84)  for  the  trustees  of  the  British  Mu- 
seum five  standard  volumes  of  texts  under  the 
title  'Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Western  Asia.' 
Many  minor  series  have  appeared  since 
that  date,  such  as  'Assyriologische  Bibliothck' 
(188 1— ),  edited  by  Delitzsch  and  Haupt; 
'Babylonian  Expedition  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania,'  by  H.  V.  Hilprecht  (1893 — )  ; 
'Cuneiform  Texts  in  the  British  Museum' 
(189c) — ),  by  officials  of  that  museum:  <De- 
couvertes  en  Chaldee'  (1884 — ),  by  E.  de 
Sarzec :  eight  volumes  of  'Assyrian-Babylonian 
Letters'  (1892—),  by  R.  F.  Harper,  and 
'Memoires  de  M.  J.  de  Morgan'  at  Susa,  in 
which  V.  Schcil  has  edited  notable  Susian  texts, 
and  the  Code  of  Hammurabi.  In  addition  to 
these  there  are  scores  of  lesser  texts  of  value 
to  the  student. 

(3)  Equipment  for  Study  of  the  Language. 
— The    former    dearth    in    this    field    has    been 


largely  supplied  by  Frdr.  Delitzsch.  His  'As- 
syrische  Lcsestvickc,'  4th  edition;  his  'Assyrian 
Grammar'  (1889).  'Assyrisches  Worterbuch' 
(1887 — ),  and  'Assyrisches  Handworterbuch' 
(1896),  constitute  a  fairly  good  outfit.  Other 
works  helpful  in  the  same  line  are  D.  G.  Lyon's 
'Assyrian  Manual'  (1886),  Brtinnow's  'Classi- 
fied List  of  Cuneiform  Ideographs'  (1889), 
Muss-Arnolt's  'Concise  Dictionary  of  the  As- 
syrian Language'  (1894 — );  L.  W.  King  and 
11.  Winckler  have  likewise  contributed  liberally 
to  this  department  of  work. 

(4)  Translations,  Commentaries,  etc. — There- 
is  a  long  list  of  this  material,  but  some  of  the 
most  useful  for  modern  students  are  'Records 
of    the    Past'     (1888-92),    new    s0rjCs,    edited    by 

A.  11.  Sayce ;  'Keilinschrifthche  Bibliothek' 
(1889 — ),    edited    by    E.    Schrader;    'Assyrian 

and  Babylonian  Literature'  (]<mi),  edited  by 
R.  F.  Harper:  'Zeitschrift  fur  Assyriologie' 
(1886 — ),  edited  by  C.  Bezold ;  several  volumes 
in  Del  it /seh  and  Haupt's  'Assyriologische  Bib- 
liothek,' already  referred  to;  'Kosmologic  der 
Babylonier,'  by  P.  Jensen  ;  and  several  admirable 
series  just  issued  by  L.  W.  King  and  R.  C. 
Thompson  of  the  British  Museum,  and  by 
C.  H.  W.  Johns  of  Cambridge. 

(5)  Learning,  Religion,  Art. — Selections 
only:  Fr.  Lenormant,   '  Le   Magie  chez  les  Chal- 

deens'     (1874);    ,     'La    divination    et    la 

science  des  presages  chez.  les  Chaldeens' 
(1875)  ;  F.  Hommel,  'Die  Vorsemitische  Kul- 
turen  in  ^Egypten  und  Babylonien'  (1883)  ; 
A.  H.  Sayce,  'Religion  of  the  Ancient  Baby- 
lonians' (Hibbert  Lectures,  1887)  ;  'Higher 
Criticism  and  the  Monuments'  (1st  ed.  1893, 
several  later  editions)  ;  A.  Jeremias,  '  Babylon- 
ische-assyrische  Vorstellungen  vom  Leben  nach 
dem  Tode>  (1887);  C.  P.  Tiele,  'Geschielite 
d.  aegyptische  u.  d.  babyl.-assyr.  Religion' 
(1895)  ;  M.  Jastrow,  Jr.,  'Religion  of  Babylonia 
and  Assyria'  (1898,  new  revised  ed.,  1905. 
appearing  in  German);  H.  Zimmern,  'Beitnige 
zur  Kenntniss  der  Babylonischen  Religion' 
(1901);  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  'Histoire  de  l'art 
dans  l'antiquite,'  Vol.  II.:  'Chaldee  et  As- 
syrie'  (1884);  older  works,  such  as  those  of 
Botta,  Layard,  and  Place,  are  of  value  chiefly 
for  their  illustrations. 

(6)  History  and  Archeology. — Some  of  the 
most  recent  works  superseding  the  large  work 
of  George  Rawlinson  are  G.  Smith,  'History 
of  Babylonia,'  edited  by  Sayce  (1877);  G. 
Smith.  'Assyria  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the 
Fall  of  Nineveh'  (1875);  F.  Hommel.  <Ge- 
schichle  Babyloniens  u.  Assyriens'  (1885-9); 
C.  P.  Tiele,  'Babvl.-Assyrische  Geschielite' 
(1886-8);  H.  Winckler.  'Geschielite  Babyl.  u. 
Assyriens'  (1892)  ;  J.  F.  McCurdy,  'History, 
Prophecy  and  the  Monuments'  (1894-1901); 
R.  W.  Rogers,  'History  of  Babylonia  and  As- 
syria' (1900)  ;  G.  S.  Goodspeed.  'History  of 
the  Babylonians  and  Assyrians'  (1902);  Schra- 
der-Whitehouse,  'Cuneiform  Inscriptions  and 
the  Old  Testament'  (1S89);  Schrader- Winck- 
ler-Zimmern,  'Die  Keilinschriften  und  das  Altc 
Testament'  (3te  auflage,  1901-3)  ;  Ira  M.  Price, 
'The  Monuments  and  the  Old  Testament'  (4th 
ed.  1905)  ;  A.  Jeremias,  'Das  Alte  Testament 
im  Lichte  des  alten  Orients'    (1904). 

Further  bibliographical  material  may  be  found 
in  the  periodicals  devoted  to  Assyriology,  'Zeit- 
schrift  fiir  Assyriologie,'  the  'American  Journal 


AST  — ASTER 


of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,'  and 
•Orientalische  Bibliographic';  also  in  the  com- 
prehensive articles  on  "Assyria"  and  "Babylonia" 
by  Hommel  and  King  in  Hastings'  'Dictionary 
of  the  Bible, '  and  Cheyne's  'Encyclopedia  Bib- 
lica,'    respectively. 

Ika  Maurice  Price, 
Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures, 
The  University  of  Chicago. 

Ast,  ast,  Georg  Anton  Friedrich,  German 
scholar  and  philosophical  writer:  b.  Gotha  29 
Dec.  1778;  d.  Munich  31  Oct.  1841.  In  1805  he 
was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  Classical  Liter- 
ature at  Landshut,  and  in  1826  accepted  an 
appointment  to  the  same  chair  in  the  University 
of  Munich.  Among  his  best  known  publications 
are:  'Handbuch  der  Aesthetik'  (1805);  'Grun- 
driss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophic'  (1807); 
•Wissenschaftliche  Darstellung  der  Grammatik, 
Hermeneutik  und  Kritik'  (1808)  ;  'Platos  Leben 
und  Schriften'  (1816).  He  also  published  an 
edition  of  the  works  of  Plato  in  eleven  volumes 
with  a  Latin  translation  and  a  commentary 
(1810-32). 

Astacus  (Ital.,  astaco,  Lat.,  astacus,  Gr., 
&<rTaic6s ),  a  genus  of  decapod  Crustaceans  of 
the  family  Astacidcc,  including  the  A.  marinus, 
or  lobster,  and  the  A.  fluviatilis,  or  crayfish. 
The  species  A.  fluviatilis  contain  the  crayfishes  of 
Europe,  and  also  those  of  the  Pacific  States  of 
the  United  States,  while  those  found  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  belong  to  the  species  Cambarus. 

Astarte,  as-tar'te,  a  character  in  Byron's 
play,  'Manfred.'  The  hero  guiltily  falls  in  love 
with  her,  and  in  the  second  act  her  shadow 
appears  to  him  in  a  denunciatory  attitude. 

Astar'te,  a  genus  of  bivalve  mollusks  be- 
longing to  the  family  Cyfrinida:  They  have 
2-2  hinge  teeth,  and  are  suborbicular,  com- 
pressed, thick,  smooth,  or  concentrically  fur- 
rowed shells.  Tate  estimated  the  recent  species 
known  at  20  and  the  fossil  at  285.  The  former 
belong  to  the  Temperate  and  Arctic  zones,  and 
the  latter  to  the  rocks  from  the  carboniferous 
formation  upward. 

Astarte,  as-tar-te,  or  Ashtoreth,  a  Syrian 
goddess,  probably  identical  with  the  Semele  of 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Ashtaroth  of  the  Hebrews, 
and  worshipped  also  by  the  Phoenicians,  and 
Carthaginians,  being  regarded  by  some  as  the 
original  of  the  Greek  goddess  Aphrodite 
{Venus').  She  was  the  moon-goddess,  or  god- 
dess of  the  heavens,  and  appears  also  to  have 
been  worshipped  as  the  goddess  of  fruitfulness. 
In  the  Old  Testament,  Astarte  is  frequently 
mentioned  as  the  goddess  of  the  Sidonians  (see 
1  Kings  xi.  5-33;  2  Kings  xxiii.  13),  but  the 
form  of  her  name  seems  to  have  been  perverted, 
to  her  original  name  of  Ashtart  being  infixed 
the  vowels  of  Bosheth,  or  "shame,"  and  we  find 
her  there  called  Ashtorath.  In  1  Samuel  xxxi. 
10,  Astarte  is  again  mentioned,  as  is  also  the 
fact  that  a  temple  was  built  to  her  at  Ashkelon. 
There  were  also  temples  at  Citium  in  Cyprus. 
at  Eryx  in  Sicily,  and  in  Carthage.  The  Syrians 
also  built  a  famous  temple  to  her  at  Hierapolis, 
at  Tyre,  and  at  Sidon.  She  is  probably  identical 
with  the  Assyrian  goddess  Ishtar,  or  Istar,  the 
"Lady,"  the  "Queen  of  the  Gods"  or  the  virgin 
goddess  of  death  and  war,  who  enforces  strict 


chastity  upon  her  priests  and  priestesses.  Astarte 
is  represented  in  various  forms,  but  more  usually 
with  four  wings,  the  two  uppermost  representing 
the  horns  of  the  moon,  and  having  on  her  head  a 
pointed  cap,  and  a  white  dove  in  her  hand. 
Others  represent  her  as  a  naked  female  figure, 
short  and  stout,  and  the  hands  holding  the 
breasts.  She  is  also  represented  in  Phcenicia 
as  a  cow. 

Astatic  (as-tat'ik)  Needle  (Greek,  "un- 
stable"), in  physics,  a  magnetic  needle  whose 
tendency  to  set  itself  in  the  magnetic  mi 
has  been  nearly  or  quite  neutralized  in  some 
way,  so  that  while  the  needle  retains  its  full 
magnetic  power,  it  will  remain  indifferently  in 
any  position,  even  when  quite  free  to  turn. 
A  magnetic  needle  may  be  made  astatic  in 
various  ways;  for  example,  by  disposing  mag- 
nets in  the  vicinity  of  the  needle  in  such  a 
way  that  their  field  of  force  opposes  and  neu- 
tralizes the  earth's  field.  A  commoner  method 
is  to  make  use  of  a  pair  of  needles  of  equal 
size  and  equal  magnetic  strength,  securing  them 
together,  one  above  the  other,  by  a  light,  rigid 
connection,  so  that  their  lengths  shall  be  par- 
allel, and  their  poles  turned  in  opposite  di- 
rections. If  the  conditions  here  assumed  are 
fulfilled  rigorously,  the  system  will  have  no  di- 
rective tendency  whatever.  In  practice  it  is 
quite  possible  to  secure  an  adjustment  so  good 
that  the  directive  tendency  is  masked  by  the 
torsional  force  of  the  suspending  fibre.  Astatic 
needles  are  used  in  the  construction  of  deli- 
cate galvanometers,  the  coil  conveying  the  cur- 
rent passing  around  only  one  of  the  needles  of 
the  system,  or  around  both  of  them,  in  oppo- 
site directions.  The  full  magnetic  moment  of 
the  current  is  thus  obtained,  while  the  directive 
action  of  the  earth's  field  remains  practically 
zero,  and  the  motion  of  the  needle  i,  opposed 
only  by  the  torsion  of  the  suspension.  See 
Galvanometer. 

Asten,  as'ten,  Friedrich  Emil  von,  Ger- 
man    astronomer:     b.     Koln      1842;     d.      1878. 

From  1870  he  was  employed  at  the  Imperial 
Russian  Observatory  at  Pulkowa.  He  will  be 
best  remembered  for  his  work  upon  Fncke's 
comet,  the  results  of  which  were  published  in 
T877,  and  included  an  elaborate  discussion  of 
all  the  appearances  of  this  interesting  body 
from  1819  to  1875. 

Aster,  as'tcr.  Ernst  Ludwig  von,  Ger- 
man military  engineer:  b.  Dresden  5  Ocl 
1778;  d.  Berlin  10  Feb.  1855.  His  hi 
vice  was  in  the  Saxon  army.  It  was  in  t8lO,  as 
an  officer  in  this  army,  that  he  submitted  his 
plans,  subsequently  accepted,  for  the  fortifica- 
tion of  Torgau  to  Napoleon.  Subsequently  he 
entered  the  Russian  service,  and.  soon  after 
1815,  the  Prussian.  While  in  the  last  service  he 
undertook  the  fortification  of  Coblentz  and 
Ehrenbreitstein,  and  in  1842  was  appointed  gen- 
eral and  inspector  of  all  the  Prussian  fortresses. 

As'ter,  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Composite,  and  comprehending 
several  hundred  species,  mostly  natives  of  Nor:'., 
America,  although  some  of  the  species  are 
found  over  most  regions  of  the  globe.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  aster,  a  ^lar. 
and  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  flowers  (copitula) 
hear  some  resemblance  to  stars.  The  species 
are     herbaceous     plants,     or     more     commonly 


ASTERISK  —  ASTEROIDS 


shrubs.  On  account  of  the  large  number  of 
species  composing  this  genus  it  is  divided  into 
six  or  seven  groups,  regarded  by  some  bota- 
nists as  forming  distinct  genera.  Large  as  the 
genus  is,  it  contains  no  species  of  any  great 
utility  in  the  arts,  but  many  are  cultivated  as 
ornamental  plants.  The  most  beautiful  species 
among  those  which  are  natives  of  Europe  are 
the  A.  alpinus,  amellus,  and  pyreneus,  and 
among  those  of  America,  A.  grandiflorus, 
punicaeus,  eminens,  multiflorus,  horisontalis, 
IhyrsiHorus,  roseus,  and  Nova  Anglia.  The 
China  aster  (A.  ckinensis),  introduced  from 
China  upward  of  a  hundred  years  ago,  is  a 
well-known  annual,  growing  to  a  height  of 
from  12  to  18  inches,  and  bearing  an  abundance 
of  large  and  beautiful  flowers,  exhibiting  in  the 
numerous  varieties  every  hue  except  yellow, 
and  a  great  diversity  of  marking.  This  plant 
lends  itself  readily  to  culture  and  florists  are 
constantly  adding  new  varieties  to  a  stock  that 
already  numbers  nearly  300.  The  French  call 
this  species  Reine  Marguerite.  Some  bota- 
nists refer  it  to  a  separate  genus  which  they  call 
Callistephus.  The  chrysanthemum  and  peony 
flowered  varieties  are  particularly  worthy  of 
cultivation  for  the  size,  color,  and  abundance 
of  their  flowers.  From  the  lateness  of  the  sea- 
son in  which  they  bloom  some  species  of  aster 
have  obtained  the  name  in  England  of  Christ- 
mas daisy.  Of  the  species  commonly  cultivated 
in  gardens,  several  bloom  in  July,  and  a  few 
continue  in  flower  from  November  until  killed 
by  frost,  or  the  beatings  of  violent  storms. 

Asterisk  ("a  little  star"),  a  sign  or  sym- 
bol (*)  used  in  writing  and  printing,  as  a  refer- 
ence to  a  note  at  the  bottom  or  on  the  margin 
of  the  page.  The  obelisk,  or  dagger  (f),  and 
many  other  marks,  are  similarly  employed ;  but 
when  there  are  several  references  on  the  same 
page,  it  is  now  common  to  use  the  numerals  I, 
2,  3,  etc.  The  asterisk  often  marks  the  omission 
of  words  or  sentences,  or  it  distinguishes  words 
as  conjectural  or  obscure,  or  it  may  be  used 
merely  as  a  typographical  mark  for  any  specified 
purpose. 

Asterism,  a  property  possessed  by  a  few 
minerals  of  exhibiting  star-like  rays.  It  is  due 
either  to  reflection  of  light  from  twinning 
lamellae  or  minute  enclosed  tubes,  as  in  the  case 
of  star-sapphire  (q.v.),  star-ruby,  and  star- 
quartz  (q.v.),  or  to  the  regular  arrangement  of 
minute  enclosed  crystals  as  seen  by  transmitted 
light,  in  the  case  of  some  phlogopite  or  star- 
mica. 

Asteroidea,  an  order  of  echinoderms,  the 
starfishes,  so  called  because  of  their  star-like 
shape.  They  are  characterized  by  five  or  more 
arms,  which  they  have  the  power  to  reproduce 
if  broken  off.  Should  one  of  these  arms  be  en- 
tirely detached,  taking  a  small  portion  of  the 
body  with  it,  a  new  fish  will  result. 

Asteroids,  a  group  of  small  planetary 
bodies,  known  also  as  minor  planets,  which  re- 
volve round  the  sun  between  the  orbits  of  Mars 
and  Jupiter.  The  most  remarkable  feature  of  these 
bodies  is  that  they  occupy  a  vacant  place  in  the 
solar  system  in  which  a  planet  would  naturally 
belong.  Between  the  orbit  of  Mars,  the  fourth 
planet  _  in  order,  and  that  of  Jupiter  the  fifth, 
there  is  a  space  more  than  double  the  radius  of 
the  orbit  of  Mars  itself.  This  gap  was  noticed 
from  the  time  that  the  distances  of  the  planets 


were  laid  down  by  Kepler.  It  was  long  sus- 
pected that  a  planet  would  be  found  occupying 
it  and  an  organized  effort  was  made  to  discover 
it.  The  discovery  of  a  planet  which  was  sup- 
posed to  be  the  long  sought  body  was  made  by 
Piazzi,  at  Palermo,  on  the  first  day  of  the  19th 
century.  To  the  great  surprise  of  astronomers 
three  other  planets  were  found  in  the  course  of 
the  next  six  years  to  be  revolving  in  the  same 
region.  The  smallness  of  the  four  bodies  gave 
rise  to  the  celebrated  hypothesis  of  Olbers,  that 
these  bodies  were  the  fragments  of  a  single 
planet  which  had  been  disrupted  by  some  cat- 
aclysm. Some  40  years  elapsed  when  in  1846 
a  fifth  asteroid  was  discovered.  Others  soon 
followed.  More  powerful  telescopes  were  ap- 
plied to  the  search,  a  thorough  system  was  in- 
troduced, and  in  this  way  the  number  known 
went  on  increasing  until  it  mounted  into  the 
hundreds  and  now  a  dozen  or  more  are  fre- 
quently added  to  the  list  in  a  single  year. 

When  photography  was  applied  to  form  a 
permanent  picture  of  the  stars  in  the  sky,  it  was 
found  that  this  method  was  the  easiest  by  which 
discoveries  of  these  objects  could  be  made. 
Whatever  method  may  be  used,  the  difficulty  of 
discovering  an  asteroid  arises  from  the  fact  that 
it  is  impossible  to  distinguish  such  a  body  from 
a  fixed  star  by  its  mere  aspect.  It  can  be  de- 
tected only  by  its  motion  among  the  stars,  and 
therefore  requires  that  the  same  body  should  be 
observed  at  different  times.  But  a  photograph 
enables  the  motion  to  be  detected  in  a  very  sim- 
ple way,  as   follows : 

If  a  telescope,  mounted  so  as  to  serve  as  a 
camera,  is  pointed  at  a  given  region  of  the  sky 
for  half  an  hour  or  more,  the  images  of  the 
stars  which  fall  on  the  plate  remain  immovable, 
and  these  bodies  are  photographed  as  simple 
points  of  light.  But  if  an  asteroid  is  in  the  field, 
its  motion  during  the  exposure  is  quite  appre- 
ciable; and  its  picture  appears  as  a  short  line, 
equal  in  length  to  the  amount  of  motion  during 
the  exposure  of  the  plate,  which  can  be  detected 
at  sight.  During  the  last  ten  years  the  number 
thus  discovered  has  carried  the  total  list  up  to 
more  than  500,  a  number  so  great  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  compute  the  orbits  or  mo- 
tions or  even  to  find  separate  and  appropriate 
names  for  the  bodies. 

The  asteroids  are  distinguished  from  the 
major  planets  by  several  distinct  and  interesting 
features.  One  of  these  concerns  their  orbits. 
While  the  major  planets,  with  the  exception  of 
Mercury,  all  move  in  nearly  circular  orbits,  the 
orbits  of  the  asteroids  are,  in  the  general  average 
markedly  eccentric.  In  some  cases  the  asteroid 
is  twice  as  far  from  the  sun  at  aphelion  as  at 
perihelion.  One  result  of  this  is  that  they  ap- 
pear several  times  brighter  when  seen  in  oppo- 
sition at  perihelion  than  at  aphelion.  The  in- 
clination of  the  orbits  is  also  frequently  very 
large.  That  of  Pallas,  one  of  the  original  four, 
is  inclined  no  less  than  340  to  the  elliptic.  The 
result  of  this  is  that  many  of  these  bodies  wander 
far  outside  of  the  limits  of  the  Zodiac ;  indeed, 
in  many  cases  they  are  seen  north  of  the  zenith 
in  our  latitudes   when  nearest  the  earth. 

The  size  and  mass  of  the  asteroids  do  not 
admit  of  very  accurate  definition,  for  the  reason 
that,  with  rare  exceptions,  they  are  seen  in  the 
telescopes  only  as  points  of  light.  Barnard,  has, 
however,  succeeded  in  measuring  the  apparent 
diameter  of  the  first  four,  three  of  which  are 


ASTEROLEPIS 


probably    the    largest    of    the    group,    with    the 
great  Lick  telescope.     The  results  are : 

Miles 

Diameter  of  Ceres 485 

Diameter     of    Pallas 304 

Diameter    of    Vesta 243 

Diameter   of    Juno 118 

Only  the  largest  shows  a  diameter  exceed- 
ing one  twentieth  that  of  the  earth,  and  all  the 
others  are  much  smaller  than  this.  Judging 
from  the  amount  of  light  they  reflect  very  few 
of  them  are  100  miles  in  diameter  and  most  of 
those  known  may  not  exceed  10  or  12  miles 
in  extent.  Indeed,  we  have  reason  to  believe 
that  as  we  take  smaller  diameters  the  number 
increases  without  any  unit.  The  same  remark 
might  apply  in  a  still  greater  extent  to  the 
masses.  The  latter  are  so  small  that  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  whole  mass  of  all  the  asteroids  does 
not  produce  any  effect  that  has  yet  been  observed 
upon  any  planet  or  comet. 

Of  the  total  number  of  these  bodies  it  is 
hardly  possible  to  form  any  estimate,  because 
the  more  powerful  the  means  of  research  the 
more  are  found.  We  can  hardly  be  astray  in 
supposing  that  thousands  exist,  and  if  we  in- 
clude those  that  must  forever  remain  invisible 
to  us,  the  number  must  be  countless.  Yet  they 
are  all  so  minute  that  the  total  mass  cannot 
be  as  great  as  that  of  the  planet  Mercury. 

The  hypothesis  already  mentioned,  that  these 
bodies  are  fragments  of  a  great  planet,  has  been 
effectually  disproved  by  modern  research.  Apart 
from  the  impossibility  of  an  explosion  which 
would  rend  a  planet,  we  have  the  fact  that  in  the 
event  of  a  disruption  all  the  orbits  would  pass 
through  a  single  point.  It  is  true  that  this  coin- 
cidence would  not  continue  indefinitely,  because 
the  orbits  would  change  their  positions  by  the 
attraction  of  the  other  planets;  but  their  sizes 
are  found  to  be  such  that  they  could  not  originally 
have  passed  through  any  single  point.  The  view 
now  prevalent  is  suggested  by  the  nebular  hy- 
pothesis, which  assumes  that  all  the  planets  were 
at  some  remote  epoch  in  the  past  spread  out  into 
rings  of  matter  circulating  around  the  sun. 
In  the  case  of  the  eight  major  planets  each  ring 
condensed  into  a  single  body,  but  in  the  case 
of  the  asteroid  ring  it  separated  into  countless 
small  bodies  instead  of  condensing  into  one. 
There  is  a  curious  grouping  of  the  orbits  which 
seems  to  have  some  connection  with  the  origin 
of  the  whole  collection.  Thirty  years  ago  it  was 
noticed  by  Kirkwood  that,  if  the  orbits  were 
arranged  according  to  their  mean  distance  from 
the  sun,  there  would  be  gaps  in  the  series  at 
those  points  where  the  time  of  revolution  was 
commensurable  with  the  period  of  Jupiter.  For 
example,  there  are  no  known  asteroids  having  a 
period  one  third  that  of  Jupiter,  or  one  half  or 
two  fifths,  although  there  are  plenty  of  orbits 
within  and  outside  these  peculiar  limiting  values. 
The  subsequent  discovery  of  hundreds  of  these 
bodies  has  led  to  a  slight  modification  of  this 
law.  The  orbits  not  only  seem  to  avoid  these 
peculiar  values,  but  to  accumulate  midway  be- 
tween them.  To  get  an  idea  of  the  results  sup- 
pose that  every  orbit  stretched  into  a  circle  of  a 
radius  equal  to  its  mean  distance.  Then  treat- 
ing these  orbits  as  hoops,  suppose  that  we  ar- 
range them  all  round  on  one  centre.  We  should 
then  find  that  the  rings  are  divisible  into  four, 
five  or  six  nearly  distinct  groups  with  vacant 
spaces  between  them.  The  most  probable  ex- 
planation seems  to  be  that  there  were  originally 


five  or  six  different  rings  of  matter  from  which 
these  bodies  condensed,  instead  of  a  single  ring 
as  in  the  case  of  the  larger  planets. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  of  the  asteroids 
was  one  discovered  in  1898.  Some  of  its  pecu- 
liarities have  excited  great  attention  on  the  part 
of  the  astronomical  world.  The  orbits  of  all 
the  other  known  asteroids  are  contained  between 
the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter,  no  known  orbits 
approaching  very  near  either  of  these  planets. 
But,  in  the  summer  of  1898,  Witt,  of  Berlin, 
found  an  asteroid  which  at  perihelion  came  far 
inside  the  orbit  of  Mars,  indeed  within  14.000,000 
miles  of  the  orbit  of  the  Earth.  Its  orbit  was 
found  to  be  extremely  eccentric  and,  which  was 
more  curious,  it  was  interlinked  with  that  of 
Mars,  so  that  if  the  orbits  were  rings,  they  would 
have  passed  through  each  other  and  hung  to- 
gether like  two  links.  What  gives  this  planet 
especial  interest  is  that  on  these  rare  occasions 
when  it  comes  nearest  to  the  earth  its  parallax 
can  be  measured  with  greater  precision  than 
that  of  any  of  the  other  planets.  It  therefore 
affords  us  the  best  possible  method  of  directly 
measuring  the  Solar  system;  but,  most  unfor- 
tunately, it  is  only  once  or  twice  in  a  century 
that  the  nearest  approach  will  occur.  What  is 
most  tantalizing,  is  that  only  six  years  before 
it  was  discovered,  it  is  known  to  have  passed 
at  nearly  the  least  distance  from  the  earth,  but  it 
was  then  unseen  by  human  eye.  It  was  found 
to  have  been  photographed  a  great  number  of 
times  at  the  Harvard  Observatory ;  but  among 
the  hundreds  of  stars  whose  images  were  found 
on  the  plate,  its  image  was  completely  lost  after 
the  discovery  in  1898.  It  was  recognized  through 
the  determination  of  its  orbit  which  made  pos- 
sible the  computation  of  its  position  in  the 
heavens  at  former  positions.  It  was  by  scru- 
tinizing the  photographic  plates  that  the  images 
were  found  upon  them. 

In  the  winter  of  1900-1  there  was  as  close 
an  approach  to  the  earth  as  will  occur  during  the 
next  30  years,  although  the  distance  was  more 
than  double  the  least  possible  distance.  A  co- 
operative effort  was  made  to  measure  the  paral- 
lax on  this  occasion.  The  results  are  not  com- 
pletely worked  out,  owing  to  the  immense 
amount  of  labor  which  is  required  for  the  re- 
duction of  the  observations. 

A  curious  property  of  this  most  remarkable 
body  is  a  periodical  variation  in  its  light  which 
was  noticed  during  the  opposition  of  1900-1.  It 
was  found  to  go  through  a  series  of  changes  in 
the  course  of  five  hours  quite  similar  to  those 
of  a  variable  star.  The  period  was  found  to  be 
2^4  hours,  but  possibly  the  same  brightness 
was  not  reproduced  except  in  a  period  of  5  hours, 
It  was  yet  more  curious  that  these  variations 
seemed  to  have  nearly  or  quite  ceased  at  the  next 
opposition.  Simon  Newcomb.  LI.  I). 

Asterolepis,  a  genus  of  ganoid  fishes 
named  on  account  of  the  starry  color  of  its 
scales.  A  bone  of  a  species  belonging  to  this 
genus,  found  at  Stromness,  the  capital  of  Ork- 
ney, suggested  to  Hugh  Miller  the  writing  of 
his  beautiful  volume  entitled  'Footprints  of  the 
Creator;  or,  the  Asterolepis  of  Stromness.'  It 
was  an  elaborate  argument  against  the  develop- 
ment hypothesis.  According  to  that  hypothesis, 
the  first  species  of  any  cla<s  appearing  on  the 
scene  should  be  low  in  organization,  and  prob- 
ably small  in  size.  Mr.  Miller  snowed  that  the 
asterolepis  was  large  in  size  and  high  in  organ- 


ASTHENIA  —  ASTOR 


ization,  and  yet  it  was  at  that  time  believed  to 
be  the  oldest  fossil  vertebrate  found  in  Scot- 
land. His  argument  was  subsequently  weak- 
ened  by  the  discovery  that  the  Stromness  rocks 
were  less  ancient  than  the  Forfarshire  beds, 
containing  cephalaspis  and  other  fish  genera 
subsequently  discovered,  mostly  of  small  size, 
though  not  of  low  organization. 

Asthe'nia,  a  disease  of  poultry,  known  in  the 
United  States  as  "going  light."  The  treatment 
is  purgation  and  tonics. 

As'theno'pia.     See  Eye. 

Asthma,  as'ma,  or  az'ma,  a  disturbance  of 
the  function  of  breathing,  sometimes  due  to 
heart  or  kidney  disease,  but  properly  an  af- 
fection of  the  bronchi  of  a  spasmodic  character. 
It  is  regarded  as  a  neurotic  affection,  character- 
ized by  turgor  and  hyperemia  of  the  mucous 
membranes  of  the  smaller  bronchi  and  a  pecu- 
liar mucus  exudate.  The  causes  of  the  attacks 
arc  many,  but  a  nervous  element  seems  to  enter 
into  most  of  them.  The  symptoms  are  those  of 
tightness  in  the  chest,  depression,  and  followed 
by  an  attack  of  shortness  of  breath,  attended 
with  violent  coughing.  This  may  be  very  short 
in  duration  or  the  coughing  may  continue  with 
great  violence.  The  expression  is  anxious,  the 
face  pale,  or  cyanosed,  as  though  choking  was 
taking  place ;  the  patient  cannot  speak,  inspira- 
tion does  not  aerate  the  blood,  and  expiration  is 
long  and  wheezy.  The  treatment  is  individual, 
the  usual  lines  of  dietetics,  hygiene,  training, 
with  a  few  drugs.  Iodide  of  potash  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  of  the  remedies  used.  See 
•Diseases  of  the  Bronchi,  Nothnagel's  System* 
(1902). 

Astig'matism,  a  defect  of  vision  in  which 
the  rays  of  light  do  not  converge  to  a  single 
point  on  the  retina.  It  is  usually  due  to  irreg- 
ularities in  the  curvature  of  either  the  cornea 
or  the  crystalline  lens,  or  of  both,  so  that  rays 
refracted  in  one  meridian  are  brought  to  a  focus 
at  a  point  in  advance  of  or  behind  those  re- 
fracted in  the  meridian  at  right  angles  to  the 
first.  A  slight  degree  of  astigmatism  is  present 
in  all  eyes,  because  neither  the  cornea  nor  the 
anterior  or  posterior  lens  surface  is  part  of  a 
perfect  sphere :  but  normally  the  defect  is  so 
slight  as  not  to  be  noticeable.  The  conventional 
star-shaped  appearance  assumed  by  very  distant 
points  of  light,  as,  for  example,  the  stars  them- 
selves, is  due  to  this  universal  defect.  If,  how- 
ever, the  radii  of  curvature  are  markedly  un- 
equal in  the  different  meridians,  a  more  or  less 
serious  blurring  of  the  images  formed  on  the 
retina  by  all  objects  results.  Two  main  varieties 
of  astigmatism  are  recognized.  The  commoner 
is  regular  astigmatism,  in  which  there  is  a  dif- 
ference of  curvature  in  two  meridians,  usually 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  but  the  refraction 
is  the  same  throughout  any  given  meridian.  In 
irregular  astigmatism,  however,  there  are  vari- 
ations of  curvature  along  the  length  of  the 
different  meridians  themselves;  that  is,  each  one 
does  not.  as  in  regular  astigmatism,  represent 
a  segment  of  a  circle.  This  form  is  usually  the 
result  of  injury  or  disease  of  the  cornea  or  lens, 
and  is  difficult  to  correct  by  glasses.  Regular 
astigmatism  is  nearly  always  congenital  and  is 
frequently  present  in  several  members  of  the 
same  family.  The  symptoms  produced  by  astig- 
matism    may     be     purely     local     and     comprise 


blurred  vision  and  fatigue  after  protracted  near 
work,  but  even  slight  amounts  may  in  some 
cases  cause  serious  disturbances  of  (lie  general 
health  by  the  constant  headache  and  reflex 
symptoms,  such  as  nausea  and  vomiting,  dizzi- 
ness, etc.,  that  result.  The  difficulties  com- 
plained of  are  usually,  at  least  partly,  relieved 
by  resting  the  eyes.  Numerous  methods  of  ex- 
amination are  employed  by  oculists  to  detect 
astigmatism,  one  of  the  simplest  being  the  use 
of  test  diagrams  representing  radiating  lines  or 
sectors,  rows  of  dots,  etc.,  which,  to  the  astig- 
matic eye,  appear  more  or  less  blurred  in  cer- 
tain meridians.  The  treatment  consists  in  the 
use  of  glasses  which  are  ground  so  as  to  com- 
pensate for  the  variations  in  refracting  power 
of  the  optic  media  in  the  different  meridians. 
This  correction  is  accomplished  by  using  cylin- 
drical lenses,  which  are  segments  of  cylinders 
and  refract  only  at  right  angles  to  their  axis, 
combined,  if  necessary,  with  the  appropriate 
spherical  lenses.  See  Eye  ;  Vision,  Defects  of. 
As'ton,  William  George,  Irish  philologist: 
b.  near  Londonderry  in  1841.  He  became  in- 
terpreter and  translator  to  the  British  Legation 
at  Yedo,  in  1870 ;  assistant  Japanese  secretary  at 
Yedo,  in  1875-82;  consul-general  for  Korea,  in 
1884 ;  Japanese  secretary  at  Tokio,  in  1886 ;  and 
was  retired  in  1889.  He  published  <A  Grammar 
of  the  Japanese  Spoken  Language'  ;  (A  Gram- 
mar of  the  Japanese  Written  Language'  ;  "A 
Translation  of  the  Nihongi  ;  or,  Annals  of  An- 
cient Japan';  'History  of  Japanese  Literature,' 
etc. 

As'tor,  John  Jacob,  American  merchant: 
b.  Waldorf,  Baden,  near  Heidelberg,  17  July 
1763  :  d.  29  March  1848.  He  came  to  America 
in  1783,  where  his  elder  brother  had  settled  and 
'nvested  his  savings  in  the  fur  trade.  In  1784 
he  went  with  a  cargo  of  furs  to  London  ;  sold 
them  and  formed  connection  with  fur  houses 
there,  and  as  his  capital  increased,  made  annual 
trips  to  Montreal,  buying  furs  there  and  shipping 
them  direct  to  London,  as  Canada  was  allowed 
to  trade  only  with  the  mother  country.  In  1794 
Jay's  treaty  removed  this  embargo ;  and  Astor, 
then  in  London,  at  once  made  a  contract  with 
the  Northwest  Company  of  Montreal  and  Que- 
bec (then  the  magnate  of  the  Canadian  North- 
west fur  trade),  imported  furs  from  Montreal  to 
New  York,  and  shipped  them  to  all  parts  of 
Europe  and  China.  The  surrender  of  the  lake 
posts  under  the  treaty  also  greatly  extended  the 
trading  limits,  and  Astor  in  a  few  years  be- 
came one  of  the  leading  merchants  and  capi- 
talists of  the  country,  having  a  quarter  of  a 
million  in  1798,  and  double  that  a  few  years 
later.  In  1807  he  embarked  in  direct  trade  with 
the  Indians  by  way  of  the  Mohawk,  and  with 
the  English  fur  companies ;  but  found  the 
American  trade  chiefly  monopolized  by  the 
Mackinaw  Company,  and  knowing  our  govern- 
ment's desire  to  keep  its  home  trade  in  home 
hands,  proposed  with  its  protection  to  accom- 
plish this  himself.  In  1809  he  secured  a  New 
York  charter  for  the  "American  Fur  Company," 
but  the  War  of  1812  suspended  operations,  and 
after  it  a  government  prohibition  of  British 
fur  trade  in  the  United  States  broke  up  the  com- 
pany. Meantime  a  grander  scheme  had  been  ini- 
tiated. Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie,  after  crossing 
the  Continent  far  north  in  1793,  had  suggested 
establishing  a  line  of  trading  posts  from  ocean  to 


ASTOR 


ocean,  with  terminal,  coast,  and  island  stations,  to 
draw  all  except  the  Russian  fur  trade  into  one 
channel.  Lewis  and  Clarke's  transcontinental 
American  expedition  in  1804  proved  its  practi- 
cability on  American  soil ;  and  Mr.  Astor  evolved 
the  plan  of  distributing  such  posts  along  the 
Missouri  and  Columbia  Rivers,  with  a  central 
station  at  the  mouth  of  the  latter,  where  all  the 
peltries  from  the  interior  posts  and  those  gath- 
ered by  coasting  vessels  were  to  be  collected, 
and  taken  by  a  yearly  ship  to  Canton,  loading  in 
return  with  Chinese  goods.  A  later  develop- 
ment was  to  operate  a  line  of  ships  from  the 
Pacific  coast  to  the  Chinese  and  East  Indian 
ports,  with  a  Hawaiian  island  for  an  interme- 
diate port.  The  Russian  fur  company  had  al- 
ready complained  to  the  United  States  of  the 
casual  American  trading  vessels  selling  liquor 
and  firearms  to  their  Indians ;  our  government 
had  consulted  Astor  for  a  remedy,  and  his 
idea  was  to  abolish  this  irresponsible  trading  by 
making  his  yearly  supply  ship  take  its  place. 
To  prevent  ruinous  competition,  he  offered  the 
Northwest  Company  a  one  third  interest  in  the 
enterprise;  but  they  declined  it,  and  sent  a  com- 
pany to  seize  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  before 
his  party  could  arrive.  He  succeeded  in  spite  of 
them,  however,  in  planting  a  settlement,  which 
was  named  Astoria ;  but  on  the  breaking  out  of 
the  War  of  1812  the  English  seized  it.  It  revert- 
ed to  the  United  States  by  the  Treaty  of  Ghent, 
and  Astor  wished  to  revive  the  project,  but  the 
government  was  cool,  and  he  dropped  it ;  still, 
however,  buying  his  furs  direct  and  trading 
with  many  countries,  more  particularly  China, 
at  that  time  the  best  fur  mart  in  the  world. 
He  also  made  large  amounts  by  buying  de- 
preciated government  securities,  which  after- 
ward commanded  a  considerable  premium.  But 
his  chief  investment  was  the  one  which  has 
founded  the  family  greatness  on  a  rock.  Fore- 
seeing the  immense  growth  of  New  York  city,  he 
bought  large  tracts  on  Manhattan  Island  far 
beyond  the  then  city  limits,  taught  his  son  to 
invest  his  accumulations  in  the  same  way,  and 
established  the  system  of  handling  them  de- 
scribed under  Astor  Family.  In  1827  he  and 
his  son  William,  who  had  been  his  partner 
since  1815,  withdrew  from  the  China  trade  and 
formed  the  American  Fur  Company,  chiefly  man- 
aged by  the  great  expert ;  but  a  few  years  later 
he  retired  from  business  altogether,  thenceforth 
devoting  himself  to  his  investments,  and  de- 
vising, in  consultation  with  others,  plans  for  a 
public  library  suggested  by  Washington  Irving, 
—  afterward  the  Astor  Library,  for  which  he  left 
$400,000  in  his  will.  He  made  gifts  and  be- 
quests to  other  objects;  among  them  $50,000  for 
a  school  for  poor  children  and  a  home  for  the 
indigent  aged  in  hi.s  birthplace,  Waldorf,  called 
the  Astor  House.  He  was  much  more  than  a 
great  trader:  he  had  a  breadth  of  conception, 
a  combined  energy  and  patience  of  execution,  a 
mastery  of  detail,  a  retentiveness  of  memory, 
and  a  sagacity  of  judgment,  which  in  the  judg- 
ment of  his  intimates  would  have  raised  him  to 
greatness  in  any  line.  He  left  two  sons.  William 
B.  and  John  Jacob,  and  three  daughters. 

As'tor,  John  Jacob,  an  American  capitalist 
and  soldier,  son  of  William  B. :  b.  New  York.  10 
June  1822:  d.  22  Feb.  1800.  He  was  educated  at 
Columbia  University  and  at  Gottingen ;  he  then 


took  the  full  course  at  the  Harvard  Law  School, 
and  practised  law  for  a  year,  solely  to  qualify 
himself  for  assisting  in  the  management  of 
the  immense  estate,  one  half  of  which  later 
descended  to  him.  In  the  Civil  War  he  served 
on  McClellan's  staff,  with  the  rank  of  colonel; 
and  was  a  devoted  and  hard-working  military 
student.  He  always  regarded  this  period  as  the 
best  of  his  life,  and  attended  the  reunions  of  the 
Loyal  Legion  with  zeal.  Not  only  was  he  al- 
ways a  liberal  giver  to  public  institutions  and 
charities,  but  he  gave  much  personal  time  and 
devotion  to  them,  especially  to  the  Astor  Library 
and  Trinity  Church ;  but  he  shrank  from  public 
notice.  On  his  father's  death  in  1875  he  received 
half  of  the  estate,  estimated  at  considerably  over 
$100,000,000;  all  which,  with  accumulations  be- 
lieved to  have  swollen  it  to  some  $200,000,000,  he 
left  to  his  only  son,  William  Waldorf  Astor. 
His  wife,  Charlotte  Augusta  Gibbs,  was  an  ac- 
tive assistant  in  his  charitable  work,  taking  part 
in  personal  service  as  "Sister  Augusta,"  incog- 
nito. 

As'tor,  John  Jacob,  American  capitalist 
and  inventor,  fourth  of  the  name,  nephew  of 
John  Jacob  the  third,  and  son  of  William :  b. 
Rhinebeck,  N.  Y.,  13  July  1864.  He  graduated 
from  Harvard  in  1888,  and  for  the  next  three 
years  traveled  abroad.  He  is  the  manager  of 
the  Astor  properties  in  America ;  a  director  in 
many  banking,  insurance,  and  railroad  com- 
panies, and  member  of  various  clubs  and  social 
organizations.  He  built  in  1897  a  very  costly 
hotel,  the  Astoria  (named  after  the  famous  fur 
settlement  of  181 1 ),  on  Fifth  Avenue,  New 
York,  adjoining  the  Waldorf  built  by  his  cous- 
in, William  Waldorf,  the  two  being  now  joined 
as  the  Waldorf-Astoria.  Besides  his  business 
activities,  however,  he  has  strong  individual  fac- 
ulties. He  is  an  expert  in  marine  mechanics, 
inventor  of  a  bicycle  brake,  and  a  pneumatic 
road  improver;  and  is  a  member  of  scientific 
and  other  intellectual  societies.  He  has  written 
'A  Journey  in  Other  Worlds:  a  Romance  of  the 
Future'  (1894).  He  was  on  Gov.  Morton's  staff 
1894-6,  and  in  the  Spanish-American  war  of 
1898,  was  commissioned  lieutenant-colonel  of 
United  States  Volunteers,  and  served  in  the 
Santiago  campaign. 

Astor,  William  Backhouse,  American 
merchant  and  capitalist,  eldest  son  of  John  Jacob 
Astor:  b.  New  York,  19  Sept.  1792:  d.  24  Nov. 
1875.  He  was  trained  in  his  father's  business  in 
tin  intervals  of  public  school  education:  and 
the  father  is  said  to  have  remarked  that  "Wil- 
liam would  never  make  money,  but  would  keep 
what  he  had."  At  16  he  was  sent  to  Heidelberg 
University,  and  at  18  went  to  Gottingen.  where 
ho  was  tutored  by  Bunsen,  afterward  the  great 
chevalier.  Returning  to  New  York  in  1S15.  he 
was  made  a  partner  in  his  father's  foreign  ship- 
ping trade,  especially  cultivating  the  Chinese 
field.  The  firm  was  John  Jacob  Astor  &  Son  till 
1827,  when  it  dissolved  and  both  partners  gave 
up  the  China  trade  to  form  the  American  Fur 
Company,  of  which  William  was  president,  hut 
John  Jacob  the  head  manager  till  he  withdrew 
from  active  business  life  a  few  years  later.  He 
was  shortly  followed  into  retirement  by  his  son. 
By  1848  he  had  amassed  a  fortune  of  his  own ; 
besides  receiving  a  legacy  of  half  a  million  from 
his  uncle  Henry,  and  a  gift  of  the  Astor  House 


ASTOR  — ASTORIA 


from  his  father ;  the  latter  on  his  death  in 
that  year  leaving  him  sole  legatee  save  for  mi- 
nor bequests,  the  property  being  estimated  at 
$20,000,000  to  $30,000,000.  His  life  thenceforth 
was  spent  in  conserving  and  developing  this.  He 
built  nearly  a  thousand  houses  on  his  uptown 
lots,  and  was  currently  termed  "the  landlord  of 
New  York."  He  was  also  a  heavy  investor  in 
other  lines,  notably  coal  and  railroad  stocks. 
He  founded  the  Astor  Library  under  his  father's 
bequest,  adding  by  gifts  and  bequests  over 
$600,000  to  his  father's  gift,  giving  much  time  to 
its  administration  from  the  completion  of  the 
building  in  1853  on  his  plans.  His  wife  was  the 
daughter  of  Madison's  second  secretary  of  war ; 
his  sons  were  John  Jacob  and  William,  and  the 
estate  was  shared  between  them. 

Astor,  William  Waldorf,  an  American 
capitalist,  son  of  John  Jacob  the  third :  b.  New 
York,  31  March  1848.  He  is  the  head  of  the 
chief  Astor  estate.  He  was  educated  by  private 
tutors ;  studied  law  to  qualify  himself  for  the 
management  of  his  estates,  and  assumed  it  in 
1871.  He  was  elected  to  the  New  York  State 
lower  legislative  chamber  in  1877,  and  to  its  Sen- 
ate in  1879;  and  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate 
for  Congress  in  1881.  In  1882  he  was  appointed 
minister  to  Italy  by  President  Arthur,  and  re- 
mained such  till  1  March  1885.  He  made 
literary  capital  out  of  this  in  'Valentino'  (1885) 
and  'Sforza'  (1S89).  He  succeeded  by  his  fath- 
er's death  in  1890  to  a  fortune  estimated  at  some 
$200,000,000,  and  the  same  year  removed  to  Lon- 
don. Shortly  afterward  he  built  the  famous  and 
costly  New  York  hotels,  the  New  Netherland 
and  the  Waldorf.  In  1893  he  bought  the  'Pall 
Mall  Gazette'  and  founded  the  'Pall  Mall  Maga- 
zine,' and  in  1899  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  as 
an  English  subject. 

As'tor  Family,  a  famous  American  family 
representing  one  of  the  three  or  four  greatest 
private  properties  in  the  world.  A  family  in 
the  Old  World  sense, —  a  territorial  aristocracy, 
impossible  to  destroy,  and  fortified  with  legal 
immunities  and  privileges, —  can  hardly  be 
founded  in  America;  but  the  Astors  have  ap- 
proached it  as  nearly  as  our  institutions  will 
admit.  They  form  a  group  of  immense  hered- 
itary real-estate  owners,  with  holdings  so  solid- 
ly based  and  well  distributed  in  the  metropolis 
of  America  that  no  apparent  catastrophe  save 
a  failure  of  heirs  could  extinguish  it;  and 
though  originally  springing  from  mercantile 
business,  removed  by  some  three  quarters  of  a 
century  from  its  actual  conduct.  For  many 
years  they  were  known  as  "the  landlords  of 
New  York,"  and  the  best  of  landlords,  prompt, 
just,  and  courteous;  still  probably  form  the 
largest  set  of  individual  real-estate  holders. 
The  family  is  also  connected  with  notable  mu- 
nicipal charities  and  public  foundations.  See 
Astor,  John  Jacob  (1763-1848)  ;  Astor,  John 
Jacob  (1822-90),  Astor,  John  Jacob  (1864-); 
Astor,  William. 

Astor  Library.  See  New  York  Public  Li- 
brary. 

Astor  Place  Riot,  in  American  history:  a 
riot  on  the  evening  of  10  May  1849,  in  Astor 
Place,  New  York.  It  was  an  attempt  to  drive 
the  English  actor,  William  Charles  Macready 
(q.v.)  from  the  stage,  and  grew  out  of  a  London 
tour    of    Edwin    Forrest    (q.v.),    in    which    he 


played  Virginius  and  Richelieu  with  great  suc- 
cess till  Macready  bought  the  acting  rights  for 
himself,  though  he  had  personally  treated  For- 
rest with  kindness.  Forrest  then  essayed  Mac- 
beth, but  it  was  unsuited  to  his  style  and  pres- 
ence, and  he  was  hissed.  He  attributed  this  to 
Macready 's  machinations,  and  when  Macready 
four  years  later  announced  'Macbeth'  in  the 
Astor  Place  Opera  House,  a  crowd  of  Forrest's 
partisans  gathered  early  in  the  evening  before 
the  theatre,  and  waiting  till  the  performance  had 
begun,  attempted  to  force  a  way  inside  and  put  a 
stop  to  it.  The  police  were  powerless  and  sent 
for  the  military;  the  Seventh  Regiment  (New 
York  militia)  came  up,  and  was  assailed  by  the 
mob  with  showers  of  brickbats  and  stones.  Be- 
fore the  fray  was  ended,  34  rioters  were  killed. 
a  great  number  wounded,  and  141  of  the  regi- 
ment injured  by  the  missiles.  The  mob  was 
successful  in  its  purpose,  however :  Macready 
had  to  cancel  his  engagement,  conceal  himself 
in  a  private  house  for  a  couple  of  days,  and  then 
travel  secretly  to  Boston,  whence  he  sailed  for 
England.     See  Barrett,  'Edwin  Forrest'  (1882). 

Astor'ga,  Emanuele  d',  an  Italian  com- 
poser: b.  Palermo,  II  Dec.  1681  ;  d.  21  Aug. 
1736.  He  was  educated  in  a  monastery  in  As- 
torga  in  Spain,  from  which  he  afterward  took 
his  name.  A  'Stabat  Mater,'  which  he  is  said 
to  have  written  in  London,  is  considered  the 
best  of  his  works,  and  is  still  highly  regarded. 

Astorga,  as-tor'ga,  a  city  in  Spain,  the 
Asturica  Augusta  of  the  Romans.  It  figured 
prominently  during  the  Peninsular  war ;  was 
taken  by  the  French  after  an  obstinate  defense, 
1810;  and  retaken  by  the  Spaniards,  1812.  It 
is  the  see  of  a  bishop.     Pop.  5,000. 

Astoria,  Or.,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  seat 
of  Clatsop  County :  on  the  Columbia  River,  nine 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  101  miles  by  the  As- 
toria &  C.  R.  RR.  from  Portland.  Several 
foreign  steamship  lines  touch  here,  t'.ie  larg- 
est vessels  coming  up  to  its  five  miles  of  water 
frontage  through  the  deep,  broad  channel  scoured 
in  the  bar  at  the  river  mouth  by  a  jetty.  Its 
salmon  fishing  and  canning  industries  are  among 
the  greatest  in  the  world :  several  hundred  boats 
go  out  to  the  fishing  grounds  on  the  bar  every 
afternoon  during  the  season  of  about  100  days, 
some  1,500  in  all  being  employed :  and  the  can- 
neries utilize  some  $2,000,000  capital,  and  turn 
out  about  15,000.000  cans  a  year.  It  has  also 
subsidiary  can  manufactories  and  iron  works, 
great  lumber  works  from  the  vast  forests  of  the 
Pacific  slope,  flouring  mills,  breweries,  etc.  ;  and 
has  a  very  large  export  trade  in  the  special  pro- 
ducts of  Oregon  and  Washington  —  lumber, 
wheat,  oats,  live  stock,  wool,  potatoes,  apples, 
etc.  Among  its  buildings,  the  most  notable  are 
the  United  States  custom-house,  the  post-office, 
and  St.  Mary's  Hospital  (R.  C).  For  the 
founding  of  Astoria  in  181 1,  see  Astor,  John 
Jacob.  On  its  seizure  by  the  English  in  the 
War  of  1812,  they  renamed  it  Fort  St.  George; 
in  1818  it  was  restored  to  the  United  States, 
though  occupied  till  1845  by  the  fur  stations  first 
of  the  Northwest  Company,  then  of  the  Hud- 
son Bay  Company  with  which  the  former  con- 
solidated. It  received  a  city  charter  in  1876. 
Pop.   (1900)   8,381. 

Asto'ria,  or  Anecdotes  or  an  Enterprise 
Beyond   the   Rocky    Mountains,   a    rambling 


ASTRAB  AD  —  ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY 


work  by  Washington  Irving  (1836).  It  com- 
prises stories  of  expeditions  by  land  and  sea, 
and  as  a  chapter  of  Far  West  history,  does  not 
lose  its  value  by  the  lapse  of  time. 

Astrabad,  as'tra-bad',  a  town  of  Persia, 
about  30  miles  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  car- 
ries on  a  trade  in  horses,  sheep,  cotton,  silk, 
woolen  fabrics,  etc.,  and  is  connected  by  cara- 
van with  Afghanistan  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Rus- 
sian consulate.  Pop.  estimated  at  from  4.000  to 
10,000. 

Astras'a,  in  mythology,  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  and  Themis,  and  goddess  of  justice.  In 
the  age  of  gold  she  was  a  regular  inhabitant  of 
this  world  ;  in  the  age  of  silver  an  occasional  vis- 
itor ;  and  in  the  age  of  brass,  when  men  began  to 
forge  weapons  of  war,  fled  to  the  skies,  where 
she  is  seen  in  the  zodiac,  forming  the  constella- 
tion Virgo.  She  is  usually  represented  with 
scales  in  her  hand  and  a  crown  of  stars  on  her 
head. 

Astras,  The  Divine,  a  name  applied  to 
i  he  English  novelist  and  dramatist,  Mrs.  Aphra 
liehre,  who  was  noted  for  the  coarseness  of  her 
plays.  *The  stage  how  loosely  doth  Astraea 
tread." 

As'tragal,  in  architecture,  a  small  semi- 
circular molding,  with  a  fillet  beneath  it,  encir- 
cling a  column  and  separating  the  shaft  from 
the  capital. 

As'tragaloman'cy  (Greek  astragalos,  in  the 
plural  =  dice,  and  manteia  =  divination),  a  pre- 
tended divination  performed  by  casting  down 
dice  with  marks  corresponding  to  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  and  observing  words  thus  formed.  It 
was  practised  in  the  temple  of  Hercules,  in 
Achaia. 

Astragalus.     See  Foot. 

Astragalus,  Milk  Vetch,  a  genus  of  more 
than  1,000  species  of  hardy  leguminous  herbs  and 
under  shrubs  which,  except  in  Australia  where 
':hey  have  not  been  found,  are  of  world-wide 
distribution  on  dry  soils.  A.  gummifer  and  oth- 
er species  yield  tragacanth  (q.v.)  gum.  Certain 
species  native  to  the  western  United  States 
called  crazy  weeds  (q.v.)  are  considered  re- 
sponsible for  crazy  disease  of  stock.  The  leaves 
are  usually  pinnate ;  the  flowers  arranged  in 
racemes,  white  or  purple.  A  few  native  and 
foreign  species  are  grown  from  seed  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  They  succeed  best  on  dry, 
porous  soil   in  sunny  situations. 

Astrakhan,  as'trakhan',  a  government  in 
the  southeast  of  European  Russia,  on  the  Cas- 
pian ;  with  an  area  of  about  92,000  square  miles. 
It  consists  almost  entirely  of  two  vast  steppes, 
separated  from  each  other  by  the  Volga,  and 
forming  for  the  most  part  arid  sterile  deserts. 
The  live  stock  consist  chiefly  of  sheep  of  the 
broad-tailed  species.  The  chief  employments  are 
pasturage  and  fishing  —  the  former  occupying 
the  rural  and  nomadic  tribes,  and  the  latter  the 
tribes  on  the  Caspian  coast  and  the  banks  of  the 
Volga.     Pop.  (1897)  994,775. 

As'trakhan',  the  capital  of  the  Russian 
government  of  the  same  name.  It  is  situated  on 
an  elevated  island  in  the  Volga,  about  30  miles 
above  its  mouth,  and  consists  of  crooked,  dirty, 
but  broad  streets,  with  irregular  lines  of  houses. 
The  communication  with  the  opposite  banks  of 
the   river   is   maintained   by   numerous   bridges. 


The  most  important  edifice  is  the  cathedral,  of  a 
rectangular  form,  with  four  small  gilt  and  paint- 
ed cupolas  on  the  roof,  and  a  large  one  in  the 
centre.  The  manufactures,  consisting  of  silks, 
cottons,  woolens,  shagreen  skins,  morocco  leath- 
er, and  soap,  are  increasing  in  extent.  The  fish- 
eries furnish  the  staple  articles  of  trade.  Im- 
mense quantities  of  fish,  caviar,  and  isinglass 
are  exported  to  foreign  countries.  In  the  fish- 
ing season  from  20.000  to  30.000  persons  con- 
nected with  the  fisheries  frequent  the  city.  It  is 
the  naval  station  of  the  Caspian  fleet ;  is  the 
most  important  port  of  the  Caspian,  and  has 
regular  steam  communication  with  the  principal 
towns  on  the  shores  of  that  sea.  Pop.  (1897) 
113,001. 

As'trakhan',  a  name  given  to  sheep-skins 
with  a  curled  wooly  surface  obtained  from  a  va- 
riety of  sheep  found  in  Bokhara,  Persia,  and 
Syria,  and  also  to  a  rough  fabric  with  a  pile  in 
imitation  of  this. 

As'tral  Spir'its,  spirits  believed  by  the 
Greeks  and  Orientals  to  inhabit  the  heavenly 
bodies  or  the  aerial  regions.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
they  were  variously  conceived  as  fallen  angels, 
souls  of  departed  men,  or  spirits  originating  in 
fire,  and  belonging  neither  to  heaven,  earth,  nor 
hell.  Paracelsus  regarded  them  as  demoniacal 
in  character. 

As'trapothe'rium,  an  extinct  hoofed  ani- 
mal found  in  the  Miortne  formations  of  Pata- 
gonia. It  is  unlike  any  modern  animal,  but  is 
distantly  related  to  the  extinct  Toxodonts  of 
South  America.  It  was  as  large  as  a  rhinoceros, 
had  large  tusks  opposing  each  other  in  the  upper 
and  lower  jaws,  and  a  broad  flexible  muzzle  like 
that  of  the  hippopotamus,  or  possibly  a  short 
proboscis  like  that  of  the  tapir. 

Astringents.  Substances  that  have  the 
property  of  precipitating  albumin  and  other  pro- 
teids  act  as  astringents.  When  used  on  mucous 
membranes  they  contract  the  tissues,  diminish 
the  blood  supply,  decrease  the  mucus  and  modi- 
fy the  sense  perceptions  in  the  part.  In  the 
mouth  they  cause  the  well-known  sensation  of 
puckering.  Their  action  is  purely  local.  Vege- 
table astringents  all  contain  tannic  acid,  to  which 
substance  their  action  is  due.  Nearly  all  of  the 
mineral  salts  are  astringent  when  used  well  di- 
luted with  water.  In  concentrated  solution  their 
coagulant  action  is  so  pronounced  as  to  cause 
death  of  the  tissue  (caustic).  The  astringents 
are  particularly  serviceable  in  stimulating  atomic 
mucous  membranes,  causing  them  to  secrete  less 
mucus.  They  are  thus  useful  in  chronic  diar- 
rhoeas, in  leucorrhcea  and  in  mucous  discharges 
from  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  most  service- 
able of  the  vegetable  astringents  is  tannic  acid, 
or  its  compounds,  tannalbin.  tannigen,  and  re- 
lated bodies.  Of  the  mineral  salts,  solutions  of 
copper  sulphate,  zinc  sulphate,  lead  acetate  and 
the  aluminum  salts  are  the  most  useful. 

As'tro-photog'raphy.  It  seems  likely  that 
attempts  to  photograph  the  moon  were  made  by 
Daguerre  in  the  course  of  the  experiments  which 
led  to  the  first  successful  method  for  making 
optical  images  permanent.  Certainly  in  1S40 
Draper,  of  New  York,  obtained  a  crude  and  im- 
perfect picture  of  the  moon,  after  a  prolonged 
exposure  of  the  Daguerreotype  silver  plate.  In 
1851,  and  the  years  immediately  following,  the 
collodion  wet-plate  process  was  introduced  and 


ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY 


developed.  By  this  method  De  la  Rue,  Draper, 
and  Rutherford  won'  enabled  to  produce  pleas- 
ing photographs  of  the  moon.  Much  advance 
was  made,  during  the  same  period,  in  the  ap- 
plication of  photography  to  other  celestial  ob- 
jects, but  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  results,  on  the 
whole,  were  other  than  interesting  and  sugges- 
tive. Obviously,  however,  the  work  was  full 
of  promise  of  better  things,  and  the  modern  de- 
velopments along  this  line  afford  an  impressive 
illustration  of  the  growth  of  a  scientific  toy  into 
a  potent  instrument  of  research.  In  the  early 
seventies  the  gelatine  dry-plate  became  generally 
available,  and  from  that  time  astronomical  pho- 
tography has  steadily  grown  in  effectiveness  and 
applicability.  In  outline,  astronomical  photogra- 
phy is  like  any  other  photography.  By  means  of 
a  suitable  lens  an  optical  image  of  whatever  is 
to  be  photographed  is  thrown  upon  the  sensitive 
plate.  It  is  immaterial  whether  the  object  be  a 
landscape,  the  moon,  an  animal,  or  a  constella- 
tion. After  an  exposure  whose  duration  is  de- 
termined by  experience,  the  plate  is  removed  and 
"developed"  by  any  of  the  well-known  processes. 
The  result  is  a  reproduction,  in  light  and  shade, 
of  the  optical  image.  From  this  plate,  called  a 
"negative,"  may  be  made  prints,  transparencies, 
etc.  The  obstacles  met  with,  however,  in  carry- 
ing out  this  apparently  simple  process  when 
applied  to  celestial  objects,  are  many  and  great. 
On  account  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  the 
heavenly  bodies  are  seemingly  in  motion  from 
east  to  west.  Some  of  them,  moreover,  have 
sensible  motions  of  their  own.  Thus  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  compensating  motions  for  the 
camera  or  photographic  telescope  so  that 
the  image  shall  remain  in  the  same  place  on  the 
plate  during  exposure.  This  is  a  mechanical 
problem  of  great  difficulty.  Again,  the  camera 
must  be  used  from  the  bottom  of  a  deep  at- 
mospheric ocean  turbid  with  smoke,  dust,  ice- 
crystals,  and  vapors,  and  swirling  with  currents 
and  eddies.  This  obstacle  is  the  most  serious 
one  in  all  astronomical  work.  It  becomes  more 
and  more  disastrous  as  the  magnifying  power  of 
instruments  is  increased,  and  is  but  imperfectly 
overcome  by  careful  selections  of  sites  for  ob- 
servatories, and  of  times  for  work  when  the 
air  is  relatively  quiet.  There  are  many  other 
difficulties  which  attend  the  processes  of  prac- 
tical astronomical  photography,  but  these  two 
are  fundamental.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
at  least  two  fundamental  advantages  in  the  pho- 
tographic method  as  compared  with  the  direct 
visual  method  of  studying  the  sky.  When 
measurements  are  to  be  made  —  such  as,  for  ex- 
ample, the  measurement  of  the  angular  distance 
between  two  neighboring  stars  —  the  direct 
method  often  calls  for  careful,  accurate  work 
under  trying  conditions.  The  observer  may  be 
hurried,  in  a  constrained  attitude,  or  shivering 
with  cold.  Checks  by  a  second  observer  may  be 
of  doubtful  value  on  account  of  personal  equa- 
tion or  changed  conditions.  If,  however,  the 
two  stars  be  photographed  on  the  same  plate, 
the  measurements  may  be  made  at  leisure,  in 
physical  comfort,  and  with  every  precaution  for 
insuring  accuracy.  In  the  second  place,  the  ef- 
fect of  light-vibrations  upon  the  sensitive  sub- 
stance of  the  photographic  plate  is  cumulative. 
That  is  the  longer  the  plate  is  exposed  the  great- 
er the  effect  of  the  light  upon  it.  (There  is,  no 
doubt,  a  maximum,  but  it  lies  outside  the  range 


of  photography.)  Upon  the  retina  of  the  human 
eye,  however,  or  upon  the  optic  nerve,  there  is 
no  such  cumulative  result.  We  gain  nothing  by 
looking  for  a  long  time  toward  an  object  whose 
light  is  too  feeble  to  affect  the  sense  of  vision. 
When,  after  a  while,  we  see  an  object  not  pre- 
viously discerned,  it  is  because  the  attention  is 
directed  to  it,  not  because  the  retina  is  more 
affected. 

It  is  on  account  of  this  property  of  the  pho- 
tographic plate  that  prolonged  exposures  have 
revealed  faint  objects  or  peculiarities  of  struc- 
ture, not  visible  to  the  keenest  eyes  aided  by  the 
most  powerful  telescopes.  As  an  important 
though  subsidiary  advantage  of  the  photograph, 
may  be  mentioned  the  possibility  of  presenting 
to  the  sight  enlarged  representations  of  rela- 
tively extensive  celestial  areas.  The  field  of 
vision  of  a  great  telescope  is  very  small.  A  pho- 
tograph of  a  nebula  or  of  a  star-cluster, 
projected  by  a  fine  lantern,  at  once  exhibits  a 
convincing  general  view,  revealing  things  in 
structure  and  arrangement  which  might  long 
escape  the  notice  of  one  studying  the  object 
with  a  telescope.  The  difference  is  much  the 
same  as  that  between  a  broad  view  of  a  land- 
scape and  the  same  examined  through  a  long 
tube  of  small  diameter.  Photography  is  at  pres- 
ent employed  in  almost  every  line  of  astronomi- 
cal research.  The  general  divisions  of  the  sub- 
ject are,  however,  indicated  in  what  follows. 

Star  Cliarts. —  By  agreement  among  the  au- 
thorities of  some  score  of  observatories  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world,  there  has  been  under- 
taken the  enterprise  of  photographing  the  entire 
heavens.  The  plates  are  of  uniform  size,  and 
the  lenses  used  are  as  nearly  as  possible  identical 
in  figure.  One  set  of  photographs  is  to  include 
stars  down  to  the  eleventh  magnitude,  while  a 
second  set  is  to  include  everything  that  can  be 
secured  by  the  longest  practicable  exposure. 
The  value  of  the  resulting  charts  to  the  Astron- 
omy of  the  future  can  scarcely  be  overestimated. 
Had  such  a  map  been  constructed  a  few  centuries 
ago  it  would  now  throw  great  light  on  problems 
relating  to  the  structure  of  the  universe.  Mean- 
time the  study  of  the  photographs  already  se- 
cured has  been  of  importance  in  modifying 
theories  as  to  the  distribution  of  the  stars,  in  re- 
vealing asteroids,  new  stars  (so  called),  and 
variable  stars. 

Photographs  for  Detail.—  Up  to  the  present 
time  the  greatest  success  in  this  line  of  endeavor 
has  been  attained  in  photographing  the  moon, 
the  sun,  and  nebula;.  The  superb  lunar  photo- 
graphs produced  at  the  Lick  Observatory  and  at 
the  Observatory  in  Paris  leave  little  to  be  de- 
sired, although  they  are  inferior  to  the  best  views 
obtained  by  the  direct  use  of  the  telescope. 
These  wonderful  pictures  cannot  fail  to  be  of 
great  future  value  in  showing  to  what  extent, 
if  at  all,  changes  take  place  on  the  surface  of  our 
satellite.  The  photographs  of  the  sun  are,  thus 
far,  somewhat  less  satisfactory  as  to  minute  de- 
tails. The  air  between  the  observer  and  the 
sun  is  almost  constantly  disturbed,  and  it  is  not 
easy  to  take  advantage  of  instants  of  "good  see- 
ing" for  securing  the  pictures.  Nevertheless  the 
accumulations  of  solar  photographs,  taken  as 
they  are  every  day,  constitute  a  most  admirable 
history  of  what  goes  on  in  the  sun's  surface  and 
help  toward  a  correct  understanding  of  solar 
physics.     At   recent   total    solar    eclipses   many 


ASTRO-PHOTOGRAPHY 


thousands  of  photographs  of  the  corona  have 
been  secured.  These  naturally  differ  widely  in 
scientific  value,  but  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
best  of  them  fall  short  of  revealing  all  that  is 
seen  by  the  eye.  The  "fogging"  of  the  plates 
from  the  light  in  the  atmosphere  in  the  solar 
direction  obscures  the  image  of  the  outer  corona. 
The  eye  recognizes  this  faint  extension  rather 
by  its  tint  than  by  its  luminosity  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  sky.  Photographs  of  the  nebuke, 
on  the  other  hand,  taken  by  prolonged  exposures 
on  moonless  nights,  have  greatly  advanced  our 
knowledge  of  the  structure  of  these  objects,  and 
have  led  to  modifications  in  the  statement  of  the 
nebular  hypothesis.  Photographs  of  the  planets 
have  thus  far  failed  to  give  satisfactory  results 
in  exhibiting  surface  markings. 

Photographs  for  Measurement. —  Aside  from 
the  construction  of  star-charts  as  described 
above,  the  photographic  method  is  used  in  an  in- 
creasing number  of  cases  in  which  the  most  ac- 
curate angular  measurements  are  desired,  and 
is  now  fairly  comparable  with  the  heliometer 
method.  Among  the  more  important  applica- 
tions of  the  new  process  is  the  determination  of 
parallax  by  photographing  Mars  when  near  the 
eastern  horizon  and  again  when  near  setting; 
the  rotation  of  the  earth,  meantime,  having  car- 
ried the  observer  from  one  end  to  the  other  of 
a  base-line  whose  length  depends  upon  the  lati- 
tude of  the  station  and  the  time  between  the 
exposures.  Precisely  the  same  method  was  ap- 
plid  to  the  newly  discovered  asteroid  Eros  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  the  year  1900.  It  is  clear 
that  the  difference  in  place  of  the  planet  among 
the  stars,  when  the  eastward  picture  is  com- 
pared with  the  westward,  is  due  to  parallax, 
allowance  being  made  for  the  movements  of  the 
planet  and  the  earth  during  the  interval  between 
the  observations.  A  similar  method  may  be  used 
in  investigations  of  stellar  parallax,  the  photo- 
graphs being  taken  at  half-yearly  intervals,  thus 
securing  a  base-line  nearly  or  quite  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  earth's  orbit.  Photographs  of 
stellar  spectra  afford  a  means  for  detecting  and 
measuring  the  motion  of  stars  in  the  line  of 
sight  by  noting  the  displacement  of  the  lines 
toward  either  end  of  the  spectrum.  Through 
investigations  of  this  sort  it  has  come  to  be  be- 
,  icved  that  there  are  many  large,  dark  stars  as- 
sociated with  visible  stars,  constituting,  in  some 
cases,  systems  of  great  complexity.  The  exist- 
ence of  such  a  dark  body  is  inferred  from  the 
alternate  approach  and  retreat  of  the  visible  star, 
relatively  to  the  earth,  this  motion  being  ap- 
parently due  to  a  revolution  of  the  bright  star 
about,  or  with,  an  invisible  companion.  In  some 
cases,  also,  the  periodic  duplication  of  the  spec- 
tral lines  seems  to  indicate  that  a  star  is  double, 
both  components  giving  out  light,  while  the 
largest  telescopes  fail  to  resolve  the  pair  to  the 
vision. 

Photometry. —  With  a  given  time  of  exposure 
the  size  and  blackness  of  the  stellar  images  arc 
proportioned  to  the  brightness  of  the  stars.  This 
fact  renders  it  easy  to  prepare  lists  of  stars  in 
order  of  brightness  or  "magnitude."  The  method 
is  the  less  valuable,  however,  for  the  reason  that 
the  color  of  a  star  influences  tin-  chemical  effect 
of  its  light  upon  the  plate.  A  bright  red  star 
gives  a  smaller  image  in  a  given  time  than  a 
fainter  white  or  blue  star.     A  complete  photo- 

Vol.  1—54 


metric  classification  of  the  stars  should  be  based 
upon  measurements  of  the  intensity  of  several 
portions  of  their  spectra. 

Transits,  etc.,  by  Photography. —  By  mechan- 
ical means  it  has  been  sought  to  eliminate  the 
personal  equation  by  photographing  a  star  and 
the  reticle  of  a  transit  or  similar  instrument  at 
intervals  automatically  measured  and  recorded 
by  clockwork.  This  must  be  taken  as  a  very 
general  statement  of  a  method  which,  in  a  variety 
of  forms,  may  yet  be  developed  to  a  high  degree 
of  usefulness. 

Instruments  for  Astronomical  Photography. 
—  It  is  well  known  that  the  lens  of  a  visual  tele- 
scope is  quite  unfit  for  photographic  work. 
Those  portions  or  components  of  white  light 
that  are  best  for  seeing  are  not  the  components 
most  effective  in  producing  the  negative.  The 
blue  and  violet  rays,  left  outstanding  in  the 
chromatic  correction  of  the  ordinary  telescope, 
are  precisely  the  ones  wanted  in  photography, 
and  they  confuse  and  spoil  the  negative  when 
the  visual  lens  is  tried  as  a  photographic  lens. 
Hence  there  must  be  a  special  objective  for  use 
in  photographing,  or  an  auxiliary  lens  for  trans- 
forming the  visual  objective  for  its  new  work. 
So-called  "portrait"  lenses  are  much  in  use  when 
a  short  focus,  with  large  field  and  small  images, 
is  required.  Lately  much  progress  has  been 
made  in  the  use  of  mono-chromatic  plates  cov- 
ered by  colored  glass  screens,  for  absorbing  the 
light  that  is  not  wanted.  In  this  way  it  is  possi- 
ble to  do  good  work  in  certain  lines  without  a 
special  lens.  The  accurate  pointing  of  the  tile- 
scope  or  camera  is  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty, 
especially  during  long  exposures.  No  driving 
clock  yet  produced,  even  when  controlled, 
through  electric  devices,  by  the  standard  time- 
piece, is  quite  satisfactory.  Therefore,  it  is 
necessary,  in  very  many  cases,  that  two  tele- 
scopes, one  visual  and  one  photographic,  should 
be  bound  together,  and  that  an  observer  should 
keep  the  pair  accurately  pointed  by  hand.  This 
is  a  most  delicate  operation,  calling  for  great 
p.  wer  of  concentration,  and  for  special  deftness 
of  touch.  The  observer,  with  eye  at  the  visual 
telescope,  keeps  the  cross-hairs  of  the  eyepiece 
precisely  upon  a  selected  star.  He  watches  and 
modifies  the  rate  of  the  driving  clock,  moves 
the  telescope  as  atmospheric  refraction  varies, 
and  seeks  in  general  to  prevent  all  motion  of  the 
image  on  the  plate.  Upon  the  successful  accom- 
plishment of  this  difficult  undertaking  di 
the  final  value  of  the  photograph,  in  certain 
classes  of  work,  however,  the  stars  are  allowed 
to  "trail"  a  little,  so  that  their  images  may 
readily  be  distinguished  from  specks  and  imper- 
fections in  the  plate.  The  "coude"  telescope  is 
much  favored  in  Europe  for  photography,  on  ac- 
count of  the  great  steadiness  of  the  eye-end  and 
the  comfort  afforded  the  operator.  In  this  coun- 
try, when  long-focus  lenses  are  to  be  used,  the 
tendency  is  toward  the  fixed  horizontal  telescope, 
a  detached  siderostat  rellecting  the  light  from 
the  object  into  the  teli  51  ope 

Among  the  more  important  adjuncts  in  in- 
strumental devices  should  be  mentioned  the 
beautiful  machines  for  measuring  distant 
the  photographic  negatives,  this  apparatus  taking 
the  place  of  the  micrometer  eyepieces  used  for 
direct  measurements  with  the  telesi 

F.   S.   LlTHER. 


ASTROCARYUM  —  ASTRONOMY 


As'trocar'yum,  a  genus  of  about  thirty 
species  of  tropical  American  pinnate-leaved 
palms  noted  for  their  profuse  sharp  spines 
sometimes  a  foot  long.  A.  murummu,  the 
murumuru  palm,  a  common  species  in  the  lower 
Amazon  region,  seldom  attains  a  height  of  more 
than  20  feet.  It  bears  an  edible,  melon- 
flavored,  musky-scented  ovate  fruit  about  an 
inch  long,  the  pulp  of  which  is  highly  prized  as 
food  for  man  and  cattle.  Hogs  crush  the  seeds, 
which  are  almost  as  hard  as  vegetable  ivory, 
and  fatten  well  upon  them.  A.  tcciima,  the 
tecuma  palm,  reaches  a  height  of  30  to  40  feet, 
and  has  very  regularly  arranged  spines,  bears  an 
edible,  globular  fruit,  and  is  native  of  the  same 
region  as  the  preceding  species.  A.  vulgare  is  a 
taller-growing  palm  than  the  above.  The  unex- 
panded  leaves  furnish  a  strong  fibre,  for  which 
the  tree  is  often  cultivated  where  it  is  not  native. 
To  obtain  this  fibre  the  terminal  bud  is  cut  and 
the  epidermis  of  the  delicate  leaves  carefully 
peeled  in  ribbon-like  strips  that  when  dry  are 
twisted  into  fine,  strong  durable  threads  used  for 
making  twine,  bowstrings,  hammocks,  fish-nets, 
etc.  The  fibre  of  older  leaves  is  coarser,  tougher, 
and  stronger,  and  is  used  for  cordage ;  the  peti- 
oles of  the  young  leaves  are  used  for  making 
into  baskets  and  hats.  This  species,  commonly 
known  as  the  tecum  palm,  is  distinct  from  the 
tecuma  palm  noted  above,  but  was  confounded 
with  it  by  Maritius,  who  pictured  the  tecuma  as 
the  fibre-bearing  species.  Consult :  Wallace, 
'Palm  Trees  of  the  Amazon >  (1853).  Several 
species  are  cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  orna- 
mental purposes  and  specimens  as  large  as  10 
feet  tall  often  bear  fruit.  For  culture,  consult : 
Bailey  and  Miller,  'Cyclopedia  of  American 
Horticulture1    (1900-2). 

As'trolabe  (from  Greek  astron,  a  star,  and 
lambano,  I  take),  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  any  circular  instrument  having  one  or  more 
graduated  circles.  In  modern  astronomy  this  in- 
strument is  no  longer  used,  because  wholly 
superseded  by  the  sextant.  The  first  application 
of  the  astrolabe  to  navigation  was  made  by  the 
physicians,  Roderich  and  Joseph  and  Martin 
Behaim  of  Niirnberg,  when  John  II.,  king  of 
Portugal,  desired  them  to  invent  a  method  of 
preserving  a  certain  course  at  sea.  Angles 
of  altitude  were  found  by  suspending  the  astro- 
labe perpendicularly. 

Astrology,  the  science  which  pretends  to 
foretell  future  events,  especially  the  fate  of  men, 
from  the  position  of  the  stars.  Originally,  that 
is,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  word 
had  the  meaning  of  "astronomy,"  and,  as  in  the 
case  of  alchemy  and  chemistry,  the  pseudo- 
science  and  the  real  science  had  the  same  origin. 
In  early  times,  when  the  earth  was  regarded 
as  the  centre  of  the  universe  and  as  that  to  which 
all  else  was  somehow  tributary,  it  was  a  not 
unnatural  hypothesis  that  the  changing  configu- 
rations of  the  heavenly  bodies  might  be  indica- 
tive of  human  destiny,  or  might  influence  human 
character.  Hence,  the  Chinese,  the  Egyptians, 
the  Chaldseans,  the  Romans,  and  most  other  an- 
cient nations,  with  the  honorable  exception  of 
the  Greeks,  became  implicit  believers  in  astrol- 
ogy. It  was  partly  the  cause  and  partly  the  ef- 
fect of  the  prevalent  worship  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  The  "star-gazers,"  sarcastically  re- 
ferred to  in  Isa.  xlvii.  13,  were  perhaps  astrolo- 


gers ;  so  also  may  have  been  what  are  called  in 
the  margin  "viewers  of  the  heavens8;  but  the 
Hebrew  word  rendered  "astrologers"  in  Dan.  1. 
20 ;  ii.  2,  27 ;  iv.  7 ;  v.  7,  is  a  much  vaguer  one, 
meaning  those  who  practise  incantations,  with- 
out indicating  what  the  character  of  these  in- 
cantations may  be.  The  later  Jews,  the  Arabs, 
with  other  Mohammedan  races,  and  the  Chris- 
tians in  mediaeval  Europe  were  all  great  culti- 
vators of  astrology.  Some  of  the  greatest  as- 
tronomers, among  whom  was  John  Kepler,  who 
knew  very  much  better,  were  accustomed  to 
"cast  horoscopes,"  and  to  receive  large  fees  for 
so  doing.  The  ordinary  method  of  procedure 
in  the  Middle  Ages  was  to  divide  a  globe  or  a 
planisphere  into  12  portions  by  circles  running 
from  Pole  to  Pole,  like  those  which  now  mark 
meridians  of  longitude.  Eacli  of  the  12 
spaces  or  intervals  between  these  circles  was 
called  a  "house"  of  heaven.  The  sun,  the  moon, 
and  the  stars  all  pass  once  in  24  hours  through 
the  portion  of  heavens  represented  by  the  12 
"houses."  Every  house  has  one  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  ruling  over  it  as  its  lord. 

The  houses  symbolize  different  advantages 
or  disadvantages.  The  first  is  the  house  of  life; 
the  second,  of  riches ;  the  third,  of  brethren ;  the 
fourth,  of  parents  ;  the  fifth,  of  children  ;  the 
sixth,  of  health;  the  seventh,  of  marriage;  the 
eighth,  of  death ;  the  ninth,  of  religion ;  the  tenth, 
of  dignities;  the  eleventh,  of  friends;  and 
the  twelfth,  of  enemies.  The  houses  vary  in 
strength,  the  first  one,  that  containing  the  part 
of  the  heavens  about  to  rise,  being  the  most 
powerful  of  all ;  it  is  called  the  ascendant,  while 
the  point  of  the  ecliptic  just  rising  is  termed  the 
horoscope.  The  important  matter  was  to  ascer- 
tain what  house  and  star  was  in  the  as- 
cendant at  the  moment  of  a  person's  birth,  from 
which  it  was  deemed  possible  to  augur  his  for- 
tune. It  followed  that  all  people  born  in  the 
same  part  of  the  world  at  the  same  time  ought 
to  have  had  the  same  future,  an  allegation 
which  experience  decisively  contradicted.  Even 
apart  from  this,  astrological  predictions  of  all 
kinds  had  a  fatal  tendency  to  pass  away  with- 
out being  fulfilled ;  and  when,  finally,  it  was  dis- 
covered that  the  earth  was  not  the  centre  of  the 
universe,  but  only  a  planet  revolving  around  an- 
other body,  and  itself  much  exceeded  in  size  by 
several  of  its  compeers,  every  scientific  mind  in 
Europe  felt  itself  unable  any  longer  to  believe 
in  astrology,  which  has  been  in  an  increasingly 
languishing  state  since  the  middle  of  the  17th 
century.  It  still  flourishes,  however,  in  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  is  a  means  of  livelihood  to  many 
charlatans  who  prey  upon  the  ignorant  classes 
in  all  countries. 

As'tronom'ical  and  As'trophysi'cal  Soci- 
ety of  America,  a  national  society  whose  mem- 
bers must  possess  technical  knowledge  of  astm- 
nomical  and  astrophysical  science.  Membership 
(1903)    180. 

Astronomy.  Astronomy  is  that  branch 
of  science  which  treats  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
—  including  practically  all  the  bodies  of  the  uni- 
verse. The  great  advance  which  our  times  have 
witnessed  in  the  methods  of  research  has  made  it 
one  of  the  most  progressive  of  the  sciences, 
while  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  oldest  of  all. 
The  vast  extent  of  its  field,  including  the  entire 
universe  within  its  bounds,  leads  to  its  having 


ASTRONOMY 


a  number  of  different  branches.  There  is,  first, 
a  branch  which  embraces  our  general  know- 
ledge of  the  heavenly  bodies,  their  motions, 
aspects,  and  physical  constitution.  This  branch 
is  commonly  termed  descriptive  or  general  as- 
tronomy. It  is  now  recognized  as  having  two 
divisions,  one  relating  principally  to  the  mo- 
tions, mutual  relations,  and  general  aspects  of 
the  heavenly  bodies ;  the  other  to  their  physical 
constitution,  considered  individually.  The  for- 
mer division  is  sometimes  termed  astrometry, 
because  it  is  principally  concerned  with  mea- 
surements of  position,  motion,  mass,  etc.  The 
other  branch  is  termed  astrophysics,  and  is  that 
which  has  received  its  greatest  development  in 
recent  times.  There  is  also  a  branch  which 
teaches  the  methods  of  observing  the  heavenly 
bodies,  including  the  instruments  used  in  ob- 
servation and  measurement,  and  the  principles 
governing  their  use,  as  well  as  the  practical 
computations  incident  thereto.  This  branch  is 
termed  practical  astronomy.  Another  branch  is 
the  mathematical  one,  which  determines  the 
orbits  and  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  by 
deductive  methods,  taking  as  a  basis  the  facts 
of  observation  and  the  laws  of  motion,  espe- 
cially that  of  gravitation.  This  branch  treats 
of  the  orbits  of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  of  the 
methods  of  computing  the  effects  of  their  mu- 
tual attraction.  It  is  commonly  termed  theo- 
retical astronomy,  while  the  more  purely  mathe- 
matical theory  is  known  as  celestial  mechanics. 
The  subject  of  astronomy  is  treated  in  the 
present  work  on  the  following  plan :  We  begin 
with  a  brief  but  comprehensive  survey  of  the 
universe,  referring  to  special  articles  —  Stars, 
Universe,  Nebulae,  Solar  System,  etc.,  for  de- 
tails. This  survey  will  be  followed  by  reviews 
of  Practical  Astronomy,  Theoretical  Astron- 
omy, and  of  the  historical  development  of  the 
science. 

Descriptive  Astronomy. —  Considered  as  to 
their  nature,  the  heavenly  bodies  may  be  divided 
into  two  great  classes ;  the  one,  incandescent 
bodies  which  shine  by  their  own  light;  the  other, 
opaque  bodies  which  are  visible  only  by  re- 
flecting the  light  of  some  incandescent  body 
in  their  neighborhood.  Examples  of  the  first 
class  are  the  stars  which  stud  the  heavens  at 
night ;  examples  of  the  second  are  the  planets, 
of  which  our  earth  is  one.  From  the  very  na- 
ture of  the  case,  little  can  be  learned  of  the 
possible  number  of  opaque  bodies  which  may 
exist  in  the  universe.  There  may  be  some 
rather  uncertain  ground  for  inferring  that  they 
are  less  massive  and  less  numerous  than  the 
incandescent  bodies ;  but  it  is  sometimes  sup- 
posed that  they  may  far  outnumber  the  latter 
without  our  being  aware  of  the  fact.  The 
stars  are  scattered  through  the  wilderness  of 
space  at  distances  which  baffle  all  our  powers  of 
conception.  Light  moves  with  such  speed  that 
it  would  make  the  circuit  of  the  earth  seven 
times  in  a  single  second.  But  the  cases  are 
rather  exceptional  when  a  star  is  so  near  one 
of  its  neighbors  that  light  would  not  take  years 
to  travel  over  the  distance  which  separates  them. 
Indeed,  the  only  known  exceptions  belong  to 
the  class  of  double  or  multiple  stars  —  two  or 
more  such  bodies  forming  a  system  by  them- 
selves. There  is  only  one  star  so  near  us  that 
its  light  would  reach  us  in  four  years,  and  the 
same  is  probably  true  of  most  other  stars. 
That  the  universe  of  stars  extends  to  distances 


which  light  would  require  several  thousand 
years  to  travel,  is  certain ;  but  no  well-defined 
limit  has  yet  been  set  to  its  extent.  Our  sun 
is  one  of  the  stars,  and  is  the  one  of  which 
we  know  most  because  of  our  proximity  to 
it.  It  is  the  centre  around  which  eight  great 
planets  and  a  number  of  other  bodies  perform 
their  revolutions.  On  one  of  these  great  plan- 
ets, the  third  in  the  order  of  distance,  we  dwell. 
Our  knowledge  of  the  heavens  is  largely  con- 
ditioned by  our  residence  on  this  planet.  We 
see  the  other  planets  by  the  light  of  the  sun, 
which  they  reflect.  They  present  to  the  naked 
eye  the  appearance  of  stars ;  and  it  is  only 
when  scrutinized  with  the  telescope  that  they 
are  found  to  have  a  measurable  apparent  size. 
Vast  indeed  is  their  distance  from  the  sun 
when  measured  by  our  standards.  Yet,  the 
dimensions  of  our  solar  system  are  very  small 
when  compared  with  the  distance  which  sepa- 
rates the  stars.  Light  passes  from  the  sun  to 
the  outer  planet,  Neptune,  in  about  four  hours, 
while,  as  we  have  said,  it  requires  years  to 
reach  any  star.  The  nearest  star  is  therefore 
thousands  of  times  farther  than  the  most  distant 
planet.  A  most  interesting  question  is  whether 
other  stars  have  systems  of  planets  revolving 
round  them,  as  our  sun  has.  This  is  a  question 
which  it  is  impossible  to  answer  conclusively. 
Planets  revolving  round  the  stars  would  be  ab- 
solutely invisible  through  the  most  powerful 
telescope  that  man  can  ever  hope  to  construct. 
In  special  cases,  however,  evidence  on  the  sub- 
ject is  afforded  by  the  spectroscope,  which 
shows  that  great  numbers  of  stars  realiy  have 
one  or  more  dark  bodies  revolving  around  them. 
But,  in  order  to  be  observable  with  the  spectro- 
scope, these  bodies  must  be  vastly  larger  than 
the  planets  which  revolve  round  our  sun.  The 
existence  of  a  planet  like  that  on  which  we 
dwell  could  not  be  determined  even  with  the 
best  spectroscope. 

The  bodies  of  the  solar  system  are  bound 
together  by  the  law  of  gravitation.  Were  it 
not  for  the  attraction  of  the  sun  each  planet 
would  fly  off  in  a  straight  line  through  space. 
Through  the  attraction  of  the  sun  all  the  planets 
are  kept  in  their  several  orbits.  Every  con- 
sideration leads  us  to  believe  that  gravitation 
extends  from  one  star  to  all  the  others,  but 
diminishing  as  the  inverse  square  of  the  dis- 
tance. But  its  effect  on  bodies  so  distant  as 
the  stars  is  too  minute  to  be  observed.  Re- 
volving double  stars,  however,  show  that  in 
these  exceptional  cases,  systems  of  two  stars  in 
proximity  to  each  other  are  subject  to  the 
law  of  mutual  attraction. 

The  three  fundamental  facts  which  deter- 
mine the  great  phenomena  of  astronomy,  as  we 
observe  them  in  the  course  of  our  lives  are  (i) 
the  globular  form  of  the  earth  on  which  we 
dwell;  (2)  its  diurnal  rotation  on  its  axis;  (3) 
its  annual  revolution  round  the  sun.  The  first 
of  these  facts  is  so  familiar  to  all  that  we  need 
not  discuss  it.  Out  of  it  grow  the  general 
phenomena  of  the  sky.  The  heavenly  bodies 
surround  us  in  every  direction.  They  are 
really  as  numerous  by  day  as  by  night,  only  in 
the  former  case  they  are  blotted  out  by  the 
brightness  of  the  sky.  To  imagine  the  heavens 
as  they  really  are  we  must  fancy  stars  as  al- 
ways visible  in  every  part  of  the  sky.  Then, 
by  day,  we  should  see  the  sun  among  the  stars, 
and  perhaps  the  moon  also.    Mere  observation 


ASTRONOMY 


of  a  heavenly  body  gives  us  no  idea  of  its  dis- 
tance. By  looking  at  a  star  we  cannot  tell 
whether  its  distance  is  to  be  measured  by  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  by  millions,  or  by  thousands 
of  millions,  which  it  actually  is.  Hence,  all 
the  heavenly  bodies  appear  to  us  to  be  at  the 
same  distance,  as  if  they  were  set  upon  the 
interior  surface  of  a  stupendous  sphere  in 
the  centre  of  which  we  seem  to  be  placed.  This 
imaginary  form  is  called  the  celestial  sphere; 
it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  conceptions  of 
astronomy,  and  it  is  used  in  the  science  to  the 
present  day  to  represent  the  appearance  of 
the  heavens.  It  is  divided  into  two  hemi- 
spheres, a  visible  and  an  invisible  one.  The 
visible  hemisphere  is  the  half  which  is  above 
the  horizon,  which  we  call  the  sky  and  can 
always  see,  except  so  far  as  obstructions  _or 
inequalities  of  the  ground  may  prevent.  The 
other  half  is  below  the  horizon,  and  is  hidden 
from  our  view  because  the  earth  is  opaque. 
Were  the  latter  transparent,  we  should  see  the 
heavenly  bodies  in  every  possible  direction. 
The  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  pro- 
duces the  phenomena  of  day  and  night,  and 
the  apparent  rising  and  setting  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  This  is  known  as  the  diurnal  motion. 
The  latter  may  be  considered  in  two  aspects, 
either  as  the  real  revolution  of  the  earth  on 
its  axis,  in  a  direction  always  toward  the  East, 
or  as  an  apparent  revolution  of  the  heavens  in 
the  opposite  direction,  due  to  our  being  uncon- 
scious of  the  motion  of  the  earth.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  diurnal  motion  the  celestial 
sphere,  Miming  to  our  eyes  to  carry  the  heav- 
enly bodies  on  its  interior  surface,  appears 
to  us  to  make  a  daily  revolution  on  its  axis. 
The  two  opposite  points  of  the  celestial  sphere 
situated  on  the  prolongation  of  the  earth's 
axis  are  called  the  celestial  poles.  On  these 
poles  as  pivots  the  celestial  sphere  seems  to 
turn.  They  are  called  north  or  south  ac- 
cording to  the  direction.  Their  apparent  po- 
sition in  the  sky  depends  on  the  latitude  of  the 
place  where  the  observer  is  situated.  A 
heavenly  body  situated  at  either  pole  does  not 
i  i  in  tii  have  any  diurnal  motion.  This  is 
nearly  the  case  with  the  pole  star,  which  dwell- 
ers north  of  the  equator  can  always  see  at  an 
altitude  above  the  northern  horizon  equal  to 
their  latitude.  A  voyager  into  the  southern 
hemisphere  sees  the  pole  star  set  when  he 
crosses  the  equator.  Then,  the  south  polar 
star  would  be  visible  if  there  were  one.  But 
it  happens  there  is  no  bright  star  very  near 
the  southern  prolongation  of  the  axis.  In  the 
United  States,  say  from  300  to  45°  of  latitude, 
tl:e  pole  star  is  at  a  corresponding  altitude 
above  the  horizon,  and  all  the  stars  in  its  neigh- 
borhood appear  to  make  a  diurnal  rotation 
round  it,  without  changing  their  form  or  posi- 
tion, and  without  ever  setting.  Any  one  who 
chooses  can  verify  this  fact  by  noting  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  northern  sky  about  the  end  of 
twilight,  and  then  looking  at  it  again  two  or 
three  hours  later.  He  will  then  see  that  stars 
below  the  pole  have  moved  toward  the  east ; 
those  on  the  east  side  of  it  have  risen  higher, 
and  those  on  the  west  side  are  lower,  while 
those  above  have  moved  over  toward  the  west. 
For  us,  therefore,  the  sphere  of  the  heavens 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts;  a  circle  round 
the  north  celestial  pole  within  which  stars  never 
set ;    a    corresponding    circle    round    the    south 


pole,  the  stars  in  which  never  rise  above  our 
horizon,  and  a  broad  middle  region  where  they 
rise  and  set. 

To  represent  the  positions  of  the  stars,  as- 
tronomers imagine  circles  on  the  celestial  sphere 
corresponding  to  the  circles  of  longitude  and 
latitude  on  the  earth.  As  we  imagine  north 
and  south  meridians  drawn  on  the  earth  from 
one  pole  to  another,  to  measure  terrestrial 
longitudes,  so  we  imagine  in  the  heavens  cir- 
cles drawn  on  the  sphere  from  the  north  celes- 
tial pole  to  the  south  one.  As  the  longitude 
of  a  place  011  the  earth  is  expressed  by  the 
angle  which  its  meridian  makes  with  the  meri- 
dian of  Greenwich,  so  the  corresponding  quan- 
tity for  a  star  is  the  angle  which  the  circle 
through  it  makes  with  a  certain  prime  merid- 
ian on  the  celestial  sphere.  This  quantity 
for  the  stars  is  not  called  longitude,  but  right 
ascension,  and  the  celestial  meridians  which  de- 
termine it  may  be  called  hour  circles. 

In  the  same  way  as  we  have  on  the  earth 
a  great  circle  spanning  it,  everywhere  equally 
distant  from  the  two  poles,  and  called  the  equa- 
tor, so  we  imagine  a  circle  spanning  the 
heavens,  everywhere  equally  distant  from  the 
north  and  south  celestial  poles,  which  is  called 
the  celestial  equator,  or  the  equinoctial.  At  any 
one  place  this  circle  will  be  apparently  fixed 
in  its  position,  always  intersecting  the  horizon 
at  its  east  and  west  points,  and,  in  our  lati- 
tudes, intersecting  the  meridian  south  of  the 
zenith  by  a  distance  equal  to  our  distance  from 
the  equator.  For  example,  to  a  dweller  in 
latitude  40",  the  highest  point  of  the  celestial 
equator  will  be  400  from  the  zenith,  and  5c.0 
above  the  horizon.  From  this  point  it  spreads 
toward  the  east  and  west  until  it  intersects  the 
horizon  as  just  stated.  As  a  traveler  journeys 
south,  the  position  of  the  celestial  equator  be- 
comes more  and  more  nearly  vertical  ;  at  the 
equator  it  rises  vertically  and  passes  through  the 
zenith ;  south  of  the  equator  it  passes  north  of 
the  zenith. 

As  the  latitude  of  a  place  is  measured  by 
its  angular  distance  from  the  equator  north  or 
south,  so  the  corresponding  number  for  a  star 
is  measured  by  its  mean  angular  distance  from 
the  celestial  equator,  whether  north  or  south. 
This  is  called  the  star's  declination.  Thus  the 
right  ascension  and  declination  of  a  star  deter- 
mines its  position  on  the  celestial  sphere  just 
as  longitude  and  latitude  determine  the  position 
of  a  city  on  the  earth. 

We  now  have  to  consider  the  effect  of  the 
annual  motion  of  the  earth  round  the  sun.  If 
we  watch  the  heavens  at  a  certain  hour  every 
evening,  say  eight  o'clock  P.M.,  we  shall  find 
that  the  stars  are  every  night  a  little  farther 
advanced  in  their  diurnal  motion  then  they  were 
the  night  before.  If  they  are  in  a  certain  posi- 
tion at  eight  o'clock  on  one  evening,  they  will 
pass  the  same  position  four  minutes  before 
eight  on  the  next  night,  eight  minutes  before 
eight  on  the  next  night,  and  so  on.  In  the 
course  of  a  year  these  continually  accumulat- 
ing changes  make  up  the  whole  24  hours,  so  that 
a  star  which  is  in  the  zenith  this  evening  will 
be  on  the  meridian  at  eight  o'clock  in  the 
morning  six  months  hence,  while  at  eight  in 
the  evening  it  will  be  at  its  greatest  distance 
below  the  horizon.  If  we  could  see  the  sun 
among  the  stars,  what  we  should  notice  would 
be    that    our    luminary    always    forges    a    little 


ASTRONOMV 


farther  east  day  after  day,  and  in  the  course 
of  a  year  seems  to  make  a  complete  revolution 
among  the  stars.  The  result  is  that  while  the 
sun  rises  and  sets  365  times,  the  stars  rise  and 
set  366  times.  Since  the  latter  are  always  in 
the  same  absolute  direction,  and  seem  to  rise 
and  set  in  consequence  of  the  earth's  rotation 
on  its  axis,  we  infer  that  the  direction  of  the 
sun  from  the  earth  goes  through  a  complete 
revolution  in  the  course  of  a  year.  In  other 
words,  the  sun  appears  to  us  to  make  an  annual 
revolution  around  the  celestial  sphere  among 
the  stars.  Since  the  time  of  Copernicus  it  has 
been  known  that  this  appearance  is  due  to  the 
actual  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun. 

The  apparent  path  of  the  sun  among  the 
stars  can  be  mapped  out  by  astronomical  ob- 
servation. When  carefully  observed,  it  is  found 
to  be  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere,  called  the 
ecliptic.  We  thus  have  two  imaginary  cir- 
cles of  fundamental  importance  spanning  the 
heavens.  One  is  the  celestial  equator,  the  other 
the  ecliptic  in  which  the  sun  seems  to  travel. 
These  circles  do  not  coincide,  but  intersect  each 
other  at  two  opposite  points  at  an  angle  of 
2354°.  This  is  called  the  obliquity  of  the  eclip- 
tic. The  result  of  it  is  that  during  one  half 
the  year  the  sun  is  south  of  the  celestial  equa- 
tor, and  during  the  other  half  is  north  of  it. 
In  the  northern  half  of  its  course  we  have 
summer  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and  winter 
in  the  southern  :  in  the  southern  half  we  have 
summer  in  the  southern  hemisphere  and  winter 
in  the  northern.  Thus  the  changing  seasons 
are  due  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic.  If  the 
latter  coincided  with  the  equator,  we  should 
have  no  such  annual  round  of  seasons  as  that 
with   which  we  are  familiar. 

There  are  two  opposite  points  on  the  celes- 
tial sphere  at  which  the  equator  and  the  eclip- 
tic intersect.  These  are  called  equinoxes  be- 
cause, when  the  sun  crosses  them,  the  days  and 
nights  are  equal  all  over  the  earth.  That  equinox 
which  the  sun  passes  toward  the  north  is  called 
the  vernal  equinox,  because  the  crossing  marks 
spring  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  other 
is  called  the  autumnal  equinox  for  a  similar 
reason.  Observations  continued  through  many 
centuries  show  that  the  equinoxes  are  not  fixed, 
but  travel  slowly  along  the  ecliptic  at  such  a 
rate  that  they  make  a  complete  revolution  from 
the  east  toward  the  west  in  about  26,000  years. 
This  motion  is  called  the  precession  of  the 
equinoxes.  Its  existence  shows  that  the  direc- 
tion of  the  earth's  axis  is  slowly  changing,  and 
hence  the  position  of  the  celestial  pole  is  chang- 
ing also.  Since  the  equator  is  defined  by  the 
condition  that  it  spans  the  heavens  midway 
between  the  celestial  poles,  this  change  in  the 
poles  causes  a  corresponding  change  in  the 
equator. 

The  actual  motion  of  the  pole  is  at  the  rate 
of  about  20"  per  year.  The  smallest  visible 
object  that  can  be  seen  to  be  anything  else  than 
a  point  of  light  subtends  an  angle  of  about 
I1  or  60".  It  follows  that  the  pole  moves 
through  this  smallest  visible  space  in  three 
years.  In  a  long  life  of  90  years  the  change 
would  be  about  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the 
sun  or  moon.  The  centre  of  the  motion  is 
the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  which  is  distant  from 
that  of  the  equator  by  about  23j4°.  Owing  to 
the  smallness  of  the  obliquity,  the  equinox 
travels  along  the  ecliptie  at  more  than  twice 
the  rate  of  the  pole,  or  about  50"  per  year.    It 


has  therefore  changed  about  300  since  its  motion 
was  first  noticed,  about  2,000  years  ago.  It  is 
found  that  the  planets  describe  their  course 
around  the  sphere  in  circles  which  do  not  de- 
viate greatly  from  the  ecliptic.  A  belt  of  the 
heavens  extending  ii°  on  each  side  of  the  eclip- 
tic will  include  all  the  planets  visible  to  the 
naked  eye.  This  belt  is  called  the  zodiac.  Be- 
ginning at  the  vernal  equinox  it  is  divided  into 
12  portions,  of  300  each,  known  as  the  signs 
of  the  zodiac.  In  former  times  great  stress  was 
laid  upon  the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  these 
several  signs,  which  entrances  occurred  about 
a  month  apart.  They  now  occur  about  the  20th 
of  every  month.  In  our  times,  when  the  super- 
stitions connected  with  this  subject  have  van- 
ished, the  entrance  of  the  sun  into  the  signs  is 
no  longer  of  importance.  (See  Zodiac.)  There 
are  also  12  constellations,  beginning  with 
Aries,  and  ending  with  Pisces,  which  have  the 
same  names  as  the  signs  of  the  zodiac,  and  are 
scattered  along  its  course.  Two  thousand  years 
ago  these  constellations  coincided  pretty  closeiv 
with  the  signs.  But  now,  in  consequence  of 
the  precession  of  the  equinoxes,  the  two  no 
longer  correspond.  The  sign  Aries  is  now  lo- 
cated in  the  constellation  Pisces ;  the  sign  Tau- 
rus in  the  constellation  Aries,  etc. 

The  Time  of  Day. —  It  is  in  its  relations  to 
times  and  seasons  that  the  results  of  astro- 
nomical science  come  into  every  household. 
Our  daily  round  of  activity  and  rest  is  deter- 
mined by  the  earth's  rotation  on  its  axis,  alter- 
natingly  bringing  us  under  the  sun,  and  then 
carrying  us  around  until  it  is  hidden  from  our 
sight.  A  century  ago  people  used  to  set  their 
clocks  at  12  when  the  sun  crossed  the  merid- 
ian. This  moment,  being  the  middle  of  the 
day,  is  noon  properly  so-called.  But  if  a  good 
clock  is  exactly  regulated,  and  kept  going  all 
the  time,  it  will  not  show  noon  at  the  true 
time.  The  reason  is  that  the  intervals  of  time 
between  one  noon  and  the  next  are  not  exactly 
the  same.     See  Time. 

Bibliography. —  The  most  extended  general 
treatise  on  astronomy  for  the  use  of  the  general 
reader  is  'Chambers'  Astronomy*  (3  vols.,  8  vo., 
London)  ;  briefer  is  Newcomb's  'Astronomy 
for  Everybody':  Ball,  'Story  of  the  Heavens'; 
Flammarion,   'Popular  Astronomy*;  etc. 

Simon"  Newcomb,  LL.D., 
Washington,  D.  C. 

Astronomy,  History  of.  We  may  recog- 
nize four  great  periods  in  the  history  of  as- 
tronomical knowledge.  The  first  and  most  an- 
cient is  that  in  which  no  accurate  observations 
were  made,  but  in  which  men  had  a  general 
knowledge  of  the  apparent  annual  revolution 
of  the  sun,  of  the  constellations,  and  of  the  re- 
lation of  the  sun's  annual  course  to  the  changes 
of  the  seasons.  The  next  period  was  that  of  the 
celebrated  Alexandrian  school,  so-called  because 
Alexandria  was  the  principal  seat  of  its  activ- 
ity. This  period  was  distinguished  as  that  at 
which  the  first  attempts  were  made  at  precise 
observation  and  measurement.  It  began  three 
or  four  centuries  before  Christ.  It  is  very  re- 
markable that,  at  so  early  a  period  as  this, 
men  to  whom  all  our  modern  science  was  com- 
pletely unknown,  had  so  far  advanced  in  as- 
tronomical observation  as  to  measure  the  ob- 
liquity of  the  ecliptic,  determine  the  times  of 
the  equinoxes,  and  detect  their  precession.  The 
latter  was  done  by  a  comparison  of  two  meth- 


ASTRONOMY 


ods  of  determining  the  length  of  the  year,  as 
measured  by  the  sun's  apparent  revolution 
around  the  celestial  sphere.  Timocharis,  who 
flourished  about  300  B.C.,  determined  the  mo- 
ment at  which  the  sun  crossed  the  equinox  by 
means  of  an  east  and  west  line  on  the  level 
sandy  plains  of  Egypt,  showing  exactly  where 
the  sun  rose  or  set.  The  day  on  which  the 
point  of  settting  in  the  west  was  exactly  oppo- 
site that  of  its  rising  in  the  east  marked  the 
equinox,  which  could  thus  be  determined  within 
a  few  hours.  The  annual  course  of  the  sun 
can  also  be  determined  by  the  time  which  it 
takes  to  return  to  the  same  position  among  the 
stars  after  an  annual  apparent  revolution.  As 
the  stars  and  sun  cannot  be  seen  at  the  same 
time,  the  adopted  plan  was  to  measure  the  dis- 
tance of  the  sun  from  the  moon  before  sunset, 
and  after  dark  to  measure  the  distance  from 
the  moon  to  some  bright  star.  Allowing  for  the 
motion  of  the  moon  during  the  interval,  the 
distance  of  the  sun  from  the  star  would  be 
known.  In  this  way  the  curious  discovery 
was  made  that  the  year  as  determined  from 
the  equinoxes  was  several  minutes  shorter  than 
that  determined  from  the  stars.  This  discov- 
ery was  made  by  Hipparchus  through  a  com- 
parison of  his  observations  with  those  of  Ti- 
mocharis about   150  years  before. 

Erastothenes,  who  flourished  just  before 
Timocharis,  was  enabled  to  estimate  the  size 
of  the  earth.  This  he  did  by  noting  that  at 
the  ancient  town  of  Syene,  in  central  Egypt,  the 
sun  was  exactly  in  the  zenith  at  the  time  of  the 
summer  solstice,  so  that  it  illuminated  the  bot- 
tom of  a  well,  while  at  Alexandria  it  was  1/50 
of  a  circumference  south  of  the  zenith.  He 
therefore  concluded  that  the  circumference  of 
the  earth  was  50  times  the  distance  between 
Alexandria  and  Syene.  The  latter  being  50,000 
stadia,  it  followed  that  the  circumference  of  the 
earth   was  250,000   stadia. 

Hipparchus  was  considered  as  the  greatest 
astronomer  of  antiquity.  He  made  more  ac- 
curate observations  than  any  of  his  predeces- 
sors upon  the  courses  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets,  determining  their  times  of  revolution 
with  extraordinary  exactness.  Unfortunately 
none  of  his  works  survive,  and  our  knowledge 
of  them  is  derived  mainly  from  Ptolemy's  'Al- 
magest.' 

Ptolemaic  System. — Ptolemy  (130-150  A.D.), 
besides  being  a  practical  astronomer,  was  ac- 
complished as  a  musician,  a  geographer,  and  a 
mathematician.  His  most  important  discovery 
in  astronomy  was  the  evection  of  the  moon.  He 
also  was  the  first  to  point  out  the  effect  of  re- 
fraction. He  was  the  founder  of  the  false 
system  known  by  his  name,  and  which  was 
universally  accepted  as  the  true  theory  of  the 
universe  until  the  researches  of  Copernicus  ex- 
ploded it.  The  Ptolemaic  system  placed  the 
earth,  immovable,  in  the  centre  of  the  universe, 
making  the  entire  heavens  revolve  round  it  in 
the  course  of  24  hours.  The  work  by  which  he 
is  best  known,  however,  is  the  collection  and 
systematic  arrangement  of  the  ancient  observa- 
tions in  his  great  work,  the  'Megale  Syntaxis,' 
which  gives  a  complete  resutni  of  the  astronom- 
ical knowledge  of  the  day.  This  work  was 
translated  into  Arabic  in  the  first  part  of  the 
9th  century  and  was  called  by  the  Arabs  the 
"Almagest,"  and  by  this  name  it  is  known  to- 
day in  its  various  translations   into  Greek  and 


Latin.  The  most  important  part  of  it  is  the 
seventh  and  eighth  books,  which  contain  the 
catalogue  of  stars  which  bears  Ptolemy's  name, 
though  it  is  only  a  compilation  of  the  catalogue 
of  Hipparchus  with  the  positions  brought  up  to 
the  time  of  Ptolemy.  The  advance  of  astron- 
omy almost  ceased,  after  the  death  of  Ptolemy, 
and  his  'Almagest,'  together  with  the  false  sys- 
tem of  the  universe  which  it  taught,  continued 
to  be  the  recognized  authority  in  Europe  for 
the  next  14  centuries. 

With  the  death  of  Ptolemy,  everything  in 
the  way  of  actual  progress  in  astronomical 
theory  appeared  to  cease.  The  Arabians  con- 
tinued astronomical  observations  from  time  to 
time,  and  made  or  proposed  many  improvements 
in  the  ancient  astronomical  instruments,  but 
they  slavishly  followed  the  system  of  Ptolemy, 
and  made  no  attempts  to  penetrate  the  mystery 
of  the  celestial  motions.  They  had  little  ca- 
pacity for  speculation,  and  throughout  held  the 
Greek  theories  in  superstitious  reverence.  The 
most  illustrious  of  the  Arabian  school  were 
Albategnus,  or  Al  Batani  (880  a.d.),  who  dis- 
covered the  motion  of  the  solar  apogee,  and 
who  was  also  the  first  to  make  use  of  sines 
and  versed  sines  instead  of  chords ;  and  Ibn- 
Junis  (1000  a.d.),  an  excellent  mathematician, 
who  made  observations  of  great  importance  on 
eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  and  the  motions 
of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  and  who  was  the  first 
to  use  cotangents  and  secants.  Likewise,  at 
about  the  same  time,  Abul  Wefa  discovered  the 
third  inequality  in  the  moon's  motion,  the  vari- 
ation, and  determined  its  amount.  About  four 
centuries  later,  in  the  first  half  of  the  15th 
century,  lived  Ulugh  Beigh,  a  Tartar  prince, 
who  made  important  additions  to  astronomical 
knowledge. 

The  third  period  commenced  when  Coper- 
nicus, in  1543,  first  demonstrated  the  true  theory 
of  the  universe  to  his  fellow  men  in  his  great 
work  'De  Revolutionibus  Orbiiim  Ccelestium,' 
His  two  fundamental  principles  were  that,  in- 
stead of  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  heavens 
being  real,  it  was  only  apparent,  being  due  to 
the  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  own  axis ; 
and  that  the  apparent  revolution  of  the  sun 
around  the  sky  was,  in  the  same  way,  due  to 
the  actual  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the 
sun,  which  latter  remained  at  rest.  Centuries 
of  observation  have  shown  that  these  two  prin- 
ciples explain  so  exactly  every  detail  of  celes- 
tial phenomena  that  they  are  subject  to  no 
more  doubt  than  our  conclusions  as  to  the 
arrangement  of  streets  and  houses  in  a  city 
which  we  see  every  day  of  our  lives.  Half  a 
century  after  the  death  of  Copernicus  flour- 
ished Galileo  and  Kepler,  of  whom  the  first 
invented  the  telescope,  while  the  second  demon- 
strated the  correctness  of  the  Copernican  the- 
ory, and  also  showed  that  the  planet  Mars 
revolved  around  the  sun  in  an  ellipse  with  the 
sun  in  its  focus. 

The  invention  of  the  telescope  added  another 
proof  to  the  Copernican  theory,  and  also  en- 
larged our  views  of  the  universe  by  showing 
that  Jupiter  and  his  satellites  formed  a  minia- 
ture solar  system  on  the  Copernican  plan ;  that 
the  planet  Venus  had  phases  like  the  moon; 
that  the  moon  itself  had  a  variegated  surface 
apparently  similar  to  that  of  our  globe,  and 
that  the  wonderful  Milky  Way  was  composed 
of  innumerable  stars  too  faint  to  be  seen  «ep- 


ASTRONOMY 


arately  by  the  naked  eye.  The  spots  on  the 
sun  were  also  discovered,  and  the  rotation  of 
our  central  luminary  on  its  axis  made  known. 
Such  enormous  advances  were  too  great  for 
the  human  mind  at  once  to  grasp,  and  the 
generation  in  which  Galileo  lived  had  to  pass 
away  before  the  Copernican  theory  was  uni- 
versally accepted  by  the  learned  world.  To 
this  same  period  belong  the  observations  of 
Tycho  Brahe  on  the  motions  of  the  sun,  moon, 
and  planets,  which  were,  most  unfortunately, 
made  just  before  the  invention  of  the  tele- 
scope, and  so  failed  of  the  precision  which 
would  have  been  gained  by  the  use  of  that 
instrument.  But,  as  it  was,  they  were  the  basis 
on  which  Kepler  founded  his  celebrated  laws  of 
planetary  motion. 

The  fourth  and  last  period  began  when 
Newton  showed  that  all  the  complicated  phe- 
nomena of  the  celestial  motions  —  the  revolu- 
tion of  the  planets  in  elliptic  orbits,  and  the 
revolution  of  the  satellites  around  their  pri- 
maries, were  all  due  to  the  mutual  gravitation 
of  these  bodies,  and  took  place  according  to 
the  same  laws  which  govern  the  motion  of 
matter  around  us  on  the  earth.  As  in  the 
case  of  the  Copernican  theory,  it  took  the  learn- 
ed world  a  whole  generation  to  grasp  the 
idea  of  Newton  as  to  the  theory  of  gravitation. 
The  progress  made  in  our  knowledge  of  the 
celestial  motions  during  the  two  centuries  since 
Newton's  time  have  all  rested  on  the  principle 
which  he  discovered. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  18th  century.  Sir 
William  Herschel,  then  in  the  zenith  of  his 
fame,  was  interesting  the  whole  world  by  his 
wonderful  discoveries.  With  his  great  reflec- 
tors he  made  a  step  forward  in  the  size  and 
power  of  the  telescope  greater  than  any  before 
or  since.  Although  his  greatest  and  best  in- 
strument would  be  considered  extremely  imper- 
fect at  the  present  time,  those  which  it  super- 
seded were  hardly  more  than  what  we  should 
now  call  spy  glasses.  Herschel  was  so  far 
the  greatest  figure  of  the  time  in  astronomical 
science,  and  his  work  so  overshadowed  that  of 
his  contemporaries  on  the  continent,  that  the 
work  of  everyone  else  at  the  time  seems  unim- 
portant in  comparison.  Yet  not  only  were  great 
successors  of  Herschel  coming  on  the  stage, 
but  important  additions  to  our  knowledge  of 
the  heavens  were  being  made  outside  of  Eng- 
land. William  Herschel's  son,  John,  was  a 
lad  of  eight  years.  In  France,  Arago,  a  boy  of 
14.  was  fitting  himself  for  the  ficole  Polytech- 
nique.  At  Paris,  Lalande,  the  leading  astrono- 
mer of  France,  was  actively  preparing  a  cata- 
logue of  the  fainter  stars  with  an  instrument 
which  would  now  be  consigned  to  the  junkshop. 
But  it  was  the  first  attempt  that  had  ever  been 
made  to  determine  accurately  the  positions  of 
the  many  thousand  telescopic  stars  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye,  and  in  consequence  the  'Histoire 
Celeste'  is  still  one  of  the  classics  of  the  astro- 
nomical investigator.  In  Germany,  Olbers  com- 
bined the  professions  of  physician  and  astron- 
omer, and  Bessel,  a  youth  of  16,  was  clerk  in  a 
mercantile   house. 

The  first  day  of  the  century  was  marked  by 
a  discovery  of  capital  interest  and  importance. 
The  wide  gap  between  the  planets  Mars  and 
Jupiter  had  been  a  source  of  wonder,  and  the 
conviction  that  there  must  be  a  planet  in  it  had 
become  so  strong  that  an  association  of  astron- 


omers was  formed  to  search  for  it.  But,  on 
1  Jan.  1801,  before  they  got  to  work,  Piazzi,  the 
Italian  astronomer  of  Palermo,  found  Ceres. 
The  year  following  Olbers  discovered  Pallas, 
and  propounded  his  celebrated  theory  that  the 
newly  formed  bodies  were  fragments  of  a  shat- 
tered planet,  more  of  which  might  be  found. 
This  anticipation  was  amply  justified  by  the 
result,  though  the  theory  of  a  shattered  planet 
has  long  been  rejected.  By  1868  the  number 
reached  100.  When  the  sky  was  systematically 
watched  100  more  were  found.  When  the 
process  of  photographing  the  stars  was  perfect- 
ed, so  many  new  ones  were  found  on  the  photo- 
graphic plates  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
follow  them  up.  About  450  have  had  their 
orbits  mapped  out.     See  Astekoids. 

In  this  country,  David  Rittenhouse,  almost 
the  only  American  of  Revolutionary  times  who 
has  a  place  in  scientific  history,  had  been  dead 
four  years  when  the  century  began,  and  there 
was  no  one  to  take  his  place.  He  was  one  of 
the  committee  of  the  American  Philosophical  So- 
ciety that  made  an  extensive  and  well-planned 
set  of  observations  on  the  transit  of  Venus 
in  1769.  The  first  American  after  the  Revolu- 
tion to  acquire  eminence  in  any  department  of 
astronomical  science  was  Nathaniel  Bowditch. 
A  Boston  ship-captain  by  profession,  he  first 
prepared  his  'Navigator,'  the  standard  work 
of  the  sailor  through  most  of  the  century.  He 
mastered  the  great  work  of  Laplace,  and  made 
it  accessible  to  students  by  a  translation  and 
commentary  explaining  the  processes  in  detail. 
So  far  as  practical  astronomy  was  concerned, 
it  might  be  regarded  as  non-existent  among  us 
during  at  least  the  first  third  of  the  century. 
We  know  little  more  of  it  than  that  Robert 
Treat  Paine,  grandson  of  the  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  used  to  compute 
eclipses  and  publish  the  results  in  the  'Amer- 
ican Almanac,'  and  the  Boston  Advertiser. 
About  1840,  Dr.  Lardner  paid  a  visit  to  this 
country  and  remained  several  years,  delivering 
public  lectures,  which,  though  not  of  a  high 
order  when  measured  by  the  standard  of  to-day, 
were  much  above  any  which  Americans  had 
then  heard. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  century,  the  ad- 
vance of  astronomical  science  consisted  princi- 
pally in  a  form  of  development  which  goes  on 
without  any  striking  discovery,  and  has  there- 
fore little  interest  for  the  general  public.  When 
bright  comets  appeared  they  were  carefully 
studied  by  observers,  at  the  head  of  whom  were 
Bessel  and  Olbers.  It  was  thus  found  that  the 
tail  of  a  comet  was  not  an  appendage  carried 
along  with  it,  like  the  tail  of  an  animal,  but 
merely  a  stream  of  vapor  arising  from  it  and 
repelled  by  a  force  residing  in  the  sun.  The 
discovery  of  telescopic  comets  by  observers, 
here  and  there,  continually  added  to  the  num- 
ber of  these  bodies  known.  Most  of  them  were 
found  to  be  moving  in  such  orbits  that  they 
would  require  thousands  of  years,  perhaps  tens 
of  thousands,  to  return  to  the  sun,  if,  indeed, 
they  ever  reappeared.  But  this,  though  the 
general  rule,  is  far  from  being  universal.  From 
time  to  time  comets  were  found  moving  in 
closed  orbits  and  performing  their  revolution 
in  periods  of  a  few  years,  mostly  between  3 
years  and   10. 

One  of  the  noteworthy  discoveries  of  the 
third   quarter   of   the  century   was   that  of   the 


ASTRONOMY 


IiI?tion  between  comets  and  shooting  stars.  The 
first  discovery  of  this  relation  came  about  in  a 
curious  way.  The  researches  of  H.  A.  Newton 
and  others  had  made  it  quite  clear  that  shooting 
stars  were  due  to  the  impact  of  countless  minute 
bodies  revolving  around  the  sun  in  various  or- 
bits and  now  and  then  encountering  our  at- 
mosphere. It  was  also  known  that  the  great 
November  meteoric  showers  must  be  due  to  a 
stream  of  such  bodies.  One  astronomer  com- 
puted the  orbit  of  the  November  meteors ;  and 
another  quite  independently  published  the  orbit 
of  a  comet  which  appeared  in  1866.  A  third 
astronomer,  Schiaparelli,  noticed  that  the  two 
orbits  were  practically  the  same.  The  conclu- 
sion was  obvious.  The  minute  bodies  which 
caused  the  shower  moved  in  the  path  of  the 
comet  and  were  portions  of  its  substance  which 
had  from  time  to  time  separated  from  it.  The 
disappointing  failure  of  the  shower  in  1899  and 
1900  can  have  but  one  cause  —  a  small  change 
in  the  orbit  of  the  meteoric  swarm  caused  by 
the  attraction  of  the  planets.  Nor  has  the  comet 
associated  with  them  shown  itself;  it  was  per- 
haps dissipated  like  that  of  Bicla's.  Apart  from 
this,  the  question  of  the  constitution  of  comets 
is  still  an  unsolved  mystery.  Their  spectrum  is 
that  of  a  body  which  shines  by  its  own  light. 
But  no  one  can  explain  how  a  body  in  the  cold 
and  vacuous  celestial  spaces  can  so  shine.  The 
brighter  comets  may  have  a  more  or  less  mass- 
ive nucleus.  Yet  it  is  not  certain  that  the  nu- 
cleus is  entirely  opaque.  In  1882,  the  astrono- 
mers at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  enjoyed  an 
opportunity  which  no  one  of  their  brethren 
ever  enjoyed  before  or  since;  that  of  seeing  a 
comet  enter  on  the  disk  of  the  sun.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  sun  disappeared  from  view  a  very 
few  minutes  afterward.  But  not  a  trace  of 
the  comet  could  be  seen  on  the  sun  as  a  spot. 
It  was  seemingly  quite  transparent  to  the  solar 
rays.  That  the  fainter  comets  have  no  nucleus 
and  are  merely  composed  of  a  collection  of 
foggy  particles  seems  certain.  How  are  these 
particles  kept  together  through  so  many  revo- 
tions?  This  question  has  not  yet  been  satis- 
factorily  answered.     See  Comet. 

The  Greenwich  Observatory  was  taken  in 
charge  by  Airy  in  1834.  He  immediately  insti- 
tuted a  great  improvement  in  its  organization 
and  work,  but  it  was  not  till  1850  that  he  ac- 
quired for  it  new  instruments  of  great  impor- 
tance. He  was  the  founder  of  what  has  some- 
times been  called  the  Greenwich  system :  the 
astronomers  of  an  institution  taking  a  part  like 
those  of  soldiers  in  an  army,  making  all  their 
observations  on  a  plan  prescribed  by  the  author- 
ity and  rarely  using  their  own  discretion  in  any 
way.  The  mathematical  theory  of  the  motions 
of  the  planets,  and  especially  the  moon,  re- 
ceived its  greatest  improvement  from  the  hands 
of  Hensen,  born  about  1795.  He  may  fairly 
rank  as  the  greatest  of  celestial  mechanicians 
since  the  time  of  Laplace.  Toward  the  middle 
of  the  century,  he  prepared  the  first  tables  of 
the  moon  which  could  satisfy  the  requirements 
of  modern  astronomic  theory.  These  were 
published  by  the  British  government  in  1857, 
and  have  now  formed  the  basis  of  astronomical 
ephemerides  for  nearly  half  a  century.  The 
nmst  striking  event  of  the  mid-century  period, 
and  one  which  in  the  popular  mind  must  long 
hold  its  place  as  among  the  greatest  of  intel- 
lectual  achievements,   was  the   computation   by 


Leverrier  of  the  position  of  an  unknown  planet 
from  its  attraction  on  Uranus.  The  speedy 
discovery  of  the  planet  on  the  very  night  it 
was  first  looked  for  was,  for  the  public,  a 
proof  of  the  absolute  correctness  of  gravita- 
tional theories  that  surpassed  all  others.  It 
was  as  a  first  and  bold  attempt  to  sail  into 
an  unknown  sea:  yet,  as  in  the  case  of  Colum- 
bus and  the  Atlantic,  its  repetition  would  not 
now  be  generally  considered  a  difficult  mat- 
ter. With  the  discovery  of  Neptune  and  with 
the  advance  in  the  art  of  astronomical  observa- 
tion, improvements  in  the  theories  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  planets  were  necessary.  The 
greatest  step  forward  in  this  direction  was 
taken  by  Leverrier.  Among  the  results  of  his 
work  was  the  discovery  that  the  perihelion  of 
Mercury  moves  more  rapidly  than  it  should 
under  the  influence  of  gravitation.  This  excess 
of  movement  has  been  abundantly  proved  by 
observation  since  his  time,  but  its  cause  is 
still  one  of  the  greatest  mysteries  of  gravita- 
tional astronomy.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be 
said  that  during  the  last  half  century  the  Ger- 
mans have  been  the  leaders  in  astronomical  re- 
search. Their  work  on  the  subject  has  been 
more  voluminous  than  that  of  any  other  nation. 
The  leading  astronomical  journal  of  the  world 
is  still  that  of  Germany.  But  when  we  consider 
not  quantity  of  work,  but  the  special  impor- 
tance of  particular  works,  precedence  has,  from 
one  point  of  view,  passed  to  America.  While, 
perhaps,  we  still  have  fewer  students  pursuing 
astronomy  in  the  United  States  than  in  Ger- 
many, the  number  of  men  among  us  who  have 
acquired  the  highest  distinction  and  most  skil- 
fully made  applications  of  this  science  is  greater 
than  in  any  other  country.  The  rapidity  of 
progress  from  small  beginnings  is  very  remark- 
able. 

In  1832,  Professor  Airy  delivered,  before  the 
British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  an  address  on  the  progress  of  astron- 
omy, which  soon  acquired  celebrity.  The  state 
of  astronomy  in  different  countries  was  re- 
viewed. America  was  dismissed  with  the  re- 
mark that  he  was  not  aware  of  any  observatory 
existing  in  that  country.  In  the  revival  of  as- 
tronomy among  us  and  its  advance  to  its  present 
position  in  popular  favor,  one  agency  has  not 
been  esteemed  so  highly  as  it  deserves.  Con- 
temporaneous with  the  visit  of  Dr.  Lardner 
were  the  lectures  of  Prof.  Ormsby  M.  Mitchel. 
\\  ith  unsurpassed  eloquence  he  explained  the 
wonders  of  astronomy  to  audiences  intensely  in- 
terested in  the  novelties  of  the  subject.  From 
a  scientific  point  of  view  the  lectures  were 
probably  not  of  a  high  order,  nor  could  it  be 
said  that  Mitchel  himself,  active  and  enthusias- 
tic though  he  was,  was  a  profound  astronomer. 
Yet  it  may  well  be  said  that  to  him  is  due  the 
ability  of  our  astronomers  since  that  time  to 
secure  the  public  support  necessary  to  the  erec- 
tion of  the  fabric  of  their  science.  A  few  years 
after  Airy's  address  small  college  observatories 
were  founded  at  Williams  College  and  at  the 
Western  Reserve  College,  Ohio.  These  were 
doubtless  a  stimulus  to  students,  but  can  hardly 
have  added  to  astronomical  science.  When  the 
Wilkes  Exploring  Expedition  was  being  organ- 
ized, it  was  found  necessary  to  have  a  contin- 
uous series  of  observations  made  at  home  during 
the  absence  of  the  expedition  which,  com- 
pared with  those  made  on  the  ships,  would  en- 


ASTRONOMY 


able  the  navigators  to  determine  the  longitudes 
of  the  lands  they  discovered.  A  little  wooden 
structure,  erected  by  Captain  Gilliss  for  this 
purpose,  on  Capitol  Hill,  Washington  city,  was 
in  some  sort  the  beginning  of  our  National 
Observatory.  The  actual  foundation  of  the  lat- 
ter was  almost  contemporaneous  with  that  of 
the  Harvard  Observatory,  both  being  com- 
menced about  the  year  1843.  The  Harvard 
Observatory  was  placed  under  the  direction  of 
William  C.  Bond,  who  had,  for  many  years, 
made  observations,  first  at  his  own  house  in 
Dorchester,  and  then  on  top  of  a  house  at 
Cambridge.  At  Washington  the  Naval  Observ- 
atory was  placed  under  the  charge  of  Lieut. 
Maury.  After  getting  its  instruments  in  opera- 
tion, he  devoted  himself  almost  entirely  to 
those  researches  on  ocean  currents,  which,  so 
long  as  the  commerce  of  the  world  was  carried 
on  mostly  in  sailing  vessels,  were  of  the  first 
importance.  But  the  institution  soon  acquired 
astronomical  celebrity  in  other  ways.  Here 
Sears  Cook  Walker  made  the  first  thorough  in- 
vestigation of  the  orbit  of  Leverrier's  newly 
discovered  planet,  and  showed  that  it  had  been 
twice  observed  by  Lalande  as  far  back  as  1795, 
but  without  its  character  being  suspected.  Here 
also  the  device  of  recording  the  transits  of  stars 
by  means  of  the  chronograph  and  determining 
the  longitude  of  places  by  telegraph  found  their 
first  application.  New  observatories,  some 
founded  in  connection  with  colleges,  others  by 
private  individuals,  now  sprang  up  rapidly 
among  us  in  every  quarter.  Twenty-four  were 
enumerated  hy  Loomis  in  1856.  What  figure 
the  number  has  now  reached  it  is  impossible  to 
say.  Whatever  it  may  be,  it  marks  rather  the 
interest  taken  by  the  intelligent  public  in  as- 
tronomical science  than  the  actual  progress  of 
knowledge.  The  number  of  these  institutions 
which  have  actually  made  important  contribu- 
tions to  astronomical  knowledge  is  naturally 
very  small.  It  is  to  a  few  leading  ones  that 
most  of  the  progress  is  due. 

Two  of  these  have  put  almost  a  new  face 
upon  astronomical  science.  These  are  the 
Harvard  Observatory  at  Cambridge  and  the 
Lick  Observatory  of  California.  The  former, 
while  a  respectable  institution  from  its  founda- 
tion, and  made  famous  by  the  works  of  the 
Bonds,  had  never  commanded  the  means  neces- 
sary to  prosecute  astronomical  research  on  a 
large  scale.  When  Pickering  assumed  the  di- 
rectorship in  1875,  he  devoted  his  energies  to 
those  branches  of  research  which  are  now 
known  under  the  general  term  of  astro-physics, 
being  concerned  with  the  physical  constitutions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies  rather  than  with  their 
motions.  The  extension  of  his  work  was  made 
possible  by  very  large  additions  to  the  endow- 
ment of  the  observatory.  It  thus  became  one 
of  the  best-supported  institutions  of  the  kind  in 
the  world.  Photometry  and  spectroscopy  have 
been  its  main  subjects.  With  the  aid  of  a 
branch  established  in  Arequipa,  Peru,  the  mag- 
nitudes of  all  the  stars  in  the  heavens  visible 
to  the  naked  eyes,  as  well  as  many  fainter  ones, 
have  been  determined.  Among  its  remarkable 
discoveries  have  been  those  of  new  stars.  It 
was  formerly  known  that  at  long  intervals, 
sometimes  more  than  a  century,  sometimes  less, 
stars  apparently  new  blazed  out  in  the  sky. 
Really  the  star  was  not  new,  but  was  an  old  and 
very    small    one    of   which    the   light   was    tem- 


porarily multiplied  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
times.  A  system  of  constantly  photographing 
the  heavens  showed  that  such  objects  appear 
every  few  years,  only  they  do  not  generally  at- 
tain such  brilliancy  as  to  be  noticed  by  the  un- 
assisted eye.  The  succesc  of  the  Lick  Observa- 
tory in  a  different,  yet  not  wholly  dissimilar, 
direction  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
extraordinary  developments  of  our  time.  Com- 
mencing work  about  the  beginning  of  1888, 
under  the  direction  of  Holden,  and  supplied 
with  the  greatest  telescope  that  human  art  had 
then  produced,  the  observations  of  Burnham 
and  Barnard  excited  universal  interest,  both 
among  astronomers  and  the  public.  The  dis- 
covery of  a  fifth  satellite  of  Jupiter,  perhaps  the 
most  difficult  object  in  the  heavens,  was  made 
there  by  Barnard  in  1892.  Later,  the  optical 
discovery  of  the  companion  of  Procyon,  an 
object  known  to  exist  from  its  attraction  on  that 
star,  was  made  by  Schaeberle.  But  its  most 
epoch-making  work  is  due  in  still  more  recent 
years  to  Campbell,  by  measurements  of  the  mo- 
tion of  stars  in  the  line  of  sight  with  the  spec- 
troscope. The  possibility  of  measuring  such 
motions  was  first  demonstrated  by  Huggins, 
some  thirty  years  ago,  and  was  applied  both  by 
him  and  by  the  observers  at  Greenwich.  Then 
a  great  step  forward  was  made  by  photographing 
the  spectrum  instead  of  depending  on  visible 
observation.  This  step  was  mostly  developed 
by  Vogel,  at  the  Potsdam  Observatory,  near 
Berlin.  In  the  case  of  the  variable  star,  Algol, 
Vogel  was  thus  enabled  to  show  that  the  fad- 
ing away  of  its  light  at  regular  intervals  of 
something  less  than  three  days  was  really  a 
partial  eclipse  of  the  star  by  a  dark  body  re- 
volving around  it.  He  also  showed  that  three 
other  bright  stars  varied  in  their  motions  to 
and  from  the  earth  in  a  way  that  could  arise  only 
from  the  revolution  of  massive  but  invisible 
bodies  around  them.  Now,  at  the  Lick  Ob- 
servatory, Campbell,  armed  with  the  best  spec- 
trograph that  human  art  could  make,  the  gift 
of  D.  O.  Mills,  has,  by  the  introduction  of  every 
refinement  of  his  method,  brought  into  these 
measures  a  degree  of  precision  never  before 
reached.  The  cases  of  variable  motion,  as  found 
by  him,  are  so  numerous  as  to  indicate  that  iso- 
lated stars  may  be  the  exception  rather  than 
the  rule.  It  is  true  that  up  to  the  present  time 
he  detects  variation  in  only  about  one  star  out 
of  thirteen  which  he  observes.  But  it  is  only 
in  the  exceptional  cases,  where  the  planet  is  al- 
most as  massive  as  the  star  itself,  that  the  mo- 
tion can  be  detected.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikely 
that,  for  every  spectroscopic  binary  svstem  (as 
these  pairs  of  objects  are  now  called)  we  can 
detect,  quite  a  number  may  exist  in  which  the 
revolving  planet  is  too  small  to  affect  the  mo- 
tion of  the  star.  With  the  beginning  of  a  new 
century,  astronomy,  the  oldest  of  the  sciences, 
seems  to  be  entering  upon  a  new  career,  with 
a  prospect  of  a  life  before  it  the  end  of  which 
no  man  can  foresee. 

Bibliography. — In  French,  we  have  the  monu- 
mental  works  of  Delambre ;  in  English,  Agnes 
M.  Clerke.,  'History  ..f  Astronomy  in  the  19th 
Century';  Berry,   'History  of  Astronomy.* 
Simon  Newcomb,  LL.D., 

Washington.  D.  C. 

Astronomy,  Practical.  The  instruments 
of  observation  used  by  the  working  astronomer 
are    made    up   mainly  of   various   combinations 


ASTRONOMY 


of  three  appliances.  These  are  the  telescope, 
the  graduated  circle,  and  the  clock.  (For  the 
principles  of  the  first  see  Telescope.)  With 
the  clock  is  associated  the  chronograph  as  part 
of  a  combination  for  measuring  time.  Many 
auxiliary  appliances  are  also  brought  into  use 
of  which  the  micrometer  and  the  spirit  level 
are  the  most  important.  The  usefulness  of  tho 
telescope  in  measurement  does  not  arise  solely 
from   its   enabling  the   observer   to   see   objects 

F 


n— hTJc 


use  of  the  telescope  is  that  when  this  occurs, 
the  star  is  apparently  situated  exactly  on  a 
straight  line  passing  through  the  cross  threads, 
and  the  centre  of  the  object  glass.  This  line  is 
called  the  line  of  sight  of  the  telescope. 

Now,  let  the  observer  move  the  telescope 
until  he  finds  another  star,  whose  image  he 
brings  upon  the  cross  threads.  The  angle 
through  which  he  has  moved  the  telescope  from 
one  star  to  the  other,  supposing  the  two  stars 
to  be  at  rest,  will  then  be  precisely  the  angle 
between  the  rays  of  light  coming  from  the  two 
stars.  If,  then,  any  system  is  adopted  of  de- 
termining through  how  many  degrees,  minutes, 


Fig.    i. 

otherwise  invisible.  A  telescope  with  no  mag- 
nifying power  at  all  would  still  enable  him  to 
determine  the  directions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
at  any  moment  with  greater  accuracy  than 
would  otherwise  be  attainable.  The  principle 
on  which  the  telescope  is  used  in  celestial  mea- 
surement will  first  be  explained.  Let  Fig.  I 
represent  the  section  of  a  telescope ;  A  B  being 
the  object  glass,  and  C  the  eye-end,  where  the 
rays  from  a  star  are  brought  to  a  focus.  The 
lines  converging  to  the  plane  E  F  represent 
the  rays  of  light  from  a  star  reaching  the 
focus.  Here  they  form  an  image  of  the  star, 
which  the  observer  sees  by  looking  into  the 
eye-piece  at  C.  The  plane,  of  which  the  dotted 
line  E  F  is  a  section,  passing  through  the 
focus  at  right  angles  to  the  telescope,  is  called 
the  focal  plane.  By  changing  slightly  the  di- 
rection in  which  the  telescope  is  pointed,  the 
rays  may  come  to  a  focus  on  any  point  in  this 
plane  not  too  far  from  the  axis  or  central  line 
of  the  telescope.  In  the  focal  plane  is  placed 
a  system  of  very  fine  threads  which  the  ob- 
server sees  when  he  looks  into  the  eye-piece. 
These  threads  are  generally  made  of  fibres  of 
spider-web,  a  substance  so  well  adapted  to  this 
purpose  that  nothing  better  has  yet  come  into 
use.  To  fix  the  ideas  we  shall  suppose  several 
cross  threads ;  then  the  observer  by  looking 
into   the   telescope    may   see   the   stars   and   the 


Fig.   2. 

cross-threads  as  represented  in  Fig.  2.  Here  we 
have  the  images  of  two  stars  quite  near  the 
crossing  point  of  the  threads.  The  observer 
moves  the  telescope  until  one  of  the  stars  is 
seen  exactly  at  the  point  of  intersection  of  the 
two  threads.     The  fundamental  principle  in  the 


270 


etc.,  the  telescope  has  moved,  the  angular  dis- 
tance between  the  stars  is  known.  The  studious 
reader  will  remark  that,  owing  to  the  rotation 
of  the  earth,  the  image  of  a  star  seen  in  a  fixed 
telescope  is  continually  moving  across  the  field 
of  view.  To  explain  the  principle  we  must, 
however,  leave  this  motion  out  of  account,  or 
suppose  it  allowed  for. 

We  have  next  to  show  how  a  large  angle 
through  which  the  telescope  may  be  moved  is 
measured.  This  is  done  by  means  of  the  grad- 
uated circle,  a  representation  of  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  3.     It  will  be  seen   that  the  rim  of  the 


ASTRONOMY 


circle  is  divided  up  into  degrees  by  fine  lines 
as  represented  in  the  figure,  where,  however, 
only  every  fifth  degree  is  marked.  In  the  in- 
struments actually  used  in  astronomy,  not  only 
is  every  degree  marked,  but  in  the  circles  for 
the  finest  observations,  the  degrees  are  still 
farther  sub-divided  into  spaces  of  5',  3',  or  even 
2'.  Since  there  are  360°  in  a  circumference,  it 
follows  that  in  a  division  to  2'  there  will  be 
10,800  of  these  graduations,  or  fine  marks,  on 
the  circle.  These  marks  must  all  be  as  nearly 
equi-distant  as  human  art  can  make  them,  and 
the  problem  of  doing  this,  together  with  that 
of   making  them   so   fine   and   sharp   that   they 


A 

, B 

E 

"X 

H 

J 

\ 

S 

F 

_/ 

c 

0 

Fig.   4. 

can  be  used  in  the  most  precise  measurement, 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  with  which  the  in- 
strument maker  has  to  deal.  The  way  in  which 
the  divided  circle  is  used  to  measure  the  angu- 
lar motion  of  the  telescope  is  shown  by  the 
dotted  outline  of  the  latter.  The  circle  is  at- 
tached to  it  so  that  both  move  on  an  axis  con- 
centric with  the  circle  and  perpendicular  to  its 
plane.  Then,  when  the  telescope  is  turned  on 
this  axis,  the  circle  turns  with  it  as  a  grindstone 
does  on  its  axis.  The  distance  through  which 
telescope  and  circle  are  turned  is  then  measured 
by  means  of  the  graduations.  To  show  how 
this  is  done,  other  appliances  must  be  described. 
Instead  of  two  stars  being  far  apart,  so  that 
the   telescope   has   to   be   moved,   they   may   be 


The  Filar  Micrometer. —  This  adjunct  is  so 
called  because  an  essential  part  of  it  consists  in 
fine  threads  of  spider  lines  stretched  across  the 
field  of  view,  as  already  described.  The  aim 
of  its  construction  is  to  admit  of  these  threads 
being  moved  in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to 
their  length,  by  a  very  fine  screw,  so  that  the 
space  over  which  they  pass  may  be  measured  by 
the  turns  of  the  screw.  The  principal  appliances 
for  effecting  this  are  a  fixed  frame,  A  B  C  D, 
Fig.  4,  in  which  slides  another  frame,  E  F  G, 
moved  by  a  fine  screw  at  S.  Across  this  inner 
frame  is  stretched  the  spider  line  J,  and  across 
the  fixed  one  the  spider  line  H.  To  the  head 
of  the  screw  is  attached  a  cylindrical  rim, 
which  has  100  or  some  other  number  of  divi- 
sions cut  upon  it.  An  index  mark  serves  to  show 
how  far  the  screw  is  turned.  An  apparatus  for 
measuring  the  number  of  turns  of  the  screw  is 
attached,  but  need  not  be  described  here.  Then 
when  the  observer  turns  the  screw,  the  mov- 
able frame  of  the  spider  lines  is  slowly  carried 
along  with  it.  The  position  of  the  spider  lines 
as  they  move  is  then  shown  at  every  moment 
by  the  number  of  turns  of  the  screw  and  the 
fractions  of  a  turn.  To  show  the  accuracy  with 
which  this  can  be  done,  we  remark  that  the 
screws  used  by  astronomers  may  have  100  or 
even  125  turns  to  the  inch.  Then,  each  revolu- 
tion of  the  screw,  as  read  off  on  the  head, 
measures  to  a  motion  through  this  space.  There 
being  100  graduations  on  the  head,  each  grad- 
uation may  measure  the  motion  of  1-10,000  of  an 
inch.  But  the  observer  may  estimate  the  tenths 
between  the  divisions,  thus  carrying  his  mea- 
surements down  to  the  1-100,000  of  an  inch. 
Beside  the  movable  spider  line  across  the  frame, 
fixed  spider  lines  may  also  be  stretched  across 
the  fixed  frame.  Then  we  shall  have  two  sys- 
tems of  spider  lines,  one  movable  and  the  other 
fixed.  The  relation  of  each  to  the  other  is  mea- 
sured by  the  turns  of  the  screw. 

To  determine  the  exact  position  of  the  grad- 
uated circle,  a  filar  micrometer  O  is  attached 
to  a  microscope  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig. 
5,  and  the  latter  is  finally  fastened  to  a  fixed 
frame   in   such   a   position  that,   when   the   ob- 


Fig.   5. 

alongside  of  each  other,  as  in  Fig.  2;  then,  the  server  looks   into   the   microscope,   he   sees   the 

observer,  by  moving  the  cross-threads  from  one  graduations    on    the    circle    magnified    as    many 

star  to  the  other,  and  measuring  the  amount  of  times  as  necessary,  and  also  the  threads  of  the 

the  motion,  can  determine  the  angular  distance  micrometer.     The    microscope    being    fixed    re- 

between   the    stars,   and   their   relation   to    each  mains   at    rest   while    the   circle    turns.     If   the 

other.     This  is  done  by  a  micrometer,  one  kind  instrument  were  geometrically  perfect  in  every 

of  which  will  now  be  described.  respect,  one  reading  microscope  would  answer 


ASTRONOMY 


the  purpose;  but,  as  the  circle  cannot  be  cen- 
tred with  mathematical  exactness,  pairs  of  mi- 
croscopes are  used  which  are  at  opposite  ends 
of  diameters  of  the  circle.  For  example,  when 
the  graduation  150  20'  is  brought  under  one 
microscope,  the  graduation  1950  15'  would  be 
under  the  opposite  one.  It  is  customary,  for 
greater  precision,  to  have  two  such  pairs  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  or  four  microscopes 
in  all. 

To  determine  the  position  of  the  circle,  and 
hence  the  direction  in  which  the  telescope  at- 
tached to  it  points,  the  observer  looks  into  one 
of  the  microscopes  and  fixes  upon  some  grad- 
uation of  the  circle,  turns  the  micrometer  screw 
till  a  spider  line,  or  the  middle  of  a  pair  of 
lines  is  central  on  the  graduation,  and  then 
reads  the  indication  of  the  head  of  the  screw. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  in  Fig.  5  the  mark 
21°  is  central  under  the  microscope.  By  point- 
ing his  telescope  on  one  star  after  another  and 
reading  the  microscope  in  this  way,  noting  on 
each  occasion  what  graduation  is  read,  the  dis- 
tance through  which  the  telescope  is  moved, 
and  therefore  the  angles  between  the  stars,  are 
measured  with  the  highest  precision. 

The  Clock. —  The  astronomical  clock  does 
not  differ  greatly  in  its  construction  from  the 
ordinary  clock.  Its  arrangement  and  the  num- 
bers on  its  face  are,  however,  adapted  to  the 
measures  of  time  used  by  astronomers.  Mean 
solar  time,  which  is  the  time  we  make  use  of  in 
the  affairs  of  daily  life,  is  also  used  by  the 
astronomer  with  a  slightly  different  arrange- 
ment. Instead  of  the  hours  being  designated 
as  a.m.  and  p.m.,  the  astronomer  counts  through 
the  whole  24  hours.  Moreover,  the  count  does 
not  begin  at  midnight,  but  at  noon,  which  is 
therefore  the  commencement  of  the  astronom- 
ical day.  For  purely  scientific  purposes  this  is 
the  natural  time  to  begin  the  day,  because  it  is 
determined  by  the  passage  of  the  sun  across 
the  meridian.  Therefore,  any  day  of  the  month, 
as  used  by  the  astronomer,  continues  until  noon 
of  the  following  day,  when  a  new  day  begins. 
For  this  reason  the  hour  hand  of  his  clock 
only  makes  one  revolution  in  the  24  hours,  the 
hours  being  numbered  from  O  to  23.  The  as- 
tronomer makes  use  of  a  second  system  of  time, 
entirely  different  from  that  used  in  daily  life, 
bring  based  on  the  apparent  diurnal  movement 
of  the  stars.  We  have  explained,  in  the  pre- 
ceding article  (Astronomy)  that  the  time  be- 
tween two  passages  of  the  same  star  over  the 
meridian  of  a  place  is  not  quite  24  hours,  but 
nearly  four  minutes  less.  This  is  the  true  time 
of  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its  axis,  because,  in 
consequence  of  the  advance  of  the  earth  in  its 
orbit  it  must  go  through  a  little  more  than  its, 
true  revolution  in  order  that  the  meridian  of 
any  place  on  its  surface  —  that  of  Washington 
fur  example  —  may  again  pass  directly  under 
the  sun.  The  astronomer  therefore  uses  a 
"sidereal  day,*  which  is  shorter  than  the  day 
determined  by  the  sun  in  the  proportion 
365.24 :366.24.  This  day  is  divided  into  24 
sidereal  hours,  and  each  hour  into  sidereal  min- 
utes and  seconds,  according  to  the  usual  system. 
A  sidereal  clock  is  regulated  so  as  to  gain 
about  3  m.  56  s.  every  day  on  our  ordinary 
clocks  and,  in  this  way,  keep  time  with  the 
apparent  diurnal  movement  of  the  fixed  stars. 
It  is  so  set  that  it  shall  read  0  h.,  o  m..  o  s. 
at  the  moment  when  the  vernal  equinox  crosses 
the  meridian.     As  any  of  us,  by  looking  at  the 


clock,  can  tell,  by  the  time  of  day,  whether 
the  sun  is  in  the  east,  south,  or  west,  so  the 
astronomer,  by  his  sidereal  clock,  can  tell  in 
what  part  of  its  apparent  diurnal  course  any 
star  may  be  situated.  For  examples,  at  5  h.  he 
knows  that  the  constellation  Auriga  is  on  the 
meridian,  and  at  18  h.  30  m.  that  the  beautiful 
Lyra  is  crossing  the  meridian. 

The  Chronograpli. —  There  are  two  systems 
by  which  the  astronomer  notes  the  time  of  oc- 
currence of  an  instantaneous  phenomenon  to  a 
fraction  of  a  second.  On  the  older  system, 
which  is  not  without  its  advantages,  the  ob- 
server, looking  at  his  clock,  counts  its  beats 
until  the  occurrence  of  the  phenomenon  he  is  to 
observe.  We  may  take,  as  an  example,  the  oc- 
cultation  of  a  star  by  the  moon.  He  sees  the 
limb  of  the  moon  approaching  the  star  until  it 
is  clear  that,  in  a  few  seconds,  it  is  going  to 
pass  over  it  and  hide  it  from  view.  Then, 
looking  at  the  clock,  he  listens  to  the  seconds, 
mentally  counting  the  number  of  each  beat.  At 
length,  there  is  a  certain  beat  of  the  clock 
when  the  star  is  not  yet  hidden,  while  before 
the  next  beat  the  star  has  disappeared  from 
view.  He  estimates  how  many  tenths  of  the 
interval  between  the  beats  of  the  clock  had 
elapsed  when  the  star  disappeared,  and  records 
the  hours,  minutes,  seconds,  and  tenths  in  his 
note-book.  The  skilled  observer  will  seldom 
be  more  than  a  few  tenths  of  a  second  in  error 
in  this  estimate.  It  requires  long  practice,  and 
much  natural  aptitude,  to  be  able  to  make  an 
accurate  observation  in  this  way.  The  method 
has  also  the  inconvenience  that  there  is  no  per- 
manent record  except  that  which  is  written 
down  at  the  moment,  so  that,  if  the  observer 
has  made  an  error  of  any  kind,  he  has  no  direct 
way  of  detecting  it  except  by  subsequently  dis- 
covering that  something  must  be  wrong.  This 
difficulty  is  avoided  by  means  of  a  chronograph. 
In  the  form  commonly  used,  the  chronograpli 
consists  essentially  of  a  cylinder,  generally  about 
eight  inches  in  diameter  and  one  or  two  feet  in 
length,  revolving  on  its  axis  by  clock  work  at 
the  rate  of  one  turn  a  minute.  Around  the 
cylinder  is  stretched  a  sheet  of  paper,  which 
is  carried  with  it  in  its  motion.  The  sheet  is 
pressed  by  a  pen,  pencil,  or  other  point,  so  as 
to  leave  a  mark  on  the  paper  as  the  cylinder 
revolves.  The  pen  is  carried  by  a  little  carriage 
moving  slowly  forward  from  one  end  of  the 
cylinder  to  the  other  at  a  rate  of  about  one 
tenth  of  an  inch,  or  a  little  more,  in  a  minute. 
Consequently,  the  point  describes  a  spiral  line 
on  the  paper  as  the  chronograph  goes  through 
its  successive  revolutions,  until  the  pen  arrives 
at  the  farther  end  of  the  cylinder.  This  may 
take  a  period  of  two,  three,  or  four  hours,  ac- 
cording to  the  adjustments.  The  pen  is  con- 
nected with  an  electro-magnet,  the  current 
around  which  passes  through  the  works  of  the 
clock.  The  arrangement  is  such  that  at  every 
beat  of  the  clock,  or  sometimes  at  every  alter- 
nate beat,  the  electric  current  is  either  closed 
or  broken.  With  each  closing  or  breaking  of 
the  current  a  slight  motion  is  given  to  the  pen 
so  that  the  seconds  are  marked  on  the  paper  on 
the  revolving  cylinder.  The  same  or  another 
current  also  passes  through  a  key  held  in  the 
hand  of  the  observer.  When  the  latter  sees 
the  moment  of  the  phenomenon  he  is  to  note 
approaching,  he  holds  the  key  in  his  hand,  and 
presses  it  at  the  exact  moment  to  be  recorded. 
A  motion  is  thus  given  to  the  pen,  and  the  posi- 


ASTR(  INOMICAL    INSTRUMEN1  S 


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ASTRONOMY 

tion    of    the    signal    on    the    paper    among    the  on  the  horizontal  pivots   of  the  instrument  of 

signals  given   by  the  clock  shows  the  moment  observation.    The     true     horizontally     of     the 

to  a  fraction  of  a  second  at  which  the   signal  pivots  is  tested  by   reversing  the  level  end  for 

was  given.  end,  reading  the  position  of  the  bubble  at  each 


Fig.   6. 

Different  systems  are  used  based  on  this  gen- 
eral principle.  There  are  various  ways  in  which 
the  pen  marks  the  clock  beats  on  the  paper. 
In  that  mostly  used  in  this  country  the  pen  is 
not  raised  from  the  paper,  but  is  given  a  sud- 
den lateral  jerk,  producing  a  notch  in  the  line, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  which  is  a  copy  of  a  small 
portion  of  a  chronograph  record.  On  another 
system  the  pen  simply  makes  dots  on  the  paper 
at  each  beat  of  the  clock.  Sometimes  the  cur- 
rent passes  around  the  electric  magnet  all  the 
time  except  at  the  instant  a  signal  is  made. 
Then  one  and  the  same  electric  circuit  is  used 
for  both  the  clock  and  the  observer.  Some- 
times the  clock  only  makes  the  circuit  at  the 
moment  of  its  beat ;  then  the  circuit  at  the  com- 
mand of  the  observer  is  a  second  one,  which  he 
makes  by  pressing  the  key.  The  main  point  in 
all  systems  is  that  the  beginnings  of  the  minutes 
all  come  under  each  other  so  that,  by  taking  the 
sheet  off  of  the  cylinder,  and  spreading  it  out, 
writing  in  the  minutes  and  the  lines  of  seconds, 
the  observer  can  determine  the  exact  moments  at 
which  every  one  of  any  number  of  signals  were 
made  while  the  chronograph  was  running.  For 
example,  in  Fig.  6  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ob- 
server pressed  the  key  at  12  m.  3.5  s.  and  again 
at  13  m.  2.4  s. 

The  Spirit  Level. —  Another  appliance  much 
used  in  astronomy  is  the  spirit  level.  It  serves 
to  set  the  axis  of  an  instrument  exactly  hori- 
zontal. It  consists  of  a  glass  tube,  generally 
six  or  eight  inches  long,  of  which  the  rounded 
surface  is  not  a  perfect  cylinder,  but  is  formed 
by  the  revolution  of  the  arc  of  a  very  large  cir- 
cle around  its  chord.  The  tube  is  therefore  of 
the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  7,  slightly  larger  in 
the  middle  part  than  at  the  two  ends.  The 
amount  of  bulging  is,  however,  so  slight  that 
the  eye  cannot  perceive  it.  In  the  most  delicate 
levels,  a  section  of  the  curved  surface  is  an 
arc  of  a  circle  perhaps  half  a  mile,  more  or 
less,  in  diameter.  The  tube  is  nearly  filled  with 
chloroform   or   ether.     Water,  or  even  alcohol, 


m Illllllltlll  llllll iT-r 


in- 


Fig.    7. 

is  not  liquid  enough  for  the  purpose.  A  small 
vacant  bubble  is  left  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder, 
as  shown  at  A  B  in  Fig.  7.  When  this  bubble 
is  in  the  middle  of  the  tube,  the  axis  of  the 
level  is  perfectly  horizontal.  The  remainder  of 
the  level  is  sketched  in  Fig.  8,  which  shows  the 
level  completely  mounted,  so  that  it  can  be  set 


Fig.    8. 

setting.  Details  need  not  be  entered  into  at 
present,  as  we  only  wish  to  make  the  principle 
of  the  instrument  clear.  Nearly  all  instruments 
for  astronomical  measurement  are  made  by 
putting  together  some  combination  of  the  de- 
vices we  have  described.  The  two  combina- 
tions most  used  in  astronomical  observatories 
are  the  Meridian  Circle  or  Transit  Circle,  which 
are  the  same  in  principle,  and  the  Equatorial 
Telescope. 

The  Meridian  Circle. —  This  instrument  is 
used  for  two  distinct  purposes.  One  is  the  de- 
termination of  the  right  ascensions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies ;  the  other  the  determination  of 
their  declinations.  It  will  conduce  to  clearness 
to  consider  these  two  functions  separately  and 
begin  with  the  instrument  as  adapted  to  the 
first  purpose.  In  this  form  it  is  called  the  tran- 
sit instrument  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  It  con- 
sists  essentially  of  a   telescope,   mounted   on   a 


Fig.   9. 

horizontal   east  and   west  axis   P   Q,  the  hori- 

zontality  of  which  is  tested  from  time  to  time 
by  a  spirit  level.  As  thus  mounted  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  telescope  cannot  move  out  of  the 
meridian ;  by  turning  it  on  its  axis,  its  line  of 
sight  marks  out  the  meridian.  Consequently, 
if  an  observer   looking   into   it  sees  a   star,  or 


ASTRONOMY 


other  heavenly  body,  he  knows  that  the  star 
must  he  near  the  meridian.  To  make  the  ob- 
servation more  exact,  a  system  of  spider  lines, 
shown  in  Fig.   10,  is  stretched  across  the  focal 


Fig.  to. 

plane,  as  already  described.  The  middle  line  is 
so  adjusted  as  to  mark  the  meridian  with  the 
greatest  possible  exactness.  The  result  is  that 
the  observer,  looking  into  the  instrument,  sees 
these  spider  lines,  and  he  may  also  see  a  star 
moving  toward  the  meridian  by  virtue  of  its 
apparent  diurnal  motion  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
where  it  is  about  to  cross  the  meridian  line. 
Watching  it  with  a  key  connected  with  the 
electric  circuit  of  the  chronograph  in  his  hand, 
he  taps  the  key  at  the  moment  the  image  of  the 
star  crosses  each  of  the  lines.  The  middle  line 
marks  the  passage  across  the  meridian.  The 
other  lines  are  used  in  order  to  secure  greater 
exactness  by  taking  the  mean  of  all  the  transits 
across  the  separate  lines.  Thus,  by  pointing  his 
instrument  into  any  part  of  the  meridian,  the 
observer  may  determine  the  times  by  his  sidereal 
clock  at  which  any  number  of  stars  crossed  the 
meridian  of  his  place. 

In  order  that  the  line  of  sight  of  the  in- 
strument may  describe  the  true  meridian,  it  is 
necessary  that,  when  the  instrument  is  turned 
in    the    proper    direction,    the    line    shall    pass 


\ 


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S 


through  the  celestial  pole.  This  is  effected  by 
the  following  arrangement :  In  the  course  of 
its  apparent  diurnal  motion,  a  star  near  the  pole 
will  cross  the  meridian  of  any  place  twice  in  the 


course  of  a  sidereal  day,  first  above  the  pole  and 
then  below  it.  Let  the  dotted  circle  in  Fig.  u 
be  its  apparent  diurnal  circuit  around  the  pole 
P.  Let  the  vertical  line  M  R  be  the  true  merid- 
ian passing  through  the  pole,  and  the  other  line 
A  B  that  marked  out  by  the  line  of  sight  of  tin 
transit  instrument,  supposed  not  to  be  exactly 
in  the  meridian.  Then  the  star  will  take  a 
less  time  in  passing  around  from  A  to  B  on 
the  left  than  in  the  other  part  of  its  course 
from  B  to  A.  Therefore  by  observing  the  tran- 
sit both  above  and  below  the  pole,  across  the 
middle  thread  of  the  instrument,  the  observer 
determines  whether  the  line  of  sight  of  the  in- 
strument passes  east  or  west  of  the  pole  and 
may  adjust  it  accordingly.  It  may  be  said  that, 
in  astronomical  practice,  no  instrument  is  ever 
assumed  to  be  perfectly  adjusted.  The  clock  of 
the  astronomer  is  never  assumed  to  be  correct, 
nor  his  transit  instrument  to  be  in  the  true 
meridian.  What  he  does  is,  assuming  them 
wrong,  to  make  his  observations,  determine  the 
errors,  and  correct  his  observations  accordingly. 
This  is  called  "reducing"  the  observation.  We 
have  already  explained  that,  when  a  star  is  ex- 
actly in  the  same  hour  circle  with  the  vernal 
equinox,  its  right  ascension  is  o  h.,  o  m.,  o  s. 
Since  the  clock,  assumed  to  be  correct,  then 
reads  exactly  o  h.,  it  follows  that  the  star  in 
question  will  cross  the  meridian  at  this  time 
by  the  clock.  Then,  as  the  sphere  revolves,  the 
right  ascensions  of  the  stars  are  all  equal  to 
the  sidereal  time  at  which  they  cross  the  merid- 
ian. Thus  the  observer  by  noting  these  times, 
measures  the  right  ascensions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  This  system  of  using  the  clock  instead 
of  a  divided  circle  for  determining  right  ascen- 
sions constitutes  one  of  the  greatest  advances 
ever  made  in  astronomical  measurement.  It  de- 
pends upon  the  perfect  uniformity  of  the  earth's 
rotation  and  the  excellence  with  which  a  clock 
can  be  made. 

The  Meridian  Circle  is  the  transit  instru- 
ment, just  described,  with  one  or  two  graduated 
circles  on  its  axis  of  rotation.  The  method  of 
using  it,  and  determining  the  arc  through  which 
the  circle  has  moved  at  any  time  has  already 
been  explained.  The  inquiring  reader  may  wish 
to  know  how,  by  such  readings,  the  astronomer 
can  determine  the  declination  of  stars.  If  the 
celestial  pole  were  a  visible  point  in  the  heav- 
ens, this  would  be  very  simple ;  the  observer 
would  turn  his  instrument  until  it  pointed  exact- 
ly at  the  pole,  and  then  read  his  microscopes. 
Then  as  one  star  after  another  crossed  the 
meridian,  he  would  make  a  similar  pointing, 
reading  his  microscope  for  the  transit  of  each 
star.  The  difference  between  the  reading  on  the 
pole  and  that  on  the  different  stars,  would 
show  their  distances  from  the  pole.  Subtract- 
ing each  of  these  from  on"  would  give  the 
declination  of  the  stars  as  seen  in  the  instru- 
ment. 

But,  unfortunately,  the  pole  is  not  a  visible 
point.  The  observer  has  therefore  to  refer  his 
position  to  the  direction  of  gravity,  which  is 
done  by  a  very  ingenious  use  of  a  basin  of 
quicksilver.  The  basin  is  set  on  a  firm  sup- 
port on  the  ground  under  the  telescope,  and 
the  latter  is  pointed  directly  downward.  The 
observer,  by  mounting  up  to  the  eye-piece  and 
looking  down,  is  looking  perpendicularly  into 
the  basin  of  mercury.  A  combination  of  reflec- 
tors  is   then  arranged   in   the  eye-piece   of  the 


ASTRi  IN(  IMICAL    [NSTRUMEN  I  3 


ASTRONOMY 


telescope  so  that  lie  can,  at  the  same  time, 
see  the  threads  in  his  eye-piece  and  the  images 
of  these  threads  as  reflected  from  the  basin  of 
mercury.  When  a  telescope  is  so  adjusted  that 
the  image  and  the  thread  coincide,  he  knows 
that  the  line  of  sight  of  his  telescope  is  truly 
vertical.  He  then  reads  the  microscope  of  his 
circle  and  so  determines  what  the  reading  of  his 
circle  is  for  the  vertical  position.  He  knows 
that  if  the  telescope  is  pointed  at  the  zenith,  the 
reading  will  be  different  by  exactly  180°.  He 
thus  determines  the  exact  distance  at  which  the 
heavenly  bodies  crossed  the  meridian  north  or 
south  of  his  zenith.  From  this,  the  determina- 
tion of  the  declination  is,  in  principle,  a  simple 
matter. 

The  Equatorial. —  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant arrangements  of  nature  with  which  the 
astronomer  has  to  deal  is  the  diurnal  motion. 
This  takes  place  so  slowly  that,  in  looking  at 
the  stars,  we  do  not  notice  it  unless  we  watch 
for  some  time.  But,  if  we  point  a  telescope  at 
a  heavenly  body,  it  magnifies  the  diurnal  mo- 
tion as  much  as  it  does  the  object.  The  result 
is  that  such  a  body,  seen  in  a  fixed  telescope, 
is  continually  traveling  across  the  field  of  view, 
and  the  instrument  has  to  be  continually  moved 
to  keep  up  with  it.  ... 

In  order  to  avoid  this  inconvenience,  it  is 
necessary  that,  if  measures  are  to  be  made  upon 
the  body,  or  if  it  is  to  be  continuously  studied, 
the  telescope  must  move  to  correspond.  This 
is  brought  about  by  mounting  it  upon  an  axis 
parallel  to  that  of  the  earth,  and  therefore  ob- 
lique to  the  horizon,  called  the  polar  axis.  The 
inclination  to  the  horizon  must  be  equal  to  the 
latitude  of  the  place.  All  great  telescopes  are 
thus  mounted.  The  way  in  which  this  is  done 
will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying  picture  of 
the  great  telescope  mounted  at  Pulkova,  Russia. 
In  order  to  keep  the  telescope  pointed  at  the 
object,  it  must  be  turned  upon  the  polar  axis 
by  clock  work,  moving  it  steadily  at  a  rate 
equal  to  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  object  ob- 
served. In  reality,  the  telescope  is  then  pointed 
in  a  fixed  direction,  the  motion  of  the  earth 
being  simply  neutralized  by  the  clock  work  of 
the  telescope  carrying  the  latter  in  the  opposite 
direction.  The  equatorial  telescope  must  also 
have  a  second  axis,  called  the  declination  axis, 
in  order  that  it  may  be  pointed  at  stars  in  differ- 
ent declinations.  The  direction  is  determined 
by  circles  attached  to  the  telescope,  which  show, 
at  any  time,  to  what  declination  on  the  celestial 
sphere  the  instrument  is  pointed.  By  a  com- 
bination  of  contrivances,  the  astronomer  can 
point  his  telescope  by  day  at  any  star  bright 
enough  to  be  visible  in  it ;  or,  by  night,  at  any 
object  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  of  which  he 
knows  the  right  ascension  and  declination.  He 
first  turns  his  telescope  until  one  divided  circle 
corresponds  to  the  declination  of  the  star,  and 
then  clamps  it  in  that  position.  Then,  looking 
at  his  sidereal  clock,  and  taking  the  difference 
between  the  sidereal  time  and  the  right  as- 
cension of  the  star,  he  turns  his  telescope  on 
the  polar  axis  until  the  other  circle  shows 
the  correct  pointing.  Then  he  starts  the  clock 
work  which  sets  the  telescope  in  motion,  and 
looking  into  the  eye-piece,  sees  the  required 
object.  Every  large  telescope  is  also  supplied 
with  a  finder  This  consists  of  a  smaller  tele- 
scope fastened  to  the  larger  one  in  such  a  way 
that  the  centre  of  the  field  of  view  is  the 
same  in  both.     But  the  finder  has  a  lower  mag- 


nifying power,  and  therefore  a  much  larger  fi;Id. 
Looking  into  it,  and  recognizing  the  object  he 
wishes  to  observe,  the  observer  moves  the  tele- 
scope until  the  object  is  seen  on  the  cross 
threads  of  the  finder.  Then  he  knows  that  it 
is  in  the  field  of  view  of  the  large  telescope. 

Application  of  Photography  to  Astronomy. — 
From  the  time  that  photographic  methods  were 
introduced,  the  idea  of  taking  pictures  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  by  such  methods  must  have 
occurred  to  astronomers.  About  the  year  1840, 
Prof.  J.  W.  Draper  of  New  York  put  this 
method  into  practice  by  taking  a  daguerreotype 
of  the  moon.  Shortly  after  our  present  system 
of  photography  was  devised,  several  American 
astronomers  carried  the  experiment  yet  farther. 
Notable  among  these  were  G.  P.  Bond,  first  as- 
sistant and  afterward  director  of  the  Harvard 
Observatory;  and  L.  M.  Rutherfurd  of  New 
York,  who  was  the  possessor  of  an  excellent 
telescope,  and  brought  the  method  to  a  high 
state  of  perfection. 

The  principle  on  which  a  photograph  of  a 
heavenly  body  is  taken  is  extremely  simple.  A 
telescope  is  pointed  at  the  body  so  that  the 
image  of  the  latter  is  formed  in  its  focus.  A 
sensitized  plate  is  placed  in  the  focus  and  ex- 
posed for  the  necessary  time.  This  may  be 
only  a  fraction  of  a  second,  or  it  may  be  sev- 
eral hours.  Unless  the  exposure  is  very  brief, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  telescope  shall  be  kept 
in  motion,  so  as  to  follow  the  object  in  its 
apparent  diurnal  course.  When  the  exposure 
is  completed,  the  image  is  developed  in  the  us- 
ual way.  In  photographing,  the  ordinary  tele- 
scope, as  used  for  eye  observations,  is  not  well 
suited  to  the  purpose,  for  the  reason  that  the 
chromatic  aberration  is  not  the  same  for  the 
visual  and  for  the  photographic  rays.  It  is  nec- 
essary to  have  a  somewhat  stronger  crown  lens, 
or  a  weaker  flint  lens,  if  a  telescope  is  to  be 
used  in  photographing,  than  if  it  is  to  be  used 
by  the  eye.  But  the  necessity  of  having  tele- 
scopes of  the  two  kinds  is  now,  to  a  certain 
extent,  done  away  with  by  the  use  of  sensitized 
plates  which  are  especially  sensitive  to  the 
visual  rays.  By  putting  in  an  absorbing  screen, 
through  which  the  rays  must  pass  before  they 
reach  the  focus,  and  which  allows  only  the 
visual  rays  to  pass,  very  accurate  photographs 
can  be  taken  by  the  plates.  This  defect  is  felt 
only  in  the  refracting  telescope.  A  reflecting 
telescope  brings  all  the  rays,  of  whatever  color, 
to  one  and  the  same  focus,  and  therefore  may 
be  used  either  for  photographing  or  for  seeing. 
Improvements  made  in  recent  times  in  the  sen- 
sitiveness of  photographic  plates  have  given  an 
enormous  extension  to  this  method  in  astron- 
omy. It  is  now  found  that  celestial  objects 
completely  invisible  to  ordinary  vision  can  be 
photographed.  While  only  a  few  thousand  neb- 
ula; have  been  catalogued  as  visible  to  the  naked 
eye,  it  is  found  that  there  are  hundreds  of 
thousands  which  admit  of  being  determined  by 
photography. 

The  latter  is  now  employed  for  two  distinct 
purposes.  The  first  is  simply  that  of  forming  a 
picture  of  the  sky,  or  rather  of  the  stars  in 
the  sky.  For  this  purpose  the  best  telescope  is 
one  as  large  as  can  conveniently  be  obtained, 
hut  of  short  focal  length.  A  great  enterprise 
in  this  direction  was  started  in  1887  by  an 
association  of  astronomers  who  met  at  the  Paris 
Observatory,  and  put  into  operation  a  plan  of 
photographing  the  entire  heavens  on  from  10,000 


ASTRONOMY 


to  20,000  plates,  each  two  degrees  square.  .This 
work  is  now  approaching  completion,  and  is  in- 
tended to  form  a  permanent  record  of  the 
starry  heavens,  as  they  are  seen  in  our  times. 
A  similar  object  is  reached  on  a  different  system 
at  the  Harvard  Observatory.  There  photographs 
are  being  constantly  taken  with  telescopes  much 
shorter  than  those  used  for  the  international 
chart.  In  this  way  new  stars  are  from  time 
to  time  discovered,  and  variations  in  the  light 
of  different  stars  are  brought  out.  The  other 
purpose  is  that  of  exact  measurement.  When 
the  astronomer  had  to  determine  the  respective 
distances  of  stars  in  the  same  field  of  view, 
he  has  hitherto  generally  depended  on  the  filar 
or  other  micrometer.  The  use  of  this  instru- 
ment is  laborious.  When  the  photographic 
method  is  used,  he  simply  takes  a  picture  of 
the  stars  he  wishes  to  measure,  and,  at  any 
convenient  time,  places  it  under  a  measuring 
engine  supplied  with  sliding  microscopes,  and 
measures  off  the  distance  on  his  negative.  The 
result  of  these  two  applications  is  that  pho- 
tography is  now  slowly  supplanting  eye  ob- 
servations in  an  important  fraction  of  the  as- 
tronomical work  of  the  world. 

Simon  Newcomb,  LL.D., 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Astronomy,  Theoretical.  This  branch  of 
the  science  grows  out  of  the  great  discovery 
of  Newton,  that  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  especially  those  of  the  solar  system,  are 
determined  by  their  mutual  gravitation.  The  re- 
sults of  this  theory  are  now  worked  out  by 
purely  mathematical  methods  with  a  degree  of 
precision  scarcely  attainable  in  any  other  branch 
of  science.  The  adopted  method  consists  first  in 
expressing  the  attraction  or  pull  experienced 
by  each  body  from  all  the  others  in  the  form 
of  differential  equations.  These  equations  ex- 
press, in  the  most  general  way,  the  acceleration 
which  the  planets  experience  at  every  moment 
from  the  attraction  of  the  other  bodies.  We  do 
not  write  them  because  they  would  be  under- 
stood only  by  a  reader  expert  in  the  calculus, 
who,  if  he  desires  to  be  acquainted  with  them, 
will  consult  special  treatises.  It  will  suffice  to 
say  that  there  are  three  differential  equations 
for  each  planet,  which  express  the  attraction, 
and  its  effect  on  the  motion  of  the  planet  at 
any  instant,  in  the  direction  of  three  co-ordi- 
nates. The  problem  then  becomes  the  purely 
algebraic  one  of  integrating  these  equations.  The 
result  of  this  process  is  that  the  effect  of  the 
attraction  or  pull  upon  the  body,  through  a  pe- 
riod of  days,  years,  or  even  centuries,  is  summed 
up  with  great  exactness,  so  that  the  motion 
of  the  body  through  the  whole  period  can  be 
expressed  by  algebraic  equations.  The  simplest 
case  occurs  when  there  are  only  two  bodies. 
The  integration  shows  that,  in  this  case,  the 
bodies  revolve  round  their  common  centre  of 
gravity  in  orbits  each  of  which  is  an  ellipse. 
Commonly  it  is  necessary  to  consider  only  the 
motion  of  the  smaller  of  the  two  bodies,  the  mo- 
tion being  defined  as  if  the  larger  were  at  rest. 
This  is  the  case  of  a  planet  revolving  round  the 
sun,  or  of  a  satellite  round  its  primary.  It  is 
then  found  that  the  orbit  described  by  the  revolv- 
ing body  round  the  great  central  body  is  an 
ellipse  having  the  latter  in  one  of  its  foci.  The 
motion  is  also  found  to  be  subject  to  two  other 
laws  which  bear  the  name  of  Kepler,  their  first 
discoverer.     One  of  these  is  that  the  radius  vector, 


that  is  to  say,  the  line  drawn  from  the  central 
body  to  the  other  sweeps  over  equal  areas  in 
equal  times.  The  result  of  this  is  that  if 
A  B  be  the  orbit  having  the  sun,   S,   in  the 


Fig.   12. 

focus ;  and  if  we  mark  on  the  orbit  the  points  o, 
b,  c,  etc.,  which  the  planet  passes  through  at  any 
equal  intervals  of  time,  and  then  draw  lines 
from  each  of  these  points  to  the  sun,  the  areas 
included  between  these  lines  will  all  be  equal 
to  each  other.  A  glance  is  sufficient  to  show 
that  the  nearer  the  body  is  to  the  sun  the  more 
rapidly  it  must  move. 

The  position- of  the  orbit  and  the  place  of  the 
body  in  it  are  determined  by  six  quantities  called 
dements.  Two  of  these  elements  express  the 
position  of  the  plane  in  which  the  ellipse  lies, 
and  therefore  in  which  the  planet  moves.  These 
are  the  inclination  of  the  plane  of  the  orbit  to 
some  other  plane  taken  as  that  of  reference. 
For  the  latter  is  commonly  adopted  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic,  in  which  the  earth  revolves  round 
the  sun.  When  the  inclination  of  the  orbit  of 
any  other  planet  is  spoken  of,  the  astronomer 
means  the  angle  which  the  plane  of  its  orbit 
makes  with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic.  The  other 
of  the  two  elements  expresses  the  line  passing 
through  the  sun  along  which  the  two  planes 
intersect.  This  is  called  the  Line  of  Nodes. 
The  position  of  the  node  is  defined  by  the 
angle,  as  seen  from  the  sun,  between  the  ver- 
nal equinox  and  that  node  where  the  planet 
crosses  from  the  south  to  the  north  side  of  the 
ecliptic.  Three  other  elements  determine  the 
size  and  form  of  the  elliptic  orbit,  and  its  posi- 
tion in  its  plane.  The  semi-major  axis,  A  B, 
of  the  ellipse  is  called  the  mean  distance 
of  the  planet  from  the  sun,  it  being  half  the 
sum  of  the  greatest  and  least  distances.  The 
other  of  these  elements  is  the  eccentricity  of 
the  orbit,  which  is  equal  to  the  quotient  ob- 
tained by  dividing  the  distance  of  the  sun,  O  S, 
from  the  centre  of  the  orbit  by  O  A,  the  semi- 
major  axis.  These  two  elements  completely  de- 
termine the  ellipse.  The  exact  position  of  the 
ellipse  in  the  plane  may  then  be  defined  by  the 
angle  which  the  semi-major  axis,  O  B,  makes 
with  the  line  of  the  nodes.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the    point    B    is    that    at    which    the    planet    is 


ASTRONOMY 


nearest  to  the  sun.  This  is  called  the  perihe- 
lion of  the  orbit  if  the  central  body  is  the  sun ; 
if  the  earth  is  the  centre,  the  perigee.  The 
opposite  point,  A,  where  the  planet  is  most  dis- 
tant, is  called  the  aphelion,  or  apogee.  Finally, 
the  sixth  element  defines  the  position  of  the 
planet  at  some  given  moment  of  time, 

The  time  of  revolution  of  the  planet  is  given 
by  Kepler's  third  law,  which  is  that  the  squares 
of  these  times  are  proportional  to  the  cubes  of 
of  the  major  axes  of  their  orbits.  For  example, 
let  one  planet  be  four  times  as  far  as  another 
from  the  sun.  The  cube  of  4  is  64.  The 
square  root  of  this  is  8.  It  follows  that  the 
planet  which  is  four  times  as  far  will  be  eight 
times  as  long  in  completing  its  circuit.  If  the 
outer  planet  went  as  rapidly  as  the  other,  it 
would  be  only  four  times  as  long.  Its  orbital 
motion  is  therefore,  on  the  average,  only  about 
half  as  rapid. 

In  theoretical  astronomy  a  unit  of  distance 
is  necessary.  Our  ordinary  units  do  not  well 
serve  the  purpose  of  the  astronomer  for  two 
reasons.  They  are  too  short  for  the  great 
distances  he  has  to  measure,  and  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  heavens  in  terms  of  miles  is  not 
known  with  sufficient  exactness  to  make  that 
measure  convenient.  What  the  astronomer  does 
therefore  is  to  take  the  mean  distance  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun  as  his  yardstick,  and  to 
express  the  distance  of  all  the  bodies  of  the 
solar  system,  both  from  the  earth  and  from 
each  other,  the  moon  sometimes  excepted,  in 
terms  of  this  unit. 

From  the  laws  of  motion  based  on  gravita- 
tion may  be  derived  several  interesting  theo- 
rems. Finally,  suppose,  that  at  some  point  in 
the  solar  system, —  we  may  take,  to  fix  the 
ideas,  a  point  at  the  mean  distance  of  the  earth 
from  the  sun, —  a  number  of  bodies  are  pro- 
jected in  different  directions,  but  all  with  the 
same  velocity.  Then,  the  equations  of  motion 
show  that  the  major  axes  of  the  orbits  which 
these  bodies  describe  will  all  be  equal.  Then, 
from  Kepler's  third  law  it  follows  that  the 
times  of  revolution  will  also  be  equal.  Con- 
sequently, at  the  end  of  a  certain  period  the 
bodies  will  all  return  at  the  same  moment  to 
the  point  from  which  they  started.  This  period 
will  depend  only  on  the  velocity  with  which  the 
body  is  projected.  There  is  a  certain  velocity, 
called  the  circular  velocity,  which  is  such  that 
if  the  bodies  are  projected  in  a  direction  at 
right  angles  to  that  of  the  sun,  they  will  de- 
scribe circular  orbits.  If  all  the  bodies  are  pro- 
jected in  different  directions  with  this  same 
velocity,  they  will  all  be  exactly  one  year  in 
getting  around  and  returning  to  the  starting 
point.  Now  suppose  that,  instead  of  the  bodies 
being  projected  with  this  circular  velocity,  which 
is  very  nearly  that  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit, 
they  are  projected  with  a  somewhat  smaller, 
velocity.  Then,  the  less  the  velocity  the  less 
the  major  axis  of  the  orbit,  and  the  greater 
the  velocity  the  greater  the  major  axis.  A  body 
projected  with  a  speed  one-third  greater  than 
that  of  the  earth  would  fly  out  beyond  the  orbit 
of  Jupiter.  A  slightly  greater  speed  would 
carry  it  beyond  the  orbit  of  Neptune,  the  reason 
being  that,  as  the  body  recedes,  the  attraction 
of  the  sun  diminishes  at  so  rapid  a  rate  that 
the  weak  attraction  left  is  not  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  slight  surplus  velocity.  Finally, 
if  the  speed  is  equal  to  that  of  the  earth  mul- 

Vol.  I — 55 


tiplied  by  the  square  root  of  2,  that  is  to  say, 
about  26  miles  per  second,  the  body  will  never 
return.  The  ellipse  in  which  it  should  move 
is  stretched  out  into  a  parabola,  still  having 
the  sun  in  its  focus.  If  the  velocity  is  greater 
than  this,  the  parabola  will  be  still  farther 
changed  into  a  hyperbola.  Then  the  body  would 
fly  out  into  the  stellar  spaces,  perhaps  in  the 
course  of  millions  of  years  reaching  some  other 
sun,  but  would  certainly  never  return  to  our 
system.  Another  theorem  is  that  the  velocity, 
no  matter  what  the  form  of  the  orbit,  dimin- 
ishes as  we  go  out  from  the  sun  in  proportion 
to  the  square  root  of  the  distance.  This  we 
have  already  seen  by  Kepler's  third  law,  when 
we  found  from  that  law  that  a  planet  four  times 
as  far  from  the  sun  would  move  only  half  as 
fast.  Thus  the  parabolic  velocity  is  less  the 
farther  a  body  is  from  the  sun.  At  the  planet 
Uranus  it  is  less  than  six  miles  per  second; 
at  that  of  Neptune,  about  five  miles  per  sec- 
ond. Still  another  theorem  is  that  if  a  planet 
moving  in  a  circular  orbit  were  stopped  at  any 
point  of  its  motion,  and  then  were  allowed  to 
drop  toward  the  sun,  the  time  of  reaching  the 
sun  would  be  equal  to  that  of  revolution  divided 
by  the  square  root  of  32.  It  follows  that  if 
the  earth  should  be  stopped  in  its  motion,  it 
would  drop  to  the  sun  in  a  number  of  days 
found  by  dividing  362.24  by  the  square  root  of 
32.    This  would  be  nearly  64  days. 

The  orbits  of  most  of  the  large  planets  are 
nearly  circular.  For  particulars  relating  to  them 
see  Solar  System.  The  orbits  of  comets  are, 
however,  mostly  parabolas,  or  ellipses  which 
cannot  be  distinguished  from  parabolas  when 
the  comet  is  near  enough  to  the  sun  to  be 
visible.  It  is  probable  that  many  of  those  orbits 
which  are  ellipses  have  become  so  through  the 
comet  at  some  time  in  its  history  passing  very 
near  a  planet.  (See  Comet.)  One  of  the  prob- 
lems of  theoretical  astronomy  which  the  astron- 
omer often  meets  with  is  that  of  determining  the 
orbit  of  a  newly  discovered  body  of  the  solar 
system.  Three  complete  observations  of  such 
a  body,  that  is  to  say,  three  observations  each 
of  which  determines  exactly  the  apparent  posi- 
tion of  the  body  on  the  celestial  sphere,  enable 
the  astronomer  to  determine  the  orbit  in  which 
it  is  moving  round  the  sun.  The  calculation 
requires  from  five  to  ten  hours'  work  by  an 
expert  calculator  having  at  his  command  the 
necessary  tables.  The  first  orbit  thus  com- 
puted may  be  considerably  in  error,  because  the 
effect  of  errors  of  observation  is  multiplied 
many  fold,  unless  the  planet  has  moved  through 
a  considerable  arc  of  its  orbit  between  the  times 
of  observation.  But  the  longer  the  planet  is 
observed,  the  more  exactly  the  elements  of  its 
orbit  can  be  determined.  It  is  found  that  when 
two  stars  are  so  near  each  other  as  to  be  kept 
together  by  their  mutual  attraction,  they  revolve 
around  each  other  in  an  elliptic  orbit.  It  fol- 
lows that  the  law  of  gravitation  extends  to  these 
systems.  Thus  the  calculations  of  the  theoret- 
ical astronomer  are  not  confined  to  the  solar 
system,  but  may  be  extended  to  the  fixed 
stars. 

In  all  that  precedes  we  have  considered  only 
the  motion  of  two  bodies,  the  smaller  of  which 
moves  around  the  larger  in  an  elliptic  orbit. 
But.  as  a  matter  of  fact,  every  planet  of  the 
solar  system  is  acted  upon  not  only  by  the  great 
central    body,   but    by    every   one   of   the   other 


ASTRONOMY 


planets.  The  result  is  that  the  actual  orbit, 
although  very  nearly  an  ellipse,  deviates  slightly 
from  it,  and  the  motion  is  not  exactly  in 
accordance  with  Kepler's  laws.  The  problem 
of  taking  account  of  these  additional  forces  is 
an  extremely  complicated  one,  in  which  success 
has  been  reached  only  by  successive  generations 
of  the  ablest  mathematicians  devoting  long 
years  of  study  and  calculation  to  the  subject. 
While  the  solution,  even  to-day,  is  far  from 
complete,  it  has  been  so  far  advanced  that  it  is 
possible  to  prepare  tables  of  the  motions  of 
the  planets  which  shall  hold  good  for  genera- 
tions, and  even  for  centuries.  The  method  in 
which  the  problem  can  best  be  solved  was 
devised  by  Lagrange,  who  flourished  in  France 
toward  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century.  The 
fundamental  idea  of  his  method  was  that  the 
motion  of  the  planet  at  every  instant  should  be 
represented  by  an  ellipse,  but  this  ellipse  con- 
tinually changes  its  form  and  dimensions  so 
as  to  fit  in  with  the  actual  motion  of  the 
planet  under  the  influence  of  the  attraction  of 
all  the  other  planets.  Some  idea  of  the  case 
may  be  imagined  by  supposing  a  cord  of  some 
light  material  made  into  an  ellipse  very  nearly 
a  circle,  and  left  to  float  on  the  waves  of  the 
ocean.  Then  we  should  see  the  cord,  while 
still  remaining  almost  in  its  original  shape, 
continually  bending  and  twisting  as  it  was 
moved  by  the  waves.  So  does  the  variable 
ellipse  in  which  the  planet  moves.  It  is  exactly 
defined  by  supposing  that,  at  any  one  instant, 
the  attraction  of  all  the  other  bodies,  the  sun 
excepted,  ceases.  Then  the  planet  would  move 
in  a  fixed  and  unchangeable  ellipse.  This  ellipse 
is  taken  as  that  which  corresponds  with  the 
motion  of  the  planet  at  the  instant.  At  a  sec- 
ond instant  the  planet  would  actually  have 
deviated  slightly  in  consequence  of  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  other  planets,  but  there  would  still 
be  a  corresponding  ellipse,  but  somewhat  differ- 
ent. So  the  ellipse  goes  on  changing  contin- 
ually. 

When  these  changes  are  subjected  to  the 
rigor  of  mathematical  formula,  it  is  found  that 
they  nearly,  but  not  quite,  compensate  each  other 
in  the  long  run.  Let  us  take,  for  example,  the 
eccentricity  of  any  one  orbit.  This  will  vary 
in  the  course  of  every  revolution  of  the  planet, 
and  may  come  back  to  its  original  amount  any 
number  of  times.  But,  if  we  watch  it  revolution 
after  revolution,  we  shall  find  that,  in  the  long 
run,  it  continually  increases  or  diminishes. 
It  is  thus  found  that  the  eccentricity  of 
the  earth's  orbit  has  been  diminishing  through 
all  historic  times,  and  this  diminution  will 
go  on  for  43.000  years  to  come.  More- 
over, the  general  rule  is  that  the  peri- 
helion of  the  planet  is  gradually  moving 
forward.  In  the  case  of  the  earth's  orbit  the 
motion  is  such  as  would  carry  it  all  the  way 
round  the  circle  in  200,000  years.  The  inclina- 
tions and  longitudes  of  the  nodes  are  also 
varying  in  the  same  way.  These  variations, 
which  go  on  century  after  century,  are  called 
secular  variations,  while  those  which  are  com- 
pensated from  time  to  time  are  called  periodic. 
Now,  the  most  interesting  and  important  ques- 
tion of  celestial  mechanics  is  whether  the  secu- 
lar variations  will  continue  forever  in  the  same 
direction.  The  profound  analysis  of  Laplace 
and  Lagrange  shows  that  such  will  not  be  the 
case  so  far  as  the  eccentricities  are  concerned. 


At  the  end  of  immense  periods  the  direction  will 
be  reversed.  It  is  now  known  that  the  diminu- 
tion of  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's  orbit  after 
continuing  for  about  43,000  years  will  change  to 
an  increase  for  a  certain  period.  It  is  thus 
with  all  the  orbits;  the  motions  go  through  a 
series  of  oscillations  having  periods  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  years  —  like  "great  clocks 
of  eternity  which  beat  ages  as  ours  beat  seconds." 
The  precision  with  which  the  astronomer  is  now 
able  to  predict  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies  is  reached  by  a  combination  of  mathe- 
matical computations  of  the  most  difficult  and 
complicated  character,  with  the  most  refined 
observations  upon  the  positions  of  the  moon 
and  planets,  year  after  year. 

The  most  complex  of  all  the  problems  is  that 
of  the  moon's  motion  around  the  earth,  of 
which  we  shall  mention  some  features.  In  this 
case  the  central  body,  the  earth,  is  vastly  smaller 
than  the  sun.  But,  owing  to  the  great  distance 
from  the  sun  and  the  consequent  small  difference 
in  the  force  of  its  attraction  upon  the  earth 
and  moon,  it  happens  that  the  moon  revolves 
around  the  earth  in  an  orbit  which  approximates 
to  an  ellipse.  But  the  changes  and  motions  in 
this  ellipse  are  much  larger  and  more  rapid 
than  in  the  case  of  the  planets.  For  example, 
the  perigee  of  the  moon's  orbit  makes  a  revolu- 
tion round  the  earth  in  eight  years,  while  the 
node  on  the  ecliptic  makes  a  revolution  in  18.6 
years.  The  moon  also  makes  two  swings  back 
and  forth  during  the  space  between  two  full 
moons,  and  the  eccentricity  and  perigee  both 
make  an  annual  swing,  all  owing  to  the  action 
of  the  sun.     See  Moon. 

The  principles  of  theoretical  astronomy,  and 
the  operations  of  practical  astronomy  are  com- 
bined in  one  of  the  greatest  achievements  of  the 
human  intellect  —  that  of  measuring  the  heav- 
ens and  weighing  the  planets,  and,  in  a  few 
cases,  even  the  fixed  stars. 

The  distance  of  the  moon  is  determined  in 
two  ways,  the  results  of  which  agree  within 
the  necessary  range  of  uncertainty  of  the  meth- 
ods. One  is  by  the  measurement  of  the  moon's 
parallax,  taking  as  the  base  line  two  distant 
observatories,  Greenwich  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  (See  Parallax.)  The  other  method 
consists  in  determining  exactly  what  ought  to 
be  the  size  of  the  moon's  orbit  in  order  that  she 
may  make  her  revolution  around  the  earth  in 
the  time  that  she  actually  does.  The  probable 
error  of  the  distance  of  the  moon  at  any  time, 
as  determined  in  this  way,  is  not  more  than  40 
or  50  miles. 

The  proportions  between  the  orbits  of  the 
several  planets  are  known  with  the  greatest  ex- 
actness from  their  observed  times  of  revolution, 
and  from  Kepler's  third  law.  It  follows  that  if 
we  can  get  the  exact  distance  of  any  one  planet 
at  any  one  time,  all  the  other  distances  in  the 
solar  system  may  be  derived  by  the  known  pro- 
portion. The  fundamental  quantity  which  is 
used  as  a  unit  of  measure  is  the  distance  of  the 
sun.  This  distance  has  been  determined  by  four 
completely  separate  and  independent  methods, 
the  agreement  between  which  illustrates  the 
great  exactness  of  astronomical  theory. 

The  first  method  is  by  measures  of  parallax. 
The  application  of  this  method  is  fully  described 
in  the  article  Parallax.  It  requires  that  the 
apparent  direction  of  a  planet  among  the  stars 


ASTRONOMY 


be  observed  with  great  exactness  from  two  far 
distant  points  of  the  earth's  surface,  or  at  two 
times  of  day  during  the  interval  between  which 
the  observer  is  carried  around  by  the  rotation 
of  the  earth.  These  observations  have  to  be  on 
a  planet  and  not  on  the  sun,  because  the  latter, 
owing  to  the  brilliancy  of  its  light,  cannot  be 
measured  with  the  necessary  precision.  The 
most  celebrated  way  of  determining  parallax 
has  been  by  observing  transits  of  Venus  (q.v.). 
But  these  occur  at  such  rare  intervals,  the  last 
having  been  in  1882,  and  there  being  no  other  to 
occur  during  the  20th  century,  that  the  meas- 
ures have  to  be  made  on  other  planets  which 
approach  nearest  to  the  earth.  For  this  pur- 
pose Mars  has  sometimes  been  used,  because  it 
occasionally  approaches  us  within  less  than  half 
the  distance  of  the  sun.  But  the  most  exact 
observations  can  be  made  on  some  of  the  minor 
planets  at  the  time  of  their  nearest  approach. 

The  second  method  is  by  the  velocity  of 
light.  This  method  is,  in  principle,  the  most 
simple  and  elegant  of  all.  It  rests  on  the  fact 
that  it  is  possible,  by  two  kinds  of  observation, 
to  determine  how  long  it  takes  light  to  pass 
from  the  sun  to  the  earth,  or  to  cross  the  earth's 
orbit.  If  then  we  can  determine  by  measures 
on  the  earth's  surface  how  fast  light  travels, 
it  follows  that  by  multiplying  this  velocity  by 
the  time  it  takes  to  travel  from  the  earth  to  the 
sun,  we  shall  have  the  distance  of  the  sun.  The 
velocity  of  light  has  actually  been  determined 
with  great  precision  by  means  of  the  revolving 
mirror.  (See  Light,  Velocity  of.)  The  result 
is  a  speed  of  186,300  miles  per  second.  The 
time  required  for  light  to  cross  the  earth's  orbit 
is  much  more  difficult  to  determine.  The  only 
way  in  which  a  direct  determination  can  be 
made  is  through  observations  of  the  eclipses  of 
Jupiter's  first  satellite.  By  comparing  the  times 
of  these  eclipses  through  a  long  series  of  years 
when  Jupiter  is  at  various  distances  from  the 
earth,  it  is  found  that  the  eclipses  are  seen  later, 
the  farther  Jupiter  is  from  the  earth  at  the 
time.  This  is  because  light  requires  time  to 
travel  over  the  different  distances.  But  the 
determinations  made  in  this  way  are  not  very 
exact,  because  such  eclipses  take  place  so  grad- 
ually that  it  is  impossible  to  fix  upon  a  precise 
phase  without  a  possible  error  of  several  sec- 
onds. All  we  can  say  as  a  result  of  this  method 
is  that  it  takes  about  4  m.  20  s.  for  light  to  pass 
from  the  sun  to  the  earth. 

A  more  exact  result  is  reached  by  measuring 
the  displacement  of  the  fixed  stars  produced  by 
aberration.  As  the  earth  makes  its  annual 
course  around  the  sun,  the  position  of  every 
star  in  the  heavens  is,  at  every  moment,  slightly 
displaced  toward  the  direction  in  which  the 
earth  is,  at  the  moment,  moving.  This  is  due  to 
the  proportion  between  the  velocity  of  light  and 
the  speed  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  speed  is  so  great  that  the  displace- 
ment in  question  is  only  about  20.5" ;  an  arc 
too  small  to  be  determined  with  the  precision 
that  is  desirable.  Still,  the  observations  avail- 
able are  so  numerous  that  the  result,  20.525", 
found  by  Chandler,  is  probably  within  one,  or,  at 
most,  two  hundredths  of  a  second  of  the  truth. 
Accepting  Chandler's  number,  light  requires  500 
seconds  to  pass  over  the  distance  which  sepa- 
rates the  sun  from  the  earth.  Multiplying  this 
by  the  speed  of  light,  we  have,  for  the  distance 


of   the   sun    186,300X500  =  93,150,000   miles   a* 
the  distance  of  the  sun. 

The  third  method  is  a  very  recondite  one, 
because  it  rests  on  the  mathematical  principles 
of  celestial  mechanics,  applied  to  the  case  of 
the  earth's  motion  around  the  sun.  It  requires, 
in  advance,  an  exact  determination  of  the  ratio 
of  the  mass  of  the  sun  to  that  of  the  earth. 
This  is  best  found  by  observations  of  Venus, 
which  now  extend  through  more  than  a  century 
and  a  half,  by  which  the  motion  of  the  node 
of  Venus  on  the  ecliptic  is  determined.  This 
motion  is  due  principally  to  the  attraction  of  the 
earth ;  and  from  it  the  proportion  between  the 
mass  of  the  earth,  and  that  of  the  sun  is  deter- 
mined. The  next  step  requires  a  comparison 
between  the  distance  which  a  body  falls  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth  from  its  own  gravitation, 
and  the  fall  of  the  earth  toward  the  sun 
as  shown  by  the  curvature  of  its  orbit.  By 
combining  these  various  ratios,  the  distance  of 
the  sun  is  calculated.  The  fourth  method  also 
rests  the  theory  of  gravitation.  One  conse- 
quence of  the  sun's  action  on  the  moon  is  that 
the  latter  falls  behind  about  two  minutes  in 
its  monthly  course  near  the  time  of  the  first 
quarter,  and  is  ahead  by  the  same  amount  near 
the  last  quarter.  Knowing  the  exact  amount 
of  this  swing,  the  distance  at  which  the  sun 
must  be  placed  in  order  to  produce  it  is  deter- 
mined. Each  of  these  four  methods  has  its 
strong  and  its  weak  points ;  and  there  is  no  one 
of  them  so  much  better  than  all  the  others  that 
we  can  rely  upon  it  exclusively.  Still,  their 
agreement  affords  a  remarkable  proof  of  the  ac- 
curacy of  astronomical  theory,  and  of  the  pre- 
cision with  which  astronomical  measures  are 
made  under  such  difficulties  as  the  observer  and 
computer  have  to  encounter.  The  astronomer 
does  not  use  the  distance  of  the  sun  in  his 
computations,  because,  as  already  remarked,  this 
is  simply  his  unit  of  length.  What  he  actually 
uses  is  the  sun's  parallax ;  this  is  equal  to  the 
angle  which  the  equatorial  radius  of  the  earth 
subtends  when  seen  at  a  distance  equal  to  that 
of  the  sun.  The  latest  results  for  this  parallax 
from  the  four  methods  are  the  following. 

First   method,   parallax,   8.802". 
Second   method,  light,   8.779". 
Third  method,  mass  earth,  8.762", 
Fourth   method,  moon,   8.773". 

The  general  conclusion  which  we  reach  is 
that  the  distance  of  the  sun  is  very  nearly  93,- 
000.000  miles,  probably  a  little  more,  rather  than 
a  little  less. 

What  may  seem  a  yet  more  wonderful  result 
of  celestial  measurement  is  the  weighing  of  the 
planets  and  other  heavenly  bodies.  This  re- 
quires very  complex  mathematics.  But,  after 
all,  the  principles  on  which  the  method  rests 
can  readily  be  made  clear.  In  the  case  of  the 
planets,  there  are  two  methods,  one  of  which 
can  be  applied  only  when  a  planet  has  a  satellite 
moving  around  it.  We  have  already  seen  that 
the  motion  of  every  planet  which,  were  there 
no  other  planet,  would  take  place  in  an  ellipse 
having  the  sun  in  a  focus,  is  changed  by  the 
attraction  of  the  other  planets.  The  observa- 
tion of  the  deviations,  when  carefully  measured 
through  many  revolutions  of  a  planet,  enable 
the  mathematical  astronomer  to  compute  the 
ratio  of  the  mass  of  each  attracting  planet  to 
that  of  the  sun.  This  ratio  is  all  that  the 
astronomer  requires  for  his  ordinary  work. 


ASTROPHYSICS 


When  the  planet  has  a  satellite,  its  mass  can 
be  determined  with  much  more  ease  and  sim- 
plicity. The  measurement  of  the  distance  of  the 
satellite  fmm  the  planet,  carried  through  a  great 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  former,  enable 
the  astronomer  to  determine  the  ratio  between 
the  distance  of  the  satellite  from  the  planet, 
and  that  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  Combining 
this  with  the  time  of  revolution  of  the  planet, 
a  proportion  is  shown  between  the  mass  of  the 
planet  and  that  of  the  sun  by  a  law  of  the  same 
form  as  the  third  law  of  Kepler.  The  masses 
determined  by  astronomical  methods  are  all  ex- 
pressed by  taking  the  mass  of  the  sun  as  the 
unit.  To  translate  the  result  into  our  ordinary 
measures  of  weight,  we  must  know  the  mass 
of  some  one  body,  say  the  earth,  in  pounds  or 
kilograms.  How  this  is  done  is  set  forth  in  the 
article  Gravitation. 

Simon  Newcomb,  LL.D. 

Astrophysics,  or  the  new  astronomy,  has 
revealed  in  a  remarkable  manner,  through  its 
discoveries  during  the  past  quarter  of  a  century, 
the  wonderful  ability  and  resourcefulness  of  the 
human  mind,  making  evident  that  man  is  almost 
an  infinite  being.  From  this  earth  of  ours, 
which  astronomy  teaches  is  such  an  insignificant 
speck  among  the  countless  orbs  of  the  universe, 
we  have  been  able  by  means  of  the  spectroscope 
to  investigate  the  physical  constitution  of  the 
sun,  planets,  comets  and  far-off  stars ;  it  has  be- 
come possible  to  measure  motions,  not  athwart 
the  sky  as  the  older  astronomy  was  able  to  do, 
but  in  the  line  of  sight ;  and  it  has  been  possible 
to  arrange  the  stars  in  orderly  series,  tracing 
their  evolution  from  the  primeval  nebula,  till 
now  we  are  well  on  our  way  toward  the  solu- 
tion of  the  grandest  problem  of  human  investi- 
gation, whence  came  we  and  whither  are  we 
going.  Since  its  birth  in  1859,  when  Kirchhoff 
discovered  the  principles  of  spectrum  analysis, 
astrophysics  has  advanced  by  leaps  and  bounds. 
This  rapid  progress  was  due  in  a  large  measure 
to  the  improvement  of  instruments  and  to  the 
photographic  plate.  This  important  acquisition 
lias  a  two-fold  advantage  over  the  human  eye: 
the  eye  can  receive  and  retain  an  impression  for 
a  small  fraction  of  a  second,  the  photographic 
plate  accumulates  impressions,  no  matter  how 
faint,  with  the  result  that  by  long  exposures 
there  is  brought  to  view  objects  the  eye  could 
never  hope  to  see,  and  secondly,  the  photograph 
gives  a  permanent  record  that  can  be  examined 
and  studied  at  leisure.  These  improved  methods 
of  research  have  made  possible  a  great  increase 
in  precision  till  at  the  present  time,  astrophysics 
is  no  whit  less  precise  than  its  older  sister, 
astronomy,  the  "most  exact  of  all  the  sciences." 
A  great  change  has  come  over  our  ideas  of 
wave-length.  Formerly,  the  wave-length  was 
looked  upon  as  an  invariable  property  of  a  line 
in  the  spectrum,  unalterably  fixed  by  nature, 
and  consequently  it  was  thought  that  a  wave- 
length determination  would  give  a  standard 
measure  of  distance  more  reliable  even  than 
that  obtained  by  the  use  of  the  International 
Meter  (Michelson,  'Astronomy  and  Astro- 
physics, '  XIII.,  92,  1894).  But  we  now  know 
that  the  position  of  the  lines  in  the  spectrum  may 
vary  with  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  which 
they  are  produced,  and,  moreover,  single  lines, 
by  the  action  of  a  magnetic  field,  have  been  sep- 
•ated    into    as    many    as    nine    different    com- 


ponents. There  seems  to  be  some  law  regulat- 
ing the  orderly  arrangement  of  the  lines  in  the 
spectrum  in  series,  and  the  complete  under- 
Standing  of  this  law  will  he  one  of  the  impor- 
tant discoveries  of  the  future.  The  shift  of  the 
lines  of  the  spectrum  due  to  motion  in  the  line 
of  sight,  which  has  been  shown  experimentally 
in  the  laboratory,  has  given  rise  to  many  inter- 
esting developments  in  astrophysics,  the  discov- 
ery of  an  entirely  new  class  of  bodies  called 
spectroscopic  binaries,  the  measurement  of  the 
axial  rotation  of  the  sun  and  Jupiter,  and  has 
confirmed  in  a  magnificent  manner  the  meteoric 
constitution  of  Saturn's  rings. 

Instruments. —  The  vast  increase  in  accuracy 
of  spectroscopic  work  was  rendered  possible  by 
the  manufacture  of  Rowland  gratings.  Gratings 
were  used  as  early  as  1815  by  Fraunhofer  and 
were  made  by  winding  fine  wire  over  two  ex- 
actly similar  screws.  Rutherfurd  of  New  York 
ruled  some  very  satisfactory  gratings  on  specu- 
lum metal,  but  these  were  surpassed  in  perfec- 
tion by  Rowland's.  The  invention  of  the  con- 
cave grating  gave  a  spectroscope  without 
collimator  or  objective,  thereby  eliminating  the 
aberrations  brought  in  by  these  two  lenses.  The 
formula  for  resolving  power  which  is  defined  as 
X 

r  = ,  where  d\       js  the  difference  of  wave- 

d\ 
length  of  two  lines  of  mean  wave-length  X 
which  can  just  be  divided,  can  be  easily  ex- 
pressed for  gratings,  and  is  the  product  of  the 
total  number  of  lines  of  the  grating  and  the 
order  of  the  spectrum.  Ordinary  six-inch  Row- 
land gratings  have  a  resolving  power  of  about 
400,000.  This  vast  increase  in  accuracy,  coupled 
with  other  properties  of  the  grating,  namely, 
normal  spectrum,  overlapping  spectra  and  astig- 
matism, whereby  comparisons  are  rendered 
easy  by  coincidences,  have  wonderfully  aug- 
mented the  power  of  the  astrophysicist  to  de- 
termine accurate  wave-lengths.  The  precision 
of  wave-lengths  has  been  still  further  increased 
by  the  use  of  interferometers.  Four  different 
kinds  have  been  invented  by  Michelson,  Perot 
and  Fabry,  Hamy,  and  Lummer.  Michelson  has 
been  able  with  his  interferometer  to  compare 
directly  the  wave-lengths  of  the  prominent  cad- 
mium lines  with  the  International  Meter,  and 
has  separated  lines  less  than  0.1  tenth-meter 
apart  which  appear  single  with  the  most  power- 
ful gratings,  while  Perot  and  Fabry  have  ob- 
served interference  with  the  green  mercury  line 
at  a  difference  of  path  of  790,000  wave-lengths. 

Spectra  of  the  Elements. —  The  invention  of 
the  concave  grating  and  the  manufacture  of 
nearly  perfect  gratings,  plane  and  concave,  by 
Rowland  enormously  increased  the  accuracy  of 
the  wave-lengths  in  the  spectra  of  the  elements. 
The  chief  investigations  in  this  field  have  been 
carried  on  by  Rowland  and  his  assistants,  by 
Kayser,  Runge,  Paschen,  Hasselberg,  Liveing 
and  Dewar,  Fder  and  Valenta,  Exner  and  Has- 
chek,  Hartley  and  Adeney,  Trowbridge,  Ames, 
I-ockyer,  Deslandres,  Lohse  and  others,  most  of 
the  wave-lengths  for  which  may  be  found  in 
Watt's  'Index  of  Spectra.'  Accurate  measures 
were  made  possible  by  the  use  of  concave  grat- 
ings and  photographic  plates.  Rowland's  'Table 
of  Solar  Spectrum  Wave-Lengths'  is  based  on 
Bell's  determination  of  absolute  wave-length 
('American  Jour.  Sci.,'  XXXIII,  March  1887). 


ASTROPHYSICS 


For  a  discussion  of  methods  of  determining 
wave-lengths,  see  Perot  and  Fabry,  'Ann.  (him. 
et  Phys.,'  ser.  7,  XV.,  1899,  also  XXV.,  1902  and 
Bell,  'Astroph.  Jour.,'  XV,  157,  1902.  The  in- 
fra-red spectrum  of  the  elements  has  been  inves- 
tigated by  prism  and  concave  grating  with  the 
help  of  bolometer  and  radiomicrometer  by 
Snow,  Lewis,  Rubens,  Paschen,  Julius,  Nichols, 
and  others.  Short  wave-lengths  are  absorbed 
by  even  a  few  centimeters  of  air,  but  Schumann 
(<Sitz.  Akad.  d.  Wissens.  in  Wien,>  CIL,  Abtta. 
2a,  1893),  has  greatly  increased  our  informa- 
tion of  this  region  of  the  spectrum.  By  means 
of  a  spectroscopic  apparatus  in  a  vacuum  with 
lenses  and  prisms  of  fluorite,  and  photographic 
plates  prepared  by  himself,  a  wave-length  of 
Xi.ooo  was  supposed  to  be  reached.  More  ac- 
curate wave-lengths  have  been  determined  by 
Lyman  using  a  concave  grating  ('Astroph. 
Jour.,*  XIX.,  263,  1904),  who  measured  lines  in 
the  ultra-violet  as  far  as     X  1,033. 

Line  Scries. —  That  there  is  some  orderly 
arrangement  in  the  lines  of  a  spectrum  was 
shown  by  Balmer's  law  for  the  hydrogen  lines 
in  1885,  and  by  the  presence  of  numerous  trip- 
lets in  the  spectra  of  magnesium,  calcium,  and 
zinc.  Further  researches  by  Kayser  and  Runge, 
Rydberg,  and  Schuster  with  the  development  by 
them  of  empirical  mathematical  formula;,  have 
led  to  a  great  deal  of  interesting  information 
regarding  these  series  of  lines.  The  interde- 
pendence of  astronomy  and  physics  was  clearly 
demonstrated,  when  Pickering  in  1897  discov- 
ered a  new  series  of  lines  in  the  spectrum  of  the 
star  f  Puppis.  This  was  found  to  be  one  of 
the  series  due  to  hydrogen  produced  under  con- 
ditions not  realized  in  the  physical  laboratory. 
However,  in  a  great  majority  of  the  elements, 
the  series  already  discovered  comprise  only  a 
small  percentage  of  the  total  number  of  lines. 
The  exact  meaning  of  these  series  is  as  yet 
unknown,  although  several  very  promising  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  explain  them  from 
theoretical  considerations.  The  chief  among 
them  may  be  mentioned  those  of  Julius,  Ames, 
Kovesligethy,  and  Stoney.  Stoney  ('Trans. 
Roy.  Soc.'  Dublin,  1891)  has  sought  to  explain 
multiple  lines  from  dynamical  considerations, 
comparing  the  motions  of  the  molecule  with 
those  of  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system  whose 
motions  in  ellipses  are  perturbed  by  the  pres- 
ence of  other  bodies.  Stoney,  moreover,  shows 
that  the  conclusions  drawn  by  these  dynamical 
methods  may  also  be  considered  valid  under  the 
electromagnetic  theory  of  light,  a  statement 
which  receives  support  from  Preston's  observa- 
tions of  the  Zeeman  effect  ('Phil.  Mag.,' 
XLVIL,  176,  1899).  For  detailed  information 
on  spectral  series,  see  Kayser's  'Handbuch  der 
Spectroscopic'   Vol.  II. 

Change  in  Physical  Conditions. —  The  early 
idea  that  the  position  of  a  line  of  a  spectrum  was 
the  result  of  chance  is  still  further  modified  by 
the  change  of  the  wave-length  of  a  line  resulting 
from  a  change  in  the  physical  conditions. 
Jewell  noticed  while  measuring  solar  spectrum 
photographs  that  the  arc  lines  of  the  compari- 
son spectrum  did  not  in  many  cases  exactly 
correspond  with  the  lines  in  the  sun.  This  led 
to  the  investigations  of  Jewell.  Humphreys,  and 
Mohler  ('Astroph.  Jour..'  VI..  169,  1897),  on 
the  spectra  of  an  arc  under  pressure  of  from  one 
to  15  atmospheres.     From  measurements  of  the 


spectra  of  53  elements,  it  was  shown  that  the 
lines  are  shifted  by  pressure  toward  the  red 
end  of  the  spectrum,  the  amount  of  the  shift 
being  directly  proportional  to  the  increase  of 
pressure,  but  being  independent  of  the  tempera- 
ture. For  a  given  element,  the  shifts  of  similar 
lines  are  proportional  to  their  wave-  length,  hut 
lines  of  different  series,  principal,  first  and  sec- 
ond subordinate,  are  shifted  in  the  ratios  of 
I  :2:4. 

The  appearances  of  lines  in  a  spectrum  are 
greatly  altered  by  other  physical  conditions. 
Eder  and  Valenta  have  found  that  argon  gi\r~ 
three  distinct  spectra  under  different  electrical 
conditions,  Schenck  that  the  spark  line  of  Mg 
at  X4481,  which  has  so  often  been  con- 
as  a  sure  sign  of  a  high  temperature,  vanishes 
if  the  electrodes  become  so  hot  that  they  glow 
and  begin  to  melt.  Locker  has  made  a  great 
number  of  investigations  on  "enhanced"  lines, 
or  those  which  are  brighter  in  the  spark  than 
in  the  arc.  He  explains  their  meaning  on  the 
assumption  that  the  spark  is  hotter  than  'he 
arc,  an  assumption  which  is  hard  to  reconcile 
with  other  observed  phenomena.  In  this  con- 
nection, Kayser,  in  his  excellent  'Handbuch  der 
Spectroscopic,'  Vol.  II.,  p.  181,  says:  "We  can- 
not assume  any  connection  between  the  spectrum 
and  the  temperature  of  the  body  producing  it, 
and  all  conclusions  which  are  based  on  the  tem- 
perature at  which  a  line  or  band  will  appear 
are  quite  unsound.8  Enhanced  lines  are  found 
in  the  spectrum  of  certain  stars  like  a  Cygni, 
and  also  in  the  flash  spectrum  taken  at  the  time 
of  a  total  solar  eclipse  of  the  sun.  The  pres- 
ence of  these  lines  is  important,  but  it  is  difficult 
at  the  present  time  to  tell  their  exact  meaning 

Solar  Spectrum. —  The  infra-red  solar  spec- 
trum has  been  investigated  by  Becquerel  and 
Lommel  to  *950O  by  using  phosphorescent 
screens,  by  Abney  to  *27,ooo,  who  photographed 
with  a  special  emulsion  of  silver  bromide 
and  collodion,  and  by  Langley  by  the  use  of 
the  bolometer  to  ^53,386.  Rowland's  'Photo- 
graphic Map  of  the  Normal  Solar  Spectrum' 
(Baltimore,  1888),  made  with  a  powerful  con- 
cave grating  extending  from  X  3,000  to  X6,95o, 
and  his  'Table  of  Solar  Spectrum  Wave- 
Lengths'  (Chicago,  1898),  which  contain  ac- 
curate measures  of  some  twenty  thousand  lines. 
give  the  most  accurate  information  we  possess 
of  the  solar  spectrum,  and  have  been  accepted 
by  all  astrophysicists  as  the  common  standard  of 
reference.  Rowland's  determination  of  relative 
wave-lengths  leave  little  to  be  desired  in  ac- 
curacy. Measures  were  made  by  the  method  of 
coincidences  which  is  rendered  possible  by  the 
use  of  concave  grating  which  permit  two  over- 
lapping spectra  to  be  photographed  on  the  same 
plate  without  change  of  focus.  However,  tin- 
standard  lines  of  the  spectrum  have  not  had 
their  wave-lengths  determined  with  equal  ac- 
curacy, and  they  have  not  been  quite  properly 
spaced  throughout  the  spectrum,  with  the  result 
that  at  the  Saint  Louis  Conference,  1905,  a 
redetermination  of  Rowland's  standards  was  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  present  greatest  needs  in 
astrophysics. 

Eclipses  have  furnished  interesting  develop- 
ments in  the  history  of  spectrum  analysis.  The 
spectroscope  was  first  used  at  the  eclipse  of 
1868  by  Janssen  in  India,  when  it  was  shown 
that    the   prominences   give   bright   line   spectra, 


ASTROPHYSICS 


thus  showing  they  are  masses  of  hydrogen  gas. 
The  lines  were  so  bright  that  Janssen  looked  for 
them  the  next  day  without  an  eclipse,  and  found 
them  readily  enough.  In  1869,  the  green 
"coronium"  line  was  discovered;  in  1870,  Young 
discovered  the  "Hash  spectrum,"  which  was 
photographed  Eor  the  first  time  by  Shackleton  in 
1896.  At  the  eclipses  of  1898,  1000,  and  1901, 
Evershed,  Lockyer,  and  Mitchell  gave  accurate 
determinations  of  wave-lengths  from  these  re- 
versed spectra,  those  of  Mitchell  being  obtained 
by   the  use  of  a  grating. 

Stellar  Spectra.—  Modern  stellar  spectro- 
scopes arc  best  represented  by  the  Mills  spec- 
trograph of  the  Lick  Observatory  (Campbell, 
'Astroph,  Jour.,'  VIII.,  123,  1898),  by  the  Bruce 
spectrograph  of  the  Yerkes  observatory'  (Frost, 
'Astroph.  Jour.,'  XV.,  1,  1902),  and  that  of  the 
Astrophysical  Observatory  of  Potsdam  (Hart- 
mann,  "Zeitsch.  fiir  Instrum.,'  December  1901). 
The  spectrographs  are  similar  in  having  the  slit 
placed  at  the  focus  of  the  great  telescope,  and 
a  dispersion  of  three  prisms  giving  a  total  devi- 
ation of  1800.  By  means  of  a  guiding  eye-piece, 
it  is  possible  to  keep  the  star's  light  centrally 
on  the  slit  during  the  exposure.  Since  this  ex- 
posure may  last  for  four  or  five  hours,  it  i3 
necessary,  in  order  to  have  perfect  definition, 
to  keep  the  temperature  constant.  This  is  ac- 
complished by  means  of  an  automatic  tempera- 
ture control  which  will  keep  the  prisms  of  the 
spectrograph  within  0.10  C.  during  an  exposure, 
when  outside  in  the  dome  the  temperature  may 
change  by  several  degrees.  A  stellar  spectrum 
is  pbotographed  alongside  a  comparison  spec- 
trum in  order  to  determine  wave-lengths  more 
accurately,  and  to  give  measures  of  the  motion 
in  the  line  of  sight,  the  most  important  work  of 
stellar  spectroscopy.  The  spectrograms  are 
most  readily  reduced  by  the  Hartmann-Cornu 
formula  : 

X  =  X0  +  — , 
.s  -  S , 
where  X0,  c,  and  sa  are  constants  and  s  is 
the  scale  reading  of  the  line  whose  wave-length 
is  desired.  The  motion  in  the  line  of  sight  in 
kilometers  per  second  corresponding  to  the 
displacement     AX     is  given  by 

Vi   AX 

Vs  =  - 

X 
where  Vs  is  the  desired  velocity  of  the  star, 
and  Vl  the  velocity  of  light  in  kilometers.  The 
mosl  prominent  workers  in  radial  velocity  have 
been  Campbell,  Vogel,  Duner,  Frost,  Keeler, 
Ilartmann,  and  Belopolsky,  who  have  pretty 
thoroughly  surveyed  the  northern  hemisphere. 
Wright  of  the  Lick  Observatory  has  gone  to 
Santiago,  Chile,  for  similar  work  in  the  southern 
heavens.  The  observers  in  this  field  have  en- 
tered into  co-operation  in  order  to  observe  the 
same  stars  at  certain  times  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  thoroughly  the  constants  of  the 
spectrographs  used.  Campbell  has  discovered 
many  stars  with  variable  radial  velocities,  thus 
showing  they  are  accompanied  by  #ie  or  more 
companions.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
nearly  a  hundred  spectroscopic  binaries  known 
with  periods  which  range  from  a  few  days  to 
two  and  a  half  years. 

According  to  Doppler's  principle  of  motion 
in   the    line  of  sight,   the   lines   will   be   shifted 


toward  the  red  end  of  the  spectrum  if  the  dis- 
tance between  the  source  of  light  and  the  ob- 
server is  increasing,  but  toward  the  violet  end 
if  this  distance  is  decreasing.  The  grandest  ap- 
plication is  seen  in  Keeler's  proof  ('Astroph. 
jour.,'  I.,  416,  1895)  of  the  meteoric  constitution 
of  Saturn's  rings.  If  meteoric,  the  linear  mo- 
tion of  the  rings  will  be  greatest  nearest  the 
planet  and  decrease  outward,  if  solid  the  rings 
will  rotate  as  a  whole,  all  particles  having  the 
same  angular  motion,  the  linear  speed  increas- 
ing from  centre  to  circumference.  With  solid 
rings,  and  a  slit  placed  across  the  planet's  equa- 
tor, the  lines  on  the  side  moving  toward  us 
would  be  shifted  toward  the  region  of  short 
wave-lengths,  the  shift  being  proportional  to 
the  linear  motion.  While  for  the  side  moving 
away  from  us  the  lines  would  be  shifted  in  the 
opposite  direction.  Thus,  on  account  of  the 
gradual  increase  in  linear  motion  from  centre 
to  circumference,  the  lines  would  be  gradually 
shifted,  in  the  complete  spectrum  having  the 
effect  of  lines  slightly  inclined.  Such,  however, 
is  not  the  appearance  of  the  lines  photographed 
by  Keeler,  and  these  can  be  explained  only  un- 
der the  assumption  that  the  rings  are  a  collec- 
tion of  small  satellites,  giving,  therefore,  a  di- 
rect confirmation  of  the  mathematical  theory  of 
Maxwell. 

An  important  application  of  line  of  sight 
measurements  is  in  determining  the  motion  of 
the  solar  system  through  space.  The  "apex  of 
the  sun's  way'*  may  be  found  from  proper  mo- 
tion determinations,  or  from  line  of  sight  meas- 
urement used  separately,  but  in  a  more  satisfac- 
tory way  by  applying  both  methods  of  research. 
The  right  ascension  and  declination  of  the  point 
toward  which  the  sun  is  moving  is  found  from 
recent  measures  to  be  o  =280°,  5  =35°  north. 
This  point  is  situated  in  the  constellation  Lyra 
about  40  from  the  first-magnitude  star  Vega, 
Campbell's  determination  of  the  velocity  is 
19.89  ±1.52  kilometres  per  second,  a  speed 
which  would  carry  our  system  over  almost  ex- 
actly four  radii  of  the  earth's  orbit  in  a  year. 
When  more  information  is  received  from  the 
line  of  sight  measurement  of  the  southern  hemis- 
phere, a  better  redetermination  of  this  problem 
will  be  possible. 

The  spectra  of  stars  naturally  fall  into  sev- 
eral types.     Secchi's  classification  is  as  follows : 

Type  I. —  White  or  blue  stars,  the  spectrum 
characterized  by  the  breadth  and  intensity  of 
the  hydrogen  lines  with  metallic  lines  very 
faint.  This  type  includes  more  than  half  the 
stars. 

Type  II. —  Yellow  stars  like  our  sun,  with 
spectra  resembling  that  of  the  sun  very  closely, 
consisting  of  a  great  number  of  fine  dark  lines. 

Type  III. —  Red  and  orange  stars,  including 
most  of  the  variables.  The  spectrum  is  crossed 
by  numerous  dark  bands  or  flirtings,  which  are 
sharply  defined  on  the  blue  side  and  shade  off 
toward  the  red.  o  Orionis,  Antares,  and  0 
Ceti  are  good  examples. 

Type  IV.—  Deep  reddish  stars,  all  faint.  The 
spectrum  resembles  that  of  Type  III.,  but  the 
flutings  are  reversed  in  direction,  being  sharply 
defined  on  the  red  side.  152  Schjellerup  is  the 
best  example. 

Pickering  has  suggested  a  fifth  type  to  in- 
clude many  stars  having  bright  lines  in  their 
spectra,  and  the  planetary  nebulae. 


ASTROPHYSICS 


Other  classifications  are  due  to  Vogel,  Lock- 
yer,  and  Miss  Maury  of  the  Harvard  College 
Observatory. 

One  of  the  grandest  problems  of  scientific 
research  is  undoubtedly  the  question  of  stellar 
evolution.  By  common  consent  the  nebula  is 
regarded  as  being  the  primordial  matter.  The 
first  stage  of  development  is  represented,  ac- 
cording to  Huggins,  'Atlas  of  Representative 
Stellar  Spectra'  (London,  1899),  a  masterpiece 
with  superb  illustrations,  by  a  star  like  A  of  0 
Ononis,  one  of  the  stars  of  the  great  nebula. 
Orion  and  helium  stars  are  followed  in  devel- 
opment by  the  white  stars  of  Secchi's  first  type. 
Evolution  can  be  traced  step  by  step,  through 
stages  like  those  represented  by  the  stars  " 
Lyrae,  Sirius,  Castor  (fainter  star),  a  Aquilx, 
Procyon,  7  Cygni,  till  we  come  to  the  fully 
developed  second  type  star  like  Capella  and  the 
sun.  Increased  absorption  at  the  violet  end  of 
the  spectrum  give  the  red  stars  of  Secchi's  third 
and  fourth  types,  which,  according  to  Huggins, 
develop  in  parallel  lines.  The  period  of  increas- 
ing old  age  is  evident  from  the  carbon  absorp- 
tion bands,  and  it  is  easy  to  imagine  this  ab- 
sorption increasing  in  amount  till  the  whole 
light  of  the  star  is  cut  off.  But  even  at  this 
stage,  when  the  star  gives  no  light,  the  spectro- 
scope is  not  powerless  to  follow,  for  if  the  dark 
star  accompanies  a  bright  one,  its  presence  is 
revealed  through  a  change  in  the  motion  of  the 
line  of  sight.  There  has  been  quite  consider- 
able discussion  as  to  which  star,  Sirius  or  the 
sun,  is  in  the  hotter  stage  of  development.  The 
color  of  Sirius,  and  the  maximum  in  its  spec- 
trum being  more  toward  the  violent  end  than 
in  the  case  of  the  sun,  would  seem  to  indicate 
a  higher  temperature.  Huggins  and  a  great 
many  astronomers  think  that  the  sun  is  in  the 
hottest  state,  but  that  the  great  absorption  in  its 
atmosphere  compared  with  that  of  Sirius,  makes 
the  color  of  the  sun  yellow  The  spectrum  of 
the  sun  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  Capella, 
which  shows  that  the  sun  is  a  star,  rendered 
brighter  and  bigger  on  account  of  its  nearness. 
The  stellar  magnitude  of  the  sun  is  — 26.4  on 
the  same  scale  that  Sirius  is  a  star  of  magnitude 
— 1.4.  Thus,  according  to  Newcomb,  'Stars,' 
p.  27,  the  sun  gives  us : 

10,000.000,000  times  the  light  of  Sirius. 

91.000,000,000  times  the  light  of  a  star  of 
magnitude    1. 

9,100,000,000,000  times  the  light  of  a  star  of 
magnitude  6. 

The  square  roots  of  these  numbers  show  the 
number  of  times  we  should  increase  the  actual 
distance  of  the  sun  in  order  that  it  might  shine 
as  a  star  of  the  corresponding  magnitude.  Un- 
der these  conditions,  the  distance  and  parallax 
of  the  sun  would  be : 

Sirius;  Distance,  100,000:  Parallax,  2".  06 
Mag.  1;  Distance,  302,000:  Parallax,  o".68 
Mag.  6;   Distance,    3,020,000:    Parallax,     o".o7 

From  the  large  size  of  the  parallaxes,  it  is 
evident  that  the  sun  must  be  a  very  small  star 
in  the  heavens.  But  its  nearness  renders  it  a 
very  important  star,  one  in  which  we  can  study 
the  second  stage  of  stellar  development  in  all  its 
details. 

Interesting  work  has  been  done  by  Hale  in 
this  field  by  the  application  of  the  spectro- 
heliograph  invented  by  himself.  With  the  12- 
inch  telescope  of  the  Kenwood  Observatory,  the 
prominences   and  the  surface   of   the   sun   have 


been  photographed  in  monochromatic  light. 
More  remarkable  results  have  been  obtained 
with  the  spectroheliograph  and  Yerkes'  tele- 
scope ('Astroph.  Jour.,'  XIX.,  41,  1904).  Its 
great  focal  length  of  over  sixty  feet  gives  a 
solar  image  about  seven  inches  in  diameter,  an 
increase  in  size  which  permits  a  more  detailed 
study  of  the  sun's  surface.  A  photograph  can 
be  taken  with  the  slit  of  the  spectroheliograph 
at  the  centre  of  the  K  line  at  ^3933.8,  another 
with  the  slit  moved  a  trifle  to  ^3932,  and  still 
others  with  th  e  slit  at  \3929  and  ^3924. 
These  photographs  show  bright  calcium  patches 
on  the  face  of  the  sun  which  Hale  has  called 
"flocculi,"  and  the  four  of  them  not  only  differ 
from  photographs  taken  with  the  calcium  H  and 
hydrogen  F  lines,  but  differ  materially  among 
themselves.  These  photographs  are  explained 
as  being  due  to  a  difference  in  level  of  the  gases, 
and  from  these  and  other  results  it  seems  prob- 
able that  the  calcium  flocculi  are  in  general 
made  up  of  a  series  of  columns,  which  expand 
as  they  reach  higher  levels,  and  in  many  cases 
overhang  laterally. 

Astrophysical  work  along  entirely  different 
lines  has  been  carried  out  at  the  Astrophysical 
Observatory  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 
Langley's  bolometer  used  in  connection  with  a 
sensitive  galvanometer,  perfected  in  the  hands 
of  Abbot,  can  give  an  automatic  record  of  the 
energy  received  from  the  sun.  These  holo- 
grams and  simultaneous  observations  made  with 
the  actinometer  or  pyrheliometer,  permit  an 
elimination  of  the  variable  absorbing  effect  of 
the  earth's  atmosphere,  thus  giving  a  measure 
of  the  energy  from  the  sun  that  reaches  the 
outside  of  the  earth's  atmosphere,  or  in  other 
words,  the  "solar  constant."  Langley's  deter- 
mination made  on  the  top  of  Mt.  Whitney 
placed  the  value  of  the  solar  constant  at  3.0 
calories.  Recent  observations  at  Washington 
('Astroph.  Jour.,'  XIX.,  305,  1004)  show  that 
this  number  is  probably  too  high,  and  also  that 
the  value  is  not  a  constant,  but  varies  alto- 
gether about  10  per  cent.  Another  research 
carried  on  at  the  Smithsonian,  has  been  for  the 
purpose  of  investigating  the  absorption  of  the 
solar  envelope,  by  means  of  a  long  focus  tele- 
scope and  bolometer,  with  the  result  that  it  has 
been  shown  that  likewise  this  absorption  varies 
in  amount.  The  most  interesting  part  of  the 
whole  work  has  been  the  comparison  with  ter- 
restrial temperatures  rendered  possible  by  the 
International  Dekadenberichte.  With  tempera- 
ture records  from  85  localities  in  the  north  tem- 
perate zone,  it  has  been  unmistakably  demon- 
strated that  when  the  solar  constant  has  a  very 
low  value  terrestrial  temperatures  are  below 
their  average,  and  at  the  same  time  absorp- 
tion in  the  solar  envelope  is  large  in  amount. 
The  interdependence  of  these  variations  brings 
to  view  one  of  the  most  important  developments 
of  astrophysics.  That  terrestrial  temperatures 
should  be  shown  to  be  closely  connected  with 
variations  in  the  sun's  heat  is  very  remarkable ; 
it  would  be  still  more  startling  if  it  should  fol- 
low that  we  can  forecast  great  temperature 
changes  —  a   result   which   is   not   impossible. 

Literature. — The  best  books  on  this  subject 
are  Kayser's  'Handbuch  der  Spectroscopic' 
and  Scheiner's  'Astronomical  Spectroscopy' 
(Frost's  translation^  S.  A.  Mitchell, 

Department    of    Astronomy,    Columbia    Univer- 
sity. 


ASTRUC  —  ASYMPTOTE 


Astruc,  as'truk',  Jean,  French  physician : 
b.  19  March  1684;  d.  Paris,  5  March  1766.  He 
acquired  high  reputation  as  an  anatomist,  and 
was  the  author  of  'Venereal  Diseases'  (1736), 
and  other  medical  works.  The  work,  however, 
which  has  immortalized  him  is  purely  theological 
and  is  entitled  'Conjectures  as  to  the  Original 
.Materials  of  Which  Moses  Seems  to  Have 
Availed  Himself  in  Composing  the  Book  of 
Genesis'  (1753).  In  this  he  divides  the  book  of 
Genesis  into  two  parts,  on  the  ground  of  the  use 
of  Elohim  (God)  or  Yahveh  (Jehovah).  He 
holds  that  these  two  names  for  the  Deity  point 
to  the  fact  that  Genesis  was  compiled  from  two 
parallel,  independent  documents.  His  memoir 
forms  the  origin  of  modern  criticism  on  the 
Pentateuch. 

As'trup,  Eivind,  Norwegian  explorer :  b. 
Christiania,  1870;  d.  1896.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  first  and  second  Peary  expeditions,  1891 
and  1893,  and  made  the  first  survey  of  the 
northern  coast  of  Melville  Bay.  He  perished 
while  on  a  snowshoe  expedition  from  Dovre, 
Norway. 

Astura,  as-too'ra,  a  maritime  village  of 
Italy,  40  miles  from  Rome.  In  its  little  harbor 
a  high  tower  is  said  to  stand  on  the  site  of  the 
villa  of  Cicero,  where  Cicero  was  slain  by  order 
of  Antony  43  B.C. 

Asturias  (as-too'ria).  The,  a  former  princi- 
pality of  Spain.  To  this  mountainous  country 
of  the  north  of  Spain  the  Goths  retreated  in  the 
8th  century  before  the  sword  of  the  Sara- 
cens. The  inhabitants  of  Asturia  are  said  to  be 
less  industrious  than  the  Galicians,  and  less  so- 
ciable than  the  Biscayans.  The  hereditary 
prince  of  Spain  has  borne  since  1388  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Asturia,  or  of  the  Asturians,  accord- 
ing to  the  obsolete  division  into  Asturia  de 
Oviedo  and  Asturia  de  Santillana,  Oviedo  and 
Santillana  being  the  two  chief  cities  of  the  prin- 
cipality. Since  1838  the  principality  has  been 
officially  known  as  the  province  of  Oviedo.  See 
Oviedo. 

Asty'ages,  the  last'  king  of  Media,  reigned 
594-559  B.C.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  dethroned 
by  Cyrus,  who,  according  to  Herodotus,  was  his 
grandson.  Cyrus  revolted  in  559,  and  defeated 
Astyages,  whom  he  took  prisoner,  but  after- 
ward appointed  governor  of  Hyrcania. 

Astyanax,  sometimes  known  as  Scamandrius. 
A  Greek  legendary  character,  the  son  of  Hector 
and  Andromache. 

Asuncion,  a-soon'the-on,  or  Nuestra  Se- 
nora  de  la  Asuncion  (in  English,  Assump- 
tion), the  capital  of  Paraguay,  on  the  river 
Paraguay.  The  principal  edifices  are  the  cathe- 
dral, several  other  churches  and  convents,  the 
president's  palace,  house  of  congress,  arsenal, 
custom-house,  a  college,  hospital,  railway  sta- 
tion, etc.  The  trade  of  the  town  is  in  Paraguay 
tea,  tobacco,  fruits,  hides,  timber,  provisions, 
manufactured  goods,  etc.  Steamers  and  sailing 
vessels  ply  on  the  river.  The  town  was  founded 
on  the  feast  of  the  Assumption  in  '537,  hence 
its  name.     Pop.  (1900)  51,700. 

Asurnazirpal,  a'soor-na'zer-pal,  a  king  of 
Assyria  from  881  B.C.  to  860.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  warlike  of  Assyrian  kings,  and  in  numer- 
ous  campaigns   enlarged   his   empire,    especially 


toward  the  westward,  extending  it  from  Leba- 
non to  the  Tigris.  lie  also  rebuilt  Calah,  his 
capital,  and  left  a  record  of  his  achievements  in 
the  so-called  'Standard  Inscription.' 

Aswal,  as'wal,  a  Hindu  name  of  the  sloth- 
bear.     See  Bears. 

Asy'lum,  a  place  where  persons  flee  for 
protection.  Under  the  Mosaic  dispensation  cities 
of  refuge  were  set  apart  to  which  the  slayer 
might  flee  so  that  innocent  blood  should  not  be 
shed,  in  case  the  person  was  not  worthy  of 
death — that  is,  in  case  the  act  was  accidental  and 
not  malicious.  But  among  the  ancients,  outside 
of  the  Jews,  it  seems  that  temples,  statues  to  the 
gods,  and  altars  particularly  consecrated  for  such 
purposes,  constituted  places  of  refuge  for  per- 
sons generally,  and  it  was  deemed  an  act  of  im- 
piety to  remove,  forcibly,  one  who  had  fled  to 
such  an  asylum  for  protection.  However,  Tibe- 
rius abolished  all  asylums  except  the  temples  of 
Juno  and  j-Esculapius.  These  asylums  finally 
passed  over  to  the  Christian  world,  and  under 
Constantine  the  Great,  all  Christian  churches 
were  made  asylums  for  all  those  who  were  pur- 
sued by  officers  of  justice  or  the  violence  of  their 
enemies,  and  the  younger  Theodosius,  in  the 
year  431,  extended  these  privileges  to  all  courts, 
gardens,  walks,  and  houses  belonging  to  the 
Church.  In  the  year  631  the  Synod  of  Toledo 
extended  the  limits  of  asylums  30  paces  from 
every  church,  and  this  privilege  afterward  pre- 
vailed in  Catholic  countries,  and  it  is  said  to 
have  been  a  strong  armor  of  defense  against 
the  wild  spirit  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  not 
without  good  consequences  at  the  time  when 
force  often  prevailed  against  justice.  But  in 
later  times  as  other  and  better  systems  of  pro- 
cedure in  the  administration  of  justice  became 
adopted,  asylums  were  abolished  in  most  coun- 
tries. This  seems  to  have  been  the  origin,  na- 
ture, and  object  of  asylums,  and  such  the  com- 
mon acceptation  of  the  term,  but  more  recently 
in  some  countries,  the  name  has  been  given  to 
institutions  for  the  protection  and  care  of  the 
poor,  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  and  lunatics  who 
are  incapable  of  taking  care  of  themselves. 

Asy'lum,  Right  of,  in  international  law, 
the  right  which  forbids  one  government  to  ap- 
ply its  laws  to  its  own  or  its  enemy's  subjects 
when  they  are  within  the  jurisdiction  of  an- 
other government.  Most  commonly  this  right 
is  accorded  to  a  foreign  legation  to  shelter  per- 
sons subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State 
where  the  legation  is  situated.  It  is  universally 
conceded  that  the  right  of  asylum  is  not  to  be 
applied  in  the  case  of  ordinary  criminals,  but  it 
is  usually  made  use  of  for  the  protection  of 
political  offenders. 

Asymmet'ric  (as-i-met'rik)  System,  in 
crystallography,  the  crystal  form  now  more 
commonly  called  "triclinic."  It  was  called 
asymmetric  because  it  has  no  plane  of  symme- 
try.    See  Crystal. 

Asymptote,  as'Im-tot  (from  three  Greek 
words,  meaning  "not  to  fall  with"  or  coincide), 
a  term  used  in  geometry  to  designate  a  line 
which  continually  approaches  another  line,  but 
never  meets  it,  however  far  either  of  them  may 
be  prolonged.  At  least  one  of  the  lines  must  be 
a  curve.  Though  the  very  existence  of  such  a 
line  seems  paradoxical,  it  can  be  demonstrated 


AT   ODDS  — ATACAMITE 


on  the  strictest  mathematical  principles,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  hyperbola  and  its  directrix.  The 
term  first  occurs  in  the  conic  sections  of  Apol- 
lonius. 

At  Odds,  the  title  of  a  novel  by  the  Baron- 
ess Tautphcens  (1863),  dealing  with  the  vicis- 
situdes of  a  Bavarian  family  during  a  stormy 
epoch  from  Hohenlinden  to  Wagram.  It  is 
told  with  a  happy  ease  and  directness;  and 
if  it  has  not  the  brilliancy  of  'The  Initials,'  is 
not  less  clever  as  a  study  of  character. 

Atacama,  a'td-ka'ma,  the  name,  formerly, 
of  two  South  American  provinces:  (1)  A 
northern  province  of  Chile^  with  an  area  of  28,- 
380  square  miles,  and  a  population  (1895)  of 
59.7r3-  About  1,000  silver  and  250  copper 
mines  are  worked,  and  gold  is  also  found  in 
considerable  quantities.  Salt  deposits  cover 
sometimes  50  square  miles.  Copper,  to  the 
value  of  over  $7,500,000  annually,  is  the  chief 
export  to  England.  Capital,  Copiapo.  (2)  A 
Bolivian  Department,  which  formerly  extended 
as  far  north  as  Peru,  and  east  to  Argentina.  All 
that  part  of  the  district  west  of  the  Andes  was 
ceded,  in  1884,  to  the  Chileans,  and  formed  into 
the  Department  of  Antofagasta,  with  an  area 
of  60,770  square  miles.  The  recently  discov- 
ered mines  of  Caracoles  are  said  to  be  the  most 
productive  silver  mines  in  the  world.  The 
former  capital,  Cohija  (pop.  2,380),  was  long  the 
only  port  in  the  district ;  but  the  rival  port  of 
Antofagasta,  founded  in  1870,  had  by  1894  at- 
tained a  population  of  7.946. 


A'taca'ma,  a  desert  region  on  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  formerly  belonging 
partly  to  Bolivia,  partly  to  Chile,  but  now  be- 
longing wholly  to  the  latter.  It  lies  between  the 
Andes  and  the  sea  and  much  of  it  at  the  height 
of  3,000  to  s.ooo  feet  above  the  sea.  The  des- 
ert of  Atacama  proper,  a  tract  almost  entirely 
destitute  of  water  and  vegetation,  lies  partly  in 
the  Antofagasta  territory  of  Chile,  partly  in  the 
province  of  Atacama.  The  soil  consists  of 
stones  and  gravel,  and  the  surface  is  diversified 
with  many  mountains.  The  Salina  of  Atacama, 
a  salt  morass,  mostly  dried  up,  has  a  surface 
of  1,084  square  miles,  and  lies  at  the  height  of 
over  7.000  feet. 

Atacamite,  -tak'-,  a  mineral,  originally 
found  as  sand  in  the  Atacama  provin 
northern  Chile.  It  is  essentially  a  hydroxy- 
chlorid  of  copper,  having  the  formula 
CuCl=.3Cu(OII)2.  It  crystallizes  in  the  ortho- 
rhombic  system,  and  has  a  hardness  of  from  3 
to  3.5,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  3.76.  Atacamite 
is  green  in  color,  and  commonly  occurs  either 
massive  or  in  the  form  of  sand.  A  coating 
having  the  same  chemical  composition  is  formed 
on  metallic  copper,  as  the  result  of  prolonged 
exposure  to  sea-water  or  air.  Atacamite  ex- 
ists in  considerable  quantity  in  various  parts 
of  South  America,  and  in  Australia;  and  has 
been  used  to  some  extent  as  a  source  of  copper. 
In  the  United  States  it  is  found  at  Jerome, 
Arizona. 


LIBRARY 

UNTVERST-^Y  OF  RNlA 

SAXTA   BARBARA 


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FOR    REFERENCE 


NOT  TO  BE  TAKEN  FROM  THE  ROOM 


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